ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ
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Eugene Merle Shoemaker
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{{Infobox person
|name = Eugene Merle Shoemaker
|image = Eugene Shoemaker.jpg
|image_size = 250
|alt = Eugene Shoemaker at a stereoscopic microscope
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1928|04|28}}
|birth_place = Los Angeles, California
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1997|07|18|1928|04|28}}
|death_place = [[Alice Springs]], [[Australia]]
|death_cause = [[Car crash]]
|nationality = American
|field = [[Planetary geology]]<ref name="USGS" />
|work_institutions = U. S. Geological Survey, California Institute of Technology
|alma_mater = California Institute of Technology<br />Princeton University
|doctoral_advisor =
|doctoral_students =
|known_for = [[Planetary science]]<br />[[Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9]]
|influences =
|influenced =
|prizes = G. K. Gilbert Award <small>(1983)</small><br />Barringer Medal <small>(1984)</small><br />National Medal of Science (1992)<br />William Bowie Medalsmall|(1996)<br />James Craig Watson Medal (1998)
|religion =
|spouse = [[Carolyn S. Shoemaker]] 1951–1997 (his death)
|footnotes =
|signatur =
}}
'''ဂျေန် ရှဝ်မုက်ကာ''' ({{Lang-en|'''Eugene Merle Shoemaker'''}}) (ဨပြဳ ၂၈၊ ၁၉၂၈ -ဂျူလာင် ၁၈၊ ၁၉၉၇) လဆောဝ် ပံင်ယၟု နကဵု '''Gene Shoemaker'''ဝွံ ဒှ်တၠပညာဘူမိဗေဒ ဂကူအမေရိကာန်၊ တုဲ ဒှ်မၞိဟ်မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲအရာမခၞံဗဒှ် ဘာသာသိပ္ပံဂြိုဟ်အကာသ (planetary science)ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် မွဲတၠရ။ ညးဝွံ ယၟုမြဟ်တဴ နကဵု ညးမဂွံဆဵုကေတ် သၞံင်ဒဂုဲ (Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9) မစွံ ကုသမ္ဘာညး Carolyn S. Shoemaker ကေုာံ David H. Levy တအ်ရ။ သၞံင်ဒဂုဲဏအ်ဂှ် အာဇီု ဂြိုဟ်ဂျူပိတာ (Jupiter) ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဂျူလာင် သၞာံ ၁၉၉၄ ဗီုမဇီုဂှ် ဗလးထ္ၜး ပ္ဍဲတဳဝဳ အလုံလိုက်မွဲရ။ တုဲပၠန် ရှဝ်မုက်ကာဂှ် သီုဒှ်မၞိဟ် မလ္ၚတ် ဒၞာဲခလံက်ဂၠးတိ ဗီုကဵု Barringer Meteor Crater ပ္ဍဲအရိဇြဝ်နာရ။ ရှဝ်မုက်ကာဂှ် ဒှ်ဒါရာ်တာ ဂကောံသုတေသန မလ္ၚတ်ပထဝဳသၞံင်အကာသ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (the United States Geological Survey's Astrogeology Research Program) ကၠာအိုတ်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် အရာညးဂမၠိုင် မတီ ဂျေန် မွဲပၠန်ဂှ် ညးဂွံ မဂွံအခေါင်တိုပ်ဇုတ်ညးတေအ် လတူဂိတုကၠာအိုတ်ရ။
==ပထမအဝဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာဘာ==
ရှဝ်မုက်ကာ ကတဵုဒှ်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲလောသ် အေန်ဂျလေသ် (Los Angeles) ကာလဳဝှောရ်နဳယျာ (California) ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်၊ မဒှ်ကောန် အစာဘာ မူရေလ် မေ (Muriel May) ကေုာံ George Estel Shoemaker မဒှ် သၟာဗ္ၚ၊ သၟာပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ အစာဘာ ကေုာံ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် (motion pictures)ရ။<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.bookrags.com/biography/eugene-m-shoemaker-wop/|title=Eugene M. Shoemaker Biography|author=|date=|website=www.bookrags.com|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/5082_1.html|title=- American Institute of Physics|author=|date=|website=www.aip.org|accessdate=31 March 2018|archivedate=14 March 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314230408/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/5082_1.html}}</ref> မိမညးတေအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် ဇာတိ နူကဵု Nebraska။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ကာလညးဍောတ်တ်ဂှ် မိမညးတအ် ပြံင်လုပ်မံင် အကြာလောသ် အေန်ဂျလေသ် ကဵု နျူယံက်၊ ဗာပ်ဖလဝ် ကေုာံ Wyomingတုဲ အပါညး George ဂှ် လုပ်ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် နာနာသာ်ရ။ အပါညးတေအ်ဂှ် ဟွံမိက်မံင် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဇၞော်ဇၞော်တုဲ ဒးဂၞပ် ကမၠောန် နကဵုကဆံင် ဒါရာ်တာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာ Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) ပ္ဍဲဍုင် Wyoming မဒှ်ကွာန်ဍောတ်တ်မွဲရ။ ဆဂး မိညးတေအ်ဂှ် ညာတ်ကေတ် ယဝ်ရကောန်ဇကု ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ရးမ္ဂး ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဍိုဟ်ကေက် ဍိုန်လျတုဲ မိက်ဂွံမံင် လတူဍုင်ဇၞော်ရ။ ကာလ မိညးတေအ် ကလိဂွံ ကမၠောန်အစာဘာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗာပ်ဖလဝ် ဘာကဝ်လိက်အလဵုအသဳ (State Teachers College at Buffalo)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQBPj1s0G1wC&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq=Practice|title=Shoemaker by Levy - The Man Who Made an Impact|first=David H.|last=Levy|date=24 November 2002|publisher=Princeton University Press|accessdate=31 March 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=0691113254}}</ref><ref name="nasonline.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/shoemaker-eugene.pdf |title=Biographical memoir |last=Kieffer |first=Susan |date=2015 |website=www.nasonline.org |format=PDF |access-date=2019-10-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ahernfuneralhome.com/condolences/?m=201103|title=2011 March – Ahern Funeral Home Condolences|author=|date=|website=www.ahernfuneralhome.com|accessdate=31 March 2018|archivedate=19 October 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019220803/http://www.ahernfuneralhome.com/condolences/?m=201103}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://suny.buffalostate.edu/history|title=History - SUNY Buffalo State|author=|date=|website=suny.buffalostate.edu|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref><!-- search : "Teachers-College"|"Normal-School" "School-of-Practice"|"Model-School" --><ref>[[Eliza Kellas]]</ref> အခိင်ဘာပံက်မ္ဂး ညးတေအ် မံင်ကရောမ်မိညးတေအ် ပ္ဍဲဗာပ်ဖလဝ်တုဲ အခိင်ကညင် ဘာကၟာတ်မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ပြံင်မံင် ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲအပါညးတေအ် ကွာန် Wyoming ရ။ ဂျေန် စိုတ်ထတ် သွက်ဂွံလ္ၚတ် ပရူတၟအ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ တုဲ ညးတေအ် ဂွံအခေါင်လ္ၚတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျးဗာပ်ဖလဝ် ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲခန်ထ္ၜးသိပ္ပံရ။{{efn|Buffalo Museum of Education likely refers to the institution now known as the [[Buffalo Museum of Science]].}} ညးတေအ် တိုန်ဘာတန်စတုတ္ထ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာ the School of Practice တုဲ စနူအခိင်ဂှ် ညးတေအ် စပကောံ တၟအ်ဂကူနာနာ ဓါတ်မိနေရလ်နာနာရ။ ကြဴနူဂှ် မွဲသၞာံဂှ် ညးတေအ် သီုတိုန်ဘာ ကဆံင်တန်သမၠုင် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်သဝ်တ္ၚဲကီုရ။ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန်ညးတေအ် ပြံင်အာမံင် လောသ် အေန်ဂျလေသ် ပၠန် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၂ ဂှ်တုဲ ဂျေန်လုပ်တိုန်ဘာတန်သမၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ Fairfax High School။ ကာလဂှ် ညးတေအ် ကလိဂွံအာယုက် ၁၃ သၞာံရ။ ကြဴနူဂှ် ပိသၞာံ ညးတေအ် ဘာတန်သမၠုင် အာစိုပ်ဒတုဲရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ညးတေအ် မတိုန်ဒၟံင် ဘာတန်သမၠုင်ဂှ် ညးတေအ် သီုဓဇက် ဂြဝ် ပ္ဍဲဂကောံဂဳတဘာ (the school orchestra)ကီုရ။ တုဲပၠန် ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ကာယဗလလေဝ် စိုန်သကီု စိစောန်ကီုရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဘာကၟာတ်မ္ဂး ညးတေအ် လုပ်ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲချူမတ် (lapidary)<ref name="Kieffer">[http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/shoemaker-eugene.pdf Kieffer, Susan. W. "Eugene M. Shoemaker (1928 - 1997)." Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences. 2015.] Accessed April 22, 2017.</ref>
ဂျေန် လုပ်တိုန်ဘာ ပ္ဍဲ California Institute of Technology ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၄ ကာလညးတေအ် မကလိဂွံအာယုက် ၁၆ သၞာံဂှ်ရ။{{efn|Astronomer and co-discoverer of the Shoemaker-Levy comet, David H. Levy, reportedly, said that Shoemaker had never considered going to any other university than Caltech.<ref name="Kieffer"/>}} သကအ်ရဲ ပ္ဍဲဘာညးတေအ်ဂှ် အာယုက်ဇၞော် နူညးတေအ်အိုတ်တုဲ ကၠာဟွံစိုပ် ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိအလန်ဒုတိယဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဘာတိုန်ရ။ ဂျေန် ကလိဂွံ ဗြးမဟိမု ဗာတ်ချ်လာ ဒဳဂရဳ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၈ ကာလညးတေအ် မကလိဂွံ အာယုက် ၁၉ သၞာံရ။ တုဲဂှ် ညးတေအ် ကေတ် သွက်ဂွံလ္ၚတ်တၟအ် Precambrian metamorphic rocks မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ နျူ မက္ကဇြဳကဝ် လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာတုဲ ကလိဂွံ ဗြးမဟိမုမဟာ (M. Sc. degree) နူကဵု Caltech ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၉ ရ။<ref name="Kieffer"/>
==သ္ၚိကၟိန်==
အခိင်ကာလ ဂျေန် မတိုန်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ Caltech ဂှ် သကအ်ရဲညးတေအ် မွဲဂှ် ဒှ် Richard Spellman မဒှ်ညး မကၠုင်နူ ချဳကဝ်၊ ကာလဳဝှောရ်နဳယျာ။ ကာလညးတေအ် မလုပ်ကၠောန်ဒၟံင် အစဳအဇန်ဒံက်တာ ပ္ဍဲကဵုတက္ကသိုလ် Princeton University ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ကလေင်အာ ကာလဳဝှောရ်နဳယျာ သွက်ဂွံ တိုန်သဘင်ပမ္ၚဵုထပ်တဲ Richard ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၅၀ ဂှ်ရ။ ကာလဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဂွံဆဵု ကဵုဒေအ် Richard မနွံယၟု ကာရဝ်လေန် (Carolyn) ရ။ ကာရဝ်လေန်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကွာန် Gallup၊ နျူမက္ကဇြဳကဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၂၉၊ ဆဂး ခြာဟွံလအ်ဂှ် ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန်ညးတအ် ပြံင်လုပ်မံင် ပ္ဍဲချဳကဝ် (Chico) တုဲ ညးတအ် ဆက်မံင်အာ စဵုကဵု အခိင်ဂှ်ရ။ ကာရဝ်လေန်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ ဗြမဟိမုဒဳဂရဳ နူကဵု ကဝ်လိက်ချဳကဝ် (Chico State College) ဘာသာဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်သိပ္ပံပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်ရ။ ညးတေအ် မွဲလှ်ေကီု စိုတ်ဟွံလုပ်စ လပါ်ကွတ်သိပ္ပံရ။ ဆဂး စုက်လုက် ကုဂျေန်တုဲ ညးတေအ် စိုတ်လုပ်စတုဲ တိုန်တန်ဗတောန် မဆေင်ကဵု ပထဝဳ ပ္ဍဲကဝ်လိက်ရ။ ဆဂး ညးတေအ်ထေင် ဒှ်အရာ စိုတ်မလုပ်စခိုဟ် မွဲဟွံသေင်ရ။ ညးၜါဂှ် ဖျေဟ်ဒၞာဲဒက်အိန်ထံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၁၇ အဝ်ဂေတ် သၞာံ ၁၉၅၁ ရ။<ref name="Chapman">[https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/people/carolyn-shoemaker Chapman, Mary G. "Carolyn Shoemaker." USGS Astrogeology Center. May 17, 2002.] Accessed April 24, 2017.</ref>
ညးတအ် ကလိဂွံ ကောန်ဇာတ်ပိ၊ ကောန်ဗြဴၜါ ကဵု ကောန်တြုဟ်မွဲ။ ကာရဝ်လေန်ဂှ် ဒှ်အာမၞိဟ်မမင်မွဲသ္ၚိ ကေုာံ ရံင်စကောန်ၚာ် ပ္ဍဲသ္ၚိရ။ ကၠာညးတအ် ဟွံစှ်ေဒၞာဲဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ ညးတေအ် ကလိဂွံကမၠောန် အစာဘာကီုလေဝ် ဟွံပြေပြံင်တုဲ တိတ်ထောအ်ရ။ ကာလကောန်ၚာ်တအ် ဇၞော်ဂေါဝ်အိုတ်တုဲ ကာရဝ်လေန် ကမၠောန် သွက်ကၠောန် ဟွံမဲ လ္ၚုတုဲ ဂျေန် ကဵုကသပ် ကဵုတိုန်ဘာ စပ်ကဵု နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ တုဲ လုပ်ကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲဂကောံညးတအ် သွက်ဂွံမင်ရံင် အကာသရ။ ကာလ ညးတေအ် ကလိဂွံအာယုက် ၅၁ ဂှ် ဂွံဒှ် သၟာနက္ခတ္တဗေဒ (a planetary astronomer) မွဲတုဲ ဆက်ကၠောန်အာကမၠောန်ဂှ်ရ။<ref name="Chapman"/>
== ပရေင်ရေင်တၠုင် မဆေင် ကုသိပ္ပံ ==
[[File:Gene shoemaker with rocket belt.jpg|thumb|150px|Eugene Shoemaker wearing a [[Bell Rocket Belt]] while training astronauts.]]
ဂကောံသုတေသနပထဝဳ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (United States Geological Survey) (USGS) ခပတိုန်ကမၠောန် ကုဂျေန် နူသၞာံ ၁၉၅၀။{{efn|Gene would maintain some association with the USGS for the rest of his active life.<ref name="Kieffer"/>}} တာလျိုင်ညးတေအ် ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံဂၠာဲ ဓါတ်ယူရေနဳယာမ် (uranium deposits) ပ္ဍဲဥထာ (Utah) ကဵု ကဝ်လဝ်ရာဒဝ် (Colorado)ရ။ ပရေင်ကမၠောန်ညးတေအ် ဂတဂှ် သွက်ဂွံလ္ၚတ် လၟေင်ဒဒှ်ဒဵုခတိုဟ် (volcanic processes) မုဟိုတ်ရောမ္ဂး ညးမလ္ၚတ်လဝ် ကိုပ်ကၠာတေအ် ဟီုလဝ် ကတိုင်ဓါတ်ယူရေနဳယာမ်ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ဒၞာဲဒဵုခတိုဟ် တြေံရ။ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဗလးကဵုညးတေအ် ဂၠာဲလ္ၚတ် ပ္ဍဲ Hopi Buttes မနွံလပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ အရိဇြဝ်နာ (Northern Arizona) ဗဒါဲ (Meteor Crater)ရ။<ref name="Kieffer"/>
[[Daniel Barringer (geologist)|Daniel Barringer]], an entrepreneur and mining engineer who had discovered Meteor Crater in 1891, had postulated that it had been caused by the impact of a meteor. About the same time, [[Grove Karl Gilbert|G. K. Gilbert]], the chief geologist of the USGS, examined the crater and announced that it had been created by an explosive venting of volcanic steam. A majority of scientists accepted Gilbert's explanation of the cause of the crater, This theory remained as conventional wisdom until Shoemaker's investigations a half century later.<ref name="Kieffer"/>
===Astrogeology and Apollo===
[[File:Shoemaker training astronauts at Brooks Camp, Katmai National Park.png|thumb|left|Shoemaker training astronauts at [[Brooks Camp]], [[Katmai National Park]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Phinney |first1=William |title=Science Training History of the Apollo Astronauts |date=2015 |publisher=NASA SP -2015-626 |page=65}}</ref>]]
For his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] degree at [[Princeton University|Princeton]] (1960), under the guidance of [[Harry Hammond Hess]], Shoemaker studied the impact dynamics of [[Meteor Crater|Barringer Meteor Crater]]. Shoemaker noted Meteor Crater had the same form and structure as two [[explosion crater]]s created from [[Nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]] tests at the [[Nevada Test Site]], notably [[Operation Buster-Jangle|Jangle U]] in 1951 and [[Operation Teapot|Teapot Ess]] in 1955. In 1960, [[Edward C. T. Chao]] and Shoemaker identified shocked quartz ([[coesite]]) at Meteor Crater, proving the crater was formed from an impact generating extremely high temperatures and pressures. They followed this discovery with the identification of coesite within [[suevite]] at [[Nördlinger Ries]], proving its impact origin.<ref name="Levy">{{Cite book |last1=Levy |first1=David |title=Shoemaker by Levy: The man who made an impact |url=https://archive.org/details/shoemakerbylevym0000levy |date=2002 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=9780691113258 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/shoemakerbylevym0000levy/page/69 69],74-75,78-79,81-85,99-100}}</ref>
In 1960, Shoemaker directed a team at the [[USGS]] center in [[Menlo Park, California]], to generate the first [[geologic map]] of the Moon using photographs taken by [[Francis G. Pease]]. Shoemaker also helped pioneer the field of [[Planetary geology|astrogeology]] by founding the [[Astrogeology Research Program]]. He was prominently involved in the [[Ranger program|Lunar Ranger]] missions to the Moon, joining the television imaging team of [[Harold Urey]] and [[Gerard Kuiper]], which turned into a preparatory mission for the future manned landing. Shoemaker was then chosen to be the [[principal investigator]] for the [[Surveyor program]]'s television experiment, and then the lunar geology principal investigator for [[Apollo 11]], [[Apollo 12]], and [[Apollo 13]].<ref name=Levy/>{{rp|85-86,92-97,101,119,136}}
Shoemaker was also involved in the training of the American [[astronaut]]s. He himself was a possible candidate for an [[Apollo program|Apollo]] Moon flight and was set to be the first geologist to walk on the Moon but was disqualified due to being diagnosed with [[Addison's disease]], a disorder of the [[adrenal gland]]. Shoemaker would train astronauts during field trips to [[Meteor Crater]] and [[Sunset Crater]] near Flagstaff.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/About/AstroHistory/astronauts.html|title=About - USGS Astrogeology Science Center|author=|date=|website=astrogeology.usgs.gov|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref> He was a [[CBS News]] television commentator on the early Apollo missions, especially the [[Apollo 8]] and [[Apollo 11]] missions, appearing with [[Walter Cronkite]] during live coverage of those flights.<ref name="Astronomy obit">{{Cite journal
| last = Graham
| first = Rex
| title = Making an exceptional impact. (planetary scientists Eugene and Carolyn Shoemaker)
| journal = Astronomy
|date=May 1998
| url = http://business.highbeam.com/136942/article-1G1-20461558/making-exceptional-impact
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130509131721/http://business.highbeam.com/136942/article-1G1-20461558/making-exceptional-impact
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 2013-05-09
| accessdate = 2013-02-12
| page = 36
| publisher = Kalmbach Publishing Co.
| location = Waukesha, Wisconsin
| issn = 0091-6358
| ref = harv
}}
{{subscription required|via=HighBeam Research}}
</ref>
According to [[David H. Levy]], just before the manned Moon landings,
{{quotation|"With humanity about to set forth upon this new world, geologists and astronomers were divided as to whether the lunar surface was a result of volcanic forces from beneath, or cosmic forces from above. In 1949, Ralph Baldwin had articulated that the Moon's craters were mostly of impact origin and Gene Shoemaker revived the idea again around 1960. He saw craters on the Moon as logical impact sites that were formed not gradually, in [[geologic time scale|eons]], but explosively, in seconds."<ref name=Levy/>{{rp|58-59}}
}}
He was awarded the [[John Price Wetherill Medal]] from the [[Franklin Institute]] in 1965.
Coming to [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] in 1969, he started a systematic search for Earth orbit-crossing [[asteroid]]s, which resulted in the discovery of several families of such asteroids, including the [[List of Apollo asteroids|Apollo asteroids]]. Shoemaker advanced the idea that sudden geologic changes can arise from [[asteroid]] strikes and that asteroid strikes are common over geologic time periods. Previously, [[Impact crater|astrobleme]]s were thought to be remnants of extinct volcanoes — even on the Moon.
===Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9===
In 1993, he co-discovered [[Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9]] using the 18-inch Schmidt camera at [[Palomar Observatory]]. This comet was unique in that it provided the first opportunity to observe the planetary impact of a comet. Shoemaker–Levy 9 collided with Jupiter in July 1994. The resulting impact caused a massive "scar" on the face of [[Jupiter]].
== Death ==
Shoemaker spent much of his later years searching for and finding several previously unnoticed or undiscovered [[impact crater]]s around the world.
Shoemaker died on July 18, 1997 during one such expedition in a head-on [[car collision]] on the remote [[Tanami Track]], a few hundred kilometers northwest of [[Alice Springs]], Australia. Shoemaker's wife Carolyn was severely injured in the crash.<ref>Malcolm W. Browne, [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/19/us/dr-eugene-shoemaker-69-set-record-for-finding-comets.html Dr. Eugene Shoemaker, 69; Set Record for Finding Comets], ''New York Times'' (July 19, 1997).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gcrg.org/bqr/13-1/gene.html|title=BQR - winter 1999-2000 - Gene Shoemaker|author=|date=|website=www.gcrg.org|accessdate=31 March 2018|archivedate=21 August 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821150556/http://www.gcrg.org/bqr/13-1/gene.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dandjribbans.blogspot.com.au/2010/12/in-wheel-ruts-of-len-beadell.html|title=Travels with an Oka: In the Wheel Ruts of Len Beadell|last=Dandj|date=26 December 2010|website=dandjribbans.blogspot.com.au|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deseretnews.com/article/573115/Astronomer-Eugene-Shoemaker-dies-in-car-crash.html|title=Astronomer Eugene Shoemaker dies in car crash|author=|date=19 July 1997|website=deseretnews.com|accessdate=31 March 2018|archivedate=20 October 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020032645/https://www.deseretnews.com/article/573115/Astronomer-Eugene-Shoemaker-dies-in-car-crash.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.economist.com/node/153207|title=Gene Shoemaker|author=|date=July 31, 1997|journal=The Economist|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/news81.html|title=Eugene Shoemaker (1928-1997)|author=|date=|website=www2.jpl.nasa.gov|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aas.org/obituaries/eugene-shoemaker-1928-1997|title=Eugene Shoemaker (1928 - 1997) - American Astronomical Society|author=|date=|website=aas.org|accessdate=31 March 2018|archivedate=19 October 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019220405/https://aas.org/obituaries/eugene-shoemaker-1928-1997}}</ref><ref name="nasonline.org"/>
On July 31, 1999, some of his ashes were [[Space burial|carried to the Moon]] by the [[Lunar Prospector]] space probe in a capsule designed by [[Carolyn Porco]].<ref name=DSPTribute>{{Cite web|last=Porco|first=Carolyn|title=The Eugene M. Shoemaker Tribute|url=http://ciclops.org/public/tribute.html|publisher=Diamond Sky Productions|accessdate=8 June 2013}}</ref><ref name=AstronomyMag>{{Cite news|last=Porco|first=Carolyn C.|title=Destination Moon|url=http://www.astronomy.com/~/media/Files/PDF/Magazine%20articles/Destination%20Moon.ashx|accessdate=8 June 2013|newspaper=Astronomy|date=February 2000}}</ref> He is the only person whose ashes have been buried on any celestial body outside Earth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.space.com/news/080328-moon-burial.html|title=Fly Me to the Moon ... Forever|author=|date=|website=space.com|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref>
The brass foil wrapping of Shoemaker's memorial capsule is inscribed with images of [[Comet Hale–Bopp]] ("the last comet that the Shoemakers observed together"),<ref name=AstronomyMag /> the Barringer Meteor Crater, and a quotation from Shakespeare's ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' reading
{{quote|<poem>And, when he shall die
Take him and cut him out in little stars
And he will make the face of heaven so fine
That all the world will be in love with night
And pay no worship to the garish sun.<ref name=DSPTribute /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/news82.html|title=Eugene Shoemaker Ashes Carried on Lunar Prospector|author=|date=|website=www2.jpl.nasa.gov|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref></poem>}}
The fatal crash had happened when Hale-Bopp was still visible to the naked eye, having [[Comet Hale–Bopp#After perihelion|passed perihelion]] and having moved into the southern celestial hemisphere.
==Awards and tributes==
Gene Shoemaker received a large number of awards for his professional work. According to the obituary published by the [[USGS Astrogeology Science Center]], these included:<ref name="USGS">[https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/rpif/gene-shoemaker Chapman, Mary G. "Gene Shoemaker - Founder of Astrogeology." USGS Astrogeology Science Center.] Accessed April 21, 2017</ref>
* Doctorate of Science, Arizona State College, Flagstaff, 1965.
* Wetherill Medal of the Franklin Institute, co-recipient with E.C.T. Chao, 1965.
* Arthur S. Flemming Award, 1966. Doctorate of Science, Temple University, 1967.
* NASA Medal for Scientific Achievement, 1967.
* U.S. Department of the Interior Honor Award for Meritorious Service, 1973.
* Member, U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 1980.
* U.S. Department of the Interior Distinguished Service Award, 1980.
* Arthur L. Day Medal of the Geological Society of America, 1982.
* G.K. Gilbert Award of the Geological Society of America, 1983.
* [[:de:Rieser Kulturpreis|Rieser Kulturpreis]], co-recipient with E.C.T. Chao and Richard Dehm, 1983.
* Honorary Doctorate of Science, University of Arizona, 1984.
* Barringer Award of the Meteoritical Society, 1984.
* Kuiper Prize of the American Astronomical Society, Division for Planetary Sciences, 1984.
* Leonard Medal of the Meteoritical Society, 1985.
* Distinguished Alumni Award of the California Institute of Technology, 1986.
* Rittenhouse Medal of the Rittenhouse Astronomical Society, co-recipient with C.S. Shoemaker, 1988.
* U.S. National Medal of Science, 1992.
* Whipple Award, American Geophysical Union, 1993.
* Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1993.
* AIAA Space Science Award, 1996.
* NASA [[Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal]], 1996.
* Bowie Medal, American Geophysical Union, 1996.
* Special Award, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1997.
* Shoemaker Award, Texas Section of the American Institute of Professional Geologists, awarded posthumously, 1997.
On July 24, 1997, a memorial for Dr. Eugene Shoemaker and Dr. Jurgen Rahe was presented in the U.S. House of Representatives by California representative George E. Brown, Jr. The memorial was published in the ''Congressional Record''. The memorial credited Shoemaker with being either the discoverer or co-discoverer of 820 asteroids and comets during his career.{{efn|Dr. Rahe was a German-American astronomer and project leader at NASA who was killed in an auto accident near Washington D. C. on June 18, 1997.}} <ref>[https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1997-07-24/html/CREC-1997-07-24-pt1-PgE1508-2.htm "In Remembrance of Dr. Eugene Shoemaker and Dr. Jurgen Rahe." ''Congressional Record'' Volume 143, Number 106 (Thursday, July 24, 1997).] Accessed April 23, 2017</ref>
A ring-like topographic feature in Western Australia, an [[astrobleme]] previously named the "Teague ring" was renamed "[[Shoemaker Crater]]" in honor of Eugene M. Shoemaker.
The [[NEAR Shoemaker|Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous]] space probe was renamed "NEAR Shoemaker" in his honor. It arrived at asteroid [[433 Eros]] in February 2000, and landed on the asteroid after a year of orbital study. He was previously honored with the asteroid [[2074 Shoemaker]], discovered and named by his colleague, [[Eleanor F. Helin]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=2074+Shoemaker|title=JPL Small-Body Database Browser|first=Alan|last=Chamberlin|date=|website=ssd.jpl.nasa.gov|accessdate=31 March 2018}}</ref>
== List of discovered minor planets ==
{{See also cat|Discoveries by Eugene Merle Shoemaker}}
Gene Shoemaker is credited by the [[Minor Planet Center]] with the co-discovery of 183 [[minor planet]]s between 1977 and 1994.<ref name="MPC-Discoverers" />
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%; background:#fff;"
|-
!List of minor planets discovered by Eugene Shoemaker
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 30em; display:inline-table; margin:8px; text-align:left; font-size:90%"
|-
! scope="col" style="width: 13.5em;" | Name
! scope="col" style="width: 12em;" | Discovery Date
! scope="col" style="width: 4.5em;" | Listing
|-
| '''[[2430 Bruce Helin]]''' || 8 November 1977 || {{LoMP|2430|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| 3025 Higson || 20 August 1982 || {{LoMP|3025|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[3199 Nefertiti]]''' || 13 September 1982 || {{LoMP|3199|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[3225 Hoag]]''' || 20 August 1982 || {{LoMP|3225|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[3317 Paris]]''' || 26 May 1984 || {{LoMP|3317|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 3484 Neugebauer || 10 July 1978 || {{LoMP|3484|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| '''[[3554 Amun]]''' || 4 March 1986 || {{LoMP|3554|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[3671 Dionysus]]''' || 27 May 1984 || {{LoMP|3671|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[3700 Geowilliams]]''' || 23 October 1984 || {{LoMP|3700|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 3880 Kaiserman || 21 November 1984 || {{LoMP|3880|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 3927 Feliciaplatt || 5 May 1981 || {{LoMP|3927|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[4151 Alanhale]]''' || 24 April 1985 || {{LoMP|4151|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[4197 Morpheus]]''' || 11 October 1982 || {{LoMP|4197|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| 4379 Snelling || 13 August 1988 || {{LoMP|4379|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[4450 Pan]]''' || 25 September 1987 || {{LoMP|4450|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[4525 Johnbauer]]''' || 15 May 1982 || {{LoMP|4525|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}{{ref label|codisc|C|}}
|-
| '''[[4899 Candace]]''' || 9 May 1988 || {{LoMP|4899|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[4946 Askalaphus]]''' || 21 January 1988 || {{LoMP|4946|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5023 Agapenor]]''' || 11 October 1985 || {{LoMP|5023|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5029 Ireland || 24 January 1988 || {{LoMP|5029|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5052 Nancyruth || 23 October 1984 || {{LoMP|5052|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5167 Joeharms || 11 April 1985 || {{LoMP|5167|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5168 Jenner || 6 March 1986 || {{LoMP|5168|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5175 Ables]]''' || 4 November 1988 || {{LoMP|5175|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5211 Stevenson || 8 July 1989 || {{LoMP|5211|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5259 Epeigeus]]''' || 30 January 1989 || {{LoMP|5259|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5264 Telephus]]''' || 17 May 1991 || {{LoMP|5264|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5284 Orsilocus]]''' || 1 February 1989 || {{LoMP|5284|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5285 Krethon]]''' || 9 March 1989 || {{LoMP|5285|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5430 Luu]]''' || 12 May 1988 || {{LoMP|5430|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5436 Eumelos]]''' || 20 February 1990 || {{LoMP|5436|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5511 Cloanthus]]''' || 8 October 1988 || {{LoMP|5511|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5551 Glikson || 24 January 1982 || {{LoMP|5551|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5579 Uhlherr || 11 May 1988 || {{LoMP|5579|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5632 Ingelehmann || 15 April 1993 || {{LoMP|5632|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5637 Gyas || 10 September 1988 || {{LoMP|5637|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5638 Deikoon]]''' || 10 October 1988 || {{LoMP|5638|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5652 Amphimachus]]''' || 24 April 1992 || {{LoMP|5652|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5670 Rosstaylor || 7 November 1985 || {{LoMP|5670|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5720 Halweaver || 29 March 1984 || {{LoMP|5720|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5725 Nördlingen || 23 January 1988 || {{LoMP|5725|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5726 Rubin || 24 January 1988 || {{LoMP|5726|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5731 Zeus]]''' || 4 November 1988 || {{LoMP|5731|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5765 Izett || 4 April 1986 || {{LoMP|5765|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5863 Tara || 7 September 1983 || {{LoMP|5863|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[5899 Jedicke]]''' || 9 January 1986 || {{LoMP|5899|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5947 Bonnie || 21 March 1985 || {{LoMP|5947|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5953 Shelton || 25 April 1987 || {{LoMP|5953|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5957 Irina || 11 May 1988 || {{LoMP|5957|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 5999 Plescia || 23 April 1987 || {{LoMP|5999|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[6063 Jason]]''' || 27 May 1984 || {{LoMP|6063|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[6084 Bascom]]''' || 12 February 1985 || {{LoMP|6084|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 6087 Lupo || 19 March 1988 || {{LoMP|6087|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 6179 Brett || 3 March 1986 || {{LoMP|6179|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[6239 Minos]]''' || 31 August 1989 || {{LoMP|6239|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 6372 Walker || 13 May 1985 || {{LoMP|6372|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[6376 Schamp]]''' || 29 May 1987 || {{LoMP|6376|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[6398 Timhunter]]''' || 10 February 1991 || {{LoMP|6398|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}{{ref label|codisc|D|}}
|-
| 6401 Roentgen || 15 April 1991 || {{LoMP|6401|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}{{ref label|codisc|D|}}
|-
| 6436 Coco || 13 May 1985 || {{LoMP|6436|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[6478 Gault]]''' || 12 May 1988 || {{LoMP|6478|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 6485 Wendeesther || 25 October 1990 || {{LoMP|6485|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}{{ref label|codisc|D|}}
|-
| 6510 Tarry || 23 February 1987 || {{LoMP|6510|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 6543 Senna || 11 October 1985 || {{LoMP|6543|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 6585 O'Keefe || 26 September 1984 || {{LoMP|6585|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 6635 Zuber || 26 September 1987 || {{LoMP|6635|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 6740 Goff || 14 April 1993 || {{LoMP|6740|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 6901 Roybishop || 2 August 1989 || {{LoMP|6901|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 6909 Levison || 19 January 1991 || {{LoMP|6909|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7051 Sean || 13 May 1985 || {{LoMP|7051|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7086 Bopp || 5 October 1991 || {{LoMP|7086|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[7088 Ishtar]]''' || 1 January 1992 || {{LoMP|7088|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[7092 Cadmus]]''' || 4 June 1992 || {{LoMP|7092|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7112 Ghislaine || 3 April 1986 || {{LoMP|7112|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[7119 Hiera]]''' || 11 January 1989 || {{LoMP|7119|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[7167 Laupheim]]''' || 12 October 1985 || {{LoMP|7167|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7173 Sepkoski || 15 August 1988 || {{LoMP|7173|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7480 Norwan || 1 August 1994 || {{LoMP|7480|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7549 Woodard || 9 October 1980 || {{LoMP|7549|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7560 Spudis || 10 January 1986 || {{LoMP|7560|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7749 Jackschmitt || 12 May 1988 || {{LoMP|7749|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7750 McEwen || 18 August 1988 || {{LoMP|7750|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7756 Scientia || 27 March 1990 || {{LoMP|7756|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 7778 Markrobinson || 17 April 1993 || {{LoMP|7778|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[7958 Leakey]]''' || 5 June 1994 || {{LoMP|7958|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[8034 Akka]]''' || 3 June 1992 || {{LoMP|8034|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 8149 Ruff || 11 May 1985 || {{LoMP|8149|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 8326 Paulkling || 6 May 1981 || {{LoMP|8326|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 8327 Weihenmayer || 6 May 1981 || {{LoMP|8327|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 8347 Lallaward || 21 April 1987 || {{LoMP|8347|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 8356 Wadhwa || 3 September 1989 || {{LoMP|8356|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[8373 Stephengould]]''' || 1 January 1992 || {{LoMP|8373|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 8709 Kadlu || 14 May 1994 || {{LoMP|8709|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 8804 Eliason || 5 May 1981 || {{LoMP|8804|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 30em; display:inline-table; margin:8px; text-align:left; font-size:90%"
|-
! scope="col" style="width: 13.5em;" | Name
! scope="col" style="width: 12em;" | Discovery Date
! scope="col" style="width: 4.5em;" | Listing
|-
| 8810 Johnmcfarland || 15 May 1982 || {{LoMP|8810|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| 8817 Roytraver || 13 May 1985 || {{LoMP|8817|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 9016 Henrymoore || 10 January 1986 || {{LoMP|9016|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 9022 Drake || 14 August 1988 || {{LoMP|9022|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[9023 Mnesthus]]''' || 10 September 1988 || {{LoMP|9023|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 9082 Leonardmartin || 4 November 1994 || {{LoMP|9082|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[9165 Raup]]''' || 27 September 1987 || {{LoMP|9165|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 9172 Abhramu || 29 July 1989 || {{LoMP|9172|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 9277 Togashi || 9 October 1980 || {{LoMP|9277|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 9299 Vinceteri || 13 May 1985 || {{LoMP|9299|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[9564 Jeffwynn]]''' || 26 September 1987 || {{LoMP|9564|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 9744 Nielsen || 9 May 1988 || {{LoMP|9744|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 9768 Stephenmaran || 5 April 1992 || {{LoMP|9768|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 10041 Parkinson || 24 April 1985 || {{LoMP|10041|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 10044 Squyres || 15 September 1985 || {{LoMP|10044|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 10060 Amymilne || 12 April 1988 || {{LoMP|10060|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 10108 Tomlinson || 26 April 1992 || {{LoMP|10108|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 10295 Hippolyta || 12 April 1988 || {{LoMP|10295|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 10487 Danpeterson || 14 April 1985 || {{LoMP|10487|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 10563 Izhdubar || 19 November 1993 || {{LoMP|10563|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 10683 Carter || 10 June 1980 || {{LoMP|10683|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 10739 Lowman || 12 May 1988 || {{LoMP|10739|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| {{mp|(10995) 1978 NS}} || 10 July 1978 || {{LoMP|10995|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| 11006 Gilson || 9 October 1980 || {{LoMP|11006|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[11066 Sigurd]]''' || 9 February 1992 || {{LoMP|11066|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[11277 Ballard]]''' || 8 October 1988 || {{LoMP|11277|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 11311 Peleus || 10 December 1993 || {{LoMP|11311|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 11836 Eileen || 5 February 1986 || {{LoMP|11836|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 12227 Penney || 11 October 1985 || {{LoMP|12227|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 12237 Coughlin || 23 April 1987 || {{LoMP|12237|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 12242 Koon || 18 August 1988 || {{LoMP|12242|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 12675 Chabot || 9 October 1980 || {{LoMP|12675|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[12714 Alkimos]]''' || 15 April 1991 || {{LoMP|12714|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 12753 Povenmire || 18 April 1993 || {{LoMP|12753|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| {{mp|(12977) 1978 NC}} || 10 July 1978 || {{LoMP|12977|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| '''[[13062 Podarkes]]''' || 19 April 1991 || {{LoMP|13062|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 13937 Roberthargraves || 2 August 1989 || {{LoMP|13937|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[14827 Hypnos]]''' || 5 May 1986 || {{LoMP|14827|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 14835 Holdridge || 26 November 1987 || {{LoMP|14835|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 15228 Ronmiller || 23 February 1987 || {{LoMP|15228|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 15304 Wikberg || 21 October 1992 || {{LoMP|15304|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| {{mp|(16397) 1982 JS|2}} || 15 May 1982 || {{LoMP|16397|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| 16452 Goldfinger || 28 September 1989 || {{LoMP|16452|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 16641 Esteban || 16 August 1993 || {{LoMP|16641|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| {{mp|(17355) 1978 NK}} || 10 July 1978 || {{LoMP|17355|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| 17399 Andysanto || 6 September 1983 || {{LoMP|17399|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 17408 McAdams || 19 October 1987 || {{LoMP|17408|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 19140 Jansmit || 2 September 1989 || {{LoMP|19140|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 19173 Virginiaterése || 15 April 1991 || {{LoMP|19173|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 19243 Bunting || 10 February 1994 || {{LoMP|19243|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| {{mp|(19920) 1978 NF}} || 10 July 1978 || {{LoMP|19920|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| 20007 Marybrown || 7 June 1991 || {{LoMP|20007|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 20037 Duke || 20 October 1992 || {{LoMP|20037|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[21062 Iasky]]''' || 13 May 1991 || {{LoMP|21062|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 21148 Billramsey || 16 April 1993 || {{LoMP|21148|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 21149 Kenmitchell || 19 April 1993 || {{LoMP|21149|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 22294 Simmons || 28 September 1989 || {{LoMP|22294|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 23452 Drew || 18 August 1988 || {{LoMP|23452|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[24626 Astrowizard]]''' || 9 October 1980 || {{LoMP|24626|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 24643 MacCready || 28 September 1984 || {{LoMP|24643|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 24654 Fossett || 29 May 1987 || {{LoMP|24654|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 24761 Ahau || 28 January 1993 || {{LoMP|24761|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 26879 Haines || 9 July 1994 || {{LoMP|26879|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 27706 Strogen || 11 October 1985 || {{LoMP|27706|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 27711 Kirschvink || 4 November 1988 || {{LoMP|27711|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 29133 Vargas || 29 May 1987 || {{LoMP|29133|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 29137 Alanboss || 18 October 1987 || {{LoMP|29137|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 29146 McHone || 17 March 1988 || {{LoMP|29146|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 30767 Chriskraft || 6 November 1983 || {{LoMP|30767|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 30779 Sankt-Stephan || 17 October 1987 || {{LoMP|30779|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 30785 Greeley || 13 August 1988 || {{LoMP|30785|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 30786 Karkoschka || 18 August 1988 || {{LoMP|30786|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 30844 Hukeller || 17 May 1991 || {{LoMP|30844|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 32776 Nriag || 29 May 1987 || {{LoMP|32776|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 35056 Cullers || 28 September 1984 || {{LoMP|35056|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 37609 LaVelle || 25 November 1992 || {{LoMP|37609|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| '''[[37655 Illapa]]''' || 1 August 1994 || {{LoMP|37655|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 43763 Russert || 30 May 1987 || {{LoMP|43763|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 48416 Carmelita || 24 January 1988 || {{LoMP|48416|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| {{mp|(52229) 1978 NN}} || 10 July 1978 || {{LoMP|52229|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| {{mp|(52230) 1978 NR}} || 10 July 1978 || {{LoMP|52230|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| '''[[52266 Van Flandern]]''' || 10 January 1986 || {{LoMP|52266|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 65672 Merrick || 16 August 1988 || {{LoMP|65672|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 73670 Kurthopf || 19 August 1982 || {{LoMP|73670|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| 79117 Brydonejack || 16 August 1988 || {{LoMP|79117|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
| {{mp|(99954) 1978 NH}} || 10 July 1978 || {{LoMP|99954|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| {{mp|(129437) 1978 NG}} || 10 July 1978 || {{LoMP|129437|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| {{mp|(136564) 1977 VA}} || 7 November 1977 || {{LoMP|136564|list}} {{ref label|codisc|A|}}
|-
| {{mp|(408751) 1987 SF|3}} || 26 September 1987 || {{LoMP|408751|list}} {{ref label|codisc|B|}}
|-
! colspan=3 style="font-weight: normal; text-align: left; padding: 4px 12px;" |'''Co-discovery''' made with:<br />{{note label|codisc|A|}} [[Eleanor F. Helin|E. F. Helin]]<br />{{note label|codisc|B|}} [[Carolyn S. Shoemaker|C. S. Shoemaker]]<br />{{note label|codisc|C|}} [[Peter D. Wilder|P. D. Wilder]]<br />{{note label|codisc|D|}} [[David H. Levy|D. H. Levy]]
|}
|}
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="MPC-Discoverers">{{Cite web
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|work = Minor Planet Center
|url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/MPDiscsNum.html
|date = 25 October 2018
|accessdate = 18 February 2019}}</ref>
}} <!-- end of reflist -->
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{{refend}}
== External links==
* ''Asteroids: Deadly Impact'' [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] videos
* [https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/rpif/exhibits/pioneers/gene-shoemaker USGS page about Gene Shoemaker]
* [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/news81.html NASA page about Gene Shoemaker] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117090050/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/news81.html |date=2010-01-17 }}
[[Category:BEHM]]
[[Category:အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိ]]
[[Category:နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဘူမိဗေဒ]]
3tfubwmwfq8amgrwrhj4bex02ttrjeo
ကအ်ဆုကၠ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်
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Htawmonzel ပြံင်ပဆုဲလဝ် မုက်လိက် [[ကအ်ဆုကၠ၊ ကွာန်]] ဇရေင် [[ကအ်ဆုကၠ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]] သီုကဵု ဟွံဂွံ ဂိုင်စွံလဝ် မကလေင်ပညုင်
47234
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ကွာန်ကအ်ဆုကၠ ({{Lang-en| Kaw Chukla}}) ဝွံ ဒှ်ကွာန်မန် နွံပ္ဍဲ ((16°50’66.67N-97°77’80.45E) တွဵုရးဍုၚ်မန်၊ ပွိုၚ်ဍုၚ်ကျာ်မြဟ်ရ၊၊ ကွာန်အအဝွံ ဒှ်ကွာန် မၞုံဇိုင်ၜဳဂြာင် ဗွဲသြင် လပါ်သၠုင်ကျာရ၊၊ ကွာန်ဝွံ သီုဖအိုတ် သ္ၚိနွံစ ၜိုတ် ၃၅၀ မတုဲ ဇမၞော်ကွာန်သီုဖအိုတ် နွံစၜိုတ် 0.20 km<sup>2</sup> ကဳလဝ်မဳတာပန်ကၠင်ရ၊၊
တိတ်အာ ဂၠံင်ကွဳစက် လပါ်သၠုင်ကျာ ၜိုတ် ၁ တိုင်ဘာ်မ္ဂး စိုပ်ဂၠံင်ဇၞော် မအာကဵု ဍုင်မတ်မလီုတုဲ နူကွာန်၀၀ ဂွံစိုပ်မတ်မလီုဂှ် နွံၜိုတ် ၈ တိုင်ရ၊၊
==လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်==
ကွာန်၀၀ဝွံ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၈ဂှ် သ္ၚိ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံ ၜိုတ် (၃၅၀) မတုဲ မၞိဟ်နွံ ၜိုတ် ဒစာံကၠံ ဒှ်မာန်ရ၊၊
==ပလံၚ်ဗစိုပ်==
အဓိက ပရေၚ်ပလံၚ်ဗစိုပ်ကွာန်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဂၠံင်တိုက် ကေုာံ ဂၠံၚ်ဍာ်ရ၊၊
==ဝၚ်==
''လိက်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဗပေၚ်လိက်တုဲ မချူလဝ်ရ၊၊ ညးမတီပရူကွာန်ဝွံ ပလေဝ် ဗပေၚ်ချူညိ၊၊''
ကွာန်ဝဝဝဝွံ ဒှ်မန်တြေံမွဲတုဲ နူအခိၚ်လဵု မစပ္တန်လဝ်ရောဂှ် နကဵု သက်သဳ သုတေသနဝၚ် ခိုၚ်ၚ်ဂှ် ဟွံဂွံတီလဝ်ဏီရ၊၊ ပ္ဍဲခေတ်ဟံသာဝတဳ ဒြဟတ်ခိုဟ် (ၜိုတ် အေဒဳ တေအ်ဂှ် ကွာန်ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲရးမတ္တမ ၃၂ ဍုၚ် ပ္ဍဲရးဍုၚ်ဝဝရ၊၊
ကြဴနူ အဝဵုသြဇာဂကူဗၟာ နူဗုကာံ ဓလီုဂွံအာ ရာမညဒေသ ဍုၚ်မန်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၂၈၁/၁၂၈၆ ဂှ် မဂဒူ ကောန်ဍုၚ်တကအ်ဝါန် (ဍုၚ်ဝါန်) ပုန် ကုသၟိၚ်စဍုၚ်ဗၟာ အလိမ်မာမၚ် (အလိမ္မာမၚ်း)တုဲ ကလေၚ်ပ္တန် ဍုၚ်ဗၠးၜးမန် ပ္ဍဲဍုၚ်မတ္တမရ မဂွံဒုၚ်ယၟု သၟိၚ်ဝါရဳရောဝ် မဒှ်ယၟု ဘာသာသေံ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ညးမဒတုံပြဟ်နူသွဝ် ရ၊၊ မန်ပ္ဍဲဗဂေါ အခမန် လေဝ် ပုန်ကဵု သၟိၚ်ဗုကာံကီုတုဲ ဒက်ပ္တန် ဍုၚ်ဗၠးၜးကီုရ၊၊ ကာလတၠဖြာ မပိုၚ်ဍုၚ်ဟံသာဝတဳဂှ် ဍုၚ်မန်ဟံသာဝတဳ ကဵု ဍုၚ်မန်မတ္တမ ဒက်မိတ်ရေၚ်သကအ် နမကဵုစ ကောန်ဝုတ်ရေၚ်သကအ်ရ၊၊ တၠဖြာ ပစၞာဲ ဂစာန်ဂစိုတ် သၟိၚ်ဝါရေဝ်ရောဝ်ဂှ် ဂွံတီကေတ်တုဲ ညးရပ်ကြိုၚ်ထောအ် တၠဖြာရ၊၊ ဍုၚ်ဟံသာဝတဳ စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်တဲ သၟိၚ်ဝါရေဝ်ရောဝ်ရ၊၊ ဟိုတ်တၠဖြာ မဂစာန်ပုန်တုဲ ညးဒးဂစိုတ်ထောအ် တၠဖြာရ၊၊
သၞာံ ၁၃၄၈ သၟိၚ်ဗညာဥူ တိုန်နန် ဍုၚ်မတ္တမ ရ၊၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ဗြတ္ထၜ ကဵု လိုက်ဖြာတအ် ပသပုန်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၃၆၃ ဂှ်တုဲ သၟိၚ်ဗညာဥူ ဒးဒဴအာမံၚ် ဍုၚ်ဝါန်၊၊ စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၃၆၉ ဂှ် သၟိၚ်ဗညာဥူ ဟိုတ်ကလေၚ်စဴ ဍုၚ်မတ္တမ ဟွံဂွံတုဲ ဒးအာမံၚ် ပ္ဍဲဗဂေါရ၊၊ တၠညးဗညာဥူ ဟွံမဲတုဲ ကောန်ညး တၠညးရာဇာဓိရာဇ် ဂွံတိုန်နန်ဟံသာဝတဳရ၊၊ စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၃၈၈ ဂှ် တၠညးရာဇာဓိရာဇ် သီဂွံအာ ဍုၚ်မတ္တမ ကေုာံ မတ်မလီုရ၊၊ စနူဂှ်တုဲ ဍုၚ်မတ္တမ နဒဒှ် ဍုၚ်သၟိၚ်ဨကရာဇ် မပဒတဴဂှ် ဒးအိုတ်အာရ၊၊
==ဘာလကျာ်ဂမၠိုၚ်==
# ရာမညနိကာယ ဘာတြေံ
# ရာမညနိကာယ ဘာမန်==ဘာလကျာ်==
''လိက်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဗပေၚ်လိက်တုဲ မချူလဝ်ရ၊၊ ညးမတီပရူကွာန်ဝွံ ပလေဝ် ဗပေၚ်ချူညိ၊၊''
ရာမညနိကာယ ဘာဗၟံက်ဝွံ နွံ လပါ်ဗၟံက်ကွာန်တုဲ မဒှ်ဘာတြေံအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဝဝဝ ဏအ်ရ၊၊ ဘာဝွံ ပ္ဍဲအခိၚ် ကျာ်ဇၞော်ဝိမလဂှ် ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ်သီမွဲရ၊၊ ပါဲနူသီတုဲ ဇြပ်သဘၚ်ဓရ်၊ ဇြပ်မၚ်သဳတအ်လေဝ် နွံကီုရ၊၊
မၞိဟ်ဇေတ် ဟွံထောံဂကူ မြမောဝ်ဇေတ် ဟွံထောံသၟူ" တဝှ်ဝွံ ဇၟာပ်ပ်တၠပညာ ထိုၚ်သးတဴအိုတ်ရ။ သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန် မပ္တံကဵုကၠဵုတံ မၚ်မွဲကၠုၚ်ဂကူကၠဵုဂှ် ပ္ဍဲသုတ်ဇာတ်နိပါတ် နဒဒှ်သာဓက ဂွံဆဵုညာတ်ကေတ်မာန်ရ။ သတ်မတွံဂး မၞိဟ်ဂှ် ဂမြၚ်ညာဏ် ပြဲသၠုၚ်လ္တူနူတိရစ္ဆာန် ကၠံဆ လ္ၚီဆ ဟွံကတုဲ တာလျိုၚ်မၚ်မွဲဂကူ ဘာသာ သာသနာဂှ် ဗွဲမပြေပြံၚ် ဟွံယိုက်ဂၠေၚ်မ္ဂး ယုတ်မာလ္တူနူ တိရစ္ဆာန် ကၠံဆ လ္ၚီဆဟွံကဂှ် သ္ဒးကၠိုဟ်လဝ်ထေက်ရ။
ဂကူကၠဵုဂှ် ရမျာၚ်ကၠဵုဟေၚ်လေပ်ရ။ ရမျာၚ်ဗ္ဂဲ ရမျာၚ်ချေံဍေံဗြုဟွံလေပ် ဂကူမန်ဂှ် မူရဴရမျာၚ်မွဲ သ္ဂောံဗြုရော? လိက်ပတ် ယေန်သၞာၚ် အရေဝ် ဝေါဟာ ဘာသာဇကုဟွံလေပ် ဟွံမၚ်မွဲ ဟွံဟီုမ္ဂး မၞိဟ်မဖှ်သာ်ဂှ်ကဵု ကၠဵုညးဂှ်ခိုဟ်ရော ဗစာရဏာအိုတ်ညိ။
ပ္ကဴဂမၠိုၚ် နွံသၟူအမြာဲ မြမောဝ်ဍေံကဵုဍေံအိုတ်ရ။ ပ္ကဴမၠဵုဂှ် သၟူအမြာဲ ပ္ကဴမၠဵုမောဝ်ဇောဝ်တုဲ ပ္ကဴပ္ၚာတုန် သၟူအမြာဲပ္ကဴပ္ၚာမောဝ်ပ္ဍးတဴရ။ သၟူအမြာဲပ္ကဴအိုတ်သီုတံဂှ် ဗက်အလိုက်ကျာတုဲဟေၚ် မောဝ်ဇောဝ်အာမာန်ရ။ ဒစးကျာမောဝ်ဇောဝ်အာဟွံမာန်ဆ္ဂး သၟူအမြာဲပရိယတ်ဂှ် လၟောဝ်အာသီုအလိုက်ကျာ သီုဒးစးကျာတုဲ မောဝ်ဇောဝ်အာ ပန်ဒိုဟ် ဒစာံဒိုဟ်မာန်ရ။ ဒၞဲါဝွံ မိက်သ္ဂောံဟီုဂး "မြမောဝ်ရာမညနိကာယပရိယတ္တိ" မဒှ်ရောၚ်၊ ရာမည- မည-မန် ဂှ် လဂွံကဵုမန်ရ။ နိကာယဂှ် ဂကောံဂိုဏ် မဒှ်ရ။ ပရိယတ္တိဂှ် ပၞောဝ်သာသနာပိတန် ပရိယတ္တိသာသနာမ္ဂးရ။ ရာမညနိကာယပရိယတ္တိ ပရိယတ္တိသာသနာ ဂကောံဂိုဏ်ရာမည။ ရာမည နိကာယပရိယတ္တိဝွံ ဗြီတိတ်ကၠုၚ် နူဂကောံရာမညဓမ္မာစရိယ မဒှ်ရ။ တၞဟ်နပရိယတ္တိ သာသနာ တၠီမၞုံကုပိုဉ်ကျာ်တြဲ သ္ဂောံတန်တဴအာ လုကဴကာလအဓာန်ဗွဲမလံလကာဖာဂှ် သၚ်ရာမညနိကာယလေဝ် နွံတာလျိုၚ်တုဲ တၞဟ်နတာလျိုၚ် ဂွံပြေအာ လ္တူသာသနာ သၚ်ရာမညနိကာယဂမၠိုၚ် တံၚ်တဲဗလဲပၞး စိုတ်သၟဟ်ဒှ်မွဲ ညံၚ်ခပေဲါဟွံဂွံပြး ခၟာဲဟွံဂွံထကး ကၠးစိုတ်ကၠိုဟ်စိုတ် ကေုာံ ရေၚ်သ္ကံတုဲ ရာမညနိကာယပရိယတ္တိဂှ် ဂံါကွာ်လုပ်ကၠုၚ် ပွိုၚ် ၂၅ သၞာံ သ္ဘၚ်သြန်ရတ်မဒှ်ရ။
==ကျာ်စေတဳ==
''လိက်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဗပေၚ်လိက်တုဲ မချူလဝ်ရ၊၊ ညးမတီပရူကွာန်ဝွံ ပလေဝ် ဗပေၚ်ချူညိ၊၊''
ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဝဝဝဝွံ ကျာ်စေတဳ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံ ၃ တၞုၚ်၊၊ ကျာ်လဒေါဝ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ကျာ် ကျာ်သြဳကွာန်တုဲ မၞိဟ်ကၠုၚ်ဗဵုလ္ၚောဝ်ဂၠိုၚ်အိုတ်ရ၊၊ ပါဲနူဂှ် ကျာ်စေတဳ ပ္ဍဲဘာလကျာ်လေဝ် နွံကီုရ၊၊
==ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ်==
''လိက်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဗပေၚ်လိက်တုဲ မချူလဝ်ရ၊၊ ညးမတီပရူကွာန်ဝွံ ပလေဝ် ဗပေၚ်ချူညိ၊၊''
အဓိက ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကွာန်ဝဝဝ ဝွံ ဒှ်ကမၠောန်ဗ္ၚ ကေုာံ တဵုတၞံခၜိုတ်ရဝ်ပါရ၊၊ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ ပရေၚ်ဗၞိက် စၞစသုၚ်တအ်လေဝ် နွံစ ညိညကီုရ၊၊
==ပရေၚ်ပညာ==
''လိက်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဗပေၚ်လိက်တုဲ မချူလဝ်ရ၊၊ ညးမတီပရူကွာန်ဝွံ ပလေဝ် ဗပေၚ်ချူညိ၊၊''
ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဝဝဝဝွံ နာဲဘာဗတောန်လိက်အလဵုအသဳ တန်သဇိုၚ်မူလ (၂) မတုဲ တန်လဒေါဝ် နွံမွဲရ၊၊
ပ္ဍဲဘာလကျာ်လေဝ် ဒှ်ဒတန် ဗ္တောန်လိက် သွက်ကောန်ၚာ်တအ်ကီုရ၊၊
[[Category:ကဏ္ဍအဓိက!]]
[[Category:ဝၚ်ပထဝဳ]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:ကံဆုကၠ}}
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ကွာန်ကအ်ဆုကၠ ({{Lang-en| Kaw Chukla}}) ဝွံ ဒှ်ကွာန်မန် နွံပ္ဍဲ ((16°50’66.67N-97°77’80.45E) တွဵုရးဍုၚ်မန်၊ ပွိုၚ်ဍုၚ်ကျာ်မြဟ်ရ၊၊ ကွာန်အအဝွံ ဒှ်ကွာန် မၞုံဇိုင်ၜဳဂြာင် ဗွဲသြင် လပါ်သၠုင်ကျာရ၊၊ ကွာန်ဝွံ သီုဖအိုတ် သ္ၚိနွံစ ၜိုတ် ၃၅၀ မတုဲ ဇမၞော်ကွာန်သီုဖအိုတ် နွံစၜိုတ် 0.20 km<sup>2</sup> ကဳလဝ်မဳတာပန်ကၠင်ရ၊၊
တိတ်အာ ဂၠံင်ကွဳစက် လပါ်သၠုင်ကျာ ၜိုတ် ၁ တိုင်ဘာ်မ္ဂး စိုပ်ဂၠံင်ဇၞော် မအာကဵု ဍုင်မတ်မလီုတုဲ နူကွာန်၀၀ ဂွံစိုပ်မတ်မလီုဂှ် နွံၜိုတ် ၈ တိုင်ရ၊၊
==လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်==
ကွာန်၀၀ဝွံ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၈ဂှ် သ္ၚိ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံ ၜိုတ် (၃၅၀) မတုဲ မၞိဟ်နွံ ၜိုတ် ဒစာံကၠံ ဒှ်မာန်ရ၊၊
==ပလံၚ်ဗစိုပ်==
အဓိက ပရေၚ်ပလံၚ်ဗစိုပ်ကွာန်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဂၠံင်တိုက် ကေုာံ ဂၠံၚ်ဍာ်ရ၊၊
==ဝၚ်==
''လိက်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဗပေၚ်လိက်တုဲ မချူလဝ်ရ၊၊ ညးမတီပရူကွာန်ဝွံ ပလေဝ် ဗပေၚ်ချူညိ၊၊''
ကွာန်ဝဝဝဝွံ ဒှ်မန်တြေံမွဲတုဲ နူအခိၚ်လဵု မစပ္တန်လဝ်ရောဂှ် နကဵု သက်သဳ သုတေသနဝၚ် ခိုၚ်ၚ်ဂှ် ဟွံဂွံတီလဝ်ဏီရ၊၊ ပ္ဍဲခေတ်ဟံသာဝတဳ ဒြဟတ်ခိုဟ် (ၜိုတ် အေဒဳ တေအ်ဂှ် ကွာန်ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲရးမတ္တမ ၃၂ ဍုၚ် ပ္ဍဲရးဍုၚ်ဝဝရ၊၊
ကြဴနူ အဝဵုသြဇာဂကူဗၟာ နူဗုကာံ ဓလီုဂွံအာ ရာမညဒေသ ဍုၚ်မန်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၂၈၁/၁၂၈၆ ဂှ် မဂဒူ ကောန်ဍုၚ်တကအ်ဝါန် (ဍုၚ်ဝါန်) ပုန် ကုသၟိၚ်စဍုၚ်ဗၟာ အလိမ်မာမၚ် (အလိမ္မာမၚ်း)တုဲ ကလေၚ်ပ္တန် ဍုၚ်ဗၠးၜးမန် ပ္ဍဲဍုၚ်မတ္တမရ မဂွံဒုၚ်ယၟု သၟိၚ်ဝါရဳရောဝ် မဒှ်ယၟု ဘာသာသေံ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ညးမဒတုံပြဟ်နူသွဝ် ရ၊၊ မန်ပ္ဍဲဗဂေါ အခမန် လေဝ် ပုန်ကဵု သၟိၚ်ဗုကာံကီုတုဲ ဒက်ပ္တန် ဍုၚ်ဗၠးၜးကီုရ၊၊ ကာလတၠဖြာ မပိုၚ်ဍုၚ်ဟံသာဝတဳဂှ် ဍုၚ်မန်ဟံသာဝတဳ ကဵု ဍုၚ်မန်မတ္တမ ဒက်မိတ်ရေၚ်သကအ် နမကဵုစ ကောန်ဝုတ်ရေၚ်သကအ်ရ၊၊ တၠဖြာ ပစၞာဲ ဂစာန်ဂစိုတ် သၟိၚ်ဝါရေဝ်ရောဝ်ဂှ် ဂွံတီကေတ်တုဲ ညးရပ်ကြိုၚ်ထောအ် တၠဖြာရ၊၊ ဍုၚ်ဟံသာဝတဳ စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်တဲ သၟိၚ်ဝါရေဝ်ရောဝ်ရ၊၊ ဟိုတ်တၠဖြာ မဂစာန်ပုန်တုဲ ညးဒးဂစိုတ်ထောအ် တၠဖြာရ၊၊
သၞာံ ၁၃၄၈ သၟိၚ်ဗညာဥူ တိုန်နန် ဍုၚ်မတ္တမ ရ၊၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ဗြတ္ထၜ ကဵု လိုက်ဖြာတအ် ပသပုန်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၃၆၃ ဂှ်တုဲ သၟိၚ်ဗညာဥူ ဒးဒဴအာမံၚ် ဍုၚ်ဝါန်၊၊ စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၃၆၉ ဂှ် သၟိၚ်ဗညာဥူ ဟိုတ်ကလေၚ်စဴ ဍုၚ်မတ္တမ ဟွံဂွံတုဲ ဒးအာမံၚ် ပ္ဍဲဗဂေါရ၊၊ တၠညးဗညာဥူ ဟွံမဲတုဲ ကောန်ညး တၠညးရာဇာဓိရာဇ် ဂွံတိုန်နန်ဟံသာဝတဳရ၊၊ စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၃၈၈ ဂှ် တၠညးရာဇာဓိရာဇ် သီဂွံအာ ဍုၚ်မတ္တမ ကေုာံ မတ်မလီုရ၊၊ စနူဂှ်တုဲ ဍုၚ်မတ္တမ နဒဒှ် ဍုၚ်သၟိၚ်ဨကရာဇ် မပဒတဴဂှ် ဒးအိုတ်အာရ၊၊
==ဘာလကျာ်ဂမၠိုၚ်==
# ရာမညနိကာယ ဘာတြေံ
# ရာမညနိကာယ ဘာမန်==ဘာလကျာ်==
''လိက်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဗပေၚ်လိက်တုဲ မချူလဝ်ရ၊၊ ညးမတီပရူကွာန်ဝွံ ပလေဝ် ဗပေၚ်ချူညိ၊၊''
ရာမညနိကာယ ဘာဗၟံက်ဝွံ နွံ လပါ်ဗၟံက်ကွာန်တုဲ မဒှ်ဘာတြေံအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဝဝဝ ဏအ်ရ၊၊ ဘာဝွံ ပ္ဍဲအခိၚ် ကျာ်ဇၞော်ဝိမလဂှ် ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ်သီမွဲရ၊၊ ပါဲနူသီတုဲ ဇြပ်သဘၚ်ဓရ်၊ ဇြပ်မၚ်သဳတအ်လေဝ် နွံကီုရ၊၊
မၞိဟ်ဇေတ် ဟွံထောံဂကူ မြမောဝ်ဇေတ် ဟွံထောံသၟူ" တဝှ်ဝွံ ဇၟာပ်ပ်တၠပညာ ထိုၚ်သးတဴအိုတ်ရ။ သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန် မပ္တံကဵုကၠဵုတံ မၚ်မွဲကၠုၚ်ဂကူကၠဵုဂှ် ပ္ဍဲသုတ်ဇာတ်နိပါတ် နဒဒှ်သာဓက ဂွံဆဵုညာတ်ကေတ်မာန်ရ။ သတ်မတွံဂး မၞိဟ်ဂှ် ဂမြၚ်ညာဏ် ပြဲသၠုၚ်လ္တူနူတိရစ္ဆာန် ကၠံဆ လ္ၚီဆ ဟွံကတုဲ တာလျိုၚ်မၚ်မွဲဂကူ ဘာသာ သာသနာဂှ် ဗွဲမပြေပြံၚ် ဟွံယိုက်ဂၠေၚ်မ္ဂး ယုတ်မာလ္တူနူ တိရစ္ဆာန် ကၠံဆ လ္ၚီဆဟွံကဂှ် သ္ဒးကၠိုဟ်လဝ်ထေက်ရ။
ဂကူကၠဵုဂှ် ရမျာၚ်ကၠဵုဟေၚ်လေပ်ရ။ ရမျာၚ်ဗ္ဂဲ ရမျာၚ်ချေံဍေံဗြုဟွံလေပ် ဂကူမန်ဂှ် မူရဴရမျာၚ်မွဲ သ္ဂောံဗြုရော? လိက်ပတ် ယေန်သၞာၚ် အရေဝ် ဝေါဟာ ဘာသာဇကုဟွံလေပ် ဟွံမၚ်မွဲ ဟွံဟီုမ္ဂး မၞိဟ်မဖှ်သာ်ဂှ်ကဵု ကၠဵုညးဂှ်ခိုဟ်ရော ဗစာရဏာအိုတ်ညိ။
ပ္ကဴဂမၠိုၚ် နွံသၟူအမြာဲ မြမောဝ်ဍေံကဵုဍေံအိုတ်ရ။ ပ္ကဴမၠဵုဂှ် သၟူအမြာဲ ပ္ကဴမၠဵုမောဝ်ဇောဝ်တုဲ ပ္ကဴပ္ၚာတုန် သၟူအမြာဲပ္ကဴပ္ၚာမောဝ်ပ္ဍးတဴရ။ သၟူအမြာဲပ္ကဴအိုတ်သီုတံဂှ် ဗက်အလိုက်ကျာတုဲဟေၚ် မောဝ်ဇောဝ်အာမာန်ရ။ ဒစးကျာမောဝ်ဇောဝ်အာဟွံမာန်ဆ္ဂး သၟူအမြာဲပရိယတ်ဂှ် လၟောဝ်အာသီုအလိုက်ကျာ သီုဒးစးကျာတုဲ မောဝ်ဇောဝ်အာ ပန်ဒိုဟ် ဒစာံဒိုဟ်မာန်ရ။ ဒၞဲါဝွံ မိက်သ္ဂောံဟီုဂး "မြမောဝ်ရာမညနိကာယပရိယတ္တိ" မဒှ်ရောၚ်၊ ရာမည- မည-မန် ဂှ် လဂွံကဵုမန်ရ။ နိကာယဂှ် ဂကောံဂိုဏ် မဒှ်ရ။ ပရိယတ္တိဂှ် ပၞောဝ်သာသနာပိတန် ပရိယတ္တိသာသနာမ္ဂးရ။ ရာမညနိကာယပရိယတ္တိ ပရိယတ္တိသာသနာ ဂကောံဂိုဏ်ရာမည။ ရာမည နိကာယပရိယတ္တိဝွံ ဗြီတိတ်ကၠုၚ် နူဂကောံရာမညဓမ္မာစရိယ မဒှ်ရ။ တၞဟ်နပရိယတ္တိ သာသနာ တၠီမၞုံကုပိုဉ်ကျာ်တြဲ သ္ဂောံတန်တဴအာ လုကဴကာလအဓာန်ဗွဲမလံလကာဖာဂှ် သၚ်ရာမညနိကာယလေဝ် နွံတာလျိုၚ်တုဲ တၞဟ်နတာလျိုၚ် ဂွံပြေအာ လ္တူသာသနာ သၚ်ရာမညနိကာယဂမၠိုၚ် တံၚ်တဲဗလဲပၞး စိုတ်သၟဟ်ဒှ်မွဲ ညံၚ်ခပေဲါဟွံဂွံပြး ခၟာဲဟွံဂွံထကး ကၠးစိုတ်ကၠိုဟ်စိုတ် ကေုာံ ရေၚ်သ္ကံတုဲ ရာမညနိကာယပရိယတ္တိဂှ် ဂံါကွာ်လုပ်ကၠုၚ် ပွိုၚ် ၂၅ သၞာံ သ္ဘၚ်သြန်ရတ်မဒှ်ရ။
==ကျာ်စေတဳ==
''လိက်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဗပေၚ်လိက်တုဲ မချူလဝ်ရ၊၊ ညးမတီပရူကွာန်ဝွံ ပလေဝ် ဗပေၚ်ချူညိ၊၊''
ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဝဝဝဝွံ ကျာ်စေတဳ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံ ၃ တၞုၚ်၊၊ ကျာ်လဒေါဝ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ကျာ် ကျာ်သြဳကွာန်တုဲ မၞိဟ်ကၠုၚ်ဗဵုလ္ၚောဝ်ဂၠိုၚ်အိုတ်ရ၊၊ ပါဲနူဂှ် ကျာ်စေတဳ ပ္ဍဲဘာလကျာ်လေဝ် နွံကီုရ၊၊
==ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ်==
''လိက်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဗပေၚ်လိက်တုဲ မချူလဝ်ရ၊၊ ညးမတီပရူကွာန်ဝွံ ပလေဝ် ဗပေၚ်ချူညိ၊၊''
အဓိက ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကွာန်ဝဝဝ ဝွံ ဒှ်ကမၠောန်ဗ္ၚ ကေုာံ တဵုတၞံခၜိုတ်ရဝ်ပါရ၊၊ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ ပရေၚ်ဗၞိက် စၞစသုၚ်တအ်လေဝ် နွံစ ညိညကီုရ၊၊
==ပရေၚ်ပညာ==
''လိက်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဗပေၚ်လိက်တုဲ မချူလဝ်ရ၊၊ ညးမတီပရူကွာန်ဝွံ ပလေဝ် ဗပေၚ်ချူညိ၊၊''
ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဝဝဝဝွံ နာဲဘာဗတောန်လိက်အလဵုအသဳ တန်သဇိုၚ်မူလ (၂) မတုဲ တန်လဒေါဝ် နွံမွဲရ၊၊
ပ္ဍဲဘာလကျာ်လေဝ် ဒှ်ဒတန် ဗ္တောန်လိက် သွက်ကောန်ၚာ်တအ်ကီုရ၊၊
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist}}
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]
{{ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်}}{{တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်}}
[[Category:ကဏ္ဍအဓိက!]]
[[Category:ဝၚ်ပထဝဳ]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:ကံဆုကၠ}}
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[[ဝှာင်:Paul Avril - Les Sonnetts Luxurieux (1892) de Pietro Aretino, 2.jpg|thumb|Sexual intercourse in the missionary position depicted by Édouard-Henri Avril (1892).]]
'''သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်''' ({{Lang-en|Sexual intercourse}}) ဂှ် ဗွဲဓမ္မတာ ဒှ်အရာမပၠုပ်စုတ် အင်္ဂဇာတ်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ မကြံင်စူဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵုအင်္ဂဇာတ်(ယောနိ) မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ သွက်ဂွံဒုင်စသိုင် ရှ်သာလိင်၊ ဂလိုင်ဗဳဇ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု သီုၜါပြကာ၊၊ <ref name="Most common">Sexual intercourse most commonly means penile–vaginal penetration for sexual pleasure and/or sexual reproduction; dictionary sources state that it especially means this, and scholarly sources over the years agree. See, for example;
*"[[mwod:sexual intercourse|Sexual intercourse]]" [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sexual%20intercourse Merriam-Webster] Retrieved May 2014.
* "[[Macmillandictionary.com|Sexual intercourse]]" [[macmillandictionary.com]]| Retrieved May 9, 2019.
* John Wiley & Sons, [https://books.google.com/books?id=_wXasY1HyAYC&pg=PA193 Handbook of Adolescent Psychology] 2004, pages = 193–196, Retrieved April 29, 2013 |isbn = 978-0471690443| "When researchers use the term ''sex'', they nearly always mean sexual intercourse – more specifically, penile–vaginal intercourse. [...] The widespread, unquestioned equation of penile–vaginal intercourse with sex reflects a failure to examine systematically 'whether the respondent's understanding of the question matches what the researcher had in mind."
*Fedwa Malti-Douglas (2007) Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: A-C. [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan Reference]] p. 308 |isbn = 978-0028659619| "Sexual intercourse. [T]he term coitus indicates a specific act of sexual intercourse that also is known as coition or copulation. This 'coming together' is generally understood in heteronormative terms as the penetration of a woman's vagina by a man's penis."
*Irving B. Weiner, W. Edward Craighead (2010) The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology [[John Wiley & Sons]] p. 1577, Retrieved August 21, 2013 "Human sexual intercourse, or coitus, is one of the most common sexual outlets among adults. Sexual intercourse generally refers to penile penetration of the vagina..."
* Clint E. Bruess, Elizabeth Schroeder (2013) Sexuality Education Theory and Practice, [[Jones & Bartlett Publishers]] p. 152 Retrieved December 5, 2014 |isbn = 978-1449649289| "Vaginal sex is defined as when a penis or sex toy is inserted into a vagina for pleasure. In many cultures around the world, vaginal sex is what is usually implied when people refer to 'having sex' or 'sexual intercourse.' It is the most frequently studied behavior and is often the focus of sexuality education programming for youth."
* Robert Hine (2015) A Dictionary of Biology| publisher = [[OUP Oxford]] p. 541–542, Retrieved December 27, 2017 |isbn = 978-0191059445| "Sexual intercourse (coitus; copulation; mating). The process by which spermatozoa from a male are deposited in the body of a female during sexual reproduction."
* Cecie Starr, Beverly McMillan (2015) Human Biology, [[Cengage Learning]] p. 339, Retrieved December 27, 2017 |isbn = 978-1305445949| "Coitus and copulation are both technical terms for sexual intercourse. The male sex act involves an erection, in which the limp penis stiffens and lengthens. It also involves ejaculation, the forceful expulsion of semen into the urethra and out from the penis. [...] During coitus, pelvic thrusts stimulate the penis as well as the female's clitoris and vaginal wall. The stimulation triggers rhythmic, involuntary contractions in smooth muscle in the male reproductive tract, especially the vas deferens and the prostate. The contractions rapidly force sperm out of each epididymis. They also force the contents of seminal vesicles and the prostate gland into the urethra. The resulting mixture, semen, is ejaculated into the vagina."</ref> ဆက်ဆောံယောနိ (ဝါ) သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် နကဵုယောနိ ('''vaginal intercourse''' or '''vaginal sex''')မဒှ် အရာမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ညးဗြဴၜါတၠ မပစုက် အင်္ဂဇာတ်ယောနိ ရေင်သကအ်လေဝ် နွံကီုရ၊၊ <ref name="Weiten, 2008">Wayne Weiten; Margaret A. Lloyd; Dana S. Dunn; Elizabeth Yost Hammer (2008) Psychology Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st Century, Cengage Learning, P. 422–423, Retrieved January 5, 2012 "Vaginal intercourse, known more technically as coitus, involves inserting the penis into the vagina and (typically) pelvic thrusting. ... The man-above, or "missionary," position is the most common [sex position]."</ref>
<ref name="Alters">Sandra Alters; Wendy Schiff (2012). ''Essential Concepts for Healthy Living''. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 180–181. ISBN <bdi>978-1449630621</bdi>. Retrieved August 31, 2013. "Most heterosexuals are familiar with the notion of 'having sex' or sexual intercourse as vaginal sex, the insertion of a penis into a vagina. Vaginal sex, or coitus, is the most common and popular form of intimate sexual activity between partners."</ref> အရာမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် တၞဟ်မွဲပၠန်ဂှ် ဒဒှ်မသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ဝစ္စလိင် (anal sex) မသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် မပၠုပ်စုတ် အင်္ဂဇာတ် မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ပ္ဍဲဝစ္စမဂ်၊ မွဲပၠန်ဂှ် မုက္ခလိင် (oral sex) မဒှ် မပၠုပ်စုတ် အင်္ဂဇာတ်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုပါင်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မကၠာန် အင်္ဂဇာတ် မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ၊ မွဲပၠန်ဂှ် လပုဟ်တဲ မပတုဲအာရီုစိုတ်ကာမ နကဵုလပုဟ်တဲ၊ မွဲပၠန်ဂှ် dildo မစကာ ကိရိယာမွဲမွဲ ဗွဲတၟေင် မကၠောန်လဝ် ရုပ်ကိရိယာ မတုပ် ကုအင်္ဂဇာတ်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်တုဲ မပၠုပ် စုတ် ပ္ဍဲအင်္ဂဇာတ်၊၊<ref name="health.discovery.com">"Sexual Intercourse". Discovery.com. Archived from the original on August 22, 2008. Retrieved January 12, 2008.</ref><ref name="Kar">Nilamadhab Kar; Gopal Chandra Kar (2005). ''Comprehensive Textbook of Sexual Medicine''. Jaypee Brothers Publishers. pp. 107–112. ISBN <bdi>978-8180614057</bdi>. Retrieved September 4, 2012.</ref><ref name="Rutter and Pepper">Virginia Rutter; Pepper Schwartz (2011). ''The Gender of Sexuality: Exploring Sexual Possibilities''. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 76. ISBN <bdi>978-0742570054</bdi>. Retrieved October 21, 2015.</ref> ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ပွမဇွိတ်သ္ပောတ်ကာယ မြဴတအ်ဏအ် သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မကၠောန်ပ နကဵုမၞိဟ်ၜါ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵုညးမွဲဓဝ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာဓမ္မတာ ပ္ဍဲသဘာဝကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် သွက်ဂွံဒုင်စသိုင် အာရီုကာမဂုဏ်တုဲ သီုဒှ် အရာမပကဵု ညံင်ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် မဂွံမံင် နကဵုဂကောံ (ဝါ) မဆက်စၠောအ် ညံင်ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် မဂွံမံင် နကဵုဂကောံရ၊၊<ref name=health.discovery.com/><ref name="Freberg">Laura Freberg (2009). ''Discovering Biological Psychology''. Cengage Learning. pp. 308–310. ISBN <bdi>978-0547177793</bdi>. Retrieved January 9, 2016.</ref>
စပ်ကဵု မသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် (ဝါ) ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် မဆေင်ကဵုလိင် နကဵုဗီုပြင်နာနာသာ်တအ်ဂှ် ညးမွဲကုမွဲ လညာတ် ဟွံတုပ်ရေင်သကအ်ရ၊၊ ညးလ္ၚဵု ရံင်နကဵုလညာတ် အခိုက်ကၞာ ပရေင်ဘာသာ၊ ညးလ္ၚဵု မရံင် နကဵု ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်တုဲ လညာတ်တၞဟ်ခြာ ရေင်သကအ်အိုတ်ရ၊၊ <ref name="WHO, Sex">"Defining sexual health: Report of a technical consultation on sexual health" (PDF). World Health Organization. January 2002. p. 4. Retrieved September 5, 2012. <q>In English, the term 'sex' is often used to mean 'sexual activity' and can cover a range of behaviours. Other languages and cultures use different terms, with slightly different meanings.</q></ref> လညာတ်ဗီုလဵုနွံနွံ မစပ်ကဵု နကဵုနဲ မသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် အင်္ဂဇာတ်ၝောအ် ကဵု အင်္ဂဇာတ်ကၟက်ဟေင် နွံကဵု ပရေင်မဂလိုင်ဗဳဇရ၊၊<ref name="Most common"/> ပ္ဍဲကဵုခေတ်ဗွဲကြဴဏအ် မုက္ခလိင် ကဵု ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် အင်္ဂဇာတ်-ဝစ္စမဂ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ကၠုင် အရာဓမ္မတာမွဲကီုရ၊၊<ref name="Oral and anal">
*Sexual Intercourse, Discovery Channel Archived from the original on August 22, 2008. Retrieved January 12, 2008.
*Nilamadhab Kar, Gopal Chandra Kar (2005) Comprehensive Textbook of Sexual Medicine. Jaypee Brothers Publisheer. pp. 107-112.| isbn = 978-8180614057| Retrived September 4, 2012.
*Nancy W. Denney, David Quadagno (2008). Human Sexuality [[Mosby (imprint)|Mosby-Year Book]] p. 273|isbn = 978-0801663741| "Although the term intercourse is usually used to refer to the insertion of the penis into the vagina, it is also used to refer to oral intercourse or anal intercourse in which the penis is inserted into the mouth or the anus, respectively."</ref>ပရေင်သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် မသက္ကုစုတ်ပၠုပ် လိင်ၝောအ်ကၟက် (non-penetrative sex) တအ်လေဝ် ပါလုပ် အဝေါင် ပ္ဍဲအရာမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ကီုရ၊၊<ref name="Non-penetrative">
* Ann O'Leary (2002) Beyond Condoms: Alternative Approaches to HIV Prevention. Springer. P. 155. isbn = 978-0306467318| Retrieved August 21, 2013
* Paula Kamen (2000) Her Way: Young Women Remake the Sexual Revolution | isbn = 978-0814747339| publisher = [[New York University Press]]| year = 2000|p. 74–77, Retrieved September 5, 2012
* Jerry D. Durham; Felissa R. Lashley (2000). The PersonWith HIV/AIDS: Nursing Perspectives (3rd ed.). Springer Publishing Company. p. 103. |isbn = 978-8122300048| Retrieved January 29, 2012.</ref><ref name=health.discovery.com/><ref name="Kahn, Fawcett">Ada P. Kahn; Jan Fawcett (2008). ''The Encyclopedia of Mental Health''. Infobase Publishing. p. 111. ISBN <bdi>978-0816064540</bdi>. Retrieved September 5, 2012.</ref> ပ္ဍဲကဵုအရေဝ်အင်္ဂလိက် မခ္ဍန်ဟီု ''Sex'' (လိင်) ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မရန်တၟအ်ဟီု ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ကေုာံ သွိုန်ဗပိုန် ဓဝ်မေထုန် (ဝါ) ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် မဆေင်ကဵု အရာမဒုင်စသိုင် အာရီုကာမ မဆေင်ကဵုလိင်ရ၊၊<ref name="WHO, Sex"/> ဟိုတ်နူပရေင်သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်တုဲ ယဲကၠောအ်မာန်ဂှ်ရ <ref name="Who">"Global strategy for the prevention and control of sexually transmitted infections: 2006–2015. Breaking the chain of transmission" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2007. Retrieved November 26, 2011.</ref><ref name="CDC">Also see Fact Sheet</ref>ပရေင်သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ညံင်ဂွံနွံကဵု ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီုဂှ် ကဵုကၠုင်ဓဝ်သတိအိုတ်ရ၊၊<ref name="Who"/> စတမ်နူ ပရေင်သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် မသက္ကုစုတ်ပၠုပ် လိင်ၝောအ်ကၟက် တုဲ အန္တရာယ် ယဲမကၠောအ်တအ်လေဝ် အောန်စှ်ေအာကီုရ၊၊<ref name="Hales">Dianne Hales (2008). ''An Invitation to Health Brief 2010–2011''. Cengage Learning. pp. 269–271. ISBN <bdi>978-0495391920</bdi>. Retrieved August 29, 2013</ref><ref name="Kumar">Bhushan Kumar; Somesh Gupta (2014). ''Sexually Transmitted Infections''. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN <bdi>978-8131229781</bdi>.</ref>
မဆေင်စပ်ကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်လိင်တုဲ ဗွဲမဗဗွဲကဵုဍုင်ညးဂှ် ပတိတ်လဝ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မစဵုဒၞာ ပ္ဍဲအရာ မပ္တံကဵု ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ပ္ဍဲမၞိဟ်မွဲသ္ၚိကၟိန် (incest)၊ ပွမချဳဓရာင်လိင် ကုကောန်ၚာ်သၟတ်၊ ပွမသွံရာန်လိင် (ဗြဴစရာဲဍုင်)၊ ပွမရပ်ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာ၊ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ကဵုတိရစ္ဆာန် (zoophilia)၊ မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ကုတိရစ္ဆာန် (sodomy)၊ ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဖျေဟ်ဒၞာဲ (premarital) ကေုာံ ပွမကၠတ်စ ကုညးမွဲသအာင် (extramarital sex)တအ် ဒှ်တမ်ရ၊၊ မစပ်ကဵု ပရေင်သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ဝွံတုဲ နကဵုပရေင်ဘာသာလေဝ် ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ဗီုလဵု ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာလဵုမ္ဂး ဒုင်တဲတအ်ဂှ် နွံကီုရ၊၊<ref name="Carpenter">See page 11 onwards and pages 47–49 for views on what constitutes virginity loss and therefore sexual intercourse or other sexual activity; source discusses how gay and lesbian individuals define virginity loss, and how the majority of researchers and heterosexuals define virginity loss/"technical virginity" by whether or not a person has engaged in penile–vaginal sex.</ref> <ref name="Intimate">Bryan Strong; Christine DeVault; Theodore F. Cohen (2010). ''The Marriage and Family Experience: Intimate Relationship in a Changing Society''. Cengage Learning. p. 186. ISBN <bdi>978-0-534-62425-5</bdi>. Retrieved October 8, 2011. "Most people agree that we maintain virginity as long as we refrain from sexual (vaginal) intercourse. But occasionally we hear people speak of 'technical virginity' [...] Data indicate that 'a very significant proportion of teens ha[ve] had experience with oral sex, even if they haven't had sexual intercourse, and may think of themselves as virgins' [...] Other research, especially research looking into virginity loss, reports that 35% of virgins, defined as people who have never engaged in vaginal intercourse, have nonetheless engaged in one or more other forms of heterosexual sexual activity (e.g., oral sex, anal sex, or mutual masturbation)".</ref> နကဵုလညာတ်ဘာသာ မဆေင်စပ်ကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံဝွံတုဲ မွဲဘာသာကဵု မွဲဘာသာ ဟွံတုပ်ရေင်သကအ်ရ၊၊ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ဘာသာတုပ် ဂိုဏ်ဟွံတုပ်လေဝ် ပံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဒုင်ဂိုင်ကေတ် မစပ်ကဵု လိင်ဏအ် ဟွံတုပ်ရေင်သကအ်ရ၊၊ ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် ပွမကၠတ်စ တြုဟ်ဗြဴညးတၞဟ်ဂှ် ဘာသာသီုဖအိုတ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵုလဝ်ရ၊၊
ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် သွက်ဂွံဂလိုင်မ ပ္ဍဲကောန်မၞိဟ်ဟွံသေင်တအ်ဂှ် ညးကော်စ ဖျေဟ်မ (copulation) တုဲ ဍာ်သုက်ကၟက်ဂှ် ထပက်စုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠံင်ယောနိတိရစ္ဆာန်တုဲ ဖျေဟ်မဂှ် ဒှ်နဲခေတ်တၟိရ၊၊ တိရစ္ဆာန်မမဴတှ်တအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ပရေင်ဂလိုင်မ ကတဵုဒှ် နကဵုလၟေင်ရာသဳတုဲ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ရာသဳ မဖျေဟ်ကၠေင်ဟေင် ကလိဂွံအံင်ဇၞးမာန်ရ၊၊<ref name="Kent">Michael Kent (2000). ''Advanced biology''. Oxford University Press. pp. 250–253. ISBN <bdi>978-0199141951</bdi>. Retrieved October 21, 2015</ref><ref name="Thorpe">Showick Thorpe; Edgar Thorpe (2009). ''The Pearson General Studies Manual 2009, 1/e''. Pearson Education India. p. 1.79. ISBN <bdi>978-8131721339</bdi>. Retrieved October 21, 2015.</ref>
တိရစ္ဆာန် မပ္တံကဵု ကၞုဲဗဝ်နဝ်ဗဝ် (bonobo)၊ ဒဝ်ပေန် (dolphin) ကေုာံ ကၞုဲချိမ်ပေန်သဳ တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံမဲကဵု ပရေင်အပိုင်အခြာ မသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် အကြာၝောအ်ကဵုကၟက်တုဲ ဍေဟ်တအ် မလေပ်သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် မံင်ဘဝသ္ၚိကၟိန် ကုလိင်မတုပ်၊ ကၟက်ကဵုကၟက် ၝောအ်ကဵုၝောအ်လေဝ် နွံကီုရ၊၊<ref name="Non-human">
* Diamond (1991) The Rise and Fall of the Third Chimpanzee pages 360 pages isbn 978-0091742683
* Bruce, Bagemihl (1999) Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity, pages= 768 pages isbn 978-1466809277
* Bailey NW, Zuk M (August 2009) Same-sex sexual behavior and evolution, Trends Ecol. Evol. 24 (8): 439-46. doi: </ref> တိရစ္ဆာန်တအ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ညံင်ရဴမၞိဟ်ကီု ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ဂှ် နကဵုမရန်တၟအ် မဂလိုင်မ ဟွံသေင်၊ နကဵုမဒုင်စသိုင်ကာမဂုဏ် မဆေင်ကဵုလိင်ကီုရ၊၊<ref name="Diamond">Balcombe, Jonathan (2006). ''Pleasurable Kingdom: Animals and the Nature of Feeling Good''. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 106–118. ISBN 978-0230552272. Retrieved October 21, 2015</ref> ညံင်ရဴမၞိဟ်တအ် မၞုံပၟိက် မဒုင်စသိုင် ကာမဂုဏ်ကီု၊ တိရစ္ဆာန်တအ်ဏအ်လေဝ် နွံပၟိက်ကီုတုဲ<ref name="Balcombe"> Balcombe, Jonathan (2006). ''Pleasurable Kingdom: Animals and the Nature of Feeling Good''. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 106–118. ISBN <bdi>978-0230552272</bdi>. Retrieved October 21, 2015</ref>ပရေင်သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ဂှ် ဗဒှ်ကဵု ကောံကလောအ် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်ဍေဟ်တအ် မဂွံမံင် နကဵုဂကောံ နကဵုက္ဍိုပ်ကီုရ၊၊ <ref name="Diamond"># Diamond, Jared (1991). ''The Rise and Fall of the Third Chimpanzee''. Radius. pp. 360 pages. ISBN <bdi>978-0091742683</bdi>. Retrieved October 21, 2015.</ref>
==ပဋိပတ် Behaviors==
===ပွံက်===
[[ဝှာင်:Deveria04.jpg|thumb|ရုပ်ကသူ-၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ပွံင် မဆက်ဆောံလိင်ယောနိ၊ နကဵုအစာကသူ Achille Devéria]]
[[ဝှာင်:Édouard-Henri Avril (18).jpg|thumb|ရုပ်ကသူ-၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဗီုဨကရာဇ်ရဝ်မ Hadrian ကေုာံ Antinous မသွိုင်ဗပိုန် ဝစ္စလိင်၊ နကဵု အစာကသူ Édouard-Henri Avril]]
သိပ်ဂၠိပ် မေထုန်ဂှ် နကဵုပြယာဲအရေဝ် နွံနာနာသာ်ရ၊၊ "ဆက်ဆောံလိင်"၊ "ပညးကအ်"၊ "တိက်မွဲစွံ"၊ "အာကၠုင်ညးကအ်" "တိက်ညးကအ်" နကဵုအရေဝ် "တံက်ညးကအ်"ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဝေါဟာမၞိဟ်မန်မ္ဂး စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် အရေဝ်မရိုင်ဇိုင်မွဲရ၊၊ ညံင်ရဴ မန်ကီု ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကူတၞဟ် ဗီုကဵုအင်္ဂလိက်လေဝ် ဟီုဗီုအင်္ဂလိက်တပ်ပ်မ္ဂး ဒှ်ဒၟံင် ညံင်ဟွံမဲကဵု ယေန်သၞာင်တုဲ စၞးဂှ် စကာဗီုအရေဝ်လေတ်တေန် ဥပမာ Coitus မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် အာကၠုင်မွဲစွံ၊ ပံင်မွဲစွံ ရ၊၊
အရာလဵု မဒှ်အရာသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဝေါဟာဂကောံမၞိဟ် မွဲကုမွဲ ဟွံတုပ် ရေင်သကအ်ရ၊၊ ဝေါဟာမၞိဟ်မန်ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မွဲစွံ ကုဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာဂှ် ကလိဂွံ နူကဵု ဝေါဟာမၞိဟ် အိန္ဒိယ ကေုာံ သဳရိလင်္ကာ နွံတၟာဂလိုင်ရ၊၊ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ မိက်ဂွံတီ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဝေါဟာမန်မ္ဂး ဒးရံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဒ္ဂေတ်ဝိနယ်ခမဳဂမၠိုင်ရ။ အတိုင်ဒ္ဂေတ်ဝိနဲမ္ဂး ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ဝွံ ပါလုပ်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒုဟ်ဇၞော်အိုတ် (ဝါ) ဒုဟ်ပရာဇိကတုဲ စပ်ကဵု သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ဝွံလေဝ် အရာလဵု မဒှ်သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ဂှ် ညးပံက်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ်ကၠးကၠးဂှ် ပွမပၠုပ်စုတ် အင်္ဂဇာတ်ဇကု ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပထောင်ပါင်၊ သိုင်အိက် မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်ကီု၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပထောင်ပါင်၊ သိုင်အိက်၊ ယောနိ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴကီု၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵုတိရစ္ဆာန်ဂမၠိုင် နူဇၞော် စဵုကဵုဍောတ် မပိုင်ခြာလဝ် ဍောတ်တၟာ သတ်ဇိုင်ပန်မ္ဂး ဗ္ဂဲ၊ သတ်ဇိုင်ၜါမ္ဂး စာင်၊ သတ်ဇိုင်ဟွံမဲမ္ဂး ဇြုံ၊ က တအ်ကီု ယဝ်ရ ခမဳဂှ် ပၠုပ်စုတ်ဒး လိင်အင်္ဂဇကု ဂလိုင်တၟာမလ္ၚဴကီုမ္ဂး ခမဳဂှ် ကလိလောန် ဒုဟ်ပါရာဇိကရ၊၊ ရံင်ကဵု ပိုဒ်ဏအ်တုဲ သိပ်ဂၠိပ် မေထုန် ပ္ဍဲဝေါဟာမၞိဟ်မန်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မဆက်ဆောံ အကြာ အင်္ဂဇာတ်ကဵုယောနိ သၟးဟွံသေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝစ္စမဂ်၊ မုခမဂ်လေဝ်ကီု သီုကဵု အကြာမၞိဟ် ကဵု တိရစ္ဆာန်လေဝ် ပါလုပ်လၟိဟ်၊ ပံက်လဝ် ပွံက်မေထုန်ကီုရ၊၊
===ဓလိုက်ကတဵု===
ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပွမချဳဓရာင် မဆေင်ကဵုလိင်တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကုပရေင်ဓလိုက်ကတဵုလိင် နကဵုဓလိုက်ကတဵုစိုတ် ကေုာံ ဓလိုက်ကတဵု မဆေင်ကဵုအဝဲကာယ ကေုာံ ဗီုပြင်မဆက်ဆောံ နကဵုအခိုက်ဗီုလဵု ကေုာံ နကဵုကိရိယာလိင်တအ်ရ၊၊<ref name="Weiten, 2008"/><ref name="Kar"/><ref name="Taormino">Taormino, Tristan (2009). ''The Big Book of Sex Toys''. Quiver. p. 52. ISBN <bdi>978-1-59233-355-4</bdi>. Retrieved June 9, 2014.</ref> အရာမစ (Foreplay)ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မပကဵု ညံင်ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် မဆေင်ကဵုလိင် ဂွံဆက်ကတဵုဒှ်ရ၊၊ ဗွဲဓမ္မတာမ္ဂး ပရေင်တံင်ဂြဲစိုတ် (ဝါ) ပရေင်သၞေဟ်သၞဴ မဆေင်ကဵုလိင် (sexual arousal) ညးၜါဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင်အင်္ဂဇာတ် မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ဂွံကြံင်စူ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပကဵုညံင် အင်္ဂဇာတ် ဂွံခလိန်ရ၊၊ နကဵုအရေဝ်အရာပ်မန်ကၠးကၠးမ္ဂး "အုင်" ရ။<ref name="Weiten, 2011">Wayne Weiten; Dana S. Dunn; Elizabeth Yost Hammer (2011). Psychologogy Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st Century. Cengage Learning. PP. 384-386. ISBN 978-1-111-18663-0. Petrieved January 5, 2012. </ref>တုဲပၠန် သွက်ကောန်မၞိဟ်မ္ဂး ပွမဂွံဒုင် ခၜေတ်ပါင်၊ ဇွိတ်သ္ပောတ် နကဵုကာမဂုဏ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မဂွံရပ် နကဵုဗီုမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မပကဵု ညံင်ဒုင်စသိုင် ပေင်ပၟိက်စိုတ် မဆေင်ကဵုလိင်/မေထုန်ရ၊၊<ref name="Alters2">Sandra Alters; Wendy Schiff (2011). ''Essential Concepts for Healthy Living Update''. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 154. ISBN <bdi>978-1449653743</bdi>. Retrieved December 9, 2014.</ref>
[[ဝှာင်:Édouard-Henri Avril (14).jpg|thumb|left|Édouard-Henri Avril ဓဇက်လဝ် ဗီုမၞိဟ်ဗြဴ မနွံလတူ၊ မဒှ်ဗီုပြင် မၞိဟ်ဗြဴမကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ဓလိုက်ကတဵုဂၠိုင်အိုတ်၊၊<ref name="Roberts">Keath Roberts (2006). ''Sex''. Lotus Press. p. 145. ISBN <bdi>978-8189093594</bdi>. Retrieved August 17, 2012</ref>]]
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သတ်မမဴတှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ခန္ဓကာယ အဝဲလစှ်ေ မဆေင်ကဵု ဂလိုင်မကီု သီုကဵု သၞောတ်အာရီုဂမၠိုင်ဂှ် ဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် နကဵုမဗက်မေထုန် အကြာလိင်တၞဟ်ခြာတအ်ရ၊၊ ပရေင်မဗက်မေထုန် မပ္တံကဵု ဒဒှ်အင်္ဂဇာတ် မကြံင်စူ၊ အင်္ဂဇာတ်မခလိန်၊ အာရီုကာမ၊ မချဳဓရာင်ကာမတအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဒှ်အရာသဘာဝ မပါကၠုင်နူဂဝ်ရ၊၊ ပရေင်မဗက်မေထုန်တအ်ဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင်ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဓါတ်ဟောရ်မောန်ရ၊၊ <ref name="Plant">Plant T., Zeleznik A. (2015). Knobil and Neill's Physiology of Reproduction. Academic Press, 4th edition.</ref> ပ္ဍဲသတ် ဂကောံဗဳဇဟောမိနိဒဳယျာ (hominidae) သီုကဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်ဂှ် အဝဲလစှ်ေဇဳဝဗေဒ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် မဒှ်အရာ မထိင်ပကင်ရင် အရာမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ဂှ် ပြုပြင်ပလေဝ်လဝ်ရ၊၊<ref name="wunsch2017">Wunsch S. (2017) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312407857_Phylogenesis_of_mammal_sexuality_Analysis_of_the_evolution_of_proximal_factors Phylogenesis of mammal sexuality. Analysis of the evolution of proximal factors]. ''Sexologies'', 26(1):e1-e10.</ref>အရာမပြံင်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု မထိင် ပကင်ရင် သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ပ္ဍဲကဵုအာရီုဇဳဝဗေဒဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဂကောံဗဳဇဟောမိနိဒဳယျာ ၝောအ်ရ၊၊ ၝောအ် ဂကူပရာဲမိတ် ဟွံသေင်တအ် (Non-primate females)ဂှ် ဗက်မေထုန် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်မဖျေဟ်ခၟာဲဟေင်ရ၊၊<ref name="Pfaus2015"/> ဆဂး သွက်မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်ဂှ် သိပ်ဂၠိပ်ဂွံဒၟံင် ဇၟာပ်အခိင်ရ၊၊<ref name="Reis"/><ref name="Dixson2012">Dixson A.F. (2012) [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/primate-sexuality-9780199676613?cc=fr&lang=en& ''Primate sexuality: Comparative studies of the Prosimians, Monkeys, Apes, and Human Beings.''] Oxford University Press, 2nd edition.</ref>အရာတၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာတိရစ္ဆာန် ကဵု မၞိဟ်မွဲပၠန်ဂှ် သွက်တိရစ္ဆာန်ၝောအ်တအ်ဂှ် ဍေဟ်ဒုင်မံင်သၟဝ်တုဲ သီုဟွံဒးပချဳကာယဇကုမွဲသာ် အရီုကာမ ကလိဂွံဍိုက်ပေင်ကီုလေဝ် သွက်မၞိဟ်ဗြဴမ္ဂး ပွမဒုင်မံင်သၟဝ်ကၠးကၠး ဟွံချဳဓရာင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင်လိင်ဂှ် ဟွံကလိဂွံ ဒုင်စသိုင်ပေင်င်ရ၊၊<ref name="Pfaus2015">Pfaus J.G., Flanagan-Cato L.M., Blaustein J.D. (2015) Female sexual behavior. in Plant T., Zeleznik A. (Eds). Knobil and Neill's Physiology of Reproduction. Academic Press, 4th edition</ref>
ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလမဆက်ဆောံဒၟံင်ဂှ်မ္ဂး ဂၞိင်သီုညးၜါဂှ် ချဳဓရာင်ကၠုင်တုဲ အင်္ဂဇာတ်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်ဂှ် ချဳဂတကြဴ ပ္ဍဲယောနိဂှ်တုဲ ဖန်ကဵု သီုညးၜါ ဂွံကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ဓလိုက်ကတဵု စဵုကဵု ကလိဂွံအဝ်ဂေတ်သမာ (ဝါ) ဍာ်တိတ်ရ၊၊
===ပွမဂလိုင်မ===
[[ဝှာင်:Pregnancy chance by day near ovulation.jpg|thumb|Chance of [[human fertilization|fertilization]] by [[menstrual cycle]] day relative to ovulation.<ref name="DunsonBaird1999">Dunson, D.B.; Baird, D.D.; Wilcox, A.J.; Weinberg, C.R. (1999). "Day-specific probabilities of clinical pregnancy based on two studies with imperfect measures of ovulation". Human Reproduction. 14 (7): 1835–1839.</ref>]]
ပွမဂလိုင်မ နကဵုကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် ဗွဲသဘာဝဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် နကဵုပွမဆက်စၠောအ် အင်္ဂဇာတ်တြုဟ်-ယောနိဇာတ်ဗြဴ<ref name="Evan Jones">Richard Evan Jones; Kristin H. López (2006). ''Human Reproductive Biology''. [[Academic Press]]. pp. 604 pages. [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0120884650|<bdi>978-0120884650</bdi>]]. Retrieved November 8,2012.</ref> ပ္ဍဲအခိင် မၞိဟ်ဗြဴဂှ် မနွံကဵုခၟာဲ (ဝါ) ခၟာဲမစှ်ေဂှ် နူကဵု မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် နကဵုဍာ်သုက် မၞုံကဵုကလာပ်ရုပ် ကောန်သုက် (sperm) နူကဵုအင်္ဂဇာတ်တြုဟ်ဂှ် ပၠုပ်စုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုယောနိမၞိဟ်ဗြဴရ၊၊ ဂၠံင် ကောန်သုက် နူကဵု ခၠိုင်ယောနိဂှ် လုပ်အာ စဵုကဵုစိုပ်သ္ၚိကောန်၊၊ ပ္ဍဲမွဲအခိင် မဆက်စၠောအ်အင်္ဂဇာတ်ဂှ် ကောန်သုက် နွံမဂၠိုင်ကဵုပြကောဋိကိုဋ်ဂှ် ဆ ကောန်သုက်မွဲဟေင် ဂွံလုပ်ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခၟာဲမွဲမဂှ်ရ၊၊ ကောန်သုက် လုပ်စိုပ် အပ္ဍဲ ခၟာဲဂှ်တုဲ ဒှ်တိုန်ဇဝ်ကၟဝ်မ္ဂး ခၟာဲဂှ်အံင်တုဲ ဗဒှ်ပတိုန် အသုဇိတၟိရ။ အခိင်ကာလ ဇဝ်ကၟဝ်ဂှ် စိုပ်သ္ၚိကောန်မ္ဂး ဇဝ်ကၟဝ်ဂှ် အာတောဲဗာန်အာ ကုသ္ၚိကောန်မ္ဂး စတန် ပဋိသန္ဓိ ရ။<ref name="Evan Jones"/><ref name="Starr3">{{cite book| author = Cecie Starr|author2= Beverly McMillan|title = Human Biology| publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] | year = 2015 | page = 339| accessdate = December 27, 2017 |isbn = 978-1305445949| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=lS5-BAAAQBAJ&pg=PT339}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ လၟေင်ဆီဥတု နူ ကိုပ်ကၠာခၟာဲဟွံစှ်ေ မသုန်တ္ၚဲ ကဵု ခၟာဲစှ်ေတုဲ စဵုကဵု ၁ ကဵု ၂ တ္ၚဲဂှ် ယဝ်ရဆက်ဆောံလိင်မ္ဂး အခေါင်မကလိဂွံ တန်ပဋိသန္ဓိ နွံဂၠိုင်ရ။<ref>Pages.242,374 in: {{cite book|title=Taking Charge of Your Fertility|url=https://archive.org/details/takingchargeofyo00toni|url-access=registration|last=Weschler|first=Toni|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2002|isbn=978-0-06-093764-5|edition=Revised|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/takingchargeofyo00toni/page/359 359–361]}}</ref> ယဝ်ရ မိက်ဂွံကောန်ဇာတ်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ မပိုင်ခြာလဝ် မကလိဂွံ ပဋိသန္ဓိမာန်ဂှ် ဇၟာပ်တ္ၚဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇၟာပ်ၜါတ္ၚဲမွဲအလန် ဆက်ဆောံလိင်မ္ဂး အခေါင်မကလိဂွံ ပဋိသန္ဓိဂှ် နွံဂၠိုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/getting-pregnant/in-depth/how-to-get-pregnant/art-20047611|title=How to get pregnant|website=[[Mayo Clinic]]|date=2016-11-02|accessdate=2018-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg156/ifp/chapter/trying-for-a-baby|title=Fertility problems: assessment and treatment, Clinical guideline [CG156]|website=[[National Institute for Health and Care Excellence]]|accessdate=2018-02-16}} Published date: February 2013. Last updated: September 2017</ref> အခိင်ကာလ မပိုင်ခြာလဝ် မကလိဂွံ ပဋိသန္ဓိမာန်ဂှ် ဒးရိုဟ်တော်ကေတ် ဗီုဏအ်ရ။ ဗွဲဓမ္မတာ လၟေင်ဆီဥတု ညးဗြဴဂှ် နွံ အကြာ ၂၆-၂၈ တ္ၚဲ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တ္ၚဲတအ်ဂှ် ပါ်ထောအ် ပိကာလ၊ ကာလဆီကျာ၊ ကာလဖျေဟ်ခၟာဲ၊ ကာလမပြဟ်လလုဲ၊ ကာလဆီကျာဂှ် စနူ တ္ၚဲပထမ ဆီကျာစကၠုင်။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နွံပွိုင် ၇ တ္ၚဲ၊ အခိင်ကာလဖျေဟ်ခၟာဲဂှ် ဒှ်အခိင် မပလေဝ်စ သွက်ဂွံကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ခၟာဲတၟိ၊ ပလေဝ်စ ဒၞာဲသ္ၚိကောန် သွက်ခၟာဲမံင်ဒှ်တမ်ရ။ ကာလဏအ်ဂှ် နူတ္ၚဲဆီကျာစစှ်ေတုဲ ၈ တ္ၚဲ စဵုကဵု ၂၀ တ္ၚဲ။ တ္ၚဲသှ်ေဒၟံင် ၈ တ္ၚဲပၠန်ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူဟွံတန်ဂဝ်ဂၞဴတုဲ ခၟာဲတအ်သရိုဟ်စှ်ေရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ စနူတ္ၚဲ ဆီကျာမစကၠုင်ဂှ် ရိုဟ်အာတ္ၚဲတုဲ ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲမရနုက်ကဵု ၜိုတ် ၁၄ ဂှ်မ္ဂး ခၟာဲစှ်ေ ဒုင်တဲ ကောန်သုက်ရ။ ခၟာဲစှ်ေတုဲ ခၟာဲဂှ် မံင်ပွိုင် ၂၄ နာဍဳဟေင်ရ။ လအ်နူဂှ် ဇဝ်ကၟဝ် ဟွံဒှ်ရ။ ကောန်သုက် နူမၞိဟ်တြုဟ်ဂှ် ဂျိုင်တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သ္ၚိကောန်မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ အကြာ ၃-၅ တ္ၚဲမာန်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ယဝ်ရ မိက်ဂွံတန်ပဋိသန္ဓိမ္ဂး ဒးဆက်ဆောံလိင် နူစတ္ၚဲ မရနုက်ကဵု ၁၃ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ၁၄ စနူ တ္ၚဲဆီကျာမစကၠုင် ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမိက်ဂွံ ကောန်ဇာတ်ဏီမ္ဂး ဒးဝေင်ပါဲ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ အကြာတအ်ဂှ်ရ။ နကဵုဗီုပြင်ဗီုလဵု ဆက်ဆောံလိင်မ္ဂး ကလိဂွံ ပဋိသန္ဓိမာန်ဂၠိုင် ဟွံမဲ၊ ယဝ်ရ ဍာ်သုက်ဂှ် စရိုဟ်ပၠုပ်စုတ် ပ္ဍဲယောနိရမ္ဂး အခေါင်မကလိဂွံ ပဋိသန္ဓိဂှ် နွံတုပ်ပ်ရေင်သကအ်ရ။<ref name=americanpregnancy>{{cite web|url=http://americanpregnancy.org/getting-pregnant-ebook/p7M7O0q1c71703C/gettingpregnant.pdf|title=The Essential Guide to Getting Pregnant|website=American Pregnancy Association|author=Dr. Philip B. Imler & David Wilbanks|accessdate=2020-02-22|archivedate=2018-06-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180601033115/http://americanpregnancy.org/getting-pregnant-ebook/p7M7O0q1c71703C/gettingpregnant.pdf}}</ref>
===လိင်သက္ကုဘဲ ကေုာံ ထိင်ဒဝ် သၠးဂၠံဂဝ်===
လိင် မကဵုဘဲ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒးကၠိုဟ်လဝ် နွံၜါသာ်ရ။ မွဲဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဆက်ဆောံလိင်တုဲ ယဲကၠောအ်ကၞာန် ရေင်သကအ်ဂှ် မွဲ၊ မွဲပၠန်ဂှ် သီုဟွံမဲပၟိက်မွဲသာ် ဆက်ဆောံလိင်တုဲ တန်အာ ပဋိသန္ဓိ။ သီုၜါဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ လိင်မကဵုဘဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟွံဒှ် လိင်သက္ကုဘဲရ။ နဲကဲဆက်ဆောံ လိင်သက္ကုဘဲ အကြာ လိင်တၞဟ်ခြာကီု သီုကဵု အကြာလိင်တုပ် သီုကဵု နဲကဲချဳဓရာင်လိင်တၞဟ်တအ်ဂှ် နွံနာနာသာ်ရ။ <ref name="Kumar"/><ref name="Durham">{{cite book|title=The Person With HIV/AIDS: Nursing Perspectives|edition=3rd|isbn = 978-8122300048|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer Publishing Company]]|year=2000|page=103|accessdate=January 29, 2012|url=https://books.google.com/?id=WSCQ4L8kSXsC&pg=PA103|author1=Jerry D. Durham |author2=Felissa R. Lashley }}</ref>မဆက်ဆောံလိင် အကြာ လိင်တၞဟ် လ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် တၞဟ်န ဝေင်ပါဲ ပဋိသန္ဓိတုဲ စကာ မုက္ခလိင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဝစ္စလိင် (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သီုၜါ)ရ။<ref name="Crooks">{{cite book | title = Our Sexuality | publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] | year = 2010 | pages = 286–289 | accessdate = August 30, 2012 |isbn = 978-0495812944| url = https://books.google.com/?id=MpRnPtmdRVwC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286|quote=Noncoital forms of sexual intimacy, which have been called outercourse, can be a viable form of birth control. Outercourse includes all avenues of sexual intimacy other than penile–vaginal intercourse, including kissing, touching, mutual masturbation, and oral and anal sex. |author1=Robert Crooks |author2=Karla Baur }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Feldmann J, Middleman AB | title = Adolescent sexuality and sexual behavior | journal = Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | pages = 489–493 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12401976 | doi=10.1097/00001703-200210000-00008}}</ref> ဆဂး ၜိုန်ရ စကာ နကဵုလိင်တအ်ဏအ်ကီုလေဝ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဍာ်သုက်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်ဂှ် ကရိုဟ်ပၠဳ ဗဒါဲယောနိ ညးဗြဴဂှ်တုဲ ကောန်သုက် ညးတြုဟ်ဂှ် လုပ်စိုပ်အာ ပ္ဍဲယောနိမာန်တုဲ တန်ပဋိသန္ဓိ မာန်ဒၟံင်ဏီရ။ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵုတဲ မဍုက်ဍေက်ဒၟံင် ကုဍာ်သုက်ဂှ် အာလုက်ဒး ယောနိမ္ဂး တန်ပဋိသန္ဓိမာန်ဏီကီုရ။<ref>{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=R. Murray|title=Sex and the American teenager seeing through the myths and confronting the issues|year=2009|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield|Rowman & Littlefield Education]]|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=9781607090182|page=81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gM9EFgsJHyoC&pg=PA81|accessdate=October 21, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Edlin|first=Gordon|title=Health & Wellness.|year=2012|publisher=[[Jones & Bartlett Learning]]|isbn=9781449636470|page=213|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=csGk6j5rlN0C&pg=PA213|accessdate=October 21, 2015}}</ref>
လိင်သက္ကုဘဲဂှ် ဒှ်အရာကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန်ကၠေအ် ပရေင်ဓဝိင်စိုတ်တအ်<ref name="Mercer">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Chin HB, Sipe TA, Elder R, Mercer SL, Chattopadhyay SK, Jacob V, Wethington HR, Kirby D, Elliston DB, Griffith M, Chuke SO, Briss SC, Ericksen I, Galbraith JS, Herbst JH, Johnson RL, Kraft JM, Noar SM, Romero LM, Santelli J | title = The Effectiveness of Group-Based Comprehensive Risk-Reduction and Abstinence Education Interventions to Prevent or Reduce the Risk of Adolescent Pregnancy, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, and Sexually Transmitted Infections | journal = American Journal of Preventive Medicine | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 272–294 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22341164 | pmc = | doi = 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.11.006 | url = http://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(11)00906-8/abstract }}</ref> တုဲ ကောန်ဒေါမ် (condom) (ဂရောပ်ရဝ်ပါ) ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမစကာ သွက်ကလိဂွံ လိင်သက္ကုဘဲ ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ ပဋိသန္ဓိမွဲရ။ ကောန်ဒေါမ်ဂှ် စကာ ပ္ဍဲအရာ မဝေင်ပါဲ သွက်ဂွံစဵုဒၞာ ယဲမကၠောအ် နကဵုလိင်တအ်ရ။<ref name="Mercer"/> အတိုင်လိက်လလောင်တြး အေန်ဂျဳအဝ်မ္ဂး ဂရောပ်ရဝ်ပါ မကော်ဂး ကောန်ဒေါမ်ဂှ် စဵုဒၞာကဵု ညံင်ယဲ အိချ်အာင်ဝဳ/အေအာင်ဒဳအေသ် ညံင်ဟွံကၠောအ် ၈၅-၉၉% မာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite conference| author=National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases |authorlink=National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases |author2=National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services |title=Workshop Summary: Scientific Evidence on Condom Effectiveness for Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) Prevention |pages=13–15 |date=July 20, 2001 |location=Hyatt Dulles Airport, Herndon, Virginia |url=http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/about/organization/dmid/PDF/condomReport.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307132024/http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/about/organization/dmid/PDF/condomReport.pdf |archivedate=March 7, 2010 |accessdate=March 20, 2009 |url-status=dead |df= }}</ref><ref name="WHO condoms">{{cite web|title=Effectiveness of male latex condoms in protecting against pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|year=2000|accessdate=July 23, 2013|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs243/en/index.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509064325/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs243/en/index.html |archivedate=May 9, 2010 }}</ref>သွက် မုက္ခလိင်တအ်ဂှ် စကာကောန်ဒေါမ်ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ်အောန်တုဲ သွက် ဝစ္စလိင် ကေုာံ လိင်ယောနိတအ်ဂှ် စကာကောန်ဒေါမ်ဂၠိုင်ရ။<ref name="Kumar 2">{{cite book|title=Sexually Transmitted Infections E book| author = Bhushan Kumar, Somesh Gupta| publisher = [[Elsevier Health Sciences]] | year = 2014 | page = 122 |isbn = 978-8131229781| url =https://www.google.com/books/edition/Sexually_Transmitted_Infections_E_book/kQ9tAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=PA122}}</ref> နဲကဲ မဝေင်ပါဲ ညံင်ယဲ ဟိုတ်နူ လိင် ဟွံဂွံကၠောအ်ကၞာန် ခိုဟ်အိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် နဲမဝေင်ပါဲ ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ် (ဝါ) ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ဗွဲတၟေင် လိင်ယောနိ၊ ဝစ္စလိင် ကေုာံ မုက္ခလိင်တအ်ရ။ ဟီုသောင်င်မ္ဂး ကုညးမနွံကဵု ယဲကၠောအ်ကၞာန်လိင်တအ်ဂှ် လ္ပဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် ဒှ်နဲဝေင်ပါဲခိုဟ်အိုတ်ရ။<ref name="Mercer"/>
ထိင်ဒဝ် သၠးဂၠံဂဝ်ဂှ် လေပ်ဇီုကပိုက် ကုအခိုက်ကၞာ မပ္တံကဵု ဘာသာ၊ ကေုာံ လညာတ်တြေံတအ်မာန်ရ။<ref name="Hales2">{{cite book | title = An Invitation to Health: Choosing to Change| publisher = [[Cengage Learning]]| year = 2010 | pages = 301–302| accessdate = March 30, 2013 |isbn = 978-0538736558| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yPa0LZXizO4C&pg=PA301 | author = Dianne Hales}}</ref> ပ္ဍဲကဵုဍုင် လညာတ်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ အခိုက်တြေံ မဓလီုလဝ် ဗီုကဵု ဍုင်ဘာသာကာတ္တလေတ်တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံကဵုအခေါင် ပလီုဂဝ်တုဲ နကဵုနဲကဲ မဝေင်ပါဲ တ္ၚဲမတန်ပဋိသန္ဓိမာန်ဂှ် ထိင်ဒဝ် သၠးဂၠံဂဝ်အိုတ်ရ။<ref name="Hales"/> ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နဲမထပိုတ် ကတေင်ကောန် (sterilization) ကေုာံ နဲမစုတ် တၞုင် (intrauterine devic - IUD)ဂှ် ဒှ်နဲ စိုပ်တရဴဂၠိုင်အိုတ် စကာဂၠိုင်အိုတ်ရ။<ref name="Hales"/><ref name=Winner2012>{{cite journal |vauthors=Winner B, Peipert JF, Zhao Q, Buckel C, Madden T, Allsworth JE, Secura GM | title = Effectiveness of long-acting reversible contraception | journal = N. Engl. J. Med. | volume = 366 | issue = 21 | pages = 1998–2007 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22621627 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa1110855 | url = https://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3776&context=open_access_pubs }}</ref>သွက်ဍုင်အဃောမဇၞော်မောဝ် (ဝါ) ဍုင်ဝါတ်တ်တအ်ဂှ် ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ်သၠးဂၠံဂဝ်ဝွံ ဒှ်အရာ ကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ်မွဲရ။ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဝါတ်တ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မၞိဟ်ဗြဴသၟဝ်အာယုက် ၂၀ တန်ဂဝ်ဂၞဴတုဲ ဂၠံင်တရဴဘဝဇၞော်မောဝ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒးဒေါအ်အာရ။ တုဲပၠန် ဟိုတ်နူ စဵုဒၞာလဝ် ဟွံကဵု ပလီုကောန် ပ္ဍဲသၞောဝ်တုဲ မၞိဟ် ၉၀% ကၠတ်ပလီုကောန် နကဵုနဲ မဟွံမဲ ကုဂီုကၠီု ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်လေဝ် နွံကီုရ။<ref name="Hales"/>
====အာယုက် မသိပ်ဂၠိပ် မေထုန် အလန်ကၠာအိုတ်====
စပ်ကဵု ကိစ္စမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်တုဲ ပလဝ် သုတေသန ပ္ဍဲအကြာယေန်သၞာင်နာနာရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၃ Michael Bozon နူကဵု ဌာနသုတေသနပြင်သေတ် (Institut national d'études démographiques) ပလဝ် သုတေသန လ္ၚတ်လဝ် အကြာယေန်သၞာင် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ နကဵုက္ဍိုပ်လိက် "ပ္ဍဲကဵု အာယုက်လဵု ညးဗြဴ ကေုာံ ညးတြုဟ် ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် At what age do women and men have their first sexual intercourse?" ရ။ ညးလ္ၚတ်လဝ် ဗွဲကိုပ်ကၠာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဆာပ်-သဟရာ အာဖရိက (ဍုင်မလဳ၊ သေနေဂလ် ကေုာံ အဳတဳအဝ်ပဳယျာ)ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် အာယုက်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် မကလိဂွံ ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဏအ်ဂှ် လဇုဲနူ အာယုက်မၞိဟ်ဗြဴဏီရ။ ညံင်ရဴဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဏအ်ကီု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲဆာပ်-တိုက်အိန္ဒိယတအ်လေဝ် မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ကလိဂွံ ဆက်ဆောံလိင် လဇုဲ နူမၞိဟ်ဗြဴကီုရ။ ဆဂး တင်ဂၞင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ကၠောန်လဝ် ဆပ္ဍဲနိပဝ်သၟးရ။<ref name="Bozon">{{cite journal |last=Bozon |first=Michael |year=2003 |title=At what age do women and men have their first sexual intercourse? World comparisons and recent trends |journal=Population and Societies |volume=391 |pages=1–4 |issue= |url=https://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/247/english_391.en.pdf |pmid= |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091955/https://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/247/english_391.en.pdf |archivedate=March 4, 2016 |df=mdy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091955/https://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/247/english_391.en.pdf |date=March 4, 2016 }}</ref><ref name="Caselli">{{cite book| author = Graziella Caselli| author2 = Guillaume Wunsch| author3 = Daniel Courgeau| author4 = Jacques Vallin| title = Demography – Analysis and Synthesis: A Treatise in Population| publisher = [[Academic Press]] | year = 2005 | pages = 490–501 | accessdate = September 6, 2013 |isbn = 978-0127656601| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nmgNXoiAiU4C&pg=PA491}}</ref>
ဂကောံယေန်သၞာင်မၞိဟ် မွဲပၠန်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဂကောံယေန်သၞာင် မကၟာတ်လဒဵုလဝ် ကောန်ဗြဴတအ် ဟွံကဵု အခေါင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာသၞက်ကရောဲတုဲ ကောန်တြုဟ်တအ် အခေါင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကုညးဗြဴအာယုက်ဇၞော် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကုဗြဴစရာဲဍုင်တအ်ဂွံ ကိုပ်ကၠာသၞက်ကရောဲရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံယေန်သၞာင်မၞိဟ်ဏအ်မ္ဂး အာယုက်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် မကလိဂွံ ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ပြဟ်နူ ညးဗြဴရ။ ဂကောံယေန်သၞာင်မၞိဟ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဂကောံမၞိဟ် နူကဵု ဥရဝ်ပသၟဝ်ကျာ (ပဝ်တူဂြဳ၊ ဂရိတ်၊ ရဝ်မေနဳယျာ) ဍုင်လေတ္တေန်အမေရိက (ဗြာဇြဳ၊ ချဳလဳ၊ ဒဝ်မဳနဳကာန်)ရ။ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်အာရှဂမၠိုင်လေဝ် လုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံယေန်သၞာင်မၞိဟ်ဏအ်ကီုရ။ သွက်ဍုင်အာရှဂှ် ကေတ်လဝ် တင်ဂၞင် နူဍုင်သေံမွဲဟေင်ရ။<ref name="Bozon"/><ref name="Caselli"/>
ဂကောံယေန်သၞာင်မၞိဟ် တတိယဂှ် အာယုက်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ကဵု မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ မကလိဂွံ ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ကြပ်တုပ်ရေင်သကအ်ရ။ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဏအ်ဂှ် အာယုက်ဖျေဟ်ဒၞာဲ ဒက်အိန်ထံင်လေဝ် လဇုဲကီုရ။ ဂကောံယေန်သၞာင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဂကောံဍုင် ကာတ္တလေတ် ဟွံသေင်တအ်ရ။ ဍုင်သေင်ကာပူရ် ကဵု သဳရိလင်္ကာဂှ် ကြပ်လုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဏအ်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ၜိုန်ရ တင်ဂၞင်သုတေသန ဟွံကလိဂွံလဝ် နူဍုင်ကြုက် ကဵု ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်လေဝ် ဍုင်ၜါဏအ် လုပ်လၟိဟ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဏအ်မာန်ကီုရ။<ref name="Bozon"/><ref name="Caselli"/> ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဥရဝ်ပသၟဝ်ကျာ ကဵု ဗမံက်တအ်ဂှ် အာယုက်မကလိဂွံ ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် သဝ်ဒၟံင်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် ဒှ်ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဒက်အိန်ထံင် (ဝါ) မံင်မွဲစွံဏီရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဂကောံဏအ်ဂှ် ဍုင်သွိတ်သလာန်၊ ဍုင်ဂျာမနဳ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ချက်တအ် ပါလုပ်ရ။<ref name="Bozon"/><ref name="Caselli"/>
စပ်ကဵု တင်ဂၞင် နူကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် နူကဵုဌာနစရင်အင်ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်ဍုင် (National Center for Health Statistics) မပတိတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၀ဂှ်မ္ဂး အာယုက် မကလိဂွံ ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် နွံဒၟံင် ၁၇.၁ သၞာံ သီုကဵုလိင်ၜါသာ်ရ။<ref name="CDC abc_list_s">{{cite web|title=Key Statistics from the National Survey of Family Growth|accessdate=February 9, 2013|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nsfg/abc_list_s.htm}}</ref> အတိုင်လိက်သုတေသနဂှ်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ ၄၅.၅ တၟအ်ကၠံ ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ၄၅.၇ တၟအ်ကၠံဂှ် ကလိဂွံ ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ပ္ဍဲအာယုက် ၁၉ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၂ ကဵု ၂၀၁၁ ဂှ်ရ။ လိက်မပလဝ်သုတေသန ပ္ဍဲအကြာ သၞာံ ၂၀၀၆-၂၀၁၀ ဂှ် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် မၞိဟ်ဗြဴသၟာဲလေင် (ကၠာအာယုက် ၂၀) အမေရိကာန် ကိုပ်ကၠာသၞက်ကရောဲ ၄၃% ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်သၟာဲလေင် ကိုပ်ကၠာသၞက်ကရောဲ ၄၂% ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ရ။<ref name="CDC statistics">{{cite web|title=Teenagers in the United States: Sexual Activity, Contraceptive Use, and Childbearing, 2006–2010 National Survey of Family Growth|accessdate=December 26, 2012|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_23/sr23_031.pdf}}</ref>
==ခ္ဍဳလျတ် ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်==
==={{anchor|Benefits}}ဂုဏ်ဖိုလ်===
ပ္ဍဲကောန်မၞိဟ် သိပ်ဂၠိပ် မေထုန် (ဝါ) ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်လိင်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ ဗွဲဓမ္မတာ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ချူဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် မဒှ်အရာဂုဏ်ဖိုလ် ခိုဟ်ကဵု ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် မပ္တံကဵု ပခိုင်ပခိုဟ်ကဵု ဒြဟတ်ဒုင်ပဒဝ် (immune system) မပတိတ်ကဵု ဓါတ်antibodies တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင်ဂွံ (''သွေးပေါင်ချိန်'') (blood pressure) ဂွံသဝ်၊<ref name="Steptoe">{{cite book| author = Andrew Steptoe| author2 = Kenneth Freedland| author3 = J. Richard Jennings| author4 = Maria M. Llabre| author5 = Stephen B Manuck| author6 = Elizabeth J. Susman|title =Handbook of Behavioral Medicine: Methods and Applications| publisher = [[Springer Science & Business Media]] | year = 2010 | pages = 60–61 | accessdate = December 7, 2014 |isbn = 978-0387094885| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Si9TtI5AGIEC&pg=PA60}}</ref><ref name="Hornstein">{{cite book| author = Theresa Hornstein| author2 = Jeri Schwerin|title =Biology of Women| publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] | year = 2012 | page = 205 | accessdate = December 7, 2014 |isbn = 978-1285401027| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=ibgKAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA205}}</ref> တုဲပၠန် သွက်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်မ္ဂး ဖအောန်ကဵု အန္တရာယ် မဒှ် ယဲကေန်သာကလေန်ကသုက် (prostate cancer) (ဆီကြိတ်ကင်ဆာ) ရ။<ref name="Steptoe"/> ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန် ကေုာံ ကလိဂွံသြရ်ဂေသ် (orgasms) (အရီုပြေ/ဍာ်တိတ်) တအ်ဂှ် ပညဳကဵု ဓါတ်ဟဝ်မုန်အံက်ဇြဳတဝ်စိန် (hormone oxytocin) (ဓါတ်ဏအ် သီုကော်စ ဓါတ်ဟဝ်မုန် ဓဝ်ဆာန်) မဒှ်ဓါတ် မပကဵု ညံင်မၞိဟ်တအ် ဂွံနွံဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ ကေုာံ သံယောဇိုန် လတူရေင်သကအ်ရ။<ref name="Hornstein"/><ref name="Sigelman">{{cite book| author = Carol Sigelman| author2 = Elizabeth Rider|title =Life-Span Human Development| publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] | year = 2011 | page = 452 | accessdate = December 7, 2014 |isbn = 978-1111342739| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=8smBuRecmDsC&pg=PT480}}</ref> ဓါတ်အံက်ဇြဳတဝ်စိန် (Oxytocin)ဂှ် ပတှ်ေကေတ်မ္ဂး ဒှ်အရာ မနွံပၟိက် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲမၞိဟ်ဗြဴ ဂၠိုင်နူ မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်ဏီရ။<ref name="Freberg"/> A long-term study of 3,500 people between ages 18 and 102 by clinical [[Neuropsychology|neuropsychologist]] David Weeks indicated that, based on impartial ratings of the subjects' photographs, sex on a regular basis helps people look significantly chronologically younger.<ref>{{cite book|last=Northrup|first=Christiane|title=Women's Bodies, Women's Wisdom: Creating Physical and Emotional Health and Healing|year=2010|publisher=Bantam|isbn=978-0-553-80793-6|page=232|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V9S3keMnie8C&pg=PA232&lpg=PA232|accessdate=October 21, 2015}}</ref>
===အန္တရာယ်{{anchor|General risks}}===
နကဵု မဆက်ဆောံလိင်တုဲ စၟဗက်တဳရဳယျာ၊ ဝဳရုသ် ကေုာံ စၟကပ်ပရာသိတ်တအ် ကၠောအ်ကၞာန်မာန်၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲအရာ မဆက်ဆောံ လိင်ယောနိ၊ ဝစ္စလိင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မုက္ခလိင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လိင်သက္ကုစဵုဒၞာတအ်ရ။<ref name="Hoeger">{{cite book|vauthors=Hoeger W, HS, FA, HC|title=Principles and Labs for Fitness and Wellness| publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] | year = 2016 | pages = 538–540|isbn = 978-1337099974| url =https://www.google.com/books/edition/Principles_and_Labs_for_Fitness_and_Well/wdq5DQAAQBAJ?hl=PA538}}</ref><ref name=Women2017>{{Cite web|url=https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/sexually-transmitted-infections|title=Sexually transmitted infections|website=womenshealth.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-12-08|date=2017-02-22}}{{PD-notice}}</ref> မုက္ခလိင်ဂှ် အန္တရာယ် ယဲကၠောအ်ကၞာန် နွံအောန် နူကဵု လိင်ယောနိ ကေုာံ ဝစ္စလိင်ရ။<ref name="Gulanick">{{cite book|vauthors=GM, MJ|title=Nursing Care Plans - E-Book: Diagnoses, Interventions, and Outcomes| publisher = [[Elsevier Health Sciences]] | year = 2016 | page = 725|isbn = 978-0323428101| url =https://www.google.com/books/edition/Nursing_Care_Plans_E_Book/NK2ADQAAQBAJ?hl=PA725}}</ref> ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ယဲကၠောအ်ကၞာန်လိင်တအ်ဂှ် သီုဟွံတီမွဲသာ် ကၠောအ်ကၞာန် ရေင်သကအ်မာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite book|vauthors=Murray PR, Rosenthal KS, Pfaller MA|title=Medical microbiology|date=2013|publisher=Mosby|location=St. Louis, MO|isbn=978-0-323-08692-9|page=418|edition=7th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBEVsFmR2yQC&pg=PA418 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201070705/https://books.google.com/books?id=RBEVsFmR2yQC&pg=PA418 |archivedate=2015-12-01|df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Goering|first1=Richard V.|title=Mims' medical microbiology |date=2012 |publisher=Saunders|location=Edinburgh|isbn=978-0-7234-3601-0 |page=245 |edition=5th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzQayLEQ5mQC&pg=PA245|df=}}</ref>
ယဲမကၠောအ်ကၞာန်လိင်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် မွဲမွဲသၞာံ ကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံင် မၞိဟ် ၁၉ မဳလဳယာန်<ref>{{cite web|title=STD Trends in the United States: 2010 National Data for Gonorrhea, Chlamydia, and Syphilis|url=https://www.cdc.gov/std/stats10/trends.htm|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|accessdate=September 15, 2012}}</ref>တုဲ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၅ ဂကောံပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်ဂၠးကဝ် ဆိင်ကေတ် မၞိဟ် အကြာအာယုက် ၁၅-၄၉ ၜိုတ် ၄၄၈ မဳလဳယာန် မွဲမွဲသၞာံ ဒးဒုင်ကၠောအ်ကၞာန်ယဲ နကဵုလိင် မပတံကဵု ယဲ syphilis, gonorrhea ကေုာံ chlamydia တအ်ရ။ <ref name="WHO 2015">{{cite web| title=Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)|publisher=World Health Organization| url = http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs110/en/| accessdate = June 20, 2015}}</ref> ယဲလ္ၚဵု ဗီုကဵု ယဲအုက်အာင်ဝဳတအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ်တုဲ ဗၠးဟွံမာန်ရ။<ref name="WHO 2015"/> တုဲပၠန် ယဲ Hepatitis B မဒှ်ယဲကသအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ကၠောအ်ကၞာန် နကဵုဆက်ဆောံလိင်ကီုရ။<ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/HBV/HBVfaq.htm#treatment CDC Hepatitis B Information for Health Professionals] Accessed May 27, 2010</ref> အလုံမွဲလိုက်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်ၜိုတ် ၂၅၇ မဳလဳယာန်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံင် ယဲ hepatitis B ရ။<ref>{{cite web|title=Hepatitis B|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-b |publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|date=18 July 2018}}</ref> ယဲအုက်အာင်ဝဳဂှ် ဒှ်ယဲ မဂစိုတ်မၞိဟ်ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၀ ဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နူစ ယဲဂှ် စမံက်ကၠုင်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်မဒးဒုင်ချိုတ် နကဵုယဲဂှ် နွံ ၃၀ မဳလဳယာန်ရ။<ref name=WHO-HIV>{{cite web|title=HIV/AIDS|url=http://www.who.int/gho/hiv/en/index.html|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|accessdate=September 15, 2012}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၅ ဂကောံပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်ဂၠးတိ ဆိင်ကေတ် ပ္ဍဲမွဲဂၠးတိ မွဲမွဲသၞာံ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ တန်အာ ပဋိသန္ဓိ ၁၂၃ မဳလဳယာန်တုဲ အပ္ဍဲဂှ် ၈၇ မဳလဳယာန် (၇၀.၇%) ဂှ် ဒှ်ပဋိသန္ဓိ မဟွံမဲပၟိက်အိုတ်ရ။ မွဲမွဲသၞာံ ပဋိသန္ဓိ ၜိုတ် ၄၆ မဳလဳယာန်ဂှ် ပလီုထောအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web|title=Not Every Pregnancy is Welcome|url=http://www.who.int/whr/2005/chapter3/en/index3.html|work=The world health report 2005 – make every mother and child count|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|accessdate=December 6, 2011}}</ref>
===လလအ် ကေုာံ အာစိုပ်ဒတုဲ===
[[ဝှာင်:Indiaerotic8.jpg|thumb|left|ရုပ်ကသူ ပွံင်အိန္ဒိယ (ကောန်သၟိင် ကေုာံ ကန္တဝ်) သိပ်ဂၠိင်ဒၟံင် ဓဝ်မေထုန်]]
ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် အကြာ ညးဗြဴကဵု ညးတြုဟ်ၜါတၠဂှ် လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး အခိင်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် မပတိတ်ဍာ်သုတ် (အာစိုပ်ဒတုဲ)ဂှ် ညးဗြဴဂှ် ဟွံကလိဂွံ သြရ်ဂေတ်လေဝ် ဒှ်မာန်ရ။<ref name="Wincze">{{Cite book|author= John Wincze | title = Enhancing Sexuality : A Problem-Solving Approach to Treating Dysfunction| year = 2009 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] |pages=56–60 | isbn = 978-0199718023| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8YxbeHsgiGMC&pg=PA56}}</ref> မုဟိုတ်ရောမ္ဂး လလအ်အခိင် ညးဗြဴမနွံပၟိက် သွက်ကလိဂွံ သြရ်ဂေတ် (ဝါ) မအာစိုပ်ဒတုဲဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်မ္ဂး လအ်နူ မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်တအ်ဏီရ။<ref name="Weiten, 2011"/><ref name="Porst">{{cite book |author = Hartmut Porst |author2 = Jacques Buvat|title =Standard Practice in Sexual Medicine| publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons]] | year = 2008|accessdate=October 22, 2013 | page = 189|isbn = 978-1405178723|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4GJio79XOUC&pg=PA189}}</ref><ref name="Emmanuele">{{cite book |author = Emmanuele A. Jannini |author2 = Chris G. McMahon |authorlink3=Marcel D. Waldinger |author3 = Marcel D. Waldinger|title =Premature Ejaculation: From Etiology to Diagnosis and Treatment| publisher = [[Springer Publishing|Springer]] | year = 2012|accessdate=October 22, 2013 | pages = 159–162|isbn = 978-8847026469|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iCXF3sWtgegC&pg=PA159}}</ref> တၠပညာတအ် မပ္တံကဵု Weiten et al. ဟီု "ပွံင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စှ်ေစိုတ် ဒဒှ်ရ နကဵု မဆက်ဆောံလိင် ဗီုပြင် အင်္ဂဇာတ် ပၠုပ်ပ္ဍဲယောနိဟေင် ကလိဂွံ သြရ်ဂေတ်မာန်ရ။ ဆဂး မအရေဝ်မ္ဂး''foreplay'' မချဳဒရာင်ကိုပ်ကၠာ မဒှ်အရာ မဇွိတ်သပေါတ် သွက်အာရီုစိုတ် လိင်ဂွံဓလိုက်ကတဵုတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာအဓိက သွက်ပြဝဂှ်တုဲ အရာဏအ်ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင်ညးဗြဴတအ်လေဝ် ကလိဂွံ သြရ်ဂေတ်ပြဟ်ညိမာန်ရ။<ref name="Weiten, 2011"/>
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၉၁ တၠပညာ နူကဵု Kinsey Institute ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး အခိင်ကာလ လလအ် အကြာ အင်္ဂကတဵု ကဵု မကရိုဟ်ဍာ်သုက် မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်တအ်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်မွဲကုမွဲ ဟွံတုပ် ရေင်သကအ် သၟးဟွံက မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်ဂှ်ပၠန် မွဲအလန်ကဵု မွဲအလန်လေဝ် ဟွံတုပ်ရေင်သကအ်ကီုရ။ လလအ်အခိင် မနွံပၟိက် မဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် လတူပရေင်ပေင်ပၟိက်စိုတ် ညးၜါတၠဂှ်ဟေင်ရ။ နူကဵုဂကောံဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ၇၅ က္ဍိုပ်ကၠံဂှ် ကရိုဟ်ဍာ်သုက် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်အင်္ဂကတဵု အပ္ဍဲအခိင် ၜါမိနေတ်ရ။ ဆဂး ညးဟွံသၟာန် ပရူဒဒှ်ရ ပွံင်ညးတအ် ပေင်ပၟိက် ဟွံပေင်ပၟိက်ရ။ ဆဂး ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် လအ်နူဂှ်ညိရ။<ref name="Reinisch">{{cite book | title = The Kinsey Institute New Report On Sex| publisher = [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] | year = 1991 | pages = 129–130| accessdate = August 30, 2012 |isbn = 978-0312063863| url = https://books.google.com/?id=KsW6wPiXEd0C&pg=PA129&lpg=PA129 |author1=June M. Reinisch |author2=Ruth Beasley }}</ref> လိက်သုတေသန ကနေဒါ ကဵု အမေရိကာန် မလွဳကိစ္စလိင် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး ဗွဲသၟဟ် လလအ်အခိင် ဆက်ဆောံလိင် အကြာလိင်တၞဟ်ခြာတအ်ဂှ် နွံဒၟံင် ၇ မိနေတ်တုဲ ၁ ကဵု ၂ မိနေတ်ဂှ် ပြဟ်လောန်အာ၊ ၃ ကဵု ၇ မိနေတ်မ္ဂး ၜိုတ်လဒေါဝ်တုဲ ၇ ကဵု ၁၃ မိနေတ်မ္ဂး မပေင်ကဵုအၚောပ်စိုတ်၊ ၁၀ ကဵု ၃၀ မိနေတ်မ္ဂး လအ်လောန်အာရ။ <ref name="Carroll">See [https://books.google.com/books?id=gU3SZSh-eXsC&pg=PT334 page 302] for orgasm information, and [https://books.google.com/books?id=gU3SZSh-eXsC&pg=PT316 pages 285–286] for definitions, prevalence and length of sexual intercourse. {{cite book |vauthors=Carroll JL| title = Discovery Series: Human Sexuality| edition = 1st | publisher = [[Cengage Learning]]|pages=656 pages| isbn = 978-1111841898|year=2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gU3SZSh-eXsC}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Corty EW, Guardiani JM | title = Canadian and American Sex Therapists' Perceptions of Normal and Abnormal Ejaculatory Latencies: How Long Should Intercourse Last? | journal = The Journal of Sexual Medicine | volume = 5 | issue = 5 | pages = 1251–1256 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18331255 | pmc = | doi = 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00797.x }}</ref>
==ခ္ဍဳလျတ် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်==
===ညးအဝဲမစိုပ် / မၞိဟ်ဇၞော်ဇၞော်===
ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံကောန်ဇာတ်၊ သွက်ဂွံဒက်ပတန်ဘဝ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သွက်ဂွံ ဒုင်စသိုင်လဟိင်အာရီုရ။<ref name="Harvey J">{{cite book| vauthors = HJ, WA, SS|title =The Handbook of Sexuality in Close Relationships|publisher = [[Psychology Press]] | year = 2004 | pages = 172–173|isbn =1135624704|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Handbook_of_Sexuality_in_Close_Relat/qsl4AgAAQBAJ?hl=PA172}}</ref>ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာကိစ္စဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲအရာ မဒက်ဂွန် သံယောဇိုန် ပ္ဍဲကဵုကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်ရ။<ref name="Freberg"/> ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စကာ နဲကဲမဝေင်ပါဲ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံကောန်ဇာတ်တုဲ မဆက်ဆောံလိင်၊ မဆက်ဆောံလိင် နကဵုမရန်တၟအ် ဒုင်စသိုင်အာရီုကာမဟေင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာဓမ္မတာမွဲရ။<ref name="Freberg"/>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု တိရစ္ဆာန် မပ္တံကဵု စိင်၊ ဂၠဴ၊ ကၠဵု ကေုာံ ဂစေံကၞေမ်တအ်မ္ဂး အခိင်ၝောအ် ခၟာဲစှ်ေဂှ် ဍေဟ်တအ်တီတုဲ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ်ဟေင် ဆက်ဆောံလိင်အိုတ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ်ကဵု ကၟုဲဗဝ်နဝ်ဗဝ် မဒှ်ဇာတိမကြပ်ကဵုမၞိဟ်တအ်ဂှ် အခိင်လဵု ညးဗြဴဂှ် ခၟာဲစှ်ေဂှ် သီုညးၜါတၠ တီကေတ် ဟွံမာန်ရ။ ဟိုတ်မဒှ် ဗီုဏအ်ဂှ် နကဵုသဘာဝဇဳဝဗေဒ ဖန်ဗဒှ်ကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာကိစ္စဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲအရာမဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ဆက်ကၠောအ်ဘဝ ရေင်သကအ်မွဲစွံကီု တုဲပၠန် ပရေင်ဒက်ပ္တန် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်မွဲစွံတအ်ဂှ် ဖန်ဗဒှ်ကဵု ညံင်ဂွံဒက်ပတန်ပွံင် နကဵုအခိင် ဍာ်ဇမၠိင်၊ ဟွံဒှ် ညံင်တိရစ္ဆာန် ပ္ဍဲအခိင် မဗက် (ဝါ) အခိင်ၝောအ်ဖျေဟ်ခၟာဲဟေင် ဒက်ပွံင် ရေင်သကအ်ရ။<ref name="Reis">{{Cite book|author= Harry T. Reis|author2= Susan Sprecher|author3= Susan K. Sprecher | title = Encyclopedia of Human Relationships |volume=1| year = 2009 | publisher = [[Sage Publications|SAGE]] |pages=541–543 | isbn = 978-1412958462| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3EkOwvSAtL4C&pg=PA541}}</ref>
ပွမစဵုဒၞာတးပါဲ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် ဗဒှ်ကဵု ညံင်ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဂွံပြးချာဲမာန် ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်တအ်မာန်ရ။<ref name="Munck">{{cite book| author = Victor C. De Munck|title =Romantic Love and Sexual Behavior: Perspectives from the Social Sciences|publisher = [[Greenwood Publishing Group]] | year = 1998 | pages = 148–149 | accessdate = December 9, 2014 |isbn = 978-0275957261| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=I78VnFoINgQC&pg=PA148}}</ref><ref name="Howe">{{cite book| author = Tasha R. Howe|title =Marriages and Families in the 21st Century: A Bioecological Approach|publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons]] | year = 2011 | page = 411 | accessdate = December 9, 2014 |isbn = 978-1405195010| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=UHaLL0pYwhMC&pg=PA411}}</ref><ref name="Fine">{{cite book|author1=Mark A Fine |author2=John H. Harvey |title =Handbook of Divorce and Relationship Dissolution|publisher = [[Psychology Press]] | year = 2013 | page = 160 | accessdate = December 9, 2014 |isbn = 978-1317824213| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=wGZlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA160}}</ref>
===သၟာဲလေင်===
သၟာဲလေင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မဒှ်ဝုတ်ဗၠာဲဟီုဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ နူဘဝကောန်ၚာ် မလုပ်စိုပ် ဘဝမၞိဟ်ဇၞော်၊ မဒှ်အဝဲ မဆက်ဆောံလိင် သွက်ပရေင်ကၠောအ်က္ဍဘဝ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သွက်မဒုင်စသိုင် အာရီုကာမ နကဵု လပါ်ခိုဟ်ကီု သီုကဵု လပါ်ပရေအ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဘဝ ဍေဟ်တအ်ရ။ ဥပမာ - ယဝ်ရ သၟတ်သၟာဲလေင်မွဲ တန်အာ ဂဝ်ဂၞဴမ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်လ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ ဒုင်တဲ နွံကီုလေဝ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ဟွံဒုင်တဲ ဒစဵုဒစးပေင်င်အိုတ်ရ။<ref name="sex lives3">{{cite book| title=The Sex Lives of Teenagers| isbn=978-0-452-28260-5| last=Ponton| first=Lynn| authorlink=Lynn Ponton| year=2000| page=[https://archive.org/details/sexlivesofteenag00lynn/page/3 3]| publisher=[[Dutton Publishing]]| url=https://archive.org/details/sexlivesofteenag00lynn/page/3}}</ref> ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကဆံင်သမၠုင် ဗီုကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်၊ ဍုင်ယူရောပ်လပါ်ပလိုတ်တအ်မ္ဂး နကဵု ဘာဗတောန်လိက်ဂှ် ကဵုပညာ ပညာလိင် (sex education) ဗီုလဵု ဂွံဝေင်ပါဲ၊ ဗီုလဵုမ္ဂး မဒှ် လိင်သက္ကုဘဲတအ်ရ။ အစဳအဇန် ကဵုပညာ ပရေင်လိင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟွံဒုင်တဲအိုတ်ရ။ ညးတအ် ညာတ်ကေတ် ဟီုပရူလိင်မ္ဂး ဒှ်အရာ မကဵုဒြဟတ် ညံင်သၟတ်တအ် စိုတ်လိင် ဂွံဓလိုက်ကတဵုတုဲ ဖန်ကဵု ညံင်စိုတ်လိင် ဂွံဂၠိုင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲဂကောံမၞိဟ်လ္ၚဵုတအ်မ္ဂး ပညာလိင်ဂှ် အစာဘာတအ် ဗတောန်ဟွံထေက်တုဲ အရာဝွံ ဒးစွံလဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ညးမဒှ်မိမ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ညးတၞဟ် ထေက်ရ။<ref name="Ryan">{{cite book| author =Kevin Ryan| author2 =James Cooper|title =Those Who Can, Teach|publisher = [[Cengage Learning]] | year = 2008 | page = 110 | accessdate = December 9, 2014 |isbn = 978-0547204888| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=rqmdR6Xrgq8C&pg=PA110}}</ref>ပ္ဍဲဍုင် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်ကဆံင်သၠုင် ဗီုကဵု ဍုင်ယူရောပ်ရးပလိုတ်တအ်မ္ဂး ပညာလိင်ဝွံ ဒှ်အရာ ကိစ္စဇၞော်မွဲတုဲ နကဵု ညးမလေပ်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဗီုကဵုအစာဘာတအ် ဒးဗတောန်ကဵုဟေင် ဂွံဖျေဟ်စိုတ်ဂွံရ။ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကိစ္စဏအ် ညးသၟတ်တအ် လညာတ်ဗၠေတ်တ် မကဵုအန္တရာယ် ကုဘဝဍေဟ်ဂှ် လုပ်စိုပ်ကၠုင်မာန်ရ။
အစာစိတ္တဗေဒ လေန် ပေါန်တောန် (Lynn Ponton) ချူဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် "သၟာဲလေင် သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဘဝလိင် (sex lives) (ဝါ) ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လိင်ဖအိုတ်ရ။ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကုညးမွဲသအာင်ဟာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍေဟ်ချဳဓရာင်လိင် နကဵုအလဵုဇကုဇကုဍေဟ်ဟာရ။" တုဲပၠန် နကဵု လညာတ်ညးမ္ဂး သၟာဲလေင်တအ် နွံကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်လိင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ ဍေဟ်တအ် မကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗဘဝ လပါ်ခိုဟ် မွဲသာ်တုဲ ညးဟွံညာတ်ကေတ် ဒှ်အရာ မကဵု အန္တရာယ်၊ မဒှ် အရာမဖန်ဇန်ကဵု ညံင်သၟာဲလေင်တအ် ဂွံဇၞော်မောဝ်တိုန် ပရေင်လိင် လပါ်ခိုဟ် ဂွံရုဲစှ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်လိင် လပါ်ခိုဟ်ရ။<ref name="sex lives3" /> သုတေသဳတအ် ဟီု ပရေင်ကၠောအ်က္ဍဘဝ သ္ဍိုက်ဆာန် ဍာ်ဇမၠိင် (long-term romantic relationship) ဂှ် ဖန်ကဵု သၟာဲလေင်တအ် ညံင်ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ကၠောအ်က္ဍဘဝဍာ်ဒကေဝ်သမၠုင် (high-quality relationship) ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ဗွဲကြဴရ။<ref>Madsen S., Collins W. A. (2005). Differential predictions of young adult romantic relationships from transitory vs. longer romantic experiences during adolescence. Presented at ''Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development'', Atlanta, Georgia.</ref> ဟီုကၠးကၠးမ္ဂး ပရေင်ကၠောအ်က္ဍဘဝ သ္ဍိုက်ဆာန် လပါ်ခိုဟ် အကြာ သၟာဲလေင်တအ်ဂှ် ဗဒှ်ကဵု သွဟ်လပါ်ခိုဟ် ဍာ်ဇမၠိင်မာန်ရ။ ပရေင်ကၠောအ်က္ဍဘဝ သ္ဍိုက်ဆာန် ဍာ်ဒကေဝ်သမၠုင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မဓလိုက်တမ်ရိုဟ် သွက်ဘဝမၞိဟ်ဇၞော်လပါ်စ (early adulthood)မွဲ၊<ref>Seiffge-Krenke I., Lang J. (2002). Forming and maintaining romantic relations from early adolescence to young adulthood: evidence of a developmental sequence. Presented at 19th ''Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence'', New Orleans, Louisiana.</ref> တုဲပၠန် ဒှ်အရာ မပခိုဟ်ကဵု ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Pearce MJ, Boergers J, Prinstein MJ | title = Adolescent obesity, overt and relational peer victimization, and romantic relationships | journal = Obesity Research | volume = 10 | issue = 5 | pages = 386–93 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12006638 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2002.53 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/a22d8a1bc00055a71bd1c213f419fa4f66a85615}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Zimmer-Gembeck MJ, Siebenbruner J, Collins WA | title = A prospective study of intraindividual and peer influences on adolescents' heterosexual romantic and sexual behavior | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 33 | issue = 4 | pages = 381–394 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15162084 | doi = 10.1023/B:ASEB.0000028891.16654.2c | url = }}</ref>
==လညာတ် နကဵု လၟေတ်၊ ဘာသာ၊ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်==
===ဓမ္မတာ===
[[ဝှာင်:Erotic scenes Louvre G13 n4.jpg|thumb|ရုပ်ကသူကာမ ပ္ဍဲခေါက်အရက်ဝါင် ဂရိတ် နူကဵု ခေတ်တြေံ]]
ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ကာမဂှ် နကဵုသဘာဝမ္ဂး ဒှ်အရာ သွက်ဂွံ ဂလိုင်ပတိုန် မဗဳဇကောန်မၞိဟ်ရ။ ဆဂး ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် မဆေင်ကဵု ပ္ဍဲအရာလိင်ဏအ်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာတအ်ကီု သီုကဵု သၞောဝ်ဍုင်ဂှ် ဖျေဟ်လဝ် စဳပၞောန် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေရ။ သၞောဝ်ဍုင်လ္ၚဵု ဒ္ဂေတ်ဘာသာလ္ၚဵုတအ်မ္ဂး စဵုဒၞာ ဖျေဟ်လဝ် စဳပၞောန် ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ဗီုလဵုမ္ဂး လုပ်သၞောဝ်တုဲ ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဗီုလဵုမ္ဂး ဟွံလုပ်ကဵုသၞောဝ်ရ။ အတိုင်ဝင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ မဆေင်ကဵု လိင် ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် စဵုဒၞာ ဝစ္စလိင် ရ။<ref>William N. Eskridge Jr. Dishonorable Passions: Sodomy Laws in America, 1861–2003. (2008) Viking Adult. {{ISBN|0-670-01862-7}}</ref><ref>Noelle N. R. Quenivet. Sexual Offenses in Armed Conflict & International Law. (2005) Hotei Publishing. {{ISBN|1-57105-341-7}}</ref>
===လိင် ဗတိုက်===
မဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကုညးမွဲမွဲ သီုဟွံမဲကဵု ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒညးတအ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သီုညးတအ် ဟွံတီ ဇကုဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် ဒှ်လိင်ဗတိုက် (ဝါ) ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာ တုဲ ကိစ္စဏအ်ဂှ် ဍုင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵုလဝ် နကဵုသၞောဝ်ရ။<ref name="Sex and Society">{{cite book|author=Marshall Cavendish Corporation | title = Sex and Society | publisher = [[Marshall Cavendish|Marshall Cavendish Corporation]] | year = 2010 | pages = 143–144 | accessdate = August 25, 2013|isbn = 978-0-7614-7906-2|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=aVDZchwkIMEC&lpg=PA143}}</ref><ref name="Greenberg2">{{cite book|author=Jerrold S. Greenberg|author2=Clint E. Bruess|author3=Sarah C. Conklin| title = Exploring the Dimensions of Human Sexuality| publisher = [[Jones & Bartlett Learning]] | year = 2010 | page = 515 | accessdate = August 25, 2013|isbn = 978-0-7637-7660-2|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=1NC5R0RozBYC&lpg=PA515}}</ref> မၞိဟ်မဒးဒုင် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာ ၉၀% ဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ်ဗြဴတုဲ မၞိဟ်ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာညးတၞဟ် ၉၉% ဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်အိုတ်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ဆၜိုတ် ၅% ဟေင် မၞိဟ်ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် တၠိင်မုက် ကုမၞိဟ် မဒးဒုင်ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာတအ်ရ။<ref name="Greenberg2"/>
ဍုင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဖျေဟ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုသၞောဝ် မၞိဟ်အာယုက်မူစိမ္ဂး အခေါင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂွံတုဲ မၞိဟ်အာယုက်ဇၞော်ကဵု အာယုက်ဍောတ် အကြာဂလိုင်လဵု ဆက်ဆောံလိင်မ္ဂး လုပ်သၞောဝ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဖျေဟ်လဝ်ကီုရ။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်မ္ဂး ဖျေဟ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞောဝ် အာယုက် ၁၆ သၞာံ ကဵု ၁၈ သၞာံဂၠိုင်ကီုလေဝ် ဍုင်လ္ၚဵုမ္ဂး ကဵုလဝ်အခေါင် နူ ၁၂ သၞာံတုဲ ဍုင်လ္ၚဵုမ္ဂး ၂၀ သၞာံတုဲဟေင် မကဵုအခေါင်လေဝ် နွံကီုရ။<ref name="Kinnear">{{cite book|author=Karen L. Kinnear| title = Childhood Sexual Abuse: A Reference Handbook| publisher = [[ABC-CLIO]] | year = 2007 | page = 89 | accessdate = August 25, 2013|isbn = 978-1-85109-905-4|url =https://books.google.com/?id=V1rogCrcOMwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=#v=onepage&q=&f=false}}</ref> ပွမဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကုမၞိဟ်အာယုက် သၟဝ်မပိုင်ခြာလဝ်မ္ဂး ၜိုန်ရ မၞိဟ်ဍောတ်ဂှ် စိုတ်တုပ်ကီုလေဝ် ဒှ်ဒုဟ် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာရ။<ref>{{cite book|last=Reed|first=E. J.|title=Criminal Law and the Capacity of Mentally Retarded Persons to Consent to Sexual Activity |journal=[[Virginia Law Review]] |year=1997|volume=83|issue=4 |pages=799–827|jstor=1073749|doi=10.2307/1073749}}</ref>
[[ဝှာင်:Slevogt Faun and a Girl.jpg .jpg|thumb|left|[[Max Slevogt]] ဓဇက်ချူလဝ် ဗီုပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာ]]
Robert Francoeur ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး "ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ၁၉၇၀တအ်မ္ဂး ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် ဆၜိုတ် အရာမဆက်ဆောံလိင် အင်္ဂဇာတ်-ယောနိ ဟေင်ရ။"<ref name="Francoeur">{{cite book | title = The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality | publisher = [[Continuum International Publishing Group]] | year = 2004 | page = 173 | accessdate = April 30, 2013|isbn = 978-0826414885| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=PQMTzc6y8ZAC&pg=PA173 | first1 = Robert T. | last1 = Francoeur | first2 = Raymond J. | last2 = Noonan | first3 = Beldina | last3 = Opiyo-Omolo | name-list-format = vanc }}</ref> Authors Pamela J. Kalbfleisch ကေုာံ Michael J. Cody ဟီု ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် ယဝ်ရ ကံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် အင်္ဂဇာတ်-စုတ်-ယောနိ မ္ဂး ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာလေဝ် အရာမကဵုပအတေင် အင်္ဂဇာတ် ကဵု ပၠုပ်စုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ယောနိတအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဒှ် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာကီုတုဲ ပရေင်မဖန်ဇန်တၞဟ် မဆေင်ကဵုလိင်တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံလုပ်လၟိဟ် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာရ။ ညးတအ် ဆက်ဟီုပၠန် "ယဝ်ရ ကံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ အကြာ အင်္ဂဇာတ် ကဵု ယောနိ ဟေင်မ္ဂး ဆက်ဆောံလိင် မပ္တံကဵု ဝစ္စလိင်၊ မုက္ခလိင်တအ်ဂှ် နကဵုသၞောဝ် ဟွံလုပ်လၟိဟ် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ အရာဝွံ ဆေင်စပ်ဒၟံင် ဗီုလဵု မကံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်ဂှ်ဟေင်ရ။"<ref name="Kalbfleisch">{{cite book|vauthors= Kalbfleisch PJ, Cody MJ| title = Gender Power and Communication in Human Relationships | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2012 | page = 153 | accessdate = April 30, 2013|isbn = 978-1136480508| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LyMo1RUJwj0C&pg=PA153}}</ref>Ken Plumber ဟီု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ်သၞောဝ် "မဆေင်ကဵု ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာဏအ်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဍုင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပံက်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် အရာမဒှ် အကြာ အင်္ဂဇာတ် ကဵု ယောနိ သၟးဂၠိုင်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် "ပရေင်ပကီုပရာပ်လိင် နကဵုဗီုပြင်တၞဟ် မပ္တံကဵု မုက္ခလိင်၊ ဝစ္စလိင်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ရာဇာဝတ် ဟွံသကာတ်မြဟ် ညံင် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာရ။"<ref name="Plummer">{{cite book| author = Ken Plummer | title = Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experiences | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2002 | pages = 187–191 | accessdate = August 24, 2013|isbn =978-1134922420 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSO3q4XEfz4C&pg=PA189|quote=[S]ome sexual practices are regarded as inherently better (normal, natural, more satisfying) than others, with vaginal intercourse privileged as the 'Real Thing.' Such beliefs, influenced by views about sex as ultimately a reproductive function, continue to be perpetuated through discourses on sex despite a number of important contradictions.}}</ref>
ဆဂး လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ဍုင်ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိဏအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဆၜိုတ် အင်္ဂဇာတ် ကဵု ယောနိ သၟးဟွံသေင် မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ဝစ္စလိင်၊ မုက္ခလိင်၊ ထ္ၜေတ်အင်္ဂဇာတ်၊ ကၠာန်ယောနိတအ်လေဝ် လုပ်လၟိဟ် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာဖအိုတ်ရ။<ref name="Francoeur"/>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်ဓဝ်မေထုန် ကုဆီကြပ် (မသ/ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန်)ဂှ် စဵုဒၞာလဝ်ရ။ James Roffee အစာဘာတက္ကသိုလ် Monash University<ref>{{cite web|url=http://monash.edu/research/explore/en/persons/james-roffee(896c15d7-6f28-4bf0-8a0f-b7d6ff1553e0).html|title=Dr James Roffee|publisher=Monash university|access-date=May 22, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204003059/http://monash.edu/research/explore/en/persons/james-roffee%28896c15d7-6f28-4bf0-8a0f-b7d6ff1553e0%29.html|archive-date=February 4, 2017|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> ဟီု ပွမဆက်ဆောံလိင် အပ္ဍဲဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် (ဝါ) ဆီကြပ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ကောန်ဇာတ်မတိတ်ကၠုင်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ်အဝဲ ဟွံဍိုက်ပေင်မာန်ရ။ ဆဂး နကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စွံအာရီု သွက်ဂွံစဵုဒၞာ ညံင်ညးမဒးဒုင်တအ် ဟွံဂွံဒးဒုင်ပကီုပရာပ် ပ္ဍဲအရာလိင်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ပ္ဍဲဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မ္ၚးသၞောဝ်တုဲ ၜိုန်ရ ညးၜါလပါ် တုပ်စိုတ်ကီုလေဝ် ဟွံကဵုလဝ် အခေါင်ရ။ လိင်အကြာ ဂကောံကၟိန်ဂှ် နကဵု ဗီုပြင်လိင်လဵုမွဲဟွံကီု ကၟာတ်လဒဵုလဝ် ဖအိုတ်ရ။ ဆီကြပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေဂှ် ညးပံက်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ်၊ မိနော် အပါနော်၊ မိမ၊ ကောန်ဇာတ်၊ ကော/ၝောဲဒေအ်၊ ဣစဳ ကေုာံ အမူ တအ်ရ။ စပ်ကဵု ကိစ္စဏအ်တုဲ မွဲဍုင် ကဵုမွဲဍုင် ဟွံတုပ်ရေင်သကအ်ရ။ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန်ဂှ် ပံက်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဥပမာ မိမသွီု၊ မိမအရင်၊ ကောန်မွဲမိ ၜါယာဲ/ မွဲယာဲၜါအပါ တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်တမ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |title=Roffee, J. A. (2014). No Consensus on Incest? Criminalisation and Compatibility with the European Convention on Human Rights}}.</ref>
အရာမဆေင်ကဵုလိင် မွဲပၠန်ဂှ် လိင်တိရစ္ဆာန် မဒှ်အရာ ဆက်ဆောံလိင် မၞိဟ်ကဵုတိရစ္ဆာန်ရ။<ref name="DSM">{{cite book |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV | publisher = [[American Psychiatric Association]] |location=Washington, DC |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=978-0-89042-025-6 |oclc= |doi=| title-link = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders }}</ref><ref name="Milner2008">{{cite book |veditors = Laws DR, O'Donohue WT |last-author-amp = yes | last = Milner | first = JS |author2=Dopke CA | title = Sexual Deviance, Second Edition: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment | publisher = [[The Guilford Press]] | location = New York | year = 2008 | pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=yIXG9FuqbaIC&pg=PA385 384–418] |isbn=978-1-59385-605-2 |oclc= |doi=| chapter = Paraphilia Not Otherwise Specified: Psychopathology and theory}}</ref><ref name="Seto2000">{{cite book |editor = Hersen M |editor2 = Van Hasselt VB | title = Aggression and violence: an introductory text |url = https://archive.org/details/aggressionviolen0000unse_d5c1 |publisher= [[Allyn & Bacon]] |location=Boston |year=2000 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/aggressionviolen0000unse_d5c1/page/198 198]–213 |isbn=978-0-205-26721-7 |oclc= |doi=| last = Seto| first = MC|author2=Barbaree HE | chapter = Paraphilias}}</ref> မၞိဟ်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကုတိရစ္ဆာန်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုသၞောဝ်ဍုင်လ္ၚဵုမ္ဂး ဟွံဒှ်အရာ မ္ၚးသၞောဝ်ကီုလေဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဍုင်လ္ၚဵုမ္ဂး စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် မဒှ်အရာ မပကီုပရာပ် တိရစ္ဆာန်တုဲ ဒှ်ဒုဟ် ပလီုသဘာဝမွဲရ။ <ref name="Perdue">{{cite book| author =Abigail Perdue| author2 =Randall Lockwood|title=Animal Cruelty and Freedom of Speech: When Worlds Collide|publisher =[[Purdue University Press]]| year = 2014 | pages = 6–8| accessdate = December 9, 2014 |isbn = 978-1557536334| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=R1ncAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6}}</ref>
===ပရေင်ကၠောအ်က္ဍဘဝ သ္ဍိုက်ဆာန် Romantic relationships===
[[ဝှာင်:Lawrence Alma-Tadema Courtship - The Proposal.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] depiction of [[courtship]] and a [[marriage proposal]]]]
====သၞက်ကရောဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠောအ်က္ဍဘဝ====
ပွမဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် နကဵုအခိုက်ကၞာ ဒှ်လစှ်ေ သၞက်ကရောဲ (ဝါ) ဒက်သ္ၚိကၟိန်တုဲ ပွမသၞက်ကရောဲ (ထပ်တဲ)ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမဒက်မိတ် ပံင်တောဲ ပ္ဍဲကိစ္စဆက်ဆောံလိင်မွဲရ။ <!-- NOTE: This is also sourced in the bullet-point examples list below.--><ref name="Hogan">{{cite book| author =Margaret Monahan Hogan|title =Marriage as a Relationship: Real and Rational|publisher = [[Marquette University Press]] | year = 2002 | page = 88 | accessdate = September 1, 2015 |isbn = 978-0874626575| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=HuztAAAAMAAJ&q=Marriage+as+a+Relationship:+Real+and+Rational}}</ref> ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် အကြာ ပွံင် မဖျေဟ်လဝ်ဒၞာဲၜါဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမလုပ်အဝေါင်သၞောဝ်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်၊ ဘာသာ နူကဵု အခိင်ခေတ်ဝင်တေအ်ကီု သီုကဵု စဵုကဵုတ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ကလိဂွံ အခေါင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကုသမ္ဘာဇကုရ။<ref name="Dwyer">{{cite book| author =James G. Dwyer|title =Religious Schools V. Children's Rights|publisher = [[Cornell University Press]] | year = 2001 | pages = 72–73 | accessdate = August 31, 2015 |isbn = 978-0801487316| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=QDwD4huqyysC&pg=PA72}}</ref><ref name="Green">{{cite book| author =Ronald Green|title =Religion and Sexual Health: Ethical, Theological, and Clinical Perspectives, Volume 1 of Theology and Medicine|publisher = [[Springer Science & Business Media]] | year = 2013 | page = 112 | accessdate = August 31, 2015 |isbn = 978-9401579636| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=h2mvBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT112}}</ref><ref name="Brook">{{cite book| author =Heather Brook|title = Conjugality: Marriage and Marriage-like Relationships Before the Law|publisher = [[Palgrave Macmillan]] | year = 2015 | pages = 71–73 | accessdate = August 31, 2015 |isbn = 978-1137480910| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=rP2_CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71}}</ref> စဵုကဵု ၂၀ ဗွဝ်ကၠံလပါ်အိုတ်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲသၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာဂှ် တၠသ္ၚိဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ ပၠံင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကုသမ္ဘာဇကု အတေင်ကီုလေဝ် ဟွံဒှ်ဒုဟ် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာရ။<ref name="Steinmetz">{{cite book| author =Suzanne K. Steinmetz| author2 =Marvin B. Sussman|title = Handbook of Marriage and the Family|publisher = [[Springer Science & Business Media]] | year = 2013 | pages = 787–788 | accessdate = August 31, 2014 |isbn = 978-1461571513| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=T6XwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA787}}</ref> Author Oshisanya, 'lai Oshitokunbo ဟီု ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံစဂှ် အခေါင်လတူညးဗြဴ ပစၟတ်သမ္တီကၠုင်တုဲ အခေါင်တၠသ္ၚိ လတူသမ္ဘာလေဝ် ပြံင်လှာဲကၠုင်ကီုရ။ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ဍုင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ၜိုန်ရ စှ်ေလဝ်ဒၞာဲ (ဗြဴကဵုတြုဟ်)ကီုလေဝ် ယဝ်ရ ညးမွဲလပါ် ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒဟွံမဲ၊ ဟွံတီမွဲသာ် ဆက်ဆောံလိင်မ္ဂး ဒှ်ဒုဟ် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာရ။<ref name="Oshitokunbo">{{cite book| author =Oshisanya, 'lai Oshitokunbo|title = An Almanac of Contemporary Judicial Restatements (Criminal & Quasi Criminal Law & Procedure) vol. iii: Almanac vol. iii|publisher = Almanac Foundation | year = 2015 | page = 132 | accessdate = August 31, 2015 |isbn = 978-9785120035| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=fsDOBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA132}}</ref>
====လညာတ် ဘာသာဂမၠိုင်====
စပ်ကဵု ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ပ္ဍဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မ္ၚး သၞက်ကရောဲတုဲ ဘာသာမွဲကုမွဲ လညာတ်ဟွံတုပ်ရေင်သကအ်ရ။
* ပ္ဍဲဘာသာခရေတ်ယာန်၊ ဘာသာခရေတ်ယာန် နွံကဵု ဗီုပြင်နာနာတုဲ ဟိုတ်နူ ကံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ်တၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု သၠပတ်သမ္မာတုဲ လညာတ် စပ်ကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံဝွံလေဝ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ရေင်သကအ်ကီုရ။<ref name="Akin">{{Cite book|author=Daniel L. Akin| title = God on Sex: The Creator's Ideas About Love, Intimacy, and Marriage| year = 2003| publisher = [[B&H Publishing Group]] |pages= 1–291 | isbn = 978-0805425963|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dInbMZK18soC|accessdate=October 21, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Hollinger">{{cite book| author =Dennis P. Hollinger|title =The Meaning of Sex: Christian Ethics and the Moral Life|publisher = [[Baker Academic]] | year = 2009 | pages = 30–33 | accessdate = December 9, 2014 |isbn = 978-0801035715| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=86tzBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA30}}</ref>ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် မ္ၚးသၞက်ကရောဲဂှ် ဒှ်ဒုဟ်မွဲတုဲ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင် အပ္ဍဲသၞက်ကရောဲဂှ် ဒှ်ကမၠောန်ပရဲ အကြာ သမ္ဘာ ကဵု တၠသ္ၚိရ။<ref name="Akin"/><ref name="Hollinger"/> နကဵုအခိုက်တြေံမ္ဂး ခရေတ်ယာန်တအ်လေဝ် ဟီုတွဟ် သွက်ဂွံဝေင်ပါဲ ကိစ္စဆက်ဆောံလိင်<ref name="Denton">{{cite book| author =Chad Denton|title =The War on Sex: Western Repression from the Torah to Victoria|publisher = [[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] | year = 2014 | pages = 107–117 | accessdate = December 9, 2014 |isbn = 978-0547204888| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Cl6QBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA107}}</ref> ကီုလေဝ် အခိင်လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ကုကောန်ဂကောံတၟေင် (ဥပမာ - ပ္ဍဲဂိုဏ်လ္ၚဵုမ္ဂး လကျာ်၊ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်ဘာသာတအ်ဟေင် ဝေင်ပါဲ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံလိင်၊ ပရေင်သ္ဍိုက်ဆာန် မှောဝ်ဇဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵုလိင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်လိင်တအ်အိုတ်ရ။<ref name="Kamitsuka">{{cite book| author =Margaret D. Kamitsuka|title =The Embrace of Eros: Bodies, Desires, and Sexuality in Christianity|publisher = [[Fortress Press]] | year = 2010 | pages = 16–17 | accessdate = December 9, 2014 |isbn = 978-1451413519| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=VhIrHceA7ssC&pg=PA16}}</ref><ref name="Knauss">{{cite book| author =Stefanie Knauss|title =More Than a Provocation: Sexuality, Media and Theology|publisher = [[Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht]] | year = 2014 | page = 69 | accessdate = December 9, 2014 |isbn = 978-3525604502| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=mv9NAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA69}}</ref>
* ပ္ဍဲဘာသာဂျူ - မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် မဖျေဟ်လဝ်ဒၞာဲမွဲဂှ် ဒးကဵု အာရီုကာမလိင် ကုသမ္ဘာဇကု မကော်ဂး ''သြနး onah'' (ကၠာဲအတိုင်လိက်မ္ဂး "အခိင်ညးဗြဴ her time") အရာဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တင်တုပ်စိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သဘင်သၞက်ကရောဲဂျူ မကော်ဂး ''ကေတုဗး ketubah'' ရ။ နကဵုလညာတ်ဂျူမ္ဂး ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်ဓဝ်မေထုန် ပ္ဍဲသၞက်ကရောဲဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မယုတ်မာမွဲ ဟွံသေင်၊ ဆဂး သ္ဒးပေင်တြပ်စိုတ် မဒးနွံကဵု ကာလ ဒေသ မဒးရးရောင်။<ref name="Zilney">{{cite book| author =Laura J. Zilney| author2 =Lisa Anne Zilney|title=Perverts and Predators: The Making of Sexual Offending Laws|publisher =[[Rowman & Littlefield]]| year = 2009 | pages = 7–8| accessdate = December 9, 2014 |isbn = 978-0742566248| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Zo-h9D1gqOsC&pg=PA8}}</ref>
* ပ္ဍဲဘာသာအေဿလာမ် - မဆက်ဆောံလိင် ပ္ဍဲသၞက်ကရောဲဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမခိုဟ် ဒုင်စသိုင်တသိုက်မွဲ၊ ဒှ်အရာ မဇၞော်ပၟဝ်ဓမ္မကျာ်မွဲ တုဲ သီုဒှ် တာလျိုင် ကောန်မၞိဟ်မွဲရ။<ref name=columbia/><ref name=islam>Abdul Rahman bin Abdul Karim al-Sheha. Islamic Perspective of Sex (2003) Saudi Arabia. {{ISBN|9960-43-140-1}}</ref><ref name=islam2>Fatima M. D'Oyen. The Miracle of Life. (2007) Islamic Foundation (UK). {{ISBN|0-86037-355-X}}</ref> မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် မုဿလေန် ဂိုဏ်ရှဳယာက်ကီု သီုကဵု သူန်နဳဂှ် သၠးကဵုလဝ်အခေါင် မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်မွဲ ကေတ်ဗြဴ စဵုကဵုပန်တၠဂွံရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဂိုဏ်ရှဳယာက်ဂှ်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်တအ် ကလိဂွံလဝ်အခေါင် သွက်ဖျေဟ်ဒၞာဲယာယဳ ကုညးဗြဴ မဟွံမဲ ကုလၟိဟ်အပိုင်အခြာ၊ လလအ်အခိင် မဖျေဟ်ဒၞာဲယာယဳဂှ် နူကဵု ပွိုင်မိနေတ်ညိည စဵုကဵုသၞာံဗွဲမဂၠိုင်တုဲ ကဵုလဝ်အခေါင် ဆက်ဆောံလိင်ရ။ ညးဗြဴသုန်နဳတအ်ဂှ် အခေါင်မဖျေဟ်ဒၞာဲလၟိုန် ပ္ဍဲမွဲအခိင်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်မွဲဟေင် အခေါင်ကေတ်နွံရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရှဳယာက်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်ဗြဴတအ် ဖျေဟ်ဒၞာဲလၟိုန်ကဵုဒှ် ယာယဳကဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲမွဲအခိင် ဆမွဲဟေင် ဖျေဟ်ဂွံရ။ လိင်မ္ၚးသၞက်ကရောဲ၊ လိင် ကုကောန်ဍိက်၊ လိင်ပ္ဍဲကဵုညးသၟတ်၊ လိင်မကၠတ်ဗြဴညးတၞဟ်၊ ဝစ္စလိင် ကေုာံ သိပ်ဂၠိပ်လိင်တုပ်တအ်ဂှ် စဵုဒၞာကၟာတ်လဒဵုရ။<ref>{{cite book |last1=Joseph |first1=Suad |last2=Naǧmābādī |first2=Afsāna |title=Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics |date=2003|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]]|page=454 |isbn=9789004128187|url=https://books.google.com.bd/books?id=4Uyypm6T7ZsC&pg=PA454|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=al-Qaradawi |first1=Yusuf |title=The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam: الحلال والحرام في الإسلام |date=2013|page=20|publisher=[[The Other Press]] |isbn=9789670526003 |url=https://books.google.com.bd/books?id=iXCNAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Simon |first1=Rita James |last2=Brooks |first2=Alison |title=Gay and Lesbian Communities the World Over |date=2009|page=17|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=9780739143643 |url=https://books.google.com.bd/books?id=AGlGTAXlAcsC&pg=PA17|language=en}}</ref>
* ပ္ဍဲဟိန္ဒူ - စပ်ကဵု ဆက်ဆောံလိင်တုဲ လညာတ်နွံနာနာသာ်ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵုဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဟိန္ဒူ ဗွဲဓမ္မတာမ္ဂး လိင်မလောဲကာဲတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မဟွံမဲ ကုဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ကေုာံ ဒှ်အရာဂဝဂလေအ်ရ။ <ref name=columbia>Don S. Browning, Martha Christian Green, John Witte. Sex, marriage, and family in world religions. (2006) Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|0-231-13116-X}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=qkNE8pRQoboC&pg=PA227]</ref>
* ပ္ဍဲဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ - မဆက်ဆောံလိင်ကီု ပရေင်သၞေဟ်သၞဴအာရီုကာမ သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် ကဵုဝေင်ပါဲရ။ မုဟိုတ်ရောမ္ဂး အရာကာမတအ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မဓလိင်ကဵု ဘဝသံသာ ပွမဒးချိုတ် ပွမဒးဒှ်တုဲ တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံအာစိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန်ရ။ ဘိက္ခု ကေုာံ ဘိက္ခုနဳ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ်မဇၞော်ပၟဝ် ညံင်ဂွံစိုပ် ဍုင်ဇၞော်နိဗ္ဗာန်တုဲ ဝေင်ပါဲ ကိစ္စလိင်ပေင်င်ရ။ သွက်ခရှ်ဓမ္မတာမ္ဂး ဒးမင်မွဲသဳမသုန်ဂှ် ပွမသိပ်ဂၠိပ်ဓဝ်မေထုန် မ္ၚးသၞက်ကရောဲဂှ် ဒးဝေင်ပါဲရ။<ref>Harvey, Peter. ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issues''. Cambridge, 2000: 71-72.</ref> ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်ပိဋကတ်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာဂှ် သွက်ခရှ်တအ် စပ်ကဵု ကိစ္စလိင် မပ္တံကဵု နပုံလိင် (ခမၞုဲ)၊ ပတိတ်ဍာ်သုက်၊ သိပ်ဂၠိပ်လိင် ကေုာံ ဒက်ပတန်လိင်တအ်ဂှ် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး စဵုဒၞာလဝ် ဟွံမဲရ။ ၜိုန်ဂှ်ရလေဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်မၞိဟ်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာမ္ဂး အရာတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မဒးဂွ၊ မဒးဆောံလေင်မွဲရ။<ref>Harvey, Peter. ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issues''. Cambridge, 2000: 71-74.</ref>
==နိဿဲ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[Category:ကဏ္ဍအဓိက!]]
[[Category:BEHM]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပညာလိင်]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:သိပ်ဂၠိပ်မေထုန်}}
[[Category:ကဏ္ဍအဓိက!]]
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ဟာလ္လောဝေန်
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{{Infobox holiday
|holiday_name = ဟာလ္လောဝေန် <br> Halloween
|type = Christian
|longtype =
|image = Jack-o'-Lantern 2003-10-31.jpg
|caption = သတ်ခပဳထဝ် မကၠောန်လဝ် ရုပ်တုဲ မဍေန်လဝ်ပၞာင် နကဵု သင်္ကေတ ဟာလ္လောဝေန်
|official_name =
|nickname =
*Hallowe'en
*Allhallowe'en
*All Hallows' Eve
*All Saints' Eve
|observedby = ခရေတ်ယာန် ရးပလိုတ် ကေုာံ ဍုင်ခရေတ်ယာန် ဟွံသေင် အလုံလိုက်မွဲ
|significance = တ္ၚဲကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခါသမယ Allhallowtide
|date = အံက်တဝ်ပါ ၃၁
|celebrations = Trick-or-treating, costume, parties, jack-o'-lanterns, lighting, bonfires, divination, apple bobbing, visiting, haunted attractions.
|duration = ၁ တ္ၚဲ
|observances = Church service, Prayer in Christianity|prayer, fasting, vigil
|relatedto = Totensonntag, Blue Christmas,Thursday of the Dead, Samhain, Hop-tu-Naa,Calan Gaeaf, Allantide, Day of the Dead, RReformation Da],/All Saints' Da] /Mischief Nigh
}}
'''ဟာလ္လောဝေန်''' {{Lang-en|Halloween or Hallowe'en}}<ref name=Contraction>{{Cite book|title=A History of the Scottish People from the Earliest Times: From the Union of the kingdoms, 1706, to the present time|url=https://books.google.com/?id=YVgJAAAAIAAJ&q=Hallowe'en+contraction&dq=Hallowe'en+contraction|publisher=Blackie|first1=Thomas | last1=Thomson | first2=Charles | last2=Annandale|quote=Of the stated rustic festivals peculiar to Scotland the most important was Hallowe'en, a contraction for All-hallow Evening, or the evening of All-Saints Day, the annual return of which was a season for joy and festivity.|year=1896|accessdate=31 October 2011|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621033133/http://books.google.com/books?id=YVgJAAAAIAAJ&q=Hallowe'en+contraction&dq=Hallowe'en+contraction&ct=result&resnum=5|archivedate=21 June 2013}}</ref> လဆောဝ် ကော်စ '''Allhalloween''',<ref name="Palmer1882">{{Cite book|last=Palmer|first=Abram Smythe|title=Folk-etymology|year=1882|publisher=Johnson Reprint|page=6}}</ref> '''All Hallows' Eve''' (အဓိပ္ပါယ် - သဘင် ဟာလ္လော သီုဖအိုတ်)<ref name="Elwell2001">{{Cite book|last=Elwell|first=Walter A.|title=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology|year=2001|publisher=[[Baker Academic|Baker Academic]]|language=English|isbn=978-0801020759|page=533|quote=Halloween (All Hallows Eve). The name given to October 31, the eve of the Christian festival of All Saints Day (November 1).}}</ref> ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''All Saints' Eve''' (အဓိပ္ပါယ် - သဘင် တၠဳပိုန်သင် သီုဖအိုတ်)<ref>{{Cite journal|year=1973|title=NEDCO Producers' Guide|publisher=Northeast Dairy Cooperative Federation|volume=31–33|quote=Originally celebrated as the night before All Saints' Day, Christians chose November first to honor their many saints. The night before was called All Saints' Eve or hallowed eve meaning holy evening.}}</ref>ဂှ် ဒှ်သဘင်မကၠောန်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲဂိတုအံက်တဝ်ပါ ၃၁ တုဲ ပ္ဍဲသဘင်ဘာသာခရေတ်ယာန် ရးပလိုတ်မ္ဂး ညးကော်စ သဘင်တ္ၚဲဟာလ္လော အိုတ်သီု[[All Saints' Day|All Hallows' Day]]ရ။ သဘင်ဂှ် စကၠောန် ပွိုင်ပိတ္ၚဲ မစၟတ်သမ္တီ မဒှ်အခိင် မဗှ်ဗၞုဟ်ဝိညာဏ်တၠဳပိုန်သင်အာဇာနဲတအ်အိုတ်သီု မကော်ဂး Allhallowtide (အဓိပ္ပါယ် - All အိုတ်သီု၊ hallow တၠဳပိုန်မပြဲ tide အခိင်)ရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/little-moreton-hall/things-to-see-and-do/view-page/item994753/ |title=Tudor Hallowtide |year=2012 |publisher=[[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty]] |quote=Hallowtide covers the three days – 31 October (All-Hallows Eve or Hallowe'en), 1 November (All Saints) and 2 November (All Souls). |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006071731/https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/little-moreton-hall/things-to-see-and-do/view-page/item994753/ |archivedate=6 October 2014 }}</ref> မဒှ်အခိင် မဟာသမယ မဗှ်ဗၞုဟ် တၠဳပိုန်သင် (saint /hallows) ကေုာံ အာဇာနဲ ညးကလိလောန်စဴအာတအ် သီုဖအိုတ်ရ။<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hughes |first=Rebekkah |date=29 October 2014 |title=Happy Hallowe'en Surrey! |work=The Stag |publisher=[[University of Surrey|University of Surrey]] |page=1 |url=http://www.ussu.co.uk/stagmedia/Documents/Issues/The%20Stag%20-%20Issue%2076%20(Small%20File%20Size).pdf |accessdate=31 October 2015 |quote=Halloween or Hallowe'en, is the yearly celebration on October 31st that signifies the first day of Allhallowtide, being the time to remember the dead, including martyrs, saints and all faithful departed Christians. |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119032631/http://www.ussu.co.uk/stagmedia/Documents/Issues/The%20Stag%20-%20Issue%2076%20(Small%20File%20Size).pdf |archivedate=19 November 2015 }}</ref><ref>''Don't Know Much About Mythology: Everything You Need to Know About the Greatest Stories in Human History but Never Learned'' (Davis), HarperCollins, p. 231</ref>
ဆဂး မၞိဟ်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပတှ်ေကေတ် တမ်မူလ သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန် ဝွံ စေန်ဆက်ကၠုင် နူကဵု အခိုက် သဘင်သီသြောအ်ဂကူသေလ်တိစ် (Celtic harvest festival) ဗွဲတၟေင် သဘင်သီသြောအ်ဂကူဂဴလေတ် မဒှ်ဂကူအေယ်ယျာလာန် ကဵု သကတ်လာန် ပ္ဍဲဗြိတိန် မကော်ဂး သဘင်သာမ်ဟိန် (Samhain) မဒှ်အခိုက်ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ ဘာသာပဂါန် (Paganism) မဒှ်ဘာသာမရှ်ေသှ်ေကလော် ဗဴယိမွဲဘာသာ ပ္ဍဲရးယူရောပ် ကၠာဘာသာခရေတ်ယာန် ဟွံစိုပ်ရ။ သီသြောအ်တုဲအိုတ်မ္ဂး ကၠောန်သဘင် ဗစတၠတိ (ဝါ) ဗစဒေဝတဴပၟင်တဵုလွဳရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင် သာသနာခရေတ် စဓလီုဂွံ ရးယူရောပ်ဂှ် သဘင်သာမ်ဟိန်ဂှ် ပၠုပ်လွဳစုတ် ပ္ဍဲသဘင်ခရေတ်ယာန်ရ။<ref name=Christianity3>{{Cite book|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopædia of World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&pg=PA408|publisher=Merriam-Webster|quote=Halloween, ''also called'' All Hallows' Eve, holy or hallowed evening observed on October 31, the eve of All Saints' Day. The Irish pre-Christian observances influenced the Christian festival of All Hallows' Eve, celebrated on the same date.|year=1999|accessdate=31 October 2011|isbn=978-0877790440}}</ref><ref name="Roberts1987">{{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Brian K.|title=The Making of the English Village: A Study in Historical Geography|accessdate=14 December 2015|url=https://books.google.com/?id=CjbYAAAAMAAJ|year=1987|publisher=Longman Scientific & Technical|isbn=978-0582301436|quote=Time out of time', when the barriers between this world and the next were down, the dead returned from the grave, and gods and strangers from the underworld walked abroad was a twice- yearly reality, on dates Christianised as All Hallows' Eve and All Hallows' Day.}}</ref><ref name="Smith2004">{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Bonnie G.|title=Women's History in Global Perspective|accessdate=14 December 2015 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=7Q8Ix-M8LWcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage |year=2004|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0252029318|page=66|quote=The pre-Christian observance obviously influenced the Christian celebration of All Hallows' Eve, just as the Taoist festival affected the newer Buddhist Ullambana festival. Although the Christian version of All Saints' and All Souls' Days came to emphasize prayers for the dead, visits to graves, and the role of the living assuring the safe passage to heaven of their departed loved ones, older notions never disappeared.}}</ref><ref name=Christianity1>{{Cite book|author=Nicholas Rogers|title=Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stWZ_UDteMIC&pg=PA22|quote=Halloween and the Day of the Dead share a common origin in the Christian commemoration of the dead on All Saints' and All Souls' Day. But both are thought to embody strong pre-Christian beliefs. In the case of Halloween, the Celtic celebration of Samhain is critical to its pagan legacy, a claim that has been foregrounded in recent years by both new-age enthusiasts and the evangelical Right.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|accessdate=31 October 2011|isbn=978-0195168969}}</ref><ref name=Christianity2>{{Cite book|title=Austrian information|url=https://books.google.com/?id=9FU7AQAAIAAJ&q=all+hallow's+eve+wear+masks+Christian+souls+vengeance&dq=all+hallow's+eve+wear+masks+Christian+souls+vengeance|quote=The feasts of Hallowe'en, or All Hallows Eve and the devotions to the dead on All Saints' and All Souls' Day are both mixtures of old Celtic, Druid and other pagan customs intertwined with Christian practice.|year=1965|accessdate=31 October 2011}}</ref> ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် ညးလ္ၚဵုတအ် စှ်ေစိုတ် သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဝွံ ဒှ်သဘင် မဆေင်ကဵုခရေတ်ယာန်တုဲ ဟွံဆေင် ကုသဘင်သာမ်ဟိန် နူတမၠာတေအ်ရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://search.salzburg.com/display/SNZ41-2922809130.10.2010|title=Kein 'Trick or Treat' bei Salzburgs Kelten|last=Moser|first=Stefan|date=29 October 2010|publisher=Salzburger Nachrichten|language=German|accessdate=11 August 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317122059/http://search.salzburg.com/display/SNZ41-2922809130.10.2010|archive-date=17 March 2014|quote=Die Kelten haben gar nichts mit Halloween zu tun", entkräftet Stefan Moser, Direktor des Keltenmuseums Hallein, einen weit verbreiteten Mythos. Moser sieht die Ursprünge von Halloween insgesamt in einem christlichen Brauch, nicht in einem keltischen.}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Samhain – Halloween – Allerheiligen|last1=Döring|first1=Alois|last2=Bolinius|first2=Erich|date=31 October 2006|publisher=FDP Emden|language=German<!--|accessdate=12 November 2015-->|quote=Die lückenhaften religionsgeschichtlichen Überlieferungen, die auf die Neuzeit begrenzte historische Dimension der Halloween-Kultausprägung, vor allem auch die Halloween-Metaphorik legen nahe, daß wir umdenken müssen: Halloween geht nicht auf das heidnische Samhain zurück, sondern steht in Bezug zum christlichen Totengedenkfest Allerheiligen/ Allerseelen.}}</ref><ref name="2005Hörandner">{{Cite book|last=Hörandner|first=Editha|title=Halloween in der Steiermark und anderswo|year=2005|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|language=German|isbn=978-3825888893|pages=8, 12, 30|quote= Der Wunsch nach einer Tradition, deren Anfänge sich in grauer Vorzeit verlieren, ist bei Dachleuten wie laien gleichmäßig verbreitet. ... Abgesehen von Irrtümern wie die Herleitung des Fests in ungebrochener Tradition ("seit 2000 Jahren") ist eine mangelnde vertrautheit mit der heimischen Folklore festzustellen. Allerheiligen war lange vor der Halloween invasion ein wichtiger Brauchtermin und ist das ncoh heute. ... So wie viele heimische Bräuche generell als fruchtbarkeitsbringend und dämonenaustreibend interpretiert werden, was trottz aller Aufklärungsarbeit nicht auszurotten ist, begegnet uns Halloween als ...heidnisches Fest. Aber es wird nicht als solches inszeniert.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wdr.de/themen/freizeit/brauchtum/halloween_10/interview_doering.jhtml?rubrikenstyle=freizeit|title=Süßes, Saures – olle Kamellen? Ist Halloween schon wieder out?|last=Döring|first=Dr. Volkskundler Alois|year=2011|publisher=[[Westdeutscher Rundfunk|Westdeutscher Rundfunk]]|language=German|accessdate=12 November 2015 |archive-date=14 June 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614110611/http://www.wdr.de/themen/freizeit/brauchtum/halloween_10/interview_doering.jhtml?rubrikenstyle=freizeit|quote=Dr. Alois Döring ist wissenschaftlicher Referent für Volkskunde beim LVR-Institut für Landeskunde und Regionalgeschichte Bonn. Er schrieb zahlreiche Bücher über Bräuche im Rheinland, darunter das Nachschlagewerk "Rheinische Bräuche durch das Jahr". Darin widerspricht Döring der These, Halloween sei ursprünglich ein keltisch-heidnisches Totenfest. Vielmehr stamme Halloween von den britischen Inseln, der Begriff leite sich ab von "All Hallows eve", Abend vor Allerheiligen. Irische Einwanderer hätten das Fest nach Amerika gebracht, so Döring, von wo aus es als "amerikanischer" Brauch nach Europa zurückkehrte.}}</ref>
ဗီုမကၠောန်သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဂှ်မ္ဂး မပတံ ကျိုင်ကယျိုင် ရုပ်မထေက်ကဵု မဒးဖေက်ဂၟံက် ဗီုကဵု ရုပ်ကလော၊ ကေတ်ခပဳထဝ်တုဲ ကၠောန်ရုပ်ဗီုကလော် မၞုံကဵုမတ်ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ၚေက်ကေက်က်တုဲ မဍေန်လဝ် ပၞာင် ပ္ဍဲခပဳထဝ်တုဲ စွံလဝ် ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲဂၠုဂၠု၊ သဘင်မကိတ်သတ်ပုင် (apple bobbing)၊ မလဴပူ ပေါမ်ကလော် (divination games) မပ္တံ မြဴသာ်ဝွံ ဒှ်တမ်ရ။<ref name="Fieldhouse2017p256">{{Cite book|author= Paul Fieldhouse|title=Food, Feasts, and Faith: An Encyclopedia of Food Culture in World Religions|date=17 April 2017|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO|ABC-CLIO]]|page=256|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P-FqDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA256|isbn=9781610694124}}</ref>ဟိုတ်နူ မကၠောန်ရုပ်ကလော် နကဵုသတ်ခပဳထဝ်တုဲ မဍေန်ပၞာင်ဂှ်ရ၊ ဂကူမန် မစိုပ်ရးပလိုတ်တအ် ကော်စ သဘင်ခပဳထဝ် လေဝ် နွံကီုရ။ ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဝွံ ဘာသာခရေတ်ယာန်တအ် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကၠောန်သဘင်တၠဳပိုန်မပြဲသီုဖအိုတ် (All Hallows' Eve) နကဵုမလ္ၚောဝ်ကျာ် ပ္ဍဲဘာကျာ်၊ ဍေန်ပၞာင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိုဟ်မတိုပ်လဝ် မၞိဟ်မစုတိအာတအ်ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဒၟံင်ဏီဖိုဟ်ရ။<ref name="Skog2008">{{Cite book|last=Skog|first=Jason|title=Teens in Finland|url=https://archive.org/details/teensinfinland0000skog|year=2008|publisher=Capstone|isbn=978-0756534059|page=[https://archive.org/details/teensinfinland0000skog/page/31 31]|quote=Most funerals are Lutheran, and nearly 98 percent of all funerals take place in a church. It is customary to take pictures of funerals or even videotape them. To Finns, death is a part of the cycle of life, and a funeral is another special occasion worth remembering. In fact, during All Hallow's Eve and Christmas Eve, cemeteries are known as ''valomeri'', or seas of light. Finns visit cemeteries and light candles in remembrance of the deceased.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chapel.duke.edu/sites/default/files/AllHallows2012.pdf|title=All Hallows Eve Service|date=31 October 2012|publisher=[[Duke University|Duke University]]|accessdate=31 May 2014|quote=About All Hallows Eve: Tonight is the eve of All Saints Day, the festival in the Church that recalls the faith and witness of the men and women who have come before us. The service celebrates our continuing communion with them, and memorializes the recently deceased. The early church followed the Jewish custom that a new day began at sundown; thus, feasts and festivals in the church were observed beginning on the night before.|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005183350/https://chapel.duke.edu/sites/default/files/AllHallows2012.pdf|archivedate=5 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=5 May 2009|title=The Christian Observances of Halloween|journal=National Republic|volume=15|page=33|quote=Among the European nations the beautiful custom of lighting candles for the dead was always a part of the "All Hallow's Eve" festival.}}</ref> ဆဂး ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ်သဘင်မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မသွံဖျာ ပကောံမၞိဟ် ဝေင်ဂြိုင်ဂှ်ဂၠိုင်ရ။ <ref name="Hynes1993">{{Cite book|last=Hynes|first=Mary Ellen|title=Companion to the Calendar |url=https://archive.org/details/companiontocalen0000hyne|year=1993|publisher=Liturgy Training Publications|isbn=978-1568540115|page=[https://archive.org/details/companiontocalen0000hyne/page/160 160]|quote=In most of Europe, Halloween is strictly a religious event. Sometimes in North America the church's traditions are lost or confused.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kernan |first=Joe |date=30 October 2013 |title=Not so spooky after all: The roots of Halloween are tamer than you think |work=[[Beacon Communications (publisher)|Cranston Herald]] |url=http://cranstononline.com/stories/not-so-spooky-after-all-the-roots-of-halloween-are-tamer-than-you-think,86934?print=1 |accessdate=31 October 2015 |quote=By the early 20th century, Halloween, like Christmas, was commercialized. Pre-made costumes, decorations and special candy all became available. The Christian origins of the holiday were downplayed. |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126163657/http://cranstononline.com/stories/not-so-spooky-after-all-the-roots-of-halloween-are-tamer-than-you-think,86934?print=1 |archivedate=26 November 2015 }}</ref><ref name="BradenVillage1988">{{Cite book|last1=Braden|first1=Donna R.|last2=Village|first2=Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield|title=Leisure and entertainment in America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fyKCAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=2 June 2014|year=1988|publisher=Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village|isbn=978-0933728325|quote=Halloween, a holiday with religious origins but increasingly secularized as celebrated in America, came to assume major proportions as a children's festivity.|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715223701/http://books.google.com/books?id=fykcAAAAMAAJ|archivedate=15 July 2014}}</ref> ညးလျိုင်ပတှ်ေခရေတ်ယာန် လ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဂှ်မ္ဂး ဒှ်တ္ၚဲမဝေင်ပါဲဖျုန်တုဲ ညးတအ် စစၞသၞေဝ် မပ္တံကဵု စသတ်ပုင် (သတ်ကဴ)၊ ကွာင်အာလူ၊ ကေုာံ ကွာင်ဝိညာဏ် (soul cake) ရ။<ref>Santino, p. 85</ref><ref>All Hallows' Eve (Diana Swift), Anglican Journal</ref><ref name="Mahon1991">{{Cite book|last=Mahon|first=Bríd|title=Land of Milk and Honey: The Story of Traditional Irish Food & Drink|year=1991|publisher=Poolbeg Press|language=English|isbn=978-1853711428|page=138|quote=The vigil of the feast is Halloween, the night when charms and incantations were powerful, when people looked into the future, and when feasting and merriment were ordained. Up to recent time this was a day of abstinence, when according to church ruling no flesh meat was allowed. Colcannon, apple cake and barm brack, as well as apples and nuts were part of the festive fare.}}</ref><ref name="Fieldhouse2017">{{Cite book|last=Fieldhouse|first=Paul|title=Food, Feasts, and Faith: An Encyclopedia of Food Culture in World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P-FqDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA254|accessdate=13 August 2017|date=17 April 2017|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO|ABC-CLIO]]|language=English|isbn=978-1610694124|page=254|quote=In Ireland, dishes based on potatoes and other vegetables were associated with Halloween, as meat was forbidden during the Catholic vigil and fast leading up to All Saint's Day.|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031175805/https://books.google.com/books?id=P-FqDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA254|archivedate=31 October 2017}}</ref>
==နိရုတ္တိ==
[[File:J. M. Wright - Edward Scriven - Robert Burns - Halloween.JPG|thumb|The word appears as the title of [[Robert Burns|Robert Burns]]' "[[Halloween (poem)|Halloween]]" (1785), a poem traditionally reCited by Scots]]
မအရေဝ် ''ဟာလ္လောဝေန် (Halloween)'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''ဟာလ္လောဝေ အေန် (Hallowe'en)'' ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် နူသၞာံၜိုတ် ၁၇၄၅ တေအ်<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Halloween&allowed_in_frame=0 |title=Online Etymology Dictionary: Halloween |publisher=Etymonline.com |accessdate=13 October 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016095049/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Halloween&allowed_in_frame=0 |archivedate=16 October 2013 }}</ref> မဒှ် မအရေဝ် နူတမ် ကၠုင်နူ ဘာသာခရေတ်ယာန်ရ။<ref>''The A to Z of Anglicanism'' (Colin Buchanan), Scarecrow Press, p. 8</ref> မအရေဝ် "ဟာလ္လောဝေ အေန် Hallowe'en" ဂှ် ဂွံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် အခိင်သဝ်တ္ၚဲ သွက်ပူဇဴ တၠဳပိုန်သင်ဂမၠိုင် (Saints' evening) ရ။<ref name="Luck1998">{{Cite book|last=Luck|first=Steve|title=The American Desk Encyclopedia|date=22 October 1998|publisher=[[Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]]|language=English|isbn=978-0195214659|url=https://archive.org/details/americandeskency00oxfo}}</ref> မအရေဝ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ်ဂကူသကတ် ''All Hallows' Eve'' (အခိင်သဝ်တ္ၚဲ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တ္ၚဲတၠဳပိုန်ပရဲဂမၠိုင်)<ref name="oed"/> နကဵု အရေဝ်သကတ်မ္ဂး မအရေဝ် "eve" ဂှ် ညးချူ ''even''၊ နူဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒှ်အာ ''e'en'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''een'' ရ။ အခိင်လအ်ကၠုင်တုဲ မအရေဝ် နူကဵု ''(All) Hallow(s) E(v)en'' ဂှ် မြိပတ် ဒှ်အာ ''Hallowe'en''ရ။ ဆဂး မအရေဝ် "All Hallows'" ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ပ္ဍဲအရေဝ်အင်္ဂလိက်တြေံ ကီုလေဝ် နကဵုမအရေဝ် "All Hallows' Eve" ကြဴနူသၞာံ ၁၅၅၆ တုဲမှ ဂွံဆဵုကေတ်ရ။<ref name="oed">{{Cite book |title=The Oxford English Dictionary |edition=2nd |year=1989 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0198611868}}</ref><ref name=DSL>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?plen=1266&startset=21732206&query=Hallow_evin&fhit=hallow&dregion=form&dtext=dost#fhit |title=DOST: Hallow Evin |publisher=Dsl.ac.uk |accessdate=13 October 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429162756/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?plen=12718&startset=16840203&query=HALLOW&fhit=hallow&dregion=form&dtext=snd|archivedate=29 April 2014}}</ref>
==ဝင်==
===လညာတ် ဂဴလိစ် (Gaelic) ကဵု ဝေလ (Welsh)===
[[File:Traditional-irish-halloween-mask.jpg|thumbnail|left|upright=0.9|ဂရောပ်မုက် ဟာလ္လောဝေန် ဂကူအာဲရေတ် နူကဵု ၂၀ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ လပါ်စ၊ မထ္ၜးပျးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲတိုက်ထ္ၜး[[Museum of Country Life|Museum of Country Life]].]]
ဗီုကယျိုင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန် တ္ၚဲဏအ်ဂှ် စှ်ေစိုတ် ဆက်ကၠုင် နူကဵု ကယျိုင်ဂကူ နူဍုင်မဟီုအရေဝ်သေလ်တိစ် (Celtic nations) ကယျိုင်လ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် စှ်ေဆက်ကၠုင် နူကဵု အခိုက်ဘာသာပဂါန် မဒှ်ဘာသာခေတ်တြေံ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဘာသာခရေတ်ယာန် ဟွံဂွံစိုပ် ရးယူရောပ်ရ။<ref>''Anglo-Saxon Spirituality: Selected Writings'' (Robert Boenig), Paulist Press, p. 7</ref>ညးမလ္ၚတ် အခိုက်ကၞာ ကေုာံ ပေါမ်အာဂီုခေတ်တြေံ Jack Santino ချူဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် မဆေင်ကဵု ဟာလ္လောဝေန် ဗီုဏအ်ရ။ "သဘင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အခိုက် ကေုာံ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ မၞိဟ်ခေတ်တမၠာ မပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲအာဲယျာလာန် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခရေတ်ယာန် ဟွံစိုပ်ကၠုင်ဏီတေအ်ရ။".<ref>Santino, Jack. ''The Hallowed Eve: Dimensions of Culture in a Calendar Festival of Northern Ireland''. University Press of Kentucky, p. 95</ref> အစာဝင် Nicholas Rogers ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး စပ်ကဵု တမ်မူလ ဟာလ္လောဝေန် ဗီုဏအ်ရ။ "ညးလ္ၚတ်အခိုက်တြေံလ္ၚဵုတအ်ဟီု ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဝွံ နူတမ်မူလ စေန်ဆက်ကၠုင် နူကဵုသဘင်ဂကူရောမ မကော်ဂး သဘင်ပေါမောနာ (Pomona) မဒှ် သဘင်ဒေဝတဴဗြဴ သတ်ဆု မဂမၠိုင်၊ ညးလ္ၚဵုဂှ်ဟီု ဒှ်သဘင်ဂမ္စိုတ် မကော်ဂး ပရေန်တလဳယျာ (Parentalia) ကီုလေဝ် သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ တမ် သဘင်သာမ်ဟိန် ဂကူဂဴလိစ် မဒှ်သဘင် ဂကူအာဲရေတ်တြေံ မကၠောန်သဘင်ကၞောတ်ကညင် ရ။"<ref name="rogers_s">Rogers, Nicholas (2002). "Samhain and the Celtic Origins of Halloween". ''Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night'', pp. 11–21. New York: [[Oxford University Press|Oxford Univ. Press]]. {{ISBN|0195168968}}.</ref>
သာမ်ဟိန် (Samhain) ({{IPAc-en|'|s|ɑː|w|ɪ|n|,_|'|s|aʊ|ɪ|n}}) ဂှ် ဒှ်တ္ၚဲကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုတ္ၚဲကိစ္စဇၞော်ပန် သီုဖအိုတ် နွံပန်တ္ၚဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကြက္ကဒိန် ဂကူဂဴလိစ် ခေတ်လဒေါဝ်တေအ်တုဲ သွက်တ္ၚဲဂှ် ညးဝေင်သဘင် နူကဵု အံက်တဝ်ပါ ၃၁ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် နဝ်ဝေန်ပါ ၁ ပ္ဍဲအာဲယျာလာန်၊ သကတ်လာန်၊ ကေုာံ Isle of Man ရ။<ref name="Roud">''A Pocket Guide To Superstitions of the British Isles'' (Publisher: Penguin Books Ltd; Reprint edition: 4 November 2004) {{ISBN|0140515496}}</ref><ref name="bbc_halloween">[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/holydays/halloween_1.shtml All Hallows' Eve] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103105817/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/holydays/halloween_1.shtml |date=3 November 2011 }} BBC. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲဂှ်ကီု ဂကူဗြိတ်တဝ်နိစ်တအ် (Brittonic Celts) မကော်ဂး သဘင်ကလန် ဂေပ် (Calan Gaeaf) ပ္ဍဲဝေလ၊ သဘင်ကလန် ဂွဝ် (Kalan Gwav) ပ္ဍဲခေါန်ဝလ် (Cornwall)၊ ကေုာံ သဘင်ကလန် ဂေါပ် (Kalan Goañv) ပ္ဍဲ ဗြိတ်တနဳ (Brittany) ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဒၟံင်ရ။ ယၟုဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် တ္ၚဲကသီုကၠာအိုတ် ("first day of winter")ရ။ သွက်ဂကူ ကေလ် (Celts)တအ်မ္ဂး သဘင်ဂှ် စ ကေုာံ တုဲဒှ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်တ္ၚဲဒတုံတိရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ရံင်ကဵု အခိင်တ္ၚဲတိုန်စှ်ေမ္ဂး သဘင်ဂှ် အခိင်ကၠာတေအ် ကၠောန်လဝ် ကၠာဟွံစိုပ် နဝ်ဝေန်ပါ ၇ ဂှ် ဆိင်ကေတ်မာန်ရ။<ref>Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. ''Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopaedia of the Irish folk tradition''. Prentice Hall Press, 1991. p. 402</ref>
သာံဟိန်/ဂလန်ဂေပ် ဂှ် ဒှ်သဘင် အခိင်မသီသြောအ်တုဲ ဒှ်အခိင်ဥတုကသီုစ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲမွဲသၞာံ ဂၠု ကဵု တၟး ဒှ်ညးကဝက် အဲကဝက်ရ (ပ္ဍဲဒေသ သၟဝ်ကျာ အခိင်ကညင် အခိင်တ္ၚဲတိုန် နွံဂၠိုင်တုဲ အခိင်ကသီု အခိင်တ္ၚဲတိုန် နွံအောန်)<ref name=monaghan407>Monaghan, Patricia. ''The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore''. Infobase Publishing, 2004. p. 407</ref><ref>Hutton, p. 361</ref>ဟိုတ်နူ အခိင်ဂၠုဂၠိုင်တုဲ ဒဒှ်ရ ဝိညာဏ် ကေုာံ ကလော် နကဵုအရေဝ်ညးဒေသညးတအ် မကော်ဂး Aos Sí ဂမၠိုင် ကၠုင်စိုပ် ဇရေင်မၞိဟ်တအ်လောဲ၊ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်အာကၠုင်ဂၠိုင် ညးတအ် စှ်ေစိုတ်ရ။<ref>Monaghan, p. 41</ref><ref>O'Halpin, Andy. ''Ireland: An Oxford Archaeological Guide''. Oxford University Press, 2006. p. 236</ref> ယၟုမ္ဂးသြသ်သဳ ''Aos Sí'' ဂှ် တၠပညာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စှ်ေစိုတ် ဒှ်ယၟု ကျာ်ခေတ်တြေံတုဲ ၜိုန်ရ မၞိဟ်တအ် ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လျိုင်ပတှ်ေ ပြံင်လှာဲအာကီုလေဝ် အစောဲဓဝ်ပတှ်ေမၞိဟ်တအ် လတူကျာ်ဂှ် သှ်ေၜက်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵုမၞိဟ်တအ်ဏီဖိုဟ်ရ။<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Monaghan |first1=Patricia |title=The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore |date=2014 |publisher=Infobase publishing |page=167}}</ref> လတူကျာ်သြသ်သဳ ''Aos Sí'' ဂှ် မၞိဟ်တအ် ရှ်ေသှ်ေကီု သီုကဵု မဒးဖေက်တုဲ ဒှ်ကျာ်မကဵု ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာကဵု အရာဟွံခိုဟ်သန်တအ်ရ။<ref name="Monaghan2009">{{Cite book|last=Monaghan|first=Patricia|title=The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nd9R6GQBB_0C&pg=PA167|accessdate=19 October 2015|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1438110370|page=167|quote=They were both respected and feared. "Their backs towards us, their faces away from us, and may God and Mary save us from harm," was a prayer spoken whenever one ventured near their dwellings.|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423051036/https://books.google.com/books?id=nd9R6GQBB_0C&pg=PA167|archivedate=23 April 2016}}</ref><ref>Santino, p. 105</ref> ပ္ဍဲသဘင်သာံဟိန်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်တအ် ပူဇဴသက္ကာ ကု ကျာ်သြသ်သဳရ။ ကာလဂှ်ဟေင် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်ကီု သီုကဵု ဇွောအ်မညးတအ်ဂှ် ဂွံဂျိုင်တတ်ၜက် အခိင်ကသီုမာန်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ မၞိဟ်တအ် ပူဇဴကျာ်သြသ်သဳ နမကဵု ပုင်သၟုတ်၊ ဍာ်သၟုတ်၊ သြောအ်သ္ၚုရ။ <ref>Danaher, Kevin (1972). ''The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs''. p. 200</ref><ref>[[Walter Evans-Wentz|Evans-Wentz, Walter]] (1911). ''The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries''. p. 44.</ref><ref>[[F. Marian McNeill|McNeill, F. Marian]] (1961). ''The Silver Bough, Volume 3''. p. 34.</ref> ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ်မ္ဂး ဝိညာဏ် ကလောကောဒေအ် ညးမစုတိအာလဝ်တအ်လေဝ် ကလေင်စဴကၠုင်သ္ၚိတုဲ ရဲသ္ၚိတအ် ဒးဒုင်ကၟုဲ ဗ္စဖျုင်ကီုရ။<ref>"Halloween". ''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009. Credo Reference. Web. 21 September 2012.</ref> ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲသ္ၚိလေဝ် စွံလဝ်စၞစ ဍာ်ယာမ သွက်ဂွံဒုင်တၠုင် ကလောသ္ၚိဇကုရ။<ref name=mcneill1>McNeill, ''The Silver Bough, Volume 3'', pp. 11–46</ref>ဓဝ်ပတှေ် ဝိညာဏ် ညးမစုတိအာလဝ်တအ် (ဝါ) ကလော်ကလေင်စဴသ္ၚိ မွဲသၞာံမွဲအလန်ဂှ် ဒှ်အခိုက်ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ တမ်မူလ ခေတ်တြေံတုဲ ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိုက်ကၞာဂကူနာနာ အလုံလိုက်မွဲရ။<ref name=miles>Miles, Clement A. (1912). ''Christmas in Ritual and Tradition''. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/time/crt/crt11.htm Chapter 7: All Hallow Tide to Martinmas] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104130353/http://www.sacred-texts.com/time/crt/crt11.htm |date=4 November 2013 }}.</ref>အခိုက်လှ်ေကလောမန်ဂှ်လေဝ် ကြပ်ညောန်ဒၟံင် ကုအခိုက်ဏအ်တၟာဂလိုင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအာဲယျာလာန် ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံဂှ် မၞိဟ်တအ် စသုင် ဝေင်လံင်နာနာတုဲအိုတ်တုဲ မၞိဟ်တအ် ဍေန်ပၞာန် သွက် သွက်ဂွံရာဒနာ ကုဝိညာဏ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>Hutton, p. 379</ref>
===လညာတ် ခရေတ်ယာန်===
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| footer = ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဂှ် ညးလျိုင်ပတှေ် ခရေတ်ယာန်တအ် ပြာပ်အာ ဇရေင် ဂိုဟ်မိမ ကလောကောဒေအ် ညးမသ္ဍိုက်ဆာန်ဇကုတုဲ ဖျေဟ်စွံ ပကဴ၊ ပၟတ်ပၞာင်ရ။<ref>''Arising from Bondage: A History of the Indo-Caribbean People'' (Ron Ramdin), New York University Press, p. 241</ref> ဗီုလတူဂှ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ခရေတ်ယာန် ဗင်္ဂလာဒေတ် ဍေန်ဒၟံင် ပၟတ်ပ္ဍဲကဵု တိုင်တၟအ်ဂိုဟ် မိမကလောကောဒေအ်ညးတအ်။ ဗီုသၟဝ်ဂှ် ဂကောံခရေတ်ယာန်လူတာရာန် ရာဒၞာ ကေုာံ ဍေန်ပၟတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သုသာန်။ }}
ပ္ဍဲအခိင်လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်တအ်စှ်ေစိုတ် ဟာလ္လောဝေန် ဝွံ ဒှ်သဘင်အခိုက်ခရေတ်ယာန်မွဲရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2016/10/28/guess-what-halloween-is-more-christian-than-pagan|title=Guess what? Halloween is more Christian than Pagan - The Washington Post|author=Beth Allison Barr|date=28 October 2016|newspaper=[[The Washington Post|The Washington Post]]|accessdate=31 October 2018|quote=It is the medieval Christian festivals of All Saints' and All Souls' that provide our firmest foundation for Halloween. From emphasizing dead souls (both good and evil), to decorating skeletons, lighting candles for processions, building bonfires to ward off evil spirits, organizing community feasts, and even encouraging carnival practices like costumes, the medieval and early modern traditions of "Hallowtide" fit well with our modern holiday.}}</ref> ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဂှ် ဒှ်တ္ၚဲ ကၠာဟွံစိုပ် သဘင်ခရေတ်ယာန် တ္ၚဲဟာလ္လော သီုဖအိုတ် (All Hallows' Day) (လဆောဝ်ကော်စ တၠဳပိုန်သင် ဖအိုတ် (''All Saints'') ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟာလ္လောမာတ် (Hallowmas) ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲနဝ်ဝေန်ပါ ၁ ကဵု တ္ၚဲနဝ်ဝေန်ပါ ၂ ဂှ် ဒှ် တ္ၚဲဝိညာဏ်သီုဖအိုတ် All Souls' Day။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ တ္ၚဲအံက်တဝ်ပါ ၃၁ ဂှ် ကဵုလဝ်ယၟု နကဵုယၟုပေင်င်မ္ဂး သဘင်ဟာလ္လော သီုဖအိုတ် (''All Hallows' Eve'') (မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် သဝ်တ္ၚဲ/ဗတံ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တ္ၚဲဟာလ္လော သီုဖအိုတ်).<ref name="rogers_religion">Rogers, Nicholas (2002). ''Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night'', pp. 22, 27. New York: [[Oxford University Press|Oxford Univ. Press]]. {{ISBN|0-19-516896-8}}.</ref>ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ဘာသာခရေတ် မစဒှ်တၟိတၟိတေအ် သဘင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု သဘင်ခရေတ်သမာတ်၊ သဘင်အိသတာ၊ သဘင်ပေန်တေကုတ်ထေတအ်ဂှ် မလေပ်ကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲဗတံ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံစိုပ် ပရူမွဲမွဲရ။<ref>New Proclamation Commentary on Feasts, Holy Days, and Other Celebrations (Bill Doggett, Gordon W. Lathrop), Fortress Press, p. 92</ref><ref>''Hallowe'en, A Christian Name with Blended Christian & Folk Traditions'' (Thomas L. Weitzel), Evangelical Lutheran Church in America</ref> တ္ၚဲတၟေင် ပိတ္ၚဲဝွံ ညးပံင်ပကောံတုဲ ကော်စ [[Allhallowtide|Allhallowtide]]ရ။<ref name="CP">{{Cite book|title=Holy Women, Holy Men: Celebrating the Saints|publisher=Church Publishing, Inc.|isbn=978-0898696783|page=662|url=https://books.google.com/?id=CZqabeZvNaMC&lpg=PR1&pg=PA662#v=onepage|date=2010}}</ref>
သဘင် ဟာလ္လောဝ် သီုဖအိုတ် (All Hallows) မကၠောန်ဗဒှ်ဒၟံင် အခိင်လၟုဟ် ပ္ဍဲဘာကျာ်ရးပလိုတ်တအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲလက်ထက် သၟိင်သင်ပေါပ် ဂရေဂေါရဳ တတိယ (Pope Gregory III]]'s (731–741)) ဟီုမာန်ရ။ ဗီုမကၠောန်ဂှ် ဓါတ်တၠဳပိုန်သင် တၠဇမၠိင်အာယုက်ဂမၠိုင်ကီု သီုကဵု ဓါတ်အာဇာနဲသာသနာ မဂိုင်ဒေပ်လဝ်တအ်ဂှ် ညးကေတ်ပ္တိတ်တုဲ ကၠောန်သဘင်ပူဇဴ ဗှ်ဗၞုဟ်ဂုဏ် ပ္ဍဲဘာနန်ဝိဟာရ် သင်ပေတရု (Old St. Peter's Basilica) ရ။<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=All Saints, Festival of}}</ref><ref>"All Saints' Day", ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', 3rd edition, ed. E. A. Livingstone (Oxford: [[Oxford University Press|Oxford University Press]], 1997), 41–42; ''The New Catholic Encyclopedia'', ''eo.loc''.</ref> စိုပ်သၞာံ ၈၃၅ ပ္ဍဲလက်ထက်သၟိင်သင်ပေါပ် ဂရေဂေါရဳ စတုတ္ထဂှ် စၞးမကၠောန်သဘင် ပ္ဍဲဂိတုမေ ၁၃ ဂှ် ညးတအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ပဒတန် သဘင်ပူဇဴဟာလ္လောဝ် သီုဖအိုတ် (All Hallows' Day)ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပ္ဍဲဂိတုနဝ်ဝေန်ပါ ၁ မတုပ်ကဵု တ္ၚဲသဘင်သာံဟိန်<ref name=hutton364>Hutton, p. 364</ref>ညးလ္ၚဵု စှ်ေစိုတ် ဟိုတ်နူ လညာတ်ဂကူကေလ်တိစ်၊ ညးလ္ၚဵုဂှ်ဟီု ဟိုတ်နူလညာတ် ဂကူဂျာမာန်နိစ် မပါလုပ်တုဲ ရုဲစှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲဂှ်ရ။<ref name=hutton364/> ဆဂး သဘင်ကလောစဴသ္ၚိ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကၠာဟွံစိုပ်ကသီုဂှ် ဂကူကေလ်တိစ်တအ်ကီု သီုကဵု ဂကူဂျာမာန်နိစ်တအ်ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဒၟံင်ဖိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ်ရ။<ref name=macculloch10>MacCulloch, John Arnott (1911). ''The Religion of the Ancient Celts''. [http://sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/rac/rac13.htm Chapter 10: The Cult of the Dead] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029074223/http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/rac/rac13.htm |date=29 October 2015 }}.</ref>
ၜိုတ် ၁၂ ဗွဝ်ကၠံလပါ်အိုတ်ဂှ် သဘင်ဂှ် ပြးဇးအာ အလုံမွဲရးယူရောပ်တုဲ ဒှ်အာသဘင် တ္ၚဲတၟေင် တ္ၚဲပရဲ ပ္ဍဲရးယူရောပ်တုဲ စိုပ်တ္ၚဲဂှ်မ္ဂး ဘာကျာ်တက်ခၞိင် ဓရိုက်ခရေဲ သွက်ဂွံဓလိုက်ကတဵု ဝိညာဏ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>The World Review – Volume 4, University of Minnesota, p. 255</ref> ဆဂး စိုပ်ခေတ် ရေဝှဝ်မေရှေန် (Reformation) မဒှ်ခေတ် မကလေင်ပလေဝ် ဘာသာခရေတ်ယာန်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်တအ် ညာတ်ကေတ် သဘင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကုသၠပတ်သမ္မာတုဲ ဒစဵုဒစး ဟွံမိက်ကၠောန် သဘင်ဏအ်ရ။ ပွမကော်ဓလိုက်ကတဵု ဝိညာဏ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမပကဵု ညံင်ဝိညာဏ်တအ် ဟွံအာဇရေင်ဍုင်သွဝ်။ မြဴသာ်ဝွံ ညးတအ်ပတှ်ေကေတ်ရ။
===ဂမ္စာဲ စိုပ် အမေရိကသၟဝ်ကျာ===
[[File:Greenwich Village Halloween Parade (6451249051).jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|သဘင်ဇက်ဂၠာဲဟာလ္လောဝေန် ပ္ဍဲ (Greenwich Village) ပ္ဍဲ (Manhattan) မဒှ်သဘင်ဇက်ဂၠာဲ/ကဝါ် ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ။]]
သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲအမေရိကသၟဝ်ကျာ (ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်) ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ၁၈ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ကဵု ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံလပါ်စဂှ် ဟွံကၠောန်ကွေဟ်ဟ်ဏီရ။<ref name="rogers_nw">Rogers, Nicholas (2002). ''Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night'', pp. 49–50. New York: [[Oxford University Press|Oxford Univ. Press]]. {{ISBN|0195168968}}.</ref> စိုပ်ပ္ဍဲ ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ဂကူအာဲရေတ် ကေုာံ ဂကူသကတ်ဒေတ် နူယူရောပ် ပြံင်အာမံင် ပ္ဍဲအမေရိကတုဲ သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဂှ် စိုပ်အာ ပ္ဍဲအမေရိကာန်တုဲ မၞိဟ်တအ် မကၠောန်ကၠုင် သဘင်ဇၞော်ဇၞော်မွဲရ။<ref name="rogers_nw"/> စတမ်နူ ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၜိုတ်လဒေါဝ်ဂှ် စကၠောန်ကၠုင်တုဲ စိုပ်ၜိုတ် ၂၀ ဗွဝ်ကၠံဂှ် သဘင်ဂှ် လုပ်စိုပ်အာ ဇရေင်ဂကောံမၞိဟ်နာနာ ဘာသာနာနာ ပ္ဍဲအမေရိကာန်တုဲ ဒှ်အာ အခိုက်အမေရိကာန်မွဲရ။<ref name="rogers_nationwide">Rogers, Nicholas (2002). ''Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night'', p. 74. New York: [[Oxford University Press|Oxford Univ. Press]]. {{ISBN|0195168968}}.</ref>သဘင်ဇက်ဂၠာဲ/ကဝါ် ဟာလ္လောဝေန် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်နယျူယံက်ဂှ် စကၠောန် နူကဵုသၞာံ ၁၉၇၄ တုဲ သဘင်ကဝါ်ဟာလ္လောဝေန် [[:en:Greenwich Village Halloween Parade|New York Halloween Parade]]ဂှ် ဒှ်သဘင်ကဝါ်ဟာလ္လောဝေန် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိဏအ်ရ။ မၞိဟ်ပါလုပ်ကွာ် နကဵုကယျိုင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန် ၆၀၀၀၀ ပြင်င်တုဲ မၞိဟ်ကောံဗဵုအာကၠုင် သီုဖအိုတ် ၜိုတ်ၜါမဳလဳယာန်ရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.halloween-nyc.com/about.php|title=History of the Parade|author=Village Halloween Parade|accessdate=19 September 2014|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727200017/http://halloween-nyc.com/about.php|archivedate=27 July 2014}}</ref>
===နူအမေရိကာန် ပြးစိုပ် အလုံလိုက်===
သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ဂှ် နူကဵုအမေရိကာန် မွဲကဆံင် ကလေင်ပြးဇး စိုပ်အာ ဍုင်ရးတၞဟ်ဟ်တအ်ရ။ ဥပမာ ဗီုကဵု ဍုင်ဒိန်မက်မ္ဂး စတမ်နူသၞာံ ၁၉၉၈ ဂှ် မၞိဟ်တအ် စကၠောန်ကၠုင်ရ။ ဗွဲတၟေင် ဒၞာဲဥဒျာန် သွက်ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန်ဂွံအာ ကြေဝ်ဝေင်တအ်ဂှ် တၞဟ်နကောန်ၚာ်တအ် မဂွံကၠုင်ဝေင် ဇရေင်ဥဒျာန်ဇကုဂၠိုင်တုဲ ညးတၠဥဒျာန် ဒၞာဲဝေင်တအ် ဖန်ဇန်ကၠောန်သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ရ။ ကောန်ၚာ်တအ် မကျိုင်ကယျိုင် ရုပ်ကလော် ရုပ်ခမုဲတုဲ မအာဝေင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာကောန်ၚာ်တအ် မမိပ်မြဟ် ဒးဂၞပ်မွဲရ။ ညးသၟာပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မပတိတ်ကယျိုင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန်တအ်၊ ဥဒျာန်ဒၞာဲဝေင်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ညးမဖန် ညံင်သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန် ဂွံပြးဇးအလုံလိုက်မွဲ ဟီုမာန်ရ။ ဥပမာ ဥဒျာန်ဒၞာဲဝေင် ပ္ဍဲဒိန်မက် Tivoli ဂှ် ကၠောန်သဘင်ဟာလ္လောဝေန်ရ။ အတိုင်စၟတ်သမ္တီမ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၈ ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲပွိုင် မွဲၜါတ္ၚဲဂှ် မၞိဟ်လုပ်ဝေင် ပ္ဍဲဥဒျာန်ညးတအ် ၂၆၄၀၀၀ တၠရ။
==နိဿဲ==
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{{Infobox person
|name=ဟဝ်ချဳမေန်<br>{{lang|vi|Hồ Chí Minh|italic=no}}
|office=[[Chairman of the Workers' Party of Vietnam|Chairman]] of the [[Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Vietnam|Central Committee]] of the [[Workers' Party of Vietnam]]
|image=Ho Chi Minh 1946.jpg|caption=Portrait of {{lang|vi|Hồ Chí Minh|italic=no}}, {{circa|1947}}
|predecessor=Position established|successor=Position abolished|signature=Ho Chi Minh Signature.svg|office2=[[First Secretary of the Workers' Party of Vietnam|First Secretary]] of the [[Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Vietnam|Central Committee]] of the [[Workers' Party of Vietnam]]|predecessor2={{lang|vi|[[Trường Chinh]]|italic=no}}|party=[[French Section of the Workers' International]]<br/><small>(1919–1921)</small><br/>[[French Communist Party]]<br/><small>(1921–1925)</small><br/>[[Communist Party of Vietnam]]<br/><small>(1925–1969)</small>|successor2={{lang|vi|[[Lê Duẩn]]|italic=no}}|birth_name={{lang|vi|Nguyễn Sinh Cung|italic=no}}|birth_date={{birth date|df=y|1890|5|19}}|birth_place={{lang|vi|[[Kim Liên]]|italic=no}}, [[Nghệ An Province|{{lang|vi|Nghệ An|italic=no|nocat=y}} Province]], [[French Indochina]]|death_date={{death date and age|df=y|1969|09|02|1890|05|19}}|death_place=[[Hanoi]], [[North Vietnam]]|death_cause=Heart failure|nationality={{hlist|Vietnamese|}}|spouse={{marriage|{{lang|vi|[[Zeng Xueming]]|italic=no}}|1926}}<ref name="Brocheux2007" />|relations={{Plainlist}}
* {{lang|vi|[[Bạch Liên]]|italic=no}} (or {{lang|vi|Nguyễn Thị Thanh|italic=no}}; sister)
* {{lang|vi|[[Nguyễn Sinh Khiêm]]|italic=no}} (or {{lang|vi|Nguyễn Tất Đạt|italic=no}}; brother)
* {{lang|vi|Nguyễn Sinh Nhuận|italic=no}} (brother)
{{Endplainlist}}|parents={{Plainlist}}
* {{lang|vi|[[Nguyễn Sinh Sắc]]|italic=no}} (father)
* {{lang|vi|[[Hoàng Thị Loan]]|italic=no}} (mother)
{{Endplainlist}}
|alma_mater=[[Communist University of the Toilers of the East]]|profession=Politician|term_start=19 February 1951|term_end=2 September 1969|term_start2=1 November 1956|term_end2=10 September 1960
|office3=[[List of Presidents of Vietnam|1st]] [[President of Vietnam|President]] of the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]]|term_start3=2 September 1945
|term_end3=2 September 1969|predecessor3=Position established<br/>{{lang|vi|[[Bảo Đại]]|italic=no}} <small>(as Emperor)</small>
|successor3={{lang|vi|[[Tôn Đức Thắng]]|italic=no}}
|office4=[[List of Prime Ministers of Vietnam|1st]] [[Prime Minister of Vietnam|Prime Minister]] of the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]]
|term_start4=2 September 1945
|term_end4=20 September 1955
|predecessor4=Position established<br/>{{lang|vi|[[Trần Trọng Kim]]|italic=no}} <small>(as Prime Minister of the [[Empire of Vietnam]])</small>
|successor4={{lang|vi|[[Phạm Văn Đồng]]|italic=no}}|office5=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Vietnam)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|term_start5=28 August 1945
|term_end5=2 March 1946
|predecessor5={{lang|vi|[[Trần Văn Chương]]|italic=no}} <small>([[Empire of Vietnam]])</small>
|successor5={{lang|vi|[[Nguyễn Tường Tam]]|italic=no}}
|term_start6=3 November 1946
|term_end6=March 1947|predecessor6={{lang|vi|[[Nguyễn Tường Tam]]|italic=no}}
|successor6={{lang|vi|Hoàng Minh Giám|italic=no}}
|office7=Member of the [[Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam|Politburo]]
|term_start7=31 March 1935
|term_end7=2 September 1969
|module=
}}
'''ဟဝ်ချဳမေန်''' ({{Lang-en|'''Hồ Chí Minh'''}}) (/hoʊ tʃiː mɪn/; ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်: [hò cǐ mīŋ̟], Saigon: [hò cǐ mɨ̄n]; Chữ nôm: 胡志明; ၁၉ မေ ၁၈၉၀ – ၂ သေပ်တေန်ပါ ၁၉၆၉) မကတဵုဒှ်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ '''Nguyễn Sinh Cung''',<ref name="BBC2005">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/vietnamese/entertainment/story/2005/08/printable/050808_trongcoi.shtml|author=Trần Quốc Vượng|title=Lời truyền miệng dân gian về Hồ Chí Minh|publisher=BBC Vietnamese|accessdate=10 December 2013}}</ref>{{efn|name="HL1"|1=ယၟုညး ကာလမသၠးဂၠံဂဝ်ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ပ္ဍဲလိက်မွဲတၞး နူကဵု the director of ''{{lang|fr|Collège|italic=unset}} {{lang|vi|Quốc học|italic=unset}}'', မစၟတ်လဝ်တ္ၚဲ ၇ အဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၉၀၈<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hopluu.net/D_1-2_2-95_4-1862_5-8_6-3_17-108_14-2/ |author=Vũ Ngự Chiêu |date=October 23, 2011|title=Vài vấn nạn lịch sử thế kỷ XX: Hồ Chí Minh—Nhà ngoại giao, 1945–1946 |language=vi |work=Hợp Lưu Magazine |postscript=. Note: See the document in French, from {{lang|fr|Centre des archives d'Outre-mer [CAOM] (Aix)/Gouvernement General de l'Indochine [GGI]/Fonds Residence Superieure d'Annam [RSA]/carton R1}}, and the note in English at the end of the cited article|accessdate=10 December 2013}}</ref>}}<ref name="HL2">{{cite web|url=http://www.hopluu.net/D_1-2_2-117_4-1513/|author=Nguyễn Vĩnh Châu|title=Phỏng vấn sử gia Vũ Ngự Chiêu về những nghiên cứu lịch sử liên quan đến Hồ Chí Minh|work=Hợp Lưu Magazine|accessdate=10 December 2013|archivedate=3 December 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203025311/http://www.hopluu.net/D_1-2_2-117_4-1513}}</ref> ယၟုဍုင်ဂှ် သီုကော်စ '''Nguyễn Tất Thành''', '''Nguyễn Ái Quốc''', '''Bác Hồ''' ("Uncle Ho") or simply '''Bác''' ("Uncle", pronounced [ʔɓaːk̚˦˥]), ဝွံ ဒှ်သၟာပၠန်ဂတး ဂကူဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ကေုာံ သၟာပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မွဲတၠရ။ ညးမဂွံဒှ် သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ဒကုတ်သၟဝ်ကျာ နူ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၅ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် ၁၉၅၅၊ တုဲပၠန် နဒဒှ် သမတ နူသၞာံ ၁၉၄၅ စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၆၉။ ညးဝွံ ဒှ်မၞိဟ် မဒ္ဂေတ်ကေတ် ကွေတ်မာက်သေတ်-လဳနေတ် (Marxist-Leninist) တုဲ ညးကေတ်လဝ် တာလျိုင် နဒဒှ် ဥက္ကဌ ကေုာံ ညးအုပ်ကာနနာ ၁ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဗော်သၟာကမၠောန် ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ရ။
ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ဒှ်က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ပၠန်ဂတး သွက်ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် (Việt Minh independence movement) နူကဵုသၞာံ ၁၉၄၁ စဵုကဵု ဒက်ပ္တန် စၟိန်ပြမာန် ဍုင်သမတ ဒဳမဝ်ကရာတ်တေန် ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် (ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် သၟဝ်ကျာ) ( Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam)) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၅၄ တုဲ ကလိဂွံဇၞး သမဂ္ဂပြင်သေတ် (French Union) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၅၄ ပ္ဍဲပေါဲဗတိုက် (Battle of Điện Biên Phủ) တုဲ ပၞာန်အေန်ဒဝ်ချာဲနာ အာစိုပ်ဒတုဲအာရ။ ညးဝွံ ဒှ်မၞိဟ်အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဒပ်ပၞာန်ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် (People's Army of Vietnam ) ကေုာံ Việt Cộng ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ ပၞာန်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် အကြာသၞာံ ၁၉၅၅ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် သၞာံ ၁၉၇၅ ဂှ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲပၞာန်ဂှ် ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်သၟဝ်ကျာ ကလိဂွံဇမၞးတုဲ ပံင်ပကောံ ပၠုပ် ဍုင်သမတ ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် (ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် သၠုင်ကျာ) ပ္ဍဲ ၁၉၇၆ ရ။ ဍုင်သာဲဂေါန် (Saigon) မဒှ်ဍုင်ဇၞော် ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်တြေံဂှ် တၞဟ်န မပတိုန်ဂုဏ်စရာဲညးတုဲ သၠာဲထောအ်ယၟု နကဵုယၟုညး ဍုင်ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် (Ho Chi Minh City) ရ။ ညးဒေါအ်ဇူ အဝဵုဍုင် နကဵုပ္ဍဲသၞောဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၆၅ ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ဟွံခိုဟ်တုဲ စုတိ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၆၉ ရ။
ပရူပရာ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ညးဟွံကလိဂွံအဝဵု ပ္ဍဲဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ဂှ် ယှုက်ထုဲတုဲ ဟွံတီကၠးကၠးရ။ ယၟုပၞုက် ယၟုဓလုက်ညး သီုဖအိုတ် နွံၜိုတ် ၅၀၊<ref name="Duiker">
{{cite book |last=Duiker |first=William J. |date=2000 |title=''Ho Chi Minh: ALife''. |url=https://archive.org/details/hochiminh00duik|location=New York |publisher=Hyperion |page= |isbn= |author-link=}}</ref>{{rp|582}} နွံဂၠိုင် စဵုကဵု ၂၀၀ လေဝ်ဒှ်မာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Dennis J|last1=Duncanson|title=Ho Chi Minh in Hong Kong 1931–1932|publisher=The China Quarterly|volume=57|issue=Jan–Mar 1957|page=85}} </ref> ဌာန်တၟိုပ်သုက်ညးကီု သီုကဵု စၟတ်တ္ၚဲဒှ်မၞိဟ်ညးဂှ် လညာတ်ဟွံတုပ် ရေင်သကအ်တုဲ စဵုကဵုတ္ၚဲဏအ် ဟွံတီချိုတ်တ်ပၠိုတ်တ် ဏီရ။ လိက်အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိ မလုပ်ဗဗွဲဓဝ် ၜိုတ်ပန်ဂှ် ယၟု၊ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ကေုာံ တင်ဂၞင်ဂမၠိုင် ဟွံတုပ် ရေင်သကအ်အိုတ်တုဲ နူကဵုလိက် အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိ မလုပ်ဗဗွဲဓဝ်တအ်ဂှ်မ္ဂး ပရူပရာတၞဟ်ခြာဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဏီရ။ <ref>{{cite journal|title=Ho Chi Minh: A Post-War Re-evaluation|first1=Douglas|last1=Pike|publisher=30th Annual Congress of Orientalists|location=Mexico City|url=https://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/virtualarchive/items.php?item=2360513065|accessdate=21 December 2017|date=3 August 1976}} </ref>
== ပထမ အဝဲ ==
ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ကတဵုဒှ်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲဇရေင်အပါ Nguyễn Sinh Cung<ref name="BBC2005"/>{{efn|name="HL1"}}<ref name="HL2"/> ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၉၀ ပ္ဍဲကွာန် Hoàng Trù (ယၟုဘာကျာ် ပ္ဍဲကွာန် ဗဒါဲ Làng Sen) မဒှ်ကွာန် မိအံက်ညးရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒုင်လဝ်တဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၉၀ ဂှ် ဒှ်သၞာံ ညးမဒှ်မၞိဟ် ကီုလေဝ် သၞာံညးမဒှ်မၞိဟ်ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ်ဒၟံင် နာနာသာ် မပ္တံကဵု ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ <ref>Tran Dan Tien, Nhung mau chuyen ve doi hoat dong cua Ho Chu Tich (Hanoi:Nha Xuat Ban Van Hoc 1972) (1948). </ref> ၁၈၉၁၊<ref>Yen Son. "Nguyen Ai Quoc, the Brilliant Champion of the Revolution." Thuong Tin Hanoi. 30 August 1945. </ref> ၁၈၉၂၊<ref>In his application to the French Colonial School – "Nguyen Tat Thanh, born 1892 at Vinh, son of Mr. Nguyen Sinh Huy (subdoctor in literature)" </ref> ၁၈၉၄<ref>He told Paris Police (Surete) he was born 15 January 1894. </ref> ကေုာံ ၁၈၉၅ တအ်ရ။<ref>Ton That Thien 18, 1890 is the most likely year of his birth. There is troubling conflicting evidence, however. When he was arrested in Hong Kong in 1931, he attested in court documents that he was 36. The passport he used to enter Russia in 1921 also gave the year 1895 as his birth date. His application to the Colonial School in Paris gave his birth year as 1892 </ref> နူ သၞာံ ၁၈၉၅ ညးဇၞော်ဂေါဝ် ပ္ဍဲဇရေင် အပါညး Nguyễn Sinh Sắc (Nguyễn Sinh Huy)'s ပ္ဍဲကွာန် Làng Sen, Kim Liên, Nam Đàn, ခရိုင် Nghệ An ရ။ ကောဒေအ်ညး နွံပိ ၝောဲ Bạch Liên (Nguyễn Thị Thanh), မဒှ်စာရေ ပ္ဍဲဒပ်ပၞာန်ပြင်သေတ်၊ ကော Nguyễn Sinh Khiêm (Nguyễn Tất Đạt), မဒှ် စာရေၜတ်တိ ကေုာံ ဆေင်ဂဥုဲခရက်၊ ကောမွဲပၠန်ဂှ် (Nguyễn Sinh Nhuận), မစုတိ နူဍောတ်တ်ရ။ အခိင်ကာလ ညးတေအ် ဍောတ်တ်တေအ်ဂှ် ကၠာညးတေအ် ဟွံဂွံအာမံင်ဘာဏီဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဗတောန်လိက် ပ္ဍဲဇရေင်အပါညး ကၠာ၊ တုဲဂှ် ညးတေအ်မံင်ဘာ Vuong Thuc Do။ ညးတေအ် ဂွံလေပ်ကၠိုဟ်ကေတ် ဗီုမချူလိက်ကြုက် ဗွဲမပြဟ်၊ တုဲပၠန် ဗတောန်ဝါဒကောန်ဖူ တုဲ ဗတောန်လိက် ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ရ။<ref name=Duiker />{{rp|21}} စပ်ကဵု ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ်ညးမ္ဂး ညးဝွံ ဒှ်မၞိဟ် မဒးဂၞပ် ဗလးဝဴ ကေုာံ အာရပ်ကမွဲရ။<ref name="Duiker"/>{{rp|21}} နကဵုအတိုင်အခိုက်ကၞာသာသၞာကောန်ဖူမ္ဂး ကာလကောန်ညးတအ် ကလိဂွံအာယုက် ၁၀ သၞာံမ္ဂး ဒးကဵုယၟုတၟိတုဲ အပါညးကဵုညးယၟုတၟိ ငုယေန် တာတ်ထာန် ''Nguyễn Tất Thành'' ("ငုယေန် မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် မစိုန်သကီု၊ ဍိုဟ်ကေက်")။
အပါညးဂှ် ဒှ်တၠပညာလပါ် သာသနာကောန်ဖူတုဲ ဒှ်အစာဘာမွဲတၠရ။ ဗွဲကြဴ ညးဂွံဒှ် နာဲဗစာ သၟိင်တၠ ပ္ဍဲခရိုင်ဍောတ်တ်မွဲ မနွံယၟု Binh Khe (Qui Nhơn)ရ။ အပါညးဂှ် နကဵုဒုဟ် မစကာအဝဵုဗၠေတ်တ်တုဲ ဒးဒုင်ဖျေဟ်ထောအ် နူတာလျိုင်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ မဖျေဟ်ဒဏ် လေအ်ဒဏ် ၁၀၂ လစုတ် ကုမၞိဟ်ဒယှ် ပ္ဍဲဒေသမွဲတၠတုဲ ဟိုတ်နူဘဲဒဏ်လေအ်ဂှ်တုဲ မၞိဟ်ဒယှ်ဂှ် ဂွံမွဲၜါတ္ၚဲတုဲ ဒးချိုတ်အာရ။<ref name=Duiker />{{rp|21}} နူဂှ် အပါညး မဂွံဒုင်ရုဲစှ် သွက်ဂွံလုပ်ကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵုရုင်အုပ်ဓုပ်ဍုင် မွဲဒၞာဲကီုလေဝ် ညးတေအ် ဟွံဒုင်တဲ မုဟိုတ်ရောမ္ဂး နကဵုညး ညးဟွံမိက်ကၠောန် သွက်ပြင်သေတ် (ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် နွံသၟဝ်ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ပြင်သေတ်) ရ။<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The World Transformed 1945 To the Present|url=https://archive.org/details/worldtransformed0000hunt_e9u3|last=Hunt|first=Michael H.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-19-937102-0|location=New York City|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldtransformed0000hunt_e9u3/page/125 125]|quote=|via=}}</ref> ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန်ဂှ် နူကဵုဍောတ်တ်တေအ်ရ စုက်လုက်ဒၟံင် ကုပရေင်ဒစဵုဒစး အလဵုအသဳပြင်သေတ် ဟီုဂွံရ။ ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် ညးတိုန်ဘာ မံင်ဘာ ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ပညာပြင်သေတ်၊ ညးတိုန်ဘာကဝ်လိက်''Collège Quốc học'' ပ္ဍဲဍုင် Huế ရ။ ကောဒေအ်ညး Phạm Văn Đồng ကဵု Võ Nguyên Giáp လေဝ် တိုန်လဝ် ဘာဂှ်ကီုရ။ တုဲပၠန် Ngô Đình Diệm ဗွဲကြဴ ကတဵုဒှ် သမတ ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် သၠုင်ကျာဂှ်လေဝ် ကေင်တိုန်လဝ် ဘာဂှ်ကီုရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nguoi-viet.com/viet-nam/hang-tram-nguoi-cong-khai-lam-le-gio-tt-ngo-dinh-diem/|title=Ngo Dinh Diem and ho Chi Minh|publisher=nguoiviet.com}}</ref>
=== ပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲ ပြင်သေတ် အလန်ကိုပ်ကၠာ ===
ဗွဲကိုပ်ကၠာ၊ ပတှ်ေကေတ် ညးဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲအရာမထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဒစဵုဒစး ပရေင်သွံရာန်ဍိက် (anti-''corvée'') ပ္ဍဲဍုင် Huế ပ္ဍဲဂိတုမေ ၁၉၀၈ ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ညးမတိုန်ဒၟံင်ဘာ ပ္ဍဲကဝ်လိက် ''Collège Quốc học''ရ။ ဆဂး နကဵုသက်သဳ နူကဵုဗဟဵုအာခိပ် (Centre des archives d'Outre-mer) မ္ဂး ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ညးစတိုန်ဘာဂှ် ဒှ်ပ္ဍဲစၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၈ အဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၉၀၈ တုဲ မဒှ်အခိင် ကြဴနူကဵု ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဒစဵုဒစး ပရေင်သွံရာန်ဍိက် မဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ၉-၁၃ ဨပြဳ ၁၉၀၈ ဂှ် ဂိတုဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။{{efn|name="HL1"}}
ဗွဲကြဴဂှ် ညးဟီု ညးစပုန်တဝ်စၞေဟ်ကဵု ပြင်သေတ်ဂှ် စနူကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၀၈ ဂှ်ရ။ ဆဂး ရံင်ကဵု ညးပတိုန်လိက် သွက်ဂွံတိုန် ဘာပရေင်ပကင်ရင် ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ပြင်သေတ် (French Colonial Administrative School) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၁၁ ဂှ်တုဲ လညာတ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဗီုဒှ် အောန်ဒၟံင်ညိရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵုအခိင် ညးဟီုလဝ် ညးတိတ်နူဘာ သွက်ဂွံအာ ဍုင်တၞဟ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဇေတ်တ်ဂှ် အပါညးတေအ် ဒးဒုင်ပတိတ်ထောအ် နူကဵုတာလျိုင်ဍုင်တုဲ ညးတေအ် ဟွံဆက်ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်အထံက်အပင် ကွးဘာ (သကဝ်လာရှိပ်) နူကဵုအလဵုအသဳ၊ ညးတေအ် တိတ်အာ လပါ်သၠုင်ကျာတုဲ လုပ်ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာ Dục Thanh school ပ္ဍဲPhan Thiết ၜိုတ် တြဴဂိတု၊ တုဲဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဆက်တိတ်တရဴ အာဍုင်သာဲဂန်ရ။
ညးတေအ် လုပ်ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ်မရီုပ္ဍဲဖဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵု က္ၜင်ပၟတ်ပြင်သေတ် ''Amiral de Latouche-Tréville'' သွက်ဂွံအာ ပြင်သေတ်ရ။ က္ၜင်ဂှ် တိတ်နူ ပ္ဍဲ ၅ ဂျောန် ၁၉၁၁ တုဲ စိုပ် ဍုင်မာသေလ် (Marseille) ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် ပ္ဍဲ ၅ ဂျူလာင် ၁၉၁၁ ရ။ တုဲက္ၜင်ဂှ် တိတ်အာ Le Havre ကေုာံ Dunkirk တုဲ ကလေင်လုပ်မာသေလ်ပၠန် ပ္ဍဲလဒေါဝ်ဂိတုသေတ်တေမ်ပါ။ ပ္ဍဲကာလဂှ် ညးတေအ် ပတိုန်လိက် သွက်ဂွံတိုန် ဘာပရေင်ပကင်ရင် ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ပြင်သေတ် (French Colonial Administrative School)ရ။ ဆဂး လိက်ဂရင်ဗတီညးတေအ်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင်တးပါဲထောအ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူဂှ်တုဲ ညးတေအ် ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် သွက်ဂွံတိတ်တရဴဂေတ်ဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲကဵုက္ၜင်ဂှ်ရ။ နူသၞာံ ၁၉၁၁ စဵုကဵု ၁၉၁၇ ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဂွံစိုပ်အာ ဍုင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။
=== ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ===
အဃော မကၠောန်ဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် ညးအရီုပ္ဍဲဖဴ လတူက္ၜင် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၁၂ ဂှ် ညးစိုပ်အာ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်ရ။ နူသၞာံ ၁၉၁၂ စဵုကဵု ၁၉၁၃ ဂှ် ညးမံင်လဝ် နျူယံက် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဟာရ်လေမ် (Harlem) ကဵု ဍုင်ဗောတ်သတောန် (Boston) ဒှ်မာန်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ညးဟီု ညးလုပ်ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ်ကၠောန်ကွာင် ပ္ဍဲဟဝ်တေဝ် ဖက်ကာဟု (Parker House Hotel)ရ။ သက်သဳ မဗဗိုန်ကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ညးမမံင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် လိက်တၞး မပလံင်ဗစိုပ်လဝ် ဌာနပကင်ရင် ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ပြင်သေတ် (French colonial administrators) နကဵုစၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၁၅ ဒဳဇြေန်ပါ ၁၉၁၂ တုဲ က္ဍိုပ်ရုပ်ဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ ဍုင်နျူယံက် (ပ္ဍဲလိက်ဂှ် ညးကဵုလဝ် လိက်စာ Poste Restante ပ္ဍဲ Le Havre တုဲကမၠောန်ညးတေအ်ဂှ် နဒဒှ် ကောန်က္ၜင်မွဲရ။)<ref name="Quinn-Judge">{{cite book | last="Quinn-Judge" | first="Sophie" | date=2002 | title=''Hồ Chí Minh: The Missing Years'' | publisher=University of California Press}}</ref>{{rp|20}} တုဲပၠန် ညးပလံင်လဝ် ပေါတ်သကာတ် ကဵု Phan Chu Trinh ပ္ဍဲပဴရေတ်၊ ပ္ဍဲဂှ် ညးချူလဝ် ညးကၠောန်ဒၟံင်ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲဟဝ်တေဝ်ဖက်ကာဟု။ စပ်ကဵု ဟဝ်တေဝ်ဖက်ကာဟုတုဲ ဒဒှ်ရ ညးတေအ် မကၠောန်လဝ်ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲဟဝ်တေဝ်ဂှ် လိက်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဆမွဲမွဲကီု ဟွံမဲရ။<ref name=Duiker />{{rp|51}}တုဲပၠန် ညးဟီုလဝ် ညးလုပ်ကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲသ္ၚိသေဌဳမွဲ ပ္ဍဲဗြောက်လေန် (Brooklyn) အကြာသၞာံ ၁၉၁၇ ကဵု ၁၉၁၈ တုဲပၠန် ကမ္မဏဳ General Motors နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ်မာန်နေဂျာမွဲရ။<ref>{{cite book | last=Winter | first=Marcus | title=Uncle Ho: Father Of A Nation | date=1989 | publisher=Limehouse Press, London}}</ref>{{rp|46}} တုဲပၠန် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ညးမပဒတဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်ဂှ် ညးဂွံအဆက် ကုသၟာဆာန်ဂကူကိုဝ်ရဳယာတအ်တုဲ လညာတ်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကြံင်မ္ၚိုဟ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲညးရ။ Sophie Quinn-Judge ဟီု အရာဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမထေင်ကေတ်ရ။<ref name="Quinn-Judge" />{{rp|20}} တုဲပၠန် လညာတ်ရဲဒစဵုဒစး သွက်အခေါင်အရာအာဖရိက မကော်ဂး (Pan-Africanist) ဂှ်ကီု မၞိဟ်လမ္စံက်အမေရိကာန် Marcus Garvey လေဝ် ညးတေအ် ကေင်စုက်လုက်လဝ်ကီုတုဲ ညးတေအ် ကေင်အာတိုန်လဝ် ကောံဓရီု ပ္ဍဲဂကောံသၠုင်ပတိုန်အခေါင်နေဂရဝ် ဂၠးကဝ (Universal Negro Improvement Association)ကီုရ။<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=r4WFjKG6vmUC&pg=PA421&dq=ho+chi+minh+influenced+by+marcus+garvey#v=onepage&q=ho%20chi%20minh%20influenced%20by%20marcus%20garvey&f=false|title=Encyclopedia of the Sixties: A Decade of Culture and Counterculture [2 volumes]: A Decade of Culture and Counterculture|isbn=9781440801020|last1=Debolt|first1=Abbe A|last2=Baugess|first2=James S|date=12 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=fllrAwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=ho+chi+minh+influenced+by+marcus+garvey#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Ho Chi Minh: A Life|isbn=9781401305611|last1=Duiker|first1=William J|date=13 November 2012}}</ref>
=== ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်/အေန်ဂလာန် ===
ညးဟီု ပ္ဍဲအကြာ သၞာံ ၁၉၁၃ ကဵု ၁၉၁၉ ဂှ် ညးကေင်မံင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ West Ealing တုဲ ကြဴနူဂှ်ညိ ညးမံင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ Crouch End, Hornsey ရ။ ညးလုပ်ကၠောန်လဝ် ကမၠောန် နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ်မကြာတ်စပ္ၚာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်ထမောမ်ပုင် ပ္ဍဲဟဝ်တေဝ် Drayton Court Hotel ပ္ဍဲ West Ealing ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ealing.gov.uk/info/201131/historic_buildings/70/other_notable_buildings/2|title=The Drayton Court Hotel|publisher=Government of the United Kingdom|accessdate=30 January 2013}}</ref> ညးဟီုလဝ် ညးဗတောန်ကၠောန် ညးမကၠောန်ကွာင် သၟဝ် မၞိဟ်ဇၞော် Auguste Escoffier ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဟဝ်တေဝ် Carlton Hotel ပ္ဍဲ Haymarket (London) ရ။ ဆဂး တင်ဏအ် သက်သဳ မထံက်ပခိုင်ကဵု ဂၠာဲဟွံမဲ။<ref name="Quinn-Judge"/>{{rp|25}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Forbes|first1=Andrew|last2=Henley|first2=David|title=Vietnam Past and Present: The North|date=2012|publisher=Cognoscenti Books|location=Chiang Mai, Thailand}}</ref> ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵုဗဒင် New Zealand House မဒှ်သ္ၚိ သၟိင်တၠမဟာ နျူဇြဳလာန် (the New Zealand High Commission) ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဟဝ်တေဝ် ကာရ်တောန် (Carlton Hotel) ဒဒှ်ရ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ကေင်ကၠောန်လဝ် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲဂှ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၁၃ ဂှ်ရ။ ညးသီုကဵု ကေင်ကၠောန်လဝ် နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ်မကၠောန်ကွာင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု က္ၜင် Newhaven–Dieppe ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၁၃ ဂှ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web|last1=Harries|first1=David|title=Maritime Sussex|url=http://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/news/videos/vietnamese-ambassador-presents-newhaven-with-statue-of-ho-chi-minh-1-5114542|website=Sussex Express|accessdate=12 June 2015|archivedate=24 September 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112156/http://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/news/videos/vietnamese-ambassador-presents-newhaven-with-statue-of-ho-chi-minh-1-5114542}}</ref>
== ဘာပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲ ပြင်သေတ် ==
[[ဝှာင်:Nguyen Aïn Nuä'C (Ho-Chi-Minh), délégué indochinois, Congrès communiste de Marseille, 1921, Meurisse, BNF Gallica.jpg|thumb|left|upright|ဟဝ်ချဳမေန်၊ ၁၉၂၁]]
စတမ်နူသၞာံ ၁၉၁၉ စဵုကဵု ၁၉၂၃ ဂှ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် စိုတ်စလုပ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲလပါ်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ညးတေအ် မပဒတဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲပြင်သေတ် ဟိုတ်နူ မစုက်လုက် ကုသကအ်ရဲ ကေုာံ သကအ်ရဲ ကု မာရ်သေလ် သချေန် (Marcel Cachin) နူကဵု ဗော်သဵုယှေဲလေတ် ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် (Socialist Party of France) ရ။ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန်ဟီုလဝ် ညးတေအ် စိုပ်ဍုင်ပဴရေတ် နူလာန်ဒါန် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၁၇၊ ဆဂး ရုင်ဗၠာဲသၟိင်ပြင်သေတ် ကလိဂွံလဝ် ဆ လိက်သက်သဳ ညးမစိုပ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိတုဂျောန် ၁၉၁၉ ဂှ်ဟေင်ရ။ <ref name="Quinn-Judge" /> ပ္ဍဲပဴရေတ်ဂှ် ညးတေအ် လုပ် ''Groupe des Patriotes Annamites'' (ဂကောံသၟာဆာန်ဂကူ ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်) ပ္ဍဲဂကောံဂှ် Phan Chu Trinh, Phan Văn Trường, Nguyễn Thế Truyền ကေုာံ Nguyễn An Ninh တအ်လေဝ် နွံကီုရ။<ref>Gisele Bousquet, ''Behind the Bamboo Hedge: The Impact of Homeland Politics in Parisian Vietnamese Community'', University of Michigan Press, pp. 47–48</ref> ဂကောံဂှ် ပတိတ်လိက်ပရိုင် မချူလိက်ပရေင် မဆဝ်မ္ၚုဟ် သွက်ဍုင်ဝိယေတ်နာမ် ဂွံဂွံသၠးပွး နကဵုယၟု ပတောအ်လိက်ပရိုင် Nguyễn Ái Quốc ("ညးမဆာန်ဂကူ ငုယေန်")<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.vietquoc.com/hcm-04.htm | title=Unmasking Ho Chi Minh | last1=Phong | first1=Huy | last2=Anh | first2=Yen |year=1989 | website="Viet Quoc" | accessdate=11 June 2015 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510160521/http://www.vietquoc.com/hcm-04.htm | archivedate=10 May 2015 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> ဂကောံဂှ် အာတ်မိက် ညံင်ကောန်ဂကူဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ဂွံဂွံအခေါင်ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲကဵုသၟဝ်အုပ်ဓုပ်ပြင်သေတ်၊ ညံင်ဂွံသဳကၠဳ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် သွက်အခေါင်အရာ ကောန်ဂကူဝဳယေတ်နာမ်တအ်ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဆဂး ဂကောံဂှ် ဟွံဂွံဒုင် စွံအာရီု နူကဵုအလဵုအသဳပြင်သေတ်ရ။<ref>For a thumbnail of a photograph in the Library of Congress collection showing QuThành (Ho) at the Versailles Conference, see [https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2005684873 "Ho Chi Minh, 1890–1969, half-length, standing, facing left; as a member of French Socialist Party at Versailles Peace Conference, 1919"], Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Online Catalog.</ref>နကဵုဂကောံဂှ် စၞးမကဵု အခေါင်ပကင်ရင်ဇကုအပိုင် ကုကောန်ဂကူဝဳယေတ်နာမ်တအ်ဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံကဵု ညံင်ဂွံကဵု အခေါင်သၠးပွး ကုဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ဂှ် ညးတအ် အာတ်မိက် ဍုင်ဂကောံမဟာမိတ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။
နူကဵုဂကောံဂှ် ပသဘင်သဳကၠဳဇၞော်မွဲတုဲ ပလံင်ဗစိုပ်လိက် ကုဍုင်ဂကောံမဟာမိတ်ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် ဗြိတိန် Georges Clemenceau ကေုာံ သမတအမေရိကာန် Woodrow Wilson တအ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူညးတအ် ဟွံကလိဂွံအခေါင် သဳကၠဳ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကုပြင်သေတ် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ပြင်သေတ်တုဲ သွက်ဂွံဆက်လုပ်ပေါဲဗတိုက်ဗၠးၜးဂှ် ညးတအ် ရုဲစှ်ပတိုန် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် နဒဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် မထ္ၜးစဂတ သွက်ဂွံဆက်လုပ်ပေါဲဗတိုက် ဖအိုတ်ဖအး သၞောဝ်ဝါဒကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ရ။<ref>Huynh, Kim Kháhn, ''Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1945''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982; pg. 60.<!-- ISBN ?? --></ref> စနူဂှ်တုဲ ဒုင်ယၟုဟဝ်ချဳမေန်တုဲ ညးတအ် ပ္တိတ်လိက်ရ။ မၞိဟ်မချူလိက်ဂှ် ဇေတ်တ်ဂှ် ဒှ် Phan Văn Trườngရ။<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tran Dan|first1=Tien|title=Ho Chi Minh, Life and Work|url=http://dangcongsan.vn/cpv/Modules/News_English/News_Detail_E.aspx?CN_ID=150876&CO_ID=30034|website=Communist Party of Vietnam Online Newspaper|publisher=Gioi Publishers|accessdate=17 June 2015|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617060828/http://dangcongsan.vn/cpv/Modules/News_English/News_Detail_E.aspx?CN_ID=150876&CO_ID=30034|archivedate=17 June 2015}}</ref> ခြာဟွံလအ်ဂှ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်ဂမၠိုင် မတီလဝ် နကဵုယၟု Nguyễn Ái Quốc ရ။ နကဵုယၟုဏအ်ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ညးမဒုင်သၟာန်သွဟ် ကုလိက်ပရိုင်ကြုက် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိတုသေတ်တေမ်ပါဂှ်ရ။<ref name=Duiker/>
အစာချူလိက် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟီုဂး ချူဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၁၉ ဂှ် ယဝ်ရ သမတအမေရိကာန် ဒုင်တဲညးတေအ်မ္ဂး ညးဂှ် ဒှ်အာ မၞိဟ်ဒးဂၞပ်အမေရိကာန်မွဲတုဲ ဟွံဒှ် မၞိဟ်မစိုပ်တၞုင်တၞးမွဲလပါ်ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵုသဘင်သဳကၠဳ Versailles Conference ဂှ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် လးလဝ် ဂၠံင်တရဴသဵုယှေဲလေတ်မွဲမွဲတုဲရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင် မကၠောန်သဘင်သဳကၠဳဂှ် ညးဟီုဂလာန် ညံင်ဂွံ ဒစဵုဒစးပြင်သေတ်တုဲ ဒက်ပတန် ဝါဒသဵုယှေဲလေတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုအာရှတုဲတုဲဒၟံင်ရ။<ref>Brett Reilly review of "Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam" by Fredrik Logevall, Journal of Vietnamese Studies 11.1 (2016), 147.r</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ ဒဳဇြေန်ပါ ၁၉၂၀ ဂှ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် မဂွံဒုင်ရုဲစှ် နဒဒှ် ညးစၞး သွက်ဂွံအာ တိုန် ကောန်ဖရေန် ဗော်သဵုယှေဲလေတ်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် မကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ Tours ဂှ်ရ။ နကဵုကောန်ဖရေန်ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်ပတိုန် ဗော်သဵုယှေဲလေတ် ပြင်သေတ် (French Communist Party)ရ။ နကဵုဟဝ်ချဳမေန်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကမ္မတဳကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဗော်ဂှ်ရ။ ညးဗက်ဟီုတွဟ် ညံင်ကောန်ဂကောံတအ် ဂွံဒုင်တဲ သွက်ဂွံဖအိုတ်ကၠေအ် သၞောဝ်ကဝ်လဝ်နဳကီုလေဝ် ပ္ဍဲအာရှ သီုကဵု အေန်ဒဝ်နဳရှာကီုလေဝ် မၞိဟ်စိုတ်ဂွံလုပ်စ ပ္ဍဲလဟီုညးတေအ်ဂှ် အောန်ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။ အခိင်ညးတေအ် မနွံဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲပဴရေတ်ဂှ် ညးဒှ်ကဝေင် ကုညးဇိင်ပလောအ် Marie Brière ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၈ ဂွံတီကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးသီုကေင်ဒှ်လဝ် ကဝေင် မၞိဟ် နူကဵုဂကောံသၟိင်တၠဍုင်ကိုဝ်ရိယာ Kim Kyu-sik ကီုရ။<ref>[https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20180929039500081|호찌민 감시 佛 경찰문건 대거발굴…한국 임시정부 활약상 생생]{{Dead link|date=August 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလဏအ်ဂှ် ညးတေအ် စချူကၠုင်လိက်ပရေင်၊ ဝတ္ထု မပတိတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံညးမဆာန်ဂကူဝဳယေတ်နာမ်တအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲဂိတု မေ ၁၉၂၂ ဂှ် ညးချူလိက်ပရေင် သွက်မဂ္ဂဇြေန်ပြင်သေတ်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲလိက်ပြင်သေတ် ဟိုတ်မစကာ မအရေဝ်အင်္ဂလိက်တုဲ ဒးဒုင်ပါ်ပါဲနွံကီုရ။ <ref name="Brocheux2007">{{cite book|last=Brocheux|first=Pierre|title=Ho Chi Minh: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fJtqjYiVbUAC&pg=PA39|date=12 March 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85062-9|page=39}}</ref>{{rp|21}} လိက်ပရေင်ဂှ် နကဵုသကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် ဒးပတိတ်သၞောဝ် သွက်ဂွံကၟာတ်လဒဵုလဝ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူလိက်ပရေင် ကေုာံ တွဟ်လဟီု ညးတေအ်တအ်ဂှ်တုဲ ညးတေအ်ဂွံဒုင်ရုဲစှ် သွက်ဂွံအာတိုန်ကောံဓရီု ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကောံဓရီုဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဂွံဒုင်ရုဲစှ် နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ်တာလျိုင်ကဆံင်လတူ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံကောန်မျူနေတ်သဵုဗိယေတ် မွဲတၠရ။<ref name="Thien" />{{rp|23–24}}
== ပ္ဍဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ် ကေုာံ ဍုင်ကြုက် ==
[[ဝှာင်:Impasse Compoint.JPG|thumb|A plaque in [[:fr:Villa Compoint|Compoint Lane]], District 17, Paris indicates where Hồ Chí Minh lived from 1921 to 1923]]
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၂၃ ဂှ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် တိတ်နူ ပဴရေတ်တုဲ အာဍုင်မဝ်သကဝ် မရပ်လဝ် လိက်စၠောအ်ဍုင် (ပါတ်သပေါတ်) ကြုက် နကဵုယၟ ချေန်ဝင် Chen Vang နကဵု သၟာဗၞိက်ကြုက် ရ။<ref name=Duiker />{{rp|86}}ညးတေအ် စိုပ်ဍုင်ရုရှာတုဲ ညးတေအ် တိုန်ဘာ တက္ကသိုလ်ကောန်မျူနေတ် (Communist University of the Toilers of the East)<ref name=Duiker />{{rp|92}}<ref name="NYT1969">[https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0519.html Obituary in ''The New York Times'', 4 September 1969]</ref> တုဲပၠန် တိုန်ကောံဓရီု ကောန်မေန်တာန်/ကောန်မျူနေတ် မရနုက်ကဵု မသုန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိတုဂျောန် ၁၉၂၄ ကိုပ်ကၠာညးတေအ် ဟွံဂွံတိတ်အာ ကန်တောန် (Canton) (လၟုဟ် ကော်စ Guangzhou) ဍုင်ကြုက် ပ္ဍဲဂိတုနဝ်ဝေမ်ပါ ၁၉၂၄။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ကဵုလဝ်ယၟု လဳ ထူ (Ly Thuy) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၂၅-၁၉၂၆ ညးတေအ် ပံက် "တန်ဗတောန် ပရေင်ပညာ သၟတ် (Youth Education Classes)" တုဲ ညးတေအ် ကဵုဘာလညာတ်သဵုယှေဲလေတ် ကုသၟတ်ဂကူဝဳယေတ်နာမ် မပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကန်တောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာကွတ်ပညာပၞာန်ဝှမ်ပဴ (Whampoa Military Academy)ရ။ သၟတ်တအ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်မဗဳဇ သွက်ပၠန်ဂတး မလုပ်ပေါဲဗတိုက် သွက်ဝါဒကောန်မျူနေတ် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဝိယေတ်နာမ် ရ။ အတိုင်လညာတ် William Duiker မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် မံင်မွဲစွံ ကုဗြဴကြုက်မွဲ မနွံယၟု Zeng Xueming (Tăng Tuyết Minh) တုဲ ညးတအ် ဒက်အိန်ထံင် ရေင်သကအ် ပ္ဍဲ ၁၈ အံက်တဝ်ပါ ၁၉၂၆ ရ။<ref name="Brocheux2007"/> အခိင် မိတ်သဟာဲညးတေအ် မဒစဵုဒစးဂှ် ညးတေအ်ဟီုကဵု ညးတၞဟ်- " ၜိုန်ရ မၞးတအ် ဒစဵုဒစးကီုလေဝ် အဲဒးကေတ်ဗြဴ၊ မူဟိုတ်ရောမ္ဂး အဲနွံပၟိက် မၞိဟ်ဗြဴမွဲ သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန်ကဵုအဲ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ တုဲပၠန် ဂွံရံင်စံင်သ္ၚိ။"<ref name="Brocheux2007"/> ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် သၟတ်ဗြဴကြုက်ဂှ် အာယုက် ၂၁ ညးတေအ်ဂှ် အာယုက် ၃၆။ ညးတအ် ဖျေဟ်ဒၞာဲတုဲ ပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒၞာဲကောန်မေန်တာန်ဂမၠိုင် မပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵု Mikhail Borodin ရ။<ref name="Brocheux2007"/>
Hoàng Văn Chí ဟီု ပ္ဍဲဂိတု ဂျောန် ၁၉၂၅ ဂှ် ညးတေအ် လီဏာ သြန် ၁၀၀ ၀၀၀ piastres နူကဵု Phan Bội Châu ညးမဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်ပၠန်ဂတး ကေုာံ မိတ်သဟာဲအပါညးတေအ်တြေံ ရ။<ref name="Davidson">Davidson, Phillip B., [https://books.google.com/books?id=seXWfsD46QQC ''Vietnam at War: The History: 1946–1975''] (1991), p. 4.<br/>[[Hoàng Văn Chí]]. ''From Colonialism to Communism'' (1964), p. 18.</ref> တင်ဂၞင်မွဲဂှ် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး မုဟိုတ် ညးဂွံလီကေတ်သြန်ဂှ်ရော ညးပသောင်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးနွံပၟိက်သြန် သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံကောန်မျူနေတ် မွဲရ။<ref name="Davidson"/> ပ္ဍဲလိက် ''Ho Chi Minh: A Life'' ဂှ် William Duiker ဟီု တင်ပသောင်ထ္ၜးဝွံ ဒှ်အရာမထေင်ကေတ်လဝ်တုဲ တင်ပသောင်ကလးဂှ် ညးတေအ် တးပါဲလဝ်ရ။<ref name=Duiker/>{{rp|126–128}}
ကြဴနူ ချင်ကေ ရှုက် (Chiang Kai-shek) မသီအဝဵု ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၂၇ဂှ်တုဲ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် တိတ်နူကန်တောန်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဨပြဳ ၁၉၂၇ ဂှ် ညးကလေင်အာ မဝ်သကဝ်တုဲ မံင်ထောအ် ပ္ဍဲမဝ်သကဝ် ၜိုတ်မွဲကဝက်ကညင် သၞာံ ၁၉၂၇ နူဂှ် ညးကလေင်အာမံင် ပ္ဍဲပဴရေတ် ပ္ဍဲဂိတုနဝ်ဝေမ်ပါဂှ်ရ။ နူဂှ် မွဲကဆံင် ညးတေအ် ကလေင်စဴ အာရှ နကဵုဂၠံင် ဗရူဇြေလ်၊ ပါလေန်၊ သွိတ်သလာန်၊ အဳတလဳ၊ နူအဳတလဳဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဍိုက်က္ၜင် စိုပ်ၜင်ကံက် ဍုင်သေံ ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဂျူလာင် ၁၉၂၈ ရ။ "ၜိုန်ရ ပိုယ်တအ် ဒးသြာဲခြာ ရေင်သကအ် ပွိုင်ကြပ်မွဲသၞာံကီုလေဝ် ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် လတူရေင်သကအ်ဂှ် ဟွံလီုလာ်အာဏီ" ဗီုဏအ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ပ္ဍဲလိက်တၞးညးရ။<ref name="Brocheux2007"/> ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလဂှ် ညးတေအ် လုပ်ချဳဓရာင် နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ်ဓလုက် သွက်ကောန်မေန်တာန် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဒေသအာရှအဂၞဲရ။
[[ဝှာင်:NKPhaNom'NhaLuuNiem-HoChiMinh.jpg|thumb|House on Memorium for Hồ Chí Minh in Ban Nachok, [[Nakhon Phanom]], [[Thailand]]]]
ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ပဒတဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲကွာန်သေံ ကွာန်နချောက်၊ ခရိုင်နခေါန်ဖနောမ် (Nakhon Phanom Province၊ Nachok)<ref name="Brocheux2007"/>{{rp|44 and xiii}} စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၂၉ ကြပ်အိုတ်ရ။ နူဂှ် ညးပြံင်အာမံင် ပ္ဍဲအိန္ဒိယ၊ နူဂှ်မွဲကဆံင် ညးအာမံင် ပ္ဍဲရှင်ဟာဲ။ ပ္ဍဲဟံင်ကံင် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၃၀ လပါ်စဂှ် ညးတေအ်ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် သဘင်ကောံဓရီု ကုမၞိဟ်စၞး နူဗော်ကောန်မျူနေတ်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ၜါဗော်တုဲ သွက်ဂွံဒက်ပတန် ဗော်ကောန်မျူနေတ် ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် (Communist Party of Vietnam) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဂျောန်ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဒးဒုင်ရပ် ပ္ဍဲဟံင်ကံင်ရ။ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၂ ဂှ် တၞဟ်နဂွံဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် ဒြဟတ်ဓရိုဟ် နူပြင်သေတ်တုဲ ညးတေအ် ဒးဒုင်လလောင်တြးထောအ် ဒဒှ်ရ ချိုတ်အာရ။<ref name="Brocheux2007"/>{{rp| 57–58}} တုဲဂှ် အလဵုအသဳဗြိတိန် ဗလးထောအ်ညး ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၁၉၃၃ ရ။ ညးတေအ် ဂွံဗၠးတိတ်တုဲ ပြံင်အာမံင် ပ္ဍဲသဵုဗိယေတ် မဝ်သကဝ်တုဲ လုပ်တိုန်ဘာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အေန်သတဳကျုတ် လဳနေန် (Lenin Institute)ရ။<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1863.html|title=Ho Chi Minh|work=u-s-history.com}}</ref>ပ္ဍဲအခိင် မွဲကာလဏအ်ဂှ်မ္ဂး ညးဒးဒုင်ပတိတ်လဝ် နူကဵု ဂကောံကောန်မေန်တာန်၊ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဂွိင်ဖေက် ညးတေအ် ဖံက်သစ္စ လတူဂကောံရ။ ဆဂး နကဵုလညာတ် Ton That Thien မဂွံဆဵုကေတ်မ္ဂး ညးဝွံ ဒှ်လဝ် ကောန်ဂကောံ ကောန်မေန်တာန် ဟွံပိုတ်သကုတ်ရ။<ref name=Thien>{{cite book|title=Ho Chi Minh and the Comintern|author=Ton That Thien|publisher=Information and Resource Center|location=Singapore|date=1990|isbn=978-9810021399|url=https://www.vvfh.org/uploads/Ho_Chi_Minh_and_The_Comintern.pdf|accessdate=20 December 2017}}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Bác Hồ Trên Đất Nước Lê-Nin|author=Hong Ha|publisher=Nhà Xuất Bản Thanh Niên|date=2010}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၃၈ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ကလေင်အာ ဍုင်ကြုက်တုဲ လုပ်ကၠောန် နဒဒှ် ညးမကဵုကသပ် ကုဒပ်ပၞာန်ကောန်မျူနေတ်ကြုက်ရ။<ref name="Quinn-Judge"/> တုဲပၠန် ညးသီုဒှ် မၞိဟ်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲဒပ်ဓလုက် ကောန်မျူနေတ် ပ္ဍဲကေင်ကာအာရှမွဲကီုရ။<ref name=Thien/>{{rp|39}} ၜိုတ်သၞာံ ၁၉၄၀ ဂှ် ညးတေအ် စရပ်စပ် စကာကၠုင် နကဵုယၟု ဟဝ်ချဳမေန်ရ။<ref name="Quinn-Judge"/> ယၟုဟဝ်ချဳမေန်ဂှ် ဒှ်ယၟု နကဵုဘာသာဝိယေတ်နာမ်၊ ဟဝ် (Hồ, [[wikt:胡|胡]])ဂှ် ဒှ်ယၟုဗဳဇ ဓမ္မတာ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဝိယေတ်နာမ်မွဲတုဲ ချဳမေန်ဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ညးမလေပ်ဂွံလဝ် လျးညာဏ်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင်"၊ ([[wikt:志|志]] [[wikt:明|明]]: ချဳ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "စိုတ်ဓါတ်" မေန် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "တၟး")<ref name=Duiker/>{{rp|248–49}}
== ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် သွက်သၠးပွး ==
သၞာံ ၁၉၄၁ ဂှ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ကလေင်စိုပ် ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် သွက်ဂွံ ပၠဒပ် ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် သွက်သၠးပွး ပ္ဍဲဂကောံ ဝဳယေတ်မေန် (Việt Minh) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံဂှ် ဂျပေန်လုပ်သဳ အေန်ဒဝ်နဳယှာတုဲ ဆက်လုပ်သီအာဒၟံင် ဍုင်အာရှအဂၞဲတၞဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မဖန်ဗဒှ်ကဵု အခေါင်ခိုဟ် သွက်ညးဆာန်ဂကူဝဳယေတ်နာမ်တအ်ရ။<ref name=":0" /> နကဵုယၟု မကော်ဂး "men in black (မၞိဟ်ပလောအ်လမ္စံက်" နကဵုကောန်ဂကောံ မွဲလက်ဂှ် လုပ်ကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝဳယေတ်မေန်ဂှ်ရ။<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0519.html "Ho Chi Minh Was Noted for Success in Blending Nationalism and Communism"], ''The New York Times''</ref> ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ ဒုတိယဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဂွံမာန်ဇၞးကေတ် ပေါဲဗတိုက် ကုပၞာန်ပြင်သေတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ ပၞာန်ဂျာပေန် မလုပ်သီ ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ဂှ်လေဝ် နကဵု အရီုအဗင်အမေရိကာန်ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဂွံမာန်ကေတ်တၟာဂလိုင်ကီုရ။ ညးဒးဒုင်ရပ် ဖျေဟ်ထံင် ကုညးဇၞော်ဒေသကြုက် ပၞာန်ချင်ကေရှက်တုဲ ကြဴညိဂှ် နူကဵုဒပ်ကောန်မျူနေတ်တအ် လုပ်ရီုတုဲ ညးတေအ် ဂွံဗၠးတိတ်ကၠုင်ရ။<ref name="Brocheux2007"/>{{rp|198}} ညးတေအ် ဂွံဗၠးတိတ်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၃ ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ကလေင်စဴ ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ပၠန်ရ။
[[ဝှာင်:Ho Chi Minh (third from left standing) and the OSS in 1945.jpg|thumb|left|ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် (မရနုက်ကဵုပိ နူပါဲ၊ ဒတဴဒၟံင်) ကရောမ် ညးတာလျိုင်မဟာဗျူဟာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၅]]
ပ္ဍဲဨပြဳ ၁၉၄၅ ညးတေအ် ဂွံဆဵုကဵု ညးတာလျိုင် ဂကောံမဟာဗျူဟာ (Office of Strategic Services - OSS) agent Archimedes Patti တုဲ ညးဟီုကဵု ညးဗိုင်ကၠောန်ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲအရာမထံင်ပရိုင် သွက်ဒပ်မဟာမိတ်တအ်တုဲ ညးတေအ် ကေတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲအရာမဆက်စၠောအ် ကုမဟာမိတ်တအ်ရ။<ref>Interview with Archimedes L. A. Patti, 1981, http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-bf3262-interview-with-archimedes-l-a-patti-1981 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301131857/https://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_3267C58E4C104A54A0AFDF230D618AE6 |date=2021-03-01 }}</ref> ဂကောံမဟာဗျူဟာ ဒုင်တဲ တုပ်စိုတ် ကုညးတေအ်ဂှ် နူကဵု မဟာမိတ်တအ် ပလံင်ဏာ အစာဘာပၞာန် သွက်ဂွံဗတောန်ကဵု မၞိဟ်ညးတေအ်ကီု သီုကဵုအလဵုဇကုညးတေအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ညးဒှ်ယဲဇွဟ်တုဲ မဂွံဒုင်လွဳယဲဇွဟ် ကုအစာဂဥုဲ နူကဵု ဂကောံဗျူဟာတအ်ကီုရ။<ref>Interview with OSS officer Carleton Swift, 1981, http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-9dc948-interview-with-carleton-swift {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305210732/http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-9dc948-interview-with-carleton-swift |date=2016-03-05 }}</ref>
၁၄ အဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၉၄၅ ဂှ် နကဵုဂကောံညးတေအ် ဝဳယေတ်မေန် အာဂတတုဲ ဒစဵုဒစး သၞောဝ်ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ပြင်သေတ် မကော်ဂး ပၠန်ဂတးအဝ်ဂေတ် ပွိုင် ၜါသတ္တဟတုဲ ဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ၊ လဒေါဝ် ကေုာ သၠုင်ကျာ သီုကဵု ဍုင်ဟနောယ်ဂှ် သီဂွံတုဲ ညးဂွံဒှ် ဥက္ကဌ အလဵုအသဳယာယဳ (မကဵုယၟု ဍုင်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်) တုဲ လလောင်တြး သၠးပွး ဍုင်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေတေတ် ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Zinn|first=Howard|title=A People's History of the United States: 1492–present|url=https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000zinn_s7j6|publisher=Harper Perennial|year=1995|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000zinn_s7j6/page/460 460]|isbn=978-0-06-092643-4}}</ref> ၜိုန်ရ ညးကဵု ဨကရာဇ်ဗဳယေတ်နာမ် ဗဴဒါဲ (Bảo Đại) လလောင်တြး ဒဒှ်ရ ဟွံဆက်ဒှ် ဨကရာဇ်ရ ကီုလေဝ် အလဵုအသဳညးဂှ် ဍုင်လဵုမွဲကီု ဟွံစၟတ်သမ္တီရ။ ညးတေအ် အာတ်မိက် သမတအမေရိကာန် Harry S. Truman ဂၠိုင်ကဵုအလန် သွက်ဂွံထံက်ဂလာန် လတူသၠးပွး ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ကီုလေဝ်<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rationalrevolution.net/war/collection_of_letters_by_ho_chi_.htm|title=Collection of Letters by Ho Chi Minh|publisher=Rationalrevolution.net|accessdate=26 September 2009}}</ref> citing the [[Atlantic Charter]], သမတအမေရိကာန် ဟွံကလေင်သွဟ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Zinn|first=Howard|title=A People's History of the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000zinn_s7j6|publisher=Harper Perennial|year=1995|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000zinn_s7j6/page/461 461]|isbn=978-0-06-092643-4}}</ref>
တင်ဂၞင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ရဲဂကောံဝဳယေတ်မေန်တအ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင် မပၠံင်အဝဵုဍုင်ဂှ် ဂစိုတ်မၞိဟ် ဟွံထံက်ဂလာန်ကဵုဇကု ဗီုကဵု က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဗော်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်တၞဟ်တအ်ရ။<ref>Joseph Buttinnger, ''Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled'', vol 1 (New York: Praeger, 1967)</ref> အစာပရိုင် သၟာန်ညးတေအ် စပ်ကဵု ဂစိုတ် Tạ Thu Thâu ညးမဒှ်ရဲညးတေအ်မွဲဂှ် ညးတေအ် သှ်ကဵု - "ညးလဵုမွဲဟွံဟီု ယဝ်ရ ဟွံကၠောန်ဗက် အတိုင်လၟေင်ဂၠံင်တရဴအဲမ္ဂး ဒးပသောင်ထောအ် ဖအိုတ်ရ။"<ref>{{cite book|last=Ngo|first=Van|title=In The Crossfire: Adventures of a Vietnamese Revolutionary|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781849350495|date=2 November 2010|publisher=AK Press|location=Oakland, CA|isbn=978-1849350136|page=163}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lind|first=Michael|title=Vietnam: The Necessary War|date=18 October 1999|publisher=Free Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0684842547|page=[https://archive.org/details/vietnamnecessary00lind/page/141 141]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/vietnamnecessary00lind/page/141}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၆ အခိင်ညးမစိုပ်ဒၟံင် ဍုင်သအာင်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်ဗွက်ကြဴညးတေအ် ရပ်ထောအ် မၞိဟ်ကောန်မျူနေတ်ဟွံသေင် ၂၅၀၀ တုဲ မၞိဟ် ၆၀၀၀ ပြင် ဒးဒြေပ်ဒဴရ။<ref>Currey, Cecil B. ''Victory At Any Cost'' (Washington: Brassey's, 1997), p. 126 <!-- ISBN ?? --></ref> မၞိဟ်လညာတ်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဟွံတုပ်ကုညးတေအ် မဂၠိုင်ကဵု ကၠံ ဒးဒုင်စုတ်ထံင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒးဒြေပ်ဒဴနူဍုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိတုဂျူလာင် ၁၉၄၆ ရ။<ref>Tucker, Spencer. ''Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: a political, social, and military history'' (vol. 2), 1998 <!-- ISBN ?? --></ref> တုဲပၠန် ဗော်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးဒုင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵုတုဲ အလဵုအသဳဒေသဂမၠိုင်လေဝ် ဒးဒုင်ပလီုထောအ်<ref>Colvin, John. ''Giap: the Volcano under the Snow'' (New York: Soho Press, 1996), p. 51 <!-- ISBN ?? --></ref> သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် မၞိဟ်ဒစဵုဒစးဇကု ဗွဲကြဴရ။ ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုကောန်ဂရေတ် ဍုင်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်ပိဂအုံပြင်င်ဂှ် ကၠုင်နူကဵု ဂကောံဝဳယေတ်မေန် ဟွံသေင်၊ တုဲပၠန် မၞိဟ်လ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် ဟွံဂွံဒုင်စှ်လဝ် နကဵုမာဲလေဝ် နွံတၟာဂလိုင်ဏီရ။ ဥက္ကဌ ဗော်ဆာန်ဂကူဝဳယေတ်နာမ် Nguyễn Hải Thần ဂှ် ဂွံဒုင် ခပတိုန် နဒဒှ် ဒု-သမတ ရ။<ref>[[:vi:Nguyễn Hải Thần|Vietnamese Wikipedia profile of Nguyễn Hải Thần]]</ref> နူကဵုဗော်ဂှ် သီုဂွံဒှ် ဝန်ဇၞော် ပန်တၠ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝန်ဇၞော်သီုဖအိုတ် နွံ စှ်ဒၞာဲဂှ်ရ။<ref>[[:vi:Chính phủ Liên hiệp Kháng chiến Việt Nam]]</ref>
=== ဍုင်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေတေတ် ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် မမံက်ဂတဝ်ကၠုင် ===
ဨကရာဇ် ဗဴဒါဲ (Emperor Bảo Đại) လလောင်တြး ဒဒှ်ရ ဇကုဂှ် ဨကရာဇ်မွဲ ဟွံသေင်ရ ပ္ဍဲ ၂ သေတ်တေမ်ပါ ၁၉၄၅ တုဲဂှ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် လလောင်တြး ဍုင်သၠးပွး ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်<ref>{{cite web|url=http://coombs.anu.edu.au/%7Evern/van_kien/declar.html |title=Vietnam Declaration of Independence |publisher=Coombs.anu.edu.au |date=2 September 1945 |accessdate=26 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091006235045/http://coombs.anu.edu.au/~vern/van_kien/declar.html |archivedate=6 October 2009 }}</ref> နကဵု ယၟု ဍုင်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေတေတ် ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဇၞော်သာဲဂေါန် ဂှ် မၞိဟ်ဒးစိုတ် လပါ်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ကဵု မၞိဟ်ထံက်ဂလာန် လပါ်ပြင်သေတ် ဒှ်ပေါဲဂစိုတ်ဂယိုင် ရေင်သကအ်တုဲ သကိုပ်ပၞာန်ဗြိတိတ် (General Sir Douglas Gracey) ဒးလလောင်တြး သၞောဝ်ပၞာန် (martial law) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ၂၄ သေတ်တေမ်ပါဂှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဝဳယေတ်မေန်တအ် လလောင်အာတ်မိက် ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ လတူသၞောဝ်ပၞာန်ရ။<ref>Karnow, Stanley. ''Vietnam: a History''.</ref>
ပ္ဍဲသေတ်တေမ်ပါ ၁၉၄၅ ဒပ်ပၞာန်ဍုင်ကြုက် ၂၀၀ ၀၀၀ စိုပ်ကၠုင် ဍုင်ဟနောဲ သွက်ဂွံဒုင်တဲ ကောန်ပၞာန်ဂျပေန် မဖျေဟ်လွဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဒေသ အေန်ဒဝ်ဆာင်နာသၟဝ်ကျာဂှ်ရ။ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ကၠောန်ပရေင်ကဵုကေတ် ရေင်သကအ် ကုသကိုပ်ပၞာန်ကြုက် Lu Han သွက်ဂွံပလီုထောအ် ဗော်ကောန်မျူနေတ်တုဲ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန်ပေါဲရုဲမာဲ သွက်ဂွံဒက်ပတန် အလဵုအသဳပံင်ကောံရ။ ကာလပၞာန် Chiang ကဵုဒြဟတ်ဒမြိုဟ် ကုပြင်သေတ် ရှင်ဟာဲဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံကလေင်ပအပ် ကုကြုက်၊ နမလှဲရေင်သကအ်ဂှ် ကြုက် နုက်ကဵုပၞာန်ကြုက် နူကဵု အေန်ဒဝ်ချာင်နာဂှ် ဟဳချဳမေန် ပါဲဟွံဗၠး ဒးဒုင် ထ္ပက်စၟတ်တဲ ဒဒှ်ရ ဒုင်တဲ ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ဂှ် နဒဒှ် ဍုင်မနွံကဵုအဝဵုပကင်ရင်ဇကုအပိုင် ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံပြင်သေတ်မွဲရ။ ဆဂး တင်လတုပ်စိုတ်ဂှ် ခြာဟွံလအ် လီုအာရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် တင်လတုပ်စိုတ်ဂှ် နကဵုဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ကီု သီုကဵု ပြင်သေတ်ဂှ် နွံပၟိက် မိက်ဂွံကဵု ပၞာန်ကြုက် နုက်တိတ် နူကဵု ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်သၟဝ်ကျာရ။ ပၞာန်ကြုက် နုက်တိတ်အာတုဲဗက်ဂှ် ပေါဲဗတိုက် အကြာဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ကဵု ပြင်သေတ် စကတဵုဒှ် လွာဲဂှ်ရ။
ပါမောက္ခ အစာဝင် Liam Kelley နူတက္ကသိုလ်ဟဝါယ် ချူလဝ် ပ္ဍဲလိက်ညး ''Le Minh Khai's SEAsian History Blog'' ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ဟီု ညး "ဒးဆုင်အိက် ပြင်သေတ် မသုန်သၞာံဂှ် ခိုဟ်နူ ဒးစအိက်ကြုက် လ္ၚီသၞာံဏီ"<ref>https://leminhkhai.wordpress.com/2012/09/01/ho-chi-minh-said-what/ [https://web.archive.org/web/20141014090118/http://manoa.hawaii.edu/history/node/44 proof that he runs the blog]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://leminhkhai.wordpress.com/2013/04/25/chiang-kai-shek-and-vietnam-in-1945/|title=Chiang Kai-shek and Vietnam in 1945|date=25 April 2013}}</ref>
[[ဝှာင်:Giap-Ho.jpg|thumb|upright|ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် (ပုင်) ကရောမ်မွဲစွံ ကု Võ Nguyên Giáp (ပါဲ) ပ္ဍဲဟနောယ်၊ ၁၉၄၅]]
တုဲဂှ် ဂကောံဝဳယေတ်မေန် ပံင်တောဲ ကုဒပ်ပၞာန်ကဝ်လဝ်နဳပြင်သေတ်တုဲ ဗက်ဂစိုတ်မၞိဟ်မထံက်ဂလာန် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ညးဆာန်ဂကူဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိင်အကြာ ၁၉၄၅-၁၉၄၆<ref>{{cite book | last=Turner | first=Robert F. | title=Vietnamese Communism: Its Origins and Development | url=https://archive.org/details/vietnamesecommun0000robe | publisher=Hoover Institution Press | year=1975 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/vietnamesecommun0000robe/page/57 57]–9, 67–9, 74}} တုဲပၠန် {{cite book | chapter=Myths of the Vietnam War | title=Southeast Asian Perspectives | date=September 1972 | pages=14–8}}; also {{cite book | first=Arthur J. | last=Dommen | title=The Indochinese Experience of the French and the Americans | url=https://archive.org/details/indochineseexper0000domm | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2001 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/indochineseexper0000domm/page/153 153]–4}}</ref> တုဲပၠန် မၞိဟ်တရဝ်သကဳ (Trotskyist) တအ်ရ။ ရဲဝါဒတရဝ်သကဳ ပ္ဍဲဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ဂှ် ဟွံလုပ်ပြိုင်ပကာန် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မ္ၚးဍုင်ဇၞော်ဇၞော်ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍုင်ဒကုတ်သၠုင်ကျာဂှ် ပါလုပ်ပြိုင်ပကာန်၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဍုင်သာဲဂေါန်ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဒးဒုင်ဆဵုဂဗ ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပကာန် ဇၞော်ဇၞော်ရ။ နူကဵု လပါ်မ္ၚးဂှ် ညးတအ် ဆဝ်မ္ၚုဟ် ညံင်ဂွံဒစဵုဒစး ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ကလေင်ဒက်ပတန် ကဝ်လဝ်နဳပြင်သေတ်ပၠန်၊ တုဲပၠန် ညးတအ် အာတ်မိက် ရုင်ကမၠောန်ဂမၠိုင် ညံင်ဂွံပအပ်ကဵု သၟာကမၠောန်တအ် ဗွဲမပြဟ်၊ တုဲပၠန် တိဗ္ၚတအ်ဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံပအပ်ကဵု ညးမလိင်ကၠောန်ဗ္ၚတအ်ရ။<ref>Daniel Hemery (1975) ''Revolutionnaires Vietnamiens et pouvoir colonial en Indochine''. François Maspero, Paris. 1975</ref><ref>Ngo Van (2000) ''Viet-nam 1920–1945: Révolution et contre-révolution sous la domination coloniale'', Paris: Nautilus Editions</ref> က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်သဵုယှေဲလေတ် ပြင်သေတ် Daniel Guerin ကလေင်ချပ်ဂွံ ပရူဒဒှ် ညးတေအ် မဆဵုဂဗလဝ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ပ္ဍဲပဴရေတ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၆ တုဲ ညးအာတ်လဝ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် စပ်ကဵု ပရူ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်ဝါဒတရဝ်သကဳ Tạ Thu Thâu ဂှ် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ကလေင်သှ်လဝ် "ဗွဲမတပ်တး" "Thâu ဂှ် ဒှ်ညးမဆာန်ဂကူ ဇၞော်ဇၞော်မွဲတုဲ ပိုယ်စိုတ်ဟွံခိုဟ် လတူညးကွေဟ်ဟ်ကီုရ။ ဆဂး တုဲဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဆက်ဟီု နကဵုရမ္သာင်ကြံင်င်မ္ၚုဟ်ဟ် ‘ညးလဵုဟွံဟီု ယဝ်ရ ဟွံဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် အတိုင်ဂၠံင်တရဴ အဲမဖျေဟ်လဝ်မ္ဂး သ္ဒးပလီုထောအ် သီုဖအိုတ်ရ။’"<ref>Daniel Guerin (1954) ''Aux services des colonises, 1930–1953'', Editions Minuit, Paris, p. 22</ref>
ကောန်မျူနေတ်တအ်ဂှ် ပါဲနူ ကောန်မျူနေတ်တုဲ ညးတအ် လၞိန်ဗပိန် ဖအိုတ်ကီုလေဝ် ကုပြင်သေတ်ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဂစာန်ကေတ် ဓဝ်လလံရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၆ အိုတ်၊ ကြဴနူကဵု ပရေင်ဟီုဂး သဳကၠဳ ကုပြင်သေတ် ဟွံအံင်ဇၞး ပ္ဍဲမပ္တံကဵု သဘင်ကောံဓရီု Dalat ကေုာံ Fontainebleau conferences တအ်တုဲ အလဵုအသဳ ဍုင်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ဂွံတီကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံဒှ်ပၞာန်ဂှ် ဝေင်ပါဲဟွံဂွံ သ္ဒးဒှ်ပၞာန်ဟေင်ရ။ ပၞာန်ပြင်သေတ် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲဟနောဲဂှ် အာထောအ်ဗုမ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဟာဲဖံင် (Haiphong) ဂှ် ထ္ၜးဒၟံင်သာဓက ဒဒှ်ရ ပြင်သေတ် ဟွံမဲပၟိက် သွက်ဂွံစၟတ်သမ္တီ ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် နဒဒှ် ဍုင်ဗၠးၜးမွဲရ။ လထောအ်ဗုမ် ပ္ဍဲဟာဲဖံင်ဂှ် ကောန်ဍုင်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ဒးချိုတ်အာ မၞိဟ် ၆၀၀၀ ပြင်ရ။ ပၞာန်တိုက်ပြင်သေတ် ဇက်လုပ်သီ ဍုင်ဟနောဲ မဒှ်ဍုင်ဇၞော်တၟိ ဍုင်သဵုယှေဲလေတ်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ၁၉ ဒဳဇြေန်ပါ ၁၉၄၆၊ ကြဴနူ မကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲဟာဲဖံင်တုဲ၊ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် လလောင်တြးပၞာန် ကုကၟိန်ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ်တုဲ ပၞာန်အေန်ဒဝ်ချာင်နာ စကတဵုဒှ်ရ။<ref>[[:vi:Lời kêu gọi toàn quốc kháng chiến]]</ref> ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကောန်ဂကူ ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် (Vietnam National Army) မဒှ်ဒပ်ပၞာန် ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မရပ်လဝ် ၜုန် ကဵု သေနာတ်ဂြိုပ်တအ်ဂှ် စဗတိုက်ရ။ ညးတအ် လုပ်သီကေတ် ဒၞာဲဗဒိုပ်ပြင်သေတ် နကဵု ဗလုယက် မစုတ်လဝ် မြေက်၊ ပလီုကွဳစက်ပၞာန် နကဵုမခတိုဟ်၊ မလုပ်ခတိုဟ်ဗုမ် ဂစိုတ်ဇကုတအ် ဒှ်တမ်ရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonesentry.com/articles/jp_tankhunters/|title=Lone Sentry: New Weapons for Jap Tank Hunters (U.S. WWII Intelligence Bulletin, March 1945)|website=lonesentry.com|access-date=27 May 2016}}</ref> ကြဴနူ ပေါဲပၞာန်မကတဵုဒှ် ဗွိုင်ၜါဂိတုတုဲ ကြဴနူ ပလီုထောအ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဒတန်ကိစ္စဇၞော်ဇၞော်တအ်တုဲဂှ် ဒပ်ပၞာန်ဆာန်ဂကူဝဳယေတ်နာမ်တအ် ဆုတ်နုက်ပၞာန်ရ။ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင်လလောင်တြး ဒဒှ်ရ ဒးဒုင်ရပ် ကုကောန်ပၞာန်ပြင်သေတ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်ဒပ် Jean-Étienne Valluy ပ္ဍဲ Việt Bắc ပ္ဍဲပေါဲဗတိုက်ရ။ ဆဂး မၞိဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဟဝ်ချဳမေန်ဟွံသေင် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် မကဵုကသပ် ဝဳယေတ်မေန်မွဲတၠ၊ ဒးဒုင်ချိုတ်အာ ဟိုတ်နူမဂစာန်ဂြိပ်တိတ်ရ။
အတိုင်လညာတ် အစာပရိုင် Bernard Fall မ္ဂး ကြဴနူ မဒှ်ပေါဲဗတိုက် ကုပြင်သေတ် သၞာံဗွဲမဂၠိုင်တုဲ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် သွက်ဂွံကေတ် ဓဝ်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ကုပြင်သေတ်ရ။ ညးစၞးပြင်သေတ် စိုပ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲကောံဓရီုဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ်တုဲ ကာလညးစၞးပြင်သေတ် မကလေင်စဴဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ကောန်ပၞာန်ဂျပေန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နွံဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲဒပ်ဟဝ်ချဳမေန်ရ။ အပ္ဍဲဂှ် မၞိဟ်မဒးဒုင်စောဲလဝ်ဂဗုတ် ရာဇာဝတ်ပၞာန် ကာလပၞာန်ဂၠးတိဒုတိယလေဝ် နွံဒၟံင်ကီုရ။ စပ်ကဵု ကိစ္စဝွံတုဲ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ကလေင်ကဵုပရိုင် ကောန်ပၞာန်ဂျပေန်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်မိတ်သဟာဲဇေတ်တ်အိုတ်တုဲ ကုညးတအ်ဂှ် ဆလအ်လေဝ် ဟွံပလီုသစ္စ၊ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပိုယ်တအ် ဆက်ဗတိုက်ကၠုင်ပၞာန် (ကြဴနူပၞာန်ဂၠးတိဒုတိယတုဲ) ပွိုင်ထပှ်သၞာံ။<ref>Fall, Bernard. ''Last reflections on a War'', p. 88. New York: Doubleday (1967).<!--ISBN??--></ref>
ပ္ဍဲဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၁၉၅၀၊ ကြဴနူထဍေင်ပတိတ် ပြင်သေတ် နူကဵုပယျဵုမာန်တုဲ၊<ref>[[:vi:Chiến dịch Biên giới]]</ref> ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ဆဵုဂဗ ကုက္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်ရုရှ သတာလေန် (Joseph Stalin) ကဵု က္ဍိပ်သကိုပ်ကြုက် မဝ်ဇြဳဒေါင် (Mao Zedong) ပ္ဍဲမဝ်သကဝ် ကြဴနူ အလဵုအသဳသဵုဗိယေတ် မဒက်ပ္တန် အလဵုအသဳတုဲရ။ ညးတအ် သီုဖအိုတ် တုပ်စိုတ် ကြုက် သ္ဒးကေတ်တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံဗိုင်ထံက်ဂလာန် ကုဝဳယေတ်မေန်ရ။<ref>Luo, Guibo. pp. 233–36</ref> ပ္ဍဲဂိတုအဝ်ဂေတ်ဂှ် ညးစၞးကြုက် ကဵုပရိုင် ကုသဵုဗိယေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးတအ် ဖန်ဇန် သွက်ဂွံကဵုတန်ဗတောန် ကုဝဳယေန်မေန် မၞိဟ်အကြာ ၆၀၀၀၀-၇၀၀၀၀ ရ။<ref>Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "Chronology", p. 45.</ref> စနူဂှ်တုဲ ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ကလိဂွံဂၠံင်တိတ် သွက်ဂွံဆက်ဆောံ ကုဍုင်မ္ၚးရ။ ဟဝ်ချဳမေန် ဟီုကဵု ပြင်သေတ် "အဲဂစိုတ်ဂွံမၞးတအ်မွဲ မၞးတအ် ဂစိုတ်ဂွံမၞိဟ်အဲ စှ်တၠလေဝ် ပၞာန်ဏအ် အဲဇၞးဟေင်ရ။"<ref>McMaster, H.R. (1997) "Dereliction of Duty: Lyndon Johnson, Robert McNamara, The Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies that Led to Vietnam", pg. 35.</ref> စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၉၅၄ ဂှ် ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ရပ်ဂွံ ပၞာန်ပြင်သေတ် ၁၀၀၀၀ ပြင်င် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပေါဲဗတိုက် Dien Bien Phu တုဲ ပၞာန်အေန်ဒဝ်ချာင်နာ အာစိုပ်ဒတုဲရ။ တုဲကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဓဇက်လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ၜိုဟ်လလံ ပ္ဍဲဝဳယေတ်နာမ်သၟဝ်ကျာရ။
Arthur Dommen တၟော်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကာလပၞာန်ဂှ် ဝဳယေတ်မေန် ဂစိုတ်ထောအ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် အကြာၜိုတ် ၅၀၀၀၀ ကဵု ၁၀၀၀၀၀ ဒှ်မာန်ရ။<ref>Dommen, Arthur J. (2001), ''The Indochinese Experience of the French and the Americans'', Indiana University Press, pg. 252.</ref> ဆဂး Smedberg ထေင်ကေတ်မ္ဂး ညးဍုင်ကွာန် မဒးချိုတ်လဝ် အောန်နူ ၁၅၀၀၀၀ ဒှ်မာန်ရ။<ref>Smedberg, M (2008), Vietnamkrigen: 1880–1980. Historiska Media, p. 88</ref> ဒုင်သဇိုင် ကု တၟော် Dommen တုဲ Benjamin Valentino တော်ကေတ် ဟိုတ်နူပြင်သေတ်တုဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် မဒးချိုတ်အာဂှ် နွံအကြာ ၆၀၀၀၀-၂၅၀၀၀၀ ရ။<ref name="Valentino">{{cite book|last=Valentino|first=Benjamin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQfeXVU_EvgC&q=vietnam#v=onepage&q=french%20suppression%20of%20Vietminh%20guerrillas&f=false|title=Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century|publisher=[[Cornell University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=9780801472732|p=83}}</ref>
== တင်စၟတ် ==
{{notelist}}
== နိဿဲ ==
{{reflist}}
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{{Infobox high court
| court_name = ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ် <br>International Court of Justice
| native_name = ''Cour internationale de justice''
| image = International Court of Justice Seal.svg
| imagesize = 151px
| image2 =
| imagesize2 =
| caption = တဆိပ် ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ်
| Acronyms =
| established = 1945 (PCIJ dissolved in 1946)
| country = [[International court|အလုံလိုက်]], [[Statute of the International Court of Justice#Parties to the Statute|{{UNnum}} state parties]]
| location = တာမ်ဟက် (The Hague) နေတာလာန်
| coordinates = {{nowrap|{{coord|52|05|11.8|N|4|17|43.8|E|region:NL-ZH_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}}}
| type = <!-- partisan election/non-partisan election/legislative
selection/executive selection/cooption/etc -->
| authority = {{hlist |[[United Nations Charter|UN Charter]] |[[Statute of the International Court of Justice|ICJ Statute]]}}
| terms = 9 years
| positions = 15
| website = [http://www.icj-cij.org/ www.icj-cij.org]
| chiefjudgetitle = ဥက္ကဌ
| chiefjudgename = Abdulqawi Yusuf
| termstart = 6 February 2018
| termend = 5 February 2021
| termend2 = <!-- year term of current chief ends if applicable -->
| chiefjudgetitle2 = ဒု-ဥက္ကဌ
| chiefjudgename2 = Xue Hanqin
| termstart2 = 6 February 2018
| termend3 = 5 February 2021
| termend4 = <!-- year term of current deputy chief ends if applicable -->
}}
{{Sidebar
| title = [[United Nations|သၞောတ် ဗီုဒက်ပ္တန် [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]]]
|image= [[File:Emblem of the United Nations.svg|100px]]
| above = Principal Organs
| heading1=[[United Nations Secretariat]]
| heading2=[[United Nations General Assembly]]
| heading3=International Court of Justice
| heading4=[[United Nations Security Council]]
| heading5=[[United Nations Economic and Social Council]]
| heading6=[[United Nations Trusteeship Council]]
}}
'''ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ်''' ({{Lang-en|'''International Court of Justice'''}}) ('''ICJ'''),<ref>{{cite web|last1=Koh|first1=Steven Arrigg|title=4 Things You Should Know About The Hague|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/steven-arrigg-koh/4-things-you-should-know-_1_b_5725138.html|accessdate=17 March 2017}}</ref> လဆောဝ် ကော်စ '''ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးတိ''' ('''World Court''') ဂှ် ဒှ်ရုင်ဗစာ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] သွက်သၞောဝ်ဓဝ်ရ။ တင်အဓိက ကမၠောန် ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ်ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ဗစာရဏာ ဂဗုတ် မကတဵုဒှ် အကြာဍုင်မွဲကုမွဲ မပ္တံ ဟိုတ်နူ ကိစ္စတိဍာ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကယျာန်ဓဝါတ် မဆေင် ကဵုသၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ၊ တုဲပၠန် ပတိတ်ကဵု လညာတ် လတူပြသၞာမွဲမွဲ သွက်[[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] ဂွံရပ်စပ် လတူကိစ္စဂှ်ရ။ ကာလမစၟဳစၟတ် ဗစာရဏာပၠန်ရ ဒုင်သဇိုင် ကုသၞောဝ်ဂၠးကဝ်တုဲ သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဗစာရဏာရ။
ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ်ဂှ် ဂကောံနာဲဗစာ ရုင်ဗစာဒတန် သၞောဝ်ဓဝ်ဂၠးတိ (Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)) ကေတ်တာလျိုင်တုဲ ဂကောံဂှ် ဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံပံင်ကောံဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် (League of Nations) နူကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀ တုဲ မစရပ်ကမၠောန်ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၂၂ တေအ်ရ။ ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ မအာစိုပ်ဒတုဲတုဲ ဂကောံပံင်ကောံဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်ကီု သီုကဵု ဂကောံနာဲဗစာ ရုင်ဗစာဒတန် သၞောဝ်ဓဝ်ဂၠးတိဂှ် ဗွဲမရှ်ေသှ်ေရဴဂဴဂှ် နွံသၟဝ် ပကင်ရင် [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] ကေုာံ ရုပ်ဗစာသၞောဝ်ဓဝ်ဂၠးတိရ။ ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာသၞောဝ်ဓဝ်ဂၠးကဝ်ဂှ် ဂွံတံင်ပလီုထောအ် နူကဆံင်ဌာနညးတအ် ဝါတ်ကွေဟ်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဗွဲကြဴဂှ်လေဝ် သှ်ေတန်တဴဒၟံင်ရ။ ဇၟာပ်ဍုင် မဒှ်ကောန်ဂကောံ[[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာသၞောဝ်ဓဝ်ဂၠးကဝ်။
ရုင်ဗစာသၞောဝ်ဓဝ်ဂၠးတိဂှ် ဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် နကဵု နာဲဗစာ ဂကောံပေန်နေလ် ၁၅ တၠ မရုဲစှ်ပတိုန် နူကဵု အသာမ်ဗလဳ ဇၞော် [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations General Assembly) ကေုာံ နူကံင်သဳပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations Security Council) နကဵုအာယုက်တာလျိုင် ဒစိတ်သၞာံရ။ ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် နွံဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ပြာသာဒ် ၜိုဟ်လလံ (Peace Palace) ပ္ဍဲဍုင်တာမ်ဟက် (The Hague) ဍုင်နေတာလာန်။<ref>{{cite web|title=The Court {{!}} International Court of Justice|url=http://www.icj-cij.org/en/court|website=www.icj-cij.org|accessdate=10 January 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180110090149/http://www.icj-cij.org/en/court|archive-date=10 January 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မစကာ ပ္ဍဲရုင်ဗစာဂှ် ဒှ်အရေဝ်အင်္ဂလိက် ကဵု အရေဝ်ပြင်သေတ်။
== ဝင် ==အေန်သတဳကျုတ် လၟိုန် သွက်ဂွံရပ်စပ် ပရေင်ကယျာန်ဓဝါတ် အကြာ ဍုင်မွဲကုမွဲ မဒှ်ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ရုင်ဗစာလၟိုန်အာဗိတြရှေန် (ပဳသဳအေ) [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] (PCA) မဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၉၉ အတိုင်တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် နူသဘင်ကောံဓရီုဇၞော် မကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်တာမ်ဟက်ရ။ ကသပ်လညာတ် မကၠောန်သဘင်ကောံဓရီုဇၞော်ဏအ်ဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု ဨကရာဇ်စြာ ရုရှာ (Russian Czar) နိကဝ်လေသ် ဒုတိယ (Nicholas II)။ ကောံဓရီုဇၞော်ဂှ် ကော်ဘိက်လဝ် ဍုင်သြဇာဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ သီုဖအိုတ်ကီု သီုကဵု ဍုင်သၟတ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ နူကောံဓရီုဇၞော်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် မဆေင်စပ်ကဵု ပ္ဍဲအရာ မစကာ လွပ်လွာ/အရပ်အရာပၞာန် အရာလဵုမကၠောန်ထေက် အရာလဵု မကၠောန်ဟွံထေက်ရ။ တင်လတုပ်စိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် ကၠာအိုတ် အကြာဍုင်ဂၠးတိဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/hag99-01.asp|title=The Hague peace conferences of 1899 and 1907; a series of lectures delivered before the Johns Hopkins University in the year 1908|last=Scott|first=James Brown|website=avalon.law.yale.edu|access-date=2019-05-02}}</ref> ပၞောဝ်ကဵု တင်လတုပ်စိုတ်ဂမၠိုင်တအ်ဂှ် တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် မစၟတ်သမ္တီ ပယျဵုဒတန် ပါသဳဖေတ် မဒှ်ဒၟံင် ပရေင်ကယျာန်ဓဝါတ်ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ပါမွဲကီုရ။ နကဵုတင်လတုပ်စိုတ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဓရီုအပြောမ် သွက်ဂွံဆက်ချပ်ဂၞန်အာ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်တာမ်ဟက်၊ ဍုင်နေတာလာန်ရ။ ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအေဂှ် စဒက်ပ္တန် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၀၀ တုဲ စရပ်ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၀၂။
သဘင်ကောံဓရီုဇၞော် ၜိုဟ်လလံ ပ္ဍဲတာမ်ဟက် အလန်ဒုတိယ မကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၀၇ ဂှ် ဍုင်မကလိဂွံလဝ် အဝဵုစၟိန်ပြမာန် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တိုန်စိုပ်တုဲ ကလေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် တင်လတုပ်စိုတ်တြေံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပကင်ရင် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအေဂှ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သဘင်ကောံဓရီုဇၞော်ဏအ်ဂှ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်၊ ဍုင်ဂရိတ်ဗြိတိန် ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဂျာမနဳ ပတိုန်ဂလာန် ညံင်ဂွံ ဒက်ပ္တန် ရုင်ဗစာလၟိုန် မနွံကဵု နာဲဗစာ မကေတ်တာလျိုင် အခိင်ပေင်င်ရ။ ကာလမချပ်ဂၞန် ဗီုလဵု ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်ဗီုလဵု မဂွံခပတိုန် နဒဒှ် နာဲဗစာ ပ္ဍဲရုင်ဗစာလၟိုန်ဂှ် ဟွံကလိဂွံ တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် ရေင်သကအ်တုဲ တင်ပတိုန်ဂလာန်ဂှ် ပလဝ်ဒတန် နဒဒှ် တင်သွက်ဂွံဆက်ချပ်ဂၞန် ပ္ဍဲသဘင်ကောံဓရီုဇၞော် ဂတတေအ်ရ။
နကဵုကသပ်လညာတ် နူကဵု သဘင်ကောံဓရီုဇၞော် ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်လလံ တာမ်ဟက်ဂှ်ရ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ရုင်ဗစာဗဟဵု အမေရိကာန် သွက် သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် (Central American Court of Justice) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၀၈ မဒှ်ရုင်ဗစာ နကဵုဒေသ ကၠာအိုတ်မွဲရ။ သၞာံ အကြာ ၁၉၁၁ ကဵု ၁၉၁၉ ဂှ် နကဵုနဲကဲနာနာ ဗီုပြင်နာနာဂှ် ခၞံဗဒှ် ဒက်ပတန်ပတိုန် ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးကဝ် (international judicial tribunal)ရ။ ဆဂး ဟွံဒှ်ကမၠောန်။ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အလန်ပထမ အာစိုပ်ဒတုဲတုဲ ကာလကလေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် သၞောတ်ဂၠးကဝ်တၟိဂှ်တုဲဂှ် ရုပ်ရဴကမၠောန် ဒက်ပတန် ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးတိဂှ် စမံက်ကၠုင်ရ။
=== ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ် လၟိုန် (The Permanent Court of International Justice) ===
ဟိုတ်နူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိအလန်ပထမ မဒှ်ပၞာန် ဆီပါ်ဍာ်ဇွောဝ် ကတဵုဒှ်တုဲ တၞဟ်နဂွံဝေင်ပါဲ အရာတအ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ကၠောန်သဘင်ကောံဓရီုဇၞော် ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်လလံ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ပဴရေသ် (ပြင်သေတ်) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၁၉ တုဲ နူကဵု သဘင်ကောံဓရီုဂှ် ဒက်ပ္တန် ဂကောံပံင်ကောံ ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ([[League of Nations]])ရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် ဂကောံပံင်ကောံဏအ်ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ဆက်ထိင်မင်မဲအာ ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်လလံ ဂၠးကဝ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီုဂၠးကဝ်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ဂကောံပံင်ကောံဝွံ ဒှ်ဂကောံပံင်ကောံ မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵုဍုင်နာနာ အလန်ကၠာအိုတ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် ဂကောံပံင်ကောံ ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၁၄ ဂှ် အာတ်မိက်လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် ရုင်ဗစာသၞောဝ်ဓဝ်လၟိုန်ဂၠးကဝ် (ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေ) (Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ))မွဲ၊ နကဵုရုင်ဗစာဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ဗစာရဏာ ကဵုသ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် အရာမကယျာန်ဓဝါန် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးကဝ် နာနာသာ်တအ်တုဲ ပတိတ်ကဵု တင်မကဵုလညာတ် လတူပရေင်ကယျာန်ဓဝါတ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာတအ် ကုဂကောံပံင်ကောံ ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဒဳဇြေန်ပါ ၁၉၂၀ မူအပြောမ် ကေုာံ တင်မချပ်ဂၞန် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်တုဲ အသေမ်ပလဳ ဂကောံပံင်ကောံဂှ် ကလိဂွံ တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် ပဒတန် ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေ (Statute of the PCIJ) မဒှ်တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် သ္ဒးဒှ်ရုင်ဗစာဗီုလဵုမွဲတုဲ တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် စပ်ကဵု ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် ထပက်လဝ်စၟတ်တဲ နကဵု ကောန်ဂကောံဍုင်အဓိကဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ပၞောဝ်ကဵု တင်လတုပ်စိုတ်ဂမၠိုင်ဂှ် တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် မဆေင်ကဵု ရုဲစှ် နာဲဗစာဂှ် ဒဒှ်ရ နာဲဗစာတအ်ဂှ် မဒးရုဲစှ်ပတိုန် နူကဵု ဍုင်ဂကောံကံင်သဳ ကီု သီုကဵု နူကဵု အသေမ်ပလဳရ။ တုဲပၠန် ပရေင်ရုဲစှ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒးဒှ် ဗွဲမဗၠးၜးရောင်။ ဟီုမွဲပၠန် နာဲဗစာတအ်ဂှ် ပစၞး ကုဍုင်မွဲမွဲတုဲ မဂွံဒုင် ခပတိုန် တာလျိုင် နာဲဗစာ ဟွံသေင်၊ ညးတအ် အခေါင်ကၠောန် အခေါင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် အတိုင်သၞောဝ် ဗွဲမဗၠးၜးရ။ ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် သ္ဒးကိတ်ညဳ ကုဂကောံမှာဇန် ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဓဝ်ဂၠးတိရောင်။<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.icj-cij.org/en/history|title=History {{!}} International Court of Justice|website=www.icj-cij.org|access-date=2019-05-03}}</ref> တုဲပၠန် ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် သ္ဒးနွံ ဒၞာဲဒတန် လၟိုန်ထာဝရ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပြာသာဒ် ၜိုဟ်လလံ (Peace Palace) ပ္ဍဲဍုင်တာမ်ဟက်၊ ဍုင်နေတာလာန် မွဲစွံ ကုရုင်ဗစာလၟိုန် အာဗိတြရှေန် ရောင်။
ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေဂှ် ဒှ်အစာမ် သွက်ပရေင်သၞောဝ်ဓဝ်ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိတအ် မကေတ်စနဲကဲခိုဟ် နွံတၟာဂလိုင်ရ။
* ရုင်ဗစာဏအ်ဂှ် ဟွံတုပ် ကုရုင်ဗစာ မကေင်နွံကၠုင်လဝ်ကၠာတေအ်။ ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေဝွံ နွံကဵု မၞိဟ်တာလျိုင် လၟိုန်တုဲ သီုနွံကဵု ပရေင်ဥပဓိဇကုအပိုင် ပရေင်ပကင်ရင် ဇကုအပိုင်ရ။
* ရုင်ဗစာဏအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ရုင်စၟတ်သမ္တီဇကုအပိုင် လၟိုန်ထာဝရတုဲ မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ ကုအလဵုအသဳဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ကေုာံ ဂကောံဂၠးတိဂမၠိုင်ရ။
* ရုင်ဗစာဏအ်ဂှ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန်ညးတအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် လဴထ္ၜး ကုညးဍုင်ကွာန် မပတံကဵု ပသောင်ကလး၊ ပတိတ်လလောင်တြး နကဵုရမ္သာင် ကေုာံ တင်ဂၞင်ဂမၠိုင်ဂှ် ဒးနွံကဵု သက်သဳခိုင်င်ကၠိုက်က်ရ။
* ရုင်ဗစာဏအ်ဂှ် နွံအခေါင် လုပ်စၟဳစၟတ် ဍုင်သီုဖအိုတ် တုဲပၠန် ယဝ်ရနွံပၟိက်မ္ဂး ဟီုလလောင်တြး မဆေင်ကဵု ပြသၞာတအ်ဂှ်ရ။
* ဥပဓိရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေဂှ် ဒှ်တင်ဂၞင် မဆေင်ကဵုသၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ နဒဒှ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေဂၠးကဝ် ကၠာအိုတ်ရ။
* နာဲဗစာတအ်ဂှ် လတူနူမပစၞး ကုသၞောတ်ဝ် ဍုင်မွဲမွဲဂှ် ညးတအ် ပစၞး ကုဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဝ်ဂၠးတိရ။
* ဟိုတ်နူ မၞုံကဵု ဂကောံဒတန်လၟိုန်တုဲ ပရေင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ညးတအ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗီုပကင်ရင်ညးတအ်ဂှ် အဆက်ဟွံပိုတ် ပခိုဟ်ကဵုဒၟံင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေဂၠးတိမာန်ရ။
အရာ ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေ ဟွံတုပ် ကုရုင်ဗစာအာင်သဳဂျေမွဲဂှ် ညးတအ် ဟွံဒှ် ဂကောံလစှ်ေ နူဂကောံဍုင်ပံင်ကောံတုဲ ညးတအ် ဟွံဒးဒုင်ဓယံက် ပရေင်ဓလီုဖဍိုက် နူကဵု ဍုင်ဂကောံဍုင်ပံင်ကောံမွဲမွဲရ။ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောံဓရီုဇၞော်အလန်ပထမ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်တာမ်ဟက်ဂှ်ကီု သီုကဵု အလန်ဒုတိယ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ပဴရေတ်ဂှ်ကီု ၜိုန်ရ ပါလုပ်လဝ် နဒဒှ်ဍုင်ကိစ္စဇၞော်ကီုလေဝ် ဟွံလုပ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံဍုင်ပံင်ကောံရ။ ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် ကောန်ဍုင်ညးတအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ယိုက်ဂၠေင် ကေတ်လဝ်တာလျိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံနာဲဗစာဂမၠိုင်ရ။
ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေဂှ် နူစ မကၠောန်ကမၠောန် သၞာံ ၁၉၂၂ စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၄၀ ဂှ် လုပ်ပသောင်လဝ် ပြသၞာ အကြာဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ၂၉ တုဲ ပတိတ်လဝ် လညာတ်မကဵုကသပ် (advisory opinion) သီုဖအိုတ် ၂၇ ရ။ သၞောဝ်မပတိတ် နူရုင်ဗစာတအ်ဂှ် ဍုင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ယဵုဒုင်ကေတ် နဒဒှ် သၞောဝ်ဂၠးတိတုဲ ဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် ပလေဝ်ဗက်အာ သၞောဝ်ဍုင်ဇကုအိုတ်ကီုရ။
ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်ဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ ဒှ်ဍုင်မချဳဓရာင် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲအရာမခၞံဗဒှ် ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးတိ (World Court) ကီုလေဝ် ဟွံပါလုပ်လဝ်ရ။<ref>David S. Patterson, "The United States and the origins of the world court." ''Political Science Quarterly'' 91.2 (1976): 279-295. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24445043 online]</ref> သမတအမေရိကာန် Wilson, Harding, Coolidge, Hoover ကေုာံ Roosevelt တအ် ၜိုန်ရ ထံက်ဂာန် သီုညံင်ပါလုပ် နဒဒှ် ကောန်ဂကောံမွဲကီုလေဝ် ဆလအ် ဟွံကလိဂွံမာဲ ၂/၃ (ပိဂအုံ ၜါဂအုံ) နူကဵု သေနုက် (Senate) သွက်ပတန်သၞောဝ် ကိစ္စဂှ်ရ။<ref>R.D. Accinelli, "Peace Through Law: The United States and the World Court, 1923-1935," ''Historical Papers / Communications historiques'' (1972) 7#1, 247–261. https://doi.org/10.7202/030751a</ref>
=== လဒက်ပ္တန် ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ် Establishment of the International Court of Justice ===
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၃၃ ဂှ် ပရေင်ဒစဵုဒစး လတူရုင်ဗစာဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် တုဲပၠန် ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ အကြာဍုင်မွဲကုမွဲလေဝ် အောန်ကၠုင်တုဲ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေဂှ် စိုပ်အာ လပါ်ကၞောတ်ရ။ စိုပ်အခိင် ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိဒုတိယဂှ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် အုပ်ကၠေအ်နိဂီုရ။ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လက္ကရဴအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဒဳဇြေန်ပါ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၉ တုဲ အသံ လက်ကရဴအိုတ်ဂှ် ပ္တိတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိတုဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၀ ရ။ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၂ ဂှ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗြိတိန် ပံင်ကောံတုဲ လလောင်တြး ညံင်ဂွံ ကလေင်ဒက် ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးကဝ် ပ္ဍဲကာလပၞာန်မတုဲ၊ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၃ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗြိတိန် အာဂတပၠတရဴတုဲ ကော်ဘိက် တၠပညာသၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ အလုံလိုက် သွက်ဂွံ ချပ်ဂၞန် ကိစ္စဏအ်ရ။ စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၉၄၄ ဂှ် လလောင်တြး -
* ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးကဝ် တၟိဂှ် သ္ဒးဒုင်သဇိုင် ကုရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေ
* ရုင်ဗစာတၟိဂှ် သ္ဒးဒှ် ဒၞာဲမပတိတ် တင်မကဵုကသပ် ပရေင်သၞောဝ်ဥပေဒ (an advisory jurisdiction)
* ရုင်ဗစာတၟိဂှ် ပရေင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်သၞောဝ် သ္ဒးဒှ် အတိုင်ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ နာဲဗစာတအ်။
* ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် သ္ဒးရပ်စပ် နကဵုလညာတ်သၞောဝ် ဟေင်တုဲ ဒးတိတ်ဗၠး နူကဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်။
ကြဴနူဂှ် ဂိတုဗွဲမဂၠိုင်တုဲ တင်လတုပ်စိုတ်ဂှ် နကဵု ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗြိတိန်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် တုပ်စိုတ် ဒုင်တဲ ဒဒှ်ရ ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးကဝ်မွဲ နွံပၟိက်ဒၟံင်ဍာံဍာံတုဲ ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် ဒးဒက်ပ္တန် နကဵုသဘဴဓဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ မရှ်ေသှ်ေရဴဂဴ အဝဵုစၟိန်ပြမာန် ကဆံင်တုပ် ကုဍုင်မဒးဂၞပ် ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်လလံတအ်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် နူကဵုဍုင်တအ်ဂှ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် ဍုင်ဍောတ် ဟွံရုဲ ဟွံပါ်ပါဲ အခေါင်မပလံင် မၞိဟ်စၞး သ္ဒးပံက်ကဵုလဝ်တုပ်ပ်ရောင်။ တုဲပၠန် ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် သ္ဒးဒက်ပ္တန် နကဵု တင်ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ်မင်မဲအာ ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ကေုာံ ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်လလံဂၠးကဝ်ရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/moscow.asp|title=The Moscow Conference, October 1943|website=avalon.law.yale.edu|access-date=2019-05-03}}</ref>
သဘင်ကောံဓရီု မဟာမိတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဍုင်[[Dumbarton Oaks Conference|Dumbarton Oaks]], ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲဂိတုအံက်တဝ်ပါ ၁၉၄၄ဂှ် ပ္တိတ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံပံင်ကောံအလဵုအသဳဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ကေုာံ ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးကဝ်ရ။ စပ်ကဵု တင်လတုပ်စိုတ်ဏအ်တုဲ ကလေင်ကော်ကောံဓရီု ပ္ဍဲဝတ်ရှေန်တာန် ဒဳသဳ ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဨပြဳ ၁၉၄၅၊ တၠပညာဥပဒေ သီုဖအိုတ် ၄၄ တၠ နူကဵု အလုံလိုက် တိုန်စိုပ် ချပ်ဂၞန် ဖျေဟ်မူအပြောမ် ဥပဓိ သွက်ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးကဝ်ရ။ မူအပြောမ်ဂှ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် နကဵုဗီုပြင် ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေတုဲ ချပ်ဂၞန်ရေင်သကအ် ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးကဝ်ဂှ် ဒက်ပ္တန် ဟွံဒက်ပတန်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သဘင်ကောံဓရီုဇၞော် သင်ဖြေန်သိသကဝ် (San Francisco Conference) မကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိတုဨပြဳ ၂၅ စဵုကဵု ဂိတုဂျောန် ၂၆ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၅ ဂှ် ညးစၞးနူ ၅၀ ဍုင် တိုန်စိုပ်တုဲ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဗွဲမတုပ်သၟဟ် ဒဒှ်ရ ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးကဝ်မွဲဂှ် သ္ဒးဒက်ပ္တန်တုဲပၠန် ဂကောံပံင်ကောံဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် မကော်ဂး [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]ဂှ် သ္ဒးဒက်ပ္တန်ရ။ ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် သ္ဒးခၞံချူ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်ကသုက်ပဋိညာဉ် [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations Charter)၊ တုဲပၠန် ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် သ္ဒးဒှ် ရုင်ဗစာလၟိုန်တုဲ သ္ဒးကော်စ ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ် (အာင်သဳဂျေ) (International Court of Justice) (ICJ) ရ။
ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေ ဂှ် ဆဵုဂဗ အလန်လက္ကရဴအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိတုအံက်တဝ်ပါ ၁၉၄၅ တုဲ မၞိဟ်တာလျိုင်တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်စၠောအ် ကေတ်အာတာလျိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပြာသာဒ်ၜိုဟ်လလံ ဍုင်တာမ်ဟက်၊ နေတာလာန်ရ။ နာဲဗစာ နူရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေတအ် သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒေါအ်ဇူ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိတုဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၃၁၊ ၁၉၄၆ တုဲ ရုဲစှ် နာဲဗစာ သွက် ရုင်ဗစာသၞောဝ်ဓဝ်ဂၠးကဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဂိတုဇာန်နဝါရဳ ပ္ဍဲအသေမ်ဗလဳ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]အလန်ကၠာအိုတ် ကေုာံ နူကဵု ကံင်သဳပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု (Security Council)ရ။ ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဨပြဳ ၁၉၄၆ဂှ် ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေ ရုပ်ကၟာတ်ထောအ် အတိုင်သၞောဝ်တုဲ၊ ရုင်ဗစာအာင်သဳဂျေ စကော်ကောံဓရီု၊ ရုဲစှ် ဥက္ကဌ၊ [[José Gustavo Guerrero]] နူဍုင် El Salvador ညးမဒှ်လဝ် ဥက္ကဌတြေံ နူရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေရ။ ဂကောံစၟတ်သမ္တီဂမၠိုင်လဝ် ရုဲစှ်ပတိုန်ကီုရ။ မၞိဟ်မဂွံဒုင်ရုဲစှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ်တြေံ နူကဵု ရုင်ဗစာပဳသဳအာင်ဂျေရ။
ဂဗုတ် မဒးဒုင်စောဲကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ပ္ဍဲဂိတုမေ ၁၉၄၇ နူကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗြိတိန် မစုတ်စောဲလဝ် ဍုင်အလ်ဗနဳယျာ မဆေင်စပ် ကုပြသၞာၜဳကောရ်ဖု (Corfu Channel)။
[[File:International Court of Justice HQ 2006.jpg|thumb|left|ပြာသာဒ် ၜိုဟ်လလံ (Peace Palace) နွံ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်တာမ်ဟက်၊ နေတာလာန်၊ မဒှ်ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးတိ]]
==လဒက်ပတန်==
ရုင်ဗစာအာင်သဳဂျေဂှ် ဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံနာဲဗစာ ၁၅ တၠ၊ အာယုက်တာလျိုင် နွံ ၉ သၞာံ၊ မရုဲစှ် နကဵုအသေမ်ဗလဳ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] ကေုာံ ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] နကဵုဂကောံဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲရုင်ဗစာလၟိုန်အာဗိတြရှေန် ([[Permanent Court of Arbitration]])ရ။ ဗီုရုဲစှ်ဂှ် ချူဗၟံက်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၄-၁၉ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာအာင်သဳဂျေရ။ ဗီုရုဲစှ်ဂှ် နာဲဗစာသီုဖအိုတ် ရုဲစှ် ပ္ဍဲမွဲအခိင် ဟွံသေင်ရ။ တၞဟ်န ပရေင်ကမၠောန်ရုင်ဗစာ ဟွံဂွံယောင်ယာ၊ ဒေါအ်ဒေင်အာတုဲ ဇၟာပ်ပိသၞာံဂှ် ရုဲစှ် နာဲဗစာ မသုန်တၠ။ ယဝ်ရ နာဲဗစာမွဲ စုတိအာ ပ္ဍဲတာလျိုင်မ္ဂး စၞးနာဲဗစာ မစုတိဂှ် ရုဲစှ်ပတိုန် နာဲဗစာတၟိ နကဵုပရေင်ရုဲစှ်ကာတၟေင်၊ အာယုက် နာဲဗစာစၞးဂှ် တန်တဴကဵု အာယုက် နာဲဗစာမစုတိဂှ်ရ။
နာဲဗစာၜါ ဒှ်မွဲကောန်ဍုင် ဟွံဂွံရ။ အတိုင်ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၉ မ္ဂး ကောန်ဂကောံ ရုင်ဗစာတအ်ဂှ် သ္ဒးဒှ် မပစၞး ကုကောန်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဂၠးတိဟေင်ရ။ သၞောဝ်ဂၠးတိဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် သၞောဝ်မဆေင်ကဵု ညးဂမၠိုင်၊ သၞောဝ်ညးဍုင်ကွာန်၊ သၞောဝ်ပရေင်မၞိဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒးသ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဖအိုတ်ရ။
ခုင်ပ္ဍဲ ရုင်ဗစာ ၁၅ ဒၞာဲဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ နကဵုသၞောဝ် ဟွံဗမံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ်ကီုလေဝ် ဖန်ဇန်လဝ် အတိုင်ဒေသပထဝဳ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]၊ ဍုင်ရးပလိုတ်တအ်ဂှ် မသုန်ခုင်၊ ဍုင်အဖရိကဂှ် ပိခုင် (ပိခုင်ဂှ် မွဲဂှ် နာဲဗစာ သွက်သၞောဝ်ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (francophone civil law) မွဲဂှ် သၞောဝ်မဆေင်ကဵုညးဂမၠိုင် (Anglophone common law) တုဲ မွဲဂှ် မဆေင်ကဵု အာရာပ်)၊ ၜါခုင် သွက်ဍုင်ယူရောပ် လပါ်ဗမံက်၊ ပိခုင် သွက် ဍုင်အာရှ၊ ၜါခုင် သွက်လေတ္တေန် အမေရိက ကေုာံ ဍုင်ကာရိဗ်ဗေန်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>Harris, D. ''Cases and Materials on International Law, 7th ed.'' (2012, London) p. 839.</ref> အတိုင်ဝင်မ္ဂး ဍုင်ကောန်ဂကောံကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု လၟိုန်ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ်၊ ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗြိတိန်၊ ကေုာံ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်တအ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံမွဲမွဲခုင်တွဵုရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ သွက်ဒၞာဲခုင် ဍုင်ရးပလိုတ် မသုန်ခုင်ဂှ် ပိခုင်ဂှ် ဍုင်ပိဂှ် ကေတ်လဝ် ဒၞာဲတုဲတုဲရ။ ခုင်သွက် ဍုင်အာရှဂှ် ကြုက်ကေတ်လဝ် ဒၞာဲမွဲဒၞာဲ၊ သွက်ခုင် ယူရောပ်လပါ်ဗမံက်ဂှ် ကေတ်လဝ် မွဲဒၞာဲရ။ နကဵုတင်ဆောတ်ယောင် အကြာသၞာံ ၁၉၆၇ ကဵု ၁၉၈၅ ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူကြုက် ဟွံပတိုန်ကဵု မၞိဟ်စၞးတုဲ ဍုင်ကြုက် ဟွံကလိဂွံဒၞာဲ ပ္ဍဲခုင် နာဲဗစာ၊ တုဲပၠန် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗြိတိန်ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ နာဲဗစာ Sir Christopher Greenwood နုက်တိတ် နူတာလျိုင် ဟွံဆက်ဒုင်ရုဲစှ် အလန်ဒုတိယ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၇ဂှ်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵုရုင်ဗစာဂှ် နာဲဗစာ နူဍုင်ဗြိတိန် ဟွံမဲကီုရ။<ref name="bbcgreenwood">{{cite news|title=International Court of Justice: UK abandons bid for seat on UN bench|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-42061028|accessdate=21 November 2017|agency=BBC}}</ref> Greenwood ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ အထံက်ဂလာန် နူ ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]ကီုလေဝ် ကျမာဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အသေမ်ဗလဳ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] ရ။<ref name="bbcgreenwood" /> စၞးညးတေအ်ဂှ် နာဲဗစာ နူဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ Dalveer Bhandari ကလိဂွံဒၞာဲဂှ်ရ။<ref name="bbcgreenwood" />
ဥပဓိ ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၆ ဂှ် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် နာဲဗစာတအ်ဂှ် သ္ဒးဒုင် "ရုဲစှ် နမပစၞး ဍုင်ဇကုဟွံသေင်တုဲ မဒးဒှ် မၞိဟ်မနွံကဵု သိက္ခာသမာဓိ မသၠုင်ပြဲ" မၞိဟ်ဂှ် မကေင်ဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရုင်သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် သၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်ဇကု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒးဒှ် မၞိဟ်မတီကၠိုဟ် ပရေင်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေဂၠးတိမွဲရ။ ပွမသ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် သၞောဝ် ဗွဲမဗၠးၜးဂှ် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၁၆ - ၁၈ ရ။ နာဲဗစာ ပ္ဍဲရုင်ဗစာအာင်သဳဂျေဂှ် လုပ်ကေတ်တာလျိုင် ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲတၞဟ် မွဲမွဲဒၞာဲဟွံဂွံရ။ နာဲဗစာမွဲမွဲဂှ် နကဵု မမာဲ ကောန်ဂကောံ ရုင်ဗစာတအ်ဂှ် ဖျေဟ်ပဒေါအ်ထောအ် နူကဵု ကဆံင် နာဲဗစာဂွံရ။ <ref>ICJ Statute, Article 18(1)</ref> Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has been questioned. For example, during the ''Nicaragua'' case, the United States issued a communiqué suggesting that it could not present sensitive material to the court because of the presence of judges from the Soviet bloc.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities In and Against Nicaragua'' (Nicaragua v USA), [1986] ICJ Reports 14, 158–60 (Merits) per Judge Lachs.</ref>
နာဲဗစာတအ်ဂှ် ကဵု လညာတ် နကဵုဂကောံလေဝ်ဂွံ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု လညာတ်နာဲဗစာမွဲမွဲ ဗွဲတၞဟ်ခြာ ကဵုလညာတ်လေဝ် ဂွံကီုရ။ ဆဂး တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ကေုာံ တင်မလညာတ်မကဵုကသပ် ([[advisory opinion]])တအ်ဂှ် သ္ဒးဒှ် နကဵု မမာဲလပါ်မၞိဟ်ဂၠိုင်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ လၟိဟ်မမာဲတုပ်အာ ရေင်သကအ်မ္ဂး မမာဲဥက္ကဌဂှ် ဒှ်ဒတန်ရ။ ဗီုဗီုဏအ်ဂှ် ကေင်ဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကိစ္စမစကာလွဟ်ဂျိ နျူခလဳယျာ ပ္ဍဲပၞာန် (''Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict'')ရ။
===နာဲဗစာ အေဒ်ဟံက်''Ad hoc''===
အေဒ်ဟံက် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် အရာမနွံဒၟံင်ဒတန်လၟိုန် ဟွံသေင်၊ အခိင်ကာလ မနွံပၟိက်မ္ဂး ကော်နင်ဂှ် အေဒ်ဟံက် ညးကော်စရ။ ဥပဓိ ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၃၁ ဂှ် ချူဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် မဆေင်စပ် ကုမကော်ပၠုပ် နာဲဗစာ အေဒ်ဟံက် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကိစ္စပရူမဆေင်စပ်တအ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ရုင်ဗစာ ဟွံဂွံစရ။ သၞောတ်ဂှ် ပံက်ကဵုလဝ်အခေါင် ကော်ပၠုပ် နာဲဗစာအေဒ်ဟံက် မဆေင်စပ် ကုကိစ္စတအ်ဂှ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ရုင်ဗစာ ဟွံဂွံစရ။ အခေါင်ဝွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကိစ္စဂှ် ယဝ်ရ နာဲဗစာ မနွံဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵုရုင်ဗစာဂှ် ဟွံတီကၠိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲကိစ္စလပါ်ဂှ်မ္ဂး အခေါင်ကော်ပၠုပ် နာဲဗစာ အေဒ်ဟံက် ညးမတီပရူပရာဂှ် မွဲလပါ် မွဲတၠဂွံရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကိစ္စမွဲမွဲမ္ဂး နာဲဗစာ စဵုကဵု ၁၇ တၠ နွံမာန်ရ။
ပတောအ်ၜတ် ကုသၞောတ် သၞောဝ်ဓရ်တၞဟ်မ္ဂး သၞောတ်ဏအ် တၟေင်တၞဟ်ခြာဒၟံင်ရ။ အရာဏအ်ဂှ် ရန်တၟအ် ကုဍုင်မဒုင်စောဲဂဗုတ်တအ်ကီု ကုဍုင်မစောဲဂဗုတ်တအ်ကီု တၞဟ်နမဂွံပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ဗီုမရပ်စပ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်တုဲ ဖန်လဝ်ရ။ နကဵုသၞောတ်ဏအ်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲရုင်ဗစာဍုင်တအ်ဂှ် စကာဟွံလောဲသွာရ။ နာဲဗစာအေဒ်ဟံက်တအ်ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကာလမဖျေဟ်မာဲမ္ဂး ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကဵုမာဲ ကုဍုင်ဇကု မခပတိုန်လဝ်ဂှ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ မမာဲၜါမဂှ် ညးဒစဵုဒစးအဲ အဲဒစဵုဒစးညိတုဲ သၟဟ်အာ အတိုင်ဂှ်ရ။<ref>{{cite journal |authors=Posner, E. A., and De Figueiredo, M. F. P. |title=Is the International Court of Justice Biased? |journal=Journal of Legal Studies |volume=34 |date=June 2005 |publisher=University of Chicago |url=http://www.ericposner.com/Is%20the%20International%20Court%20of%20Justice%20Biased.pdf}}</ref>
===ခဒမ်ဂမၠိုင် (Chambers)===
ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်မ္ဂး နာဲရုင်ဗစာတအ်ဂှ် စၟဳစၟတ်ဂဗုတ် မွဲစွံဖအိုတ်ရ။ ဆဂး နူၜိုတ် ၁၅ သၞာံ မတုဲကၠုင်တေအ် နာဲဗစာတအ် ပါ်နကဵု ဂကောံခဒမ်တုဲ မစၟဳစၟတ်ဂဗုတ် ဒှ်ကၠုင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥပဓိ ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၂၆-၂၉ ဂှ် ကဵုလဝ်အခေါင် ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် ခၞံဗဒှ် ခဒမ် နကဵုဂကောံဍောတ်တ်၊ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နာဲဗစာ ၃ - ၅ သွက်ဂွံ ကလင်ကိစ္စဂဗုတ်ဂွံရ။ အတိုင်ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၂၆ မ္ဂး ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ခဒမ်ၜါပြကာရ။ ပထမ၊ ခၞံဗဒှ် ခဒမ် အတိုင်မဆေင်စပ် ကုဂဗုတ်ကိစ္စ၊ ဒုတိယ ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် ခဒမ်အေဒ်ဟံက်တုဲ ကလင်ကိစ္စဂဗုတ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၉၃ ဂှ် တုပ်စိုတ် သွက်ဒက်ပတန် ခဒမ်ဗွဲတၟေင် အတိုင် ဥပဓိ ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၂၆ (၁) သွက်ဂွံရပ်စပ် ကိစ္စပရေင်ပွဳပွူသဘာဝရ။ (ဆဂး မွဲလှ်ေ ဟွံဒှ်စကာရ။)
ခဒမ်အေဒ်ဟံက်ဂှ် မလေပ် ခၞံကၠောန်စဒှ်ဂၠိုင်ရ။ ဥပမာ တၞဟ်နဂွံကလင်ကိစ္စဂဗုတ် ''Gulf of Maine Case'' (Canada/US).<ref>[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicrulesofcourt_20050929.htm Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126131908/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicrulesofcourt_20050929.htm |date=26 November 2005 }} (as amended on 5 December 2000). Retrieved 17 December 2005. See also [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasic_practice_directions_20040730_I-XII.htm Practice Directions I-XII] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127143822/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasic_practice_directions_20040730_I-XII.htm |date=27 November 2005 }} (as at 30 July 2004). Retrieved 17 December 2005.</ref> ဟိုတ်ဍေဟ်ဂှ် ယဝ်ရ ရုင်ဗစာ ဟွံဖန်ကဵု ခဒမ်အေဒ်ဟံက်မ္ဂး ညးတအ် နုက်ထောအ် ဂဗုတ်ဂှ်ရောင်ရ။ အခေါင်အဝဵု နာဲဗစာခဒမ်တအ်ဂှ် နွံအောန် နူအခေါင်အဝဵု နာဲဗစာပေင်င်ရ<ref name="ReferenceB">Schwebel S "Ad Hoc Chambers of the International Court of Justice" (1987) 81 ''American Journal of International Law'' 831.</ref>
===ဂကောံနာဲဗစာ မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ပစ္စုပ္ပန်===
{{As of|2018|June|22}}, ဂကောံနာဲဗစာ မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ပစ္စုပ္ပန်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵု အတိုင်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.icj-cij.org/en/current-members|title=Current Members {{!}} International Court of Justice|website=www.icj-cij.org|language=en|access-date=2018-02-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129084039/http://www.icj-cij.org/en/current-members|archive-date=29 November 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
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! ယၟု !! ကောန်ဍုင် !! ကဆံင် !! အာယုက်တာလျိုင် စ !! အာယုက်တာလျိုင် အိုတ်
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| [[Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf]] || {{flag|Somalia}} || President{{sup|a}} || 2009 || 2027
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| [[Xue Hanqin]] || {{flag|China}} || Vice-President{{sup|a}} || 2010 || 2021
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| [[Peter Tomka]] || {{flag|Slovakia}} || Member || 2003 || 2021
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| [[Ronny Abraham]] || {{flag|France}} || Member || 2005 || 2027
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| [[Mohamed Bennouna]] || {{flag|Morocco}} || Member || 2006 || 2024
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| [[Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade]] {{spaces|2}} || {{flag|Brazil}} || Member || 2009 || 2027
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| [[Joan E. Donoghue]] || {{flag|United States}} || Member || 2010 || 2024
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| [[Giorgio Gaja]] || {{flag|Italy}} || Member || 2012 || 2021
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| [[Julia Sebutinde]] || {{flag|Uganda}} || Member || 2012 || 2021
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| [[Dalveer Bhandari]] || {{flag|India}} || Member || 2012 || 2027
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| [[Patrick Lipton Robinson]] || {{flag|Jamaica}} || Member || 2015 || 2024
|-
| [[James Crawford (jurist)|James Crawford]] || {{flag|Australia}} || Member || 2015 || 2024
|-
| [[Kirill Gevorgian]] || {{flag|Russia}} || Member || 2015 || 2024
|-
| [[Nawaf Salam]] || {{flag|Lebanon}} || Member || 2018 || 2027
|-
| [[Yuji Iwasawa]] || {{flag|Japan}} || Member || 2018 || 2021
|-
| [[Philippe Gautier]] || {{Flag|Belgium}} || Registrar || 2019|| 2026
|-
|colspan="5"| {{sup|a}} 2018–2021.
|}
===ဥက္ကဌဂမၠိုင်===
{| class=wikitable
|-
! # !! ဥက္ကဌ !! စ !! အိုတ် !! ကောန်ဍုင်
|-
| 1 || [[José Gustavo Guerrero]] || 1946 || 1949 || {{flag|El Salvador}}
|-
| 2 || [[Jules Basdevant]] || 1949 || 1952 || {{flag|France}}
|-
| 3 || [[Arnold McNair]] || 1952 || 1955 || {{flag|United Kingdom}}
|-
| 4 || [[Green Hackworth]] || 1955 || 1958 || {{flag|United States}}
|-
| 5 || [[Helge Klæstad]] || 1958 || 1961 || {{flag|Norway}}
|-
| 6 || [[Bohdan Winiarski]] || 1961 || 1964 || {{flag|Poland}}
|-
| 7 || [[Percy Spender]] || 1964 || 1967 || {{flag|Australia}}
|-
| 8 || [[José Bustamante y Rivero]] || 1967 || 1970 || {{flag|Peru}}
|-
| 9 || [[Muhammad Zafarullah Khan]] || 1970 || 1973 || {{flag|Pakistan}}
|-
| 10 || [[Manfred Lachs]] || 1973 || 1976|| {{flag|Poland}}
|-
| 11 || [[Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga]] || 1976 || 1979 || {{flag|Uruguay}}
|-
| 12 || [[Humphrey Waldock]] || 1979 || 1981 || {{flag|United Kingdom}}
|-
| 13 || [[Taslim Elias]] || 1982 || 1985 || {{flag|Nigeria}}
|-
| 14 || [[Nagendra Singh]] || 1985 || 1988 || {{flag|India}}
|-
| 15 || [[José Ruda]] || 1988 || 1991 || {{flag|Argentina}}
|-
| 16 || [[Robert Yewdall Jennings|Robert Jennings]] || 1991 || 1994 || {{flag|United Kingdom}}
|-
| 17 || [[Mohammed Bedjaoui]] || 1994 || 1997 || {{flag|Algeria}}
|-
| 18 || [[Stephen Schwebel]] || 1997 || 2000 || {{flag|United States}}
|-
| 19 || [[Gilbert Guillaume]] || 2000 || 2003 || {{flag|France}}
|-
| 20 || [[Shi Jiuyong]] || 2003 || 2006 || {{flag|China}}
|-
| 21 || [[Rosalyn Higgins]] || 2006 || 2009 || {{flag|United Kingdom}}
|-
| 22 || [[Hisashi Owada]] || 2009 || 2012 || {{flag|Japan}}
|-
| 23 || [[Peter Tomka]] || 2012 || 2015 || {{flag|Slovakia}}
|-
| 24 || [[Ronny Abraham]] || 2015 || 2018
| {{flag|France}}
|-
|25
|[[Abdulqawi Yusuf]]
|2018
|
|{{Flag|Somalia}}
|}
==ကမၠောန်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်သၞောဝ်==
[[File:International Court of Justice parties.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|{{legend-table|lang=en|title= |#00aa00|Parties upon becoming a UN member|MediumBlue|Parties prior to joining the UN under Article 93|#ff1111|UN observer states that are not parties}}]]
အတိုင်မဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲလိက်ပဋိညာဉ် [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၉၃ ဂှ်ရ ဍုင်ကောန်ဂကောံ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံလဝ် အခေါင်မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာ ရ။<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-xiv/index.html |title=Chapter XIV {{!}} United Nations |work=United Nations |accessdate=21 November 2017}}</ref> ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ ဍုင်ဟွံဒှ် ကောန်ဂကောံ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]ဂမၠိုင်လေဝ် အခေါင်မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲရုင်ဗစာ နကဵုသၟဝ် ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၉၃ (၂) ဂွံကီုရ။ ဥပမာ ကၠာဍုင် သွိတ်သလာန် ဟွံဂွံဒှ် ကောန်ဂကောံ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]ဏီဂှ် စကာ နကဵုပိုဒ်ဇၞော်ဏအ်တုဲ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲရုင်ဗစာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၈၊ တုဲပၠန် ဍုင်နဝ်ရု Nauru ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၈၈။<ref>{{cite web|url=http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=I-3&chapter=1&lang=en|title=Chapter I - Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the International Court of Justice: 3 . Statute of the International Court of Justice|date=2013-07-09|accessdate=2013-07-09|publisher=[[United Nations Treaty Series]]|archivedate=2013-10-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017035748/http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=I-3&chapter=1&lang=en}}</ref> ကာလ ဍုင်မွဲမွဲ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာမ္ဂး ဂွံအခေါင်မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုရုင်ဗစာ စပ်ကဵုကိစ္စဇကု ကၠာရုင်ဗစာဟွံစရ။ ဆဂး မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥပဓိရုင်ဗစာဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဂွံအခေါင် သွက်ဂွံရပ်စပ် ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပြသၞာ ဇကုမပါလုပ်ဒၟံင်ဂှ် အလဵုလဵု ဗီုဏအ် ဟွံသေင်ရ။
ကမၠောန်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်သၞောဝ် ပ္ဍဲရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ်ဂှ် ညးပါ်လဝ် နွံပိဂကူရ။ ပြသၞာအကြာဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် (contentious issues)၊ မဒုင်ဆိင်မုက်ဂဗုတ် (incidental jurisdiction) ကေုာံ မပတိတ် တင်လညာတ် (ဖျေဟ်အမိင်)(advisory opinions)ရ။<ref>{{Cite book|title=International Dispute Settlement|url=https://archive.org/details/internationaldis0000merr_k9u6|last=J. G. Merrills|first=|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0521153393|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/internationaldis0000merr_k9u6/page/116 116]–134}}</ref>
===ပြသၞာအကြာဍုင် (Contentious issues)===
[[File:Eerste na-oorlogse zitting van het Internationaal Hof van Justititie Weeknummer 48-09 - Open Beelden - 30541.ogv|thumb|First gathering after Second World War, Dutch newsreel from 1946]]
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂဗုတ် မဒှ်ကယျာန်ဓဝါတ် ရေင်သကအ်မ္ဂး သွက်ဂွံပတိုန်ဂဗုတ်ဂှ် ရုင်ဗစာအာင်သဳဂျေ ခၞံဗဒှ်ပတိုန် ပရေင်ပကင်ရင်ပံင်ဗစိုပ် (a binding ruling) အကြာဍုင် မဒှ်ကယျာန်ဓဝါတ် ရေင်သကအ်ၜါဂှ်ရ။ ဆဍုင် မကလိဂွံလဝ် အဝဵုစၟိန်ပြမာန် (ဍုင်သၠးပွး) တအ်ဟေင် ဂွံပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကိစ္စကယျာန်ဓဝါတ် အကြာဍုင်ၜါဏအ်ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ နူရုင်ဗစာ ဒုင်တဲ တင်ဂၞင်သက်သဳ နူကဵုဂကောံဂၠးတိနာနာကီုလေဝ် ပုဂ္ဂလိက၊ ဂကောံ၊ တွဵုရး ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံ၊ ဂကောံအေန်ဂျဳအဝ်တအ်၊ ဂကောံ[[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] ကေုာံ ဍုင်မဂွံအဝဵုပကင်ရင်အပိုင်တအ်ဂှ် အခေါင်ဂွံပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲဂဗုတ် တိုက်တိုက်ရိုက်ရိုက် ဟွံမဲရ။ စဳပၞောန်ဏအ်ဂှ် ယဝ်ရ ဂကောံမွဲမွဲ မိက်ဂွံ စုတ်စောဲဂဗုတ် ကုဍုင်မွဲမွဲမ္ဂး စုတ်စောဲ ဟွံဂွံ ဗီုဏအ် ဟွံသေင်ရ။ စပ်ကဵုကိစ္စဂှ်တုဲ ဍုင်မွဲမွဲ ပစၞး ကုဂကောံဂှ်တုဲ စုတ်စောဲဂဗုတ်ရ။<ref>See the ''Nottebohm Case'' (Liechtenstein v Guatemala), [1955] ICJ Reports 4.</ref> ဥပမာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၉ နကဵုဂကောံအခေါင်အရာမၞိဟ် [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]၊ ကေုာံ ဂကောံဍုင်မူသလေန်တအ် မိက်ဂွံ စောဲဂဗုတ် ကုဍုင်ဗၟာ ဒဒှ်ရ အလဵုအသဳဗၟာ ကလိလောန် ဒုဟ်မဂစိုတ်ပလက်ဂကူ ရဝ်ဟေန်ဂျာ ကေုာံ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင်တၞဟ်တအ်ဂှ် နကဵုဍုင် ကာမ်ဗဳယျာ ပစၞးတုဲ စောဲဒုဟ် ကုဍုင်ဗၟာရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵုကိစ္စ ဂဗုတ်မဒှ်ဓယျာန်ဓဝါတ်တအ်မ္ဂး ပွမကလင်အရေဝ် သီုၜါလပါ် (ဝါ) သွက်ဂွံစၟဳစၟတ် သၟာန်ဇာန် သီုၜါလပါ်ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော်ကွေဟ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဖျေဟ်လဝ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် အတိုင်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။ သဘဴဓဝ်အဓိကဂှ် ရုင်ဗစာအာင်သဳဂျေဝွံ ကာလမသ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ဂဗုတ် မ္ဂး သ္ဒးဒုင်သဇိုင် ကုတင်ဂၞင်သဇိုင် မဆက်စပ်တအ်ဂှ်ဟေင်ရ။ ဥပဓိ ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၃၆ ဂှ် စၞောန်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲအရာ မသ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ဂဗုတ်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင်သဇိုင် ကုတင်ပန်တင်ရ။
* ပထမ, ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၃၆ (၁) ညးမပါလုပ် (ဝါ) ဍုင်မဒှ်ဂဗုတ်ၜါဂှ် ဒးဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး/ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရုင်ဗစာ၊ ဥပမာ စပ်ကဵု ကိစ္စဏအ်တုဲ ပိုယ်တအ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံလဵု အခိင်လဵု တုပ်လဝ်စိုတ် ရေင်သကအ် ဗီုလဵု၊ မကဵုကေတ်လဝ် ဗီုလဵုရ။ လၟုဟ် အတိုင်တင်မတုပ်လဝ်စိုတ်ဂှ် ဍုင်မွဲဂှ် ဟွံဗက်စရ။ ညံင်ရဴသာ်ဂှ်ကီု စပ်ကဵု အခေါင်အရာမၞိဟ် ယဝ်ဒးဟီု နကဵု ဥပမာ ကိစ္စဍုင်ဗၟာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၉ ဂှ်မ္ဂး ဒဒှ်ရ ဍုင်ဗၟာဂှ် တုပ်လဝ်စိုတ် ထပက်လဝ် စၟတ်တဲ ညံင်ဂွံဝေင်ပါဲ ပ္ဍဲအရာမဂစိုတ်ပလက်ဂကူရ။ လၟုဟ် နကဵုမဂစိုတ်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ကဵုလၟိဟ်၊ နကဵုမပ ညံင်မၞိဟ်မဂၠိုင်ကဵုလက်ကိုဋ် မဂွံဒးဒြေပ်တိတ် နူဌာန်ဒတန်ညးတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ကမၠောန် မဂစိုတ် ပလက်ဂကူရ။ မြဴသာ်ဝွံ နကဵုသက်သဳနာနာ နကဵု ဍုင်ကာမ်ပဳယျာ ပစၞးကု ဂကောံဂၠးတိဂမၠိုင်တုဲ (ဗွဲတၟေင် ဍုင်သမဂ္ဂ အေဿလာမ်)တုဲ စုတ်ဂဗုတ် ကုဍုင်ဗၟာရ။
* ဒုတိယ, ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၃၆ (၁)ဂှ် သီုကဵုလဝ် အခေါင် ရုင်ဗစာ သွက်ဂွံစၟဳစၟတ်ဂဗုတ် မဒုင်သဇိုင် ကုတင်လတုပ်စိုတ် လိက်ကသုက် အကြာဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>See [[List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the ICJ]].</ref>တုဲပၠန် ဍုင်ၜါလပါ်ဂှ် တုပ်စိုတ် ဒုင်တဲ သွက်ဂွံအာပသောင် ပ္ဍဲရုင်ဗစာဟေင် ဖန်ကၠောန်ဂွံရ။ နကဵုဥပမာမ္ဂး ကိစ္စ အလဵုအသဳအဳရာန် ရပ်ကြိုင်လဝ် ကောန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် သီုဖအိုတ် မသုန်စှ်ောၜါတၠ နူဂိတုနဝ်ဝေမ်ပါ ၄၊ ၁၉၇၉ လုကဴပွိုင် ၄၄၄ တ္ၚဲဂှ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် စုတ်စောဲဒုဟ် ဒဒှ်ရ အဳရာန် ကလိလောန်ဒုဟ် ဟွံဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် အတိုင်တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် ပရေင်ကလုတ်သမာန် အကြာဍုင်မွဲကုမွဲဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ အဳရာန် တးပါဲတုဲ ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် ရပ်စပ်ဟွံဂွံရ။<ref>''Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran'' (USA v Iran), [1979] ICJ Reports 7.</ref>
* တတိယ ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၃၆(၂) ကဵုအခေါင် ကုဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ညံင်ဂွံရုဲစှ် ဒုင်တဲ လတူတင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် နူရုင်ဗစာရ။ ပရေင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ မဒှ် အရာဍုင်တအ် မဒုင်ကေတ်တဲ နကဵုပၟိက်ဆန္ဒညးတအ်ဟေင်တုဲ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ပရေင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ဂှ် ဟွံစိုပ်တရဴလေဝ် ဒှ်စမာန်ရ။
* လက္ကရဴအိုတ်, ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၃၆(၅)ဂှ် ကဵုလဝ်အခေါင် ကုရုင်ဗစာ ဗီုမသ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်သၞောဝ် နမဒုင်သဇိုင် ကု တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် အတိုင်ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ်လၟိုန် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာသၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ်လၟိုန် ပ္ဍဲပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၃၇ သွက်ဂွံ ကေတ်တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် မပတံကဵု ပရေင်ကဵုကေတ်ရေင်သကအ်တုဲ ထပက်လိက်ကသုက် ရေင်သကအ်ရ။
ဟီုဂၠေအ်အ် သောင်သောင်မ္ဂး ဇၟာပ်ဍုင် မဒှ်ကောန်ဂကောံ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]တအ်ဂှ် အခေါင်မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် နွံရ။ တၞဟ်နဂွံ ရေင်တၠုင် ပရေင်ကမၠောန်တုဲ ရုဲစှ်လဝ် နာဲဗစာ ၁၅ တၠ။ ယဝ်ရ ဍုင်ၜါ ကတဵုဒှ် ပရေင်ကယျာန်ဓဝါတ် မဆေင်ကဵုတိဍာ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ယဝ်ရ ဍုင်မွဲဂှ် ညာတ်ကေတ် ဍုင်ဂှ် ဟွံဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် အတိုင်ဇကု မတုပ်လဝ်စိုတ်ကီုမ္ဂး သွက်ဂွံဂွံ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ညးဂှ်ဒး ညးဂှ်ဗၠေတ် ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံဂၠာဲသွဟ် ညးဂမၠိုင် မဒုင်တဲမာန်တုဲ ပရူဂှ် အာပတိုန် ကုရုင်ဗစာဝွံရ။ နကဵု နာဲဗစာတအ် နူကဵုရုင်ဗစာဂှ် ဗစာရဏာတုဲ ဖျေဟ်ကဵုလညာတ် ဖျေဟ်ကဵု တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ရ။
===တင်လညာတ် မကဵုကသပ် Advisory opinions===
[[File:Grand Hall de Justice de Palais de La Paix à La Haye Pays-Bas.jpg|thumb|Audience of the "Accordance with International Law of the [[International Court of Justice advisory opinion on Kosovo's declaration of independence|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] by the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo"]]
တင်လညာတ် မကဵုကသပ် (advisory opinion)ဂှ် ရုင်ဗစာပံက်လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ကဵုကသပ် ဗိုင်ဗစာရဏာကဵု ဂကောံ[[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အသေမ်ဗလဳနာနာ ကုသလမဂ္ဂကီု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နူကဵု ကံင်သဳပရေင်ဂီုကၠီုကီု ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် အာတ်မိက်ကၠုင် ရုင်ဗစာ တင်လညာတ်မကဵုကသပ်မ္ဂး မဆေင်ကဵုသၞောဝ်ဓဝ်မ္ဂး နကဵုရုင်ဗစာ ရပ်စပ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူကိစ္စဂှ်တုဲ ပတိတ်ကဵု တင်လညာတ်မကဵုကသပ် ရ။ <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-xiv/index.html|title=Chapter XIV|website=www.un.org|language=en|access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref> ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် ကလိဂွံ တင်အာတ်မိက်တုဲမ္ဂး နကဵုရုင်ဗစာ ပတိတ်ကဵု လလောင်တြး မစပ်ကဵုကိစ္စဂှ် နကဵုလိက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵုလဟီုရ။ ရုင်ဗစာ ပတိတ်ကဵု တင်လညာတ်မကဵုကသပ် ကုဂကောံ[[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]တုဲမ္ဂး လတူလညာတ်ဂှ် ရပ်စပ်ဟာ ဟွံရပ်စပ်ဟာဂှ် တန်တဴကဵု ဂကောံ[[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]ဂှ်ေဟင်ရ။
ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ နကဵုသဘဴဓဝ်မ္ဂး တင်လညာတ်မကဵုကသပ် နူကဵု ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် ဒှ်တင်မကဵုကသပ်ဟေင်တုဲ အခေါင်မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲအရာဗမံက်ရုပ်ရဴကမၠောန် ဟွံမဲရ။ ဆဂး တင်လညာတ်မကဵုကသပ် နူကဵု ရုင်ဗစာဂှ် ဒှ်ပၞောန် သွက်ဂကောံ[[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] သွက်ဂွံဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် နဒဒှ် သၞောဝ်ဓဝ်မွဲရ။ <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/8/issue/27/un-general-assembly-requests-world-court-advisory-opinion-israels |title=The UN General Assembly Requests a World Court Advisory Opinion On Israel's Separation Barrier |author=Pieter H.F. Bekker |date=12 December 2003 |publisher=American Society of International Law |accessdate=21 November 2017}}</ref>
ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တင်လညာတ်မကဵုကသပ်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင်ပါ်ပါဲ ဒစဵုဒစး မလေပ်ကတဵုဒှ်မာန်ရ။ မုဟိုတ်ရောမ္ဂး အရာမအာတ်မိက် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မပါ်ပါဲ မလောဲသွာ ဟွံသေင်တုဲ ဒှ်အရာ လညာတ်တၞဟ်ခြာ ဗွဲမဇၞော်တုဲတုဲဒၟံင်ရ။ ဥပမာ ဗီုကဵု ညးလဵု အခေါင်မကၠောန် လွဟ်ဂျိနျူကလဳယျာ ဂွံတအ်ဒှ်တမ်ရ။
===ရုင်ဗစာအာင်သဳဂျေ ကဵု ကံင်သဳပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု===
ပ္ဍဲဥပဓိ ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၉၄ ဂှ် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ပရေင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် နူကဵုရုင်ဗစာ ညံင်လမျီုဂွံလုပ်ဂှ် ဒှ်တာလျိုင် ကောန်ဂကောံ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]တအ် သီုဖအိုတ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ယဝ်ရ ညးမပါလုပ် (ဝါ) ဍုင်မကလိလောန်ဒုဟ်တအ် ဟွံဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက်မ္ဂး ပြသၞာဂှ် အာစိုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုမာန်ရ။ ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ကံင်သဳ မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်ပၞာန် [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]မွဲရ။ ဆဂး အရာဝွံ မဒှ်အရာ မလောဲသွာမွဲ ဟွံသေင်ရ။ မုဟိုတ်ရောမ္ဂး တင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ဂှ် ယဝ်ရ ဗၠေတ်ဒၟံင် ကုပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန် မသုန်ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု မွဲမွဲဍုင်မ္ဂး တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင်ဖျေဟ်ပလီုထောအ် နကဵု အဝဵုဗဳဒဝ်ရ။ ဖျေဟ်ပလီု နကဵုအဝဵုဗဳဒဝ်ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် နူကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုတအ် သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန် မသုန်တၠတအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးတုပ်စိုတ် ဖအိုတ်ရောင်၊ ယဝ်ရ ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန်မွဲမွဲ ဒစဵုဒစးမ္ဂး တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ဂှ် ပဒတန်ဟွံဂွံရ။ <ref name="ReferenceA"/> နဒဒှ်ဥပမာ ကိစ္စဍုင်ဗၟာ ပ္ဍဲခေတ်တၠအဝဵုပၞာန်တေအ် ၜိုန်ရ စိုပ်အာလဝ် ပ္ဍဲကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု မဂၠိုင်ကဵုအလန်ကီုလေဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဂှ် ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ ကဵု ဍုင်ရုရှာ ညးမဒှ် ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန်တအ် ဟွံစုတ်မာဲ ထံက်ဂလာန်တုဲ ရပ်စပ် နကဵုပၞာန်ဟွံဂွံကၠုင်လဝ်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကံင်သဳပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ဒစဵုဒစး လတူ တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် နူကဵု ရုင်ဗစာဂၠးကဝ်မ္ဂး သွက်ဂွံဖန် ညံင်ဍုင်ဂှ် ဂွံဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက်ဂှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴတၞဟ် ဟွံမဲရ။ ညံင် ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ဂွံရပ်စပ် နွံမွဲနဲပၠန်ဂှ် ပရေင်ရပ်စပ် နကဵုပၞာန် နကဵုနဲကဲ မရပ်စပ်အတေင် (coercive action) အတိုင် တင်လတုပ်စိုတ်ပဋိညာဉ် [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] ကဏ္ဍ သတ္တမ (Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter) မဒှ် တင်သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် အရာမဆေင်စပ် ဒှ်အန္တရာယ် ကုပရေင်ၜိုဟ်လလံ ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု ဂၠးကဝ် (international peace and security)ရ။ ဆဂး နကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု မွဲလှ်ေ ဟွံကေင်ရပ်စပ်ကၠုင် တင်ဏအ်ဏီရ။
==ပရူမဆက်စပ်==
{{Portal|Politics|Law}}
* [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
* [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]]
* [[International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea]]
* [[List of International Court of Justice cases]]
* [[List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the International Court of Justice]]
* [[Supranational aspects of international organizations]]
* [[Universal jurisdiction]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==ဆက်ဗှ်==
* Accinelli, R. D. "Peace Through Law: The United States and the World Court, 1923-1935". ''Historical Papers / Communications historiques'', 7#1 (1972) 247–261. https://doi.org/10.7202/030751a
* Bowett, D W. The International court of justice : process, practice and procedure (British Institute of International and Comparative Law: London, 1997).
* Dunne, Michael. "Isolationism of a Kind: Two Generations of World Court Historiography in the United States," ''Journal of American Studies'' (1987) 21#3 pp 327–351.
* Kahn, Gilbert N. "Presidential Passivity on a Nonsalient Issue: President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the 1935 World Court Fight." ''Diplomatic History'' 4.2 (1980): 137-160.
* Kolb, Robert, [http://www.hartpub.co.uk/BookDetails.aspx?ISBN=9781849462631 The International Court of Justice] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629091756/http://www.hartpub.co.uk/BookDetails.aspx?ISBN=9781849462631 |date=2016-06-29 }} (Hart Publishing: Oxford, 2013).
* Kwiatkowska, Barbara, [http://www.brill.com/decisions-world-court-relevant-un-convention-law-sea "Decisions of the World Court Relevant to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201031033/http://www.brill.com/decisions-world-court-relevant-un-convention-law-sea |date=2017-12-01 }}. Relevant to the [[UNCLOS]], dedicated to Former ICJ President [[Stephen M. Schwebel]] (Brill, 2010)
* Patterson, David S. "The United States and the origins of the world court." ''Political Science Quarterly'' 91.2 (1976): 279-295. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2148413 online]
* Rosenne S., "Rosenne's the world court: what it is and how it works'' 6th ed (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2003).
* Van Der Wolf W. & De Ruiter D., "The International Court of Justice: Facts and Documents About the History and Work of the Court" (''International Courts Association, 2011'')
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.1971008|title=United Nations Reform Through Practice: Report of the International Law Association Study Group on United Nations Reform|date=December 11, 2011|last1=Wilde|first1=Ralph|last2=Charlesworth|first2=Hilary|last3=Schrijver|first3=Nico|last4=Krisch|first4=Nico|last5=Chimni|first5=B. S.|last6=Gowlland-Debbas|first6=Vera|last7=Klabbers|first7=Jan|last8=Yee|first8=Sienho|last9=Shearer|first9=Ivan}}
* Sienho Yee, Article 38 of the ICJ Statute and Applicable Law: Selected Issues in Recent Cases, 7 Journal of International Dispute Settlement (2016), 472–498.
* Andreas Zimmermann, Christian Tomuschat, Karin Oellers-Frahm & Christian J. Tams (eds.), The Statute of the International Court of Justice: A Commentary (2d. ed. October 2012, Oxford University Press).
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180909054816/http://www.icj-cij.org/en International Court of Justice], Official site
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171230173244/http://www.icj-cij.org/presscom/multimedia.php?p1=6 ICJ Multimedia Gallery] (photos, videos, webstreaming)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180801190639/http://www.icj-cij.org/en/list-of-all-cases List of cases] ruled upon by the ICJ since its creation in 1946
* [http://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/research-guides/settlement-of-international-disputes/international-court-of-justice/?p1=0&lang=en Peace Palace Library - ICJ Research Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028234927/https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/research-guides/settlement-of-international-disputes/international-court-of-justice/?p1=0 |date=2019-10-28 }}
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/sicj/sicj.html The Statute of the International Court of Justice] on the [https://www.un.org/law/avl/ United Nations AVL]: summary of the procedural history, list of selected preparatory documents and audiovisual material related to the negotiations and adoption of the Statute.
* [[International Criminal Court]] : See also, a tribunal to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression
===Lectures===
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/ICJ_Conference_CT.html The ICJ in the Service of Peace and Justice], Conference organized on the Occasion of the Centenary of the [[Peace Palace]]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Al-Khasawneh_CT.html Lecture] by [[Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh]] entitled ''Reflections on the Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Bennouna_CT.html Lecture] by [[Mohamed Bennouna]] entitled ''La Cour internationale de Justice, juge des souverainetés?'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Couvreur_CT.html Lecture] by [[Philippe Couvreur]] entitled ''La Cour internationale de Justice'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Gowlland-Debbas_CT.html Lecture by Vera Gowlland-Debbas] entitled ''The International Court of Justice as the Principal Judicial Organ of the United Nations'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Kawano_CT.html Lecture by Mariko Kawano] entitled ''Some Salient Features of the Contemporary International Disputes in the Precedents of the International Court of Justice'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Kawano_CT.html Lecture by Mariko Kawano] entitled ''International Court of Justice and Disputes Involving the Interests of Third Parties to the Proceedings or the Common Interests of the International Community as a Whole or of the Community Established by a Convention'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/McWhinney_CT.html Lecture] by [[Edward McWhinney]] entitled ''Judicial Activism and the International Court of Justice'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Pellet_CT.html Lecture] by [[Alain Pellet]] entitled ''Conseil devant la Cour internationale de Justice'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ls/Shi_CT.html Lecture] by [[Jiuyong Shi]] entitled ''The Present and Future Role of the International Court of Justice in the Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/lectureseries.html Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
[[Category:ကဏ္ဍအဓိက!]]
[[Category:BEHM]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ်}}
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'''ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ''' ({{Lang-en|'''Genocide'''}}) ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမကၠောန်ပ နကဵုဆန္ဒနွံနွံ သွက်ဂွံ ပလီုပဠက် ဂကူမွဲ (ဂကူမဟီုဂှ် ရန်တၟအ်ကဵု ကောန်ဂကူ၊ ကောန်ဍုင်၊ တၞောဝ်ဗဳဇ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံဘာသာ) နကဵု သီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု မွဲကရေက်ရ။ မအရေဝ်မန် မကော် "ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ" ဝွံ ကၠာဲနူ ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက် မကော်ဂး "genocide" ရ။ မအရေဝ် ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက်ဂှ် ပဂပ်လဝ် မအရေဝ်ၜါ အရေဝ်ဂရိတ် ''γένος'' ("ဗဳဇ၊ ဂကူ") ကဵု အရေဝ်လေတ္တေန် ''-caedo'' ("ဂစိုတ်").<ref name=":0">Stanton, Gregory H., [http://genocidewatch.net/genocide-2/what-is-genocide/ What is genocide?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315170823/http://genocidewatch.net/genocide-2/what-is-genocide/ |date=2022-03-15 }}, Genocide Watch</ref> မအရေဝ် genocide ဝွံ Raphael Lemkin ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်ညး မနွံယၟု ''Axis Rule in Occupied Europe ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၄ ဂှ်ရ။''<ref name="schab">{{Cite book|last=William Schabas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYptuRHDQPgC&pg=PA25&dq=Lemkin's+interest+in+the+subject+dates+to+his+days+as+a+student+at+Lvov+University#v=onepage|title=Genocide in international law: the crimes of crimes|publisher=Cambridge University Press|authorlink=William Schabas}}</ref>{{Sfn|Power|2003}} နကဵုဘာသာမန် စၞးမချူ ဂစိုတ်ပဠက်ဂကူ ဂှ် မကြိယာ ဂစိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ပဠက် ဂှ်ပထောအ် မနာမ်တုဲ ဒှ်အာ "ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ" ရ။
လိက်ကသုက်ပဋိညာဉ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (United Nations Genocide Convention) ဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ် နူကဵုသၞာံ ၁၉၄၈တုဲ ပံက်လဝ် ပွံက် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ နကဵု "မကၠောန်ပ နကဵုဆန္ဒနွံနွံ သွက်ဂွံ ပလီုပလက်၊ သီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မွဲကရေက် လတူကောန်ဂကူမွဲ၊ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင်မွဲ၊ တၞောဝ်ဗဳဇမွဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံဘာသာမွဲ၊ နမပ" မပတံ ကု ဂစိုတ် ကောန်ဂကောံ ညးတအ်၊ ကတဵုဗဒှ် ညံင်ခန္ဓကာယ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စိတ္တ ဂွံဂိသကေဝ် ကုကောန်ဂကောံညးတအ်၊ နကဵုဆန္ဒနွံနွံ ကဵုဒြဟတ်ဒမြိုဟ် ပရေင်မံင်စံင်ဘဝ ညးတအ် ညံင်ဂွံစိုပ်အာ ကဆံင် ခန္ဓကာယ မဂွံလီုလာ် နကဵုသီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု မွဲကရေက်၊ စဵုဒၞာ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံ ၜံင်ကောန်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵုအမိင်အဝဵု ပြံင်ပဆုဲထောအ် ကောန်ၚာ် နကဵု ဂကောံဍေဟ်တအ် ကဵုအာမံင် ပ္ဍဲဂကောံမၞိဟ်တၞဟ်။<ref name="UNLegalDef">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/ar/preventgenocide/adviser/pdf/osapg_analysis_framework.pdf|title=Legal definition of genocide|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=22 February 2017}} </ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.voanews.com/a/what-is-genocide/3238713.html|title=What Is Genocide?|first=VOA|last=News|website=voanews.com|accessdate=22 October 2017|archivedate=11 August 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811221949/https://www.voanews.com/a/what-is-genocide/3238713.html}}</ref><ref>Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide art. 2, 78 U.N.T.S. 277, Dec. 9, 1948. </ref>
နူကဵု Political Instability Task Force ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး အကြာသၞာံ ၁၉၅၆ ကဵု ၂၀၁၆ ဂဟ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ကတဵုဒှ်ဂွံလဝ် သီုဖအိုတ် ၄၃ ဒၞာဲ၊ ဟိုတ်နူဂှ်တုဲ မၞိဟ်မဒးချိုတ်အာ ၜိုတ် ၅၀ မဳလဳလာန်ရ။<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=4KdHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA510&dq=Since+1956,+some+forty-three+genocides+have+taken+place#v=onepage&q=Since%201956%2C%20some%20forty-three%20genocides%20have%20taken%20place|title=Economic Aspects of Genocides, Other Mass Atrocities, and Their Prevention|editor=Charles H. Anderton, [[Jurgen Brauer]]|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-19-937829-6}} </ref> နကဵု ရုင် UNHCR ဟီု ဟိုတ်နူ ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူတုဲ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် သၞာံ ၂၀၀၈ ဂှ် မၞိဟ် ၅၀ မဳလဳယာန်ပြင်င် ဒးပြံင်တိတ် နူကဵု သ္ၚိဌာန်ဇကုရ။<ref name="auto" />
== တမ်မူလ ဝေါဟာရ ==
ကိုပ်ကၠာ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၄ ဂှ် မအရေဝ် မဂစိုတ်မၞိဟ် နကဵုဂကောံ နကဵုကရောမ်ဂှ် စကာဒၟံင် မအရေဝ်နာနာသာ် မပတံ ကု"massacre," (မဂစိုတ် နကဵုဂကောံ) "extermination," (ပဠက်ထပိုတ်)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Exterminate Them! Written Accounts of the Murder, Rape, and Slavery of Native Americans during the California Gold Rush, 1848–1868|date=1999|publisher=Michigan State University Press}}</ref> ကေုာံ "crimes against humanity" (ဒုဟ် မကလိလောန် လတူကောန်မၞိဟ်) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၁ ဝန်ဇၞော်ချာချဳလ် ( Winston Churchill) ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး ဂျာမနဳ မလုပ်သီ ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ်ဂှ် ညးဟီု "a crime without a name" (ဒုဟ်ရာဇာဝတ် သက္ကုယၟု)ရ။<ref> Churchill, Winston (24 August 1941). Prime Minister Winston Churchill's [http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/410824a.html Broadcast to the World About the Meeting With President Roosevelt (Speech). British Library of Information] – via ibiblio.</ref>
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၄ ရပ်ဖေလ် လေမ်ခိန် (Raphael Lemkin) ခၞံဗဒှ်ပတိုန် မအရေဝ် ''genocide'' ပ္ဍဲလိက်ညး ''Axis Rule in Occupied Europe'' မဒှ်လိက် မချူလဝ် ပရူဗီုပၞာန်နာဇြဳဂျာမနဳ မလုပ်သီကေတ် ဍုင်ယူရောပ်တုဲ မဂစိုတ်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂၠေင်ရ။<ref name="ushmm">{{cite web|url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007050|title=Coining a Word and Championing a Cause: The Story of Raphael Lemkin|publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM), Holocaust Encyclopedia.|quote=Lemkin's memoirs detail early exposure to the history of Ottoman attacks against Armenians (which most scholars believe constitute genocide), antisemitic pogroms, and other histories of group-targeted violence as key to forming his beliefs about the need for legal protection of groups.}} </ref> မအရေဝ်ဂှ် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး နကဵုသၞောတ်ဝ်စှေ်စှေ် ပလီုပလာ်ထောအ် ကောန်ဂကူမွဲမွဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍုင်မွဲမွဲ၊<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/03/28/books/when-people-kill-a-people.html|title=When people kill a people}} "In 1943, in the course of his monumental study ''Axis Rule in Occupied Europe'', the late Raphael Lemkin coined the word genocide – from the Greek genos (race or tribe) and the Latin cide (killing) – to describe the deliberate 'destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group'."</ref> တုဲ မအရေဝ်ဂှ် ဗွဲမပြဟ်ဂှ် ဂွံဒုင်လွဳစ ပ္ဍဲအရေဝ်ဂကူဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ မအရေဝ် ''genocide'' ဂှ် ဒှ်မအရေဝ် မဗဂပ်လဝ် အရေဝ်ၜါ အရေဝ်ဂရိတ် ''geno-'' (γένος, မဂွံအဓိပ္ပာယ် 'ဂကူ' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး 'ကောန်ဂကူ') ကေုာံ မအရေဝ် ''caedere'' (မအရေဝ်လေတ္တေန် မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် " ဒဒှ်မဂစိုတ်"){{Sfn|Lemkin|2008}} မအရေဝ်ဂှ် စစကာကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲလိက်ရုင်ဂှ် စနူသၞာံ ၁၉၄၅၊ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲအခိင် နဒဒှ် အရေဝ်ဥပဒေမွဲဂှ် ဟွံစကာဏီရ။<ref name="HolocaustEncyclopedia2014"> "[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/what-is-genocide What Is Genocide?]", Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 24 June 2014.</ref> ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်ကသုက်ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ပဝ်လာန် (Polish Genocide Trials) မတုပ်လဝ်စိုတ် အကြာ Arthur Greiser ကဵု Amon Leopold Goth ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၆ ဂှ် စကာလဝ် မအရေဝ်ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲလိက်သၞောဝ်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်ရ။ <ref>Reassessing the Nuremberg Military Tribunals: Transitional Justice, Trial Narratives, and Historiography (War and Genocide) page 110 edited by Alexa Stiller and Kim C. Premiel Berghahn Books 2012 </ref>
'''ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ''' နကဵုဘာသာမန်ဝွံ ကၠာဲလဝ် နူမအရေဝ် အင်္ဂလိက် '''genocide''' ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကၠာဲတုပ်ပ်မ္ဂး "ဂမ္စိုတ်ဂကူ" ၜိုတ်ဏအ်လေဝ် ဍိုက်ပေင်ဒၟံင်ကီုလေဝ် တၞဟ်နအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဂွံမံက်ကၠးတုဲ ထပ်စုတ်လဝ် "ကမၠက်" မွဲမရ။ မအရေဝ် "ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ" ဝွံ ဒှ်မနာမ်မွဲတုဲ တမ်ရိုဟ်ကြိယာဍေဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ် "ဂစိုတ်" "ပဠက်" ရ။
==နဒဒှ် ရာဇာဝတ်==
===သၞောဝ် ဂၠးကဝ်===
[[File:Auschwitz Resistance 280 cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|ကောန်ဂကောံ''[[Sonderkommando]]'' (ပၞာန်ဂျာမနဳ) စံင်ဒၟံင် ဇွဂကူဂျူ ပ္ဍဲအံက်သဝိတ်ဇ် [[Auschwitz]] II-Birkenau, an [[extermination camp]]]]
ကြဴနူ ဂကူဂျူ မဒးဒုင်စံင်ယဇ် (Holocaust) ကုနာဇြဳဂျာမနဳ ကေုာံ မဟာမိတ်ညးတအ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိဒုတိယဂှ်တုဲ လေမ်ခိန် (Lemkin) ဂစာန်ဗက်စန်ဒက် ညံင်ညးဂၠးကဝ်ဂမၠိုင် ဂွံဒုင်တဲ သွက်ဂွံစဵုဒၞာ ကေုာံ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူရ။ ပရေင်ဂိုတ်ဂစာန်ညးဂှ် အံင်ဇၞး ဗွဲမပြဟ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၆ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောံဓရီုအသာမ်ဗလဳ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဒကုတ်ကိုပ်ကၠာဂှ် နကဵုကုလသမဂ္ဂ ပဒတန် ဒဒှ်ရ ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူဂှ် မဒှ်အရာ မဒစဵုဒစး ကုသၞောဝ်ဂၠးကဝ်၊ ဆဂး နကဵုသၞောဝ် ဟွံဂွံဖျေဟ်လဝ်ဏီရ။ စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၉၄၈ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောံဓရီုအသာမ်ဗလဳ ဂှ် ပဒတန် လိက်ကသုက်ပဋိညာဉ် စဵုဒၞာ ကေုာံ ကဵုဒုဟ်ဒဏ် ကုရာဇာဝတ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ (Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide) (CPPCG)တုဲ လိက်ကသုက်ဂှ် ဒှ်လိက်ကသုက် မပံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ရာဇာဝတ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ကၠာအိုတ်ရ။<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rubinstein |first=W.D. |url=https://books.google.com/?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC&pg=PA308#v=onepage |title=Genocide: a history |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2004 |page=308 |isbn=978-0-582-50601-5}}</ref>
{{Quote|text=ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ (genocide) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမဒစဵုဒစး အခေါင်အရာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်မွဲ သွက်ဂွံ ဂျိုင်တန်တဴ၊ နကဵု ဂမ္စိုတ်မနုဿ (homicide) ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မဒစဵုဒစး အခေါင်အရာ ကောန်မၞိဟ်မွဲမွဲ သွက်ဂွံဂျိုင်တန်တဴ၊ ပွမဒစဵုဒစး အခေါင်အရာ မဂျိုင်တန်တဴ မြဴသာ်ဝွံတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမခဍဳလျတ် ဇီုကပိုက် ကုဝိညာဏ်ကောန်မၞိဟ်တုဲ ဗဒှ်ကဵု ပရေင်ဆောမ်လေင် ပ္ဍဲကောန်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကုဒြဟတ် မပ္တံ ကုအခိုက်ကၞာ ပြဝေဏဳ ကေုာံ အရာမခၞံဗဒှ် နကဵု ဂကောံကောန်ဂကူဂှ်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် အရာဝွံ ဒှ်အရာ မဒစဵုဒစး ကုသၞောဝ်ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ်၊ ကေုာံ စိုတ်ဓါတ် ကေုာံ တင်ရန်တၟအ် မဒက်ပတန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂရ။ အခိင်ကာလ မဗတိုက်ပလီု ဂကူမွဲမွဲ၊ ကွေတ်ဘာသာမွဲမွဲ ကေုာံ လညာတ်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်မွဲမွဲမ္ဂး ဒုဟ်ရာဇာဝတ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ဗီုဗီုဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင်လဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။|sign=|source=တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ၉၆ (၁) UN Resolution 96(1), 11 December 1946}}
လိက်ကသုက်ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူဂှ် ပဒတန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောံဓရီုအသာမ်ဗလဳ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ပ္ဍဲ ၉ ဒဳဇြေန်ပါ ၁၉၄၈<ref name="UNLegalDef" /> တုဲ ဒှ်ဒတန် ပ္ဍဲ ၁၂ ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၁၉၅၁ (Resolution 260 (III))။ ပ္ဍဲလိက်ကသုက်ဂှ် ချူ ပံက်လဝ် ပွံက် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ နကဵု ဂကောံဍုင်ဂၠးကဝ် မဒုင်လဝ်တဲတုဲ နကဵု ဍုင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စုတ်ပၠုပ် ပ္ဍဲသၞောဝ်ဍုင်ညးတအ်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် သီုကဵု ပဒတန် သွက်ဂွံဒက်ပတန် ရုင်ဗစာရာဇာဝတ်ဂၠးကဝ် မကော်ဂး International Criminal Court (ICC) နကဵု တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် (ဝါ) ဖျေဟ်သၞောဝ် ဗီုလဒက်ပတန် ရုင်ဗစာ ရာဇာဝတ် ဂၠးကဝ် မကော်ဂး "ရဝ်မ ဥပဓိ ရုင်ဗစာ ရာဇာဝတ် ဂၠးကဝ် (Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲပိုဒ်ဇၞော်ၜါ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်ပဋိညာဉ်ဂှ် ပံက်လဝ် ပွံက် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ အတိုင်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။
{{quotation|... တင်မထ္ၜးလဝ် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ မွဲမွဲဂှ် ယဝ်ရ ကၠောန်ပဒး နကဵု ဆန္ဒ သွက်ဂွံ ပလီု၊ နကဵုသီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု မွဲကရေက် (အဝဲလစှ်ေ) လတူ ဍုင်မွဲ၊ ကောန်ဂကူမွဲ၊ ဗဳဇဂကူမွဲ၊ ဂကောံဘာသာမွဲ မပ္တံ ကု {{plainlist|
* (က) မဂစိုတ် ကောန်ဂကောံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂှ်၊ (Killing members of the group)
* (ခ) ကတဵုဗဒှ် ညံင်ခန္ဓကာယ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စိတ္တ ဂွံဂိသကေဝ် ကုကောန်ဂကောံညးတအ် (Causing serious [[#"bodily harm"|bodily]] or mental harm to members of the group)
* (ဂ) နကဵုဆန္ဒနွံနွံ ကဵုဒြဟတ်ဒမြိုဟ် ပရေင်မံင်စံင်ဘဝ ညးတအ် ညံင်ဂွံစိုပ်အာ ကဆံင် ခန္ဓကာယ မဂွံလီုလာ် နကဵုသီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု မွဲကရေက် (Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part)
* (ဃ) ကဵုဒြဟတ်ဒမြိုဟ် ညံင်ဟွံဂွံၜံင်ကောန်ဇာတ် ကုဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂှ် (Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group)
* (င) နကဵုအမိင်အဝဵု ပြံင်ပဆုဲထောအ် ကောန်ၚာ် နကဵု ဂကောံဍေဟ်တအ် ကဵုအာမံင် ပ္ဍဲဂကောံမၞိဟ်တၞဟ်။ (Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.)}}|sign=|source=}}
===ဆန္ဒ ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ (Genocidal intent)===
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောဝ်ဂၠးကဝ်မ္ဂး ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ဂှ် နကဵုစိုတ်ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ ပါ်လဝ် ၜါပြကာ။ (၁) ပြကာစိုတ်ဓမ္မတာ (the general mental element)၊ (၂) ပြကာဆန္ဒမရန်တၟအ်နွံနွံ (the element of specific intent)။ ပြကာစိုတ်ဓမ္မတာ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် စၞောန်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ရာဇာဝတ် မကလိလောန်လဝ်ဂှ် ကလိလောန် နကဵု ဆန္ဒနွံနွံ၊ ကသပ်လညာတ် အစဳအဇန်နွံနွံ ကဵုဒှ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု ဟွံစွံသတိမွဲသာ် ကလိလောန်ဒးအာရ။ ဆဂး နကဵု ဒုဟ်ရာဇာဝတ် ဂၠးကဝ် မဆေင်ကဵု ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ မ္ဂး ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ညးတအ် ကေတ်စ ကလိလောန်လဝ် ဒုဟ် နကဵု ဆန္ဒနွံနွံရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥပဓိ/သၞောဝ် ရဝ်မ မ္ဂး "ဆန္ဒနွံနွံ" ဝွံ ပံက်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဒဒှ်ရ မကၠောန်ပ နကဵုမဖန်ဇန် စပ်ကဵု ကိစ္စရာဇာဝတ် မပတုဲဂှ်ရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.icc-cpi.int/nr/rdonlyres/ea9aeff7-5752-4f84-be94-0a655eb30e16/0/rome_statute_english.pdf|title=Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|last=|first=|date=July 1998|website=International Criminal Court|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|accessdate=2019-12-13|archivedate=2018-03-18|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318090721/https://www.icc-cpi.int/nr/rdonlyres/ea9aeff7-5752-4f84-be94-0a655eb30e16/0/rome_statute_english.pdf}}</ref>
ပြကာဆန္ဒမရန်တၟအ်နွံနွံဂှ် ညးပံက်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် တင်ရန်တၟအ် မကလိလောန် ဗီုမကၠောန်ပ "သွက်ဂွံပလီုပလာ်ထောအ် နကဵုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု မွဲကရေက် လတူ ဍုင်မွဲ၊ ဂကူမွဲ၊ ဂကောံဘာသာမွဲတအ် ဒှ်တမ်ရ။ ပြကာဆန္ဒမရန်တၟအ်နွံနွံဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ သွက်ဂွံပါ်တၞဟ်ခြာ ကုရာဇာဝတ်ဂၠးတိတၞဟ် မပ္တံ ကုရာဇာဝတ်ပၞာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရာဇာဝတ်မပလီုပလာ်ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်ရ။
===ဆန္ဒ မိက်ဂွံ ပလီု(Intent to destroy)===
ပ္ဍဲ[[ဂဗုတ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ရဝ်ဟိန်ဂျာ]] ဍုင်ဂါမ်ဗဳယျာ မတေင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ[[ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးကဝ်]] ကုဍုင်ဗၟာဂှ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ (ဒဝ်အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ) ဂစာန်ပတိုန်ဂလာန် ဒဒှ်ရ ဒပ်ပၞာန်ဗၟာ ဂစိုတ်ဒးအာ ဂကူ[[ရဝ်ဟိန်ဂျာ]]တအ်ဂှ် နကဵု ဆန္ဒနွံနွံ ဟွံသေင်၊ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ကောန်ပၞာန်ဗၟာတအ် အာဗတိုက် သၟာပကီုပရာပ်အာသာတအ်တုဲ ဒးအာကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်ညိညဂှ်ရ ဂဗုတ်ဂှ် ဟွံစိုပ်ကဆံင် [[ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ]] ရ။
====နကဵုသီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မွဲကရေက် (In whole or in part)====
[[File:Ambassador Morgenthau's Story p314.jpg|thumb|ညးမဒုင် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ အာမေနိယာန်ဂမၠိုင်]]
လဟီုမ္ဂး နကဵုဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက် "in whole or in part" (နကဵု သီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မွဲကရေက်) ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ တၠပညာသၞောဝ်ဥပဒေဂၠးကဝ် မဆေင်ကဵု သၞောဝ်ပရေင်မၞိဟ်တအ် မပါ်ပါဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်ဂၠိုင်မွဲရ။<ref name="What is Genocide">[http://efchr.mcgill.ca/WhatIsGenocide_en.php?menu=2 "What is Genocide?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505161753/http://efchr.mcgill.ca/WhatIsGenocide_en.php?menu=2 |date=5 May 2007 }} McGill Faculty of Law ([[McGill University]])</ref>ရုင်သၞောဝ် ရာဇာဝတ် ဂၠးကဝ် (International Criminal Tribunal) လတူ ဂဗုတ်''Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)'' မဆေင်ကဵု ဍုင်ယူဂဝ်သလာဗဳယျာ (တြေံ) ညာတ်ကေတ်<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html|title=Prosecutor v. Dario Kordic & Mario Cerkez - Trial Chamber III - Judgment - en IT-95-14/2 [2001] ICTY 8 (26 February 2001)|website=www.worldlii.org|accessdate=15 December 2019|archivedate=25 May 2012|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120525111049/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html}}</ref>ဒဒှ်ရ ကလိလောန်လဝ် ဒုဟ်ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂဗုတ် ''Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)''<ref name=PvRKappel>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2004/7.html|title=The Prosecutor v. Limaj et al. – Decision on Prosecution's Motion to Amend the Amended Indictment – Trial Chamber – en IT-03-66 [2004] ICTY 7 (12 February 2004)|website=www.worldlii.org|accessdate=22 October 2017|archivedate=23 August 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823231159/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2004/7.html}}</ref>ဂှ် နကဵု သၞောဝ်ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၈၊ ၉၊ ၁၀၊ ကေုာံ ၁၁ မ္ဂး ကလိလောန်လဝ်ဒုဟ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ " နကဵု မွဲကရေက်"၊ မွဲကရေက်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မပလီု သွက်ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မဂွံဂျိုင်တန်တဴ မွဲကရေက်ရ။ ဟီုမွဲသာ်ပၠန်ဂှ် ဂစိုတ်ထောအ် ဂကူသီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်ကီုလေဝ် မဆေင်ကဵု ကောန်ဂကူဂှ် လ္ၚဵု/မွဲကရေက်တအ်ဂှ် ဂစိုတ်ရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် လိက်ပဋိညာဉ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူဂှ် သွက်ဂွံစဵုဒၞာ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံပလီုပလာ်ထောအ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်မွဲမွဲတုဲ နကဵု မဂစိုတ်ပလီုထောအ် မွဲကရေက်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမလီုထောအ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်သီုဖအိုတ်မာန်ပေင်င်ရ။
နာဲဗစာတအ် ဆက်ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး စပ်ကဵု ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၁၂၊ "နမရန်တၟအ် မွဲကရေက်ဂှ် ညာတ်ကေတ် သွက်ဂွံပလီု လၟိဟ်မရန်တၟအ်လဝ်တအ်ဂှ်ရ။ မရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံပလီုထောအ် မွဲကရေက် ပ္ဍဲဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ ဒၞာဲမစကၠောန် သွက်ဂွံပလီုပလာ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂှ်တုဲ ဒှ်အရာမတုဲဒှ်အာ ဆက်ၜိုတ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်ရ။ လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်ပူဂိုလ် မဒးဒုင်ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံဂစိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမတုဲဒှ် ဟွံသေင်တုဲ ဒှ်အရာမဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကုလၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်အလုံမွဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂှ်ရ။<ref>[http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2004/7.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823231159/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2004/7.html |date=23 August 2014 }} See Paragraph 6: "Article 4 of the Tribunal's Statute, like the Genocide Convention, covers certain acts done with "intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such".</ref><ref>[http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/icty/statute.html Statute of the International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991], U.N. Doc. S/25704 at 36, annex (1993) and S/25704/Add.1 (1993), adopted by Security Council on 25 May 1993, [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 827|Resolution 827]] (1993).</ref>
==== ကောန်ဍုင်၊ ကောန်ဂကူ တၞောဝ်ဗဳဇ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံဘာသ (“A national, ethnic, racial or religious group”) ====
နကဵု CPPCG ဂှ် ဂကောံပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ဂကောံပရေင်မၞိဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံရိုဟ်ပၠုပ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံသွက်ဂွံစဵုဒၞာရ။ စၞးဂှ် ညးတအ် ရုဲစှ် စွံအာရီု ပ္ဍဲကဵု လက်သန်မတန်ကြန်ဂမၠိုင် (stable identities)တအ်ရ။ လက်သန်မတန်ကြန် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်လက်သန် မၜံင်ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံဂှ် တုဲ အရာမပြံင်လှာဲဟွံဂွံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပြံင်လှာဲထောအ်လောဲလောဲ ဟွံဂွံတအ်ရ။ ဂကောံပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ဂကောံပရေင်မၞိဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမပြံင်လှာဲ ဗွဲမဗဗွဲကဵု အကာဲအရာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ အခိင်အခါရ။<ref name=":1">Agnieszka Szpak, ''National, Ethnic, Racial, and Religious Groups Protected against Genocide in the Jurisprudence of the ad hoc International Criminal Tribunals'', 23 Eur. J. Int’L L. 155 (2012).</ref>
ရုင်ဗစာ ရာဇာဝတ်ဂၠးကဝ် (International criminal court) ဂကူတၞဟ်ခြာ ဘာသာတၞဟ်ဂှ် ဟွံပါ်ပါဲတုဲ စွံအာရီု လတူလၟိဟ်ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ရ။ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်တၞဟ်ခြာ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ညးပံက်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဟိုတ်နူ အရေဝ်ဘာသာတၞဟ်ခြာ၊ ဗီုသဏ္ဌာန် ရုပ်သာ်တၞဟ်ခြာ၊ ကွေတ်ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေဘာသာ တၞဟ်ခြာ ကေုာံ အခိုက်ပြဝေဏဳတၞဟ်ခြာရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ပ္ဍဲရဝါန်ဒါဂှ် ဂကူဟူတူ ကဵု ဂကူတုတ်သဳတအ်ဂှ် ရုပ်သာ်ဗီုပြင် တုပ်ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ်ရ။<ref name=":2">William A. Schabas, Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes 124-129 (2d. ed. 2009).</ref> ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲအရာမပါ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်တၞဟ်ခြာဂှ် ဗွဲမကၠးဖ္ဍး ပါ်လဝ် ဟွံမဲကီုလေဝ် ရံင်ဗီုပြင် မကလိလောန်ဒုဟ်တုဲ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ရ။<ref>''Prosecutor v. Bagilishema'' (Case No. ICTR-95-1A-T), Judgment, 7 June 2001, para. 65.</ref>
=== ဒဒှ် မကၠောန်ပ ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ (Genocidal acts) ===
လိက်ပဋိညာဉ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု အရာမစဵုဒၞာလဝ် မသုန်သာ်၊ ယဝ်ရကလိလောန် ကၠောန်ပဒး အရာမသုန်သာ်ဂှ် နကဵု ဆန္ဒနွံနွံမ္ဂး ဒှ်အရာ မကလိလောန်ဒုဟ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ရ။ ဆဂး နကဵု မဂစိုတ် ပတုံကၠေအ် လမျီုဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ်ဟေင် မစၟတ်သမ္တီ ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူရ။<ref name=":3">Sareta Ashraph, Beyond Killing: Gender, Genocide, & Obligations Under International Law 3 (Global Justice Center 2018).</ref>
==== မဂစိုတ် ကောန်ဂကောံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Killing members of the group) ====
ဇၟာပ်မဂစိုတ်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂၠေင်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်၊ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genocides_by_death_toll စရင်ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ] မကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လက္ကရဴဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ်ရ။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ကဵု သၟတ်တြုဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင်ဂစိုတ်ကၠာ မပ္တံကဵု ပန်ဂစိုတ် နကဵုသေနာတ်။<ref>Prosecutor v. Karadžić, Case No. IT-95-5/18-T, Trial Judgment, Int’l Crim. Trib. for the Former Yugoslavia, Mar. 24, 2016</ref> မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ ကေုာံ သၟတ်ဗြဴတအ်ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ချိုတ်သိုက်က် ဗီုကဵု ဗာက်ဂစိုတ်၊ စံင်ဂစိုတ်၊ ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာတုဲ ဂစိုတ်ရ။<ref>HRW, “Leave None to Tell the Story,” at [215]; HRW, “Shattered Lives,” at [39].</ref> နကဵုလၟေင်သၞောဝ် ရုင်ဓဝ်ရာဇာဝတ်ဂၠးကဝ် ရဝါန်ဒါ (International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)) ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ မဂစိုတ် ဗွဲမပြဟ်ကီု သီုကဵု မဂစိုတ်သိုက်က်ကီု သီုၜါဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပိုဒ်ကိုပ်ကၠာဂှ်ရ။<ref>Prosecutor v. Semanza, Case No. ICTR-97-20-T, Trial Judgment, para. [320], May 15, 2003; Prosecutor v. Ntagerura, Case No. ICTR-99-46-T, Trial Judgment, para. [664], Feb. 24, 2004,</ref>
====ကတဵုဗဒှ် ညံင်ခန္ဓကာယ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စိတ္တ ဂွံဂိသကေဝ် ကုကောန်ဂကောံညးတအ် (Causing serious [[#"bodily harm"|bodily]] or mental harm to members of the group)====
တင်မစဵုဒၞာ ဒုတိယဏအ်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ်လဝ်ရ။ ရုင်ဗစာ ရာဇာဝတ်ဂၠးကဝ် သွက်ဍုင်ယူဂဝ်သလာပဳယျာဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ အရာမပလီုပလာ်ကောန်သမ္ဘာ ကဵု ပကီုပရာပ်လိင်ဂှ် လုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တင်မစဵုဒၞာ ဒုတိယ အရာမကလိလောန်ဒုဟ် ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ မဒှ်အရာ မကတဵုဗဒှ် ညံင်ခန္ဓကာယ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စိတ္တ ဂွံဂိသကေဝ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကာလမဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ဂှ် ရုင်ဗစာရာဇာဝတ်ဂၠးကဝ် ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာ ကေုာံ ပကီုပရာပ်လိင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မပလီုကဵု ခန္ဓကာယ ကီု သီုကဵု စိတ္တရ။<ref>Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Judgment, Sept. 2, 1998, para. 731.</ref> ပကီုပရာပ်လိင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမၜတ်ကၞာတ် သွက်ဂွံဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပကီုပရာပ် မဂစိုတ်ပဠက်ဂကူမွဲရ။ ညးမဂစိုတ်ပဠက်ဂကူညးတၞဟ်တအ်ဂှ် အရာဝွံ ဒှ်အရာမပစဒှ်အိုတ်ရ။<ref name=":3" /> ကာလ ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ပ္ဍဲရဝါန်ဒါဂှ် ပ္ဍဲပွိုင် ပိဂိတုဂှ် လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ မဒးဒုင် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာ ကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် ၜိုတ် အကြာ ၂၅၀,၀၀၀ ကဵု ၅၀၀,၀၀၀။ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒးဒုင်ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာ နကဵုမၞိဟ်တြုဟ်ဂၠိုင်င် မကော်ဂးစ (gang rape)။<ref>Stephanie K. Wood, ''A Woman Scorned for the “Least Condemned” War Crime: Precedent and Problems with Prosecuting Rape as a Serious Crime in the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda'', 13 Colum. J. of Gender & L. 274, at 299-301 (2004).</ref>
ပွမပျဲပျာံ၊ ကဵုဒဒိုက် မဆက်ဆောံ ဗွဲမရုန်မဵု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကဵုဒုဟ်ဒဏ် ဗွဲမဓဇန် နကဵုဆန္ဒနွံနွံဂှ်လေဝ် လုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲအရာမဂစိုတ်ပဠက်ဂကူ မကတဵုဗဒှ် ညံင်ခန္ဓကာယကီု သီုကဵုစိတ္တ ဂွံဂိသကေဝ် ကီုရ။ နကဵုရုင်ဗစာ စပ်ကဵု ဂဗုတ်ယူဂဝ်သလာပဳယျာဂှ် ညးစၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ဂစိုတ် ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန်မွဲတုဲ ကဵုညးသၟေဟ်တအ် ဗဵုဒၟံင်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဒှ်အရာမပျဲပျာံကီုရ။<ref>Prosecutor v. Karadžić, Case No. IT-95-5/18-T, Trial Judgment, para. [545], Int’l Crim. Trib. for the Former Yugoslavia, March 24, 2016, para. 5664; Patricia Viseur Sellers, “Genocide Gendered: The Srebrenica Cases,” The Fifth Annual Katherine B. Fite Lecture, Proceedings of the Ninth International Humanitarian Law Dialogs, Aug. 30– Sept. 1, 2015.</ref>
==== နကဵုဆန္ဒနွံနွံ ကဵုဒြဟတ်ဒမြိုဟ် ပရေင်မံင်စံင်ဘဝ ညးတအ် ညံင်ဂွံစိုပ်အာ ကဆံင် ခန္ဓကာယ မဂွံလီုလာ် နကဵုသီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု မွဲကရေက် (Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction====
တင်မစဵုဒၞာတတိယဂှ် ဍေဟ်တၞဟ်ခြာ ကုတင်တၞဟ်ၜါ မဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ဗွဲလတူတေအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲတင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒဒှ်ရ မၞိဟ်တအ် ဒးအိုတ်လမျီု ပ္ဍဲအခိင်မွဲတဲဓဝ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂွံဗၠးချိုတ်လေဝ် ဒှ်မာန်ရ။ မဒှ်အရာ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ညံင်လမျီု ဂွံဆက်ဂျိုင်ရ။ <ref name=":0" /> ဇမၠိင်အခိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာဟွံစိုပ် ဒဒှ်မလီုလာ်ဂှ် နကဵုသၞောဝ်ဓဝ်ဂမၠိုင် တၟော်တော်တုဲ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုတင်ဏအ်ရ။<ref name=":4">''Kayishema and Ruzindana,'' (Trial Chamber), May 21, 1999, para. 548</ref> စပ်ကဵု တင်ဏအ်တုဲ နကဵုဥပမာ ညးဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ဗီုကဵု နာဇြဳဂျာမနဳ မကြိုင်လဝ် ဂကူဂျူ ပ္ဍဲဗဒိုပ်တအ်၊ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ ဟိုတ်နူ ဒပ်ပၞာန်တအ် ဗိုင်လဝ် မ္ၚးညးဍုင်အာမေနဳယျာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မဒးချိုတ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ညးပၠုပ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲတင်ဏအ်ကီုရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒါဝှုရ် (Darfur)ထပိုတ်ထောအ်ဍာ်ဂှ်လေဝ် လုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲတင်စဵုဒၞာဏအ်ကီုရ။ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဗၟာ လတူဂကူရဝ်ဟိန်ဂျာတအ် ဒဒှ်မလီုထောအ် သ္ၚိဌာန် ဒၞာဲညးတအ်မမံင်ဂှ်လေဝ် ညးတအ်ပၠုပ်စုတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တင်စဵုဒၞာဏအ်ကီုရ။
==== ကဵုဒြဟတ်ဒမြိုဟ် ညံင်ဟွံဂွံၜံင်ကောန်ဇာတ် ကုဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂှ် (Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group)====
တင်မစဵုဒၞာစတုတ္ထဂှ် ဒှ်တင် နကဵုမရန်တၟအ် ညံင်ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂှ် ဟွံဆက်ဗဒှ်ပတိုန် တၞောဝ်တၟိတုဲ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ညံင်ဟွံဂွံကောန်ဇာတ်ရ။ တင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဥပမာ ကဵုကောန်ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂှ် ထပိုတ်ကတေင်ကောန်၊ ကဵုစကာ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံကောန် နကဵုနဲအနိက်အထက်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟွံကဵုအခေါင် ဖျေဟ်ဒၞာဲ ဒက်အိန်ထံင်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ကဵု မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ ပရးစွံလဝ် ရေင်သကအ် နကဵုအခိင်လအ်လအ် နကဵုမရန်တၟအ် ညံင်ဂွံဂွံကောန်ဇာတ်တအ်ရ။<ref name=":0" /> ပွမပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာလေဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုတင်ဏအ် ညးစုတ်လဝ်ကီုရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵုတင်ဒၞာဲဏအ်ဂှ် ပလီုကောန်သမ္ဘာအတေင် ညံင်မၞိဟ်ဗြဴတအ်ဂှ် ဂွံကလိဂွံ ကောန်ဇာတ် နူကဵုဂကောံမၞိဟ်တၞဟ်ရ။<ref>Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Judgment, Sept. 2, 1998, para. 507.</ref>
==== နကဵုအမိင်အဝဵု ပြံင်ပဆုဲထောအ် ကောန်ၚာ် နကဵု ဂကောံဍေဟ်တအ် ကဵုအာမံင် ပ္ဍဲဂကောံမၞိဟ်တၞဟ်။ (Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group) ====
တင်မစဵုဒၞာ လက္ကရဴအိုတ်ဏအ်မွဲဟေင် ဒှ်တင်မစဵုဒၞာ မဟွံပကဵု ညံင်ခန္ဓကာယ ဂွံဂိသကေဝ်၊ တၞဟ်နဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂှ် (ဝါ) အခိုက်ပြဝေဏဳဂှ် ဂွံလီုလာ် ဂွံကၠေအ်ကၠက်တုဲ ပြံင်ပဆုဲထောအ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂှ်ရ။<ref name=":3" /> အရာဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ ကောန်ၚာ် နူကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မစဵုဒၞာလဝ်ဂှ် ကေတ်ဏာ အာစွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်တၞဟ်တအ် နမရန်တၟအ် ညံင်ဂွံဖအး ပသောင်ထောအ် အခိုက်ကၞာဂှ်ရ။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သၟတ်တြုဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ကေတ်ဏာတုဲ သၠာဲထောအ် ယၟုဍေဟ်တအ်၊ ကဵုရှ်ေသှ်ေဘာသာတၞဟ်တုဲ စကာဍေဟ်တအ် နဒဒှ် ကောန်ကမၠောန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နဒဒှ် ကောန်ပၞာန်ရ။<ref>''See, e.g.,'' Antonie Holslag, ''Exposed Bodies: A Conceptual Approach to Sexual Violence during the Armenian Genocide'', ''in'' Genocide and Gender in the Twentieth Century: A Comparative Study, 96-97(Bloomsbury 2015).</ref> သၟတ်ဗြဴမ္ဂး ကေတ်ဏာ ဇရေင်ဂကောံမၞိဟ်တအ်တုဲ ဆက်ဆောံ ကုဍေဟ်တအ် နဒဒှ် ဍိက်၊ အရာဏအ်ဂှ် ကေင်ဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူယဇြဳဒဳ ကေုာံ အမေနဳယျာန်တအ်ရ။<ref name=":3" />
==ဆက် ဗှ်ပရူဏအ်==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
'''Articles'''
* [[Christopher R. Browning]], "The Two Different Ways of Looking at Nazi Murder" (review of [[Philippe Sands]], ''East West Street: On the Origins of "Genocide" and "Crimes Against Humanity"'', Knopf, 425 pp., $32.50; and [[Christian Gerlach]], ''The Extermination of the European Jews'', Cambridge University Press, 508 pp., ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXIII, no. 18 (November 24, 2016), pp. 56–58. Discusses [[Hersch Lauterpacht]]'s legal concept of "[[crimes against humanity]]", contrasted with [[Rafael Lemkin]]'s legal concept of "genocide". All genocides are crimes against humanity, but not all crimes against humanity are genocides; genocides require a higher standard of proof, as they entail ''intent'' to destroy a particular group.
* [http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2009/0819/p09s02-coop.html The Genocide in Darfur is Not What It Seems] Christian Science Monitor
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/opinion/suhartos-purge-indonesias-silence.html Suharto's Purge, Indonesia's Silence]. [[Joshua Oppenheimer]] for ''[[The New York Times]]'', September 29, 2015.
* (in Spanish) Aizenstatd, Najman Alexander. "Origen y Evolución del Concepto de Genocidio". Vol. 25 Revista de Derecho de la Universidad Francisco Marroquín 11 (2007). {{ISSN|1562-2576}} [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1728522]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110808175849/http://www.brynmawr.edu/socialwork/GSSW/schram/harff.pdf No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder since 1955] American Political Science Review. Vol. 97, No. 1. February 2003.
* (in Spanish) Marco, Jorge. "Genocidio y Genocide Studies: Definiciones y debates", en: Aróstegui, Julio, Marco, Jorge y Gómez Bravo, Gutmaro (coord.): "De Genocidios, Holocaustos, Exterminios...", ''Hispania Nova'', 10 (2012). Véase [http://hispanianova.rediris.es/10/dossier/10d002.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331144906/http://hispanianova.rediris.es/10/dossier/10d002.pdf |date=2022-03-31 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110829115934/http://www.miller-mccune.com/politics/what-really-happened-in-rwanda-3432/ What Really Happened in Rwanda?] Christian Davenport and Allan C. Stam.
* Reyntjens, F. (2004). "Rwanda, Ten Years On: From Genocide to Dictatorship." African Affairs 103(411): 177–210.
* Brysk, Alison. 1994. "The Politics of Measurement: The Contested Count of the Disappeared in Argentina." Human Rights Quarterly 16: 676–92.
* Davenport, C. and P. Ball (2002). "Views to a Kill: Exploring the Implications of Source Selection in the Case of Guatemalan State Terror, 1977–1996." Journal of Conflict Resolution 46(3): 427–450.
* Krain, M. (1997). "State-Sponsored Mass Murder: A Study of the Onset and Severity of Genocides and Politicides." Journal of Conflict Resolution 41(3): 331–360.
* {{Cite journal|ref=harv|last=McCormick|first=Rob|title=The United States' Response to Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941–1945|journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention|year=2008|volume=3|issue=1|pp=75–98|url=http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1183&context=gsp}}
'''Books'''
* {{cite book |editor-last=Andreopoulos |editor-first=George J. |year=1994 |title=Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions |url=https://archive.org/details/genocideconceptu0000unse |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-3249-3 }}
* Ball, P., P. Kobrak, and H. Spirer (1999). ''State Violence in Guatemala, 1960–1996: A Quantitative Reflection''. Washington, D.: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
* Bloxham, Donald & Moses, A. Dirk [editors]: ''The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies.'' [Interdisciplinary Contributions about Past & Present Genocides]. Oxford University Press, second edition 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-19-967791-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Chalk |first=Frank |title=The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies |author2=Kurt Jonassohn |year=1990 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-04446-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/historysociology00chal }}
* {{cite book |last=Charny |first=Israel W. |title=Encyclopedia of Genocide |authorlink=Israel Charny |date=1999 |publisher=ABC-Clio Inc |isbn=978-0-87436-928-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofge0000unse }}
* {{cite book |last=Conversi |first= Daniele|year=2005 |chapter=Genocide, ethnic cleansing, and nationalism |editor1-last=Delanty |editor1-first=Gerard |editor2-last=Kumar |editor2-first=Krishan |title=Handbook of Nations and Nationalism |volume=1 |location=London |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=978-1-4129-0101-7 |pp=319–33 }}
* Corradi, Juan, Patricia Weiss Fagen, and Manuel Antonio Garreton, eds. 1992. ''Fear at the Edge: State Terror and Resistance in Latin America''. Berkeley: University of California Press.
* Elliot, G. (1972). ''Twentieth Century Book of the Dead''. New York, C. Scribner.
* {{cite book|editor1=Esparza, Marcia |editor2=Henry R. Huttenbach|editor3=Daniel Feierstein|title=State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical Terrorism Studies)|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|isbn=978-0-415-66457-8|url=https://www.routledge.com/State-Violence-and-Genocide-in-Latin-America-The-Cold-War-Years/Esparza-Huttenbach-Feierstein/p/book/9780415496377}}
* {{cite book |last1= Gellately|first1= Robert|author-link1= Robert Gellately|last2= Kiernan|first2= Ben|author-link2= Ben Kiernan|date= July 2003|title= The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective|url= http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-regional-history/specter-genocide-mass-murder-historical-perspective|location= |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52750-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Goldhagen |first=Daniel |title=Worse Than War: Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity |authorlink=Daniel Goldhagen |year=2009 |publisher=PublicAffairs |isbn=978-1-58648-769-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/worsethanwargeno00gold/page/672 672] |url=https://archive.org/details/worsethanwargeno00gold/page/672 }}
* {{cite book |last=Harff |first=Barbara |title=Early Warning of Communal Conflict and Genocide: Linking Empirical Research to International Responses |date=August 2003 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0-8133-9840-2 }}
* {{cite book |last= Hochschild |first=Adam |title=King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa |authorlink=Adam Hochschild |year=1998 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-395-75924-0 |title-link=King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa }}
* {{cite book |last= Horowitz |first=Irving |title=Taking Lives: Genocide and State Power |authorlink=Irving Louis Horowitz |year=2001 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-7658-0094-7 |edition=5th}}
* {{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of War Crimes & Genocide |volume=2 |type=Hardcover |first1=Leslie Alan |last1=Horvitz |first2=Christopher |last2=Catherwood |isbn=978-0-8160-8083-0 |location=New York |publisher=Facts on File |year=2011 |edition=Revised |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwa0000horv }} {{ISBN|0-8160-8083-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Jonassohn |first=Kurt |title=Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations |url=https://archive.org/details/genocidegrosshum0000jona |author2=Karin Björnson |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-56000-314-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Adam |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/genocidecomprehe0002edjone |authorlink=Adam Jones (Canadian scholar) |year=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-48619-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Kelly |first=Michael J. |title=Nowhere to Hide: Defeat of the Sovereign Immunity Defense for Crimes of Genocide & the Trials of Slobodan Milosevic and Saddam Hussein |url=https://archive.org/details/nowheretohidedef0000kell |year=2005 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-0-8204-7835-7 }}
* {{cite book |last= Kiernan |first=Ben |title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur |url= https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326 |authorlink=Ben Kiernan |year=2007 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10098-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Laban |first=Alexander |title=Genocide: An Anthropological Reader |url=https://archive.org/details/genocideanthropo0000unse |year=2002 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-0-631-22355-9 }}
* {{cite book |last= Lemarchand |first=René |title=Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide |authorlink=René Lemarchand |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56623-0 }}
* {{cite book | last=Lemkin | first=Raphael | title=Axis rule in occupied Europe : laws of occupation, analysis of government, proposals for redress | url=https://archive.org/details/axisruleinoccupi0000lemk | publisher=Lawbook Exchange | location=Clark, NJ | year=2008 | isbn=978-1-58477-901-8 | ref=harv}}
* Levene, M. (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State. New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
* {{cite book |last=MacKinnon |first=Catharine A. |title=Are Women Human?: And Other International Dialogues |url=https://archive.org/details/arewomenhumanoth00mack |authorlink=Catharine MacKinnon |year=2006 |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02555-4 }}
* Lewy, Guenter (2012). ''Essays on Genocide and Humanitarian Intervention''. University of Utah Press. {{ISBN|978-1-60781-168-8}}.
* Mamdani, M. (2001). ''When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda''. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press.
* {{cite book |last=Melvin |first=Jess|date= 2018|title=The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|location= |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-57469-4|author-link= }}
* {{cite book |last=Power |first=Samantha |title="A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide |authorlink=Samantha Power |year=2003 |publisher=Harper Perennial |isbn=978-0-06-054164-4 |title-link=A Problem from Hell }}
* {{cite journal |last=Rosenfeld |first=Gavriel D. |authorlink=Gavriel David Rosenfeld |year=1999 |title=The Politics of Uniqueness: Reflections on the Recent Polemical Turn in Holocaust and Genocide Scholarship |journal=[[Holocaust and Genocide Studies]] |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=28–61 |url=https://digitalcommons.fairfield.edu/history-facultypubs/100| doi= 10.1093/hgs/13.1.28 }}
* {{cite book |last= Rotberg |first=Robert I. |title=From Massacres to Genocide: The Media, Public Policy, and Humanitarian Crises |url= https://archive.org/details/frommassacrestog0000unse |author2=Thomas G. Weiss |year=1996 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=978-0-8157-7590-4 }}
* {{cite book |last= Rummel |first=R.J. |title=Death by Government: Genocide and Mass Murder in the Twentieth Century |authorlink=R.J. Rummel |year=1994 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-56000-927-6 |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE1.HTM }}
* {{cite book |last=Sagall |first=Sabby |title=Final Solutions: Human Nature, Capitalism and Genocide |publisher=Pluto Press |year=2013 |page=309 |isbn=978-0-7453-2653-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Sands | first=Philippe | title=East West Street : on the origins of "Genocide" and "Crimes Against Humanity" | url=https://archive.org/details/eastweststreeton0000sand | publisher=Alfred A. Knopf | location=New York | year=2016 | isbn=978-0-385-35071-6 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Schabas |first=William A. |title=Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes (second edition) |authorlink=William Schabas |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-71900-1}}
* Schmid, A.P. (1991). Repression, State Terrorism, and Genocide: Conceptual Clarifications. State Organized Terror: The Case of Violent Internal Repression. P.T. Bushnell. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. 312 p.{{ISBN?}}
* {{cite book |last=Shaw |first=Martin |title=What is Genocide? |url=https://archive.org/details/whatisgenocide0000shaw |year=2007 |publisher=Polity Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-7456-3182-0 }}
* [http://www.ervinstaub.com Staub, Ervin (1989). ''The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence'']. New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-42214-7}}
* [http://www.ervinstaub.com Staub, Ervin (2011). ''Overcoming Evil: Genocide, violent conflict and terrorism'']. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-538204-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Sunga |first=Lyal S. |title=The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation |url=https://archive.org/details/emergingsystemof0000sung |authorlink=Lyal S. Sunga |year=1997 |publisher= Kluwer |isbn=978-90-411-0472-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Sunga |first=Lyal S. |title=Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations |year=1992 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-7923-1453-0 }}
* Tams, Christian J.; Berster, Lars; Schiffbauer, Björn (2014). ''Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide: A Commentary''. Munich: [[C.H. Beck]]. {{ISBN|978-3-406-60317-4}}.
* {{cite book|last=Totten |first= Samuel |title=Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts |author2=William S. Parsons |author3-link= Israel W. Charny |author3=Israel W. Charny |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-99085-1 |edition=3rd}}
* {{cite book|last=Valentino |first=Benjamin A. |title=Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century |url=https://archive.org/details/finalsolutionsma00vale |year=2004 |publisher=Cornell University Press]|isbn=978-0-8014-3965-0 }}
* Van den Berghe, P.L. (1990). ''State Violence and Ethnicity''. Niwot, CO: University of Colorado Press {{ISBN?}}
* {{cite book|last=Weitz |first=Eric D. |title =A Century of Genocide: Utopias of Race and Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofgenocid0000weit |url-access=registration |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2003 |page=[https://archive.org/details/centuryofgenocid0000weit/page/360 360] |isbn=978-0-691-12271-7}}
* {{cite book|url=http://www.minorityrights.org/admin/Download/pdf/MRGGenocideReport.pdf|last=Schabas|first=William A.|author-link=William Schabas|title=Preventing Genocide and Mass Killing: The Challenge for the United Nations|publisher=Minority Rights Group International|location=London|year=2006|isbn=978-1-904584-37-7|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703100816/http://www.minorityrights.org/admin/Download/pdf/MRGGenocideReport.pdf|archivedate=3 July 2007|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|title=Supplementary Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls|url=https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Supplementary-Report_Genocide.pdf|author-link=National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls|publisher=Government of Canada|location=Ottawa|year=2019}}
{{div col end}}
==နိဿဲ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:BEHM]]
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သကတ်လာန်
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'''သကတ်လာန်''' (အင်္ဂလိက်: [[w:Scotland|Scotland]]; ဂေလဳ: ''Alba'') ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင်မွဲ မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ]] (United Kingdom) ရ။ ဍုင်ဏအ်ဂှ် နွံလပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ တကအ် ဂရိတ်ဗြိတိန် (Great Britain) တုဲ ပွဳပွူဍေဟ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ၜဳမှာသមុဒ္ဒရာ အတ္တလာန်တေတ် ကေုာံ ၜဳသၟဝ်ကျာရ။ လပါ်သၠုင်ကျာဂှ် နွံပယျဵု မဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကု ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန် ရ။ ဍုင်သကတ်လာန်ဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ယူကေ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ညးတအ် နွံကဵု ပါလဳမာန်၊ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာ မတၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု အင်္ဂလာန် ရ။ ဍုင်ဇၞော်ဂှ် ဒှ် [[w:Edinburgh|အဳဒေန်ဘရာ]] (Edinburgh) တုဲ ဍုင်မဇၞော်အိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင်ဂလာသဂိုဝ် (Glasgow) ရ။
{| class="infobox" style="width:28em; text-align:left; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float:right;"
|+ style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold;" | သကတ်လာန် (Scotland)
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |
[[File:Flag of Scotland.svg|140px|အလာံ သကတ်လာန်]]
[[File:Royal Arms of Scotland.svg|100px|တဆိပ် ဍုင်သကတ်လာန်]]<br/>
''အလာံ (Flag) | တဆိပ်ကောန်ဂကူ (Royal Arms)''
|-
! ဍုင်ဇၞော်
| [[w:Edinburgh|အဳဒေန်ဘရာ]] (Edinburgh)
|-
! ဍုင်ဇၞော်အိုတ်
| [[w:Glasgow|ဂလာသဂိုဝ်]] (Glasgow)
|-
! အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ရုင်
| အင်္ဂလိက်, သကတ်, ဂေလဳ သကတ် (Scottish Gaelic)
|-
! လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်
| ၅.၄ ပြကောဋိ (၂၀၂၂ ဆိင်ကပ်)
|-
! တမ်သြန်
| ပံင်သတာလင် (Pound sterling - GBP)
|-
! သၞောတ်အုပ်ဓုပ်
| ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ပါလဳမာန် (သၟဝ် ယူကေ)
|-
! ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ကဆံင်ပထမ
| [[w:First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] (John Swinney)
|}
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလယၟု (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ယၟု "သကတ်လာန်" (Scotland) ဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ မအရေဝ် လပ်တေန် "Scoti" (သကဝ်တဳ) မဒှ် ယၟု ညးလပ်တေန်တအ် မကော်စ ဂကူဂေလဳ (Gaelic) မပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသဂှ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ဗွဝ်ကၠံကိုပ်ကၠာတေအ်ရ။ သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင်မနွံကဵု ယေန်သၞာင် အခိုက်အလိုက် မတၟေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ ဗီုကဵု ဗွိုက်လတက် ကေဝ် (Kilt)၊ တူရိယာ ဘက်ပါက် (Bagpipes) ကေုာံ ဝင်မဇြိုဟ်နက်ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ဍေဟ် ပံင်ကောံလဝ် ကု အင်္ဂလာန် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၇၀၇ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်အမျိုးသားရေး (Nationalism) ကေုာံ လညာတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပါ်တိတ် ဒှ်ဍုင်ဗၠးၜး (Independence) ဂှ် ဂျိုင်တန်တဴဒၟံင် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဏီရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Mackie |first=J. D. |year=1991 |title=A History of Scotland |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofscotlan00mack_0 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0140136494}}</ref>။
== ၂။ ဝင် အတိတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ (History and the Union) ==
ဝင် သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဝင် မပေင်တဴ နကဵု ပရေင်ဗတိုက်ပၞာန် သွက် ဗၠးၜး ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရ-
* '''ခေတ်ကိုပ်ကၠာ (Early History):''' ပ္ဍဲအခိင် အေန်ပါယာ ရောမ (Roman Empire) လုပ်သီ ဂရိတ်ဗြိတိန်ဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် သီကေတ် သကတ်လာန် (လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ) ဟွံမာန်တုဲ ဒးသိုင်လဝ် ကၟာင် [[w:Hadrian's Wall|Hadrian's Wall]] သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ဂကူ Picts တအ်ရ။
* '''ပၞာန် ဗၠးၜး (Wars of Independence):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၃-၁၄ ဂှ် သကတ်လာန် ဒးဒုင် ဗတိုက် နကဵု အင်္ဂလာန် ရ။ က္ဍိုပ်သ္ကိုပ် ပြာကတ် ဗီုကဵု [[w:William Wallace|William Wallace]] (ဝဳလဳယေမ် ဝေါလေသ်) ကေုာံ Robert the Bruce တအ် စဵုဒၞာ ဍုင်တုဲ ကလိဂွံ ဇမၞး ပ္ဍဲ ပၞာန် Bannockburn ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၃၁၄ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ (The Union):''' ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၆၀၃ ဂှ် ဨကရာဇ် သကတ်လာန် James VI ဂွံဒှ် ဨကရာဇ် အင်္ဂလာန် (Union of the Crowns) ရ။ ကြဴနူဂှ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၇၀၇ ဂှ် ပါလဳမာန် ၜါလပါ် တုပ်စိုတ် ထပက်စၟတ်တဲ [[w:Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]] တုဲ ပံင်ကောံ ဒက်ပတန် ဍုင် "ဂရိတ်ဗြိတိန်" (Great Britain) ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Devine |first=T. M. |year=1999 |title=The Scottish Nation: 1700–2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/scottishnation170000tmde |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0141027692}}</ref>။
== ၃။ ပထဝဳဝင် ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Geography and Climate) ==
[[File:BenNevis2005.jpg|thumb|250px|ဒဵု Ben Nevis မဒှ် ဒဵုသၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ]]
ပထဝဳ သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဒဵုဇၞော်ဇၞော်၊ ၜဳ ကေုာံ တကအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ ဍုင်ဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် ပိ ဒေသ အဓိကရ-
* '''ဒေသ ဒဵုသၠုင် (Highlands):''' နွံ လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာတုဲ ဒှ် ဒေသ ဒဵုဇၞော်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ လစ (Lochs) ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ဒဵု [[w:Ben Nevis|Ben Nevis]] မဒှ် ဒဵုသၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဗြိတိန် လေဝ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲဒေသဏအ်ရ။
* '''ဒေသ ဒဵုသဝ် (Lowlands):''' နွံ လပါ်လဒေါဝ် ကဵု သၠုင်ကျာ။ ဒေသဏအ်ဂှ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် ဗီုကဵု ဂလာသဂိုဝ် ကဵု အဳဒေန်ဘရာ နွံတုဲ မၞိဟ်မံင် ဂၠိုင်အိုတ်ရ။
* '''တကအ်ဂမၠိုင် (Islands):''' သကတ်လာန် နွံကဵု တကအ် ၇၉၀ ပြင်ရ။ တကအ် မပြာကတ်တအ်ဂှ် Hebrides, Orkney, ကေုာံ Shetland တအ်ရ။
ရာသဳဥတုဂှ် ဒှ် ရာသဳဥတု ၜဳမှာသមុဒ္ဒရာ (Temperate oceanic) တုဲ ဗြဲဂူဂၠိုင်၊ ဂံက် ကေုာံ ကျာထတ် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Geography of Scotland |url=https://www.scotland.org/about-scotland/geography |publisher=Scotland.org |access-date=2026-06-23 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>။
== ၄။ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Government and Politics) ==
သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ ကီုလေဝ်၊ စတမ်နူ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၉ တုဲ ကလိဂွံ အခေါင် အုပ်ဓုပ်အပိုင် (Devolution) တုဲ ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် '''ပါလဳမာန် သကတ်လာန်''' (Scottish Parliament) ပ္ဍဲ အဳဒေန်ဘရာ ရ။
* '''ပါလဳမာန်:''' နွံကဵု အမာတ် ၁၂၉ တၠ တုဲ ဖျေဟ်သၞောဝ် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စတုလောက တအ် အလဵုဇကု ဂွံရ။
* '''ဗော်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်:''' ဗော် အဓိက ဂှ် ဒှ် ဗော် ကောန်ဂကူ သကတ် (Scottish National Party - SNP) မဒှ် ဗော် မဂစာန် သွက် ဗၠးၜး (Independence) ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ် ဗော် Labour ကဵု Conservative တအ်လေဝ် နွံရ။
* '''က္ဍိုပ်သ္ကိုပ်:''' ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် လပါ်သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် ကော်စ [[w:First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=How the Scottish Parliament works |url=https://www.parliament.scot/about/how-parliament-works |publisher=Scottish Parliament |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ တင်ပ္တိတ် (Economy and Exports) ==
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ သကတ်လာန်
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! ပွံက် အဓိပ္ပါယ်
|-
| '''ကၠေင်ဒါတ် ကေုာံ ဓါတ်ဂေတ်''' || ဒေသ ၜဳသၟဝ်ကျာ (North Sea) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ပတိတ် ကၠေင်ဒါတ် အဓိက သွက် အလုံ ယူကေ မွဲရ။
|-
| '''အရက် ဝဳသကဳ (Whisky)''' || [[w:Scotch whisky|Scotch Whisky]] ဂှ် ဒှ် ကုန်ပစ္စည်း ပ္တိတ် ဍုင်သအာင် မပြာကတ်အိုတ် ကေုာံ ကလိဂွံ သြန်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဘဏ္ဍာ (Financial Services)''' || ဍုင်အဳဒေန်ဘရာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဗဟဵု ပရေင်ဘဏ္ဍာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ၜါ ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ (ဆက်နူ လာန်ဒါန်)။
|-
| '''ဒြဟတ် တၟိ (Renewable Energy)''' || သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် သၠုင်လောန် ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ပတိတ် ဓါတ်လလဳ နူ ကျာ (Wind power) ကေုာံ လပှ်ၜဳရ။
|}
ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် ကြိုက်တန်ဒၟံင် ကဵု ဍုင်သိုက်လှိင်တအ်တုဲ၊ နွံကဵု ပရေင်ကမၠောန် နာနာသာ်ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Economy of Scotland |url=https://www.gov.scot/policies/economic-growth/ |publisher=Scottish Government |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၆။ လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဘာသာစကား (Demographics and Languages) ==
လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် နွံၜိုတ် ၅.၄ ပြကောဋိ ရ။ မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ လဒေါဝ် (Central Belt) မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင် ဂလာသဂိုဝ် ကဵု အဳဒေန်ဘရာ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာစကားမ္ဂး နွံ ၃ ဂကူ အဓိက-
၁။ '''အင်္ဂလိက် (Scottish English):''' မၞိဟ် ၉၉% ဟီုဂးစကာဒၟံင်ရ။ (ဆဂး နွံကဵု ရမ္သာင် Accent သကတ် မတၟေင်ရ)။
၂။ '''အရေဝ် သကတ် (Scots):''' ဒှ် အရေဝ် မကြပ် ကု အင်္ဂလိက်တုဲ မၞိဟ်ၜိုတ် ၃၀% ဟီုမာန်ရ။ (ဥပမာ "Auld Lang Syne")။
၃။ '''ဂေလဳ သကတ် (Scottish Gaelic):''' ဒှ် အရေဝ် တမ်မူလ ဂကူသကတ်တအ် ဇေတ်ဇေတ်၊ ဆဂး လၟုဟ် မၞိဟ်ဟီုဂး နွံ ဆ ၜိုတ် ၁% (ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ တကအ်လပါ်ပလိုတ်) ဟေင်ရ<ref>{{cite report |title=Scotland's Census 2011: Language |publisher=National Records of Scotland |year=2013 |url=https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/}}</ref>။
== ၇။ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အနုသုခုမ (Culture and Arts) ==
ယေန်သၞာင် သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် ပြာကတ် လ္တူ ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။
* '''ဗွိုက်လတက်:''' ကေဝ် (Kilt) မဒှ် ဂၠိက်ဂၞိန် သွက် မၞိဟ်တြိင် မတုတ်လဝ် နကဵု ယာတ် ဇာခတှ်ေ (Tartan) ဂှ် ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ကောန်ဂကူ ရ။ ဇၟာပ် ယာတ် Tartan မ္ဂး စၞောန်ထ္ၜး ကလောကောဒေအ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ (Clan) သကတ်တအ်ရ။
* '''စၞစ:''' [[w:Haggis|Haggis]] (ဟာဂိသ်) ဂှ် ဒှ် စၞကောန်ဂကူ မကၠောန်လဝ် နကဵု ကလီု၊ ဂြိုဟ် သဵု မပံင်စပ် ကဵု မသြောအ် ကေုာံ ကပေါတ်မြမောဝ် ရ။
* '''တူရိယာ:''' ဘက်ပါက် (Bagpipes) ဟီုဂှ် ဒှ် တူရိယာ ဗတိုက်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ တူရိယာ အခိုက်အလိုက် မနွံကဵု ရမ္သာင် မဇြိုဟ်နက်ရ။
* '''လိက်ပတ်:''' အစာကဗျ ကောန်ဂကူ [[w:Robert Burns|Robert Burns]] ဂှ် ပြာကတ်လောန်တုဲ၊ အစာချူလိက် ဗီုကဵု Sir Walter Scott ကေုာံ Arthur Conan Doyle (ညးမချူ Sherlock Holmes) တအ် လေဝ် ဒှ် ကောန်သကတ်လာန် ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Devine |first=T. M. |last2=Logue |first2=P. |year=2002 |title=Being Scottish: Personal Reflections on Scottish Identity Today |url=https://archive.org/details/beingscottishper0000unse |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1902930367}}</ref>။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံ (Education and Science) ==
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gXv79UjQ1E ပရူ သကတ်လာန် ကေုာံ အဳဒေန်ဘရာ ပ္ဍဲ YouTube]
သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် နွံကဵု သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ မခိုဟ် ကေုာံ တက္ကသိုလ် မတြေံအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ တက္ကသိုလ် St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, ကဵု Edinburgh တအ်ဂှ် ပတန်လဝ် စတမ်နူ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၅ တေအ်ရ။ (ကွးဘာ သကတ်တအ် တိုန် တက္ကသိုလ် ဟွံဒးကဵု င္ၚုဟ်ဘာ ရ)။
ပ္ဍဲလပါ် သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ အရာမဂၠာဲဆဵု (Inventions) မ္ဂး ဂကူသကတ်တအ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် အရာ အဓိက သွက် ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ-
* '''Alexander Graham Bell:''' ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် စက်ဖုင် (Telephone)။
* '''Alexander Fleming:''' ညးမဂၠာဲဆဵု ဂဥုဲ Penicillin (ပေန်နဳသဳလေန်) မဒှ် ဂဥုဲစဵုဒၞာ စၟယဲ။
* '''John Logie Baird:''' ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် တဳဗဳ (Television) ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်<ref>{{cite book |last=Herman |first=A. |year=2001 |title=How the Scots Invented the Modern World |url=https://archive.org/details/howscotsinvented00arth |publisher=Crown Publishing Group |isbn=978-0609809990}}</ref>။
== ၉။ ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒြဟတ် (Religion and Sports) ==
* '''ဘာသာ:''' ဘာသာ အဓိက ဂှ် ဒှ် ဘာသာ ခရေတ်ယာန် (Christianity) ရ။ ဘာကျာ် ဍုင် (National Church) ဂှ် ဒှ် [[w:Church of Scotland|Church of Scotland]] မဒှ် ဂိုဏ် Presbyterian ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ် ဘာသာ ကာတ္တလေတ် (Catholic) လေဝ် နွံဂၠိုင်ရ။
* '''ဝေင်ဒြဟတ်:''' သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် ဒှ် တမ်မူလ ဂေမ်း [[w:Golf|ဂေါ့ဖ် (Golf)]] ရ။ ဒၞာဲဝေင် St Andrews ဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နဒဒှ် "သ္ၚိ ဂေါ့ဖ်" ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ် ဇၟောဝ် ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒြဟတ် မပြာကတ်အိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ကောန်ဗဝ် (Football) ရ။ ဂကောံ မပြိုင်ပကာန် ရေင်သကအ် သၞာံ ဗွဲမလအ် ဗီုကဵု Celtic ကဵု Rangers (မကော်စ Old Firm) တအ်ဂှ် ပြာကတ် လ္တူ ဂၠးတိ ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Sports in Scotland |url=https://www.scotland.org/about-scotland/sports |publisher=Scotland.org |access-date=2026-06-23 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပါ်တိတ် ဍုင် (Future and Independence Movement) ==
ပြသၞာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ သကတ်လာန် လၟုဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ကိစ္စ ပါ်တိတ် ဒှ် ဍုင်ဗၠးၜး (Scottish Independence) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၄ ဂှ် ကၠောန်လဝ် ဆန္ဒခံယူပွဲ (Referendum) မွဲဝါတုဲ၊ မၞိဟ် ၅၅% စုတ်မာဲ "ဟွံပါ်တိတ်" (No) တုဲ မၞိဟ် ၄၅% စုတ်မာဲ "ပါ်တိတ်" (Yes) ရ။ ဆဂး ကြဴနူ ယူကေ တိတ်နူ ယူရဝ် (Brexit) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၆ တုဲ၊ သကတ်လာန် မၞိဟ်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် မိက်ဂွံ တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ယူရဝ် (EU) တုဲ၊ ပရေင်အာတ်မိက် သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင်ကၠောန် ဆန္ဒခံယူပွဲ ဒုတိယအလန် (IndyRef2) ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဇၞော်ကဵု ဇြဟတ် ရ။ အနာဂတ် သကတ်လာန် ဂှ် သ္ဒးဆက် သ္ၚေဝ်ရံင်အာ ဗီုလဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ပြံင်လှာဲရော ဂှ်ရ<ref>{{cite news |title=Scottish independence: A guide to the debate |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-50813510 |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် (References) ==
<references />
{{Navbox
|name = ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ
|title = ဍုင် ကေုာံ ဒေသဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ [[ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ]] (United Kingdom)
|listclass = hlist
|list1 =
* '''ဍုင် အဓိက (၄) ဍုင်:''' [[အင်္ဂလာန်]] (England)
* [[သကတ်လာန်]] (Scotland)
* [[ဍုင်ဝေလ်]] (Wales)
* [[အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ]] (Northern Ireland)
|list2 =
* '''ဍုင်ဇၞော်ဂမၠိုင်:''' [[လာန်ဒါန်]]
* [[အဳဒေန်ဘရာ]]
* [[ကာဒစ်]]
* [[ဗဲလ်ဖာသ်]]
|list3 =
* '''သင်္ကေတဂမၠိုင်:''' [[အလာံ ယူကေ]]
* [[တဆိပ် ဍုင်သကတ်လာန်]]
}}
[[Category:သကတ်လာန်]]
[[Category:ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ]]
[[Category:ဥရဝ်ပ]]
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{{Infobox United Nations
|name = {{native name|ar|مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة|italics=off}}<br />{{native name|zh|联合国安全理事会|italics=off}}<br />{{native name|fr|Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies}}<br />{{native name|ru|Совет Безопасности Организации Объединённых Наций|italics=off}}<br />{{native name|es|Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas}}<!-- only list the official UN languages http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/official-languages/ -->
|image = UN-Sicherheitsrat - UN Security Council - New York City - 2014 01 06.jpg|The security council room.
|caption = ဂၠံတိုက် ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ပ္ဍဲ နျူယံက်
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|title = '''၁၅ ဍုင်'''
|'''ကောန်ဂကောံ လၟိုန်:'''
|{{flag|China}}
|{{flag|France}}
|{{flag|Russia}}
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|{{flag|United States}}
|'''ကောန်ဂကောံ လၟိုန်ဟွံသေင်:'''
|{{flag|Belgium}}
|{{flag|Dominican Republic}}
|{{flag|Estonia}}
|{{flag|Germany}}
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|{{flag|Niger}}
|{{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
|{{flag|South Africa}}
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}}
|status = ဂျိုင်ချဳဒၟံင်
|established = ၁၉၄၅
|website = {{url|www.un.org/securitycouncil/|www.un.org}}
|parent =
|subsidiaries =
}}
{{Sidebar
| title = သၞောတ်လဒက်ပတန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ
|image= [[File:Emblem of the United Nations.svg|100px]]
| above = အဝဲလစှ်ေဂမၠိုင်
| heading1=[[ဌာန ညးအုပ်ကာနာနာ]]
| heading2=[[အသေမ်ဗလဳနာနာ]]
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| heading6=[[United Nations Trusteeship Council]]
}}
'''ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ''' ({{Lang-en|United Nations Security Council}}) ဂှ် ဒှ်အဝဲလစှ်ေ ကုလသမဂ္ဂမွဲ ပၞောဝ်ကဵု အဝဲလစှ်ေ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံတြဴဂှ်တုဲ<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/|title=Article 7 (1) of Charter of the United Nations|website=}}</ref> ကေတ်တာလျိုင် ကၠောန်သွက် ဂၠးကဝ် ဂွံၜိုဟ်လလံ ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု၊<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/|title=Article 24 (1) of Charter of the United Nations|website=}}</ref> မထံက်ဂလာန် အသေမ်ပလီနာနာ သွက်ဂွံဒုင်တဲ ကောန်ဂကောံတၟိ ပ္ဍဲကုလသမဂ္ဂ၊ <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/|title=Article 4 (2) of Charter of the United Nations|website=}}</ref> ကေုာံ ပဒတန် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပဋိညာဉ် (ဝါ) သၞောဝ်ဗီုဒက်ပ္တန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂတအ်ရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/|title=Article 108 of Charter of the United Nations|website=}}</ref> တုဲပၠန် နကဵုအဝဵု ကံင်သဳဝွံဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် ဒပ်ပၞာန်ပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ (peacekeeping operations) ကေုာံ ကၟာတ်လဒဵုသင်ရှေန်ဂၠးကဝ် (international sanctions)တအ်ကီု သီုကဵု ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပ္ဍဲအရာမချဳဓရာင် နကဵုပၞာန် နူကုလသမဂ္ဂရ။ တုဲပၠန် ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဂှ် ပၞောဝ်ကဵု အဝဲလစှ်ေ ကုလသမဂ္ဂသီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် အဝဲလစှ်ေဝွံဟေင် ကလိဂွံလဝ် အဝဵု သွက်ဂွံပတိတ် သွဟ်မသ္ဒးဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက်ဟေင် (binding resolutions) ကု ဍုင်ကောန်ဂကောံတအ်ရ။ ကံင်သဳဝွံ စကောံဓရီုအလန်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ၁၇ ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၁၉၄၆ ရ။
ညံင်ရဴ အလုံမွဲခန္ဓ ကုလသမဂ္ဂကီု အဝဲလစှ်ေ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဝွံ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိဒုတိယ တၞဟ်နဂွံထိင်ဒဝ် ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်လလံ ဂၠးတိရ။ နူစ ဒက်ပတန် ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုတုဲ ပ္ဍဲဗွဝ်စှ် လပါ်စဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ကောန်ဂကောံတအ် လညာတ်တၞဟ်ခြာဒၟံင် ၜါလဝး မကော်ဂး ပၞာန်လၜိုဟ် အကြာ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ် ကေုာံ မဟာမိတ်ညးတအ်ရ။ အဝဵုသြဇာ ညးဒြဟတ်ဇၞော်ၜါဂှ် အာဓလီုဗဂေတ်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပၞာန်ဒေသ မပတံကဵု ပၞာန်ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာ၊ ပြသၞာကောန်ဂဝ် (Congo Crisis) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ပၟင်ပၟဲဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်လလံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပြသၞာသုဇ် (Suez Crisis) ပြသၞာသာဲဗရုသ် (Cyprus) ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ နျူဂူနဴပလိုတ် (West New Guinea)တအ်တုဲ ပရေင်ပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ နူကုလသမဂ္ဂ ကၠောန်ဟွံဂွံ ခိုဟ်ဟ်ရ။ ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ် ထရိုဟ်ထကးအာတုဲ ဒပ်ပၟင်ပၟဲဗၜိုဟ်လလံ နူကုလသမဂ္ဂ စကၠောန်ဂွံကၠုင်တုဲ ပလံင် ဒပ်ပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကူဝိတ် (Kuwait)၊ ပ္ဍဲ နမဳဗဳယျာ (Namibia)၊ ကာမ္ဗောဒဳယျာ၊ ဗဝ်သနဳယျာ၊ ရဝါန္တာ၊ သဝ်မလဳယျာ၊ သုဒါန် ကေုာံ ကောန်ဂဝ် မာန်ကၠုင်ရ။
ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဂှ် ဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် နကဵု ကောန်ဂကောံ စှ်သုန်တၠ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/|title=Article 23 (1) of the Charter of the United Nations|last=|first=|date=26 June 1945|website=www.un.org|publisher=[[United Nations]]|language=en|access-date=10 December 2018}}</ref>ကောန်ဂကောံ မကလိဂွံလဝ် မဟာအဝဵုဂှ် ဒှ်ဍုင်မဟာမိတ် မဇၞးပၞာန် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိဒုတိယ မသုန်ဍုင် ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ်၊ (လၟုဟ် ဍုင်ရုရှာ)၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်/ဗြိတိန်၊ ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ်၊ ဍုင်ကြုက် ကေုာံ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်တအ်ရ။ ဍုင် မသုန်ဍုင်ဝွံ ဒှ်ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန်တုဲ သီုကလိဂွံလဝ် အဝဵုဝေတဝ် (veto) တုဲ သွဟ်နူ ကုလသမဂ္ဂသီုဖအိုတ် ယဝ်ရ ဍုင်မသုန်ဍုင်ဏအ် ဟွံထံက်ဂလာန်မ္ဂး ဆက်ကၠောန်ဂတဂှ် ဟွံဂွံရ။ သွက်ဂွံဒုင်တဲ ကောန်ဂကောံတၟိ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂကီု၊ သွက်ဂွံ ရုဲစှ် ညးအုပ်ကာနာနာကီု နူကဵု ဂကောံဍုင်မသုန်ဍုင်ဏအ် ဒးတုပ်စိုတ် ထံက်ဂလာန်ဟေင် ဂွံဒှ်မာန်ရ။ ပါဲနူ ညးမသုန်ဍုင် မဂွံလဝ် မဟာအဝဵုဝွံတုဲ ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန်ဟွံသေင် ၁၀ ဍုင်ပၠန်ဂှ် ရုဲစှ်ပတိုန် နူကဵု ဒေသဂမၠိုင်တုဲ ညးစၞးမွဲမွဲမ္ဂး နွံအာယုက် လုကဴ ၜါသၞာံရ။ လျိုင် ဥက္ကဌ ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဂှ် ရုဲစှ်ပတိုန် လၟေင်ဂိတု အတိုင်လၟေင် အက္ခရ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောန်ဂကောံတအ်ရ။
သွဟ် နူကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုတအ်ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်မ္ဂး ဆေင်စပ် ကုပရေင် ဒပ်ပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ၊ ဒပ်ပၞာန်မပါလုပ် နူကဵု ဍုင်ကောန်ဂကောံတအ်တုဲ ခရိတ်ဘဏ္ဍာဂှ် စကာ နူကဵု သြန်ဗာတ်ဂျေတ် ကုလသမဂ္ဂရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၆ ဂှ် ကောန်ပၞာန်ပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ နွံ 103,510 တၠ ကေုာံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် နွံ 16,471 ယိုက်ဂၠေင်လဝ် ဒၞာဲဒေသပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ ၁၆ ဒၞာဲ ကေုာံ ဒပ်ဗၠာဲသၟိင် ဗွဲတၟေင် မွဲဒၞာဲရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/factsheet.shtml |title=Peacekeeping Fact Sheet |date=30 April 2016 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=20 June 2016 }}</ref>
== ဝင် ==
=== ဒဒှ်လက္ကရဴ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် ===
ပ္ဍဲဗွဝ်ကၠံ ကိုပ်ကၠာနူ ဟွံဂွံဒက်ပတန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂဏီ၊ တၞဟ်န မဂွံဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် ပြသၞာ အကြာဍုင်မွဲကုမွဲတုဲ ဂကောံ မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵုလိက်ကသုက် ကေုာံ ကောန်ဖရေန် ဂၠးကဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ်ရ။ ဥပမာ ဗီုကဵု ဂကောံခရက်ဗကေတ် ကေုာံ တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် တာမ်ဟာက် ၁၈၉၉ ကေုာံ ၁၉၀၇ တအ် ဒှ်တမ်ရ။{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=5}} ကြဴနူ ပရေင်မဒးဆောံလေင် လမျီု ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵု ဒြဟတ် ပ္ဍဲပၞာန်ဂၠးတိပထမတုဲဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ကောန်ဖရေန် ၜိုဟ်လလံ ပ္ဍဲပဴရေတ်တုဲ ဒက်ပတန်ပတိုန် ဂကောံပံင်ကောံဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံမင်မဲ ပရေင်ဆာန်သၟိန် အကြာဍုင်မွဲကုမွဲရ။{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=8}} ဂကောံဏအ်ဂှ် ဗွဲမအံင်ဇၞး ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသလ္ၚဵုလ္ၚဵုတုဲ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်ပတိုန် ပရေင်ဆက်စၠောအ် ဂၠးကဝ် မပတံကဵု ပရေင်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ်လိက်၊ ဆက်စၠောအ် က္ၜင်ကျာ ကေုာံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ဂဥုဲၜူမာဲ ဗီုကဵု ဘိင်တအ် မာန်ကၠုင်ရ။ ကမၠောန်လ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် နကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဆက်ယိုက်ဂၠေင်အာလေဝ် နွံကီုရ။ {{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=10}} ဆဂး ဂကောံပံင်ကောံဝွံ သွက်မၞိဟ် သၟဝ်ကဝ်လဝ်နဳတအ်ဂှ် ဖန်ဗစိုပ်ကဵု ဟွံမာန်ရ။ (လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်ဂၠးတိ ကဝက်ဂၠးတိ) ပ္ဍဲဂကောံဂှ် ဍုင်ဒြဟတ်ဇၞော် မပ္တံကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ်၊ ဂျာမနဳ ကေုာံ ဂိပါန် နအ်ဟေင် ဒှ်ဂုဏ်ဖိုလ်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ကာလဂျပါန် မလုပ်သီ မာန်ချူရဳယျာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၃၁ ဂှ်ကီု၊ ကာလ အဳတလဳ လုပ်သီ အတဳအဝ်ဗဳယာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၃၅ ဂှ်ကီု၊ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၃၇ ကာလဂျပါန် မလုပ်သီ ဍုင်ကြုက်ဂှ်ကီု၊ ဂကောံပံင်ကောံဝွံ မုပဟွံမာန်တုဲ ကာလနာဇြဳဟေတ္တလာ ဂျာမနဳ မဗက်သီ ဍုင်ဝုတ်ဒိုဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဗဒှ်ကဵု ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိအလန်ဒုတိယ ရ။{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=13–24}}
[[File:Cairo conference.jpg|thumb|[[Chiang Kai-shek]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[Winston Churchill]] met at the [[Cairo Conference (1943)|Cairo Conference]] in 1943 during [[World War II]].]]
[[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg|thumb|British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]], US President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and Soviet general secretary [[Joseph Stalin]] at the [[Yalta Conference]], February 1945]]
အစဳအဇန် မဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံဂၠးကဝ်တၟိမွဲဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု သဘင်ကောံဓရီု မကၠောန်ဗဒှ် နကဵု ဌာနတွဵုရးဂမၠိုင် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် မပ ကမ္မကထ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၃၉ တေအ်ရ။{{sfn|Hoopes|Brinkley|2000|pp=1–55}} သမတအမေရိကာန် ဖြာန်ကလိန် ရူသေဝေလ်တ် (Franklin D. Roosevelt) ဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် မစကာ ယၟုမ္ဂး ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် နဒဒှ် မကော် ဂကောံဍုင်မဟာမိတ်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကာလ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိဒုတိယဂှ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တ္ၚဲသၞာံတၟိ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၂ ဂှ် သမတ ရူသေဝေလ်တ်၊ ဝန်ဇၞော်ဍုင်ဗြိတိန် ချာချိလ်၊ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ် မက်ဇြာံ လိတ်ဝိနောဝ် (Maxim Litvinov) ညးဇၞော် နူဍုင်ကြုက် သံင် (T. V. Soong) တအ် ထ္ပက်စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ပ္ဍဲလိက်လလောင်တြးဇမၠေအ်မွဲ ဗွဲကြဴလိက်လလောင်တြးဂှ် ညးကော်စ လိက်လလောင်တြး ကုလသမဂ္ဂရ။ တ္ၚဲယးဂတဂှ် မၞိဟ်စၞး နူကဵု ၜါစှ်ောၜါဍုင် ထပ်စုတ် စၟတ်တဲညးတအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/declaration.shtml |title=Declaration by United Nations |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=1 July 2015}}</ref> ယၟုမ္ဂး ကုလသမဂ္ဂဂှ် စကာကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲသၞောဝ်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ သၟိင်ဍုင် ၂၆ ဍုင် မထပက်စၟတ်တဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်လလောင်တြးဂှ်ရ။ စနူ ၁ မေ ၁၉၄၅ ဂှ် ဍုင် ၂၁ ဍုင် ထပ်ထပက်စၟတ်တဲရ။{{sfn|Osmańczyk|2004|p=2445}} ဍုင်အဝဵုသြဇာဇၞော်ပန်ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်မဟာမိတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်/ဗြိတိန်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ကြုက်တအ်ဂှ် ဂွံကော်စ "သၟိင်ဇၞော်ပန်" ရ။<ref name="sheriff">{{cite book |last=Urquhart |first=Brian |authorlink=Brian Urquhart |title=Looking for the Sheriff |publisher=New York Review of Books, 16 July 1998 |url= https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1998/07/16/looking-for-the-sheriff/ |accessdate=2019-06-07}}</ref> တုဲပၠန် ဍုင် သၟိင်ဇၞော်ပန်ဝွံ ဂွံဒှ်ဍုင် မကလိဂွံအဝဵု ကၞောတ်အထောတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုရ။{{sfn|Gaddis|2000}}
ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ်-၁၉၄၄ ညးစၞး နူကဵု သၟိင်ဇၞော်ပန် - ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ ဍုင်ကြုက် ဆဵုရေင်သကအ် ပ္ဍဲကောန်ဖရေန် ဒုမ်ဗါတောန် အံက် (Dumbarton Oaks Conference) ပ္ဍဲဝတ်ရှေန်တာန် ဒဳဇြဳ သွက်ဂွံ ပညဳပညပ် ဗီုဂွံဒက်ပတန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဂှ်<ref>{{cite video |year=1944 |title=Video: Allies Study Post-War Security Etc. (1944) |url= https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39024 |publisher=[[Universal Newsreel]] |accessdate=28 November 2014}}</ref> ကိစ္စဗီုလဵု ဂွံဒက်ပတန် ဖျေဟ်ဗီုပြင် ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ကုလသမဂ္ဂဂှ် ဗွဲမပြဟ် ဒှ်ကၠုင် ဂလာန်သၟာန် ကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောံဓရီုဂှ်ရ။ ပြင်သေတ်၊ ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်ဂှ် ဂွံဒုင်ရုဲစှ် နဒဒှ် ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန် ပ္ဍဲကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု၊ အမေရိကာန် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး သွက်ဂွံထပ်စုတ် ဍုင်ဗြာဇြဳလ် မွဲဍုင်ကီုရ။ ဆဂး လညာတ်ဂှ် သဵုဗိယေတ် ကဵု ဗြိတိန် တးပါဲတုဲ ဟွံဒှ်ဒတန်။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|p=9}} တုဲပၠန် ပ္ဍဲကောန်ဖရေန်ဂှ် အရာမဒးသဳကၠဳဂၠိုင်အိုတ် သဳကၠဳဝါတ်အိုတ်ဂှ် စပ်ကဵု ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန်တအ် မကလိဂွံ အခေါင် သွက်ဂွံစကာ အဝဵုဝေတဝ် ရ။ နကဵု သဵုဗိယေတ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး ဇၟာပ်ဍုင်ဂှ် သ္ဒးကလိဂွံ အခေါင် အဝဵုကၞောတ်အထောတ်ဝေတဝ်တုဲ ကၟာတ်လဒဵုထောအ် တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ဂမၠိုင်မာန်ရ။ နကဵု ဗြိတိန် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး ဍုင်တအ်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကိစ္စဇကုမပါလုပ်ဒၟံင်တအ်ဂှ် အခေါင်စကာ အဝဵုဝေတဝ် ဟွံဂွံရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောန်ဖရေန် ယာလ်တ (Yalta Conference) မကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပ္ဍဲဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၁၉၄၅ ဂှ် အမေရိကာန်၊ ဗြိတိန်၊ ရုရှာ တုပ်စိုတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဇၟာပ်ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန်မသုန်ဂှ် သ္ဒးကလိဂွံ အဝဵုဝေတဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ကမၠောန်ကံင်သဳ သီုဖအိုတ်ရ၊ ဆဂး လတူ တင်သွဟ် မဖျေဟ်ဗွဲလၟေင်ကမၠောန် (သွဟ်နူကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဓမ္မတာ)တအ်ဂှ် နကဵု သၟိင်ဇၞော်မသုန် စကာအဝဵုဝေတဝ် ဟွံဂွံရ။ ဟီုမွဲနဲပၠန်မ္ဂး တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဓမ္မတာတအ်ဂှ် နကဵု ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိန်မသုန်ဍုင်တအ် လုပ်ပထုဲ ဟွံဂွံရ။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|pp=10–13}}
ပ္ဍဲ ၂၅ ဨပြဳ ၁၉၄၅ ဂှ် ကောန်ဖရေန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ သွက်ဂွံဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံဂၠးကဝ်မွဲ စကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သင်ဖြာန်သဳသကဝ်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်စၞး နူကဵု သၟိင်ဍုင် ၅၀ ဍုင် ကဵု မၞိဟ်စၞး ဂကောံသက္ကုသၟိင်ဍုင် (အေန်ဂျဳအဝ်) မွဲတၠ တိုန်စိုပ်တုဲ ဓဇက်ချူ ပဋိညာဉ် (ဝါ) သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဗီုဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂရ။<ref name=unmilestones>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/milestones.htm |title=Milestones in United Nations History |publisher=Department of Public Information, United Nations |accessdate=22 November 2013}}</ref> ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောန်ဖရေန်ဂှ် ညးစၞး နူကဵု အဝ်သတေလျာ ပတိုန်ဂလာန် သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် စပ်ကဵု အဝဵုဝေတဝ် မကဵုလဝ် ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဂှ်ရ။{{sfn|Schlesinger|2003|p=196}} ဆဂး တင်ပတိုန်ထ္ၜးညးတေအ်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင်တးပါဲထောအ် နကဵုမမာဲ ၜါစှ်ော ကဵု စှ်ရ။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|pp=18–19}}
ကုလသမဂ္ဂဂှ် မံက်ဂတဝ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵုသၞောဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ၂၄ အံက်တဝ်ပါ ၁၉၄၅ ကြဴနူ ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိုန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု မစၟဳစၟတ် တင်ပဋိညာဉ်ဂမၠိုင်တုဲဒှ် ကေုာံ နကဵုမၞိဟ်လပါ်ဂၠိုင် ၄၆ တၠ ထ္ပက်စၟတ်တဲရ။<ref name=unmilestones /> ပ္ဍဲ ၁၇ ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၁၉၄၆ ဂှ် ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ပကောံဓရီု အလန်ကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ချာတ်ဟု၊ ဝေတ်မိန်သတာ (Church House, Westminster) လာန်ဒါန်၊ ဍုင်အေန်ဂလာန်ရ။<ref name=about>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/sc/about/ |title=What is the Security Council? |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=24 November 2013}}</ref>
=== ပၞာန်လၜိုဟ် ===
[[File:Church House Westminster London 2016 (02).jpg|thumb|[[Church House, Westminster|Church House]] in London where the first Security Council Meeting took place on 17 January 1946]]
ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဂှ် ပ္ဍဲဗွဝ်စှ် လပါ်စဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပၞာန်လၜိုဟ် အကြာ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ်တုဲ ကၠောန်ကမၠောန်ဟွံဂွံ ပရေင်ဗက်မုက် မၞိဟ်ညး မၞိဟ်အဲကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်တုဲ နကဵုကံင်သဳဂှ် ကၠောန်ဂွံ ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ကမၠောန် ဟွံဆက်စပ် ကုပၞာန်လၜိုဟ်ဂှ်ဟေင်ရ။ {{sfn|Meisler|1995|p=35}} (နကဵု ဥပမာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၅၀ နကဵုကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် စပ်ကဵု ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာသၟဝ်ကျာ လုပ်သီ ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာသၠုင်ဂှ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ် တးပါဲထောအ်ရ။<ref name=unmilestones />{{sfn|Meisler|1995|pp=58–59}} ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၅၆ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဒက်ပတန် ဒပ်ပၞာန်ပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ သွက်ပြသၞာသုဇ်<ref name=unmilestones /> ဆဂး နကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ပဒေါအ်ကဵု ညံင် ကၟိန်ဍုင်သဵုဗိယေတ် ဟွံဂွံ လုပ်ပထုဲသီ ဟင်ဂေရဳရ။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|p=114}} ပၞာန်လၜိုဟ်ဂှ် သီုဖန်ကဵု ညံင် ကမ္မတဳဒုင်ကာပၞာန် (Military Staff Committee) မဒက်ပတန် နကဵုပဋိညာဉ် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၄၅-၄၇ မဆေင် ကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ဒက်ပတန် ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ ဖျေဟ်ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်သအာင်ရ။ ကမ္မတဳဂှ် နွံဒၟံင် ဆပ္ဍဲစက္ခောတုဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵုအခိင်လဒေါဝ် ၁၉၅၀တအ်ဂှ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန်ဂှ် ဗၟံက်ရုပ်ရဴဟွံဂွံရ။{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|pp=38, 55–56}}<ref name=Chapter7>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter7.shtml |title=Charter of the United Nations: Chapter VII: Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၆၀ နကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ရပ်စပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဍုင်ကောန်ဂဝ် မကော်ဂး (United Nations Operation in the Congo (UNOC))ဂှ် ဒှ်ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုအခိင် ဗွဝ်စှ်ကိုပ်ကၠာဂှ်ရ။ ဒပ်ပၞာန်ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင်ဒက်ပတန် တွဵုရးကတန်ဂါ ညံင်ဂွံကလေင်ပံင်ကောံ ကေုာံ ညံင်ဂွံ ကလေင်ဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ မင်မဲ ဍုင်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳကောန်ဂဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၆၄ ရ။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|pp=115–134}} ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဂှ် အကြာဍုင်ဒြဟတ်ဂမၠိုင်တအ်ဂှ် ပညဳပညပ် ရေင်သကအ်တုဲ ရေင်တၠုင်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကိစ္စ မပ္တံကဵု ပြသၞာမိစ်သာလ်ဂျူပါ (Cuban missile crisis) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပၞာန်ဗဳယေတ်နာမ်တအ်ဂှ် (Vietnam War)တအ် နွံကီုရ။{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|pp=61–62}} နကဵု ကံင်သဳဂှ် စွံအာရီု ကၠောန်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲပြသၞာဍောတ်တ် မဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု ပၞာန်လၜိုဟ်တအ်ရ။ နကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ရေင်တၠုင်လဝ် ဂကောံသၟိင်တၠယာယဳ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (United Nations Temporary Executive Authority) ပ္ဍဲကဵု နျူဂဴနေယ်ပလိုတ် (West New Guinea) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂ ကေုာံ ဒပ်ပၞာန်ပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (United Nations Peacekeeping Force) ပ္ဍဲသာဲပြုသ် (Cyprus) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၆၄၊ ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲဂှ် ဒှ်အာ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ဒပ်ကုလသမဂ္ဂ မဖျေဟ်လဝ် အခိင်လအ်အိုတ်ရ။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|pp=156–157}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=59}}
ပ္ဍဲ ၂၅ အံက်တဝ်ပါ ၁၉၇၁ On 25 October 1971, over US opposition but with the support of many [[Third World]], alongside with [[Socialist People's Republic of Albania|People's Albania]] nations, the mainland, communist [[China|People's Republic of China]] was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of [[Taiwan]]; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization.{{sfn|Meisler|1995|pp=195–197}} ပၞာန်မကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် မပ္တံကဵု ပၞာန်တြဴတ္ၚဲ ပ္ဍဲလဒေါဝ်ဗမံက် အကြာဍုင်အာရာပ်ဂမၠိုင် ကဵု အေဿရေ၊ ပၞာန်ဝဳယေတ်နာမ် ကေုာံ ပၞာန်အကြာအန္ဒိယ ပါကာတ်သတာန် ကိစ္စ ကရှမဳရ်တအ်ဂှ် နကဵုကုလသမဂ္ဂ လုပ်ပသောင် လုပ်ရပ်စမ်ဟွံမာန်ကၠုင်လဝ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ နကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ စၞးမစွံအာရီု ပ္ဍဲပၞာန်မကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိတအ်ဂှ် အရာဇကု မကၠောန်ဂွံ ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်ဂှ် စွံကၠုင်အာရီုရ။ ၜိုတ်သၞာံ ၁၉၇၀တအ်ဂှ် သြန်ဗာတ်ဂျေတ်ဘဏ္ဍာ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ စကာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကမၠောန်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်ဂှ် စကာဂၠိုင် နူ ပ္ဍဲအရာပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံဏီရ။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|pp=167–168, 224–225}}
=== ကြဴနူ-ပၞာန်လၜိုဟ် ===
ပၞာန်လၜိုဟ် တုဲအာတုဲ နကဵုကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဂလိုင်ပတိုန် ပရေင်ကမၠောန်ဇကု ပ္ဍဲကိစ္စၜိုဟ်လလံတုဲ ရပ်စပ်ကၠုင် ကိစ္စပၞာန်ဂမၠိုင် မွဲသၞာံကဵုမွဲ ဂၠိုင်တိုန်ဒၟံင်ရ။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|p=286}} အကြာ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၈ ကဵု ၂၀၀၀ ဂှ် သွဟ် မပဒတန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဂှ် ဂၠိုင်နူ ကိုပ်တေအ် ၜါဆ၊ တုဲပၠန် စကာသြန်ဗာတ်ဂျေတ် ပ္ဍဲကမၠောန်ပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ ဂၠိုင်နူကၠာတေအ် စှ်ဆပြင်ရ။<ref>{{harvnb|Fasulo|2004|p=43}}; {{harvnb|Meisler|1995|p=334}}.</ref> နကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ပသောင်ပတုဲကဵု ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုင်သာလ်ဝဒဝ် (Salvadoran Civil War)၊ ရေင်တၠုင် ပရေင်ကမၠောန်ပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ ပ္ဍဲနမိဗဳယျာ (peacekeeping mission in Namibia) မာန်ကၠုင်၊ ပသောင်ပြသၞာ မပါ်ကဆံင်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ အာဖရိသၠုင်ကျာ မာန်တုဲ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် သဘင်ရုဲမာဲ အတိုင်သၞောတ်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မာန်ကၠုင်၊ ကိစ္စခမာရုတ် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ကမ္ဘောဒဳယာဂှ်လေဝ် လုပ်ပသောင်မာန်ကၠုင်ကီုရ။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|pp=252–256}} ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၉၁ ဂှ် နကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု လုပ်ရပ်စပ် ကိစ္စအဳရာတ် မလုပ်သီ ကူဝိက်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵုတ္ၚဲဂှ်ဟေင် နကဵုကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်၊ ပၞာန်အမေရိကာန် အာဗတိုက်အဳရာတ်တုဲ ထဍေင်ပ္တိတ် အဳရာတ် နူကဵုကူဝိတ်မာန်ကၠုင်ရ။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|pp=264–277}} ပ္ဍဲကဵု လက်ထက် ညးအုပ်ကာနာနာ ဗြဳယာန် ယူရ်ကူဟာတ် (Brian Urquhart)ဂှ် ဗွဲကြဴ မဒးဒုင်ကော်စ ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး နဒဒှ် "ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မသ္ၚောံဗြမ် (false renaissance)" ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံတုဲ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ၜိုတ်မအံင်ဇၞး ဟွံအံင်ဇၞးတုဲ လလေင်ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ်လဝ်ရ။{{sfn|Meisler|1995|p=334}}
ၜိုန်ရ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပဋိညာဉ် ကုလသမဂ္ဂဂှ် ချူလဝ် သွက်ဂွံဆဵုဒၞာ ပရေင်ပမာန်ဍဵုဍိုက် လတူဍုင်မွဲ ကုမွဲကီုလေဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၉၀တအ် လပါ်စဂှ် နကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဒးဒုင်ဆဵုဗဂ မြဴသာ်ဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ ပြသၞာဇၞော်ဇၞော် အကြာဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် မပတံကဵု ဍုင်ဟာဲတိ (Haiti) ဍုင်မဝ်ဇြမ်ဗိက် (Mozambique) ကေုာံ ဍုင်ယူဂဝ်သလာပဳယျာ တြေံဂှ်တအ်ရ။{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|pp=66–67}} ဒပ်ပၞာန်စဵုဒၞာ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (United Nations Protection Force) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗဝ်သနဳယျာဂှ် ဒးဗျုတ်ပဒေက် ပစရဵု ကုဍုင်လိုက်ဂမၠိုင် ဟိုတ်နူ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ဟွံပိုတ်သကုတ် ကေုာံ ရပ်စပ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် စဵုဒၞာ ဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူ ဒှ်ဒၟံင် ဓံင်ဓံင်ညံင်င်ဂှ်ရ။<ref>For quotation "worldwide ridicule", see {{harvnb|Meisler|1995|p=293}}; for description of UN missions in Bosnia, see {{harvnb|Meisler|1995|pp=312–329}}.</ref> ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၉၄ ဂှ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ မလုပ်ပသောင် ကိစ္စရဝါန်ဒါဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ လဇုဲလဇတုဲ ဒှ်အာ ပေါဲဂမ္စိုတ်ကမၠက်ဂကူရ။{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=104}}
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၀တအ် လပါ်အိုတ်ဂှ် နကဵုကုလသမဂ္ဂ လုပ်ပသောင် ပြသၞာဂၠးကဝ် နကဵုဗီုပြင် ဗွဲမလှဲလးရ။ ကမၠောန် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ပ္ဍဲအကြာသၞာံ ၁၉၉၁ - ၂၀၀၂ ဂှ် လုပ်ပသောင်လဝ် ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုင် Sierra Leone Civil War နကဵု အရီုအဗင် နူကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန်ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန် (British Royal Marines) ကေုာံ လုပ်သီဍုင်အာဖဂါန်နေတ်သတာန် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၁ နကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန်နေတဝ်တအ်ရ။{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|pp=110–111}} ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၃ ဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ နကဵုတင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဂှ် ဟွံကလိဂွံကီုလေဝ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် လုပ်သီ ဍုင်အဳရာတ်တုဲ ဂလာန်သၟာန် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ဗီုကဵု အခိင်ပၞာန်လၜိုဟ်တေအ် ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ကၠောန်ကမၠောန်ဟွံဂွံဂှ် ကလေင်ဒှ်ကၠုင် မွဲအလန်ပၠန်ဟာရ။{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=111}} ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်စှ်တုပ်ပ်ဂှ် ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု လုပ်ပသောင် နကဵု ဒပ်ပၟင်ပၟဲၜိုဟ်လလံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပြသၞာ မပတံကဵု ပၞာန်ပ္ဍဲဒါရ်ဖုရ် (War in Darfur) ပ္ဍဲသုဒါန် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာကဳဝူ (Kivu conflict) ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ကောန်ဂဝ်တအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၃ နကဵုကုလသမဂ္ဂ ရပ်စပ် ကိစ္စ ပၞာန်ဍုင်သဳရိလင်္ကာ မဗတိုက်ဖအး သပုန်တမေလ် မဆေင်ကဵု ရာဇာဝတ်ပၞာန် ရ။<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.firstpost.com/world/un-failed-during-final-days-of-lankan-ethnic-war-ban-ki-moon-1133061.html |title=UN failed during final days of Lankan ethnic war: Ban Ki-moon |agency=Press Trust of India |date=25 September 2013 |work=FirstPost |accessdate=5 November 2013}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲနဝ်ဝေမ်ပါ/ဒဳဇြေန်ပါ ၂၀၁၄ အဳဂျေပ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်ဖလှဲပတိုန် လိက်ကသုက်သက္ကုအနုလက်ကၠိုက် (non-Proliferation Treaty) မကော်ဂး ဗွဲခမၞန် NPT နမပၠုပ်စုတ် ဍုင်အေဿရေ ကေုာံ အဳရာန် ရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜးဂှ် ရံင်ကဵု ပၞာန်ပ္ဍဲသဳရဳယာတုဲ ညံင်ပရေင်သရိုဟ်လီု ဟွံကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသလဒေါဝ်ဗမံက်ရ။ ဟီုကၠးကၠးမ္ဂး ကုဍုင် မထပက်လဝ် စၟတ်တဲ ပ္ဍဲလိက်ကသုက်သက္ကုအနုလက်ကၠိုက်တအ်ဂှ် အခေါင်ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်ပတိုန် လွဟ်နျူကလဳယျာ ဟွံမဲရ။ တင်ပတိုန်ထ္ၜးဂှ် ကောန်ဂကောံ ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု သီုဖအိုတ်ကီု၊ ဍုင်မပိုင်ပြဳလဝ် လွဟ်နျူကလဳယျာသီုဖအိုတ်ကီု တုပ်စိုတ်အိုတ်ရ။.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/disarmament/WMD/Nuclear/NPTtext.shtml|title=UNODA – Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>
== တာလျိုင် ကေုာံ သြဇာ ==
The UN's role in international [[collective security]] is defined by the UN Charter, which authorizes the Security Council to investigate any situation threatening international peace; recommend procedures for peaceful resolution of a dispute; call upon other member nations to completely or partially interrupt economic relations as well as sea, air, postal, and radio communications, or to sever diplomatic relations; and enforce its decisions militarily, or by any means necessary. The Security Council also recommends the new Secretary-General to the General Assembly and recommends new states for admission as [[member states of the United Nations]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter2.shtml |title=Charter of the United Nations: Chapter II: Membership |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter5.shtml |title=Charter of the United Nations: Chapter V: The Security Council |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref> The Security Council has traditionally interpreted its mandate as covering only military security, though US Ambassador [[Richard Holbrooke]] controversially persuaded the body to pass a resolution on [[HIV/AIDS in Africa]] in 2000.{{sfn|Fasulo|2004|p=46}}
Under [[Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter|Chapter VI]] of the Charter, "Pacific Settlement of Disputes", the Security Council "may investigate any dispute, or any situation which might lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute". The Council may "recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment" if it determines that the situation might endanger international peace and security.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter6.shtml |title=Charter of the United Nations: Chapter VI: Pacific Settlement of Disputes |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref> These recommendations are generally considered to not be binding, as they lack an enforcement mechanism.<ref>See {{harvnb|Fomerand|2009|p=287}}; {{harvnb|Hillier|1998|p=568}}; {{harvnb|Köchler|2001|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Matthews|1993|p=130}}; {{harvnb|Neuhold|2001|p=66}}. For lack of enforcement mechanism, see {{harvnb|Magliveras|1999|p=113}}.</ref> A minority of scholars, such as [[Stephen Zunes]], have argued that resolutions made under Chapter VI are "still directives by the Security Council and differ only in that they do not have the same stringent enforcement options, such as the use of military force".{{sfn|Zunes|2004|p=291}}
Under [[Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter|Chapter VII]], the Council has broader power to decide what measures are to be taken in situations involving "threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, or acts of aggression".<ref name=Chapter7/> In such situations, the Council is not limited to recommendations but may take action, including the use of armed force "to maintain or restore international peace and security".<ref name=Chapter7/> This was the legal basis for UN armed action in Korea in 1950 during the Korean War and the use of coalition forces in Iraq and Kuwait in 1991 and Libya in 2011.{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|pp=56–57}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2011/sc10200.doc.htm |title=Security Council Approves 'No-Fly Zone' Over Libya, Authorizing 'All Necessary Measures' to Protect Civilians, by Vote of 10 in Favour with 5 Abasentions |date=17 March 2011 |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref> Decisions taken under Chapter VII, such as [[economic sanctions]], are binding on UN members; the Security Council is the only UN body with the authority to issue binding resolutions.{{sfn|Fomerand|2009|p=287}}{{sfn|Fasulo|2004|p=39}}
The [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|Rome Statute]] of the [[International Criminal Court]] recognizes that the Security Council has authority to refer cases to the Court in which the Court could not otherwise exercise jurisdiction.<ref>[http://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm Article 13] of the Rome Statute. United Nations. Retrieved 26 November 2013.</ref> The Council exercised this power for the first time in March 2005, when it referred to the Court "the situation prevailing in [[Darfur]] since 1 July 2002"; since Sudan is not a party to the Rome Statute, the Court could not otherwise have exercised jurisdiction.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=United Nations Security Council |date=31 March 2006 |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sc8351.doc.htm |title=Security Council Refers Situation in Darfur, Sudan, To Prosecutor of International Criminal Court |accessdate=14 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/World/Bush-relents-to-allow-UN-vote-on-Sudan-war-crimes/2005/04/01/1112302241979.html |title=Bush relents to allow UN vote on Sudan war crimes |author=Wadhams, Nick |date=2 April 2005 |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |accessdate=27 November 2013}}</ref> The Security Council made its second such referral in February 2011 when it asked the ICC to investigate the Libyan government's violent response to the [[2011 Libyan Civil War|Libyan Civil War]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/02/27/us-libya-icc-idUSTRE71Q1DB20110227 |title=Q+A: How will the world's war crimes court act on Libya? |author=Gray-Block, Aaron and Greg Roumeliotis |date=27 February 2011 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=26 November 2013 |archivedate=2 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202230947/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/02/27/us-libya-icc-idUSTRE71Q1DB20110227 }}</ref>
[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1674|Security Council Resolution 1674]], adopted on 28 April 2006, "reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 [[World Summit Outcome Document]] regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=4459bed60 |title=Resolution 1674 (2006) |publisher=UN Security Council via Refworld |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref> The Security Council reaffirmed this [[responsibility to protect]] in [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1706|Resolution 1706]] on 31 August of that year.{{sfn|Mikulaschek|2010|p=20}} These resolutions commit the Security Council to take action to protect civilians in an armed conflict, including taking action against genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity.{{sfn|Mikulaschek|2010|p=49}}
== Members ==
=== Permanent members ===
ကောန်ဂကောံလၟိန် ပ္ဍဲကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု မသုန် ဍုင် မကလိဂွံလဝ် အဝဵုဝေတဝ်တုဲ သွဟ် နူကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂသီုဖအိုတ်တအ်ဂှ် ဍုင်တအ်ဏအ်မွဲမွဲ ဒစဵုဒစးမ္ဂး ဆက်ကၠောန်ဟွံဂွံ၊ ဆဂး ပရူဂှ် ဆက်ရပ်စပ် ဆက်သဳကၠဳ ဟွံဂွံ ဗီုဏအ် ဟွံသေင်ရ။{{sfn|Fasulo|2004|pp=40–41}}
{| class="wikitable"
|- "
! Country
! Regional group
! Current state representation
! Former state representation
|-
|[[China]]
|[[United Nations Regional Groups#Asia-Pacific Group|Asia-Pacific]]
|[[People's Republic of China]] (from 1971)
|[[Taiwan|Republic of China]] (1945–1971)
|-
|[[France]]
|[[Western European and Others Group|Western Europe and Others]]
|[[French Fifth Republic]] (from 1958)
|[[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] (1945–1946)<br />[[French Fourth Republic]] (1946–1958)
|-
|[[Russia]]
|[[Eastern European Group|Eastern Europe]]
|[[Russian Federation]] (from 1991)
|[[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (1945–1991)
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]
|[[Western European and Others Group|Western Europe and Others]]
|[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] (from 1945)
|—
|-
|[[United States]]
|[[Western European and Others Group|Western Europe and Others]]
|[[United States of America]] (from 1945)
|—
|}
At the UN's founding in 1945, the five permanent members of the Security Council were the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]], the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]], the [[Soviet Union]], the United Kingdom, and the United States. There have been two major seat changes since then. [[China and the United Nations|China's seat]] was originally held by [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s [[Nationalist Government]], the [[Republic of China]]. However, the Nationalists were forced to retreat to the [[Geography of Taiwan|island of Taiwan]] in 1949, during the [[Chinese Civil War]]. The [[Chinese Communist Party]] assumed control of [[mainland China]], thenceforth known as the [[People's Republic of China]]. In 1971, [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|General Assembly Resolution 2758]] recognized the People's Republic as the [[One-China policy|rightful representative of China]] in the UN and gave it the seat on the Security Council that had been held by the Republic of China, which was expelled from the UN altogether with [[Taiwan and the United Nations|no opportunity for membership as a separate nation]].{{sfn|Meisler|1995|pp=195–197}} After the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, the Russian Federation was recognized as the [[succession of states|legal successor state]] of the Soviet Union and maintained the latter's position on the Security Council.{{sfn|Blum|1992}} Additionally, France eventually reformed its government into the [[French Fifth Republic]] in 1958, under the leadership of [[Charles de Gaulle]]. France maintained its seat as there was no change in its international status or recognition, although many of its [[French Community|overseas possessions]] eventually became independent.<ref>[[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council]]</ref>
The five permanent members of the Security Council were the victorious powers in World War II{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=70}} and have maintained the world's most powerful military forces ever since. They annually topped the [[List of countries by military expenditures|list of countries with the highest military expenditures]].<ref name=SIPRI>{{cite web |url=http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex |title= SIPRI Military Expenditure Database|publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref> In 2013, they spent over US$1 trillion combined on defence, accounting for over 55% of global military expenditures (the US alone accounting for over 35%).<ref name=SIPRI /> They are also among the world's [[Arms industry#World's largest arms exporters|largest arms exporters]]<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/27/us-arms-treaty-idUSBRE86Q1MW20120727 | title= United Nations fails to agree landmark arms-trade treaty| first=Michelle |last=Nichols | date=27 July 2012 | agency= Reuters |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref> and are the only nations officially recognized as "[[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-weapon states]]" under the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT), though there are other states known or believed to be in possession of nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/report/crs/92-099.htm |title=92099: Nuclear Weapons Testing and Negotiation of a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty |date=14 November 1996 |publisher=Global Security |author=Medalia, Jonathan |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
==== Veto power ====
{{Main|United Nations Security Council veto power}}
{{See also|List of vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions}}
{{Vetoed UN Resolutions}}
Under [[United Nations Security Council veto power#Article 27|Article 27]] of the UN Charter, Security Council decisions on all substantive matters require the affirmative votes of nine members. A negative vote or "veto" by a permanent member prevents adoption of a proposal, even if it has received the required votes.{{sfn|Fasulo|2004|pp=40–41}} Abstention is not regarded as a veto in most cases, though all five permanent members must actively concur to amend the UN Charter or to recommend the admission of a new UN member state.{{sfn|Fomerand|2009|p=287}} Procedural matters are not subject to a veto, so the veto cannot be used to avoid discussion of an issue. The same holds for certain decisions that directly regard permanent members.{{sfn|Fasulo|2004|pp=40–41}} A majority of vetoes are used not in critical international security situations, but for purposes such as blocking a candidate for Secretary-General or the admission of a member state.<ref name=Veto />
In the negotiations building up to the creation of the UN, the veto power was resented by many small countries, and in fact was forced on them by the veto nations – US, UK, China, France and the Soviet Union – through a threat that without the veto there will be no UN. Here is a description by Francis O. Wilcox, an adviser to US delegation to the 1945 conference: "At San Francisco, the issue was made crystal clear by the leaders of the Big Five: it was either the Charter with the veto or no Charter at all. Senator Connally [from the US delegation] dramatically tore up a copy of the Charter during one of his speeches and reminded the small states that they would be guilty of that same act if they opposed the unanimity principle. 'You may, if you wish,' he said, 'go home from this Conference and say that you have defeated the veto. But what will be your answer when you are asked: "Where is the Charter"?{{'"}}{{sfn|Wilcox|1945}}
As of 2012, 269 vetoes had been cast since the Security Council's inception.{{efn|This figure and the figures that follow exclude vetoes cast to block candidates for Secretary-General, as these occur in closed session; 43 such vetoes have occurred.<ref name=Veto />}} In this period, China (ROC/PRC) used the veto 9 times, France 18, USSR/Russia 128, the UK 32, and the US 89. Roughly two-thirds of Soviet/Russian vetoes were in the first ten years of the Security Council's existence. Between 1996 and 2012, China vetoed 5 resolutions, Russia 7, and the US 13, while France and the UK did not use the veto.<ref name=Veto>{{cite web |url= http://www.globalpolicy.org/images/pdfs/Changing_Patterns_in_the_Use_of_the_Veto_as_of_August_2012.pdf |format=PDF|title=Changing Patterns in the Use of the Veto in The Security Council |publisher=Global Policy Forum |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
An early veto by Soviet Commissar [[Andrei Vishinsky]] blocked a resolution on the withdrawal of French forces from the then-colonies of Syria and Lebanon in February 1946; this veto established the precedent that permanent members could use the veto on matters outside of immediate concerns of war and peace. The USSR went on to veto matters including the admission of Austria, Cambodia, Ceylon, Finland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Laos, Libya, Portugal, South Vietnam, and Transjordan as UN member states, delaying their joining by several years. Britain and France used the veto to avoid Security Council condemnation of their actions in the 1956 Suez Crisis. The first veto by the US came in 1970, blocking General Assembly action in [[Southern Rhodesia]]. From 1985 to 1990, the US vetoed 27 resolutions, primarily to block resolutions it perceived as anti-Israel but also to protect its interests in Panama and Korea. The USSR, US, and China have all vetoed candidates for Secretary-General, with the US using the veto to block the re-election of [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] in 1996.{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|pp=52–54}}
=== Non-permanent members ===
{{See also|List of members of the United Nations Security Council|United Nations Security Council election, 2018|United Nations Security Council election, 2019}}
[[File:United Nations Security Council regional groups.svg|thumb|A chart representing the Security Council seats held by each of the [[United Nations Regional Groups|regional groups]]. The United States, a WEOG observer, is treated as if it were a full member. This is not how the seats are arranged in actual meetings.{{legend|#0000ff|African Group}}{{legend|#339900|Asia-Pacific Group}}{{legend|#cc0000|Eastern European Group}}{{legend|#cc3399|Group of Latin American and Caribbean States (GRULAC)}}{{legend|#cc9900|Western European and Others Group (WEOG)}}]]
Along with the five permanent members, the Security Council of the United Nations has temporary members that hold their seats on a rotating basis by geographic region. Non-permanent members may be involved in global security briefings.<ref>{{YouTube|id=FgthI1fdRYA|title=U.N. Security Council Briefing on the U.S. Air Strike in Syria}} [[Time (magazine)|Time]]</ref> In its first two decades, the Security Council had six non-permanent members, the first of which were Australia, Brazil, Egypt, Mexico, the Netherlands, and Poland. In 1965, the number of non-permanent members was expanded to ten.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The UN Security Council |url= http://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html |publisher= United Nations Foundation |accessdate=15 May 2012 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20120620101548/http://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html |archivedate=20 June 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
These ten non-permanent members are elected by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] for two-year terms starting on 1 January, with five replaced each year.<ref name="Current">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/sc/members/ |title=Current Members |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=4 January 2016}}</ref> To be approved, a candidate must receive at least two-thirds of all votes cast for that seat, which can result in deadlock if there are two roughly evenly matched candidates. In 1979, a standoff between Cuba and Colombia only ended after three months and a record 154 rounds of voting; both eventually withdrew in favour of Mexico as a compromise candidate.<ref name="SCR">{{cite web |title=Special Research Report No. 4Security Council Elections 201121 September 2011 |publisher=Security Council Report |accessdate=8 June 2012 |url= http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/site/c.glKWLeMTIsG/b.7741609/k.778/Special_Research_Report_No_4brSecurity_Council_Elections_2011br21_September_2011.htm |url-status=dead |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20120608042121/http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/site/c.glKWLeMTIsG/b.7741609/k.778/Special_Research_Report_No_4brSecurity_Council_Elections_2011br21_September_2011.htm |archivedate=8 June 2012}}</ref> A retiring member is not eligible for immediate re-election.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter5.shtml |title=Charter of the United Nations: Chapter V: The Security Council |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
The African Group is represented by three members; the [[Latin America and the Caribbean]], Asia-Pacific, and [[Western European and Others Group|Western European and Others]] groups by two apiece; and the [[Eastern European Group]] by one. Traditionally, one of the seats assigned to either the Asia-Pacific Group or the African Group is filled by a nation from the [[Arab world]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Malone |first=David |title=Reforming the Security Council: Where Are the Arabs? |date=25 October 2003 |newspaper=[[The Daily Star (Lebanon)|The Daily Star]] |location=Beirut |url=http://www.worldpress.org/Mideast/1694.cfm |accessdate=3 January 2011}}</ref> Currently, elections for terms beginning in even-numbered years select two African members, and one each within Eastern Europe, Asia-Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Terms beginning in odd-numbered years consist of two Western European and Other members, and one each from Asia-Pacific, Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean.<ref name="SCR" />
During the [[2016 United Nations Security Council election]], neither Italy nor the Netherlands met the required two-thirds majority for election. They subsequently agreed to split the term of the Western European and Others Group. It was the first time in over five decades that two members agreed to do so.<ref>{{cite web |title=General Assembly Elects 4 New Non-permanent Members to Security Council, as Western and Others Group Fails to Fill Final Vacancy |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/ga11796.doc.htm |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=9 August 2016}}</ref> Usually, intractable deadlocks are resolved by the candidate countries withdrawing in favour of a third member state.
The current elected members, with the regions they were elected to represent, are as follows:<ref>{{cite web |title=Current Members |url=https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/current-members |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=1 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=General Assembly Elects Estonia, Niger, Saint Vincent and Grenadines, Tunisia, Viet Nam as Non-Permanent Members of Security Council for 2020-2021 |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2019/ga12152.doc.htm |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=1 January 2020 |date=7 June 2019}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Term
! colspan="3"| Africa
! colspan="2"| Asia-Pacific
!Eastern Europe
! colspan="2"| Latin America <br/>and Caribbean
! colspan="2"| Western Europe <br/>and Other<!-- THE REGIONS ARE THE UN REGIONS - PLEASE DO_NOT CHANGE "WESTERN EUROPE AND OTHER" TO "EUROPE" ETC. -->
|-
!2019
!
!
| rowspan="2" | {{flagcountry|South Africa}}
!
| rowspan="2" | {{flagcountry|Indonesia}}
!
!
| rowspan="2" |{{flagcountry|Dominican Republic}}
| rowspan="2" |{{flagcountry|Belgium}}
| rowspan="2" |{{flagcountry|Germany}}
|-
!2020
| rowspan="2" | {{flagcountry|Niger}}
| rowspan="2" | {{flagcountry|Tunisia}}
| rowspan="2" | {{flagcountry|Vietnam}}
| rowspan="2" | {{flagcountry|Estonia}}
| rowspan="2" | {{flagcountry|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
|-
!2021
!
!
!
! colspan="2" |
|}
=== President ===
{{Main|President of the United Nations Security Council}}
[[File:United Nations Security Council by political international.svg|thumb|United Nations Security Council by political international per country's [[head of government]]. Blue: [[International Democrat Union]]; red: [[Progressive Alliance]]; yellow: [[Liberal International]]; dark red: [[International Communist Seminar]]; gray: none or independent.]]
The role of [[President of the United Nations Security Council|president of the Security Council]] involves setting the agenda, presiding at its meetings and overseeing any crisis. The president is authorized to issue both [[Presidential Statement]]s (subject to consensus among Council members) and notes,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Docs/sc/notes/PresidentialNotesEng.htm |title=Notes by the president of the Security Council |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="un.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unsc_pres_statements08.htm |title=UN Security Council: Presidential Statements 2008 |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref> which are used to make declarations of intent that the full Security Council can then pursue.<ref name="un.org"/> The presidency of the Council is held by each of the members in turn for one month, following the English alphabetical order of the Member States names.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sc/presidency.asp |title=Security Council Presidency in 2011 – United Nations Security Council |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref>
The list of nations that will hold the Presidency in 2020 is as follows:<ref>{{cite web|title=Security Council Presidency|url=https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/presidency|website=United Nations Security Council|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=5 January 2020}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Security Council Presidency in 2020
|- style="background:#ccc;"
!Country
!Month
|-
|Vietnam
|January
|-
|Belgium
|February
|-
|China
|March
|-
|Dominican Republic
|April
|-
|Estonia
|May
|-
|France
|June
|-
|Germany
|July
|-
|Indonesia
|August
|-
|Niger
|September
|-
|Russia
|October
|-
|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
|November
|-
|South Africa
|December
|-
|}
== Meeting locations ==
[[File:Barack Obama chairs a United Nations Security Council meeting.jpg|thumb|US President [[Barack Obama]] chairs a United Nations Security Council meeting]]
[[File:UN security council 2005.jpg|thumb|The meeting room exhibits the [[United Nations Security Council mural]] by [[Per Krohg]] (1952)]]
Unlike the General Assembly, the Security Council meets year-round. Each Security Council member must have a representative available at UN Headquarters at all times in case an emergency meeting becomes necessary.<ref name=Whatis />
The Security Council generally meets in a designated chamber in the [[United Nations Headquarters|United Nations Conference Building]] in New York City. The chamber was designed by the Norwegian architect [[Arnstein Arneberg]] and was a gift from Norway. The [[United Nations Security Council mural]] by Norwegian artist [[Per Krohg]] (1952) depicts a [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] rising from its ashes, symbolic of the world's rebirth after World War II.<ref>[https://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/untour/subsec.htm "The Security Council"]. ''United Nations Cyberschoolbus''. United Nations. Retrieved 14 September 2012.</ref>
The Security Council has also held meetings in cities including [[Nairobi]], Kenya; [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia; [[Panama City]], Panama; and [[Geneva]], Switzerland.<ref name=Whatis>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/sc/about/ |title=What is the Security Council? |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref> In March 2010, the Security Council moved into a temporary facility in the General Assembly Building as its chamber underwent renovations as part of the UN Capital Master Plan.<ref>{{cite web|title=UN Capital Master Plan Timeline|url=https://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/cmp/home/about/pid/22303 |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=29 September 2013}}</ref> The renovations were funded by Norway, the chamber's original donor, for a total cost of {{usd}}5 million.<ref>{{cite web|title=An unrecognizable Security Council Chamber|url=http://www.norway-un.org/NorwayandUN/UNBodies/The-Security-Council/An-unrecognizable-Security-Council-Chamber/|publisher=Norway Mission to the UN|date=28 August 2012|accessdate=29 September 2013|archivedate=26 December 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226054954/http://www.norway-un.org/NorwayandUN/UNBodies/The-Security-Council/An-unrecognizable-Security-Council-Chamber/}}</ref> The chamber reopened on 16 April 2013.<ref>{{cite web|date=16 April 2013|title=Secretary-General, at inauguaration of renovated Security Council Chamber, says room speaks 'language of dignity and seriousness'|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=26 November 2013|url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2013/sgsm14951.doc.htm}}</ref>
=== Consultation room ===
Because meetings in the Security Council Chamber are covered by the international press, proceedings are highly theatrical in nature. Delegates deliver speeches to justify their positions and attack their opponents, playing to the cameras and the audience at home. Delegations also stage walkouts to express their disagreement with actions of the Security Council.<ref name="haidar2015">{{cite news|last1=Haidar|first1=Suhasini|title=India's walkout from UNSC was a turning point: Natwar|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indias-walkout-from-unsc-was-a-turning-point-natwar/article7601027.ece|work=The Hindu|date=1 September 2015|quote=According to Mr. Singh, posted at India's permanent mission at the U.N. then, 1965 was a "turning point" for the U.N. on Kashmir, and a well-planned "walkout" from the U.N. Security Council by the Indian delegation as a protest against Pakistani Foreign Minister (and later PM) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's speech ensured Kashmir was dropped from the UNSC agenda for all practical purposes.}}</ref> Due to the public scrutiny of the Security Council Chamber,<ref name="hovell2016">{{cite book|last1=Hovell|first1=Devika|title=The Power of Process: The Value of Due Process in Security Council Sanctions Decision-making|date=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780198717676|page=145}}</ref> all of the real work of the Security Council is conducted behind closed doors in "informal consultations".<ref name="dewet2003">{{cite book|editor-last1=De Wet|editor-first1=Erika|editor-last2=Nollkaemper|editor-first2=André|editor-last3=Dijkstra|editor-first3=Petra|title=Review of the Security Council by member states|date=2003|publisher=Intersentia|location=Antwerp|isbn=9789050953078|pages=31–32}}</ref><ref name="bosco2009">{{cite book|last1=Bosco|first1=David L.|title=Five to Rule Them All: the UN Security Council and the Making of the Modern World|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780195328769|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fivetorulethemal00bosc/page/138 138–139]|url=https://archive.org/details/fivetorulethemal00bosc/page/138}}</ref>
In 1978, West Germany funded the construction of a conference room next to the Security Council Chamber. The room was used for "informal consultations", which soon became the primary meeting format for the Security Council. In 1994, the French ambassador complained to the Secretary-General that "informal consultations have become the Council's characteristic working method, while public meetings, originally the norm, are increasingly rare and increasingly devoid of content: everyone knows that when the Council goes into public meeting everything has been decided in advance".<ref name="elgebeily2017">{{cite book|last1=Elgebeily|first1=Sherif|title=The Rule of Law in the United Nations Security Council Decision-Making Process: Turning the Focus Inwards|date=2017|isbn=9781315413440|pages=54–55}}</ref> When Russia funded the renovation of the consultation room in 2013, the Russian ambassador called it "quite simply, the most fascinating place in the entire diplomatic universe".<ref name="sievers2014">{{cite book|last1=Sievers|first1=Loraine|last2=Daws|first2=Sam|title=The Procedure of the UN Security Council|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780191508431|edition=4}}</ref>
Only members of the Security Council are permitted in the conference room for consultations. The press is not admitted, and other members of the United Nations cannot be invited into the consultations.<ref name="unsc_glossary">{{cite web|title=Security Council Handbook Glossary|url=https://www.un.org/en/sc/about/methods/glossary.shtml|website=United Nations Security Council|quote="Consultations of the whole" are consultations held in private with all 15 Council members present. Such consultations are held in the Consultations Room, are announced in the UN Journal, have an agreed agenda and interpretation, and may involve one or more briefers. The consultations are closed to non-Council Member States. "Informal consultations" mostly refer to "consultations of the whole", but in different contexts may also refer to consultations among the 15 Council members or only some of them held without a Journal announcement and interpretation.}}</ref> No formal record is kept of the informal consultations.<ref name="unsc_meetings">{{cite web|title=United Nations Security Council Meeting records|url=https://www.un.org/en/sc/meetings/|accessdate=10 February 2017|quote=The preparatory work for formal meetings is conducted in informal consultations for which no public record exists.}}</ref><ref name="unsc_faq">{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=https://www.un.org/en/sc/about/faq.shtml|website=United Nations Security Council|quote=Both open and closed meetings are formal meetings of the Security Council. Closed meetings are not open to the public and no verbatim record of statements is kept, instead the Security Council issues a Communiqué in line with Rule 55 of its Provisional Rules of Procedure. Consultations are informal meetings of the Security Council members and are not covered in the Repertoire.}}</ref> As a result, the delegations can negotiate with each other in secret, striking deals and compromises without having their every word transcribed into the permanent record. The privacy of the conference room also makes it possible for the delegates to deal with each other in a friendly manner. In one early consultation, a new delegate from a Communist nation began a propaganda attack on the United States, only to be told by the Soviet delegate, "We don't talk that way in here."<ref name="bosco2009"/>
A permanent member can cast a "pocket veto" during the informal consultation by declaring its opposition to a measure. Since a veto would prevent the resolution from being passed, the sponsor will usually refrain from putting the resolution to a vote. Resolutions are vetoed only if the sponsor feels so strongly about a measure that it wishes to force the permanent member to cast a formal veto.<ref name="dewet2003"/><ref name="scr2015">{{cite journal|title=The Veto|journal=Security Council Report|date=19 October 2015|volume=2015|issue=3|url=http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/research_report_3_the_veto_2015.pdf}}</ref> By the time a resolution reaches the Security Council Chamber, it has already been discussed, debated, and amended in the consultations. The open meeting of the Security Council is merely a public ratification of a decision that has already been reached in private.<ref name="reid1999">{{cite web|last1=Reid|first1=Natalie|title=Informal Consultations|url=https://www.globalpolicy.org/security-council/32941-informal-consultations-natalie-reid-january-1999.html|website=Global Policy Forum|date=January 1999}}</ref><ref name="dewet2003"/> For example, [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373|Resolution 1373]] was adopted without public debate in a meeting that lasted just five minutes.<ref name="dewet2003"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Meeting record, Security Council, 4385th meeting|url=https://undocs.org/S/PV.4385|id=S/PV.4385|website=United Nations Repository|publisher=United Nations|date=28 September 2001}}</ref>
The Security Council holds far more consultations than public meetings. In 2012, the Security Council held 160 consultations, 16 private meetings, and 9 public meetings. In times of crisis, the Security Council still meets primarily in consultations, but it also holds more public meetings. After the outbreak of the [[Ukraine crisis]] in 2013, the Security Council returned to the patterns of the Cold War, as Russia and the Western countries engaged in verbal duels in front of the television cameras. In 2016, the Security Council held 150 consultations, 19 private meetings, and 68 public meetings.<ref name="unite2016">{{cite web|title=Highlights of Security Council Practice 2016|url=https://unite.un.org/sites/unite.un.org/files/app-schighlights/index.html|website=Unite|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=10 February 2017|archivedate=11 February 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211080514/https://unite.un.org/sites/unite.un.org/files/app-schighlights/index.html}}</ref>
== Subsidiary organs/bodies ==
Article 29 of the Charter provides that the Security Council can establish subsidiary bodies in order to perform its functions. This authority is also reflected in Rule 28 of the Provisional Rules of Procedure. The subsidiary bodies established by the Security Council are extremely heterogenous. On the one hand, they include bodies such as the Security Council Committee on Admission of New Members. On the other hand, both the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] and the [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] were also created as subsidiary bodies of the Security Council. The by now numerous Sanctions Committees established in order to oversee implementation of the various sanctions regimes are also subsidiary bodies of the Council.
== United Nations peacekeepers ==
{{Main|United Nations peacekeeping|List of United Nations peacekeeping missions}}
After approval by the Security Council, the UN may send [[peacekeeping|peacekeepers]] to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states. These soldiers are sometimes nicknamed "Blue Helmets" for their distinctive gear.{{sfn|Fasulo|2004|p=52}}{{sfn|Coulon|1998|p=ix}} The peacekeeping force as a whole received the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1988.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1988/|author=Nobel Prize|title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1988|accessdate=3 April 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Bolivian Army 2nd Lt. Mauricio Vidangos stands guard at the entry control point of an Observation Point.jpg|thumb|left|Bolivian "[[United Nations peacekeeping|Blue Helmet]]" at an exercise in Chile]]
In September 2013, the UN had 116,837 peacekeeping soldiers and other personnel deployed on 15 missions. The largest was the [[United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (MONUSCO), which included 20,688 uniformed personnel. The smallest, [[United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan]] (UNMOGIP), included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in [[Jammu and Kashmir]]. Peacekeepers with the [[United Nations Truce Supervision Organization]] (UNTSO) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948, the longest-running active peacekeeping mission.<ref name=UNPO/>
UN peacekeepers have also drawn criticism in several postings. Peacekeepers have been accused of child rape, soliciting prostitutes, or sexual abuse during various peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A3145-2004Dec15.html|title=U.N. Sexual Abuse Alleged in Congo|work=The Washington Post |first=Colum |last=Lynch|date=16 December 2004|accessdate=21 November 2013}}</ref> Haiti,<ref>{{cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6195830.stm|title=UN troops face child abuse claims|work=BBC News|date=30 November 2006|accessdate=21 November 2013}}</ref> Liberia,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/08/world/africa/08iht-abuse.html|title=Aid workers in Liberia accused of sex abuse|work=The New York Times |date=8 May 2006|accessdate=22 November 2013}}</ref> Sudan and what is now South Sudan,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1538476/UN-staff-accused-of-raping-children-in-Sudan.html|title= UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan|work=The Telegraph|date=4 January 2007| first=Kate | last=Holt |accessdate=21 November 2013}}</ref> Burundi and Ivory Coast.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/7420798.stm|title= Peacekeepers 'abusing children' |publisher=BBC |date=28 May 2007|accessdate=21 November 2013}}</ref> Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely source of the [[2010–2013 Haiti cholera outbreak]], which killed more than 8,000 Haitians following the [[2010 Haiti earthquake]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/10/09/world/americas/haiti-un-cholera-lawsuit/ |title=U.N. sued for 'bringing cholera to Haiti', causing outbreak that killed thousands |author=Watson, Ivan and Joe Vaccarello |date=10 October 2013 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=18 November 2013}}</ref>
The budget for peacekeeping is assessed separately from the main UN organisational budget; in the 2013–2014 fiscal year, peacekeeping expenditures totalled $7.54 billion.<ref name=UNPO>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/factsheet.shtml |title=United Nations Peacekeeping Operations |accessdate=9 November 2013 |date=30 September 2013 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>{{sfn|Fasulo|2004|p=115}} UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale, but including a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. In 2013, the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were the US (28.38%), Japan (10.83%), France (7.22%), Germany (7.14%), the United Kingdom (6.68%), China (6.64%), Italy (4.45%), Russian Federation (3.15%), Canada (2.98%), and Spain (2.97%).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/contributors/financing.html |title=Financing of UN Peacekeeping Operations |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=9 November 2013}}</ref>
== Criticism and evaluations ==
{{Main|Criticism of the United Nations}}
In examining the first sixty years of the Security Council's existence, British historian [[Paul Kennedy]] concludes that "glaring failures had not only accompanied the UN's many achievements, they overshadowed them", identifying the lack of will to prevent ethnic massacres in Bosnia and Rwanda as particular failures.{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|pp=101–103, 110}} Kennedy attributes the failures to the UN's lack of reliable military resources, writing that "above all, one can conclude that the practice of announcing (through a Security Council resolution) a new peacekeeping mission without ensuring that sufficient armed forces will be available has usually proven to be a recipe for humiliation and disaster".{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=110}}
A 2005 RAND Corporation study found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. It compared UN nation-building efforts to those of the United States, and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2005/RAND_MG304.sum.pdf|author=RAND Corporation|title=The UN's Role in Nation Building: From the Congo to Iraq|format=PDF|accessdate=30 December 2008}}</ref> Also in 2005, the [[Human Security Report 2005|Human Security Report]] documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activism – mostly spearheaded by the UN – has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict since the end of the Cold War.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.humansecurityreport.info/|author=Human Security Centre|title=The Human Security Report 2005|accessdate=8 February 2007|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://swap.stanford.edu/20090728163300/http%3A//www.humansecurityreport.info/|archivedate=28 July 2009}}</ref>
Scholar Sudhir Chella Rajan argued in 2006 that the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, who are all nuclear powers, have created an exclusive [[nuclear club]] that predominately addresses the strategic interests and political motives of the permanent members – for example, protecting the oil-rich Kuwaitis in 1991 but poorly protecting resource-poor Rwandans in 1994.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rajan |first=Sudhir Chella |title=Global Politics and Institutions |url=http://www.gtinitiative.org/documents/PDFFINALS/3Politics.pdf |format=PDF |journal=GTI Paper Series: Frontiers of a Great Transition |volume=3 |publisher=Tellus Institute |year=2006 |accessdate=11 December 2011}}</ref> Since three of the five permanent members are also European, and four are predominantly white Western nations, the Security Council has been described as a pillar of [[global apartheid]] by Titus Alexander, former Chair of Westminster United Nations Association.{{sfn|Alexander|1996|pp=158–160}}
The Security Council's effectiveness and relevance is questioned by some because, in most high-profile cases, there are essentially no consequences for violating a Security Council resolution. During the [[Darfur crisis]], [[Janjaweed]] militias, allowed by elements of the Sudanese government, committed violence against an indigenous population, killing thousands of civilians. In the [[Srebrenica massacre]], Serbian troops committed genocide against [[Bosniaks]], although [[Srebrenica]] had been declared a UN [[safe area (Bosnian War)|safe area]], protected by 400 armed Dutch peacekeepers.{{sfn|Deni|2007|p=71|ps=: "As Serbian forces attacked Srebrenica in July 1995, the [400] Dutch soldiers escorted women and children out of the city, leaving behind roughly 7,500 Muslim men who were subsequently massacred by the attacking Serbs."}}
In his 2009 speech, [[Muammar Gaddafi]] criticized the Security Council's veto powers and the wars permanent members of the Security Council engaged in.
The [[United Nations Charter|UN Charter]] gives all three powers of the [[legislative]], executive, and [[judiciary]] branches to the Security Council.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Creery |first=Janet |title=Read the fine print first |year=2004 |url=http://peacemagazine.org/archive/v10n1p20.htm |magazine=[[Peace Magazine]] |issue=Jan–Feb 1994 |page=20 |accessdate=11 December 2011}}</ref>
In his inaugural speech at the [[16th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement]] in August 2012, [[Ayatollah Ali Khamenei]] criticized the United Nations Security Council as having an "illogical, unjust and completely undemocratic structure and mechanism" and called for a complete reform of the body.<ref name="test">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120831155453/http://www.namna.ir/en/homeen/28-english-latest-news/1128-supreme-leader-s-inaugural-speech-at-16th-nam-summit.html "Supreme Leader’s Inaugural Speech at 16th NAM Summit"]. Non-Aligned Movement News Agency. Retrieved 31 August 2012.</ref>
The Security Council has been criticized for failure in resolving many conflicts, including Cyprus, Sri Lanka, Syria, Kosovo and the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]], reflecting the wider short-comings of the UN.
For example; At the 68th Session of the UN General Assembly, New Zealand Prime Minister [[John Key]] heavily criticized the UN's inaction on [[Syria]], more than two years after the [[Syrian civil war]] began.<ref>[http://www.3news.co.nz/Key-compromises-on-UN-Syria-deal/tabid/1607/articleID/315021/Default.aspx Key compromises on UN Syria deal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930183756/http://www.3news.co.nz/Key-compromises-on-UN-Syria-deal/tabid/1607/articleID/315021/Default.aspx |date=30 September 2013 }}. ''3 News NZ''. 28 September 2013.</ref>
== Membership reform ==
{{Main|Reform of the United Nations Security Council}}
[[File:G4 Nations.svg|thumb|The [[G4 nations]]: Brazil, Germany, India, Japan.]]
[[File:Uniting for Consensus core.png|thumb|[[Uniting for Consensus]] core members]]
Proposals to reform the Security Council began with the conference that wrote the UN Charter and have continued to the present day. As British historian Paul Kennedy writes, "Everyone agrees that the present structure is flawed. But consensus on how to fix it remains out of reach."{{sfn|Kennedy|2006|p=76}}
There has been discussion of increasing the number of permanent members. The countries who have made the strongest demands for permanent seats are Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan. Japan and Germany, the main defeated powers in WWII, are now the UN's second- and third-largest funders respectively, while Brazil and India are two of the largest contributors of troops to UN-mandated peace-keeping missions.
Italy, another main defeated power in WWII and now the UN's sixth-largest funder, leads a movement known as the [[Uniting for Consensus]] in opposition to the possible expansion of permanent seats. Core members of the group include Canada, South Korea, Spain, Indonesia, Mexico, Pakistan, Turkey, Argentina and Colombia. Their proposal is to create a new category of seats, still non-permanent, but elected for an extended duration (semi-permanent seats). As far as traditional categories of seats are concerned, the UfC proposal does not imply any change, but only the introduction of small and medium size states among groups eligible for regular seats. This proposal includes even the question of veto, giving a range of options that goes from abolition to limitation of the application of the veto only to Chapter VII matters.
Former UN Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]] asked a team of advisers to come up with recommendations for reforming the United Nations by the end of 2004. One proposed measure is to increase the number of permanent members by five, which, in most proposals, would include Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan (known as the [[G4 nations]]), one seat from Africa (most likely between Egypt, Nigeria or South Africa), and/or one seat from the [[Arab League]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2006-11-01-voa46.html |title=UN Security Council Reform May Shadow Annan's Legacy |date=1 November 2006 |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |accessdate=11 December 2011}}</ref> On 21 September 2004, the G4 nations issued a joint statement mutually backing each other's claim to permanent status, together with two African countries. Currently the proposal has to be accepted by two-thirds of the General Assembly (128 votes).
The permanent members, each holding the right of veto, announced their positions on Security Council reform reluctantly. The United States has unequivocally supported the permanent membership of Japan and lent its support to India and a small number of additional non-permanent members. The United Kingdom and France essentially supported the G4 position, with the expansion of permanent and non-permanent members and the accession of Germany, Brazil, India and Japan to permanent member status, as well as an increase in the presence by African countries on the Council. China has supported the stronger representation of developing countries and firmly opposed Japan's membership.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/204917 |title=US embassy cables: China reiterates 'red lines' |work=The Guardian |date=29 November 2010 |accessdate=11 December 2011 |quote=[I]t would be difficult for the Chinese public to accept Japan as a permanent member of the UNSC.}}</ref>
In 2017, it was reported that the G4 nations were willing temporarily to forgo [[United Nations Security Council veto power|veto power]] if granted [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent UNSC seats]].<ref>{{cite web|title=India Offers To Temporarily Forgo Veto Power If Granted Permanent UNSC Seat|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.in/2017/03/08/india-offers-to-temporarily-forgo-veto-power-if-granted-permanen/|work=[[HuffPost]]|accessdate=9 March 2017}}</ref> In September 2017, [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representatives]] [[Ami Bera]] and [[Frank Pallone]] introduced a resolution (H.Res.535) in the [[US House of Representatives]] ([[115th United States Congress]]), seeking support for [[India]] for a permanent membership of the United Nations Security Council.<ref name="US Congress India UNSC">{{cite web|title=US congressmen move resolution in support of India's UN security council claim|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/us-congressmen-move-resolution-in-support-of-india-s-un-security-council-claim/story-EMDxUAGQjsP8PYFgcBWeFN.html|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|accessdate=30 September 2017}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{Portal|Politics|Law}}
*[[Kazakhstan's membership in the United Nations Security Council]]
* [[Reform of the United Nations]]
* [[United Nations Department of Political Affairs]], provides secretarial support to the Security Council
* [[United Nations Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee]], a standing committee of the Security Council
* [[Small Five Group]], a group formed to improve the working methods of the Security Council
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
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{{Reflist|30em}}
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|editor3-first=Christoph
|title=The UN Security Council and the Responsibility to Protect: Policy, Process, and Practice
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{{refend}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|35em}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Bailey
|first=Sydney D.
|last2=Daws
|first2=Sam
|year=1998
|title=The Procedure of the UN Security Council
|edition=3rd
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-828073-6
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Bosco
|first=David L.
|author-link=David Bosco
|year=2009
|title=Five to Rule Them All: The UN Security Council and the Making of the Modern World
|location=New York
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-532876-9
|url=https://archive.org/details/fivetorulethemal00bosc
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Cockayne
|first=James
|last2=Mikulaschek
|first2=Christoph
|last3=Perry
|first3=Chris
|year=2010
|title=The United Nations Security Council and Civil War: First Insights from a New Dataset
|url=http://www.ipinst.org/publication/policy-papers/detail/298-the-united-nations-security-council-and-civil-war-first-insights-from-a-new-dataset.html
|location=New York
|publisher=International Peace Institute
|accessdate=8 February 2016
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Grieger
|first=Gisela
|title=Reform of the UN Security Council
|year=2013
|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/bibliotheque/briefing/2013/130451/LDM_BRI(2013)130451_REV1_EN.pdf
|format=PDF
|publisher=Library of the European Parliament
|accessdate=8 February 2016
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Hannay
|first=David
|author-link=David Hannay, Baron Hannay of Chiswick
|year=2008
|title=New World Disorder: The UN after the Cold War – An Insider's View
|location=London
|publisher=I.B. Tauris
|isbn=978-1-84511-719-1
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Hurd
|first=Ian
|year=2007
|title=After Anarchy: Legitimacy and Power in the United Nations Security Council
|url=https://archive.org/details/afteranarchylegi0000hurd
|location=Princeton, New Jersey
|publisher=Princeton University Press
|isbn=978-0-691-12866-5
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Köchler
|first1=Hans
|author-link1=Hans Köchler
|year=1991
|title=The Voting Procedure in the United Nations Security Council: Examining a Normative Contradiction in the UN Charter and its Consequences on International Relations
|url=http://i-p-o.org/Koechler-Voting_Procedure-UN_Security_Council.pdf
|format=PDF
|series=Studies in International Relations
|volume=17
|location=Vienna
|publisher=International Progress Organization
|isbn=978-3-90070410-0
|ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
|year=2008
|editor-last1=Lowe
|editor-first1=Vaughan
|editor-link1=Vaughan Lowe
|editor-last2=Roberts
|editor-first2=Adam
|editor-link2=Adam Roberts (scholar)
|editor-last3=Welsh
|editor-first3=Jennifer
|editor-link3=Jennifer Welsh
|editor-last4=Zaum
|editor-first4=Dominik
|title=The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-953343-5
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Malone
|first=David
|author-link=David M. Malone
|year=1998
|title=Decision-Making in the UN Security Council: The Case of Haiti, 1990–1997
|location=Oxford
|publisher=Clarendon Press
|isbn=978-0-19-829483-2
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/decisionmakingin0000malo
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Matheson
|first=Michael J.
|year=2006
|title=Council Unbound: The Growth of UN Decision Making on Conflict and Postconflict Issues after the Cold War
|location=Washington
|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press
|isbn=978-1-929223-78-7
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Roberts
|first=Adam
|author-link=Adam Roberts (scholar)
|last2=Zaum
|first2=Dominik
|year=2008
|title=Selective Security: War and the United Nations Security Council since 1945
|series=Adelphi Paper
|volume=395
|location=Abingdon, England
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-415-47472-6
|issn=0567-932X
}}
* {{Cite book
|last= Vreeland
|first=James
|author-link=James Vreeland
|last2=Dreher
|first2=Axel
|author-link2=Axel Dreher
|year=2014
|title= The Political Economy of the United Nations Security Council: Money and Influence
|location=Cambridge, England
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-51841-3
}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://www.un.org/en/sc}}
* [http://research.un.org/en/docs/sc UN Security Council Research Guide]
* [http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/index.htm Global Policy Forum – UN Security Council]
* [http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/ Security Council Report] – information and analysis on the Council's activities
** [https://www.whatsinblue.org/ What's In Blue] – a series of insights on evolving Security Council actions
* [http://www.centerforunreform.org/ Center for UN Reform Education – information on current reform issues at the United Nations]
* [http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyperlinked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council]
[[Category:ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]
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[[Category:ပရေင်မၞိဟ်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
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အိဒ်ဒူဝါဒ်-ဟေန်ရဳ အာဝှရိလ် (Édouard-Henri Avril)
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{{Infobox artist
|bgcolour=
|death_place=[[Le Raincy]], [[Paris]], [[French Third Republic]]
|patron=
|works=''[[De figuris Veneris]]'', ''Fortunio''
|movement=
|training=[[École des Beaux-Arts]]
|field=Illustrator of erotic literature
|nationality=French
|death_date={{death date and age|1928|7|28|1849|5|21|df=y}}
|name=အိဒ်ဒူဝါဒ်-ဟေန်ရဳ အာဝှရိလ်<br>Édouard-Henri Avril
|birth_place=[[Algiers]], [[French Algeria]]
|birth_date={{Birth date|1849|5|21|df=y}}
|birth_name=
|alt=
|caption=
|image= Édouard-Henri Avril - Maler.jpg
|awards=[[Legion of Honour]]
}}
''' အိဒ်ဒူဝါဒ်-ဟေန်ရဳ အာဝှရိလ် (Édouard-Henri Avril) ''' (၂၁ မေ ၁၈၄၉ – ၂၈ ဂျူလာင် ၁၉၂၈) ဝွံ ဒှ်အစာပါန်ခဳ ပြင်သေတ် ကေုာံ ညးမဂယိုင်လမျီု နကဵု [[ပါန်ကွတ်]]မွဲတၠရ။ နကဵု မုတ်ယၟု(pseudonym) ပေါလ် အာဝှရိလ် ('''Paul Avril)''' ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဓဇက်ရုပ် ထ္ၜးဗီု လိက်ပတ်လိင်ကာမ (erotic literature)။<ref name="kettererkunst">{{Cite web|url=http://www.kettererkunst.com/bio/paul-eduard-henry-avril-1843.shtml|title=Paul Eduard Henry Avril – Biography and Offers – Buy and Sell Retrieved 01 August 2012|publisher=Kettererkunst.com|date=|accessdate=6 September 2012}}</ref> ကမၠောန်ဓဇက်ရုပ် ပ္ဍဲလိက်ဂှ် ညး ပံင်တောဲ ကု မၞိဟ်ဓဇက်ရုပ် မပ္တံကဵု Octave Uzanne, Henry Spencer Ashbee ကေုာံ Friedrich Karl Forberg တအ်ရ။
အာဝှရိလ်ဂှ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံကၠောန်ကမၠောန် ဓဇက်ရုပ်ဂှ် ကေင်ဒှ် ကောန်ပၞာန်။ ညးကလိဂွံ လာပ်တဆိပ် (Legion of Honour) ဟိုတ်နူ မပါလုပ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပၞာန် Franco-Prussian War ရ။
== ဘဝ ==
[[ဝှာင်:Édouard-Henri_Avril_(6).jpg|thumb|''Les charmes de Fanny exposés'' (plate VIII) နူလိက် ''Fanny Hill'' ဂှ် လုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုရုပ် ညးမဓဇက်လဝ် ခိုဟ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ]]
အာဝှရိဒ် ကတဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အလ်ဂျဳယာ (ဍုင်ဇၞော်အလ်ဂျဳလဳယျာ)။ အပါညးဂှ် ဒှ်ကောန်ပၞာန်ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဒေသကဝ်လဝ်နဳ။ အလဵုဇကု အာဝှရိဒ် လေဝ် ဒှ်ကောန်ပၞာန်မွဲတၠတုဲ ဒးဝပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပေါဲပၞာန် ပြင်သေတ်-ဂျာမနဳ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ညးဟွံ လုပ်ဗတောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု စတူဒဳယဝ်ပါန်ကွတ်ဏီရ။ ညးကလိဂွံ လာပ်တဆိပ် Legion of Honour မဒှ်တဆိပ် သရာဲပၞာန် ပ္ဍဲ ၃၁ မေ ၁၈၇၁ ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ဒးလဝ်ဝပ် ပ္ဍဲမုက်ပၞာန်ဂှ်တုဲ ညးတေအ် ဒးဒေါအ်ဇူ (စပေန်ဇြေန်) နူဘဝကောန်ပၞာန် ပ္ဍဲ ၂၃ ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၁၈၇၂။<ref name="stilearte">{{Cite web|url=http://www.stilearte.it/paul-avril-i-piaceri-sfrenati-dellartista-soldato-dellottocento-il-video/|title=Paul Avril, i piaceri sfrenati dell'artista-soldato dell'Ottocento. Il video|date=5 March 2018|accessdate=6 March 2020|archivedate=18 July 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718085232/http://www.stilearte.it/paul-avril-i-piaceri-sfrenati-dellartista-soldato-dellottocento-il-video/}}</ref>
တင်ဂၞင် ဝင်အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိညးတေအ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ အောန်ကွေဟ်ရ။ မုဟိုတ်ရောမ္ဂး ဟိုတ်နူ ညးတေအ် ကၠောန် နကဵု မုတ်ယၟု (ယၟုဓလုက်/ယၟုပတောအ်) (pseudonym) ပေါလ် အာဝှရိဒ် "Paul Avril"။<ref name="culture_trip"/> မုတ်ယၟု ညးဂှ် မလေပ်ထုဲကဵု ယၟုကော/ဒေအ်ညး<ref name="kettererkunst"/> ပေါလ်-ဝိက်တောရ် အာဝှရိဒ် (Paul-Victor Avril)။ ကော/ဒေအ်ညးဂှ်လေဝ် ဒှ်အစာကသူ ကေုာံ ညးကၠောန်တဆိပ် (engraver)။ <ref name="RG">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260967095|title=Transits of Venus and Mercury as muses}}</ref> အာဝှရိဒ် လ္ၚတ် ပါန်ကွတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်ပဴရေတ် ဆေင်လိင်ကာမ ဂၠိုင်ကဵုဒၞာဲရ။
နူ သၞာံ ၁၈၇၄ စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၁၈၇၈ ညးတေအ် နွံပ္ဍဲကဵု École des Beaux-Arts ပ္ဍဲပဴရေတ်။<ref name="culture_trip"/><ref name="stilearte"/> ညးကၠောန် သွက်ဗၟံက်ရုပ် ပ္ဍဲလိက်ပရိုင်မဂ္ဂဇြေန် ''Le Monde illustré'' ပ္ဍဲ ၁၈၈၂။<ref name="RG"/><ref name="dict">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dictionnaire-des-illustrateurs.com/Avril%20Paul.html|title=Paul Avril; Avril Paul}}</ref>
စတမ်နူ မကလိဂွံကမၠောန် ဓဇက်ရုပ် သွက်ဝတ္ထု Théophile Gautier ''Fortunio'' တုဲ ညးလွဳကေတ် မုတ်ယၟ (ယၟုပတောအ်) pseudonym ပေါလ် အာဝှရိလ် ("Paul Avril")။<ref name="Cutler2012">{{Cite book|author=Tom Cutler|title=Slap and Tickle: The Unusual History of Sex and the People Who Have it|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InSeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT31|date=18 October 2012|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-1-78033-836-1|page=31}}</ref> နကဵုယၟုဂှ် ဗွဲမပြဟ် ညး ယၟုမြဟ်တမ္ညဝ်အာတုဲ ကလိဂွံကမၠောန် သွက်ဂွံဓဇက်ရုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်ကၞပ်အစာချူလိက်ဒယှ်ကီု သီုကဵု ဂကူလိက်ပတ် မကော်ဂး လိက်ပတ်ဂလန်တေ "galante literature" ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် မဒှ်လိက် မဆေင်ကဵု လိင်ကာမတအ်ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ညးဟွံဓဇက်ရုပ် လိက်လိင်ကာမတေအ်ဂှ်ရ ညးတေအ် ဓဇက်ဒၟံင် သွက်လိက်ဝတ္ထုဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် လိက်လိင်ကာမတအ်ဂှ် ပတိတ်ဆ လၟိဟ်ကၞပ်ညိည နွံစ ၜိုတ် ၁၀၀ ကၞပ်တုဲ ပရးသွံ ကုညးပကောံရာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကုညးမကဵုလဝ်စရင်တအ်ဟေင်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ရုပ်ပါန်ခဳ မဆေင်ကဵု ဆက်ဆောံလိင်တအ်ဂှ် ဂွံသွံ ဗွဲမဗၠးၜး ဟွံလောဲသွာဏီရ။<ref name="culture_trip">{{Cite web|url=http://theculturetrip.com/europe/france/articles/douard-henri-avril-the-master-of-19th-century-pornography/|title=Édouard-Henri Avril: The Master of 19th Century Pornography|first=Helen|last=Armitage|publisher=|accessdate=3 October 2016|archivedate=5 October 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005162256/http://theculturetrip.com/europe/france/articles/douard-henri-avril-the-master-of-19th-century-pornography/}}</ref>
အာဝှရိလ် စုတိ ပ္ဍဲ Le Raincy ဗဒါဲဍုင်ပဴရေတ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၂၈။<ref name="ArtDictionary">{{Cite web|url=http://www.all-art.org/DICTIONARY_of_Art/a/avril2.htm|title=Paul Avril|work=Dictionary of Art & Artist|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref>
== ကမၠောန် ==
[[ဝှာင်:Henry_Spencer_Ashbee_Ex_Libris.jpg|thumb|Bookplate designed by Avril for erotica collector Henry Spencer Ashbee]]
ကမၠောန်အဓိက အာဝှရိလ်ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံဓဇက်ရုပ် ပ္ဍဲလိက် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၀၆ သွက် လိက် ''De Figuris Veneris: A Manual of Classical Erotica''။ ကမၠောန်ကိစ္စဇၞော် ညးမကၠောန်လဝ် မွဲပၠန်ဂှ် ဒှ် John Cleland's ''Fanny Hill'' (သီုကော်စ ''Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure'') မဒှ်လိက်တၟေင် ကေုာံ လိက်မဒးဒုင်ပါ်ပါဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိင်တေအ်တုဲ မဒှ်လိက်ဝတ္ထု မဆေင်ကဵု လိင်ကာမ နကဵုဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက် ကၠာအိုတ်မွဲရ။ လိက်ညးတေအ် မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု မဓဇက်ရုပ် ဖျေဟ်ဒဳဇိုင်တအ်ဂှ် မပတံကဵု ''Les charmes de Fanny exposés'' ရုပ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ရုပ် မလုပ်လၟိဟ် ပၞောဝ်ကဵု ရုပ်ခိုဟ်အိုတ် ညးတေအ် မဓဇက်လဝ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ညးတေအ် ဓဇက်ရုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက် Gustave Flaubert မချူလဝ် မပတံကဵု လိက်''Salammbô'', Gautier's ''Le Roi Caundale'',<ref name="kettererkunst"/><ref name="culture_trip"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Joseph A. Boone|title=The Homoerotics of Orientalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1OkYBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA401|publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Jean Baptiste Louvet de Couvray's ''Adventures of the Chevalier de Faublas'', Mario Uchard's ''Mon Oncle Barbassou'' (scenes in a harem), Jules Michelet's ''The Madam'', Hector France's ''Musk, Hashish and Blood'', လိက် Pietro Aretino မချူလဝ် နကဵု မုတ်ယၟု လိက်ဝတ္ထု ''Gamiani''တအ်ရ။<ref name="stilearte"/><ref name="Cutler2012"/>
ကမၠောန်ရုပ်အခိုက်တြေံ မဓဇက်လဝ် နကဵု အာဝှရိလ် မပတံကဵု ''Oeuvres d’Horace'' (1887), ''Une nuit de Cléopâtre (nouvelle)'' (1894), ''Daphnis et Chloé'' (1898), ကေုာံ ''Les sonnets luxurieux de l’Aretin'' (1904)တအ်ရ။<ref name="Wiley">{{Cite book|title=Sex: Vice and Love from Antiquity to Modernity|publisher=|doi=10.1002/9781444323566|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4443-2356-6}}</ref> ရုပ်လေတ်သဗဳယာန် (lesbian) အာဝှရိလ် မဓဇက်လဝ်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်တီဂၠိုင်အိုတ်လေဝ် ဟီုဂွံရ။<ref name="Hiner2011">{{Cite book|title=Accessories to Modernity: Fashion and the Feminine in Nineteenth-Century France|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0533-6}}</ref>
Prolific erotica collector Henry Spencer Ashbee ကဵုကမၠောန် ကုအာဝှရိလ် သွက်ဂွံဖျေဟ်ဒဳဇြာင် လိက်ဗီုရုပ် ညးတေအ်ရ။<ref name="Wiley"/> အာဝှရိလ် ကၠောန် ကရောမ် Octave Uzanne,<ref name="Hiner2011"/><ref name="Silverman2008">{{Cite book|title=The New Bibliopolis: French Book Collectors and the Culture of Print, 1880–1914|url=https://archive.org/details/newbibliopolisfr0000silv|year=2008|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-9211-3}}</ref> မဒှ် မၞိဟ်မကၠောန်လဝ် ရုပ် Société des Amis des Livres မဒှ်ရုပ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲကဵုရ။ Société des Bibliophiles Contemporaines (1889–1894)<ref>{{Cite book|year=1914|title=Dictionnaire national des contemporains|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionnairenati03curiuoft|publisher=Office Général d'Edition}}</ref> စၟတ်သမ္တီ အစာပါန်ခဳဒယှ် ၁၆၀ တၠဂှ် အာဝှရိလ် ပါလုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဂှ် မွဲတၠကီုရ။
== စရင် ပါန်ကွတ်ဂမၠိုင် ==
* ''L'Éventail'' (1882)<ref name="Hiner2011"/>
* ''L'Ombrelle – Le Gant – Le Manchon'' (1883)
* ''Fortunio'' (1883)<ref name="dict"/>
* ''Adventures of the Chevalier de Faublas'' (1884)<ref>{{Cite book|author=Michael Reynolds|title=Creating Der Rosenkavalier: From Chevalier to Cavalier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cCYbDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|date=17 June 2016|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|isbn=978-1-78327-049-1}}</ref>
* ''Mon Oncle Barbassou'' (''Scenes in a Harem'') (1884)
* ''Fanny Hill'' (fr. 1887, eng. 1906)
* ''Oeuvres d’Horace'' (1887)
* ''The Mirror of the World'' (1888)<ref>{{Cite book|author=H.P. Bois|title=Four private libraries of New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HfAMAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96|publisher=Рипол Классик|isbn=978-5-87738-216-9}}</ref>
* ''Le Roi Caundale'' (1893)
* ''Une nuit de Cléopâtre'' (1894)<ref>{{Cite book|author=Mary E. Davis|title=Ballets Russes Style: Diaghilev's Dancers and Paris Fashion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzqXtraCyIC&pg=PA239|date=15 October 2010|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-885-2}}</ref>
* ''The Life and Adventures of Father Silas'' (1896)
* ''Daphnis et Chloé'' (1898)
* ''Musk, Hashish and Blood'' (1899)
* ''Les Sonnets Luxurieux de l’Aretin'' (1904)
* ''Gamiani'' (1905)
* ''De Figuris Veneris: A Manual of Classical Erotica'' (1906)
* ''Salammbô'' (1906)
* ''Histoire de Saturnin'' (1908)
* ''The Madam''
== ဂါလ္လာရဳ (Gallery) ==
<center>
<big>'''Les Sonnetts Luxurieux'''</big>
<gallery>
Paul Avril - Les Sonnetts Luxurieux (1892) de Pietro Aretino, 2.jpg|Sexual intercourse in the [[missionary position]]
Paul Avril - Les Sonnetts Luxurieux (1892) de Pietro Aretino, 6.jpg|Les Sonnetts Luxurieux (1892) de [[Pietro Aretino]]
Paul Avril - Les Sonnetts Luxurieux (1892) de Pietro Aretino, 7.jpg|Les Sonnetts Luxurieux (1892) de Pietro Aretino
Paul Avril - Les Sonnetts Luxurieux (1892) de Pietro Aretino, 8.jpg|Les Sonnetts Luxurieux (1892) de Pietro Aretino
Paul Avril - Les Sonnetts Luxurieux (1892) de Pietro Aretino, 3.jpg|Les Sonnetts Luxurieux (1892) de Pietro Aretino
Édouard-Henri Avril (18) Hadrian and Antinous in Egypt.jpg|19th-century [[Eroticism|erotic]] interpretation of Roman emperor [[Hadrian]] and [[Antinous]] engaged in anal intercourse, by Édouard-Henri Avril
ဝှာင်:Édouard-Henri Avril (19).jpg|From the essay "De Figuris Veneris" by Friedrich Karl Forberg (1770–1848). The placard in the lower right hand corner reads "Gnothi seauton", Socrates' admonition to his friends to "know yourself". 1860 ca.
</gallery>
</center><center>
<big>'''Others'''</big>
<gallery>
Édouard-Henri_Avril_(13).jpg|Missionary position
Édouard-Henri Avril (23).jpg|Interior illustration for ''[[De figuris Veneris]]'' from [[Friedrich Karl Forberg]]
Édouard-Henri_Avril_(29).jpg|Plate XVIII from "De figuris Veneris"
Édouard-Henri Avril (28).jpg|Plate XVII from ''De Figuris Veneris'' portrays a more extreme form of Avril's work.
Histoire de Saturnin - Paul Avril - 1908.jpg|Histoire de Saturnin 1908
Octave Uzanne-L'Ombrelle-Le Gant-Le Manchon- 1883.jpg|Cover of [[L'Ombrelle - Le Gant - Le Manchon]] illustrated by Avril (1883)
</gallery>
</center>
== ဆက်ဗှ် ==
* Louis Legrand
* Martin van Maële
* L'Origine du monde by Gustave Courbet
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== လေန်မ္ၚး ==
* [https://www.arterotismo.com/PaulAvril/index.htm Avril's Gallery of Classical Erotica]
* [https://www.eroticabibliophile.com/artists_avril.php A Checklist of Works Illustrated by Paul Avril (46 items)]
* [http://www2.culture.gouv.fr/LH/LH007/PG/FRDAFAN83_OL0082007v001.htm Records] at Legion of Honour
nbmfcn1zuf216c52wlor6v3eavin7gw
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{{Infobox religious building
|name= ကျာ်သၚ်လာန် <br> Kyaikthanlan Pagoda
|coordinates={{coord|16.489315|97.628556|display=inline,text,title}}
|founded_by= သၟိင်မတ်ပိ
|website=
|functional_status= တန်တဴ
|country=[[မတ်မလီု၊ ဍုင်|မတ်မလီု]]၊ [[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]]
|deity=
|religious_affiliation= ထေရဝါဒ[[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
|location=
|native_name=
|map_caption=
|map_alt=
|map_size= 250
|map_type= Myanmar
|caption=
|alt=
|image=File:Architecture at Kyaikthanlan Paya.jpg
|year_completed=<!--{{start date and years ago|1886}}-->}}
'''ကျာ်သၚ်လာန်''' ({{Lang-en|'''Kyaikthanlan Pagoda'''}}; Burmese: ကျိုက်သလ္လံ စေတီ)ဝွံ ဒှ်ကျာ်စေတဳ သမၠုၚ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ[[ဍုင်မတ်မလီု]])၊ [[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]]၊ ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်မျာန်မာ (Myanmar) ရ။ ကျာ်စေတဳဝွံ နွံသမၠုၚ် ၁၅၀ ဃံက် (feet) (ဝါ) ၄၆ မဳတာ ရ။
ဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲသက္ကရာဇ်ခရေတ် 875 AD နူလက်ထက်သၟိၚ်ဨကရာဇ်မန် မတ်ပိရာဇာ (Mon King Mutpi Raja) ဂှ် ဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် ကျာ်စေတဳ နကဵုသမၠုၚ်တမ်မူလဍေံ ၅၆ ဃံက် [ {{Convert|56|ft|m}}] ရ။ နူဂှ် သၟိၚ်ဨကရာဇ်မန်ဆက်က်ဂမၠိုၚ် မပါလုပ် သီုအဆက်သၟိၚ်ဝါရေဝ်ရောဝ် ([[ဝါရေဝ်ရောဝ်၊ သၟိၚ်|Wareru]]) မဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ်ဍုၚ်ဟံသာဝတဳ (Hanthawaddy Kingdom) ဒတောဝ်တၞောဝ်သၟိၚ်မန်အဆက်က်ဂမၠိုၚ် ကလေၚ်ထပ်ဒက်သၠုၚ်ပတိုန်လဝ် ကျာ်စေတဳစဵုကဵု သမၠုၚ်လၟုဟ် ၁၅၀ ဃံက် [{{Convert|150|ft|m}}]။<ref>{{Cite book|url=|title=Buddhist Monuments and Temples of Myanmar and Thailand|last=Thabrew|first=W. Vivian De|date=2014-03-11|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781491896228|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Wanderings in Burma|url=https://archive.org/details/india.history.resource.91786|last=Bird|first=G W|publisher=|year=1897|isbn=|location=|pages=[https://archive.org/details/india.history.resource.91786/page/202 204]}}</ref> ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ AD 1831 ဂှ် သ္ဂောံစဵုဒၞါအာ လက်သန်ဍုၚ်မတ်မလီုမာန် ညံၚ်ဟွံဂွံကၠေံဗ္ဒန်အာတုဲ စက်ကာဲမာံထဝ်လေ (Sitke Maung [[မန်ထဝ်လေ၊ နာဲ|Htaw Lay]]) လက်ရဴညးယိုက်ဂၠေၚ်ဝန် နာဲဗစာမတ်မလီု (Magistrate of Moulmein) ကလေၚ်ပလေဝ်လဟဵုပတိုန်ကျာ်စေတဳ နကဵုဩန်ဒါန် ညးဍုၚ်ကွာန်တအ် မကဵုလဝ်ဒါန်ရ။<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Journey in Time: Family Memoirs (Burma, 1914–1948)|last=Myaing|first=Wai Wai|publisher=iUniverse|year=2005|isbn=9780595356515|location=|pages=210}}</ref>ကျာ်စေတဳဝွံ နွံတန်တဴဒၟံၚ် လ္တူဓရံင်ဒဵု၊ လ္တူဗလးဇၞူမတ်ဍုၚ် မၜိုဟ်လဟိၚ်သာယာ၊ ကြပ်ကဵု တကအ်ဂမၠိုၚ်၊ ပ္ၚံက်ၜဳမုဟ်တၟအ်၊ ဗဒဲါဩၚ်ကြုၚ် (ၜဳဩၚ်လောန်) ကေုာံ ဒဵုတၟအ်ခပဵု (limestone mountains) ရးကရေၚ် (Kayin State) လ္ပာ်ဗၟံက်ရ။ ညးဂမၠိုၚ် ပတှ်ေကေတ်လဝ် ရုဒယာတ် ကေပ်ပလေန် (Rudyard Kipling ) ချူလဝ်လိက်ညး မဒယှ်ဒၟံၚ် နကဵုယၟု "Lookin' lazy at the sea" လိက်ပၞောန် နူကဵုကဗျ ဂၠံၚ်တရဴ မအာဍုၚ်မာန္တလေဝ် "The Road to Mandalay" နူကဵုကျာ်စေတဳဝွံရ။ <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/m/019pho0000088s1u00036000.html|title=Maulmein. Great Pagoda [Kyaik-Than-Lan Pagoda]|last=Wright|first=Colin|website=www.bl.uk|access-date=2019-02-05|accessdate=2020-03-13|archivedate=2020-02-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203043349/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/m/019pho0000088s1u00036000.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.travelfish.org/sight_profile/burma_myanmar/southern_burma_myanmar/mon_state/mawlamyine/3642|title=Kyaik Than Lan|website=Travelfish|language=en|access-date=2017-06-13}}</ref>
== See also ==
* ဗုဒ္ဓဘာပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုၚ် (Buddhism in Myanmar)
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:ကျာ်]]
[[Category:ဝင်ကျာ်]]
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ဍုင်ဗၟာ]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ကျာ်စေတဳပ္ဍဲတွဵုရးဍုၚ်မန်ဂမၠိုၚ်]]
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{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Plants
| fossil_range = {{long fossil range|Mesoproterozoic|present}}
| image = Diversity of plants (Streptophyta) version 2.png
| image_caption =
| image_alt =
| taxon = Plantae
| authority = ''sensu'' Copeland, 1956
| display_parents = 3
| subdivision_ranks = Superdivisions
| subdivision =
* [[Chlorokybophyta]]
* [[Mesostigmatophyta]]
* [[Spirotaenia]]
* '''Chlorobionta''' <small>Kenrick & Crane 1997</small>
** [[Chlorophyta]]
* '''[[Streptobionta]]''' <small>Kenrick & Crane 1997</small>
** [[Klebsormidiophyceae]]
** [[Charophyta]] (stoneworts)
** ?[[Chaetosphaeridiales]]
** [[Coleochaetophyta]]
** [[Zygnematophyta]]
** [[Embryophyta]] <small>Engler, 1892</small> (land plants)
*** [[Marchantiophyta]] (liverworts)
*** [[Moss|Bryophyta]] (mosses)
*** [[Anthocerotophyta]] (hornworts)
*** †[[Horneophyta]]
*** †[[Aglaophyta]]
*** [[Tracheophyta]] (vascular plants)
| synonyms = * [[Viridiplantae]] <small>Cavalier-Smith 1981</small><ref name=CavalierSmith1981>{{cite journal |first=T. |last=Cavalier-Smith|date=1981|title=Eukaryote kingdoms: Seven or nine?|url=https://archive.org/details/bio-systems_1981_14_3-4/page/461 |journal=BioSystems|volume=14|issue=3–4|pages=461–481|doi=10.1016/0303-2647(81)90050-2|pmid=7337818}}</ref>
* Chlorobionta <small>Jeffrey 1982, emend. Bremer 1985, emend. Lewis and McCourt 2004</small><ref name=LewisMcCourt>{{cite journal|last1=Lewis|first1=L.A.|first2=R.M.|last2=McCourt|date=2004|title=Green algae and the origin of land plants|journal=American Journal of Botany|volume=91|issue=10|pages=1535–1556|doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1535|pmid=21652308}}</ref>
* Chlorobiota <small>Kenrick and Crane 1997</small><ref name=KenrickCrane1997>{{cite book |last1=Kenrick|first1=Paul|last2=Crane|first2=Peter R.|date=1997|title=The origin and early diversification of land plants: A cladistic study|url=https://archive.org/details/originearlydiver0000kenr|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|isbn=978-1-56098-730-7}}</ref>
* Chloroplastida <small>Adl et al., 2005 </small><ref name=Adl>{{cite journal|authors=Adl, S.M.| date=2005|title=The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists|journal=Journal of Eukaryote Microbiology|volume= 52| issue=5|pages=399–451|doi=10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x |display-authors=etal|pmid=16248873}}</ref>
* Phyta <small>Barkley 1939</small> emend. <small>Holt & Uidica 2007</small>
* Cormophyta <small>Endlicher, 1836</small>
* Cormobionta <small>Rothmaler, 1948</small>
* Euplanta <small>Barkley, 1949</small>
* Telomobionta <small>Takhtajan, 1964</small>
* Embryobionta <small>Cronquist et al., 1966</small>
* Metaphyta <small>Whittaker, 1969</small>
}}
'''တၞံ'''({{Lang-en|Plant}}) ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မနွံကဵု ကလာပ်ရုပ်နာနာ၊ မဂျိုင်တန်တဴ နကဵု photosynthetic eukaryotes မဒှ်ဂကောံ ရုက္ခလောက (kingdom '''Plantae)''' မပ္တံ တၞံဆု၊ တၞံရာပ်၊ တၞံသၞေဝ်၊ အိက်ၚေက်တအ်ရ။ နကဵု နဲကဲတြေမ်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲလောကၜါ သတ်မဂျိုင်လမျီု သီုဖအိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု တိရစ္ဆာန်တအ်ဂှ် ပၠုပ်စုတ် ပ္ဍဲသတ္တလောကတုဲ တၞံဂမၠိုင် သီုကဵု အိက်ၚေက်၊ ပတိုဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ပၠုပ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ရုက္ခလောက ရ။ ဆဂး ပွံက် ရုက္ခလောက (definitions of Plantae) လၟုဟ်ဂှ် ပတိုဟ်၊ အိက်ၚေက် ဂကူလ္ၚဵု ကေုာံ prokaryotes မဒှ်အရာ ဨကကလာပ်ရုပ်ဂမၠိုင်တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံပၠုပ်စုတ် ပ္ဍဲရုက္ခလောကရ။
တၞံသၚေက်ဂမၠိုင် (Green plants) ဂှ် ဒြဟတ်ဍေဟ်တအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ လျးတ္ၚဲ၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် တၞးသၚေက် (chloroplast) မနွံကဵု endosymbiosis ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး cyanobacteria တအ်ဂှ် နကဵု [[လျးသံယိုဂ်]] (photosynthesis)ဂှ် ဖန်ဗဒှ်ပတိုန် ဒြဟတ် (ဝါ)အဟာရဇကု ညံင်ဂွံဂျိုင် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်ဂေါဝ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တၞးသၚေက်ဍေဟ်တအ် နွံကဵု နွံကဵု အသာ်သၚေက် (chlorophyll) a ကဵု b ရ။ အရာဏအ်ဂှ်ရ ပကဵုဍေဟ်တအ် ညံင်ဂွံဒှ် အသာ်သၚေက်ရ။ တၞံလ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် parasitic ဟွံသေင်းမ္ဂး mycotrophic ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲကု အစောမ်စရာဲ သွက်ဂွံကၠောန်ပ္တိတ် အသာ်သၚေက် (chlorophyll) တုဲ ကၠောန်ပ လျးပယိုဂ် ဟွံဂွံတုဲ ဒးဗဒဗဒါဲ နူကဵု တၞံတၞဟ်တအ် မကၠောန်ပတိတ်လဝ် ဒြဟတ်တအ်ရ။ တၞံတအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ပရေင်မကလေင်ခၞံပတိတ် နကဵုဆက်ဆောံလိင် (sexual reproduction) ကေုာံ မခၞံဗဒှ်တၞောဝ်တၟိ နကဵုနဲတၞဟ် (alternation of generations)ရ။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ကလေင်ခၞံပတိတ် နကဵုဆက်ဆောံလိင်ဂှ် နွံဂၠိုင်ရ။
ဂကူတၞံ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံၜိုတ် ၃၂၀,၀၀၀ တုဲ ပ္ဍဲတအ်ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် အကြာ ၂၆၀-၂၉၀ ဂကူဂှ် ပ္တိတ် မ ရ။<ref name="IUCNdata">{{Cite web|title=Numbers of threatened species by major groups of organisms (1996–2010)|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature|date=11 March 2010|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/documents/summarystatistics/2010_1RL_Stats_Table_1.pdf}}</ref> တၞံသၚေက်တအ်ဂှ် ပ္ဍိုက်ဗပေင်ဒၟံင် ဓါတ်မဝ်လေကျူ အံက်သေဂျေန် (molecular oxygen) မဒှ် အရာမနွံပၟိက် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဂၠးတိဏအ်<ref name="behrenfeld">{{Cite journal|title=Primary production of the biosphere: Integrating terrestrial and oceanic components|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9gm7074q}}</ref> ကေုာံ အရာသဇိုင်အဓိက သွက်သၞောတ်ဂေဟဂၠးတိ (Earth's ecosystems) ညံင်ဂွံဂေတ်ရ။ တၞံ မပတိတ် သြောအ် (grain)၊ သတ် (fruit) ကေုာံ သၞေဝ် (vegetables) တအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဒှ်အရာအဓိက စၞစ ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်တုဲ ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် တဵုလွဳကၠုင်ဒၟံင် နူကဵု သၞာံမဂၠိုင်ကဵုလ္ၚီရ။ တၞံတအ်ဂှ် ရပ်စပ် စကာဒၟံင် ဒၞာဲဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲအရာ ယေန်သၞာင် ပြဝေဏဳဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံ မစြဟ်ဝက်၊ ပူဇဴကျာ်၊ ဗလိ ဒေဝတဴကီု သီုကဵု စကာ ပ္ဍဲအရာ မသြိုင်ခၞံ မပ္တံကဵု ဆု သွက်ဂွံသြိုင်သ္ၚိ၊ ဒက်ဂၠုင်၊ ကပေါတ်ကသူ မချူ မပတံကဵု လိက် ကေုာံ ဒဗျဂဥုဲဇဗဂမၠိုင်ကီုရ။ ပညာမလ္ၚတ် တၞံတအ်ဂှ် ညးကော်စ ရုက္ခဗေဒ (botany) မဒှ် လစှ်ေ ဇဳဝဗေဒ (biology) ရ။
== ပွံက် ==
{{barlabel|size=8|at=5|label=groups traditionally<br />called [[green algae]]|cladogram={{cladex
|label1='''Archaeplastida + cryptista'''
|1={{cladex
|3=[[Cryptista]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Rhodophyta]] (red algae)
|2=Rhodelphidia (predatorial)
|3=[[Picozoa]]
}}
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Glaucophyta]] (glaucophyte algae)
|label2='''green plants'''
|2={{cladex
|1={{cladex
|1=[[Mesostigmatophyceae]]|barbegin1=darkgreen
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Chlorokybophyceae]]|bar1=darkgreen
|2=[[Spirotaenia]]|bar2=darkgreen
}}
}}
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Chlorophyta]]|bar1=darkgreen
|label2=[[Streptophyta]]
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Charales]] (stoneworts)|barend1=darkgreen
|2='''land plants''' or [[embryophyte]]s
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}}}
=== အိက်ၚာက် Algae ===
[[ဝှာင်:Haeckel_Siphoneae.jpg|thumb|Green algae from Ernst Haeckel's ''Kunstformen der Natur'', 1904.]]
=== ပတိုဟ် Fungi ===
== လပါ် Diversity ==
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin-left:1em;"
|+'''Diversity of living green plant (Viridiplantae) divisions'''
! style="background:lightgreen; text-align:center;" |Informal group
! style="background:lightgreen; text-align:center;" |Division name
! style="background:lightgreen; text-align:center;" |Common name
! style="background:lightgreen; text-align:center;" |No. of living species
! style="background:lightgreen; text-align:center;" |Approximate No. in informal group
|-
| rowspan="2" style="background:lightgrey; vertical-align:top;" |Green algae
|'''Chlorophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |green algae (chlorophytes)
| style="text-align:right;" |3,800–4,300 <ref>Van den Hoek, C.; Mann, D.G.; & Jahns, H.M. 1995. ''Algae: An Introduction to Phycology''. pp. 343, 350, 392, 413, 425, 439, & 448 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). {{ISBN|0-521-30419-9}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;" |8,500
(6,600–10,300)
|-
|'''Charophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |green algae (e.g. desmids & stoneworts)
| style="text-align:right;" |2,800–6,000 <ref>Van den Hoek, C.; Mann, D.G.; & Jahns, H.M. 1995. ''Algae: An Introduction to Phycology''. pp. 457, 463, & 476. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). {{ISBN|0-521-30419-9}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" style="background:lightgrey; vertical-align:top;" |Bryophytes
|'''Marchantiophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |liverworts
| style="text-align:right;" |6,000–8,000 <ref>Crandall-Stotler, Barbara & Stotler, Raymond E., 2000. "Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta". p. 21 ''in'' A. Jonathan Shaw & Bernard Goffinet (Eds.), ''Bryophyte Biology''. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). {{ISBN|0-521-66097-1}}</ref>
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;" |19,000
(18,100–20,200)
|-
|'''Anthocerotophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |hornworts
| style="text-align:right;" |100–200 <ref>Schuster, Rudolf M., ''The Hepaticae and Anthocerotae of North America'', volume VI, pp. 712–713. (Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1992). {{ISBN|0-914868-21-7}}.</ref>
|-
|'''Bryophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |mosses
| style="text-align:right;" |12,000 <ref name="Goffinet & Buck 2004">{{Cite journal|last=Goffinet|first=Bernard|year=2004|title=Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" style="background:lightgrey; vertical-align:top;" |Pteridophytes
|'''Lycopodiophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |club mosses
| style="text-align:right;" |1,200 <ref name="Raven 2005">{{Cite book|last=Raven|first=Peter H.|year=2005|title=Biology of Plants|url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0|publisher=W.H. Freeman and Company}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;" |12,000
(12,200)
|-
|'''Pteridophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |ferns, whisk ferns & horsetails
| style="text-align:right;" |11,000
|-
| rowspan="5" style="background:lightgrey; vertical-align:top;" |Seed plants
|'''Cycadophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |cycads
| style="text-align:right;" |160 <ref>{{Cite book|last=Gifford|first=Ernest M.|year=1988|title=Morphology and Evolution of Vascular Plants|publisher=W.H. Freeman and Company}}</ref>
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;" |260,000
(259,511)
|-
|'''Ginkgophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |ginkgo
| style="text-align:right;" |1 <ref>{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Thomas N.|year=1993|title=The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants|publisher=Prentice-Hall}}</ref>
|-
|'''Pinophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |conifers
| style="text-align:right;" |630
|-
|'''Gnetophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |gnetophytes
| style="text-align:right;" |70
|-
|'''Magnoliophyta'''
| style="text-align:left;" |flowering plants
| style="text-align:right;" |258,650 <ref>International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 2006. ''[http://www.iucnredlist.org/ IUCN Red List of Threatened Species:Summary Statistics] {{Webarchive}}''</ref>
|}
<br />
<br />{{barlabel|size=1|at=0.1|label=[[Green algae]]|cladogram={{clade| style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%;
|label1=[[Viridiplantae]]
|1={{cladex
|1= {{cladex|barbegin1=darkgreen
|1=[[Mesostigmatophyceae]]
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Chlorokybophyceae]] |bar1=darkgreen
|2=''[[Spirotaenia]]''|bar2=darkgreen
}}
}}
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Chlorophyta]] inc. Prasinophyceae |bar1=darkgreen
|label2=[[Streptophyta|Streptobionta]]
|2={{cladex
|1=''[[Streptofilum]]'' |bar1=darkgreen
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Klebsormidiophyceae|Klebsormidiophyta]] |bar1=darkgreen
|label2=[[Phragmoplastophyta]]
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Charophyta]] <small>Rabenhorst 1863 emend. Lewis & McCourt 2004</small> (Stoneworts)|bar1=darkgreen
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Coleochaetophyceae|Coleochaetophyta]] |bar1=darkgreen
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Zygnematophyceae|Zygnematophyta]]|barend1=darkgreen
|label2=[[Embryophyta|Embryobiotes]]
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Marchantiophyta]] (Liverworts)
|label2=[[Stomatophyta]]
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Moss|Bryophyta]] (True mosses)
|2={{cladex
|1=[[Anthocerotophyta]] (Non-flowering hornworts)
|label2=[[Polysporangiophyta]]
|2={{cladex
|1=†[[Horneophytopsida|Horneophyta]]
|2={{cladex
|1=†[[Aglaophyton|Aglaophyta]]
|2=[[Tracheophyta]] (Vascular Plants)
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}}}
=== Embryophytes ===
[[ဝှာင်:Ferns02.jpg|thumb|''Dicksonia antarctica'', a species of tree fern]]
=== ဇမြ (Fossils) ===
[[ဝှာင်:Petrified_forest_log_1_md.jpg|thumb|A petrified log in Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona]]
== လဒက်ပတန်၊ ဇၞော် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် Structure, growth and development ==
[[ဝှာင်:Leaf_1_web.jpg|thumb|The leaf is usually the primary site of photosynthesis in plants.]]
[[ဝှာင်:Eenbruinigherfstblad.jpg|left|thumb|There is no photosynthesis in deciduous leaves in autumn.]]
=== ကလာပ်ရုပ် တၞံ Plant cells ===
[[ဝှာင်:Plant_cell_structure-en.svg|thumb|Plant cell structure]]
== ခန္ဓဗေဒ Physiology ==
=== သင်ဂြး Photosynthesis ===
Plants are photosynthetic, which means that they manufacture their own food molecules using energy obtained from light. The primary mechanism plants have for capturing light energy is the pigment chlorophyll. All green plants contain two forms of chlorophyll, chlorophyll <nowiki><i id="mwAyI">a</i></nowiki> and chlorophyll <nowiki><i id="mwAyQ">b</i></nowiki>. The latter of these pigments is not found in red or brown algae.
The simple equation of photosynthesis is as follows:
: <chem>6CO2{} + 6H2O{} ->[\text{light}] C6H12O6{} + 6O2{}</chem>
=== သၞောတ် ဒြဟတ်အိမ်မုန် Immune system ===
<br />
=== Internal distribution ===
<br />
== ဗဳဇ Genomics ==
== ဂေဟဗေဒ Ecology ==
=== Food ===
[[ဝှာင်:Harvest_Time_-_geograph.org.uk_-_747095.jpg|thumb|Mechanical harvest of oats.]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပြန်လည်မဆန်းစစ်ရသေးသော ဘာသာပြန်များပါဝင်သည့် စာမျက်နှာများ]]
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လိင် မသက်ကုဘဲ
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[[ဝှာင်:Condom_unrolled_durex.jpg|thumb|250x250px|ကောန်ဒေါမ် (condoms) မဒှ် ဂရောပ် အင်္ဂလိင် မၞိဟ်တြုတ် (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး) လပုဟ်တဲ (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အဝဲလစှ်ေကာယတၞဟ်သွက်ကလိဂွံ လိင် မသက်ကုဘဲ အခိင်ကာလ မပၠုပ်စုတ် အပ္ဍဲပထောင် ကာယ။]]
[[ဝှာင်:Latex_Dental_Dam_far_(cropped).jpg|thumb|250x250px|Dental dams ယာတ်ဂရောပ် သွက်ဂွံကၟာတ် အင်္ဂလိင်မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သင်အိက် အခိင်ကာလ မဇွိတ်သပေါတ် နကဵု မကၠာန်ယောနိ (cunnilingus) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မကၠာန်ဝစ္စ (anilingus) သွက်ကလိဂွံ လိင် မသက်ကုဘဲ။]]
[[ဝှာင်:Female_condom.jpg|thumb|250x250px|ကောန်ဒေါမ်ညးဗြဴ (Female condoms) ("internal" condoms ကောန်ဒေါမ်ပဍဲ) စကာဂွံ ကာလမဒုင်ပွံင် သွက် လိင် မသက်ကုဘဲ]]
'''လိင် မသက်ကုဘဲ (Safe sex)''' ဂှ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လိင်ကာမ နမစကာ နဲကဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကပေါတ် (မပတံကဵု ကောန်ဒေါမ်) သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် ကမၠောအ်ယဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဝေင်ပါဲ ယဲကၞောန် နကဵုလိင်(sexually transmitted infections (STIs)၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် ယဲအုက်အာင်ဝဳ (HIV)ရ။ လိင်မသက်ကုဘဲ ဂှ်လဆောဝ် ကၠာဲအတိုင် မအရေဝ်အင်္ဂလိက် "Safe sex" လိင်ဂီုကၠီု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''protected sex လိင်မနွံကဵုစဵုဒၞာ''' လေဝ် ဟီုကီုရ။ ညံင်နဲ မစဵုဒၞာ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံကၠောအ်ယဲဂှ်ကီု လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ညံင်ဟွံဂွံတန် ပဋိသန္ဓိ (ညံင်ဟွံဂွံဗုင်) လေဝ် စကာနဲကဲဏအ်တုဲ ဒုင်စသိုင် အရီုကာမလိင်ကီုရ။
ဂလာန်မ္ဂး လိင်မသက်ကုဘဲဂှ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ၁၉၈၀တအ် တၞဟ်နဂွံဝေင်ပါဲ ညံင်ယဲအေအာင်ဒဳအေသ် ဟွံဂွံကၠောအ်တုဲ စဖန် ဟီုဂးကၠုင်ရ။<ref name="Who">{{Cite web|title=Global strategy for the prevention and control of sexually transmitted infections: 2006–2015. Breaking the chain of transmission|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|year=2007|accessdate=26 November 2011|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241563475_eng.pdf|archivedate=23 March 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323122753/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241563475_eng.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Mercer">{{Cite journal|title=The Effectiveness of Group-Based Comprehensive Risk-Reduction and Abstinence Education Interventions to Prevent or Reduce the Risk of Adolescent Pregnancy, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, and Sexually Transmitted Infections|year=2012|url=http://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(11)00906-8/abstract}}</ref>
ဆဂး လိင်မသက်ကုဘဲ (ညံင်ရဴ ကောန်ဒေါမ်) ဂှ် တၞဟ်နဂွံဝေင်ပါဲ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံကောန်ဇာတ်တုဲ စကာဒၟံင်ကီုရ။
== နတဲ ==
A range of safe-sex practices are commonly recommended by sexual health educators and public health agencies. Many of these practices can reduce (but not completely eliminate) risk of transmitting or acquiring STIs.
=== လိင် ဖုန်/လိင်သာဲပါ/လိင်Phone sex/cybersex/sexting ===
Sexual activities, such as phone sex, cybersex, and sexting, that do not include direct contact with the skin or bodily fluids of sexual partners, carry no STI risks and, thus, are forms of safe sex.<ref name="plannedparenthood">{{Cite web|url=http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/stds-hiv-safer-sex/safer-sex-4263.htm|title=Safer Sex ("Safe Sex")|accessdate=23 September 2009|archivedate=29 March 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080329023107/http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/stds-hiv-safer-sex/safer-sex-4263.htm}}</ref>
=== Non-penetrative sex ===
A range of sex acts called "non-penetrative sex" or "outercourse" can significantly reduce STI risks. Non-penetrative sex includes practices such as kissing, mutual masturbation, rubbing or stroking.<ref name="LaRosa">{{Cite book|title=New Dimensions In Women's Health|accessdate=31 August 2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2X03PXd4JSoC&pg=PA91}}</ref><ref name="White">{{Cite book|title=Medical Surgical Nursing: An Integrated Approach, 3rd ed|accessdate=1 September 2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LWEJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1161}}</ref> According to the Health Department of Western Australia, this sexual practice may prevent pregnancy and most STIs. However, non-penetrative sex may not protect against infections that can be transmitted via skin-to-skin contact, such as herpes and human papilloma virus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=STDs (Sexually Transmitted Diseases)|url=http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/sexually_transmitted_infections.html|accessdate=23 January 2014|archivedate=2 February 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202144530/http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/sexually_transmitted_infections.html}}</ref> Mutual or partnered masturbation carries some STI risk, especially if there is skin contact or shared bodily fluids with sexual partners, although the risks are significantly lower than many other sexual activities.<ref name="plannedparenthood"/>
=== Condoms, dental dams, gloves ===
Barriers, such as condoms, dental dams, and medical gloves can prevent contact with body fluids (such as blood, vaginal fluid, semen, rectal mucus), and other means of transmitting STIs (like skin, hair and shared objects) during sexual activity.
[[ဝှာင်:How_To_Put_on_a_Condom_graphic.png|thumb|How to put a male condom on a penis]]
* External condoms can be used to cover the penis, hands, fingers, or other body parts during sexual penetration or stimulation. They are most frequently made of latex, and can also be made out of synthetic materials including polyurethane and polyisoprene.
* Internal condoms (also called female condoms) are inserted into the vagina or anus prior to sexual penetration. These condoms are made of either polyurethane or nitrile. If external and internal condoms are used at the same time, they may break due to friction between the materials during sexual activity.
* A dental dam (originally used in dentistry) is a sheet of latex used for protection when engaging in oral sex. It is typically used as a barrier between the mouth and the vulva during cunnilingus or between the mouth and the anus during anal–oral sex.
* Medical gloves made out of latex, vinyl, nitrile, or polyurethane may be used as a makeshift dental dam during oral sex, or can cover hands, fingers, or other body parts during penetration or sexual stimulation, such as [[သုက္ကဝိဿဋ်|masturbation]].<ref name="Corinna">{{Cite book|title=S.E.X.: The All-You-Need-to-Know Sexuality Guide to Get You Through Your Teens and Twenties|url=https://archive.org/details/sexallyouneedtok0000cori_n7f5|date=2016|publisher=Da Capo Lifelong Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0738218847}}</ref><ref name="Moon">{{Cite book|title=Girl Sex 101|date=2018|publisher=Lunatic Ink|isbn=978-0983830900}}</ref>
* Condoms, dental dams, and gloves can also be used to cover sex toys such as dildos during sexual stimulation or penetration. If a sex toy is to be used in more than one orifice or partner, a condom/dental dam/glove can be used over it and changed when the toy is moved.
Oil-based lubrication can break down the structure of latex condoms, dental dams or gloves, reducing their effectiveness for STI protection.<ref>{{Cite book|title=S.E.X.: The All-You-Need-to-Know Sexuality Guide to Get You Through Your Teens and Twenties|url=https://archive.org/details/sexallyouneedtok0000cori_n7f5|date=2016|publisher=Da Capo Lifelong Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0738218847|page=[https://archive.org/details/sexallyouneedtok0000cori_n7f5/page/294 294]|edition=second}}</ref>
While use of external condoms can reduce STI risks during sexual activity, they are not 100% effective. One study has suggested condoms might reduce HIV transmission by 85% to 95%; effectiveness beyond 95% was deemed unlikely because of slippage, breakage, and incorrect use.<ref name="Varghese">{{Cite journal|year=2002|title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use|url=http://ww2.aegis.org/files/AskDoc_refs/varghese2002-29-1.pdf|journal=Sex Transm Dis|volume=29|issue=1|pages=38–43|doi=10.1097/00007435-200201000-00007|pmid=11773877}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724224853/http://ww2.aegis.org/files/AskDoc_refs/varghese2002-29-1.pdf |date=2011-07-24 }}</ref> It also said, "In practice, inconsistent use may reduce the overall effectiveness of condoms to as low as 60–70%".<sup>p. 40.</sup>
=== Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) ===
Pre-exposure prophylaxis (often abbreviated as ''PrEP'') is the use of prescription drugs by those who do not have HIV to prevent HIV infection. PrEP drugs are taken ''prior'' to HIV exposure to prevent the transmission of the virus, usually between sexual partners. PrEP drugs do not prevent other STI infections or pregnancy.
As of 2018, the most-widely approved form of ''PrEP'' combines two drugs (tenofovir and emtricitabine) in one pill. That drug combination is sold under the brand name Truvada by Gilead Sciences. It is also sold in generic formulations worldwide. Other drugs are also being studied for use as PrEP.
Different countries have approved different protocols for using the tenofovir/emtricitabine-combination drug as ''PrEP''. That two-drug combination has been shown to prevent HIV infection in different populations when taken daily, intermittently, and on demand. Numerous studies have found the tenofovir/emtricitabine combination to be over 90% effective at preventing HIV transmission between sexual partners.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/risk/prep/|title=Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)|date=19 September 2016|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=14 March 2017}}</ref>
=== Treatment as prevention ===
Treatment as Prevention (often abbreviated as ''TasP'') is the practice of testing for and treating HIV infection as a way to prevent further spread of the virus. Those having knowledge of their HIV-positive status can use safe-sex practices to protect themselves and their partners (such as using condoms, sero-sorting partners, or choosing less-risky sexual activities). And, because HIV-positive people with durably suppressed or undetectable amounts of HIV in their blood ''cannot transmit HIV to sexual partners'', sexual activity with HIV-positive partners on effective treatment is a form of safe sex (to prevent HIV infection). This fact has given rise to the concept of "U=U" ("Undetectable = Untransmittable").<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.preventionaccess.org/|title=U=U|accessdate=11 September 2018}}</ref>
=== Other forms of safe sex ===
Other methods proven effective at reducing STI risks during sexual activity are:
* Immunization against certain sexually-transmitted viruses. The most common vaccines protect against Hepatitis B and Human papilloma virus (HPV), which can cause cervical cancer, penile cancer, oral cancer, and genital warts. Immunization before initiation of sexual activity increases effectiveness of these vaccines. HPV vaccines are recommended for all teen girls and women as well as teen boys and men through age 26 and 21 respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/std/prevention/default.htm|title=Prevention - STD Information from CDC|date=2019-05-28|language=en-us}}</ref>
* Limiting numbers of sexual partners, particularly casual sexual partners, or restricting sexual activity to those who know and share their STI status, can also reduce STI risks. Monogamy or polyfidelity, practiced faithfully, is very safe (as far as STIs are concerned) when all partners are non-infected. However, many monogamous people have been infected with sexually transmitted diseases by partners who are sexually unfaithful, have used injection drugs, or were infected by previous sexual partners. The same risks apply to polyfidelitous people, who face higher risks depending on how many people are in the polyfidelitous group.
* Communication with sexual partners about sexual history and STI status, preferred safe sex practices, and acceptable risks for partnered sexual activities.
* Engaging in less-risky sexual activities. In general, solo sexual activities are less risky than partnered activities. Sexual penetration of orifices (mouth, vagina, anus) and sharing body fluids (such as semen, blood, vaginal fluids, and rectal mucus) between sexual partners carry the most risk for STIs.
* Regular STI testing and treatment, especially by those who are sexually active with more than one casual sexual partner.<ref name="Kahn">{{Cite journal|title=Acute Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 infection}}</ref><ref name="pmid11187417">{{Cite journal|title=Diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection. Los Angeles County Primary HIV Infection Recruitment Network}}</ref> It is possible to attain and show proof of STD-free-verification through online dating apps and websites. Examples include apps/websites such as MedXSafe, Safeapp.me, Qpid.me, Healthvana, NeatClub, ...
* Penile circumcision. Some research suggests that circumcising (removing) the foreskin of the penis can reduce the risk of contracting HIV.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6502855.stm|title=WHO agrees HIV circumcision plan|date=3 March 2007}}</ref> Some advocacy groups dispute these findings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.circumstitions.com/HIV-SA.html|title=Circumcision and HIV - the Randomised Controlled Trials}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mgmbill.org/aids.htm|title=Circumcision and AIDS<!-- Bot generated title -->|accessdate=2020-06-11|archivedate=2008-07-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723220755/http://mgmbill.org/aids.htm}}</ref>
== Ineffective methods ==
=== General ===
Most methods of contraception are not effective at preventing the spread of STIs. This includes birth control pills, vasectomy, tubal ligation, periodic abstinence, IUDs and many non-barrier methods of pregnancy prevention. However, condoms are highly effective for birth control and STI prevention.
The spermicide Nonoxynol-9 has been claimed to reduce the likelihood of STI transmission. However, a technical report<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/68510/1/WHO_RHR_03.08.pdf|title=Technical Consultation on Nonoxynol-9|date=October 2001|accessdate=10 March 2018}}</ref> by the World Health Organization has shown that Nonoxynol-9 is an irritant and can produce tiny tears in mucous membranes, which may increase the risk of transmission by offering pathogens more easy points of entry into the system. They reported that Nonoxynol-9 lubricant do not have enough spermicide to increase contraceptive effectiveness cautioned they should not be promoted. There is no evidence that spermicidal condoms are better at preventing STD transmission compared to condoms that do not have spermicide. If used properly, spermicidal condoms can prevent pregnancy, but there is still an increased risk that nonoxynyl-9 can irritate the skin, making it more susceptible for infections.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/stds-hiv-safer-sex/safer-sex/how-do-i-make-sex-safer|title=How Do I Make Sex Safer? {{!}} Common Questions and Answers|accessdate=2019-08-02}}</ref>
The use of a diaphragm or contraceptive sponge provides some women with better protection against certain sexually transmitted diseases,<ref name="TechInd">{{Cite news|title=Diaphragm and sponge protect against STDs - sexually transmitted diseases}}</ref> but they are not effective for all STIs.
Hormonal methods of preventing pregnancy (such as oral contraceptives [i.e. 'The pill'], depoprogesterone, hormonal IUDs, the vaginal ring, and the patch) offer no protection against STIs. The copper intrauterine device and the hormonal intrauterine device provide an up to 99% protection against pregnancies but no protection against STIs. Women with copper intrauterine device ''may'' be subject to greater risk of infection from bacterial infectious such as gonorrhea or chlamydia, although this is debated.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Intrauterine devices & infection: Review of the literature}}</ref>
Coitus interruptus (or "pulling out"), in which the penis is removed from the vagina, anus, or mouth before ejaculation, may reduce transmission of STIs but still carries significant risk. This is because pre-ejaculate, a fluid that oozes from the penile urethra before ejaculation, may contain STI pathogens. Additionally, the microbes responsible for some diseases, including genital warts and syphilis, can be transmitted through skin-to-skin or mucous membrane contact.
=== Anal sex ===
Unprotected anal penetration is considered a high-risk sexual activity because the thin tissues of the anus and rectum can be easily damaged.<ref name="Dean and Delvin">{{Cite web|title=Anal sex|url=http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/sexandrelationships/analsex.htm|accessdate=2020-06-11|archivedate=2010-05-07|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507161735/http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/sexandrelationships/analsex.htm}}</ref> Slight injuries can allow the passage of bacteria and viruses, including HIV. This includes penetration of the anus by fingers, hands, or sex toys such as dildos. Also, condoms may be more likely to break during anal sex than during vaginal sex, increasing the risk of STI transmission.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Can I get HIV from anal sex?|url=http://aids.about.com/od/technicalquestions/f/oral.htm|accessdate=2020-06-11|archivedate=2011-10-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003004931/http://aids.about.com/od/technicalquestions/f/oral.htm}}</ref>
The main risk which individuals are exposed to when performing anal sex is the transmission of HIV. Other possible infections include Hepatitis A, B and C; intestinal parasite infections like ''Giardia''; and bacterial infections such as ''Escherichia coli.''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/risk/analsex.html|title=Anal Sex|date=|accessdate=10 March 2018}}</ref>
Anal sex should be avoided by couples in which one of the partners has been diagnosed with an STI until the treatment has proven to be effective.
In order to make anal sex safer, the couple must ensure that the anal area is clean and the bowel empty and the partner on whom anal penetration occurs should be able to relax. Regardless of whether anal penetration occurs by using a finger or the penis, the condom is the best barrier method to prevent transmission of STI. Enemas should be not be used as they can increase the risk of HIV infection<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 November 2008|title=The Use of Rectal Douches among HIV-uninfected and Infected Men who Have Unprotected Receptive Anal Intercourse: Implications for Rectal Microbicides}}</ref> and lymphogranuloma venereum proctitis.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2008|title=Lymphogranuloma Venereum Proctitis in Men Who Have Sex With Men Is Associated With Anal Enema Use and High-Risk Behavior}}</ref>
Since the rectum can be easily damaged, the use of lubricants is highly recommended even when penetration occurs by using the finger. Especially for beginners, using a condom on the finger is both a protection measure against STI and a lubricant source. Most condoms are lubricated and they allow less painful and easier penetration. Oil-based lubricants damage latex and should not be used with condoms;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Steiner|first=M.|title=The impact of lubricants on latex condoms during vaginal intercourse|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACA620.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929081845/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACA620.pdf |date=2020-09-29 }}</ref> water-based and silicone-based lubricants are available instead. Non-latex condoms are available for people who are allergic to latex made out of polyurethane or polyisoprene.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/contraception/male-condoms/|title=Condoms|last=|first=|date=21 December 2017|accessdate=10 March 2018}}</ref> Polyurethane condoms can safely be used with oil-based lubricant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/std/tg2015/clinical.htm|title=Clinical Prevention Guidance - 2015 STD Treatment Guidelines|date=10 October 2017|accessdate=10 March 2018}}</ref> The "female condom" may also be used effectively by the anal receiving partner.
Anal stimulation with a sex toy requires similar safety measures to anal penetration with a penis, in this case using a condom on the sex toy in a similar way.
It is important that the man washes and cleans his penis after anal intercourse if he intends to penetrate the vagina. Bacteria from the rectum are easily transferred to the vagina, which may cause vaginal and urinary tract infections.<ref name="SHR">{{Cite web|title=Anal Sex - Facts and Safe Sex Information}}</ref>
When anal-oral contact occurs, protection is required since this is a risky sexual behavior in which illnesses as Hepatitis A or STIs can be easily transmitted, as well as enteric infections. The dental dam or the plastic wrap<ref>{{Cite book|title=HIVAIDS care & counselling : a multidisciplinary approach|date=2008|publisher=Pearson Education South Africa}}</ref> are effective protection means whenever anilingus is performed.
== Sex toys ==
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပြန်လည်မဆန်းစစ်ရသေးသော ဘာသာပြန်များပါဝင်သည့် စာမျက်နှာများ]]
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[[ဝှာင်:Arahan Monk in Burmese.jpg|thumb|မဟာထေအရဟံ ညးဂွံအာပတန်လဝ်ဗုဒ္ဓသာသနာသီုကဵုဒှ်သံဃရာဇာအာဒိကိုပ်ကၠာပ္ဍဲဍုၚ်ဗကာံဗမာ]]
'''လၟောဝ်မှာထေရ်အရဟံ'''တန်ဂဝ်ဂၞဴမိ ပ္ဍဲသုဝဏ္ဏဘုံတုဲ ပ္ဍဲသက္ကရာဇ်ဍုၚ် ၃၉၆သၞာံဂှ် သၠးဂၠံဂဝ် က္တဵုဒှ်မၞိဟ်ရ။ စိုပ်အခိၚ်မံၚ်ဘာဂွံ ပအပ်ကဵုကျာ်ဇၞော်အ္စာတၠမန် မဟာကလထေရ်တုဲ ဗွဲကြဴအ္စာတၠမန်ဂှ် သ္ပကဵုသာမဏဳတုဲ အ္စာဥပ္ပဇ္ဇျာယ် ကဵုလဝ်ယၟုသာမဏဳဂှ် ဓမ္မဒဿဳရ။ သာမဏဳဓမ္မဒဿဳဂှ် ပဟိုတ်ကဵုဍုၚ်သုခဝ်တာဲ [[ဍုင်သေံ|တွဵုရးသေံ]] ချူဒျာမနိမန်တုဲ၊ မပြာပ်ပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲဘာဨကရာဇ်ဍုၚ်သုခဝ်တာဲ ပွိုၚ်စှ်သၞာံပြၚ်တုဲ၊ ကလေၚ်စဴစိုပ်[[ဍုၚ်သုဝဏ္ဏဘုံ]] ဍုၚ်မိတိမဇကုပၠန်ရ၊ ကြဴဝွံ သာမဏဳဓမ္မဒဿဳဂှ်. ဒှ်ဂမဳပ္ဍဲအ္စာဥပ္ပဇ္ဇျာယ်မဟာကာလထေရ်တုဲ၊ အာစိုပ်ဒဒှ်အရှန်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲမနုဟဝ်သၠိုက်အဘိသိက်ဂွံမွဲသၞာံပြၚ်ပြၚ်တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲသာသနာကျာ် ၁၆၀၀သၞာံ၊ သက္ကရာဇ်ဍုၚ် ၄၁၈သၞာံ မှာထေရ်အရဟံ စိုပ်ဍုၚ်ဗကာံရ။<ref name="Coedes">{{Cite book|last=Coedès|first=George|authorlink=George Coedès|editor=Walter F. Vella|others=trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year=1968|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}</ref>
== အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိမှာထေရ်အဟံ ==
ပ္ဍဲကာလဂှ် သာသနာကျာ် တန်တဴပ္ဍဲတ္ကံဇမ္ဗုဒိပ်သုနာပရန္တရးရောၚ်။ ကျာ်ပျးလဝ်ဒိုသ် အတိုၚ်ကျာ်ပျးလဝ်ဂှ် ပိုဲသ္ဒးအာဗဂဵုရောၚ် ရဴဝွံ တၠအရှန်တံချပ်ရေၚ်သ္ကံတုဲ၊ က္ညတိုန်အာသွဝ်တာဝတိံ ကောန်ဒေဝတဴပတန်သာသနာ သၟဟ်ရထမာန်ဂှ် ပြာပ်အာအာတ်သၟိၚ်အိန်ရ၊ သၟိၚ်အိန်တုန်ပြာပ်အာအာတ်အခေါၚ်ကဵုကောန်ဒေဝတဴဂှ်ရ၊ ကောန်ဒေဝတဴဂှ်လေဝ်သွက်ဂွံစှေ်ပ္တန်သာသနာ ဍုၚ်လိုက်ဂှ်ဒုၚ်ဝန်တုဲ၊ စှေ်လုပ်တန်ပဋိသန္ဓိပ္ဍဲဗဗၞးဗြဴကောန်ညးဍုၚ်သဓီုတုဲ၊ ပေၚ်ဂိတုတ္ၚဲ သၠးနူဂဝ်က္တဵုဒှ်သၟတ်ကောန်ၚာ်ရ။ မှာထေရ်တၠအရှန်မွဲဇကု မဟိမုသဳလဗုဒ္ဓိဂှ် မၚ်မွဲပကတ်ဗ္တောန်ဒၟံၚ်ဗောဓိသတ်ကောန်ၚာ် အလံၚ်မှာထေရ်အရဟံၚ်ဂှ် လေပ်ဗိုတ်ပိဗေဒၚ်ပန်တုဲ၊ မှာထေရ်သဳလဗုဒ္ဓိဂှ်ပၠန်ရ ပကဵုသာမဏဳဒုၚ်ကဵုပယျၚ် ပကတ်ကဵုပိဋကတ်ပိ ပါဋ္ဌိသီု အဋ္ဌကထာ တိန်ပါၚ်စိုတ်အိုတ်တုဲ၊ ဂမဳတၠအရှန်မှာထေရ်အရဟံ ရဴဝွံပြာကတ်ဒယှ်တှ်တဴရ။<ref name="mat">{{Cite book|title=The Mists of Ramanna|year=2005|url=https://archive.org/details/mistsoframannale0000aung|author=Michael Aung-Thwin}}</ref><ref name="tt-24">{{Cite book|author=Than Tun|title=Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma}}</ref> မှာထေရ်အဟံတုန် ပဟိုတ်ကဵုညးဍုၚ်သောက္ကတာဲမနိမန်တုဲ၊ သ္ဒးအာပဒတဴပ္ဍဲဍုၚ်သောက္ကတာဲတေံ ၜါစှော်ဝှ်တုဲ၊ ကလေၚ်စဴကၠုၚ်သုဓမ္မဝတဳ သခီုဟိုတ်နူက္ဍုဟ်မၠေံဒ္ဂေတ်ပဋိပတ် ဂမဳအလဇ္ဇဳတံတုဲ၊ ပြာပ်အာဇရေၚ်းရဒွါရဝတဳ ပဒတဴမံၚ်အရညဝါသဳ ပ္ဍဲဘာဂြိုပ်လ္ၚဵု မံၚ်ဇကုမွဲဓဝ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကာလဂှ် နွံကာလမွဲတ္ၚဲ သၟိၚ်အရိမန္ဒနပုရ ဟီုဗကန်ကဵုလၟမွဲ ရဴသာ်ဝွံရ၊ <nowiki>'''ၝတံအာဂၠာဲပန်ပှော်စမုဟ်ဂြိုပ်က္ဍိုပ်တၟံတှေ် ဆဵုညာတ်ဒးမၞိဟ်တၟေၚ်တၟဟ်မ္ဂး မၞးတံစဴဂရေၚ်ပ္တီအဲညိ'''</nowiki> ရဴဝွံသၟိၚ်ဂှ်ဗကန်လဝ်ကဵုလၟ၊ လၟဂှ်ဒၚ်လဝ်ဝန်တုဲ ဂ္ၚေၚ်ဂၠာဲပန်ပှော်စ စိုပ်အာတွဵုရးဒွါရဝတဳရ (သရေခေတ္တရာ ဍုၚ်သၟိၚ်ဒတ္တပံၚ်) လၟဂှ်ဆဵုညာတ်ဒးမှာထေရ်အဟံတုဲ၊ ညးဝွံမၞိဟ်မတၟေၚ်တၟဟ်သန်ရဴဝွံလၟဂှ်ချပ်တုဲ၊ ကလေၚ်စဴလ္ၚောဝ်ပ္တီသၟိၚ်(သၟီ)အရူဒ္ဓမရ။''<ref name="am">{{Cite web|author=Avery Morrow|url=http://avery.morrow.name/studies/shin-arahan|title=Shin Arahan’s Legendary Sangha Purification|accessdate=2010-10-24}}</ref>ယာံသၟီမိၚ်ဂလောန်လၟဂှ်ဗက်က္တဵုဒှ်သ္ဍိုက်မၠိုက်စိုတ် ဗွဲမလောန်တုဲ ဖအောဝ်ကဵုလၟဂှ် နိမန်ပ္တိုန်ဖျဴနၚ်စွံပတန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာမပြဲပြဲတုဲ သၟိၚ်အရူဒ္ဓမ သၟာန်စံၜတ်မပ္တံကဵုယၟုတၞောဝ်ဒတောဝ်ဂကူဇာတိ အ္စာမှာထေရ်ကုအရဟံဂှ်ရ။ မှာထေရ်အရဟံတုန်ဟီုသှ်ထ္ၜးကဵုမပ္တံကဵုယၟုအ္စာတံဂှ်တုဲ၊ ဒဒှ်ရသုဓမ္မဝတဳ ဍုၚ်သဓီုတေံ မၞုံကဵုဂကောံရတ်ပိပြကာ ဂမဳဂရှ် ဒဒှ်အရဳမပ္တံကဵုသောတာပန် ပကီုလွဳပရာမံၚ်ဓူရၜါသာ်တုဲ၊ သာသာနာကျာ်ဇၞော်မောဝ်ရာၚ်ဆာဲသန်ရ။ ရဴဝွံမှာထေရ်ဟီုထ္ၜးကဵုသၟိၚ်ဂှ်ရ။ သၟိၚ်အရုဒ္ဓမိၚ်တုဲ၊ ဓဝ်သဒ္ဓါက္တဵုဒှ် သၟိက်မိက်ဂွံယိုက်ဒိုက်သာသနာညိဂးတုဲ၊ ပွဳဗွိုၚ်ကေတ်ဗဵုလဗးပၞာန် သီုကဵုသရာဲဇၞော်ပန်ဍုၚ်ချေံကလၚ်ဇက်စှေ်ကၠုၚ်ဗတိုက်ဍုၚ်သဓီုရ။ ရဴဝွံသၟိၚ်(သၟီ)မနုဟဝ် မိၚ်ပရိုၚ်တုဲ၊ ဗလးဏာသရာဲဇၞော်ၜါသ္ကဵုတဝ်စၞေဟ်ပၞာန်သၟိၚ်အရုဒ္ဓမ ကျပၞာန်မ္ဒးဇက်စဴတိုန်အာသာ်ဏံဂှ် ဗၞတ်ပိ၀ါရ
== မှာထေရ်အရဟံသ္ပပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် ==
[[သၟိၚ်နဝ်ရထာ]] ပသၟိၚ်ပကၚ်ရၚ်ဍုၚ်ဗကာံ လုကဴ ၃၃သၞာံ ကလိဂွံအာယုတ် ၆၆ သာသနာကျာ်အာစိုပ် လ္ၚီမသုန်ကၠံထပှ်စှော်ဒ္စိတ် ၁၅၇၉သၞာံ သၟိၚ်နဝ်ရထာအာစိုပ်အနိစ္စရ။ သၟိၚ်နဝ်ရထာဟွံမွဲတုဲ ကောန်သၟိၚ်နဝ်ရထာစောလူပသၟိၚ် (သၟိၚ်စောလူပကၚ်ရၚ်ဍုၚ်) သၟိၚ်စောလူဟွံမွဲတုဲ ပ္ဍဲသက္ကရာဇ်ဍုၚ် ၄၅၅သၞာံဂှ် ကျာန်ယျေတ်ပသၞိၚ် (သၟိၚ်ကျာန်ယျေတ်) ပကၚ်ရၚ်ဍုၚ်သၟိၚ်ကျာန်ယျောတ်ဟွံမွဲတုဲ၊ ကောန်စဴသၟိၚ်ကျာန်ယျေတ် အလံၚ်စဳသူပသၟိၚ်ပကၚ်ရၚ်ဍုၚ်ပ္ဍဲလက်ထက်သၟိၚ်အလံၚ်စဳသူ မပကၚ်ရၚ်ဍုၚ်ဗကာံဂှ်ရ၊ မှာထောရ်အရဟံ ဗဂဵုလဟဵုဒၟံၚ်သာသနာ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဍုၚ်ဗကာံဂှ် စဵုကဵုသၟိၚ်ပန်ဒတောဝ်သာသာကျာ်အာစိုပ် ၁၆၄၂ သက္ကရာဇ်ဍုၚ် ၄၅၀သၞာံဂှ် မှာထေရ်အရဟံကလိဂွံအယုက်ဒ္စာံစှော်မွဲ ၈၁သၞာံဂှ် သ္ပပရိဗ္ဗာန် ပ္ဍဲဍုၚ်ဗကာံ ပ္ဍဲဘာဇေတဝန်ရောၚ်။<ref name="vbl-115">{{Cite book|author=Victor B Lieberman|title=Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland}}</ref> <ref name="tt-24">{{Cite book|author=Than Tun|title=Essays on the History and Buddhism of Burma}}</ref>
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist}}
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{{Infobox person
| name = ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ
| native_name = သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ ဂေါတမ
| image = Buddha_statue_in_the_Vihara_of_the_Dhammayazika_Pagoda.jpg
| caption = ရုပ်ပဋိမာရုပ် ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ
| birth_date = ၜိုတ် ဘဳသဳ ၅၆၃ (ဟွံသေၚ်မ္ဂး ၄၈၀)
| birth_place = ဥဒျာန်လုမ္ဗိနဳ၊ သာကျိယ (လၟုဟ် ဍုၚ်နဳပေါလ်)
| death_date = ၜိုတ် ဘဳသဳ ၄၈၃ (ဟွံသေၚ်မ္ဂး ၄၀၀)
| death_place = ကုသိနာဂဵု၊ မလ္လာ (လၟုဟ် ဍုၚ်အိန္ဒိယ)
| occupation = အ္စာသၠးပွး၊ ညးမထ္ၜးဂၠံၚ်တရဴဓရ်၊ တမ်မူလသာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ
| known_for = မဂြၚ်ဗိုတ်ဓရ်သဗ္ဗညုတညာဏ်၊ သ္ပတမ်ကဵု သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ
| parents = သၟိၚ်သုဒ္ဓေါဒန (မ)၊ ဂၞကျာ်သဳရိမဟာမာယာ (မိ)
| spouse = ဂၞကျာ်ယသောဓရာ
| children = ရာဟုလ
}}
== Lead section ==
'''ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Gautama Buddha'') ဝွံ ဒှ်ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ ရ။ [cite: 4, 17] ညးဂှ် မံက်ဂတဝ်ကၠုၚ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အိန္ဒိယသက္ကုတိုက် (Indian subcontinent) လ္ပာ်ဗၟံက် ၜိုတ်အကြာ ဘဳသဳ (၆) ကေုာံ ဘဳသဳ (၄) ဗွဝ်ကၠံရ။ [cite: 4] ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမဝွံ ဒှ်အ္စာသၠးပွး (Teacher) မွဲဇကု မဗ္တောန်ကဵု နဲကဲ သွက်ဂွံတြုံတြးနူဒဒိုက် ကေုာံ ဂၠံၚ်တရဴ သွက်ဂွံစိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန် ရ။ [cite: 4]
ဗွဲကိုပ်ကၠာ ညးဝွံ ဒှ်ကုမ္မာ သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ (Siddhartha) နူကဵုဂကူသာကျိယတုဲ ကြဴနူမညာတ်ကေတ် နိမိတ်ပန် (ဗျု၊ နာ၊ ဂစိုတ်၊ ရဟတ်) ဂှ်တုဲ သၠးကၠေံ ကာမသုခ တိတ်ပ္ဍဲဂြိုပ် သွက်ဂွံဂၠာဲဓရ်တြုံတြးရ။ [cite: 4] ကြဴနူမပၟဝ်ဓရ်တုဲ ဂြၚ်ဗိုတ်ကေတ် ဓရ်သဗ္ဗညုတညာဏ် ပ္ဍဲသၟဝ်တၞံဗောဓိရ။ ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမဝွံ ဒှ်ညးမဟီုတွံကဵု ဓရ်သစ္စပန် (Four Noble Truths) ကေုာံ မဂ္ဂၚ်ဒ္စာံ (Eightfold Path) မဒှ်သ္ဇိုၚ် သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ ပ္ဍဲကဵုခေတ်လၟုဟ်ရ။ [cite: 4]
== History ==
=== Birth and Early Life ===
ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမဝွံ သၠးဂဗ္ဘ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဥဒျာန်လုမ္ဗိနဳ (Lumbini) မနွံအကြာ နိဂြောဓါရာံ ကဵု ဒေဝဒဟ ရ။ [cite: 6] မအံက်ညးဂှ် သၟိၚ်သုဒ္ဓေါဒန မဒှ်သၟိၚ်မအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုၚ်ကပ္ပဳလဝှ် တုဲ မိအံက်ညးဂှ် ဂၞကျာ်သဳရိမဟာမာယာ ရ။ [cite: 6] ကြဴနူသၠးဂဗ္ဘတုဲ ထပှ်တ္ၚဲ မိအံက်ညး စုတိအာတုဲ မိနော် မိမဟာပဇာပတိဂေါတမဳ ဟေၚ် ဒှ်ညးမလွဳလွါကၠုၚ်ရ။ [cite: 6, 16]
=== Renunciation and Enlightenment ===
ကာလမကလိဂွံ အာယုဒ္စံါ (၂၉) သၞာံ၊ သိဒ္ဓတ္ထကုမ္မာ သၠးကၠေံ ဂၞကျာ်ယသောဓရာ ကေုာံ ကောန်တြုံရာဟုလတုဲ တိတ်အာပၟဝ်ဓရ်ရ။ [cite: 6] ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ညးလ္ၚတ်ကေတ် နဲကဲသမထ နူကဵုအ္စာ အဠာရကာလာမ ကေုာံ ဥဒ္ဒကရာမပုတ္တ ရ။ [cite: 6, 16] ကြဴနူဂှ် ညးပၟဝ်ဓရ် ဒုက္ကရစရိယ ၜိုတ် (၆) သၞာံတုဲ ညာတ်ကေတ် မဇ္ဈိမပဋိပဒါ (ဂၠံၚ်တရဴအဒေါဝ်) ဟေၚ် ဒှ်ဂၠံၚ်တရဴဍာံတုဲ ပ္ဍဲအာယုဒ္စံါ (၃၅) သၞာံ၊ ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲသဳဗပေၚ်ဂိတုပသာ်ဂှ် ဂြၚ်ဗိုတ်ကေတ် ဓရ်သဗ္ဗညုတညာဏ် ပ္ဍဲဗုဒ္ဓဂယာ ရ။ [cite: 6, 16]
== Core Principles ==
ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ ဝေတ်ဗ္တောန်ကဵု ဓရ်သဘာဝဂမၠိုၚ် မနွံသ္ဇိုၚ်အတိုၚ်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ: [cite: 7]
=== Four Noble Truths (ဓရ်သစ္စပန်) ===
၁. '''ဒုက္ခသစ္စ''': ဒဒိုက်မနွံဇေတ်။ [cite: 7, 16]
၂. '''သမုဒယသစ္စ''': ဟိုတ်ဒဒိုက်ဂွံကတဵုဒှ် (လောဘ/တဏှာ)။ [cite: 7, 16]
၃. '''နိရောဓသစ္စ''': ဒၞာဲဒဒိုက်မအိုတ် (နိဗ္ဗာန်)။ [cite: 7, 16]
၄. '''မဂ္ဂသစ္စ''': ဂၠံၚ်တရဴ သွက်ဂွံအာစိုပ် ဒၞာဲဒဒိုက်မအိုတ်။ [cite: 7, 16]
=== Noble Eightfold Path (မဂ္ဂၚ်ဒ္စာံ) ===
မဂ္ဂၚ်ဒ္စာံဝွံ ပါ်ကေတ်လဝ် နကဵု သိက္ခာပိ သာ်ရ: [cite: 7]
* '''ပညာ (Wisdom)''': သမ္မာဒိဋ္ဌိ၊ သမ္မာသင်္ကပ္ပ။ [cite: 7, 16]
* '''သဳလ (Ethical Conduct)''': သမ္မာဝါစာ၊ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ၊ သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ။ [cite: 7, 16]
* '''သမာဓိ (Concentration)''': သမ္မာဝါယာမ၊ သမ္မာသတိ၊ သမ္မာသမာဓိ။ [cite: 7, 16]
== Ministry and Legacy ==
ကြဴနူဂြၚ်ဗိုတ်ဓရ်တုဲ ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ တွံဓရ် ဓမ္မစက္ကပ္ပဝတ္တနသုတ် ကုပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ (၅) ဇကု ပ္ဍဲဂြိုပ်မိဂဒါဝိုန်ရ။ [cite: 9] ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ တွံဓရ်အလုံမွဲအာယုဒ္စံါ (၄၅) ဝှ်တုဲ သ္ပပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် ပ္ဍဲအာယုဒ္စံါ (၈၀) ပ္ဍဲဍုၚ်ကုသိနာဂဵု ရ။ [cite: 9, 16]
သာသနာကျာ်တြဲဝွံ ပြးဇးအာ အလုံဂၠးတိတုဲ ဒှ်သာသနာဇၞော်အိုတ်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဂၠးတိဝွံရ။ [cite: 9] လိက်ပတ်ပိဋကတ်ပိ ကေုာံ အခိုက်ကၞာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာဂှ် ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံၚ်ကဵု ဘဝကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် ဗွဲမဗဗွဲရ။ [cite: 9]
== See also ==
* [[သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ]]
* [[ဓမ္မစက္ကပ္ပဝတ္တနသုတ်]]
* [[ပိဋကတ်ပိ]]
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Bodhi |first=Bhikkhu |title=In the Buddha's Words |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2005}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Peter |title=An Introduction to Buddhism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Armstrong |first=Karen |title=Buddha |url=https://archive.org/details/buddha0000arms |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2001}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Nakamura |first=Hajime |title=Gotama Buddha |publisher=Kosei Publishing |year=2000}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite journal |last=Gethin |first=Rupert |title=The Foundations of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe |journal=Oxford University Press |year=1998}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Carrithers |first=Michael |title=The Buddha |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1983}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Nyanamoli |first=Bhikkhu |title=The Life of the Buddha |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |year=1992}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Strong |first=John |title=The Buddha: A Beginner's Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/buddha00john |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2001}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite journal |last=Buswell |first=Robert |title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism |journal=Macmillan Reference USA |year=2004}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Rahula |first=Walpola |title=What the Buddha Taught |url=https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught0000wapo |publisher=Grove Press |year=1959}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Kalupahana |first=David |title=A History of Buddhist Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbuddhis0000kalu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1992}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Huston |title=The World's Religions |url=https://archive.org/details/worldsreligionso0000smit |publisher=HarperOne |year=1991}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Lopez |first=Donald |title=The Story of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofbuddhismc0000lope |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=2001}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite journal |last=Warder |first=A.K. |title=Indian Buddhism |journal=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2000}}</ref>
# <ref>{{cite book |last=Nakamura |first=Hajime |title=Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1980}}</ref>
== External links ==
* [https://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight: Readings in Theravada Buddhism]
* [https://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet: Buddhist Education and Information]
* [https://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm Sacred Texts: Buddhism]
{{DEFAULTSORT:ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ}}
[[Category:ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ]]
[[Category:သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ]]
[[Category:ပူဂဵုအ္စာဓရ်ဂမၠိုၚ်]]
[[Category:ဝၚ်အိန္ဒိယ]]
[[Category:ဝၚ်နဳပေါလ်]]
[[Category:မၞိဟ်မမံက်ဂတဝ် ပ္ဍဲဘဳသဳ ၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ]]
[[Category:ဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
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ထီုဂမၠိုင် အဇန္တ
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{{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
| Part_of =
| Image = [[File:Ajanta (63).jpg|300px]]
| Caption = ထီုဂမၠိုင် အဇန္တ
| Location = အုရန္ဂဗါဒ်၊ အိန္ဒိယ
| Area =
| Buffer_zone = 78,676 ha
| Criteria = Cultural: i, ii, iii, vi
| ID = 242
| Coordinates = {{coord|20|33|12|N|75|42|01|E}}
| Year = 1983
| Danger =
| locmapin = India
|relief = 1
|width = 250
|float = central
|caption =
|alt = ဒၞာဲအဇန္တ နွံ
|label = Lockerbie
|mark = Blue_pog.svg
|marksize = 9
|lat_deg = 20 |lat_min = 33 |lat_sec = 12 |lat_dir = N
|lon_deg = 75 |lon_min = 42 |lon_sec = 01 |lon_dir = E
}}
[[File:AJANTA CAVES - C.SHELARE (2).jpg|thumb|300px|Cave 19, Ajanta, a 5th-century [[chaitya]] hall]]
ထီုဂမၠိုင် အဇန္တ ({{Lang-en|'''Ajanta Caves'''}}) ဂှ် ဒှ်ထီုတၟအ် ဒတန်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ပ္ဍဲအိန္ဒိယ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံၜိုတ် ၃၀ ထီု၊ မကၠောန်လဝ် နူကဵု အကြာ ဘဳသဳ ၂ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ကဵု အေဒဳ ၄၈၀ မနွံပ္ဍဲ ခရိုင်အုရန္ဂဗါဒ် (Aurangabad idstrict)၊ တွဵုရးမဟာရၐတြ (Maharashtra State)၊ ရးနိဂီုပံင်ကောံအိန္ဒိယ။<ref name=Madan>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/173 173]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|The precise number varies according to whether or not some barely-started excavations, such as cave 15A, are counted. The Archaeological Survey of India say "In all, total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also include an unfinished one",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asi.nic.in/ajanta-caves/ |title=Ajanta Caves |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |date=2011 |accessdate=3 August 2019}}</ref> UNESCO and Spink "about 30". The controversies over the end date of excavation is covered below.}} ပ္ဍဲထီုတအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ရုပ်ကသူ၊ ရုပ်ပါန်တၟအ် မဒှ်ရုပ် မလုပ်လၟိဟ် မခိုဟ်အိုတ် ပၞောဝ်ကဵု ရုပ်ခေတ်တြေံအိန္ဒိယ မသၟေဟ်ဒၟံင်တအ်တုဲ ဒှ်ပါန်ကွတ် မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် သန္ထာန်၊ ဗီုပြင်နာနာသာ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book|first1=Trudy |last1=Ring|first2=Noelle |last2=Watson|first3=Paul |last3=Schellinger|title=Asia and Oceania |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&pg=PA17 |year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-63979-1|pages=17, 14–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Hugh |last1=Honour|first2=John |last2=Fleming|title=A World History of Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qGb4pyoseH4C |year=2005|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-85669-451-3|pages=228–230}}</ref>{{Sfn|Michell|2009|p= 336}}
[[ပါန်ကွတ်]] မဂွံဆဵုကေတ် နူကဵု ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ခတှ်ေမဟာ ပါန်ကွတ်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂၠေင်ရ။<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242 ''Ajanta Caves, India: Brief Description,'' UNESCO World Heritage Site. Retrieved 27 October 2006.]</ref> ထီုတအ်ဂှ် နကဵုလညာတ်တၠပညာ ဗွဲကြဴဏအ်မ္ဂး ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် ၜါကာလ၊ ကာလကိုပ်ကၠာဂှ် စကၠောန် နူကဵု ၜိုတ် ဘဳသဳ ၂ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ တုဲ ကာလဒုတိယဂှ် နူကဵု အကြာ အေဒဳ ၄၀၀-၆၅၀။<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/242.pdf ''Ajanta Caves: Advisory Body Evaluation,'' UNESCO International Council on Monuments and Sites. 1982. Retrieved 27 October 2006.], p. 2.</ref>ဒတန်ဂှ် စဵုဒၞာမင်မဲလဝ် နကဵု ဌာနပူရာန်အိန္ဒိယ (Archaeological Survey of India)၊<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_maharashtra.asp|title= Ajanta Caves|accessdate=19 May 2012}}</ref> ကေုာံ နူစ ၁၉၈၃ ဂှ် ထီုဂမၠိုင် အဇန္တ ဂှ် ဒှ်အာ ဒတန်အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ ယူနေသကော (UNESCO World Heritage Site)။
ထီုဂမၠိုင် အဇန္တဂှ် ဒှ်လဝ် ဘာလကျာ် ကေုာံ ဇြပ်လ္ၚောဝ်ကျာ် [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] မပုတ်ကၠောန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗဒင်ဒဵုတၟအ် မနွံသမၠုင် {{convert|75|m|adj=on}}ရ။<ref name="Johnston2013p18" /><ref>{{cite book|first=Aravinda Prabhakar |last=Jamkhedkar|title=Ajanta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGzqAAAAMAAJ|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-569785-8|pages=61–62, 71–73}}</ref> ပ္ဍဲကဵုထီုတအ်ဂှ် ချူကၠောန်လဝ် ရုပ်ကသူ သုတ်ဇာတ်ကျာ် ကေုာံ ဗီုရုပ်ကျာ်မသၠးဂပ္ဘ အတိုင်မကၠုင် နူကဵု လိက်ဇာတကမာလာ၊ မဒှ်လိက် အာရဳသူရ (Āryaśūra) မချူလဝ်ဂှ်၊ တုဲပၠန် ပါန်တၟအ် မဆေင်ကဵု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာနာနာသာ်ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုရ။<ref name="Johnston2013p18" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Richard S. |title=Nāga, Yakṣiṇī, Buddha: Local Deities and Local Buddhism at Ajanta] |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-of-religions_1998-05_37_4/page/360 |journal=History of Religions |publisher=University of Chicago Press |volume=37 |issue=4 |date=May 1998 |pages=360–400|jstor=3176402 |doi=10.1086/463514 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Benoy K. |last1=Behl|first2=Sangitika |last2=Nigam|title=The Ajanta caves: artistic wonder of ancient Buddhist India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfLVAAAAMAAJ |year=1998|publisher=Harry N. Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-1983-9|pages=164, 226}}</ref> အတိုင်လိက်စၟတ်သမ္တီဂမၠိုင် ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလကသီု မဒှ်အခိင် ခမဳသင်တအ် လုပ်ဒဂိုန်တုဲ သီုဒှ်လဝ် ဒၞာဲဒတန် ခမဳတအ် မပဒတန်ကီု သီုကဵု ဒၞာဲဒါယကာတအ် မကၠုင်ဗဵုလ္ၚောဝ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်အိန္ဒိယတမၠာတေအ်ရ။<ref name="Johnston2013p18" /> အတိုင်စၟတ်သမ္တီဝင်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲအိန္ဒိယဂှ် အသာ်တၟးတၟး ကေုာံ ရုပ်ကသူ ပ္ဍဲဗဒင်ဂှ် မဒးဒုင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵုလဝ်တုဲ ဒၞာဲဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင်ပလီုပလာ်ထောအ်ကီုလေဝ် ပါန်ကွတ် ရုပ်ကသူ အိန္ဒိယခေတ်တြေံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ထီုအဇန္တ စၟတ် ၁၆၊ ၁၇၊ ၁ ကေုာံ ၂ ဂှ် သှ်ေသၟေဟ်ဒၟံင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp= 355–361; 460}}
[[File:Ajanta viewpoint.jpg|thumb|ဗဗဵုဇမ္ၚောဲ ထီုဂမၠိုင်အဇန္တ နူကဵု ဒဵုဗဒါဲဂှ် မွဲဒၞာဲ]]
ပရူထီုအဇန္တဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် နူကဵု လိက်စၟတ်သမ္တီ လကျာ်ကရိကြုက်ဂမၠိုင် (လကျာ်သၟာတရဴကြုက်) မစိုပ်လဝ် အိန္ဒိယ ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လဒေါဝ်ဂှ်ကီု၊ ပ္ဍဲခေတ်မာဂဓ ၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံလပါ်စတအ်ကီုရ။<ref name=cohenp82 /> ကြဴနူဂှ် ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ဂြောပ်ဗဒန်ကၠေအ်ဒၟံင် အပ္ဍဲဂြိုပ်ဇၞော်ရ။ သၞာံ ၁၈၁၉ ဂှ် သၟိင်တၠကဝ်လဝ်နဳဗြိတိန် ကပ်တိုန် ဂျောန်သမိတ် (Captain John Smith) ဟိန်မဗက်လၟ ဗက်ဂၠာဲပန်စကၠဂှ် သီုဟွံစၟဳမွဲသာ် အာဆဵုကေတ်တုဲ ဂွံကလေင်တီကၠုင် ဒၞာဲဂှ်ပၠန်ရ။<ref>{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 5: Cave by Cave|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPqUHXlwXdcC|year=2005|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-15644-9|pages=3, 139}}</ref> ထီုတအ်ဂှ် နွံပ္ဍဲဗဒင်ဒဵုတၟအ် လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ သမၠံက်ဗီုပြင်ဂ ကြုင်ဝဃူရ် (Waghur)<ref>variously spelled Waghora or Wagura</ref> ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗလးဒဵု ဒေစန် (Deccan plateau)ရ။<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242/multiple=1&unique_number=269 Map of Ajanta Caves], UNESCO</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Narayan |last=Sanyal|title=Immortal Ajanta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oD7rAAAAMAAJ|year=1984|publisher=Bharati|page=7}}</ref> အပ္ဍဲသမၠံက်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဍာ်လဂေါဝ် (waterfall) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်တုဲ အခိင်ဍာ်ဂၠိုင်မ္ဂး နူကဵုမ္ၚးထီုတအ်မ္ဂး ဂွံမိင်ကေတ် ရမ္သာင်စဟင်ဍာ်ရ။<ref>Spink (2006), 2</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု တွဵုရးမဟာရၐတြဂှ် ကရောမ် ထီုဨလ္လောရာ (Ellora Caves)ဂှ် အဇန္တဂှ် ဒှ်ဒၞာဲ ကရိတအ် (သၟာတရဴ) မကၠုင်ဗဵုဂၠိုင်မွဲရ။ အဇန္တဂှ် နူကဵု ဖါဒပူရ် (Fardapur) မ္ဂး နွံ {{convert|6|km|mi|abbr=off}}၊ နူဍုင် ဇလဂေါန (Jalgaon) မ္ဂး နွံ {{convert|104|km|mi|abbr=off}}တုဲ နူကဵု မုမ်ဗာဲ (Mumbai) လပါ်ဗမံက်မ္ဂး နွံ {{convert|350|km|mi|abbr=off}}။<ref name="Johnston2013p18">{{cite book|first=Richard |last=Cohen|editor-first=William M. |editor-last=Johnston|title=Encyclopedia of Monasticism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iepJAgAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-78716-4|pages=18–20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|publisher=Indian Railways|title=Bhusawal Division: Tourism (Ajanta and Ellora)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTJUAAAAMAAJ|year=1996|pages=40–43}}</ref> နူထီုဨလ္လောရာ မဒှ်ထီု [[ဟိန္ဒူ]]၊ [[ဇိနဘာသာ]] ကေုာံ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မဒှ်ကြပ်တုပ် ကုအဇန္တဂှ်မ္ဂး အဇန္တဂှ် နွံခြာၜိုတ်{{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=off}}။ ဗီုပြင် အဇန္တဂှ် ပ္ဍဲအိန္ဒိယဂှ် ဒၞာဲတၞဟ် ဗီုကဵု ထီုElephanta Caves၊ ထီုAurangabad Caves၊ ထီုShivleni Caves ကေုာံ ထီုကျာ်Karnatakaတအ်လေဝ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ကီုရ။{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=118–122}}
== ဝင် ==
[[File:Map of Ajanta Caves.svg|thumb|ဗီုတိ ထီုဂမၠိုင် အဇန္တ]]
ထီုဂမၠိုင် အဇန္တဂှ် တၠပညာဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တုပ်လဝ်စိုတ် ဒဒှ်ရ မကၠောန်လဝ် ၜါကာလ၊ ပထမကာလဂှ် ဒှ်အကြာ ၂ ဘဳသဳ ကဵု ၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံအေဒဳ၊ တုဲ ဒုတိယကာလဂှ် ကၠောန်လဝ် ဗွဝ်ကၠံကြဴနူဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite book|first=Aravinda Prabhakar |last=Jamkhedkar|title=Ajanta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGzqAAAAMAAJ|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-569785-8|pages=3–5}}</ref>{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=1–2}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Louise |last=Nicholson|title=National Geographic India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=71jZCwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=978-1-4262-1183-6|pages=175–176}}</ref>
ထီုတအ်ဂှ် သီုဖအိုတ် နွံ ၃၆ ထီု၊<ref name="Johnston2013p18" /> ဗွဲကိုပ်ကၠာဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ၂၉ တုဲ ကဵုလဝ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နကဵု ဂၞန် နူ ၁ စဵုကဵု ၂၉။ ထီုမဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ဗွဲကြဴဏအ် မနွံအကြာ ဂၞန် ၁၅ ကဵု ၁၆ တုဲ စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နကဵု ဗီုပြင် မစုတ်အက္ခရ် ကြဴဂၞန် ဗီုကဵု 15A ရ။<ref name=spinkv5p4 /> ဗီုပြင်မကဵုလဝ် ဂၞန်ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ကဵုလဝ် အတိုင်လၟေင်ထီုတအ် မနွံတုဲ ဟွံဒုင်လဝ်သဇိုင် အာယုက်စမြိုင်ထီုတအ်ရ။<ref name=ringsalkin14 />
=== ထီုခေတ်ကိုပ်ကၠာ (ခေတ်သာဒဝါဟန) ===
[[ဝှာင်:Ajanta, cave 9, chaitya-griha, with stupa (9842167554).jpg|thumb|upright|left|ထီုဂၞန် ၉၊ မဒှ်ပထမကာလ ဗီုပြင် စေတဳဟိန္နယာန၊ မဒှ်ဇြပ်လ္ၚောဝ်ကျာ် မနွံကဵု စေတဳ၊ ဆဂး ဟွံမဲကုပဋိမာရုပ်]]
ထီု နူကဵုခေတ်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ထီု ဂၞန် ၉၊ ၁၀၊ ၁၂၊ ၁၃၊ ကေုာံ ၁၅က။ ဗီုရုပ် မဂွံဆဵုကေတ် နူကဵု ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ချူလဝ် ပရူနူကဵု ဇာတ်ကျာ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref name=ringsalkin14 /> ထီုကြဴနူဂှ်တအ်ဂှ် ပါန်ကွတ် မတုပ်ကဵု ခေတ်ဂုပ္တ၊<ref name=ringsalkin14 /> ဆဂး ထီုကိုပ်ကၠာဂှ် မသြိုင်ကၠောန်လဝ် နူကဵုအခိင်ကာလလဵုဇေတ်တ်ဂှ် တၠပညာတအ် လညာတ်တၞဟ်ခြာ နွံဒၟံင်ညိညရ။{{Sfn|Michell|2009|pp= 335–336}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 5: Cave by Cave|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPqUHXlwXdcC|year=2005|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-15644-9|pages=4, 9, 163–170}}</ref> အတိုင်လညာတ် ဝလ်တေရ် သ္ပိန်ခ် (Walter Spink) မ္ဂး ထီုတအ်ဂှ် သြိုင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ အကြာ ဘဳသဳ ၁၀၀ ကဵု အေဒဳ ၁၀၀၊ မဒှ်အခိင် သၟိင်ဟိန္ဒူပကင်ရင်ဍုင် ဒေသဂှ် လက်ထက်တၞောဝ်သၟိင် သာဒဝါဟန (၂၃၀ ဘဳသဳ - ၜိုတ် ၂၂၀ အေဒဳ)ဂှ်ရ။{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=4–6}}<ref>{{cite book|first1=Benoy K. |last1=Behl|first2=Sangitika |last2=Nigam|title=The Ajanta caves: artistic wonder of ancient Buddhist India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfLVAAAAMAAJ |year=1998|publisher=Harry N. Abrams|isbn=978-0-8109-1983-9|pages=20, 26}}, '''Quote:''' "The caves of the earlier phase at Ajanta date from around the second century BC, during the rule of the Satavahana dynasty. Although the Satavahanas were Hindu rulers, they (...)"</ref> အစာလ္ၚဵုဂှ် စှ်ေစိုတ် ထီုတအ်ဂှ် သြိုင်ကၠောန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်မဂဓ မဒှ်ခေတ်သၟိင်အသောက မကော်ဂး အေန်ပါယာမမောရ (Maurya Empire) (၃၀၀ ဘဳသဳ စဵုကဵု ၁၀၀ အေဒဳ)။ <ref>Nagaraju 1981, pp. 98–103</ref> ပၞောဝ်တအ်ဂှ် ထီုဂၞန် ၉ ကဵု ၁၀ ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲဇြပ်လ္ၚောဝ်ကျာ် မကော်ဂး စေတဳယဂြိဟဂှ် နွံကဵု စေတဳ၊ တုဲ ထီု ဂၞန် ၁၂၊ ၁၃ ကေုာံ ၁၅က တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဝိဟာရ် ဘာလကျာ်။<ref name=spinkv5p4>{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 5: Cave by Cave|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPqUHXlwXdcC|year=2005|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-15644-9|pages=4, 9}}</ref> ထီုခေတ်သာဒဝါဟနဂှ် ဟွံမဲ ကုပဋိမာရုပ်ဂမၠိုင်တုဲ စၞးဂှ် စွံအဓိက ကုစေတဳရ။
အတိုင်လညာတ် သ္ပိန်ခ်မ္ဂး ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ကၠောန်လဝ် ဗွဲကိုပ်ကၠာ ပ္ဍဲခေတ်သာဒဝါဟန၊ ဆဂး ဒၞာဲဂှ် ဟွံဇၞော်မောဝ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် စိုပ်လဒေါဝ် ၅ ဗွဝ်ကၠံဂှ်ဟေင် ဇၞော်မောဝ်တိုန်ရ။<ref name="Spink 2006, 4">{{harvnb|Spink|2009|p=2}}</ref> ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဇၞော်မောဝ်တေအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်လဝ် ဒမံင်ဒတန် ခမဳသင်တအ်၊ တုဲပၠန် ဒါယကာမလ္ၚောဝ်ကျာ်တအ်လေဝ် ကၠုင်ဗဵုလ္ၚောဝ်ဒၟံင်ကီုရဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ညးမကၠုင်ဗဵုလ္ၚောဝ်ကျာ် ဂကူကြုင် မချူစၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် ပ္ဍဲၜိုတ် ၄၀၀ ဘဳသဳဂှ်ရ။<ref name=spinkv5p4 />
=== ထီုခေတ်လက်ကရဴ (ခေတ်ဝါကာဋက) ===
အခိင်ကာလ မဆက်သြိုင်ကၠောန် ထီုဂမၠိုင် အဇန္တဂှ် စကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု မသုန်ဗွဝ်ကၠံ။ တၠပညာကိုပ်ကၠာတေအ် စှ်ေစိုတ် ထီုတၟိတအ်ဂှ် သြိုင်လဝ် အကြာအေဒဳ ၄ ကဵု ၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊<ref>The [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242 UNESCO World Heritage List website] for example says "The 29 caves were excavated beginning around 200 BC, but they were abandoned in AD 650 in favour of Ellora"</ref> ဆဂး ဗွဲကြဴ ဆက်လ္ၚတ်တုဲ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ထီုတၟိတအ်ဂှ် သြိုင်လဝ် ၜိုတ် အေဒဳ နူကဵု ၄၆၀ ကဵု ၄၈၀၊<ref name="Spink 2006, 4" /> မဒှ်လက်ထက် သၟိင်ဟိန္ဒူဟရိရှန မဒှ်တၞောဝ်သၟိင်ဝါကာဋက။<ref name=cohen83>{{harvnb|Cohen|2006|pp=83–84}}, '''Quote:''' Hans Bakker's political history of the Vakataka dynasty observed that Ajanta caves belong to the Buddhist, not the Hindu tradition. That this should be so is already remarkable in itself. By all we know of Harisena he was a Hindu; (...).</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Geri Hockfield |last=Malandra|title=Unfolding A Mandala: The Buddhist Cave Temples at Ellora|url=https://archive.org/details/unfoldingmandala0000mala |url-access=registration |year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1355-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/unfoldingmandala0000mala/page/5 5]–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Fred S. |last=Kleiner|title=Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Concise Global History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UX9TCwAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Cengage|isbn=978-1-305-57780-0|page=468}}</ref>လညာတ်ဏအ်ဂှ် တၠပညာလ္ၚဵုတအ် ဟွံဒုင်တဲ ပါ်ပါဲနွံကီု၊<ref>For example, Karl Khandalavala, A. P. Jamkhedkar, and Brahmanand Deshpande. Spink, vol. 2, pp. 117–134</ref> ဆဂး လၟုဟ် တၠပညာဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဥပမာ ဟုန်တိန်တောန် (Huntington) ကေုာံ ဟာရ်လေ (Harle) တအ် ဒုင်ကၠုင်တဲလညာတ်ဏအ်ရ။
[[ဝှာင်:South Asia historical AD450 EN.svg|thumb|ထီုမကၠောန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကာလဒုတိယတအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ကၠောန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲလက်ထက်သၟိင်ဟရိရှန မပကင်ရင်ဝါကာဋက။]]
ကာလဒုတိယဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် နကဵုလညာတ် မဟာယာနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊<ref name=ringsalkin14 /> or Greater Vehicle tradition of Buddhism.<ref>{{cite book|first=Sara L. |last=Schastok|title=The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jh1fF8HvJmMC&pg=PA40|year=1985|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-06941-1|page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: Arguments about Ajanta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RbYnAAAAYAAJ|year=2005|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-15072-0|page=127}}</ref>ထီုကာလဒုတိယဂှ် ဒှ်ထီု ၁-၈၊ ၁၁၊ ၁၄-၂၉၊ လ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် ဆက်လဟဵုပတိုန်လဝ် ထီုတြေံလေဝ် ဒှ်မာန်ကီုရ။ ထီု ၁၉၊ ၂၆ ကဵု ၂၉ တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်စေတဳယဂြိဟ တုဲ၊ သၟေဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဝိဟာရ် ဘာလကျာ်အိုတ်ရ။ ထီုမကၠောန်လဝ် ကွတ်စိစိစောန်န် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵုကာလဏအ်၊ တုဲပၠန် ထီုတြေံဂှ်လေဝ် ကလေင်ပလေဝ်လဟဵု၊ ကလေင်ဓဇက်ရုပ်တၟိ ပ္ဍဲကဵုခေတ်ဏအ်ကီုရ။{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=2–3}}<ref name=ringsalkin14>{{cite book|first1=Trudy |last1=Ring|first2==Robert M. |last2=Salkin|first3=Sharon |last3=La Boda|title=Asia and Oceania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JqHPpNaZfNwC |year=1994|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-884964-04-6|pages=14–19}}</ref>{{sfn|Cohen|2006|pp=81–82 }}
သ္ပိန်ခ် ဟီု ရံင်ကဵု ဗီုကွတ်တဲစိစောန် ကဆံင်သမၠုင်တုဲ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပိုင်ခြာ အခိင်ကာလဂွံရ။ လညာတ်ညးဂှ် ဆက်ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးဏာ ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။
Spink states that it is possible to establish dating for this period with a very high level of precision; a fuller account of his chronology is given below.<ref>Spink (2006), 4–6 for the briefest summary of his chronology, developed at great length in his ''Ajanta: History and Development'' 2005.</ref> ၜိုန်ရ ပရေင်ပါ်ပါဲသ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဆက်ဒှ်ဒၟံင်ကီုလေဝ် လညာတ်သ္ပိန်ခ်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်ဒုင်တဲဂၠိုင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲဝေပ်သာ် ဌာနပူရာန်အိန္ဒိယဂှ် ဆက်ချူဒၟံင် အတိုင်ဗီုတြေံ "ကာလဒုတိယဂှ် မကၠောန် အကြာ အေဒဳ ၅ - ၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ တုဲ ဆက်ကၠောန်အာ ဂတဂှ် ၜါဗွဝ်ကၠံ"။
အတိုင်လညာတ် သ္ပိန်ခ်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ကမၠောန်သြိုင်ခၞံ ထီုဂမၠိုင်အဇန္တဂှ် သီုဟွံတုဲ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၜိုတ် ၄၈၀ ကြဴနူသၟိင်အရိရှန စုတိတုဲ ဒးဒုင်ပဒေါအ်ထောအ် နကဵုသၟိင်တၠတအ်ရ။ ညးသ္ဂောအ်ဟီုဗီုဏအ်ဂှ် ညးရံင်ကဵု သက်သဳပထောင်ဒယိုင် ကၟာတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၄၈၀ ဂဟ်ရ။ ဆဂး ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ဆက်စကာအာဒၟံင် အခိင်ကာလ ၜိုတ်ဒးရးဏီရ။{{Sfn|Spink |2006 |pp = 5–6; 160–161}} ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ကာလဒုတိယ ကေုာံ ကလေင်လဟဵုပတိုန် ပ္ဍဲအဇန္တဂှ် ဒှ်ကွတ်တဲယေန်သၞာင်အိန္ဒိယ ခေတ်တြေံ မစိုပ်ကၞောတ်အထောအ် (ဝါ) ဒှ်အခိင်ထဝ် အိန္ဒိယရ။<ref>{{cite book|last1=Spink|first1=Walter M.|title=Ajanta: The end of the Golden Age|date=2005|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004148321|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fjgq2OivwmkC&pg=PA7|language=en}}</ref> ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ်၊ အေန်ပါယာဂုပ္တဂဟ် ဍိုန်လျစှ်ေဒၟံင် ဟိုတ်နူပြသၞာပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲအပ္ဍဲ ကေုာံ သၞဗွဲမ္ၚး ဟူဏတအ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဝါကဋကဂှ် ဒှ်လဝ် အေန်ပါယာ အဝဵုသြဇာဇၞော်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵုအေန်ပါယာအိန္ဒိယဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last1=Auctores Varii |title=Ajanta Dipinta - Painted Ajanta Vol. 1 e 2: Studio sulla tecnica e sulla conservazione del sito rupestre indiano - Studies on the techniques and the conservation of the indian rock art site |date=2016 |publisher=Gangemi Editore |isbn=978-8849274905 |pages=58–59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fS34CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 |language=en}}</ref> ဂကူဟူဏလ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် ဂွံပိုင်ပြဳအာ ဝူဒိုဟ်တအ်တုဲရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ထီုအဇန္တဂှ် ကၠောန်သြိုင်လဝ်တုဲဒှ်အိုတ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brancaccio |first1=Pia |title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion |date=2010 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004185258 |pages=105–106 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA106 |language=en}}</ref>ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂကူဟူဏတအ် မပကင်ရင်လဝ် ဒေသကရေက်ဗယပ်အိန္ဒိယဂှ် ဟူဏဂှ် သ္ဒးဒှ်လဝ် ညးစၠောအ်ဒဒန်ယေန်သၞာင် အကြာဒေသဂန္ဓရ ကဵု ကရေက်လပါ်ပလိုတ် ဒေစ္စ (Deccan) မဒှ်အခိင်အဇန္တ (ဝါ) ထီုပတလ္ခောရ (Pitalkhora caves)မသြိုင်တုဲ ကယျိုင်ပယျေဝ်လဝ် နကဵုအခိုက်ဂန္ဓရ၊ ဗီုကဵု သ္ၚာကျာ်တြဲ မနွံဗီုပြင် abundant foldsဂှ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brancaccio |first1=Pia |title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion |date=2010 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004185258 |pages=106–107 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA107 |language=en}}</ref>
နကဵုလညာတ် ရိချာဒ် ကောဟေန် (Richard Cohen) မ္ဂး ရံင်ကဵု လိက်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကရိကြုက် Xuanzang ပ္ဍဲ ၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံဂှ်တုဲ အဇန္တဂှ် ဒှ်ဒၞာဲမၞိဟ်မတီဂၠိုင် ခမဳသင်ပဒတဴနွံဒၟံင်၊ ဆဂး ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ဟွံတန်ကြန်ကွေဟ်ဟ်ရ။<ref name=cohenp82>{{harvnb|Cohen|2006|pp=32, 82 }}</ref> The Ajanta caves are mentioned in the 17th-century text ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'' by Abu al-Fazl, as twenty four rock-cut cave temples each with remarkable idols.<ref name=cohenp82 />
=== ကလေင်ဆဵု ===
ပ္ဍဲ ၂၈ ဨပြဳ ၁၈၁၉ သၟိင်တၠဗြိတိန် မနွံယၟု ဂျောန်သမိတ် (John Smith) သကိုပ်ဒပ်ချေဟ် စၟတ်၂၈၊ အဃောမဗက်ဂၠာဲပန်စကၠဂှ် သၟတ်ဗၠာဲညးဒေသမွဲ ကော်ပလံင်ဏာညးတေအ် ဇရေင်ပါင်ထီုဂၞန် ၁၀။ ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ညးဒေသတအ် တီဒၟံင်တုဲတုဲရ။<ref name=cohenp77>{{harvnb|Cohen|2006|pp=77–78 }}</ref> ကပ္ပတိန်သမိတ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ထီုဂှ်တုဲ ညးပြာပ်အာ ဇရေင်ကွာန်ဗဒါဲဂှ်တုဲ ကော်နင် ကောန်ကွာန်တအ် ကဵုကေတ်နင် မုဲ၊ မြ၊ ပၟတ်တဝ်ၜံင် ကေုာံ ထဗုင်ဒရမ် သွက်ဂွံ ၚးတးပသောင်တၞံဆုမတိုန်ကၟာတ်ဒၟံင်တုဲ ဂွံလုပ်ထီုတအ် လောဲသွာရ။<ref name=cohenp77 /> တုဲ ညးတေအ် ခရက်ပလီု ချူစုတ် ယၟုညးတေအ် ကေုာံ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ လတူရုပ်ကသူဗောဓိသတ်ရ။ ညးတေအ် ဒတဴလတူတိုင်ဒယိုင် မွဲဒကုတ် မနွံသမၠုင် မသုန်ပေတုဲ လိက်ညးတေအ် မချူလဝ်ဂှ် နွံဒၟံင် သမၠုင်မတ်မၞိဟ်ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တ္ၚဲဏအ်ရ။<ref>Spink (2006), 139 and 3 (quoted): "Going down into the ravine where the caves were cut, he scratched his inscription (John Smith, 28th Cavalry, 28th April, 1819) across the innocent chest of a painted Buddha image on the thirteenth pillar on the right in Cave 10..."</ref> လိက်စံင် ပရူထီု အစာဝင် ဝဳလဳယာမ် ဨရ်သကိန် (William Erskine) ဗှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံလိက်ပတ်ဗောမ်ဗေ (Bombay Literary Society) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၂၂။<ref>Upadhya, 3</ref>
[[ဝှာင်:Name inscribed by john smith on the pillar in cave no 10 on 28 April 1819.jpg|thumb|ယၟု ကေုာံ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ မချူလဝ် နကဵု ဂျောန်သမိတ် ကြဴနူ ညးတေအ် မဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ထီု ဂၞန် ၁၀ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၁၉]]
ပ္ဍဲပွိုင်ဗွဝ်စှ်ညိညဂှ် ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ယၟုမြဟ်တမ္ညဝ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဒၞာဲဒတန်မနွံ၊ ကွတ်ဓဇဲ၊ ပါန်ကွတ် ကေုာံ ရုပ်ကသူမဒးအမ်သဝ်ခိုဟ်တအ်ဂှ်ရ။ ကြဴနူ မဂွံဆဵုကေတ်တုဲ ၜိုတ်မွဲဗွဝ်ကၠံဂှ် ကမၠောန်ဆာဲစၠောအ် ရုပ်ကသူတအ်ဂှ် စကၠောန်ကၠုင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၄၈၊ နကဵု ဂကောံမဆေင်ကဵုအာရှ သၟိင်တၠ (Royal Asiatic Society) ဒက်ပ္တန် ကမ္မရှေန်ဘာကျာ်ဂိုဟ်ဗောမ်ဗေ (Bombay Cave Temple Commission) သွက်ဂွံ သအးဇ္ၚး ကေုာံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒၞာဲဒတန် ပါန်ပုတ်ကိစ္စဇၞော်ဇၞော် မနွံပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗောမ်ဗေတုဲ ကမ္မရှေန်ဂှ် ဂျောန်ဝိလ်သောန် (John Wilson) မဒှ် ဥက္ကဌရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၆၁ ကမ္မရှေန်ဏအ် ဒှ်အာ ဂကောံလ္ၚတ်ပေါရာန် အိန္ဒိယ (ဌာနပေါရာန်အိန္ဒိယ) (Archaeological Survey of India)ရ။ <ref>Gordon, 231–234</ref>
ပ္ဍဲခေတ်ကဝ်လဝ်နဳဂှ် ဒတန်အဇန္တဝွံ ဒှ်လဝ် ဍုင်ဟဳဒေရဗာဒ် (Hyderabad) မဒှ်ဍုင်ဗၠးၜးမွဲတုဲ ဟွံလုပ်လၟိဟ် ဗြိတိန်အိန္ဒိယ။<ref name=cohenp57 /> ပ္ဍဲတမ်သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀တအ်ဂှ် မိရ် သြသမာန် အလဳ ခါန် (Mir Osman Ali Khan) ညးမဒှ်သၟိင် ဟဳဒေရဗာဒ် လက်ကရဴအိုတ် ဗလးမၞိဟ် ကဵုကလေင်လဟဵုပတိုန် ပါန်ကွတ်၊ ဒၞာဲဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် နဒဒှ် တိုက်ထၜးပျး၊ ကၠောန်ဂၠံင် ညံင်ကၟုဲတအ် ဂွံအာဗဵုလ္ၚတ် ထီုတအ်ဂွံ နကဵု င္ၚုဟ်မးရ။ ညးကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် နကဵုညးပလံင်ကၟုဲကီု သီုကဵု ကွဳစက် မပလံင်ဗစိုပ် နူကဵု သေန်ဒါကၟုဲ စဵုကဵု ထီုတအ်ရ။<ref name=cohenp57>{{harvnb|Cohen|2006|pp=51–58 }}</ref>
ဒါရာ်တာ ဌာနပေါရာန် ခပတိုန် ညးတၠပညာ နူကဵု အဳတလဳ ၜါတၠ ပရောဖေဿာ လောရေန်ဇြော သေက်ကောနဳ (Professor Lorenzo Cecconi) ပံင်ကောံ ကု သြရ်သဳနဳ တုဲ ကလေင်ဗၟံက်ပ္တိုန် ရုပ်ကသူဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲထီုတအ်ဂှ်ရ။<ref name="Nizam">{{cite web |title=Ajanta cave paintings of Nizam era lie in a state of neglect |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2018/jul/03/ajanta-cave-paintings-of-nizam-era-lie-in-a-state-of-neglect-1837405.html}}</ref> ဒါရာ်တာ ဌာနပေါရာန် ဟီုကဵု လောရေန်ဇြော ကေုာံ သြရ်သဳနဳ -
{{quote|ပလေဝ်ထီု ကေုာံ သအးဇ္ၚး ကေုာံ မင်မဲ ပါန်သူဂှ် သ္ဒးဒှ် နကဵုသဘဴဓဝ် ကေုာံ ကွတ်ပညာသိပ္ပံ မကလေင်ဂယိုင်ပတိုန် လမျီုမစုတိလဝ်တုဲ မွဲၜါဗွဝ်ကၠံတေအ်ရ။<ref name="Cohen">Richard Cohen, ''Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity'' (2006), p. 51.</ref>}}
ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဗီုရုပ်တအ်ဂှ် ကလေင်ဗဵုဂွံအာ မွဲဝါပၠန်ရ။<ref name="Cohen"/>
ထီုဂမၠိုင် အဇန္တ မွဲဟာန်ကေုာံ ထီုဨလ္လောရ ဂှ် ဒှ်ဒၞာဲကရိ (ညးအာတရဴ)ဂမၠိုင် မကၠုင်ဝေင်ဂၠိုင်အိုတ်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု မဟာရၐတြ၊ ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲကၟာတ်ရုင်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်ၜေတ်ပေင်ဒၟံင်ရ။ ဗွဲတၟေင် မၞိဟ်တအ် မိက်ဂွံဗဵု ရုပ်ကသူဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>Cohen (2006)'s chapter 2 discusses the history and future of visitors to Ajanta.</ref>
== ဒတန် ကေုာံ ဘာဂမၠိုင် ==
=== ဒတန် ===
[[ဝှာင်:Ajanta Caves 130.jpg|thumb|ထီု ဂၞန်၂၄၊ ထီုဂမၠိုင် အဇန္တဂှ် ဒှ်ထီုမၜံက်ခါဲတၟအ်တုဲ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲဓရံင်ဒဵု ဒေက်စန် (Deccan plateau)]]
ထီုတအ်ဂှ် ၜံက်ကၠောန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲဇိုင်ကြုင် ဗဒင်ဒဵုတၟအ်၊ ပ္ဍဲသကုတ်ဒဵု ဒေက်စန်၊ ဒဵုတၟအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်လအိတ်
The caves are carved out of [[flood basalt]] rock of a cliff, part of the [[Deccan Traps]] formed by successive volcanic eruptions at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] geological period. The rock is layered horizontally, and somewhat variable in quality.<ref>"horizontally bedded alternate flows of massive and [[Amygdule|amygdular]] lava" is a technical description quoted by Cohen (2006), 37</ref> This variation within the rock layers required the artists to amend their carving methods and plans in places. The inhomogeneity in the rock have also led to cracks and collapses in the centuries that followed, as with the lost portico to cave 1. Excavation began by cutting a narrow tunnel at roof level, which was expanded downwards and outwards; as evidenced by some of the incomplete caves such as the partially-built ''vihara'' caves 21 through 24 and the abandoned incomplete cave 28.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=13–14}}
The sculpture artists likely worked at both excavating the rocks and making the intricate carvings of pillars, roof, and idols; further, the sculpture and painting work inside a cave were integrated parallel tasks.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|p= 28}} A grand gateway to the site was carved, at the apex of the gorge's horseshoe between caves 15 and 16, as approached from the river, and it is decorated with elephants on either side and a [[nāga]], or protective Naga (snake) deity.<ref>Spink, 10; Michell 340</ref> Similar methods and application of artist talent is observed in other cave temples of India, such as those from Hinduism and Jainism. These include the Ellora Caves, Ghototkacha Caves, [[Elephanta Caves]], [[Bagh Caves]], [[Badami Caves]], [[Aurangabad Caves]]{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=21–24, 38, 74–76, 115, 151–153, 280}} and [[Shivleni Caves]].
The caves from the first period seem to have been paid for by a number of different patrons to gain [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]], with several inscriptions recording the donation of particular portions of a single cave. The later caves were each commissioned as a complete unit by a single patron from the local rulers or their court elites, again for merit in Buddhist [[Saṃsāra (Buddhism)|afterlife beliefs]] as evidenced by inscriptions such as those in Cave 17.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=5, 15, 32–33, 80, 249}} After the death of Harisena, smaller donors motivated by getting merit added small "shrinelets" between the caves or add statues to existing caves, and some two hundred of these "intrusive" additions were made in sculpture, with a further number of intrusive paintings, up to three hundred in cave 10 alone.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=5, 15, 32–33, 80, 126–130, 249–259}}
=== ဘာဂမၠိုင် ===
[[ဝှာင်:061 Cave 4, Side View (34280359075).jpg|thumb|Cave 4: a monastery, or [[vihara]], with its square hall surrounded by monks' cells]]
The majority of the caves are ''[[vihara]]'' halls with symmetrical square plans. To each vihara hall are attached smaller square dormitory cells cut into the walls.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=73–85, 100–104, 182}} A vast majority of the caves were carved in the second period, wherein a shrine or sanctuary is appended at the rear of the cave, centred on a large statue of the Buddha, along with exuberantly detailed reliefs and deities near him as well as on the pillars and walls, all carved out of the natural rock.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=18, 37, 45–46}} This change reflects the shift from Hinayana to Mahāyāna Buddhism. These caves are often called monasteries.
The central square space of the interior of the viharas is defined by square columns forming a more-or-less square open area. Outside this are long rectangular aisles on each side, forming a kind of [[cloister]]. Along the side and rear walls are a number of small cells entered by a narrow doorway; these are roughly square, and have small niches on their back walls. Originally they had wooden doors.<ref>Spink (2006), 148</ref> The centre of the rear wall has a larger shrine-room behind, containing a large Buddha statue.
The viharas of the earlier period are much simpler, and lack shrines.<ref name="Harle, 118–122; Michell 335–343">Harle, 118–122; Michell 335–343</ref> Spink places the change to a design with a shrine to the middle of the second period, with many caves being adapted to add a shrine in mid-excavation, or after the original phase.<ref>Spink (2006), 142</ref>
The plan of Cave 1 shows one of the largest viharas, but is fairly typical of the later group. Many others, such as Cave 16, lack the vestibule to the shrine, which leads straight off the main hall. Cave 6 is two viharas, one above the other, connected by internal stairs, with sanctuaries on both levels.<ref>Michell, 338</ref>
<gallery widths="125px" heights="125px" perrow="4">
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 12 plan to scale.jpg|Cave 12 plan: an early type of vihara (1st century BCE) without internal shrine
ဝှာင်:GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg|Cave 1 plan, a monastery known for its paintings<ref>{{cite book|first=Fred S. |last=Kleiner|title=Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Concise Global History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UX9TCwAAQBAJ|year=2016|publisher=Cengage|isbn=978-1-305-57780-0|pages=467–468}}</ref>
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 6 plan.jpg|Cave 6: a two-storey monastery with "Miracle of Sravasti" and "Temptation of Mara" painted<ref name="Upadhyap7"/>
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 16 plan.jpg|Cave 16: a monastery featuring two side aisles<ref name="Upadhyap7">{{harvnb|Upadhya|1994|pp=7–8, 10}}</ref>
</gallery>
=== ဇြပ်လ္ၚောဝ်ကျာ်ဂမၠိုင် ===
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 197
| footer = Top: Interior of Ajanta chaitya hall, Cave 26, photo by Robert Gill (c. 1868); Bottom: James Fergusson painting of Cave 19 worship hall.
| image1 = Interior of Buddhist chaitya hall, Cave XXVI, Ajanta, c.1868.jpg
| image2 = Ajanta by Fergusson, cave 19.jpg
}}
The other type of main hall architecture is the narrower rectangular plan with high arched ceiling type ''[[chaitya]]-griha'' – literally, "the house of stupa". This hall is longitudinally divided into a nave and two narrower side aisles separated by a symmetrical row of pillars, with a [[stupa]] in the [[apse]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jain|first1=Rajesh K.|last2=Garg|first2=Rajeev|title=Rock-Cut Congregational Spaces in Ancient India|url=https://archive.org/details/architectural-science-review_2004-06_47_2/page/199|journal=Architectural Science Review| volume=47|issue=2| year=2004|pages=199–203 |doi=10.1080/00038628.2004.9697044|s2cid=110386714}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Suresh |last=Vasant |date=2000 |title=Tulja Leni and Kondivte Caitya-gṛhas: A Structural Analysis |journal=Ars Orientalis |volume=30, Supplement 1. Chāchājī: Professor Walter M. Spink Felicitation Volume |pages=23–32|jstor=4629566 }}</ref> The stupa is surrounded by pillars and concentric walking space for circumambulation. Some of the caves have elaborate carved entrances, some with large windows over the door to admit light. There is often a colonnaded porch or [[verandah]], with another space inside the doors running the width of the cave. The oldest worship halls at Ajanta were built in the 2nd to 1st century BCE, the newest ones in the late 5th century CE, and the architecture of both resembles the [[Architecture of cathedrals and great churches#Architecture|architecture of a Christian church]], but without the crossing or chapel chevette.<ref>{{cite book|first=David |last=Efurd|editor1-first=Vimalin |editor1-last=Rujivacharakul |editor2-first=H. Hazel |editor2-last=Hahn |display-editors=et al |title=Architecturalized Asia: Mapping a Continent through History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FCoWAgAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=978-988-8208-05-0|pages=140–145}}</ref> The Ajanta Caves follow the Cathedral-style architecture found in still older rock-cut cave carvings of ancient India, such as the [[Lomas Rishi Cave]] of the [[Ajivika]]s near Gaya in [[Bihar]] dated to the 3rd century BCE.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Born|first1=Wolfgang| title=The Origin and the Distribution of the Bulbous Dome |journal=The Journal of the American Society of Architectural Historians| volume=3| issue=4|year=1943|pages=32–48 |doi=10.2307/901122|jstor=901122}}</ref> These chaitya-griha are called worship or prayer halls.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=12, 94, 161–162, 228}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Keith |last=Bellows|title=Sacred Places of a Lifetime: 500 of the World's Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNqDFSxR8-MC&pg=PA125|year=2008|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=978-1-4262-0336-7|page=125}}</ref>
The four completed ''chaitya'' halls are caves 9 and 10 from the early period, and caves 19 and 26 from the later period of construction. All follow the typical form found elsewhere, with high ceilings and a central "nave" leading to the stupa, which is near the back, but allows walking behind it, as walking around stupas was (and remains) a common element of Buddhist worship (''[[pradakshina]]''). The later two have high ribbed roofs carved into the rock, which reflect timber forms,<ref>UNESCO, ''Brief description''</ref> and the earlier two are thought to have used actual timber ribs and are now smooth, the original wood presumed to have perished.<ref>Michell, 339</ref> The two later halls have a rather unusual arrangement (also found in Cave 10 at Ellora) where the stupa is fronted by a large relief sculpture of the Buddha, standing in Cave 19 and seated in Cave 26.<ref name="Harle, 118–122; Michell 335–343" /> Cave 29 is a late and very incomplete ''chaitya'' hall.<ref>Spink (2006), 12–13</ref>
The form of columns in the work of the first period is very plain and un-embellished, with both ''chaitya'' halls using simple octagonal columns, which were later painted with images of the Buddha, people and monks in robes. In the second period columns were far more varied and inventive, often changing profile over their height, and with elaborate carved capitals, often spreading wide. Many columns are carved over all their surface with floral motifs and Mahayana deities, some fluted and others carved with decoration all over, as in cave 1.<ref>Spink (2006), 18, and in the accounts of individual caves; Michell, 336</ref><ref>Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1909), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41338504 The Buddhist and Hindu Architecture of India"], ''Journal of the Royal Society of Arts'', Vol. 57, No. 2937 (5 March 1909), pp. 316–329</ref>
<gallery widths="125" heights="125" perrow="4">
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Chaitya 10 plan.jpg|Cave 10: a worship hall with Jataka tales-related art (1st century BCE)<ref name="Upadhyap9">{{cite book|first=Om Datt |last=Upadhya|title=The Art of Ajanta and Sopoćani: A Comparative Study : an Enquiry in Prāṇa Aesthetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCPx0R1TqOMC|year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0990-1|pages=9–11, 14–15}}</ref>
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Chaitya 9 plan.jpg|Cave 9: a worship hall with early paintings and animal friezes (1st century CE)<ref name="Upadhyap9"/>
ဝှာင်:Ajanta cave 19 plan.jpg|Cave 19: known for its figures of the Buddha, Kubera and other arts (5th century CE)<ref name="Upadhyap9"/>
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 19 longitudinal section.jpg|Cave 19: another view (5th century CE)
</gallery>
== ကသူ ==
[[ဝှာင်:Life circle of Lord Buddha - A marvel of painting inside Ajanta Cave.jpg|thumb|150px|Painted ceiling depicting ''Life circle of Lord Buddha'']]
The paintings in the Ajanta caves predominantly narrate the [[Jataka tales]]. These are Buddhist legends describing the previous births of the Buddha. These fables embed ancient morals and cultural lores that are also found in the fables and legends of Hindu and Jain texts. The Jataka tales are exemplified through the life example and sacrifices that the Buddha made in hundreds of his past incarnations, where he is depicted as having been reborn as an animal or human.<ref name="RingWatson2012p17">{{cite book|first1=Trudy |last1=Ring|first2=Noelle |last2=Watson|first3=Paul |last3=Schellinger|title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&pg=PA17 |year =2012|publisher =Routledge|isbn =978-1-136-63979-1|pages= 17–19}}</ref>{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=147–148}}<ref name="Upadhyafresco">{{harvnb|Upadhya|1994|pp=9–14, 68–84}}</ref>
Mural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves. Several fragments of murals preserved from the earlier caves (Caves 10 and 11) are effectively unique survivals of ancient painting in India from this period, and "show that by [[Sātavāhana]] times, if not earlier, the Indian painters had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic style, dealing with large groups of people in a manner comparable to the reliefs of the [[Sanchi|Sāñcī]] toraņa crossbars".{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p=355}} Some connections with the [[Gandhara art|art of Gandhara]] can also be noted, and there is evidence of a shared artistic idiom.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brancaccio|first1=Pia|title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|date=2010|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004185258|page=107|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA107|language=en}}</ref>
Four of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which, states James Harle, "have come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist",{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p=355}} and represent "the great glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art".{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p=356}} They fall into two stylistic groups, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and apparently later paintings in Caves 1 and 2. The latter group were thought to be a century or later than the others, but the revised chronology proposed by Spink would place them in the 5th century as well, perhaps contemporary with it in a more progressive style, or one reflecting a team from a different region.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp= 355–361}} The Ajanta frescos are classical paintings and the work of confident artists, without cliches, rich and full. They are luxurious, sensuous and celebrate physical beauty, aspects that early Western observers felt were shockingly out of place in these caves presumed to be meant for religious worship and ascetic monastic life.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p=359}}
The paintings are in "dry [[fresco]]", painted on top of a dry plaster surface rather than into wet plaster.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p= 361}} All the paintings appear to be the work of painters supported by discriminating connoisseurship and sophisticated patrons from an urban atmosphere. We know from literary sources that painting was widely practised and appreciated in the Gupta period. Unlike much Indian mural painting, compositions are not laid out in horizontal bands like a frieze, but show large scenes spreading in all directions from a single figure or group at the centre.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|p=359}} The ceilings are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture.{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp= 355–361}} The paintings in cave 1, which according to Spink was commissioned by [[Harishena|Harisena]] himself, concentrate on those Jataka tales which show previous lives of the Buddha as a king, rather than as deer or elephant or another Jataka animal. The scenes depict the Buddha as about to renounce the royal life.<ref name="Spink 2008">{{harvnb|Spink|2008}}</ref>
In general the later caves seem to have been painted on finished areas as excavating work continued elsewhere in the cave, as shown in caves 2 and 16 in particular.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 28–29}} According to Spink's account of the chronology of the caves, the abandonment of work in 478 after a brief busy period accounts for the absence of painting in places including cave 4 and the shrine of cave 17, the later being plastered in preparation for paintings that were never done.<ref name="Spink 2008" />
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ဝှာင်:Aurangabad - Ajanta Caves (55).JPG|Cave 2, showing the extensive paint loss of many areas. It was never finished by its artists, and shows Vidhura Jataka.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|p=148, Figure 46}}
ဝှာင်:Ajanta cave 17, frescoes above a lintel.JPG|Cave 17 verandah doorway; eight Buddhas above eight couples{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=201–202}}<ref>{{cite book|first1=George |last1=Michell|first2=Philip H. |last2=Davies|title=The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eqtNAAAAYAAJ|year=1989|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0670806966|page=340}}</ref>
ဝှာင်:Coming Of Sinhala (Mural At Ajanta In Cave No 17).jpg|Section of the mural in Cave 17, the 'coming of [[Sinhalese people|Sinhala]]'. The prince ([[Prince Vijaya]]) is seen in both groups of elephants and riders.
ဝှာင်:Hamsa jâtaka, Ajanta, India.jpg|Hamsa jâtaka, cave 17: the Buddha as the golden goose in his previous life{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p=91}}
ဝှာင်:Aurangabad - Ajanta Caves (13).JPG|Cave 13
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== Spink's chronology and cave history ==
[[Walter Spink]] has over recent decades developed a very precise and circumstantial chronology for the second period of work on the site, which unlike earlier scholars, he places entirely in the 5th century. This is based on evidence such as the inscriptions and artistic style, dating of nearby cave temple sites, comparative chronology of the dynasties, combined with the many uncompleted elements of the caves.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=1–16}} He believes the earlier group of caves, which like other scholars he dates only approximately, to the period "between 100 BCE – 100 CE", were at some later point completely abandoned and remained so "for over three centuries". This changed during the Hindu emperor [[Harishena]] of the [[Vakataka Dynasty]],<ref name=cohen83 /> who reigned from 460 to his death in 477, who sponsored numerous new caves during his reign. Harisena's rule extended the Central Indian Vakataka Empire to include a stretch of the east coast of India; the [[Gupta Empire]] ruled northern India at the same period, and the [[Pallava dynasty]] much of the south.<ref name="Spink 2006, 4" />
[[ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 26 Dagoba with praying monks.jpg|thumb|upright|Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26]]
According to Spink, Harisena encouraged a group of associates, including his prime minister Varahadeva and Upendragupta, the sub-king in whose territory Ajanta was, to dig out new caves, which were individually commissioned, some containing inscriptions recording the donation. This activity began in many caves simultaneously about 462. This activity was mostly suspended in 468 because of threats from the neighbouring Asmaka kings. Thereafter work continued on only Caves 1, Harisena's own commission, and 17–20, commissioned by Upendragupta. In 472 the situation was such that work was suspended completely, in a period that Spink calls "the Hiatus", which lasted until about 475, by which time the Asmakas had replaced Upendragupta as the local rulers.<ref>Spink (2006), 4–5</ref>
Work was then resumed, but again disrupted by Harisena's death in 477, soon after which major excavation ceased, except at cave 26, which the Asmakas were sponsoring themselves. The Asmakas launched a revolt against Harisena's son, which brought about the end of the Vakataka Dynasty. In the years 478–480 CE major excavation by important patrons was replaced by a rash of "intrusions" – statues added to existing caves, and small shrines dotted about where there was space between them. These were commissioned by less powerful individuals, some monks, who had not previously been able to make additions to the large excavations of the rulers and courtiers. They were added to the facades, the return sides of the entrances, and to walls inside the caves.<ref>Spink (2006), 5–6</ref> According to Spink, "After 480, not a single image was ever made again at the site".<ref>Spink (2006), 6</ref> However, there exists a Rashtrakuta inscription outside of cave 26 dateable to end of seventh or early 8th century, suggesting the caves were not abandoned until then.
Spink does not use "circa" in his dates, but says that "one should allow a margin of error of one year or perhaps even two in all cases".<ref>Spink (2009), xx (quoted); Spink (2006), 15–16</ref>
=== Hindu and Buddhist sponsorship ===
The Ajanta Caves were built in a period when both the Buddha and the Hindu gods were simultaneously revered in Indian culture. According to Spink and other scholars, the royal [[Vakataka]] sponsors of the Ajanta Caves probably worshipped both Hindu and Buddhist gods.<ref name=cohen83 />{{Sfn|Spink|2006|p=180}} This is evidenced by inscriptions in which these rulers, who are otherwise known as Hindu devotees, made Buddhist dedications to the caves.<ref name="SpinkVol5P180"/> According to Spink,
{{Quote|
That one could worship both the Buddha and the Hindu gods may well account for Varahadeva's participation here, just as it can explain why the emperor Harisena himself could sponsor the remarkable Cave 1, even though most scholars agree that he was certainly a Hindu, like earlier Vakataka kings.
|Walter Spink|''Ajanta: History and Development, Cave by Cave'',{{Sfn|Spink|2006|p=180}}}}
A terracotta plaque of [[Durga|Mahishasuramardini]], also known as [[Durga]], was also found in a burnt-brick [[vihara]] monastery facing the caves on the right bank of the river [[Waghora]] that has been recently excavated.<ref name="AjantaASI"/><ref name="ASI Ajanta"/><ref name="The Early Development of the Cave 2">"Recent excavations have unearthed valuable material including a brick monastery that had a stūpa, a gold coin of the Byzantine King Theodosius, an image of Mahiṣāsuramardinī, implements, vessels, and other objects. For a full report, see ‘Excavation at Ajanta: District Aurangabad’, in Indian Archaeology 2000 2001 A Review (New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2006), pp. 92-97" in {{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Rajesh Kumar |title=The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta |journal=South Asian Studies |date=March 2012 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=37–68 |doi=10.1080/02666030.2012.659906|s2cid=161425050 }}</ref> This suggest that the deity was possibly under worship by the artisans.<ref name="AjantaASI"/><ref name="ASI Ajanta"/> According to Yuko Yokoschi and Walter Spink, the excavated artifacts of the 5th century near the site suggest that the Ajanta caves deployed a huge number of builders.{{sfn|Spink|2009|p=14 with footnote 3}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Yuko |last=Yokochi|editor-first=Hans |editor-last=Bakker|title=The Vākāṭaka Heritage: Indian Culture at the Crossroads|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CFuAAAAMAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Egbert Forsten|isbn=978-90-6980-148-3|pages=172, context: 167–178}}</ref>
== Individual caves ==
[[ဝှာင်:Ajanta caves full panorama with cave numbers.jpg|center|thumb|800px|Ajanta Caves panorama with cave numbers. The caves are numbered from right to left, except for the later discovered cave 29, located high above Cave 21. Also, cave 30 is located between caves 15 and 16, nearer the river bed (cave invisible here). Chaitya halls are boxed (9, 10, 19, 26), and minor caves are indicated by a smaller type.]]
=== Cave 1 ===
[[ဝှာင်:AjantaHoehle1VerandaPanorama.jpg|thumb|400px|Front of Cave 1]]
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Cave 1 was built on the eastern end of the horseshoe-shaped scarp and is now the first cave the visitor encounters. This cave, when first made, would have been a less prominent position, right at the end of the row. According to Spink, it is one of the last caves to have been excavated, when the best sites had been taken, and was never fully inaugurated for worship by the dedication of the Buddha image in the central shrine. This is shown by the absence of sooty deposits from butter lamps on the base of the shrine image, and the lack of damage to the paintings that would have happened if the garland-hooks around the shrine had been in use for any period of time. Spink states that the Vākāṭaka Emperor [[Harishena]] was the benefactor of the work, and this is reflected in the emphasis on imagery of royalty in the cave, with those Jataka tales being selected that tell of those previous lives of the Buddha in which he was royal.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 17, 31}}
The cliff has a more steep slope here than at other caves, so to achieve a tall grand facade it was necessary to cut far back into the slope, giving a large courtyard in front of the facade. There was originally a columned portico in front of the present facade, which can be seen "half-intact in the 1880s" in pictures of the site, but this fell down completely and the remains, despite containing fine carvings, were carelessly thrown down the slope into the river, from where they have been lost.<ref>Spink (2006), 17; [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/g/019pho0001000s4u00462000.html 1869 photo by Robert Gill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323194744/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/g/019pho0001000s4u00462000.html |date=2014-03-23 }} at the [[British Library]], showing the porch already rather less than "half-intact"</ref>
[[ဝှာင်:008 Cave 1, In the Forest (34239644366).jpg|thumb|The frieze over the frontage of Cave 1 front shows elephants, horses, bulls, lions, apsaras and meditating monks.]]
This cave (35.7 m × 27.6 m)<ref name=asicave1to29/> has one of the most elaborate carved façades, with relief sculptures on entablature and ridges, and most surfaces embellished with decorative carving. There are scenes carved from the life of the Buddha as well as a number of decorative motifs. A two-pillared portico, visible in the 19th-century photographs, has since perished. The cave has a frontcourt with cells fronted by pillared vestibules on either side. These have a high plinth level. The cave has a porch with simple cells on both ends. The absence of pillared vestibules on the ends suggests that the porch was not excavated in the latest phase of Ajanta when pillared vestibules had become customary. Most areas of the porch were once covered with murals, of which many fragments remain, especially on the ceiling. There are three doorways: a central doorway and two side doorways. Two square windows were carved between the doorways to brighten the interiors.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 17–21}}
Each wall of the hall inside is nearly {{convert|40|ft|m}} long and {{convert|20|ft|m}} high. Twelve pillars make a square colonnade inside supporting the ceiling, and creating spacious aisles along the walls. There is a shrine carved on the rear wall to house an impressive seated image of the Buddha, his hands being in the ''dharmachakrapravartana [[mudra]].'' There are four cells on each of the left, rear, and the right walls, though due to rock fault there are none at the ends of the rear aisle.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 20–23}}
[[:Commons:Category:Cave 1, Ajanta|The paintings of Cave 1]] cover the walls and the ceilings. They are in a fair state of preservation, although the full scheme was never completed. The scenes depicted are mostly didactic, devotional, and ornamental, with scenes from the [[Jataka]] stories of the Buddha's former lives as a [[bodhisattva]], the life of the [[Gautama Buddha]], and those of his veneration. The two most famous individual painted images at Ajanta are the two over-life-size figures of the protective bodhisattvas [[Padmapani]] and [[Vajrapani]] on either side of the entrance to the Buddha shrine on the wall of the rear aisle (see illustrations above).{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 29–31}}{{Sfn|Harle|1994|pp=359–361}} Other significant frescos in Cave 1 include the Sibi, Sankhapala, Mahajanaka, Mahaummagga, and Champeyya Jataka tales. The cave-paintings also show the Temptation of Mara, the miracle of Sravasti where the Buddha simultaneously manifests in many forms, the story of Nanda, and the story of Siddhartha and Yasodhara.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=78, 132–135}}<ref name="Upadhyafresco"/>
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ဝှာင်:Meister des Mahâjanaka Jâtaka 001.jpg|One of four frescos for the Mahajanaka Jataka tale: the king announces his abdication to become an [[asceticism|ascetic]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Mahajanaka Jataka: Ajanta Cave 1|url=http://dcl.elevator.umn.edu/asset/viewAsset/56d1729c7d58aed50a8c4a98#56d1729d7d58aed50a8c4a9c|website=University of Minnesota}}</ref>
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 1 Mahajanaka Jataka mural detail.jpg|Sibi Jataka: the king undergoes the traditional rituals for renunciants. He receives a ceremonial bath.<ref name=behlpaint>Benoy Behl (2004), [http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2120/stories/20041008000106400.htm Ajanta, the fountainhead], Frontline, Volume 21, Issue 20</ref>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=32–33, Plate XI}}
ဝှာင်:Bodhi Ajanta.jpg|The [[Bodhisattva]] of compassion [[Padmapani]] with lotus<ref name=behlpaint/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=8–9, Plate IV}}
ဝှာင်:023 Cave 1, Vajrapani (33896242100).jpg|The [[Vajrapani]]<ref name=behlpaint/>{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=138–140}}
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=== Cave 2 ===
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Cave 2, adjacent to Cave 1, is known for the paintings that have been preserved on its walls, ceilings, and pillars. It looks similar to Cave 1 and is in a better state of preservation. This cave is best known for its feminine focus, intricate rock carvings and paint artwork yet it is incomplete and lacks consistency.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=74–75}}<ref name=picron245>Claudine Bautze-Picron (2002), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757545 Nidhis and Other Images of Richness and Fertility in Ajaṇṭā], East and West, Vol. 52, No. 1/4 (December 2002), pp. 245–251</ref> One of the 5th-century frescos in this cave also shows children at a school, with those in the front rows paying attention to the teacher, while those in the back row are shown distracted and acting.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=150–152}}
Cave 2 (35.7 m × 21.6 m)<ref name=asicave1to29/> was started in the 460s, but mostly carved between 475 and 477 CE, probably sponsored and influenced by a woman closely related to emperor Harisena.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=7–8, 40–43}} It has a porch quite different from Cave 1. Even the façade carvings seem to be different. The cave is supported by robust pillars, ornamented with designs. The front porch consists of cells supported by pillared [[Vestibule (architecture)|vestibules]] on both ends.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=40–54}}
[[ဝှာင်:Ajanta si01-0368.jpg|thumb|Colonnades with high-reliefs in the veranda]]
The hall has four [[colonnade]]s which are supporting the ceiling and surrounding a square in the center of the hall. Each arm or colonnade of the square is parallel to the respective walls of the hall, making an aisle in between. The colonnades have rock-beams above and below them. The capitals are carved and painted with various decorative themes that include ornamental, human, animal, vegetative, and semi-divine motifs.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=40–54}} Major carvings include that of goddess [[Hariti]]. She is a Buddhist deity who originally was the demoness of smallpox and a child eater, who the Buddha converted into a guardian goddess of fertility, easy child birth and one who protects babies.<ref name=picron245 />{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=150–152}}
[[:Commons:Category:Cave 2, Ajanta|The paintings on the ceilings and walls of Cave 2]] have been widely published. They depict the Hamsa, Vidhurapandita, Ruru, Kshanti Jataka tales and the Purna Avadhana. Other frescos show the miracle of Sravasti, Ashtabhaya Avalokitesvara and the dream of Maya.<ref name="Upadhyafresco"/>{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=147–148}} Just as the stories illustrated in cave 1 emphasise kingship, those in cave 2 show many noble and powerful women in prominent roles, leading to suggestions that the patron was an unknown woman.<ref name="Spink 2006, 13–14">{{harvnb|Spink|2006|pp= 13–14}}</ref> The porch's rear wall has a doorway in the center, which allows entrance to the hall. On either side of the door is a square-shaped window to brighten the interior.
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ဝှာင်:044 Cave 2, Paintings and Pillar (34149165821).jpg|Cave 2 fresco above the right door shows Buddha in [[Tushita]] heaven{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=48–49, Plates XVII–XX}}
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 2 Birth of the Buddha.jpg|A scene from Vidurapandita Jataka: the birth of the Buddha{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=48–49, Plates XVII–XX}}
ဝှာင်:Ajanta cave 2, girls detail.jpg|The artworks of Cave 2 are known for their feminine focus, such as these two females{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=74–75}}
ဝှာင်:045 Cave 2, Many Buddhas (34122766502).jpg|The Miracle of Sravasti{{sfn|Spink|2005|pp= 3–4, 91 footnote 59, 259}}
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=== Cave 3 ===
Cave 3 is merely a start of an excavation; according to Spink it was begun right at the end of the final period of work and soon abandoned.<ref name="Spink 2006, 8">{{harvnb|Spink|2006|p= 8}}</ref>
This is an incomplete monastery and only the preliminary excavations of pillared [[veranda]] exist. The cave was one of the last projects to start at the site. Its date could be ascribed to circa 477 CE<ref>(Spink 2005–2013)</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2018}}, just before the sudden death of Emperor Harisena. The work stopped after the scooping out of a rough entrance of the hall.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}
=== Cave 4 ===
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Cave 4, a [[Vihara]], was sponsored by Mathura, likely not a noble or courtly official, rather a wealthy devotee.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=58–61}} This is the largest vihara in the inaugural group, which suggests he had immense wealth and influence without being a state official. It is placed at a significantly higher level, possibly because the artists realized that the rock quality at the lower and same level of other caves was poor and they had a better chance of a major vihara at an upper location. Another likely possibility is that the planners wanted to carve into the rock another large cistern to the left courtside for more residents, mirroring the right, a plan implied by the height of the forward cells on the left side.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=58–61}}
The Archaeological Survey of India dates it to the 6th century CE.<ref name=asicave1to29/> Spink, in contrast, dates this cave's inauguration a century earlier, to about 463 CE, based on construction style and other inscriptions.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=58–61}} Cave 4 shows evidence of a dramatic collapse of its ceiling in the central hall, likely in the 6th century, something caused by the vastness of the cave and geological flaws in the rock. Later, the artists attempted to overcome this geological flaw by raising the height of the ceiling through deeper excavation of the embedded basalt lava.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=53–55}}
[[ဝှာင်:067 Cave 4, Buddhas, Sitting and Standing (34123205802).jpg|thumb|left|Cave 4: The Buddha in a preaching pose flanked by [[bodhisattva]]s]]
The cave has a squarish plan, houses a colossal image of the Buddha in preaching pose flanked by bodhisattvas and celestial nymphs hovering above. It consists, of a verandah, a hypostylar hall, sanctum with an antechamber and a series of unfinished cells. This monastery is the largest among the Ajanta caves and it measures nearly {{convert|970|m2}} (35m × 28m).<ref name=asicave1to29>{{cite web|url = http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ajanta_caves.asp|title = World Heritage Sites – About Ajanta Caves 01 to 29|publisher = Archaeological Survey of India |year = 2015|access-date = 22 October 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120501151253/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ajanta_caves.asp|archive-date = 1 May 2012|url-status = dead|df = dmy-all}}</ref> The door frame is exquisitely sculpted flanking to the right is carved Bodhisattva as reliever of Eight Great Perils. The rear wall of the verandah contains the panel of litany of [[Avalokiteśvara]]. The cave's ceiling collapse likely affected its overall plan, caused it being left incomplete. Only the Buddha's statue and the major sculptures were completed, and except for what the sponsor considered most important elements all other elements inside the cave were never painted.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=53–55}}
=== Cave 5 ===
[[:Commons:Category:Cave 5, Ajanta|Cave 5, an unfinished excavation]] was planned as a monastery (10.32 × 16.8 m). Cave 5 is devoid of sculpture and architectural elements except the door frame. The ornate carvings on the frame has female figures with mythical ''makara'' creatures found in ancient and medieval era Indian arts.<ref name=asicave1to29/> The cave's construction was likely initiated about 465 CE but abandoned because the rock has geological flaws. The construction was resumed in 475 CE after Asmakas restarted work at the Ajanta caves, but abandoned again as the artists and sponsor redesigned and focussed on an expanded Cave 6 that abuts Cave 5.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=81–82}}
=== Cave 6 ===
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Cave 6 is two-storey monastery (16.85 × 18.07 m). It consists of a sanctum, a hall on both levels. The lower level is pillared and has attached cells. The upper hall also has subsidiary cells. The sanctums on both level feature a Buddha in the teaching posture. Elsewhere, the Buddha is shown in different mudras. The lower level walls depict the [[Shravasti|Miracle of Sravasti]] and the [[Mara (demon)|Temptation of Mara]] legends.<ref name=asicave1to29/><ref name="Upadhya1994p10">{{harvnb|Upadhya|1994|pp=10–11}}</ref> Only the lower floor of cave 6 was finished. The unfinished upper floor of cave 6 has many private votive sculptures, and a shrine Buddha.<ref name="Spink 2006, 8" />
The lower level of the Cave 6 likely was the earliest excavation in the second stage of construction.<ref name="Upadhyap7"/> This stage marked the Mahayana theme and Vakataka renaissance period of Ajanta reconstruction that started about four centuries after the earlier Hinayana theme construction.<ref name="Upadhyap7"/>{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=83–89, 98–103}} The upper storey was not envisioned in the beginning, it was added as an afterthought, likely around the time when the architects and artists abandoned further work on the geologically-flawed rock of Cave 5 immediately next to it. Both lower and upper Cave 6 show crude experimentation and construction errors.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=83–91}} The cave work was most likely in progress between 460 and 470 CE, and it is the first that shows attendant Bodhisattvas.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=90–93}} The upper cave construction probably began in 465, progressed swiftly, and much deeper into the rock than the lower level.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=98–99}}
The walls and sanctum's door frame of the both levels are intricately carved. These show themes such as ''makaras'' and other mythical creatures, apsaras, elephants in different stages of activity, females in waving or welcoming gesture. The upper level of Cave 6 is significant in that it shows a devotee in a kneeling posture at the Buddha's feet, an indication of devotional worship practices by the 5th century.<ref name="Upadhya1994p10"/>{{sfn|Spink|2005|pages=93, 193–194}} The colossal Buddha of the shrine has an elaborate throne back, but was hastily finished in 477/478 CE, when king Harisena died.<ref name="Spink 87"/> The shrine antechamber of the cave features an unfinished sculptural group of the Six Buddhas of the Past, of which only five statues were carved.<ref name="Spink 87">{{cite book|last1=Spink|first1=Walter M.|title=Ajanta: Painting, sculpture, architecture|date=2005|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004149830|pages=87, 169–170|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3me7pY6zJyEC |language=en}}</ref> This idea may have been influenced from those in [[Bagh Caves]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Spink|first1=Walter M.|title=Ajanta: Painting, sculpture, architecture|date=2005|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004149830|pages=66–67|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3me7pY6zJyEC |language=en}}</ref>
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ဝှာင်:075 Cave 6, Painting Fragments (34239868756).jpg|The most intact painting in Cave 6: Buddha seated in dharma-chakra-mudra{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=74–75}}
ဝှာင်:Gosh.jpg|Painting showing the Mahayana devotional worship to the Buddha<ref name="Upadhya1994p10" />{{sfn|Spink|2005|pages=93, 193–194}}
ဝှာင်:Upper Floor, Cave No. 6, Ajanta Caves - 1.jpg|Buddha in the upper level, deer below and apsaras above (artificial lighting){{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=76–77}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Walter |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 6 Defining Features|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdlXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37|year=2014|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-474-4465-7|pages=97, 99 figures 32–33}}</ref>
</gallery>
=== Cave 7 ===
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The Cave 7 is also a monastery (15.55 × 31.25 m) but a single storey. It consists of a sanctum, a hall with octagonal pillars, and eight small rooms for monks. The sanctum Buddha is shown in preaching posture. There are many art panels narrating Buddhist themes, including those of the Buddha with Nagamuchalinda and Miracle of Sravasti.<ref name=asicave1to29/>
Cave 7 has a grand facade with two porticos. The veranda has eight pillars of two types. One has an octagonal base with amalaka and lotus capital. The other lacks a distinctly shaped base, features an octagonal shaft instead with a plain capital.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p=77}} The veranda opens into an antechamber. On the left side in this antechamber are seated or standing sculptures such as those of 25 carved seated Buddhas in various postures and facial expressions, while on the right side are 58 seated Buddha reliefs in different postures, all placed on lotus.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p=77}} These Buddhas and others on the inner walls of the antechamber are a sculptural depiction of the [[The Twin Miracle|Miracle of Sravasti]] in Buddhist theology.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp= xii, 87–89}} The bottom row shows two Nagas (serpents with hoods) holding the blooming lotus stalk.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p=77}} The antechamber leads to the sanctum through a door frame. On this frame are carved two females standing on ''makaras'' (mythical sea creatures). Inside the sanctum is the Buddha sitting on a lion throne in cross legged posture, surrounded by other Bodhisattva figures, two attendants with ''chauris''{{which lang|date=May 2020}} and flying apsaras above.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p=77}}
Perhaps because of faults in the rock, Cave 7 was never taken very deep into the cliff. It consists only of the two porticos and a shrine room with antechamber, with no central hall. Some cells were fitted in.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 8–9}} The cave artwork likely underwent revisions and refurbishments over time. The first version was complete by about 469 CE, the myriad Buddhas added and painted a few years later between 476 and 478 CE.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp= 87–89}}
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<gallery widths="125px" heights="125px" perrow="4">
ဝှာင်:Plan of Ajanta Cave 7, 1850 sketch.jpg|Cave 7 plan (Robert Gill sketch, 1850)<ref>Panoramic view [https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/streetview/ajanta-cave-no-8/nQHlGRr2Q_zX_w Google streetview]</ref>
ဝှာင်:1880 sketch antechamber reliefs Cave 7 Ajanta Maharashtra India.jpg|Cave 7: Buddhas on the antechamber left wall (James Burgess sketch, 1880){{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp= xii, 87–89}}
ဝှာင်:Ajanta si01-0403.jpg|Buddhas on the antechamber's right wall{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp= xii, 87–89}}
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Caves 47.jpg|The shallow corridor before the shrine
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=== Cave 8 ===
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| footer = External view of Cave 8, with plan. Cave 8 is small, and located at the lowest level in Ajanta, just below the walkway between Caves 7 and 9.
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Cave 8 is another unfinished monastery (15.24 × 24.64 m). For many decades in the 20th-century, this cave was used as a storage and generator room.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 8–9, 127–130}} It is at the river level with easy access, relatively lower than other caves, and according to Archaeological Survey of India it is possibly one of the earliest monasteries. Much of its front is damaged, likely from a landslide.<ref name=asicave1to29/> The cave excavation proved difficult and probably abandoned after a geological fault consisting of a mineral layer proved disruptive to stable carvings.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 8–9, 127–130}}{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp= 10, 88}}
Spink, in contrast, states that Cave 8 is perhaps the earliest cave from the second period, its shrine an "afterthought". It may well be the oldest Mahayana monastery excavated in India, according to Spink.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 8–9}} The statue may have been loose rather than carved from the living rock, as it has now vanished. The cave was painted, but only traces remain.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 8–9}}
=== Cave 9 ===
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| footer = Entrance to the Cave 9 worship hall. Right: An 1878 sketch.
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Caves 9 and 10 are the two ''chaitya'' or worship halls from the 2nd to 1st century BCE – the first period of construction, though both were reworked upon the end of the second period of construction in the 5th century CE.
Cave 9 (18.24 m × 8.04 m)<ref name=asicave1to29/> is smaller than Cave 10 (30.5 m × 12.2 m),<ref name=asicave1to29/> but more complex.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=131–132}} This has led Spink to the view that Cave 10 was perhaps originally of the 1st century BCE, and cave 9 about a hundred years later. The small "shrinelets" called caves 9A to 9D and 10A also date from the second period. These were commissioned by individuals.<ref>Spink (2006), 9; 140–141</ref> Cave 9 arch has remnant profile that suggests that it likely had wooden fittings.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=131–132}}
The cave has a distinct apsidal shape, nave, aisle and an apse with an icon, architecture, and plan that reminds one of the cathedrals built in Europe many centuries later. The aisle has a row of 23 pillars. The ceiling is vaulted. The stupa is at the center of the apse, with a circumambulation path around it. The stupa sits on a high cylindrical base. On the left wall of the cave are votaries approaching the stupa, which suggests a devotional tradition.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp=12–13}}{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=131–135}}
According to Spink, the paintings in this cave, including the intrusive standing Buddhas on the pillars, were added in the 5th century.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=xii, 1–3}} Above the pillars and also behind the stupa are colorful paintings of the Buddha with Padmapani and Vajrapani next to him, they wear jewels and necklaces, while yogis, citizens and Buddhist ''bhikshu'' are shown approaching the Buddha with garlands and offerings, with men wearing ''dhoti'' and turbans wrapped around their heads.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=77–78}} On the walls are friezes of Jataka tales, but likely from the Hinayana phase of early construction. Some of the panels and reliefs inside as well as outside Cave 10 do not make narrative sense, but are related to Buddhist legends. This lack of narrative flow may be because these were added by different monks and official donors in the 5th century wherever empty space was available.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=131–135}} This devotionalism and the worship hall character of this cave is the likely reason why four additional shrinelets 9A, 9B, 9C, and 9D were added between Cave 9 and 10.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=131–135}}
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<gallery widths="125px" heights="125px" perrow="4">
ဝှာင်:098 Cave 9, Buddha with Ananda (34239733306).jpg|Buddha statue on the porch of Cave 9
ဝှာင်:Ajanta caves aurangabad 12.JPG|The apsidal hall with plain hemispherical stupa at apse's center{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=77–78}}
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Caves 57.jpg|Pillar paintings
ဝှာင်:Cave 9, Paintings on and over pillars right side of the cave.jpg|Cave 9: fresco with Buddhas in orange robes and protected by [[Chatra (umbrella)|chatra]] umbrellas
</gallery>
=== Cave 10 ===
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| footer = Exterior view and interior hall of Cave 10<ref>[https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/streetview/ajanta-cave-no-10/MQFuFVppaC4MXQ 3D Tour]</ref>
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Cave 10, a vast prayer hall or [[Chaitya]], is dated to about the 1st century BCE, together with the nearby [[vihara]] cave No 12.<ref name="Spink 1"/>{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=135–137}} These two caves are thus among the earliest of the Ajanta complex.<ref name="Spink 1"/> It has a large central apsidal hall with a row of 39 octagonal pillars, a nave separating its aisle and stupa at the end for worship. The stupa has a ''pradakshina patha'' (circumambulatory path).<ref name=asicave1to29/>{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=135–137}}
This cave is significant because its scale confirms the influence of Buddhism in South Asia by the 1st century BCE and its continued though declining influence in India through the 5th century CE.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=135–137}} Further, the cave includes a number of inscriptions where parts of the cave are "gifts of prasada" by different individuals, which in turn suggests that the cave was sponsored as a community effort rather than a single king or one elite official.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=135–137}} Cave 10 is also historically important because in April 1819, a British Army officer John Smith saw its arch and introduced his discovery to the attention of the Western audience.<ref name=asicave1to29/>
;Chronology
Several others caves were also built in [[Western India]] around the same period under royal sponsorship.<ref name="Spink 1"/> It is thought that the chronology of these early Chaitya Caves is as follows: first Cave 9 at [[Mahakali Caves|Kondivite Caves]] and then Cave 12 at the [[Bhaja Caves]], which both predate Cave 10 of Ajanta.<ref name="Le 108">{{cite book|last1=Le|first1=Huu Phuoc|title=Buddhist Architecture|date=2010|publisher=Grafikol|isbn=978-0984404308|page=108|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA108|language=en}}</ref> Then, after Cave 10 of Ajanta, in chronological order: Cave 3 at [[Pitalkhora]], Cave 1 at [[Kondana Caves]], Cave 9 at Ajanta, which, with its more ornate designs, may have been built about a century later,<ref name="Spink 1"/> Cave 18 at [[Nasik Caves]], and Cave 7 at [[Bedse Caves]], to finally culminate with the "final perfection" of the Great Chaitya at [[Karla Caves]].<ref name="Le 108"/>
;Inscription
[[ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 10 dedicatory inscription.jpg|thumb|Ajanta Cave 10 dedicatory inscription]]
Cave 10 features a Sanskrit inscription in [[Brahmi script]] that is archaeologically important.<ref name=asicave1to29/> The inscription is the oldest of the Ajanta site, the [[Brahmi]] letters being paleographically dated to circa the 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sivaramamurti |first1=C. |title=Vijaynagra Paintings |publisher=Publications Division Ministry of Information & Broadcasting |isbn=9788123030005 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buqSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP31 |language=en}}</ref> It reads:{{refn|group=note|The inscription has been connected to the [[Satavahana]] ruler [[Vasishthiputra Pulumavi]] (c. 170 CE), who is also known for inscription at the [[Nasik Caves]], although there are disagreements since he is very posterior to the 1st century BCE.}}
{{quote|𑀯𑀲𑀺𑀣𑀺𑀧𑀼𑀢𑀲 𑀓𑀝𑀳𑀸𑀤𑀺𑀦𑁄 𑀖𑀭𑀫𑀼𑀔 𑀤𑀸𑀦𑀁<br>''ဝသိထိပုတသ ကဋဟာဒိနော ဃရမုခ ဒါနံ (Vasithiputasa Kaṭahādino gharamukha dānaṁ)''<br>"ဝသိထိပုတသ ညးမဒှ်တၠဒါန် ကဋဟာဒိ မုက်ထီု (The gift of a cave-façade by Vasisthiputra" Katahadi.)"|Inscription of Cave No.10.<ref>{{cite book|first1=James |last1=Burgess|first2=Bhagvānlal |last2=Indrājī|title=Inscriptions from the Cave-temples of Western India: With Descriptive Notes &c.|date=1881|publisher=Government Central Press|pages=67–68|url=https://archive.org/stream/inscriptionsfro00indrgoog#page/n143/mode/2up|language=English}}</ref><ref name="Spink 1">{{harvnb|Spink|2009|pp=1}}</ref>}}
;Paintings
[[:Commons:Category:Cave 10, Ajanta|The paintings in cave 10]] include some surviving from the early period, many from an incomplete programme of modernisation in the second period, and a very large number of smaller late intrusive images for votive purposes, around the 479–480 CE, nearly all Buddhas and many with donor inscriptions from individuals. These mostly avoided over-painting the "official" programme and after the best positions were used up are tucked away in less prominent positions not yet painted; the total of these (including those now lost) was probably over 300, and the hands of many different artists are visible. The paintings are numerous and from two periods, many narrating the Jataka tales in a clockwise sequence.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp= 101–103, 137–139, 184}} Both Hinayana and Mahayana stage paintings are discernable, though the former are more faded and begrimed with early centuries of Hinayana worship.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=2–3, 135–137}} Of interest here is the Saddanta Jataka tale – the fable about six tusked elephant, and the Shyama Jataka – the story about the man who dedicates his life serving his blind parents.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=135–137}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Dieter |last=Schlingloff|title=Studies in the Ajanta paintings: identifications and interpretations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsbqAAAAMAAJ|year=1987|publisher=South Asia Books|isbn=978-8120201736|pages=24–27}}</ref><ref name="Kramrisch1994p293">{{harvnb|Stella Kramrisch|1994|pp=293–295}}</ref> According to Stella Kramrisch, the oldest layer of the Cave 10 paintings date from about 100 BCE, and the principles behind their composition are analogous to those from the same era at Sanchi and Amaravati.<ref name="Kramrisch1994p293"/>
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*Plate 3* == Ajunta-- Interior of Chaitya Cave, No. 10.jpg|Cave 10, condition in 1839<ref>[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019xzz000000590u00005000.html Ajunta. Interior of Chaitya Cave No 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123135903/https://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019xzz000000590u00005000.html |date=2022-11-23 }}, Dibdin, Thomas Colman (1810–1893) (1839), British Library Archives</ref>
ဝှာင်:089 Cave 10, Buddha Drawing on Column (33896473480).jpg|The Buddha in long, heavy robe, a design derived from the art of [[Gandhara]]<ref>{{cite journal |journal=The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=4 |date=1981 |number=I |url=https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8536/2443 |title=An Exceptional Group of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā}}</ref>
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Caves 71.jpg|Later painting with devotional figures, on pillars and ceiling
ဝှာင်:106 Cave 10, Paintings in Arches (33438399444).jpg|Paintings of Buddhas and [[Bodhisattva]]s on the arches
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=== Caves 11 ===
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| footer = Outside view of Cave 11: Buddha with a kneeling devotee{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=81–82}}
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The Cave 11 is a monastery (19.87 × 17.35 m) from the later 5th century.<ref name=asicave1to29/> The cave veranda has pillars with octagonal shafts and square bases. The ceiling of the veranda shows evidence of floral designs and eroded reliefs. Only the center panel is discernible wherein the Buddha is seen with votaries lining up to pray before him.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=81–82}} Inside, the cave consists of a hall with a long rock bench opening into six rooms. Similar stone benches are found in [[Nasik Caves]].{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=81–82}} Another pillared verandah ends in a sanctum with seated Buddha against an incomplete stupa, and has four cells.
The cave has a few paintings showing Bodhisattvas and the Buddha.<ref name=asicave1to29/> Of these, the Padmapani, a couple gathered to pray, a pair of peafowl, and a female figure painting have survived in the best condition. The sanctum of this cave may be among the last structures built at Ajanta because it features a circumambulation path around the seated Buddha.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=81–82}}
=== Caves 12 ===
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According to Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Cave 12 is an early stage [[Hinayana]] ([[Theravada]]) monastery (14.9 × 17.82 m) from the 2nd to 1st century BCE. Spink however only dates it to the 1st century BCE.<ref>Spink, Walter M. (2009). Ajanta: History and Development Volume 2: Arguments about Ajanta. Leiden: Brill. p. 1</ref>
The cave is damaged with its front wall completely collapsed. Its three sides inside have twelve cells, each with two stone beds.<ref name=asicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=82–83}}
=== Cave 13, 14, 15, 15A ===
Cave 13 is another small monastery from the early period, consisting of a hall with seven cells, each also with two stone beds, all carved out of the rock. Each cell has rock-cut beds for the monks. In contrast to ASI's estimate, Gupte and Mahajan date both these caves about two to three centuries later, between 1st and 2nd-century CE.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=82–83}}
[[ဝှာင်:Interior of newly discovered vihara 15A at Ajanta 2nd century BCE.jpg|thumb|Interior of newly discovered vihara 15A at Ajanta, 2nd century BCE<ref>{{cite book |publisher=Indian Archaeology 1955-56 review |page=72 |url=http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201955-56%20%20A%20Review.pdf}}</ref>]]
Cave 14 is another unfinished monastery (13.43 × 19.28 m) but carved above Cave 13. The entrance door frame shows ''sala bhanjikas''.<ref name=asicave1to29/>
Cave 15 is a more complete monastery (19.62 × 15.98 m) with evidence that it had paintings. The cave consists of an eight-celled hall ending in a sanctum, an antechamber and a verandah with pillars. The reliefs show the Buddha, while the sanctum Buddha is shown seated in the [[Simhasana]] posture.<ref name=asicave1to29/> Cave 15 door frame has carvings of pigeons eating corn.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=82–83}}
Cave 15A is the smallest cave with a hall and one cell on each side. Its entrance is located just to the right of the elephant-decorated entrance to Cave 16.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|p=178}} It is an ancient Hinayana cave with three cells opening around a minuscule central hall.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|p=178}} The doors are decorated with a rail and arch pattern.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|p=178}} It had an inscription in an ancient script, which has been lost.<ref name=asicave1to29/>{{Sfn|Spink|2006|p=178}}
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<gallery widths="125px" heights="125px" perrow="4">
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 13 exterior.jpg|Cave 13
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 14 exterior.jpg|Cave 14
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 15 exterior.jpg|Cave 15
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 15A.jpg|Cave 15A
</gallery>
=== Cave 16 ===
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| footer = Entrance stairs to the single-storey Cave 16, with stone elephants and front with pillars (left). Inside hall with seated Buddha statue (right).<ref>[https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/streetview/ajanta-cave-no-16/EQHGrRl_AS01EA 3D Tour]</ref>
}}
Cave 16 occupies a prime position near the middle of site, and was sponsored by Varahadeva, minister of [[Vakataka]] king [[Harishena]] (r. c. 475 – c. 500 CE). He devoted it to the community of monks, with an inscription that expresses his wish, may "the entire world (...) enter that peaceful and noble state free from sorrow and disease" and affirming his devotion to the Buddhist faith: "regarding the sacred law as his only companion, (he was) extremely devoted to the Buddha, the teacher of the world".<ref name="SpinkVol5P180">{{cite book |last1=Spink |first1=Walter |title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 5 Cave by Cave |date=2006 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789047411871 |page=180 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNOvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA180&lpg=PA180 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=179–181}}<ref>For a full translation of the inscription see: {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=James |last2=Bhagvānlal |first2=Indrājī |title=Inscriptions from the Cave-temples of Western India: With Descriptive Notes &c. |date=1881 |publisher=Government Central Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/inscriptionsfro00indrgoog/page/n148 71]–73 |url=https://archive.org/details/inscriptionsfro00indrgoog |language=English}}</ref> He was, states Spink, probably someone who revered both the Buddha and the Hindu gods, as he proclaims his Hindu heritage in an inscription in the nearby [[Ghatotkacha Cave]].<ref name="SpinkVol5P180"/> The 7th-century Chinese traveler [[Xuan Zang]] described the cave as the entrance to the site.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=179–181}}
Cave 16 (19.5 m × 22.25 m × 4.6 m)<ref name=asicave1to29/> influenced the architecture of the entire site. Spink and other scholars call it the "crucial cave" that helps trace the chronology of the second and closing stages of the entire cave complex's construction.<ref>Walter M. Spink (1975), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629287 Ajantā's Chronology: The Crucial Cave], Ars Orientalis, Vol. 10 (1975), Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution, pp. 143–169</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Dhavalikar | first=M. K. | title=Sri Yugadhara: A Master-Artist of Ajanta | journal=Artibus Asiae | volume=31 | issue=4 | year=1969 | doi=10.2307/3249338 | pages=301–307| jstor=3249338 }}</ref> Cave 16 is a Mahayana monastery and has the standard arrangement of a main doorway, two windows, and two aisle doorways.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=181–183}} The veranda of this monastery is 19.5 m × 3 m, while the main hall is almost a perfect square with 19.5 m side.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=83–84}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
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[[:Commons:Category:Cave 16, Ajanta|The paintings in Cave 16]] are numerous. Narratives include various Jataka tales such as Hasti, Mahaummagga and the Sutasoma fables. Other frescos depict the conversion of Nanda, miracle of Sravasti, [[Sujata (milkmaid)|Sujata]]'s offering, Asita's visit, the dream of Maya, the Trapusha and Bhallika story, and the ploughing festival.<ref name="Upadhyafresco"/>{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=ix–xiii}} The Hasti Jataka frescos tell the story of a Bodhisattva elephant who learns of a large group of people starving, then tells them to go below a cliff where they could find food. The elephant proceeds to sacrifice himself by jumping off that cliff thereby becoming food so that the people can survive.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=83–84}}{{refn|group=note|Similar morals and virtue-defining fables are also found in Jainism and Hinduism, in texts such as the ''[[Panchatantra]]''. The antiquity of these tales has been a subject of scholarly debate. The pictorial narrative in Ajanta Caves attests to their influence by the 5th century.<ref>{{cite book|first1=H. T. |last1=Francis|first2=E. J. |last2=Thomas|title=Jataka Tales|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYjRAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-41851-6|pages=1–10, 168, 389 with footnotes}}</ref> In some cases such as the Sibi and Hasti Jataka, the Ajanta friezes more closely match the version of the same fables found in Hindu or Jain texts, suggesting a common root and shared heritage.<ref>{{cite book|first=G |last=Yazdani | year=1964 |title= Ajanta: Part I|publisher= Oxford University Press|pages= 4–6|oclc= 2980379}}</ref>}} These frescos are found immediately to the left of entrance, in the front corridor and the narrative follows a clockwise direction.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=83–84}}
The Mahaummagga Jataka frescos are found on the left wall of the corridor, which narrates the story of a child Bodhisattva.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=84–85}} Thereafter, in the left corridor is the legend surrounding the conversion of Nanda – the half brother of the Buddha. The story depicted is one of the two major versions of the Nanda legend in the Buddhist tradition, one where Nanda wants to lead a sensuous life with the girl he had just wed and the Buddha takes him to heaven and later hell to show the spiritual dangers of a sensual life.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=84–85}} After the Nanda-related frescos, the cave presents Manushi Buddhas, followed by flying votaries with offerings to worship the Buddha and the Buddha seated in teaching asana and ''dharma chakra mudra''.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=85–86}}
The right wall of the corridor show the scenes from the life of the Buddha.<ref name="Dehejia1997p210">{{cite book|first=Vidya |last=Dehejia|title=Discourse in early Buddhist art: visual narratives of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lb6fAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal|isbn=978-8121507363|pages=210–229}}</ref>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=86–88}} These include Sujata offering food to the Buddha with a begging bowl in white dress, Tapussa and Bhalluka next to the Buddha after they offering wheat and honey to the Buddha as monk, the future Buddha sitting alone under a tree, and the Buddha at a ploughing festival.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=86–88}} One mural shows Buddha's parents trying to dissuade him from becoming a monk. Another shows the Buddha at the palace surrounded by men in ''dhoti'' and women in ''sari'' as his behavior presents the four signs that he is likely to renounce.<ref name="Dehejia1997p210"/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=86–88}} On this side of the corridor are also paintings that show the future Buddha as a baby with sage [[Asita]] with [[rishi]]-like looks.<ref name="Dehejia1997p210"/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=86–88}} According to Spink, some of the Cave 16 paintings were left incomplete.{{sfn|Spink|2009|p=74}}
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<gallery widths="125px" heights="125px" perrow="5">
ဝှာင်:018 Cave 16, Bodhisattva Painting (34141156892).jpg|The conversion of sensuality-driven Nanda to Buddhism, left corridor<ref>{{cite book|first=G |last=Yazdani|year=1964|title= Ajanta: Part III|publisher= Oxford University Press|pages= 49–56|oclc= 2980379}}</ref>
ဝှာင်:017 Cave 16, Colonnaned Hall (34141160892).jpg|Palace scene fresco, right corridor of Cave 16<ref name="Dehejia1997p210"/>
ဝှာင်:027 Cave 16, Buddha on Almsround (33914608490).jpg|The Buddha in [[asceticism]] stage, getting sweet milk-rice from Sujata{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=86–88}}
ဝှာင်:019 Cave 16, Buddha Paintings, with Inscription (34141152992).jpg|Manushi Buddhas painting in Cave 16{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=86–88}}
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 16 King paying hommage to the Buddha.jpg|Cave 16: king paying homage to the Buddha
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=== Cave 17 ===
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Cave 17 (34.5 m × 25.63 m)<ref name=asicave1to29/> along with Cave 16 with two great stone elephants at the entrance and Cave 26 with sleeping Buddha, were some of the many caves sponsored by the Hindu Vakataka prime minister Varahadeva.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=179–180, 203–209}} Cave 17 had additional donors such as the local king Upendragupta, as evidenced by the inscription therein.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=67–68}}
The cave features a large and most sophisticated vihara design, along with some of the best-preserved and well-known paintings of all the caves. While Cave 16 is known for depicting the life stories of the Buddha, the Cave 17 paintings has attracted much attention for extolling human virtues by narrating the Jataka tales.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=88–90}} The narration includes attention to details and a realism which [[Stella Kramrisch]] calls "lavish elegance" accomplished by efficient craftsmen. The ancient artists, states Kramrisch, tried to show wind passing over a crop by showing it bending in waves, and a similar profusion of rhythmic sequences that unroll story after story, visually presenting the metaphysical.{{sfn|Stella Kramrisch|1994|pp=299–300}}
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The Cave 17 monastery includes a colonnaded porch, a number of pillars each with a distinct style, a peristyle design for the interior hall, a shrine antechamber located deep in the cave, larger windows and doors for more light, along with extensive integrated carvings of Indian gods and goddesses.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=203–209, 213}} The hall of this monastery is a {{convert|380.53|m2}} square, with 20 pillars.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=88–90}} The grand scale of the carving also introduced errors of taking out too much rock to shape the walls, states Spink, which led to the cave being splayed out toward the rear.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=209–214}}
Cave 17 has one long inscription by king [[Upendragupta]], in which he explains that he has "expended abundant wealth" on building this vihara, bringing much satisfaction to the devotees.<ref name="Spink 209"/> Altogether, Upendragupta is known to have sponsored at least 5 of the caves in Ajanta. He may have spent too much wealth on religious pursuits however, as he was ultimately defeated by the attacks of the [[Asmaka]].<ref name="Spink 209">{{cite book|last1=Spink|first1=Walter|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 5 Cave by Cave|date=2006|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9047411871|page=209|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNOvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|language=en}}</ref>
Cave 17 has thirty major murals. [[:Commons:Category:Cave 17, Ajanta|The paintings of Cave 17]] depict Buddha in various forms and postures – Vipasyi, Sikhi, Visvbhu, Krakuchchanda, Kanakamuni, Kashyapa and Sakyamuni. Also depicted are Avalokitesvara, the story of Udayin and Gupta, the story of Nalagiri, the [[Bhavacakra|Wheel of life]], a panel celebrating various ancient Indian musicians and a panel that tells of Prince Simhala's expedition to Sri Lanka.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=xii–xiii, 41–51, 70–75}}<ref>Meena Talim (2007), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/42931451 The wheel of law of causation in Ajanta paintings], Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Vol. 66/67 (2006–2007), pp. 245–258</ref> The narrative frescos depict the various Jataka tales such as the Shaddanta, Hasti, Hamsa, Vessantara, Sutasoma, Mahakapi (in two versions), Sarabhamiga, Machchha, Matiposaka, Shyama, Mahisha, Valahassa, Sibi, Ruru and Nigrodamiga Jatakas.<ref name="RingWatson2012p17"/><ref name="Upadhyafresco"/>{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=ix–xiii, 206}} The depictions weave in the norms of the early 1st millennium culture and the society. They show themes as diverse as a shipwreck, a princess applying makeup, lovers in scenes of dalliance, and a wine drinking scene of a couple with the woman and man amorously seated. Some frescos attempt to show the key characters from various parts of a Jataka tale by co-depicting animals and attendants in the same scene.<ref name="Upadhyafresco"/>{{Sfn|Spink|2009|pp=201–202}}
<gallery widths="125px" heights="125px" perrow="4">
ဝှာင်:Ajanta amorous palace scene.jpg|Vessantara Jataka: the story of the generous king Vessantara{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=88–90}}
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Cave 17 Shada-Danta Jataka.jpg|Shaddanta Jataka: six-tusked elephant giving away his tusks{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=88–90}}
ဝှာင်:079 Cave 17, Beautiful Composition (34298740365).jpg|Painting depicting "Darpana Sundari", a lady with a mirror<ref>{{cite book |title=Dance and Music in the Temple Architecture |publisher=Agam Kala Prakashan |page=47 |first=Choodamani |last=Nandagopal |date=1990 |isbn=978-8171860005}}</ref>
ဝှာင်:1880 sketch Buddha in sanctum Cave 17 Ajanta Maharashtra India.jpg|The Buddha in Cave 17 sanctum
</gallery>
=== Cave 18 ===
Cave 18 is a small rectangular space (3.38 × 11.66 m) with two octagonal pillars and it joins into another cell. Its role is unclear.<ref name=asicave1to29/>
=== Cave 19 (5th century CE) ===
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| footer = Entrance façade and inside worship hall, Cave 19, sponsored by king Upendragupta.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=9, 237–238}}
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Cave 19 is a worship hall (chaitya griha, 16.05 × 7.09 m) datable to the fifth century CE. The hall shows painted Buddha, depicted in different postures.<ref name=asicave1to29/>{{Sfn|Spink|2006|pp=9, 237–238}} This worship hall is now visited through what was previously a carved room. The presence of this room before the hall suggests that the original plan included a mandala style courtyard for devotees to gather and wait, an entrance and facade to this courtyard, all of whose ruins are now lost to history.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=101–102}} Cave 19 is one of the caves known for its sculpture. It includes Naga figures with a serpent canopy protecting the Buddha, similar to those found for spiritual icons in the ancient Jain and Hindu traditions. It includes Yaksha ''dvarapala''{{which lang|date=May 2020}} (guardian) images on the side of its ''vatayana''{{which lang|date=May 2020}} (arches), flying couples, sitting Buddha, standing Buddhas and evidence that its ceiling was once painted.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=101–102}}
The Cave 19 drew upon on the plan and experimentation in Cave 9.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=26–27, 47–48}} It made a major departure from the earlier Hinayana tradition, by carving a Buddha into the stupa, a decision that states Spink must have come from "the highest levels" in the 5th-century Mahayana Buddhist establishment because the king and dynasty that built this cave was from the Shaivism Hindu tradition. Cave 19 excavation and stupa was likely in place by 467 CE, and its finishing and artistic work continued into the early 470s, but it too was an incomplete cave when it was dedicated in 471 CE.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=26–27, 34–35, 47–48, 56}}
The entrance facade of the Cave 19 worship hall is ornate. Two round pillars with fluted floral patterns and carved garlands support a porch. Its capital is an inverted lotus connecting to an ''amalaka''. To its left is standing Buddha in ''varada hasta mudra'' with a devotee prostrating at his feet. On right is a relief of woman with one hand holding a pitcher and other touching her chin.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=101–102}}{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=44–46, 131–137, 231–239}} Above is a seated Buddha in meditating mudra. Towards the right of the entrance is the "Mother and Child" sculpture.<ref>[http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ic/id/6726 Mother and Child, Cave 19], Washington University</ref>{{refn|group=note|The "Mother and Child" theme is found in other caves, such as in the painting of Cave 17. These show the father Buddha with a begging bowl, with his son and wife looking up to him. Some show a towering figure of the Buddha looking below, with a small inset with the mother and child looking up. These images are interpreted as they offering food to him, or alternatively as the Buddha giving his son the begging bowl as his inheritance. The artwork signifies the belief that human values and spirituality is highest exchange across human generations.<ref>{{cite book|first=V A |last=Smith|title=Art of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WQ9gYUuP5acC&pg=PA137| year=2012|publisher= Parkstone|isbn= 978-1-78042-880-2|pages=137 with footnote}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=G |last=Yazdani|title=The early history of the Deccan, Vol. 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_D9uAAAAMAAJ|year=1961|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=766}}</ref>}} A figure with begging bowl is the Buddha, watching him are his wife and son.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=101–102}}{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=44–46, 131–137, 231–239}}
The worship hall is apsidal, with 15 pillars dividing it into two side aisles and one nave. The round pillars have floral reliefs and a fluted shaft topped with Buddha in its capitals. Next, to the Buddha in the capitals are elephants, horses and flying apsara friezes found elsewhere in India, reflecting the style of the Gupta Empire artwork.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=102–103}} According to Sharma, the similarities at the [[Karla Caves]] Great Chaitya, built in the 2nd century CE, suggest that Cave 19 may have been modeled after it.<ref name="Sharma">{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=Ramesh Chandra|title=Bharhut Sculptures|date=1994|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn= 978-8170173083|page=51|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=pIiOsQSUbBwC&pg=PA51|language=en}}</ref>
The walls and the ceiling of the side aisles inside the worship hall are covered with paintings. These show the Buddha, flowers, and in the left aisle the "Mother and Child" legend again.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=102–103}}
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<gallery widths="125px" heights="125px" perrow="4">
ဝှာင်:Ajanta cave 19 plan.jpg|Cave 19 plan suggests that it once had a courtyard and additional artwork{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=101–102}}
ဝှာင်:Engravings in pathway of Ajanta.JPG|[[Nagaraja]] in ''ardhaparyanka asana'', with his wife holding lotus and wearing ''mangalasutra''{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=101-102}}
013 Cave 19, Buddha Meditating (33535639164).jpg|The nave has 15 pillars with Buddha reliefs{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=102–103}}
ဝှာင်:027 Cave 19, Buddha Paintings (34219246102).jpg|Buddha paintings in the side aisle of Cave 19{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=102–103}}
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=== Cave 20 ===
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Cave 20 is a monastery hall (16.2 × 17.91 m) from the 5th century. Its construction, states Spink, was started in the 460s by king Upendragupta, with his expressed desire "to make the great tree of religious merit grow".{{sfn|Spink|2006|p=249}} The work on Cave 20 was pursued in parallel with other caves. Cave 20 has exquisite detailing, states Spink, but it was relatively lower on priority than Caves 17 and 19.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=249–251}} The work on Cave 20 was intermittently stopped and then continued in the following decade.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=249–251}}
The vihara consists of a sanctum, four cells for monks and a pillared verandah with two stone cut windows for light. Prior to entering the main hall, on the left of veranda are two Buddhas carved above the window and side cell. The ceiling of the main hall has remnants of painting.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p=103}} The sanctum Buddha is in preaching posture. The cave is known for the sculpture showing seven Buddhas with attendants on its lintel.<ref name=asicave1to29/> The cave has a dedicatory Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script in its verandah, and it calls the cave as a ''mandapa''.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=217–218}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=Nadine |last=Owen |date=2001 |title=Constructing Another Perspective for Ajaṇṭā's Fifth-Century Excavations |journal=Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=24 |issue=1 |page=42 with footnotes 40–42}}</ref>
Many of the figural and ornamental carvings in Cave 20 are similar to Cave 19, and to a lesser degree to those found in Cave 17. This may be because the same architects and artisans were responsible for the evolution of the three caves. The door frames in Cave 20 are quasi-structural, something unique at the Ajanta site.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=261–263}} The decorations are also innovative in Cave 20, such as one showing the Buddha seated against two pillows and "a richly laden mango tree behind him", states Spink.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=261–263}}
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ဝှာင်:033 Cave 20, Buddha on Lion Throne (34246702601).jpg|The Buddha on Lion throne
ဝှာင်:037 Cave 20, Naga (33567164493).jpg|The sanctum has two Nagarajas on the side as guardians.
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=== Caves 21, 22, 23, 24 and 25 ===
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Cave 21, 22, 23 and 24 are all monasteries, representing the final phases of Ajanta's construction. Cave 21 is a hall (28.56 × 28.03 m) with twelve rock cut rooms for monks, a sanctum, twelve pillared and pilastered verandah. The carvings on the pilaster include those of animals and flowers. The pillars feature reliefs of apsaras, Nagaraja and Nagarani, as well as devotees bowing with the namaste mudra. The hall shows evidence that it used to be completely painted. The sanctum Buddha is shown in preaching posture.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=103–104}}{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=273–311}}
Cave 22 is a small vihara (12.72 × 11.58 m) with a narrow veranda and four unfinished cells. It is excavated at a higher level and has to be reached by a flight of steps. Inside, the Buddha is seated in pralamba-padasana. The painted figures in Cave 22 show Manushi-Buddhas with Maitreya.<ref name=asicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=103–104}}{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=288–290}} A pilaster on the left side of the Cave 22 veranda has a Sanskrit prose inscription. It is damaged in parts, and the legible parts state that this is a "meritorious gift of a mandapa by Jayata", calling Jayata's family as "a great Upasaka", and ending the inscription with "may the merit of this be for excellent knowledge to all sentient beings, beginning with father and mother".{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p=259}}
The Cave 23 is also unfinished, consisting of a hall (28.32 × 22.52 m) but a design similar to Cave 21. The cave differs in its pillar decorations and the naga doorkeepers.<ref name=asicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=103–104}}{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=290–303}}
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Cave 24 is like Cave 21, unfinished but much larger. It features the second largest monastery hall (29.3 × 29.3 m) after Cave 4. The cave 24 monastery has been important to scholarly studies of the site because it shows how multiple crews of workers completed their objectives in parallel.{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=308–309}} The cell construction began as soon as the aisle had been excavated and while the main hall and sanctum were under construction.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=18 footnote 5}} The construction of Cave 24 was planned in 467 CE, but likely started in 475 CE, with support from Buddhabhadra, then abruptly ended in 477 with the sponsor king Harisena's death.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=31–32, 60}}
Cave 24 is significant in having one of the most complex capitals on a pillar at the Ajanta site, an indication of how the artists excelled and continuously improved their sophistication as they worked with the rock inside the cave.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=243–244}} The artists carved fourteen complex miniature figures on the central panel of the right center porch pillar, while working in dim light in a cramped cave space.<ref name=spink2014p37>{{cite book|first=Walter |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 6 Defining Features|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdlXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37|year=2014|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-474-4465-7|pages=37–38, 42}}</ref> The medallion reliefs in Cave 24 similarly show loving couples and anthropomorphic arts, rather than flowers of earlier construction.<ref name=spink2014p37/> Cave 24's sanctum has a seated Buddha in pralamba-padasana.<ref name=asicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=103–104}}{{sfn|Spink|2006|pp=304–311}}
Cave 25 is a monastery. Its hall (11.37 × 12.24 m) is similar to other monasteries, but has no sanctum, includes an enclosed courtyard and is excavated at an upper level.<ref name=asicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=103–104}}
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ဝှာင်:Ajanta caves Maharashtra 210.jpg|The Buddha of Cave 21
ဝှာင်:060 Cave 22, Interior (34336161086).jpg|Cave 22: inside hall
ဝှာင်:064 Cave 23, Side View (34377438285).jpg|Cave 23: inside hall
ဝှာင်:075 Cave 24, Pillar in Unfinished Cave (34336108966).jpg|Sophisticated pillars of Cave 24 with embedded loving couples; evidence of parallel work<ref name=spink2014p37/>
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=== Cave 26 (5th century CE) ===
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| footer = <center>Cave 26: entrance and interior of hall</center>
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Cave 26 is a worship hall (chaityagriha, 25.34 × 11.52 m) similar in plan to Cave 19, but much larger and with elements of a vihara design. An inscription states that a monk Buddhabhadra and his friend minister serving king of Asmaka gifted this vast cave.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=104–106}}{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=9–10}} The inscription includes a vision statement and the aim to make "a memorial on the mountain that will endure for as long as the moon and the sun continue", translates Walter Spink.<ref name=spink2014p34>{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 6 Defining Features|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdlXAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-474-4465-7|page=34 with footnote 30}}</ref> It is likely that the builders focussed on sculpture, rather than paintings, in Cave 26 because they believed stone sculpture will far more endure than paintings on the wall.<ref name=spink2014p34/>
The cave drew upon the experiences in building Cave 10, with attached wings similar to the ancient Cave 12 Hinayana-style vihara.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=9–10}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 6 Defining Features|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdlXAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-474-4465-7|pages=44, 50–51, 56–64 with footnotes}}</ref> The Cave 26 complex has two upper stories and it shows evidence that four wings of the cave were planned, but these were abandoned and only the carved Buddhas on the right and left wall were completed.<ref>{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 6 Defining Features|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdlXAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-474-4465-7|pages=64–65, 88–96 with footnotes}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Singh | first=Rajesh Kumar | title=The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta | journal=South Asian Studies | volume=28 | issue=1 | year=2012 | doi=10.1080/02666030.2012.659906 | pages=37–68| s2cid=161425050 }}</ref>
[[:Commons:Category:Cave 26, Ajanta|The sculptures in Cave 26]] are elaborate and more intricate. It is among the last caves excavated, and an inscription suggests late 5th or early 6th century according to ASI. The cave consists of an apsidal hall with side aisles for circumambulation (''pradikshana''). This path is full of carved Buddhist legends, three depictions of the Miracle of Sravasti in the right ambulatory side of the aisle, and seated Buddhas in various mudra. Many of these were added later by devotees, and therefore are intrusive to the aims of the original planners.<ref name=spink2014p57>{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 6 Defining Features|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdlXAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-474-4465-7|pages=53–57, 33–42, Figures on 88–96 (plus cover page), 311–324}}</ref> The artwork begins on the wall of the aisle, immediately the left side of entrance. The major artworks include the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha (reclining Buddha) on the wall, followed by the legend called the "Temptations by Mara". The temptations include the seduction by Mara's daughters who are depicted below the meditating Buddha. They are shown scantly dressed and in seductive postures, while on both the left and right side of the Buddha are armies of Mara attempting to distract him with noise and threaten him with violence. In the top right corner is the image of a dejected Mara frustrated by his failure to disturb the resolve or focus of the ascetic Buddha.<ref name=asicave1to29/>{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=104–106}}
At the center of the apse is a rock-cut stupa. The stupa has an image of the Buddha on its front, 18 panels on its base, 18 panels above these, a three tiered ''torana'' above him, and apsaras are carved on the ''anda'' (hemispherical egg) stupa.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=104–106}} On top of the dagoba is a nine-tiered ''harmika'', a symbolism for the nine [[saṃsāra (Buddhism)]] heavens in Mahayana cosmology. The walls, pillars, brackets and the triforium are extensively carved with Buddhist themes. Many of the wall reliefs and images in this cave were badly damaged, and have been restored as a part of the site conservation efforts.<ref>{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 6 Defining Features|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdlXAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-474-4465-7|pages=311–339, Figures on 88–93, with footnotes}}</ref>
Between cave 26 and its left wing, there is an inscription by a courtier of [[Rashtrakuta]] Nanaraj (who is mentioned in the Multai and Sangaloda plates), from late 7th or early 8th century. It is the last inscription in Ajanta.<ref>Spink, V. 2, P. 336</ref>
{{Clear}}
<gallery widths="125px" heights="125px" perrow="4">
ဝှာင်:Ajanta cave 26 plan.jpg|Cave 26 plan as completed. The etchings suggest the original plan was more ambitious.{{sfn|Spink|2009|pp=xvii, 29–30}}
ဝှာင်:19th century sketch and 21st century photo collage, Cave 26 Ajanta, Digoba Stupa.jpg|The sculptured dagoba (stupa) in the worship hall. It has 36 carved panels.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=105–106}}
ဝှာင်:19th century sketch and 21st century photo collage, Cave 26 Ajanta, Temptation of the Buddha.jpg|Temptation of the Buddha; the daughters of [[Mara (demon)|Mara]] carved below are trying to seduce him. Mara is on the top right.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=105–106}}
ဝှာင်:19th century sketch and 21st century photo collage, Cave 26 Ajanta, Buddha Parinirvana.jpg|Cave 26, left aisle wall: Mahaparinirvana of Buddha, or Dying Buddha{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|pp=104–105}}
</gallery>
=== Caves 27, 28 and 29 ===
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| footer = '''Left''': Cave 27, to the left of Cave 26. '''Middle''': Cave 28, further beyond Cave 27, at the westernmost end of the Ajanta complex. '''Right''': Cave 29, high up between caves 20 and 21.
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Cave 27 is a monastery and it may have been planned as an attachment to Cave 26. Its two storeys are damaged, with the upper level partially collapsed. Its plan is similar to other monasteries. Cave 28 is an unfinished monastery, partially excavated, at the westernmost end of the Ajanta complex and barely accessible.<ref name=asicave1to29/>
Cave 29 is an unfinished monastery at the highest level of the Ajanta complex, apparently unnoticed when the initial numbering system was established, and physically located between Caves 20 and 21.<ref name=asicave1to29/>
=== Cave 30 ===
In 1956, a landslide covered the footpath leading to Cave 16. In the attempts to clear and restore the walkway, a small aperture and votive stupa were noticed in the debris by the workers, in a location near the stream bed.<ref name="Le 112"/><ref>[http://vmis.in/upload/Assets/Archive/379/1.jpg A view of Cave 30, photographed by Walter Spink]</ref> Further tracing and excavations led to a previously unknown Hinayana monastery cave dated to the 2nd and 1st century BCE.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p=106}}<ref>Walter Spink (1966), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629225 Ajantā and Ghatotkacha: A Preliminary Analysis], Ars Orientalis, Vol. 6 (1966), pp. 135–155</ref> Cave 30 may actually be the oldest cave of the Ajanta complex.<ref name="Le 112">{{cite book|last1=Le|first1=Huu Phuoc|title=Buddhist Architecture|date=2010|publisher=Grafikol|isbn=978-0984404308|page=112|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA112|language=en}}</ref> It is a 3.66 m × 3.66 m cave with three cells, each with two stone beds and stone pillows on the side of each cell. The cell door lintels show lotus and garland carvings. The cave has two inscriptions in an unknown script. It also has a platform on its veranda with a fine view of the river ravine below and the forest cover. According to Gupte and Mahajan, this cave may have been closed at some point with large carefully carved pieces as it distracted the entrance view of Cave 16.{{sfn|Gupte|Mahajan|1962|p=106}}
=== Other infrastructure ===
Over 80% of the Ajanta caves were ''vihara'' (temporary traveler residences, monasteries). The designers and artisans who built these caves included facilities for collecting donations and storing grains and food for the visitors and monks. Many of the caves include large repositories cut into the floor. The largest storage spaces are found, states Spink, in the "very commodious recesses in the shrines of both Ajanta Cave Lower 6 and Cave 11". These caves were probably chosen because of their relative convenience and the security they offered due to their higher level. The choice of integrating covered vaults cut into the floor may have been driven by the need to provide sleeping space and logistical ease.<ref name="Spink2005p100">{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|title=Ajanta: The end of the Golden Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fjgq2OivwmkC |year=2005|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-14832-1|pages=100–101}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Granaries and kitchens were commonly integrated as infrastructures near major temples and monasteries in India. They are also found embedded into the design elsewhere such as the Bagh monuments.<ref name="Spink2005p100"/>}}
===Recent excavations===
[[ဝှာင်:Vihara brick monastery at Ajanta.jpg|thumb|The [[vihara]] brick monastery facing the caves at Ajanta. The cells were built around a [[stupa]] set on a central platform.<ref name="AjantaASI"/>]]
A burnt-brick [[vihara]] monastery facing the caves on the right bank of the river [[Waghora]] has been recently excavated.<ref name="AjantaASI"/><ref name="ASI Ajanta"/> It has a number of cells facing a central courtyard, in which a [[stupa]] was established.<ref name="AjantaASI"/><ref name="The Early Development of the Cave 2"/> A coin of the [[Western Satraps]] ruler [[Visvasena]] (ruled 293–304 CE) as well as a gold coin of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Theodosius II]] (ruled 402-450 CE) were found in the excavations, giving further numismatic confirmation for the dating of the caves.<ref name="AjantaASI">{{cite book |last1=Mitra |first1=Debala |title=Ajanta |date=2004 |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ajanta00mitr/page/94 94]–95 |url=https://archive.org/details/ajanta00mitr}}</ref> A terracotta plaque of [[Durga|Mahishasuramardini]] was also found, which was possibly under worship by the artisans.<ref name="AjantaASI"/><ref name="ASI Ajanta">{{cite book |title=Indian Archaeology 2000-2001 A Review |date=2001 |publisher=Archaeological Society of India |pages=92–98 |url=http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%202000-2001%20A%20Review.pdf}}</ref>
<gallery>
ဝှာင်:Ajanta burnt-brick monastery.jpg|Buddhist [[vihara]] cell structure at the recently excavated brick monastery at Ajanta
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Visvasena.jpg|Coin of [[Western Satraps|Western Satrap]] [[Visvasena]] (293–304), found in the excavations at the monastery
ဝှာင်:Ajanta Theodosius II 402-450.jpg|Coin of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Theodosius II]] (402–450), found in the excavations at the monastery
ဝှာင်:Ajanta terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini.jpg|Terracotta plaque of Hindu goddess [[Durga|Mahishasuramardini]] found on the site
</gallery>
== Copies of the paintings ==
[[File:Aj2.jpg|thumb|a detail: original left, copy by [[Christiana Herringham|Lady Herringham]] (1915) right]]
The paintings have deteriorated significantly since they were rediscovered, and a number of 19th-century copies and drawings are important for a complete understanding of the works. A number of attempts to copy the Ajanta paintings began in the 19th century for European and Japanese museums. Some of these works have later been lost in natural and fire disasters. In 1846 for example, Major [[Robert Gill]], an Army officer from [[Madras Presidency]] and a painter, was appointed by the [[Royal Asiatic Society]] to make copies of the frescos on the cave walls.<ref>{{cite book|last=Upadhya |first=Om Dutt |title=The Art of Ajanta and Sopoćani |url=https://archive.org/details/artofajantasopoc0000upad |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas Publisher |year=1994 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/artofajantasopoc0000upad/page/2 2]–3 |isbn=978-81-208-0990-1 |ref=harv}}</ref> Gill worked on his painting at the site from 1844 to 1863. He made 27 copies of large sections of murals, but all but four were destroyed in a fire at [[the Crystal Palace]] in London in 1866, where they were on display.<ref>Gordon, 234–238; Conserving the copies of the Ajanta cave paintings at the V&A</ref> Gill returned to the site, and recommenced his labours, replicating the murals until his death in 1875.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}
[[File:Ajanta dancing girl now and then.jpg|thumb|left|Dancing girl in Ajanta fresco; a 2012 photograph (left) and [[Robert Gill]]'s 19th-century copy<ref>Detail from this [https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O115444/copy-of-painting-inside-the-oil-painting-gill-robert/ painting in the V&A]</ref>]]
Another attempt was made in 1872 when the [[Bombay Presidency]] commissioned John Griffiths to work with his students to make copies of Ajanta paintings, again for shipping to England. They worked on this for thirteen years and some 300 canvases were produced, many of which were displayed at the [[Imperial Institute]] on [[Exhibition Road]] in London, one of the forerunners of the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]. But in 1885 another fire destroyed over a hundred of the paintings in storage in a wing of the museum. The V&A still has 166 paintings surviving from both sets, though none have been on permanent display since 1955. The largest are some {{convert|3|×|6|m}}. A conservation project was undertaken on about half of them in 2006, also involving the [[University of Northumbria]].<ref>[http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/conservation-journal/issue-52/conserving-the-copies-of-the-ajanta-cave-paintings-at-the-v-and-a/ Conserving the copies of the Ajanta cave paintings at the V&A] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018201728/http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/conservation-journal/issue-52/conserving-the-copies-of-the-ajanta-cave-paintings-at-the-v-and-a/ |date=2012-10-18 }}, [[Victoria & Albert Museum]], Conservation Journal, Spring 2006 Issue 52, accessed 24 October 2012</ref> Griffith and his students had unfortunately painted many of the paintings with "cheap varnish" in order to make them easier to see, which has added to the deterioration of the originals, as has, according to Spink and others, recent cleaning by the ASI.{{sfn|Cohen|2006|pp=50–51}}
[[File:Exposition Clemenceau, le Tigre et l'Asie (MNAA-Guimet, Paris) (13888446659).jpg|thumb|Copy of an Ajanta painting, in [[Musée Guimet]], Paris. Part of a mural probably relating the conversion of [[Nanda (Buddhist)|Nanda]], Cave 1.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ajanta Murals (An Album of Eighty-Five Reproductions in Colour)|date=1996|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|page=Fig. 2|url=http://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/ajanta-murals-album-of-eighty-five-reproductions-in-colour-NAL459/}}</ref>]]
A further set of copies were made between 1909 and 1911 by [[Christiana Herringham]] (Lady Herringham) and a group of students from the [[Government College of Art & Craft|Calcutta School of Art]] that included the future Indian Modernist painter [[Nandalal Bose]]. The copies were published in full colour as the first publication of London's fledgling [[Royal India Society|India Society]]. More than the earlier copies, these aimed to fill in holes and damage to recreate the original condition rather than record the state of the paintings as she was seeing them. According to one writer, unlike the paintings created by her predecessors Griffiths and Gill, whose copies were influenced by [[Academic art|British Victorian styles of painting]], those of the Herringham expedition preferred an 'Indian Renascence' aesthetic of the type pioneered by [[Abanindranath Tagore]].<ref>[http://www.burlington.org.uk/magazine/back-issues/2010/201004/ Rupert Richard Arrowsmith, "An Indian Renascence and the rise of global modernism: William Rothenstein in India, 1910–11"], ''[[The Burlington Magazine]]'', vol.152 no.1285 (April 2010), pp.228–235.</ref>
Early photographic surveys were made by Robert Gill, who learnt to use a camera from about 1856, and whose photos, including some using [[stereoscopy]], were used in books by him and Fergusson (many are available online from the [[British Library]]),<ref>Gordon, 236; [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/g/019pho0001000s4u00478000.html example from the British Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221033636/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/g/019pho0001000s4u00478000.html |date=2013-12-21 }} (search on "Gill, Robert Ajanta")</ref> then Victor Goloubew in 1911 and E.L. Vassey, who took the photos in the four volume study of the caves by Ghulam Yazdani (published 1930–1955).<ref>Upadya, 2–3</ref>
[[File:Buddhist mural, Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur.jpg|thumb|left|Reproduction of The Adoration of the Buddha, cave 17, [[Albert Hall Museum]], [[Jaipur]], India]]
Some slightly creative copies of Ajanta frescos, especially the painting of the Adoration of the Buddha from the shrine antechamber of Cave 17, were commissioned by [[Thomas Holbein Hendley]] (1847–1917) for the decoration of the walls of the hall of the [[Albert Hall Museum]], [[Jaipur]], [[India]].<ref name="Tillotson"/> He had the work painted by a local artist variously named Murli or Murali.<ref name="Tillotson">{{cite book|last1=Tillotson|first1=Giles Henry Rupert|title=Jaipur Nama: Tales from the Pink City|date=2006|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=9780144001002|page=156|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kmfxexeX3pIC&pg=PA156|language=en}}</ref> The museum was opened to the public in 1887. This work is otherwise presented as characteristic of the end of the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Wall Paintings of Rajasthan|date=1998|publisher=Jawahar Kala Kendra|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0jzrAAAAMAAJ|language=en|quote=artist Murali and Kishan are good examples of 19th C. painting}}</ref>
Another attempt to make copies of the murals was made by the Japanese artist Arai Kampō (荒井寛方:1878–1945) after being invited by [[Rabindranath Tagore]] to India to teach Japanese painting techniques.<ref>M. L. Ahuja,[https://books.google.it/books?id=GQWcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 ''Eminent Indians: Ten Great Artists,''] Rupa Publications, 2012 p.51.</ref> He worked on making copies with tracings on Japanese paper from 1916 to 1918 and his work was conserved at [[University of Tokyo|Tokyo Imperial University]] until the materials perished during the [[1923 Great Kantō earthquake]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Caterina |last1=Bon Valsassina|first2=Marcella |last2=Ioele|title=Ajanta Dipinta – Painted Ajanta Vol. 1 e 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z81lcQNAg8kC&pg=PA150 |year=2014|publisher=Gangemi Editore Spa|isbn=978-88-492-7658-9|pages=150–152}}</ref>
== Significance ==
===Natives, society and culture in the arts at Ajanta===
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| footer = Ajanta arts predominantly show natives. Left: people discussing the king's renunciation; Right: ''sadhus'' or ''brahmakayikas'' heading to a temple, five women chatting in a market square, children playing a board game near a banana tree.<ref>{{cite book|first=Irving L. |last=Finkel |title=Ancient Board Games in Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B20NAQAAMAAJ|year=2007|publisher=British Museum Press|isbn=978-0-7141-1153-7|pages=183, 226}}</ref>
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The Ajanta cave arts are a window into the culture, society and religiosity of the native population of India between the 2nd century BCE and 5th century CE. Different scholars have variously interpreted them from the perspective of gender studies, history, sociology, and the anthropology of South Asia.<ref>Lisa N. Owen (2010), Review: Ajanta: History and Development: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture – Year by Year by Walter M. Spink, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 69, No. 1 (FEBRUARY 2010), pages 317–319</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Dieter |last=Schlingloff|year=2000 | title= Ajanta – Handbuch der Malereien|publisher= Otto Harrassowitz Verlag| isbn= 978-3447042482}}</ref> The dress, the jewellery, the gender relations, the social activities depicted showcase at least a lifestyle of the royalty and elite,<ref>{{cite book|first1=Annette |last1=Lynch|first2=Mitchell D. |last2=Strauss|title=Ethnic Dress in the United States: A Cultural Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tiEvBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA256|year= 2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-0-7591-2150-8|page=256}}</ref> and in others definitely the costumes of the common man, monks and rishi depicted therein. They shine "light on life in India" around mid 1st millennium CE.{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp=12-14}}<ref name="Mehta199539">{{cite book|first=Tarla |last=Mehta|title=Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l7naMj1UxIkC&pg=PA39 |year=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1057-0|pages=39, 42, 65, 102, 173–178, 207–213}}</ref>
The Ajanta artworks provide a contrast between the spiritual life of monks who had given up all materialistic possessions versus the sensual life of those it considered materialistic, luxurious, symbols of wealth, leisurely and high fashion. Many frescos show scenes from shops, festivals, jesters at processions, palaces and performance art pavilions. These friezes share themes and details of those found in [[Bharhut]], [[Sanchi]], [[Amaravati]], [[Ellora]], [[Bagh Caves|Bagh]], [[Aihole]], [[Badami]] and other archaeological sites in India. Ajanta caves contributes to visual and descriptive sense of the ancient and early medieval Indian culture and artistic traditions, particularly those around the Gupta Empire era period.<ref name="Mehta199539"/><ref>{{cite book|first=Hermann |last=Goetz|title=The Early Wooden Temples of Chamba|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMwUAAAAIAAJ |publisher=Brill Academic|pages=101–111 |year=1955}}</ref>
{{Quote box
|quote = '''Orientalism and Ajanta Caves'''<br>
In the early nineteenth century, when Europeans first visited the Ajanta caves, they had no literary precedents through which to determine what they saw. Thus they saw very little beyond hunting scenes, domestic scenes, seraglio scenes, Welsh wigs, Hampton court beauties, elephants and horses, an Abyssinian black prince, shields and spears, and statues that they called 'Buddha' because of the curly hair.
|source = – Richard Cohen<br>''Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity''{{Sfn|Cohen|2006|p=119}}
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The early colonial era description of Ajanta caves was largely orientalist and critical, inconsistent with the Victorian values and stereotyping. According to William Dalrymple, the themes and arts in the Ajanta caves were puzzling to the 19th-century Orientalists. Lacking the Asian cultural heritage and framework that sees "nothing odd in the juxtaposition of monk and dancing girl", and with no knowledge of Jataka Tales or equivalent Indian fables, they could not comprehend it.<ref>Dalrymple, William (2015), ''[http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/open-essay/the-familiar-faces-of-ajanta The familiar faces of Ajanta]'', Open, September 2015</ref> They projected their own views and assumptions, calling it something that lacks reason and rationale, something that is meaningless crude representation of royalty and foreigners with mysticism and sensuousness.<ref name="Lannoy1971">{{cite book|first=Richard |last=Lannoy|title= The speaking tree: a study of Indian culture and society|url= https://archive.org/details/speakingtreestud0000lann|url-access=registration |year =1971|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-215177-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/speakingtreestud0000lann/page/46 46]–53}}</ref><ref name=asher4>{{cite book|first1=Catherine |last1=Asher|first2=Thomas R. |last2=Metcalf|title=Perceptions of South Asia's visual past|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HDluAAAAMAAJ|year =1994|isbn= 978-81-204-0883-8|pages=4–5, 17–21, 26–29, 47–63}}</ref> The 19th-century views and interpretations of the Ajanta Caves were conditioned by ideas and assumptions in the colonial mind, saw what they wanted to see.{{Sfn|Cohen|2006|pp=119-120}}<ref name=asher4/>{{sfn|Upadhya|1994|pp=3–4}}
To many who are unaware of the premises of Indian religions in general, and Buddhism in particular, the significance of Ajanta Caves has been like rest of Indian art. According to Richard Cohen, Ajanta Caves to them has been yet another example of "worship this stock, or that stone, or monstrous idol".{{Sfn|Cohen|2006|pp=119–120}} In contrast, to the Indian mind and the larger Buddhist community, it is everything that art ought to be, the religious and the secular, the spiritual and the social fused to enlightened perfection.{{Sfn|Cohen|2006|pp=120–131}}
According to Walter Spink – one of the most respected Art historians on Ajanta, these caves were by 475 CE a much-revered site to the Indians, with throngs of "travelers, pilgrims, monks and traders". The site was vastly transformed into its current form in just 20 years, between early 460 CE to early 480 CE, by regional architects and artisans. This accomplishment, states Spink, makes Ajanta, "one of the most remarkable creative achievements in man's history".<ref name="Williams1981">{{cite book|first=Walter M. |last=Spink|editor-first=Joanna Gottfried |editor-last=Williams|chapter=Ajanta's Chronology: Politics and Patronage|title= Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109| year=1981|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn= 978-90-04-06498-0|page= 109}}</ref>
===Foreigners in the paintings of Ajanta===
The Ajanta Caves painting are a significant source of socio-economic information in ancient India, particularly in relation to the interactions of India with foreign cultures at the time most of the paintings were made, in the 5th century CE. According to Indian historian [[Haroon Khan Sherwani]]: "The paintings at Ajanta clearly demonstrate the cosmopolitan character of Buddhism, which opened its way to men of all races, Greek, Persian, [[Saka]], [[Pahlava]], [[Kushan]] and [[Huna people|Huna]]".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sherwani |first1=Harron Khan |title=Dr. Ghulam Yazdani commemoration volume |date=1966 |publisher=Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Oriental Research Institute |page=186 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tK7de_DTsW8C |language=en}}</ref> Depictions of foreigners abound: according to Spink, "Ajanta’s paintings are filled with such foreign types." They have sometimes been a source of misinterpretation as in the so-called "Persian Embassy Scene". These foreigners may reflect the Sassanian merchants, visitors and the flourishing trade routes of the day.<ref>''Ajanta History and Development'' Vol IV p.153 Fig.27</ref>
;The so-called "Persian Embassy Scene"
[[File:Ajanta Cave 1 first frescoe to the right of the entrance with three foreigners detail.jpg|thumb|400px|Upper part of the so-called "Persian Embassy Scene", with detail of the foreigners.]]
Cave 1, for example, shows a mural fresco with characters with foreigner faces or dresses, the so-called "Persian Embassy Scene".<ref name="Spink 29">{{cite book|last1=Spink|first1=Walter|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 5 Cave by Cave|date=2006|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789047411871|page=29|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNOvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|language=en}}</ref> This scene<ref>Visible on Streetview [https://goo.gl/maps/HkfX4qK5wm82 here]</ref> is located at the right of the entrance door upon entering the hall.<ref name="Spink 29"/> According to Spink, [[James Fergusson (architect)|James Fergusson]], a 19th-century architectural historian, had decided that this scene corresponded to the Persian ambassador in 625 CE to the court of the Hindu [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]] king [[Pulakeshin II]].{{Sfn|Spink|2009|p=132}} An alternate theory has been that the fresco represents a Hindu ambassador visiting the Persian king [[Khusrau II]] in 625 CE, a theory that Fergusson disagreed with.{{Sfn|Spink|2006|p= 29}}<ref>Jas. Fergusson (1879), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25196825 On the Identification of the Portrait of Chosroes II among the Paintings in the Caves at Ajanta], The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Apr. 1879), pages 155–170</ref> These assumptions by colonial British era art historians, state Spink and other scholars, has been responsible for wrongly dating this painting to the 7th century, when in fact this reflects an incomplete Harisena-era painting of a Jataka tale (the Mahasudarsana jataka, in which the enthroned king is actually the [[Buddha]] in one of his previous lives as King) with the representation of trade between India and distant lands such as [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanian near East]] that was common by the 5th century.{{Sfn|Spink|2009|p=132}}{{Sfn|Spink|2006|p=27}}<ref>Anand Krishna (1981), An exceptional group of painted Buddha figures at Ajanta, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4, Number 1, pages 96–100 with footnote 1;<br>{{cite journal|last1= Schlingloff|first1= Dieter|title= Kalyanakarin's Adventures. The Identification of an Ajanta Painting|journal=Artibus Asiae| volume=38| issue=1|year=1976| pages=5–28|jstor=3250094 |doi=10.2307/3250094}}</ref>
;International trade, growth of Buddhism
[[File:Ajanta Cave 1 ceiling foreign dignitary.jpg|thumb|A foreigner in [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] dress drinking wine, on the ceiling of the central hall of Cave 1, likely a generic scene from an object imported from Central Asia (460–480 CE)<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/><ref name="DK">{{cite book|title=DK Eyewitness Travel Guide India|date=2017|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Limited|isbn=9780241326244|page=126|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTcnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT126|language=en}}</ref>]]
Cave 1 has several frescos with characters with foreigners' faces or dresses. Similar depictions are found in the paintings of Cave 17. Such murals, states Pia Brancaccio, suggest a prosperous and multicultural society in 5th-century India active in international trade.<ref name="Brancaccio 81">{{cite book|last1=Brancaccio|first1=Pia|title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|year =2010 |publisher =BRILL|isbn= 978-9004185258|pages=80–82, 305–307 with footnotes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA81|language=en}}</ref> These also suggest that this trade was economically important enough to the Deccan region that the artists chose to include it with precision.<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/>
Additional evidence of international trade includes the use of the blue lapis lazuli pigment to depict foreigners in the Ajanta paintings, which must have been imported from Afghanistan or Iran. It also suggests, states Branacaccio, that the Buddhist monastic world was closely connected with trading guilds and the court culture in this period.<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/> A small number of scenes show foreigners drinking wine in Caves 1 and 2.{{refn|group=note|In Cave 1, there are also four "foreign" [[bacchanalian]] groups (one now missing) at the middle of each quadrant of the elaborate ceiling painting.<ref name="Spink 27">{{cite book|last1=Spink|first1=Walter|title=Ajanta: History and Development, Volume 5 Cave by Cave|date=2006|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789047411871|page=27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNOvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|language=en}}</ref> Cave 2 shows two foreigners, possibly from Central Asia, sharing wine. These scenes, interprets Brancaccio, show what are probably foreign ewers from [[Sogdia]] or [[Persia]] were used to consume imported wines. A text from the [[Periplus of the Erythrean Sea]] era states that silverware vessels and wine was one of the main products imported for kings of [[Barygaza]].<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/> Sassanian bowls dated to about 400 CE have been discovered in other parts of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Read | first=Charles Hercules | title=XI.—On a Silver Sassanian Bowl of about the year 400 A. D., found in the NW. Provinces of India | journal=Archaeologia | volume=63 | year=1912 | doi=10.1017/s0261340900011656 | pages=251–256| url=https://zenodo.org/record/1551870 }}</ref> A copper plate in the [[Kanheri caves]] near [[Mumbai]] indicates that foreigners were active in trade in the city of [[Kalyan]] in the 5th century CE.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brancaccio|first1=Pia|title= The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|year=2010|publisher =BRILL|isbn= 978-9004185258|page= 86|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA86|language=en}}</ref>}} Some show foreign [[Near East]] kings with wine and their retinue which presumably add to the "general regal emphasis" of the cave.<ref name="Spink 27"/> According to Brancaccio, the Ajanta paintings show a variety of colorful, delicate textiles and women making cotton. Textile probably was one of the major exports to foreign lands, along with gems. These were exported first through the [[Red Sea]], and later through the [[Persian Gulf]], thereby bringing a period of economic and cultural exchange between the Indians, the Sasanian Empire and the Persian merchants before Islam was founded in the Arabian peninsula.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Brancaccio|first1=Pia|title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|year= 2010|publisher= BRILL|isbn= 978-9004185258|pages= 83–87 with footnotes|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Ajanta Cave 17 frescoe.jpg|thumb|left|Cave 17: many foreigners are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/>{{refn|group=note|Actual photograph are available on Google.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA305 here], or [https://goo.gl/maps/zvhsnX2JaZ32 full view]</ref>}}]]
While scholars generally agree that these murals confirm trade and cultural connections between India and Sassanian west, their specific significance and interpretation varies.<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/><ref name="Spink 27"/> Brancaccio, for example, suggests that the ship and jars in them probably reflect foreign ships carrying wine imported to India. In contrast, Schlinghoff interprets the jars to be holding water, and ships shown as Indian ships used in international trade.<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/>
Similar depictions are found in the paintings of Cave 17, but this time in direct relation to the worship of the [[Buddha]]. In Cave 17, a painting of the Buddha descending from the Trayastrimsa Heaven shows he being attended by many foreigners. Many foreigners in this painting are thus shown as listeners to the Buddhist [[Dharma]].<ref name="Brancaccio 81 and Note 27"/> The ethnic diversity is depicted in the painting in the clothes ([[kaftans]], Sasanian helmets, round caps), hairdos and skin colors. In the Visvantara Jataka of Cave 17, according to Brancaccio, the scene probably shows a servant from Central Asia holding a foreign metal ewer, while a dark-complexioned servant holds a cup to an amorous couple. In another painting in Cave 17, relating to the conversion of [[Nanda (Buddhism)|Nanda]], a man possibly from northeast Africa appears as a servant.<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/> These representations show, states Brancaccio, that the artists were familiar with people of [[Sogdia]], [[Central Asia]], [[Persia]] and possibly [[East Africa]].<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/>{{refn|group=note|The expansion of Buddhism into Gandhara and Central Asia began during the 1st millennium BCE. Some early Buddhist worship halls in western India included [[Yavanas]] (Greeks) as donors.<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/> Inscriptions recording such donations are found at [[Karla Caves]], [[Pandavleni Caves]] or [[Manmodi Caves]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bhandarkar|first1=D. R.|title=Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture|date=1989|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120604575|page=60|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUAvuYu-otEC&pg=PA60|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Brancaccio 81 and Note 27">{{cite book|last1=Brancaccio|first1=Pia|title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|date=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004185258|page=81 and Note 27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA81|language=en}}</ref> }} Another hypothesis is offered by Upadhya, who states that the artists who built Ajanta caves "very probably included foreigners".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Upadhya|first1=Om Datt|title=The Art of Ajanta and Sopoćani: A Comparative Study : an Enquiry in Prāṇa Aesthetics|date=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=9788120809901|page=135|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCPx0R1TqOMC&pg=PA135|language=en}}</ref>
{{Clear}}
<gallery widths="125px" heights="125px" perrow="6">
File:Ajanta Cave 2 Veranda ceiling foreigners.jpg|Cave 2, ceiling: foreigners sharing a drink of wine<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brancaccio|first1=Pia|title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion|date=2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004185258|page=307|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA307|language=en}}</ref>
File:Ajanta Cave 1 Group of foreigners.jpg|Cave 1, ceiling: another Persian-style foreign group, one of the four such groups (one now missing) at the center of each quadrant of the ceiling<ref name="Spink 27"/>
File:Ajanta Cave 17 foreign servant.jpg|A servant from Central Asia, Cave 17.<ref name="Brancaccio 81"/>
Ajanta Cave 17 Descent from Heaven Left Wall foreigners detail.jpg|Cave 17: foreigners attending the Buddha<ref name="PB305">{{cite book |last1=Brancaccio |first1=Pia |title=The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion |date=2010 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004185258 |page=305 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA305 |language=en}}</ref>
Ajanta Cave 17 Descent from Heaven Left Wall horsemen detail.jpg|Cave 17: foreigners on horses attending the Buddha<ref name="PB305"/>
File:Ajanta Cave 1, Padmapani attendant, Lady in blue dress with tiara.jpg|Lady in blue dress with tiara, of possible "Persan origin"."<ref>"The central figure is of colossal size and, whether it represents the Bodhisattva Padmapani or Prince Siddhartha, it bears the marks of both high rank and great spiritual stature. (...) The handmaid in long blue velvet coat and high embroidered cap appears, from her features, to be of Persian origin..."{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia Of World Art Vol. 1 |date=1959 |publisher=McGRAW-HILL |location=New-York, Toronto, London |page=165 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.462549/page/n113/mode/2up}}</ref>
</gallery>
===Preservation===
[[Paintings]] and the cave artwork have become eroded due to decay and human interference. Therefore, many areas of the painted walls, ceilings, and pillars are fragmentary. The painted narratives of the [[Jataka tales]] are depicted only on the walls, which demanded the special attention of the devotees. They are didactic in nature, meant to inform the community about the Buddha's teachings and life through successive rebirths. Their placement on the walls required the devotee to walk through the aisles and 'read' the narratives depicted in various episodes. The narrative episodes are depicted one after another, although not in a linear order. Their identification has been a core area of research since the site's discovery in 1819.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-05-04|title=Caves of Ajanta|url=https://www.hisour.com/caves-of-ajanta-30056/|access-date=2020-07-29|website=HiSoUR - Hi So You Are|language=en-US|accessdate=2020-11-22|archivedate=2020-11-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129111906/https://www.hisour.com/caves-of-ajanta-30056/}}</ref>
== Impact on later painting ==
The Ajanta paintings, or more likely the general style they come from, influenced painting in [[Tibet]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Imprint of Ajanta in Tibetan Art, Eva Fernanadez del Campo Barbadillo, Buddhist Himalaya: A Journal of Nagarjuna Institute of Exact Methods, Vol. IX No. I & II (1998) |url=http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BH/bh117550.htm |accessdate=2020-11-22 |archivedate=2014-07-28 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728064417/http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BH/bh117550.htm }}</ref> and [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>[The Imperial Guptas: Cultural history, Volume 2 of The Imperial Guptas, Parmeshwari Lal Gupta, Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, 1979 p. 221]</ref>
The rediscovery of ancient Indian paintings at Ajanta provided Indian artists with examples from ancient India to follow. [[Nandalal Bose]] experimented with techniques to follow the ancient style which allowed him to develop his unique style.<ref>Vasudev Sharan Agrawal, Kala aur Sanskriti, 1952, p. 282–299</ref> [[Abanindranath Tagore]] and [[Syed Thajudeen]] also used the Ajanta paintings for inspiration.
== See also ==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Barabar Caves]]
* [[Dambulla cave temple]]
== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
* "ASI": [http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ajanta.asp Archaeological Survey of India] website, with a concise entry on the Caves, accessed 20 October 2010
* Burgess, James and Fergusson J. ''Cave Temples of India.'' (London: W.H. Allen & Co., 1880. Delhi: [[Munshiram Manoharlal]] Publishers Pvt Ltd., Delhi, 2005). {{ISBN|81-215-0251-9}}
* Burgess, James, and [[Bhagwan Lal Indraji|Indraji, Bhagwanlal]]. ''Inscriptions from the Cave Temples of Western India'', Archaeological Survey of Western India, Memoirs, 10 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1881).
* Burgess, James. ''Buddhist Cave Temples and Their Inscriptions'', Archaeological Survey of Western India, 4 (London: Trubner & Co., 1883; Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1964).
* Burgess, James. "Notes on the Bauddha Rock Temples of Ajanta, Their Paintings and Sculptures," Archaeological Survey of Western India, 9 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1879).
* Behl, Benoy K. ''The Ajanta Caves'' (London: Thames & Hudson, 1998. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998).
* {{cite book|first=Richard S. | last=Cohen|title=Beyond Enlightenment: Buddhism, Religion, Modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5IPMKb4WFUC |year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-19205-2|ref=harv}}
* Cohen, Richard S. "[http://profcohen.net/publications/ajanta-inscriptions-1.pdf Ajanta’s Inscriptions]." In [[Walter M. Spink]], ''Ajanta: History And Development, volume 2: Arguments About Ajanta'' (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2006), pp. 273–339.
* Cohen, Richard S. "Nāga, Yaksinī, Buddha: Local Deities and Local Buddhism at Ajanta," ''History of Religions''. 37/4 (May 1998): 360–400.
* Cohen, Richard S. "Problems in the Writing of Ajanta’s History: The Epigraphic Evidence," ''Indo-Iranian Journal''. 40/2 (April 1997): 125–48.
* Cohen, Richard Scott. ''Setting the Three Jewels: The Complex Culture of Buddhism at the Ajanta Caves.'' A PhD dissertation (Asian Languages and Cultures: Buddhist Studies, University of Michigan, 1995).
* Gordon, Sophie (2011), ''Monumental visions: architectural photography in India, 1840–1901'', PhD thesis, [[SOAS]], University of London, [http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/12776/ PDF available]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book|ref=harv|first1=Ramesh Shankar|last1= Gupte|first2=B. D.|last2= Mahajan|title=Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad Caves|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=478MAQAAIAAJ|year=1962|publisher=D. B. Taraporevala}}
* [[Edward Byles Cowell|Cowell, E.B.]] ''The Jataka,'' I-VI (Cambridge: Cambridge, 1895; reprint, 1907).
* Dhavalikar, M.K. ''Late Hinayana Caves of Western India'' (Pune: 1984).
* Griffiths, J. ''Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta,'' 2 vols. (London: 1896–1897).
* Halder, Asit Kumar. "AJANTA" Edited and annotated by Prasenjit Dasgupta and Soumen Paul, with a Foreword by Gautam Halder LALMATI. Kolkata. 2009
* {{citation|last=Harle|first=James C.|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|edition=2nd|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl}}
* {{cite book|first=Stella |last=Kramrisch|title=Exploring India's Sacred Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxPeWwFz9MkC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1208-6|ref=harv}}
* Kramrisch, Stella. ''A Survey of Painting in the Deccan'' (Calcutta and London: The [[India Society]] in co-operation with the Dept. of Archaeology, 1937). Reproduced: "Ajanta," ''Exploring India’s Sacred Art: Selected Writings of Stella Kramrisch,'' ed. Miller, Barbara Stoler (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 1983), pp. 273–307; reprint (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1994), pp. 273–307.
* {{citation|last=Michell|first= George|title= The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu |year= 2009|publisher= Penguin Books|isbn= 978-0-14-008144-2}}
* Majumdar, R.C. and A.S. Altekar, eds. ''The Vakataka-Gupta Age.'' New History of Indian People Series, VI (Benares: Motilal Banarasidass, 1946; reprint, Delhi: 1960).
* Mirashi, V.V. "Historical Evidence in Dandin’s Dasakumaracharita," ''Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute'', 24 (1945), 20ff. Reproduced: Studies in Indology, 1 (Nagpur: Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal, 1960), pp. 164–77.
* Mirashi, V.V. ''Inscription of the Vakatakas''. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Series, 5 (Ootacamund: Government Epigraphist for India, 1963).
* Mirashi, V.V. ''The Ghatotkacha Cave Inscriptions with a Note on Ghatotkacha Cave Temples by Srinivasachar, P''. (Hyderabad: Archaeological Department, 1952).
* Mirashi, V.V. ''Vakataka inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta''. Hyderabad Archaeological Series, 14 (Calcutta: Baptist mission Press for the Archaeological Department of His Highness the Nizam's Dominions, 1941).
* Mitra, Debala. ''Ajanta'', 8th ed. (Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1980).
* Nagaraju, S. ''Buddhist Architecture of Western India'' (Delhi: 1981)
* Parimoo, Ratan; et al. ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', 2 vols (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991).
* Schlingloff, Dieter. ''Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 1; Narrative Wall Paintings'' (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999)
* Schlingloff, Dieter. ''Studies in the Ajanta Paintings: Identifications and Interpretations'' (New Delhi: 1987).
* Shastri, Ajay Mitra, ed. ''The Age of the Vakatakas'' (New Delhi: Harman, 1992).
* Singh, Rajesh K. ''An Introduction to the Ajanta Caves'' (Baroda: Hari Sena Press, 2012). {{ISBN|978-81-925107-0-5}}
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. 'The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta,’ ''South Asian Studies'' (London: March 2012), vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 37–68.
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. 'Buddhabhadra’s Dedicatory Inscription at Ajanta: A Review,’ in ''Pratnakirti: Recent Studies in Indian Epigraphy, History, Archaeology, and Art'', 2 vols, Professor Shrinivas S. Ritti Felicitation volume, ed. by Shriniwas V. Padigar and Shivanand V (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 2012), vol. 1, pp. 34–46.
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar, et al. ''Ajanta: Digital Encyclopaedia'' [CD-Rom] (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts, 2005).
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. "Enumerating the Sailagrhas of Ajanta," ''Journal of the Asiatic Society of Mumbai'' 82, 2009: 122–26.
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. "Ajanta: Cave 8 Revisited," ''Jnana-Pravah Research Journal'' 12, 2009: 68–80.
* Singh, Rajesh Kumar. "Some Problems in Fixing the Date of Ajanta Caves," ''Kala, the Journal of Indian Art History Congress'' 17, 2008: 69–85.
* {{cite book|first=Walter M.|last= Spink|title=Ajanta: The arrival of the uninvited|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2lyNi_K8P4C |year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-14833-8|ref=harv}}
* Spink, Walter M. (2009). Ajanta: History and Development Volume 2: Arguments about Ajanta. Leiden: Brill.
* {{Cite book |last = Spink |first = Walter M. |year = 2009 |title = Ajanta: History and Development Volume 4: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Year by Year |publisher = Brill |place = Leiden |isbn = 978-90-04-14983-0 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3me7pY6zJyEC |ref = harv}}
* {{Cite book |last = Spink |first = Walter M. |year = 2006 |title = Ajanta: History and Development Volume 5: Cave by Cave |publisher = Brill |place = Leiden |isbn = 978-90-04-15644-9 |ref = harv}}
* {{citation|last=Spink|first=Walter M.|year=2008|url=http://www.walterspink.com/ajanta/ajanta-lecture|title=Ajanta Lecture, Korea May 2008 (revised September 2008)|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2021-06-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618031156/http://www.walterspink.com/ajanta/ajanta-lecture|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|first=Om Datt|last= Upadhya|title=The Art of Ajanta and Sopoćani: A Comparative Study : an Enquiry in Prāṇa Aesthetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCPx0R1TqOMC|year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0990-1|ref=harv}}
* Spink, Walter M. "A Reconstruction of Events related to the development of Vakataka caves," ''C.S. Sivaramamurti felicitation volume'', ed. M.S. Nagaraja Rao (New Delhi: 1987).
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta’s Chronology: Cave 1’s Patronage," ''Chhavi'' 2, ed. Krishna, Anand (Benares: Bharat Kala Bhawan, 1981), pp. 144–57.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta’s Chronology: Cave 7’s Twice-born Buddha," ''Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia'', ed. Narain, A.K. (New Delhi: 1985), pp. 103–16.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta’s Chronology: Politics and Patronage," ''Kaladarsana'', ed. Williams, Joanna (New Delhi: 1981), pp. 109–26.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta’s Chronology: The Crucial Cave," ''Ars Orientalis'', 10 (1975), pp. 143–169.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta’s Chronology: The Problem of Cave 11," ''Ars Orientalis'', 7 (1968), pp. 155–168.
* Spink, Walter M. "Ajanta’s Paintings: A Checklist for their Dating," ''Dimensions of Indian Art, Pupul Jayakar Felicitation Volume'', ed. Chandra, Lokesh; and Jain, Jyotindra (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1987), p. 457.
* Spink, Walter M. "Notes on Buddha Images," ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al. (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 213–41.
* Spink, Walter M. "The Achievement of Ajanta," ''The Age of the Vakatakas'', ed. Shastri, Ajaya Mitra (New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 1992), pp. 177–202.
* Spink, Walter M. "The Vakataka’s Flowering and Fall," ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al. (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 71–99.
* Spink, Walter M. "The Archaeology of Ajanta," ''Ars Orientalis'', 21, pp. 67–94.
* Weiner, Sheila L. ''Ajanta: Its Place in Buddhist Art'' (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977).
* Yazdani, Gulam. ''Ajanta: the Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescos Based on Photography'', 4 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1930 [31?], 1955).
* Yazdani, Gulam. ''The Early History of the Deccan'', Parts 7–9 (Oxford: 1960).
* Zin, Monika. ''Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 2; Devotional and Ornamental Paintings'' (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2003)
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Ajanta Caves}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{EB1911 poster|Ajanta}}
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* [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0192.xml Ajanta Caves Bibliography], Akira Shimada (2014), Oxford University Press
* [https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02666030.2012.659906 The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta]
* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/oct/23/greatest-ancient-picture-gallery The Greatest Ancient Picture Gallery. William Dalrymple, New York Review of Books (23 Oct 2014)]
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242/ Ajanta Caves in UNESCO List]
* [https://artsandculture.google.com/entity/m0_z7 Google Streetview Tours of each Cave of Ajanta]
* [http://www.profcohen.net/publications/ajanta-inscriptions-1.pdf Inscriptions with Translations: Ajanta Caves], Richard Cohen
<references />
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{{Infobox medical condition
| name = Snakebite
| image = Snake Bite injury.jpg
| caption = A [[rattlesnake]] bite on the foot of a 9-year-old girl in [[Venezuela]]
| field = [[Emergency medicine]]
| symptoms = Two [[puncture wound]]s, redness, swelling, severe pain at the area<ref name=CDC2012/><ref name=Gold2002/>
| complications = [[hemorrhage|Bleeding]], [[kidney failure]], [[anaphylaxis|severe allergic reaction]], [[necrosis|tissue death]] around the bite, breathing problems, [[amputation]]<ref name=CDC2012/><ref name=WHO2015/>
| onset =
| duration =
| types =
| causes = [[Snakes]]<ref name=CDC2012/>
| risks = Working outside with one's hands ([[farming]], forestry, construction)<ref name=CDC2012/><ref name=WHO2015/>
| diagnosis =
| differential =
| prevention = Protective footwear, avoiding areas where snakes live, not handling snakes<ref name=CDC2012/>
| treatment = Washing the wound with soap and water, [[antivenom]]<ref name=CDC2012/><ref name=WHONeg/>
| medication =
| prognosis = Depends on type of snake<ref name=Marx2010/>
| frequency = Up to 5 million a year<ref name=WHO2015/>
| deaths = 94,000–125,000 per year<ref name=WHO2015/>
}}
'''ဇြုံၜံက်''' ({{Lang-en|snakebite}})ဂှ် ဒှ်သရ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု မဒးဒုင်ၜံက် နကဵုဇြုံ၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် မဒးဒုင်ၜံက် ကုဇြုံဂယိဂမၠိုင်။<ref>{{Cite web|title=Definition of Snakebite|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/snakebite|language=en}}</ref> မဒးဒုင်ၜံက် ကုဇြုံဂယိတအ်မ္ဂး ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ဒၞာဲပဏေတ်သရ ၜါ နူကဵု ဂၞိဟ်ဇြုံတအ်ရ။ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ပဏေတ်သရ နူကဵု ဇြုံၜံက်ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ်<ref name="WHO2015">{{Cite web|title=Animal bites: Fact sheet N°373|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs373/en/}}</ref> နကဵု မဗကေတ်ဒၟံင်၊ ဂိုဟ်ဒၟံင်၊ ကေုာံ ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲဂှ် ဂိဒၟံင်၊ လက်သန် ဗီုဏအ် ဂွံညာတ်ကေတ်ဂှ် ကြဴနူ မဒးဒုင်ၜံက်တုဲ ဒးကေတ်အခိင် ၜိုတ်မွဲနာဍဳ။ လက်သန် ဗီုမဒးဒုင်စသိုင်တအ်မ္ဂး ဂအအ်၊ မတ်ဂၠု၊ တၞုင်ဇိုင်တၞုင်တဲ ကိတ်စ၊ ကေုာံ ပဠက်တိတ်။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒးဒုင်ၜံက် ပ္ဍဲတဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲဇိုင်။<ref name="Gold2002">{{Cite journal|title=Bites of venomous snakes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Venomous snakebites.}}</ref> အန္တရာယ် မကတဵုဒှ်မာန် ဟိုတ်နူ ဇြုံၜံက်ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဂြိုဟ်ယာက် ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ်ဍိုန်လျ။ ဂျိဇြုံဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင်ဆီဂွံတိတ်၊ ကောန်ကၟအ် (ကျောက်ကပ်) လီု၊ ကလိုက်ကမဵု အလ္လာဂိစ် (severe allergic reaction)၊ ပ္ဍဲပွဳပွူမဒးဒုင်ၜံက်ဂှ် ကလာပ်ရုပ်တိဿူ ချိုတ် (tissue death) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ယီုဝါတ်တအ်ရ။<ref name="CDC2012">{{Cite web|title=Venomous Snakes|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/snakes/}}</ref> ဟိုတ်နူဇြုံၜံက်တုဲ ဒးဒုင်ကုတ်ဇိုင်တဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇိုင်တဲ မဒုင်ၜံက်တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံထတ်စောမ် မွဲအာယုက်။ ဆဂး ဂလိုင်လဵု မဒးဒုင်စဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် ကုဂကူဇြုံလဵု ဇကုမဒးဒုင်ၜံက်၊ ပ္ဍဲဇကု ဒၞာဲလဵု မဒးဒုင်ၜံက်၊ ကေုာံ ဂလိုင်လဵု ဂျိဇြုံမလုပ်စိုပ် ကေုာံ ညးမဒုင်ၜံက်ဂှ် အကာဲအရာ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် နွံဗီုလဵုရ။<ref name="Marx2010">{{Cite book|title=Rosen's emergency medicine : concepts and clinical practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7TNcpCeqx8C&pg=PA746}}</ref> ကောန်ၚာ်တအ်ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဇမၞော်ဇကုဍေဟ်တအ် ဍောတ်တုဲ အန္တရာယ်ဇၞော် နူကဵု ကဵု မၞိဟ်ဇၞော်ရ။<ref>{{Cite book|title=World Report on Child Injury Prevention|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UeXwoNh8sbwC&pg=PA128|language=en}}</ref><ref name="WHOantivenoms">{{Cite web|title=Snake antivenoms: Fact sheet N°337|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs337/en/}}</ref>
ဇြုံတအ်ဂှ် ဍေဟ်ၜံက် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ ဍေဟ်တအ် မဗက်ရပ်စ သတ်တၞဟ်ကီု သီုကဵု ကာလဍေဟ်တအ် မစဵုဒၞာအန္တရာယ် ဍေဟ်တအ်ရ။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မဒးဒုင်ၜံက် ဟိုတ်နူမကၠောန်ကမၠောန်မ္ၚး လပှ်ဂိုင်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကၠောန်ကၠအ်၊ ကၠောန်ဗ္ၚ ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲသြိုင်ခၞံတအ်ရ။ ဇြုံမနွံကဵုဂျိဂမၠိုင်ဂှ် ဇြုံဇာတ်၊ ဇြုံဗုဲ၊ ကေုာံ အဆာတ် (ဇြုံၜဳဂမၠိုင်)။ ဂကူဇြုံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟွံမဲ ကုဂျိတုဲ ကာလဍေဟ်တအ် ရပ်စ သတ်တၞဟ်မ္ဂး ဍေဟ်တအ် တ္ၚေတ်ဂစိုတ်ကေတ်ရ။ ဇြုံဂယိတအ်ဂှ် ပါဲနူ ပ္ဍဲတိုက်[[အန္တာတိက]] တုဲ နွံဒၟံင် ဇၟာပ်တိုက်ရ။ ရံင်ပဏေတ်သရ မၜံက်လဝ်တုဲ ဂကူဇြုံလဵု မၜံက်လဝ်ဂှ် တီကေတ် ဟွံမာန်။ နကဵု ဂကောံထတ်ယုက်ဂၠးကဝ် (World Health Organization) ဟီု ဇြုံၜံက်ဂှ် "ဒှ် ပြသၞာထတ်ယုက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် မဒးဒုင်ဝိုတ်ဒၟံင်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်ဒေသဂမ္တဴဂမၠိုင်" တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၇ စၟတ်သမ္တီ နကဵု ဂကောံထတ်ယုက်ဂၠးကဝ် ဇြုံၜံက်ဂှ် ဒှ် ယဲဒေသဂမ္တဴမဟွံစွံဂရု (Neglected Tropical Disease (Category A)) မွဲဂကူရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ်ဂှ် တၞဟ်န ကလိဂွံ အာရီုပရေင်သုတေသန၊ သွက်ဂွံကၠောန်ပ္တိတ် ဂဥုဲအာန္တိဂယိ (ဂဥုဲဂစိုတ်ဂျိ) ကေုာံ ညံင်ဂွံလွဳလွတ် ကုညးမဒုင်ဇြုံၜံက် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်အဃောဇၞော်မောဝ်တအ်ရ။
နဲစဵုဒၞာဲ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံဒးဒုင်ဇြုံၜံက်ဂှ် ပွမလိုန်ဒၞပ်ဍောင်၊ သအးဇ္ၚး ညံင်ဇြုံ ဟွံဂွံမံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဒေသ၊ ကေုာံ ဝေင်ပါဲ ပွမရပ်ဇြုံတအ်ရ။<ref name="CDC2012"/> ဗီုမလွဳဂှ် တန်တဴကဵု ဂကူဇြုံ မၜံက်လဝ်ဂှ်ရ။ ကြာတ်သရ နကဵု ဍာ် ကဵု သာပ်ပျာ ကေုာံ မံင်ညိင်င်ဂှ် ဒှ်ကသပ် ခိုဟ်မွဲရ။<ref name="WHONeg">{{Cite web|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|title=Neglected tropical diseases: Snakebite|url=https://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/diseases/snakebites/en/|accessdate=2021-01-15|archivedate=2015-09-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930063057/http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/diseases/snakebites/en/}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">. [[World Health Organization]]. Archived from [https://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/diseases/snakebites/en/ the original] on 30 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite></ref> မဂစာန်ဇြောတ်ပ္တိတ်ဂျိ၊ ကရေက်ဒၞာဲသရ နကဵုၜုန်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မပူဒက် ညံင်ဆီ အာကၠုင်ဟွံဂွံဂှ် ဟွံမိက်ကဵုပ။ အာန္တိဂယိ (ဝါ) ဂဥုဲဂစိုတ်ဂျိ (Antivenom) ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမစဵုဒၞာကဵု ညံင်ဟွံဂွံဒးချိုတ် ဟိုတ်နူဇြုံၜံက်၊ ဆဂး ဂဥုဲဂစိုတ်ဂျိတအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု အာနိသံသပရေအ်ပရေအ်။<ref name="WHO2015"/><ref name="Gutierrez2007">{{Cite journal|title=Trends in Snakebite Envenomation Therapy: Scientific, Technological and Public Health Considerations}}</ref> ဇြုံမွဲကုမွဲ ဂကူဂျိ ဟွံတုပ်ရေင်သကအ်တုဲ ဂဥုဲအာန္တိဂယိ (ဝါ) ဂဥုဲဂစိုတ်ဂျိလေဝ် ဒးစကာ ဟွံတုပ်ရေင်သကအ်ပၠန်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ဟွံတီဂကူဇြုံမ္ဂး ရံင်ကဵုဒေသဂှ် ဇြုံဂယိ ဂကူလဵု မနွံစဂၠိုင် ချပ်ကေတ်တုဲ ဆိင်ကဵုဂဥုဲရ။ ပ္ဍဲဒေသလ္ၚဵု ဂကူဇြုံဂယိ နွံနာနာသာ်တုဲ ဂဥုဲဂစိုတ်ဂျိလဵု ဂွံကဵုဂှ် ဖန်စဝါတ်တုဲ လွဳဟွံဒးနွံကီုရ။
လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် မဒးဒုင်ၜံက် ကုဇြုံဂယိ ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိဏအ် ပ္ဍဲမွဲမွဲသၞာံ စိုပ်စဵုကဵု မၞိဟ် မသုန် မဳလဳယာန်မာန်ရ။<ref name="WHO2015"/> မၞိဟ်ၜိုတ် ၂.၅ မဳလဳယာန်ဂှ် ဒးဂျိတုဲ ပ္ဍဲဂှ် မၞိဟ် အကြာ ၂၀.၀၀၀ ကဵု ၁၂၅.၀၀၀ ဂှ် ဒးချိုတ် နကဵုဇြုံၜံက်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိဏအ် မွဲဒေသကဵု မွဲဒေသ ကတဵုဒှ်စ ဟွံတုပ်ရေင်သကအ်ရ။<ref name="Kast2008">{{Cite journal|title=The global burden of snakebite: a literature analysis and modelling based on regional estimates of envenoming and deaths|date=4 November 2008}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFKasturiratneWickremasinghede_SilvaGunawardena2008">Kasturiratne, A.; Wickremasinghe, A. R.; de Silva, N; Gunawardena, NK; Pathmeswaran, A; Premaratna, R; Savioli, L; Lalloo, DG; de Silva, HJ (4 November 2008). [//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2577696 "The global burden of snakebite: a literature analysis and modelling based on regional estimates of envenoming and deaths"]. ''[[PLOS Medicine]]''. '''5''' (11): e218. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050218|10.1371/journal.pmed.0050218]]. [[PMC (identifier)|PMC]] <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible">[//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2577696 2577696]</span>. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18986210 18986210].</cite></ref> ဒၞာဲဒေသ မကတဵုဒှ်စဂၠိုင်အိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်တိုက်[[အာဖရိက|အာဖရိက၊]] [[အာရှ]]၊ ကေုာံ လေတ္တေန် အမေရိကာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသကွာန်ဂြိုပ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref name="WHOantivenoms"/> လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်မချိုတ် နကဵုဇြုံၜံက် ပ္ဍဲတိုက် သြသတြေလျ၊ [[ဥရောပ]] ကေုာံ [[အမေရိကသၟဝ်ကျာ]]တအ်ဂှ် အောန်ကွေဟ်ဟ်ရ။<ref name="Gutierrez2007"/><ref name="Chippaux1998">{{Cite journal|title=Snake-bites: appraisal of the global situation}}</ref> ဥပမာ ပ္ဍဲရးနိဂီုပံင်ကောံအမေရိကာန် မွဲမွဲသၞာံ မၞိဟ်မဒးဒုင်ၜံက် ဇြုံဂယိ နွံ အကြာ ထပှ် ကဵု ဒစာံလ္ၚီကီုလေဝ် မၞိဟ်မဒးချိုတ် နကဵုဇြုံၜံက်ဂှ် နွံဆ မၞိဟ်မသုန်ဓဝ် (မၞိဟ် ၆၅ မဳလဳယာန် မၞိဟ်မွဲ)။<ref name="CDC2012"/>
== သင်္ကေတ ကေုာံ လက်သန်ယဲ ==
[[ဝှာင်:Snake_bite_symptoms.png|thumb|ဂကူဇြုံလဵုဟွံဟီု မလေပ်ကဵု လက်သန်ယဲ။ ဆဂး လက်သန်ယဲဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် လတူ ဂကူဇြုံဇကုမဒးဒုင်ၜံက်တအ်တုဲ တၞဟ်ခြာတဴ ရေင်သကအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။]]
လက်သန်ယဲ မလေပ်ကတဵုဒှ်မာန် ဟိုတ်နူဇြုံၜံက်ဂှ် မပ္တံကဵု စံင်ပရံင် ကေုာံ ဂအအ် (nausea and vomiting)၊ ဂၞဴအာ (diarrhea)၊ ဗၜူ (vertigo)၊ ဒြဟတ်အိုတ် (fainting)၊ ဂြိုဟ်ယာ် (tachycardia) ကေုာံ ဂံက် (cold)၊ ပဠက်တိတ် (clammy skin)။<ref name="Gold2002"/><ref name="Kitchens1987">{{Cite journal|title=Envenomation by the Eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius fulvius). A study of 39 victims|journal=JAMA|volume=258|issue=12|pages=1615–18|pmid=3625968|doi=10.1001/jama.258.12.1615}}</ref>လက်သန်ယဲဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် ဂကူဇြုံ၊ ဒးဒုင်ၜံက် ကုဂကူဇြုံတၞဟ်ခြာမ္ဂး လက်သန်ယဲလေဝ် ထ္ၜးတၞဟ်ခြာကီုရ။
ဇြုံဂယိ ဟွံသေင် (ဝါ) ဇြုံဂျိဟွံမဲ ၜံက်ဒးလေဝ် မလေပ်ပကဵု ညံင်ဂွံဒှ်သရမာန်ကီုရ။ ဒၞာဲမဒးဒုင်ၜံက်ဂှ် စၟလုပ်ဂွံတုဲ ဒှ်သရ။ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး စၟဗက်တဳရဳယာ မပတံကဵု ''Clostridium tetani'' တအ် လုပ်ကၠောအ်ဂွံတုဲ ဒှ်သရ။ မပ္တံကဵု ဂိုဟ်၊ ဒှ်သရဇၞော်ဇၞော်မာန်ကီုရ။
ဇြုံၜံက်ဒှ်မ္ဂး ဂကူဇြုံနွံကဵုဂျိ ကဵုဒှ် ဟွံမဲကုဂျိကဵုဒှ် ဒၞာဲမဒးဒုင်ၜံက်ဂှ် မပ္တံကဵု ဍာဲတိုန် ဂိသကေဝ်တအ် မလေပ်ကတဵုဒှ်သၟးရ။<ref name="Gold2002"/> ယဝ်ရ ဒးဒုင်ၜံက် နကဵု ဇြုံဗုဲ (vipers) ကဵု ဇြုံဇာတ် (cobras)မ္ဂး ဂိကွေဟ်ဟ်တုဲ ကလာပ်ရုပ်တိဿူ ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲမဒးဒုင်ၜံက်ဂှ် ဂိအိုတ်အစောန် ဒးညိဟွံဂွံ၊ တုဲပၠန် ဂိုဟ်တိုန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် အပ္ဍဲမသုန်မိနေတ်ဂှ်။<ref name="Gutierrez2007"/>ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲဂှ် သီုကဵု ဆီတိတ် ကေုာံ ဍာ်သရတိတ်၊ ကလာပ်ရုပ်တိဿူချိုတ်။ လက်သန် မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဒၞာဲဂၞိဟ်ဇြုံဗုဲ ကေုာံ ဇြုံဗုဲၜံက်မ္ဂး လက်သန် မပ္တံကဵု ဒြဟတ်အိုတ် (lethargy)၊ bleeding (ဆီတိတ်)၊ ဍောင် (weakness)၊ စံင်ပရံင် (nausea) ကေုာံ ဂအအ် (vomiting)။ လက်သန် မကတဵုဒှ် အခိင်လအ်ညိဂှ် ဒှ် မပ္တံကဵု အသိင်ဆီဒြေပ်ဍိုန်လျ (hypotension)၊ ယီုဝါတ် (tachypnea)၊ ဂြိုဟ်ယာ်ထတ် (severe tachycardia)၊ ဆီတိတ်ဗွဲအပ္ဍဲ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် (severe internal bleeding)၊ (altered sensorium)၊ ကောန်ကၟအ်လီု (kidney failure)၊ ကေုာံ ယဓီုကျာလီု (respiratory failure)။
ယဝ်ရ မဒးဒုင်ၜံက် နကဵုဇြုံဂကူလ္ၚဵု မပ္တံကဵု ဇြုံ (ဂျက်မြွေ) (kraits)၊ ဇြုံ (coral snake)၊ ဇြုံ (Mojave rattlesnake)၊ ကေုာံ ဇြုံ (the speckled rattlesnake)တအ်မ္ဂး ၜိုန်ရ ဂျိဍေဟ်တအ် ပကဵု အန္တရာယ်လမျီုကီုလေဝ် ဒးဒုင်စသိုင် ညိည ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ညိဟွံဂိရ။<ref name="Gold2002"/> ညးလ္ၚဵုလဴထ္ၜး ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗညးတအ် အခိင်ညးတအ် မဒးဒုင်ၜံက် နကဵုဂကူဇြုံ rattlesnake ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဂွံဒုင်စသိုင် တံင်ဂြဲဒၟံင် ("rubbery")၊ ခလာန် ("minty") ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မဇြိုင်ဒၟံင် ("metallic")။ ဂျိဇြုံဇာတ် ကေုာံ ဇြုံRinkhals တအ်ဂှ် လုပ်စိုပ် ပ္ဍဲဇကုပိုယ်တုဲ ကသိုဟ်တိတ် ဂၠံင်မတ် ညးမဒးဒုင်ၜံက်။ အရာဏအ်ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင်မတ်ဂွံဂိမွဲတဲဓဝ်၊ မတ်ကၠု (ophthalmoparesis) ကေုာံ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး မတ်ကၠက်။
[[ဝှာင်:Tissue_necrosis_following_bite_from_Bothrops_asper_PLoS_Medicine.jpg|left|thumb|ကလာပ်ရုပ်တိဿူ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ချိုတ်လီု ကြဴနူ မဒးဒုင်ၜံက်ဇြုံ လတူတင်ၜံင်။ မၞိဟ်မဒးဒုင်ၜံက်ဂှ် ကောန်ၚာ်တြုဟ် အာယုက် ၁၁ သၞာံ၊ ကောန်ၚာ် နူဍုင် အဳကွာဒေါရ်၊ ဗီုမဂွံဆဵုကေတ်ဂှ် ကြဴနူ ဇြုံၜံက်တုဲ ဂွံၜါသတ္တာဟ။ လွဳဒၟံင် နကဵု ဗေန်နသလေန် (အာန္တိဗိသြတိစ်)။]]
ယဝ်ရ ဒးဒုင်ၜံက် နကဵု ဂကူဇြုံ Australian elapids ကဵု ဂကူဇြုံဗုဲ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်မ္ဂး ဂျိဍေဟ် ပကဵု ညံင်ဂွံ ဆီတိတ် ဗွဲအပ္ဍဲ (coagulopathy)၊ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ဆီဇွောဝ်တိတ် ဂၠံင်ပါင် ဂၠံင်မုဟ်။<ref name="Gutierrez2007"/> အဝဲအင်္ဂအပ္ဍဲ ဆီတိတ်၊ သီုကဵု က္ဍဟ် ကေုာံ ကြုတ်ဂမၠိုင်၊ ကေုာံ ကေုာံစၞာံဂမၠိုင်လေဝ် သရိုဟ်လီုနွံကီုရ။
ဂျိဇြုံ မပ္တံကဵု sea snakes, kraits, cobras, king cobra, mambas, ကေုာံ many Australian species တအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဂျိ မပလီုကဵု သၞောတ်ကတေင်အာရီုတုဲ ပကဵု ညံင်ကတေင်အာရီုဂမၠိုင်ဂွံလီု ဟွံကၠောန်ကမၠောန်ရ။<ref name="Gold2002"/><ref name="Gutierrez2007"/><ref name="Phillips2002">{{Cite journal|last=Phillips|first=Charles M.|title=Sea snake envenomation|journal=Dermatologic Therapy|volume=15|issue=1|pages=58–61(4)|doi=10.1046/j.1529-8019.2002.01504.x}}</ref> The person may present with strange disturbances to their vision, including blurriness. Paresthesia throughout the body, as well as difficulty in speaking and breathing, may be reported. Nervous system problems will cause a huge array of symptoms, and those provided here are not exhaustive. If not treated immediately they may die from respiratory failure.
Venom emitted from some types of cobras, almost all vipers and some sea snakes causes necrosis of muscle tissue. Muscle tissue will begin to die throughout the body, a condition known as rhabdomyolysis. Rhabdomyolysis can result in damage to the kidneys as a result of myoglobin accumulation in the renal tubules. This, coupled with hypotension, can lead to acute kidney injury, and, if left untreated, eventually death.
Snakebite is also known to cause depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in a high proportion of people who survive.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=November 2020|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33257419/}}</ref>
== Cause ==
In the developing world most snakebites occur in those who work outside such as farmers, hunters, and fishermen. They often happen when a person steps on the snake or approaches it too closely. In the United States and Europe snakebites most commonly occur in those who keep them as pets.<ref name="Brut2013">{{Cite book|last=Brutto|first=edited by Hector H. Garcia, Herbert B. Tanowitz, Oscar H. Del|title=Neuroparasitology and tropical neurology|date=2013|isbn=9780444534996|pages=351|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJx3g30aDhIC&pg=PA351}}</ref>
The type of snake that most often delivers serious bites depends on the region of the world. In Africa, it is mambas, Egyptian cobras, puff adders, and carpet vipers. In the Middle East, it is carpet vipers and elapids. In Latin America, it is snakes of the ''Bothrops'' and ''Crotalus'' types, the latter including rattlesnakes.<ref name="Brut2013"/> In North America, rattlesnakes are the primary concern, and up to 95% of all snakebite-related deaths in the United States are attributed to the western and eastern diamondback rattlesnakes.<ref name="Gold2002"/> In South Asia, it was previously believed that Indian cobras, common kraits, Russell's viper, and carpet vipers were the most dangerous; other snakes, however, may also cause significant problems in this area of the world.
== Pathophysiology ==
Since envenomation is completely voluntary, all venomous snakes are capable of biting without injecting venom into a person. Snakes may deliver such a "dry bite" rather than waste their venom on a creature too large for them to eat, a behaviour called venom metering.<ref name="Young2002">{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=Bruce A.|year=2002|title=Do Snakes Meter Venom?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bioscience_2002-12_52_12/page/1121|journal=BioScience|volume=52|issue=12|pages=1121–26|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[1121:DSMV]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> However, the percentage of dry bites varies among species: 80 percent of bites inflicted by sea snakes, which are normally timid, do not result in envenomation,<ref name="Phillips2002"/> whereas only 25 percent of pit viper bites are dry.<ref name="Gold2002"/> Furthermore, some snake genera, such as rattlesnakes, significantly increase the amount of venom injected in defensive bites compared to predatory strikes.<ref name="Young2001">{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=Bruce A.|year=2001|title=Venom flow in rattlesnakes: mechanics and metering|journal=[[The Journal of Experimental Biology]]|volume=204|issue=Pt 24|pages=4345–4351|pmid=11815658}}</ref>
Some dry bites may also be the result of imprecise timing on the snake's part, as venom may be prematurely released before the fangs have penetrated the person. Even without venom, some snakes, particularly large constrictors such as those belonging to the Boidae and Pythonidae families, can deliver damaging bites; large specimens often cause severe lacerations, or the snake itself pulls away, causing the flesh to be torn by the needle-sharp recurved teeth embedded in the person. While not as life-threatening as a bite from a venomous species, the bite can be at least temporarily debilitating and could lead to dangerous infections if improperly dealt with.
While most snakes must open their mouths before biting, African and Middle Eastern snakes belonging to the family Atractaspididae are able to fold their fangs to the side of their head without opening their mouth and jab a person.<ref name="Deufel2003">{{Cite journal|last=Deufel|first=Alexandra|year=2003|title=Feeding in Atractaspis (Serpentes: Atractaspididae): a study in conflicting functional constraints|journal=[[Zoology (journal)|Zoology]]|volume=106|issue=1|pages=43–61|doi=10.1078/0944-2006-00088|pmid=16351890}}</ref>
=== Snake venom ===
It has been suggested that snakes evolved the mechanisms necessary for venom formation and delivery sometime during the Miocene epoch.<ref name="Jackson2003">{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Kate|year=2003|title=The evolution of venom-delivery systems in snakes|journal=[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]]|volume=137|issue=3|pages=337–354|doi=10.1046/j.1096-3642.2003.00052.x|url=http://www.kingsnake.com/aho/pdf/menu2/jackson2002.pdf}}</ref> During the mid-Tertiary, most snakes were large ambush predators belonging to the superfamily Henophidia, which use constriction to kill their prey. As open grasslands replaced forested areas in parts of the world, some snake families evolved to become smaller and thus more agile. However, subduing and killing prey became more difficult for the smaller snakes, leading to the evolution of snake venom. Other research on Toxicofera, a hypothetical clade thought to be ancestral to most living reptiles, suggests an earlier time frame for the evolution of snake venom, possibly to the order of tens of millions of years, during the Late Cretaceous.<ref name="Fry2006">{{Cite journal|year=2006|title=Early evolution of the venom system in lizards and snakes|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=439|issue=7076|pages=584–8|doi=10.1038/nature04328|url=http://www.venomdoc.com/downloads/2005_BGF_Nature_squamate_venom.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530032125/http://www.venomdoc.com/downloads/2005_BGF_Nature_squamate_venom.pdf |date=2009-05-30 }}</ref>
Snake venom is produced in modified parotid glands normally responsible for secreting saliva. It is stored in structures called [[wiktionary:alveolus|alveoli]] behind the animal's eyes, and ejected voluntarily through its hollow tubular fangs. Venom is composed of hundreds to thousands of different proteins and enzymes, all serving a variety of purposes, such as interfering with a prey's cardiac system or increasing tissue permeability so that venom is absorbed faster.
Venom in many snakes, such as pit vipers, affects virtually every organ system in the human body and can be a combination of many toxins, including cytotoxins, hemotoxins, neurotoxins, and myotoxins, allowing for an enormous variety of symptoms.<ref name="Gold2002"/><ref name="Russell1980a">{{Cite journal|last=Russell|first=Findlay E.|title=Snake Venom Poisoning in the United States|journal=[[Annual Review of Medicine]]|volume=31|pages=247–59|doi=10.1146/annurev.me.31.020180.001335|pmid=6994610}}</ref> Earlier, the venom of a particular snake was considered to be one kind only, i.e. either hemotoxic or neurotoxic, and this erroneous belief may still persist wherever the updated literature is hard to access. Although there is much known about the protein compositions of venoms from Asian and American snakes, comparatively little is known of Australian snakes.
The strength of venom differs markedly between species and even more so between families, as measured by median lethal dose (LD<sub>50</sub>) in mice. Subcutaneous LD<sub>50</sub> varies by over 140-fold within elapids and by more than 100-fold in vipers. The amount of venom produced also differs among species, with the Gaboon viper able to potentially deliver from 450–600 milligrams of venom in a single bite, the most of any snake.<ref name="Spawls">{{Cite book|title=The Dangerous Snakes of Africa|year=2020|url=https://archive.org/details/dangeroussnakeso0000stev|last=Spawls|first=Stephen}}</ref> Opisthoglyphous colubrids have venom ranging from life-threatening (in the case of the boomslang) to barely noticeable (as in ''Tantilla'').
== Prevention ==
[[ဝှာင်:RodriguezParkHoustonSnakes.JPG|right|thumb|Sign at Sylvan Rodriguez Park in Houston, Texas, warning of the presence of snakes.]]
Snakes are most likely to bite when they feel threatened, are startled, are provoked, or when they have been cornered. Snakes are likely to approach residential areas when attracted by prey, such as rodents. Regular pest control can reduce the threat of snakes considerably. It is beneficial to know the species of snake that are common in local areas, or while travelling or hiking. [[အာဖရိက|Africa]], Australia, the Neotropics, and southern Asia in particular are populated by many dangerous species of snake. Being aware of—and ultimately avoiding—areas known to be heavily populated by dangerous snakes is strongly recommended.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}
When in the wilderness, treading heavily creates ground vibrations and noise, which will often cause snakes to flee from the area. However, this generally only applies to vipers, as some larger and more aggressive snakes in other parts of the world, such as mambas and cobras,<ref name="Haji">{{Cite web|last=Haji|first=R.|title=Venomous snakes and snake bites|url=http://www.zoocheck.com/Reportpdfs/Venomous%20snakes.pdf|accessdate=2021-01-15|archivedate=2012-04-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425231856/http://www.zoocheck.com/Reportpdfs/Venomous%20snakes.pdf}}</ref> will respond more aggressively. If presented with a direct encounter, it is best to remain silent and motionless. If the snake has not yet fled, it is important to step away slowly and cautiously.
The use of a flashlight when engaged in camping activities, such as gathering firewood at night, can be helpful. Snakes may also be unusually active during especially warm nights when ambient temperatures exceed {{Convert|21|°C|°F}}. It is advised not to reach blindly into hollow logs, flip over large rocks, and enter old cabins or other potential snake hiding-places. When rock climbing, it is not safe to grab ledges or crevices without examining them first, as snakes are cold-blooded and often sunbathe atop rock ledges.
In the United States, more than 40 percent of people bitten by snake intentionally put themselves in harm's way by attempting to capture wild snakes or by carelessly handling their dangerous pets—40 percent of that number had a blood alcohol level of 0.1 percent or more.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Venomous snakebites in the United States|pages=386–92}}</ref>
It is also important to avoid snakes that appear to be dead, as some species will actually roll over on their backs and stick out their tongue to fool potential threats. A snake's detached head can immediately act by reflex and potentially bite. The induced bite can be just as severe as that of a live snake.<ref name="Gold2002"/><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Venomous snakebites. Current concepts in diagnosis, treatment, and management|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_emergency-medicine-clinics-of-north-america_1992-05_10_2/page/249|journal=Emerg Med Clin North Am|volume=10|issue=2|pages=249–67|year=1992|pmid=1559468}}</ref>
As a dead snake is incapable of regulating the venom injected, a bite from a dead snake can often contain large amounts of venom.<ref name="Suchard1999">{{Cite journal|last=Suchard|first=JR|year=1999|title=Envenomations by Rattlesnakes Thought to Be Dead|journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]|volume=340|issue=24|doi=10.1056/NEJM199906173402420|pmid=10375322}}</ref>
== Treatment ==
It may be difficult to determine if a bite by any species of snake is life-threatening. A bite by a North American copperhead on the ankle is usually a moderate injury to a healthy adult, but a bite to a child's abdomen or face by the same snake may be fatal. The outcome of all snakebites depends on a multitude of factors: the type of snake, the size, physical condition, and temperature of the snake, the age and physical condition of the person, the area and tissue bitten (e.g., foot, torso, vein or muscle), the amount of venom injected, the time it takes for the person to find treatment, and finally the quality of that treatment.<ref name="Gold2002"/><ref name="Gold1994">{{Cite journal|title=Snake venom poisoning in the United States: a review of therapeutic practice|journal=South. Med. J.|volume=87|issue=6|pages=579–89|pmid=8202764|doi=10.1097/00007611-199406000-00001}}</ref> An overview of systematic reviews on different aspects of snakebite management found that the evidence base from majority of treatment modalities is low quality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhaumik|first=Soumyadeep|date=October 2020|title=Interventions for the management of snakebite envenoming: An overview of systematic reviews|journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases|volume=14|issue=10|pages=e0008727|doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0008727|pmid=33048936}}</ref>
=== Snake identification ===
Identification of the snake is important in planning treatment in certain areas of the world, but is not always possible. Ideally the dead snake would be brought in with the person, but in areas where snake bite is more common, local knowledge may be sufficient to recognize the snake. However, in regions where polyvalent antivenoms are available, such as North America, identification of snake is not a high priority item. Attempting to catch or kill the offending snake also puts one at risk for re-envenomation or creating a second person bitten, and generally is not recommended.
The three types of venomous snakes that cause the majority of major clinical problems are vipers, kraits, and cobras. Knowledge of what species are present locally can be crucial, as is knowledge of typical signs and symptoms of envenomation by each type of snake. A scoring system can be used to try to determine the biting snake based on clinical features,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Identifying the biting species in snakebite by clinical features: an epidemiological tool for community surveys|journal=Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg|volume=100|issue=9|pages=874–8|year=2006|pmid=16412486|doi=10.1016/j.trstmh.2005.10.003}}</ref> but these scoring systems are extremely specific to particular geographical areas.
=== First aid ===
Snakebite first aid recommendations vary, in part because different snakes have different types of venom. Some have little local effect, but life-threatening systemic effects, in which case containing the venom in the region of the bite by pressure immobilization is desirable. Other venoms instigate localized tissue damage around the bitten area, and immobilization may increase the severity of the damage in this area, but also reduce the total area affected; whether this trade-off is desirable remains a point of controversy. Because snakes vary from one country to another, first aid methods also vary.
Many organizations, including the American Medical Association and American Red Cross, recommend washing the bite with soap and water. Australian recommendations for snake bite treatment recommend against cleaning the wound. Traces of venom left on the skin/bandages from the strike can be used in combination with a snake bite identification kit to identify the species of snake. This speeds determination of which antivenom to administer in the emergency room.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.usyd.edu.au/anaes/venom/snakebite.html|title=Treatment of Australian Snake Bites|author=Chris Thompson}}</ref>
=== Pressure immobilization ===
[[ဝှာင်:Bundesarchiv_Bild_135-KA-01-019,_Tibetexpedition,_Melken_einer_Schlange.jpg|right|thumb|A Russell's viper is being "milked". Laboratories use extracted snake venom to produce antivenom, which is often the only effective treatment for potentially fatal snakebites.]]
As of 2008, clinical evidence for pressure immobilization via the use of an elastic bandage is limited.<ref name="Currie2008">{{Cite journal|last=Currie|first=Bart J.|year=2008|title=Effectiveness of pressure-immobilization first aid for snakebite requires further study|journal=Emergency Medicine Australasia|pmid=18549384|volume=20|issue=3|doi=10.1111/j.1742-6723.2008.01093.x|pages=267–270(4)}}</ref> It is recommended for snakebites that have occurred in Australia (due to elapids which are neurotoxic).<ref name="Walker2013">{{Cite journal|last=Patrick Walker|first=J|title=Venomous bites and stings|journal=Current Problems in Surgery|volume=50|issue=1|pages=9–44|pmid=23244230|doi=10.1067/j.cpsurg.2012.09.003}}</ref> It is not recommended for bites from non-neurotoxic snakes such as those found in North America and other regions of the world.<ref name="ACM2011">{{Cite journal|title=Pressure immobilization after North American Crotalinae snake envenomation|journal=Journal of Medical Toxicology|volume=7|issue=4|pages=322–3|pmid=22065370|doi=10.1007/s13181-011-0174-2}}</ref> The British military recommends pressure immobilization in all cases where the type of snake is unknown.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wall|first=C|title=British Military snake-bite guidelines: pressure immobilisation|journal=Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps|volume=158|issue=3|pages=194–8|pmid=23472565|doi=10.1136/jramc-158-03-09}}</ref>
The object of pressure immobilization is to contain venom within a bitten limb and prevent it from moving through the lymphatic system to the vital organs. This therapy has two components: pressure to prevent lymphatic drainage, and immobilization of the bitten limb to prevent the pumping action of the skeletal muscles.
=== Antivenom ===
Until the advent of antivenom, bites from some species of snake were almost universally fatal.<ref name="INCHEM">{{Cite web|title=Oxyuranus microlepidotus}}</ref> Despite huge advances in emergency therapy, antivenom is often still the only effective treatment for envenomation. The first antivenom was developed in 1895 by French physician Albert Calmette for the treatment of Indian cobra bites. Antivenom is made by injecting a small amount of venom into an animal (usually a horse or sheep) to initiate an immune system response. The resulting antibodies are then harvested from the animal's blood.
Antivenom is injected into the person intravenously, and works by binding to and neutralizing venom enzymes. It cannot undo damage already caused by venom, so antivenom treatment should be sought as soon as possible. Modern antivenoms are usually polyvalent, making them effective against the venom of numerous snake species. Pharmaceutical companies which produce antivenom target their products against the species native to a particular area. Although some people may develop serious adverse reactions to antivenom, such as anaphylaxis, in emergency situations this is usually treatable and hence the benefit outweighs the potential consequences of not using antivenom. Giving adrenaline (epinephrine) to prevent adverse reactions to antivenom before they occur might be reasonable in cases where they occur commonly. Antihistamines do not appear to provide any benefit in preventing adverse reactions.
=== Outmoded ===
[[ဝှာင်:Snakebite_kit.jpg|right|thumb|Old-style snake bite kit that should not be used.]]
The following treatments, while once recommended, are considered of no use or harmful, including tourniquets, incisions, suction, application of cold, and application of electricity.<ref name="ACM2011"/> Cases in which these treatments appear to work may be the result of dry bites.
* Application of a tourniquet to the bitten limb is generally not recommended. There is no convincing evidence that it is an effective first-aid tool as ordinarily applied.<ref name="theak">{{Cite journal|author=Theakston RD|title=An objective approach to antivenom therapy and assessment of first-aid measures in snake bite|url=http://www.kingsnake.com/aho/pdf/menu6/theakston1997.pdf}}</ref> Tourniquets have been found to be completely ineffective in the treatment of ''Crotalus durissus'' bites,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Tourniquet ineffectiveness to reduce the severity of envenoming after Crotalus durissus snake bite in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil}}</ref> but some positive results have been seen with properly applied tourniquets for cobra venom in the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Tourniquet application after cobra bite: delay in the onset of neurotoxicity and the dangers of sudden release}}</ref> Uninformed tourniquet use is dangerous, since reducing or cutting off circulation can lead to gangrene, which can be fatal. The use of a compression bandage is generally as effective, and much safer.
* Cutting open the bitten area, an action often taken prior to suction, is not recommended since it causes further damage and increases the risk of infection; the subsequent cauterization of the area with fire or silver nitrate (also known as ''infernal stone'') is also potentially threatening.<ref name="peola">{{Cite book|author=Lupano|title=Corso di Scienze Naturali a uso delle Scuole Complementari}}</ref>
* Sucking out venom, either by mouth or with a pump, does not work and may harm the affected area directly.<ref name="pmid16781926">{{Cite journal|title=Images in emergency medicine. Skin damage following application of suction device for snakebite}}</ref> Suction started after three minutes removes a clinically insignificant quantity—less than one-thousandth of the venom injected—as shown in a human study.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Suction for venomous snakebite: a study of "mock venom" extraction in a human model}}</ref> In a study with pigs, suction not only caused no improvement but led to necrosis in the suctioned area.<ref name="pmid11055564">{{Cite journal|title=Effects of a negative pressure venom extraction device (Extractor) on local tissue injury after artificial rattlesnake envenomation in a porcine model}}</ref> Suctioning by mouth presents a risk of further poisoning through the mouth's mucous tissues. The helper may also release bacteria into the person's wound, leading to infection.
* Immersion in warm water or sour milk, followed by the application of snake-stones (also known as ''la Pierre Noire''), which are believed to draw off the poison in much the way a sponge soaks up water.
* Application of a one-percent solution of potassium permanganate or chromic acid to the cut, exposed area. The latter substance is notably toxic and carcinogenic.
* Drinking abundant quantities of alcohol following the cauterization or disinfection of the wound area.
* Use of electroshock therapy in animal tests has shown this treatment to be useless and potentially dangerous.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Russell F|title=Another warning about electric shock for snakebite}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ryan A|title=Don't use electric shock for snakebite}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Electric shock does not save snakebitten rats}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Electric shocks are ineffective in treatment of lethal effects of rattlesnake envenomation in mice}}</ref>
In extreme cases, in remote areas, all of these misguided attempts at treatment have resulted in injuries far worse than an otherwise mild to moderate snakebite. In worst-case scenarios, thoroughly constricting tourniquets have been applied to bitten limbs, completely shutting off blood flow to the area. By the time the person finally reached appropriate medical facilities their limbs had to be amputated.
== Epidemiology ==
Estimates vary from 1.2 to 5.5 million snakebites, 421,000 to 2.5 million envenomings, and 20,000 to 125,000 deaths.<ref name="WHO2015"/><ref name="Kast2008"/> Since reporting is not mandatory in much of the world, the data on the frequency of snakebites is not precise. Many people who survive bites have permanent tissue damage caused by venom, leading to disability.<ref name="Gutierrez2007"/> Most snake envenomings and fatalities occur in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa, with India reporting the most snakebite deaths of any country.
Most snakebites are caused by non-venomous snakes. Of the roughly 3,000 known species of snake found worldwide, only 15% are considered dangerous to humans.<ref name="Gold2002"/><ref name="Kast2008"/> Snakes are found on every continent except [[အန္တာတိက|Antarctica]]. The most diverse and widely distributed snake family, the colubrids, has approximately 700 venomous species,<ref name="Mackessy2002">{{Cite journal|last=Mackessy|first=Stephen P.|year=2002|title=Biochemistry and pharmacology of colubrid snake venoms|journal=Journal of Toxicology: Toxin Reviews|volume=21|issue=1–2|pages=43–83|doi=10.1081/TXR-120004741}}</ref> but only five genera—boomslangs, twig snakes, keelback snakes, green snakes, and slender snakes—have caused human fatalities.
Worldwide, snakebites occur most frequently in the summer season when snakes are active and humans are outdoors.<ref name="Kast2008"/><ref name="WingertChan1988">{{Cite journal|title=Rattlesnake Bites in Southern California and Rationale for Recommended Treatment|journal=West J Med|volume=148|issue=1|pages=37–44|date=1 January 1988|pmid=3277335}}</ref> Agricultural and tropical regions report more snakebites than anywhere else.<ref name="Gutierrez2006">{{Cite journal|last=Gutiérrez|first=José María|date=6 June 2006|title=Confronting the Neglected Problem of Snake Bite Envenoming: The Need for a Global Partnership|journal=[[PLOS Medicine]]|pmid=16729843|volume=3|issue=6|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030150|pages=e150}}</ref> In the United States, those bitten are typically male and between 17 and 27 years of age.<ref name="Gold2002"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parrish H|title=Incidence of treated snakebites in the United States|journal=Public Health Rep|volume=81|issue=3|pages=269–76|pmid=4956000|doi=10.2307/4592691}}</ref> Children and the elderly are the most likely to die.<ref name="Gold1994"/>
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
; Bibliography
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
* [http://apps.who.int/bloodproducts/snakeantivenoms/database/ WHO Snake Antivenoms Database]
* {{Cite book|author=Organization|title=Guidelines for the management of snakebites}}
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:BEHM]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပြန်လည်မဆန်းစစ်ရသေးသော ဘာသာပြန်များပါဝင်သည့် စာမျက်နှာများ]]
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{{current|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = ပၞာန်သီအဝဵု ဍုင်ဗၟာ ၂၀၂၁<br>2021 Myanmar coup d'état
| partof = ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ
| image = Aung San Suu Kyi & Min Aung Hlaing collage.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = ညးမကဵုကသပ်ဍုင် (တြေံ)[[အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ]] (ပါဲ)၊ ကေုာံ သကိုပ်သီအဝဵုဍုင် မင်းအောင်လှိုင် (ပုင်)
| date = ၁ ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၂၀၂၁
| place = ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ
| result = ပၞာန်သီအဝဵု နကဵုယၟု အကာဲအရာကာတၟေင် အံင်ဇၞး
* အဝဵု ဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲမသုန်သၞာံ
* အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ ကေုာံ ဝေန်မျေအ် ဒးဒုင်ရပ် ကေုာံ ဒးဒုင်ပ္တိတ် နူတာလျိုင်
* ဝန်ဇၞော် ၂၄ ဒးဒုင်ပ္တိတ် နူတာလျိုင်<ref name="bbc1" />
* စၠတ်ထဝ် ဒးဒုင်ပဒေါအ် {{cn|date=February 2021}}
* အကာဲအရာကာတၟေင် ပ္တိတ်လဝ် ပွိုင်မွဲသၞာံ
| combatant1 = {{flagdeco|Myanmar}} အလဵုအသဳ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ
| combatant2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ministry of Defense (Myanmar).svg}} ဒပ်ပၞာန်
| commander1 = {{flagicon image|Flag_of_National_League_for_Democracy.svg}} အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ <br>(ညးမကဵုကသပ်ကၟိန်ဍုင်)<br>{{flagicon image|Flag_of_National_League_for_Democracy.svg}} ဝန်မျေအ် <br>(သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ)
| commander2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ministry of Defense (Myanmar).svg}} မင်းအောင်လှိုင် (ဂဥုပ်ဗိုလ်ဇမၞော်ဒပ်ပၞာန်)<br>{{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Union_Solidarity_and_Development_Party.svg}}မျေအ်ဆွေ<br>(ဒုတိယသမ္မတ (၁))
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| casualties3 = ချိုတ်၊ လီုလာ် ဟွံမဲ
| notes =
| campaignbox =
}}
'''ပၞာန်သီအဝဵု ဍုင်ဗၟာ ၂၀၂၁''' ({{Lang-en| '''2021 Myanmar coup d'état'''}}) ဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၁ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂယး ကြဴနူ ဒဝ်အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ၊ သမ္မတဝေန်မျေအ် ကေုာံ ကောန်ဂကောံဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒးဒုင်ရပ်ကြိုင် နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန်ဗၟာ။<ref>{{cite news|last=Beech|first=Hannah|date=31 January 2021|title=Myanmar’s Leader, Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, Is Detained Amid Coup|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/31/world/asia/myanmar-coup-suu-kyi.html|access-date=31 January 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Mahtani|first1=Shibani|last2=Lynn|first2=Kyaw Ye|title=Myanmar military seizes power in coup after detaining Aung San Suu Kyi|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/myanmar-aung-sun-suu-kyi-arrest/2021/01/31/c780ce6a-6419-11eb-886d-5264d4ceb46d_story.html|date=1 February 2021|access-date=1 February 2021|work=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref>တုဲဂှ် နကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန် လလောင်တြး အကာဲအရာတၟေင် ပွိုင်မွဲသၞာံတုဲ အဝဵုဍုင်ဂှ် ပအပ်ကဵု သကိုပ်ဗိုလ်ဇမၞော် မင်းအောင်လှိုင်။<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.trust.org/item/20210201014444-5u7cm|title=Myanmar military seizes power, detains elected leader Aung San Suu Kyi|author=Reuters|date=1 February 2021|website=news.trust.org|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201053645/https://news.trust.org/item/20210201014444-5u7cm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-02/01/c_139712581.htm|title=Myanmar gov't declares 1-year state of emergency: President's Office|editor=huaxia|date=1 February 2021|website=[[Xinhua News Agency|xinhuanet]]|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201102057/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-02/01/c_139712581.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Myanmar Leader Aung San Suu Kyi, Others Detained by Military|url=https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/myanmar-leader-aung-san-suu-kyi-others-detained-military|date=1 February 2021|website=voanews.com|publisher=VOA (Voice of America)|access-date=1 February 2021}}</ref>ပရေင်မသီအဝဵုဍုင်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံစပံက်ပါလဳမာန်ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ နကဵု အမာတ်မဂွံဒုင်ရုဲစှ် နူကဵု သဘင်မာဲ ၂၀၂၀ မကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲနဝ်ဝေမ်ပါ၊ နကဵု ဟိုတ်သဘင်မာဲဂှ် မဟွံမဲ ကုပရေင်ဗဗွဲဓဝ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.trust.org/item/20210201014444-5u7cm|title=Myanmar military seizes power, detains elected leader Aung San Suu Kyi|author=Reuters|date=1 February 2021|website=news.trust.org|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201053645/https://news.trust.org/item/20210201014444-5u7cm|url-status=live|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201053645/https://news.trust.org/item/20210201014444-5u7cm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-02/01/c_139712581.htm|title=Myanmar gov't declares 1-year state of emergency: President's Office|editor=huaxia|date=1 February 2021|website=[[Xinhua News Agency|xinhuanet]]|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201102057/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-02/01/c_139712581.htm|url-status=live|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201102057/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-02/01/c_139712581.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Myanmar Leader Aung San Suu Kyi, Others Detained by Military|url=https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/myanmar-leader-aung-san-suu-kyi-others-detained-military|date=1 February 2021|website=voanews.com|publisher=VOA (Voice of America)|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131316/https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/myanmar-leader-aung-san-suu-kyi-others-detained-military|url-status=live}}</ref>သမ္မတ ဥူဝေန်မျေအ် ကေုာံ ညးမကဵုကသပ်ဍုင် ဒဝ်အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ မဒးဒုင်ကြိုင်၊ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ ဝန်ဇၞော်ဂမၠိုင်လေဝ် ဒးဒုင်ပ္တိတ်ထောအ် နူကဵု တာလျိုင်ကီုရ။<ref>{{cite news|last=Beech|first=Hannah|date=31 January 2021|title=Myanmar’s Leader, Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, Is Detained Amid Coup|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/31/world/asia/myanmar-coup-suu-kyi.html|access-date=31 January 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=31 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131235036/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/31/world/asia/myanmar-coup-suu-kyi.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Mahtani|first1=Shibani|author2=Kyaw Ye Lynn|title=Myanmar military seizes power in coup after detaining Aung San Suu Kyi|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/myanmar-aung-sun-suu-kyi-arrest/2021/01/31/c780ce6a-6419-11eb-886d-5264d4ceb46d_story.html|date=1 February 2021|access-date=1 February 2021|work=[[The Washington Post]]|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182106/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/myanmar-aung-sun-suu-kyi-arrest/2021/01/31/c780ce6a-6419-11eb-886d-5264d4ceb46d_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ကြဴနူ မသီအဝဵုတုဲ ခြာဟွံလအ်ဂှ် ဒပ်ပၞာန်စောဲဂဗုတ် လတူဒဝ်အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ ဒဒှ်ရ မရာန်ပၠုပ် စက်ရမ္သာင် walkie talkies ဟွံစှ်ေကဵု ဗဗွဲသၞောဝ်။<ref>{{cite web | last=Solomon | first=Feliz | title=After Myanmar Coup, Aung San Suu Kyi Accused of Illegally Importing Walkie Talkies | website=The Wall Street Journal | date=2021-02-03 | url=https://www.wsj.com/world/asia/after-myanmar-coup-aung-san-suu-kyi-accused-of-illegally-importing-walkie-talkies-11612361563 | access-date=2025-11-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Press | first=Associated | title=Myanmar comes up with charges against Aung San Suu Kyi: Using illegal walkie-talkies | website=Los Angeles Times | date=2021-02-03 | url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2021-02-03/myanmars-military-junta-plans-probe-of-last-years-election | access-date=2025-11-26}}</ref>
==ဝင်==
ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဍုင်ဗၟာဂှ် ဟွံၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်တန်ကြန် နူစ ကလိဂွံဗၠးၜး နူဗြိတိန် သၞာံ ၁၉၄၈ တေအ်ဂှ်ရ။ အကြာသၞာံ ၁၉၅၈ ကဵု ၁၉၆၀ ဂှ် နကဵု ဥူနု ၜိုန်ရ ဇမၞးမာဲ မဂွံဒှ် အလဵုအသဳကီုလေဝ် တၞဟ်နဂွံထိင်ဒဝ် အခက်အခုဲ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်ဂးတုဲ နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန် ဒက်ပ္တန် အလဵုအသဳပၟင်ပၟဲဍုင်။<ref>{{cite web|date=26 September 2020|title=On This Day {{!}} The Day Myanmar’s Elected Prime Minister Handed Over Power|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/specials/on-this-day/day-myanmars-elected-prime-minister-handed-power.html|access-date=1 February 2021|website=[[The Irrawaddy]]|language=en-US|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201010110/https://www.irrawaddy.com/specials/on-this-day/day-myanmars-elected-prime-minister-handed-power.html|url-status=live}}</ref> နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန်ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် သဘင်မာဲသၞာံ၁၉၆၀တုဲ ကလေင်ဒက်ပ္တန်ကဵု အလဵုအသဳညးဍုင်ကွာန်။<ref>{{cite journal|last=Butwell|first=Richard|author2=von der Mehden, Fred|year=1960|title=The 1960 Election in Burma|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pacific-affairs_1960-06_33_2/page/144|journal=Pacific Affairs|publisher=Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia|volume=33|issue=2|pages=144–157|jstor=2752941}}</ref> နကဵုအလဵုအသဳညးဍုင်ကွာန် တိုန်ဂွံ ၜါသၞာံဟွံပေင်၊ နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန် ကလေင်သီကေတ်ထောအ် အဝဵုဍုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵုသၞာံ ၁၉၆၂ နကဵုက္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်ဂဥုပ်ဗိုလ်နေဝေန်တုဲ ပကင်ရင်အာဍုင် နကဵုသၞောဝ်ပၞာန် ပွိုင် ၂၆ သၞာံ။<ref>{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Robert|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1355/9789814620147|title=General Ne Win|date=25 May 2015|publisher=ISEAS Publishing|isbn=978-981-4620-14-7|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131316/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1355/9789814620147/html|url-status=live}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၈၈ဂှ် ပရေင်ကလိုက်ကမဵု အလုံဍုင်မွဲ ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင်တုဲ နေဝေန် တိတ်ထောအ် နူကဵုအဝဵုဍုင်။<ref name=":2">{{cite news|title=How A Failed Uprising Set The Stage For Myanmar's Future|url=https://time.com/5360637/myanmar-8888-uprising-30-anniversary-democracy/|access-date=1 February 2021|website=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919162950/https://time.com/5360637/myanmar-8888-uprising-30-anniversary-democracy/|url-status=live|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=19 September 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919162950/https://time.com/5360637/myanmar-8888-uprising-30-anniversary-democracy/}}</ref> ဂိတုသေပ်တေမ်ဗါ ၁၉၈၈ ဂှ် နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန် ဒက်ပ္တန် ကံင်သဳကလေင်ပတန်ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်လလံဍုင် (State Law and Order Restoration Council - SLORC) တုဲ သီကေတ်အဝဵုဍုင်။<ref name=":2" /> ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ဒဝ်အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ မဒှ်ကောန် သကိုပ်ဗိုလ်အံင်သာန် ဂှ် ဒှ်ကၠုင် မၞိဟ်မပၠတရဴ သွက်ပေါဲဗတိုက်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ။ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၀ ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် သဘင်မာဲတုဲ ဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ ကလိဂွံဇမၞး၊ ဆဂး ဟွံပအပ်အဝဵု။<ref>{{cite web|title=Burma: 20 Years After 1990 Elections, Democracy Still Denied|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/05/26/burma-20-years-after-1990-elections-democracy-still-denied#|website=Human Rights Watch|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=26 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926222650/https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/05/26/burma-20-years-after-1990-elections-democracy-still-denied|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-link1=Dieter Nohlen|first1=Dieter|last1=Nohlen|first2=Florian|last2=Grotz|first3=Christof|last3=Hartmann|title=Elections in Asia: A data handbook, Volume I|year=2001|url=https://archive.org/details/electionsinasiap0000unse|isbn=0-19-924958-X|pages=[https://archive.org/details/electionsinasiap0000unse/page/599 599], 611|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Yan Aung|first1=Wei|title=Myanmar’s 1990 Election: Born of a Democratic Uprising, Ignored by the Military|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/elections-in-history/myanmars-1990-election-born-democratic-uprising-ignored-military.html|work=[[The Irrawaddy]]|date=7 October 2020|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=31 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131234239/https://www.irrawaddy.com/elections-in-history/myanmars-1990-election-born-democratic-uprising-ignored-military.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကေမ်ဇျာမ်လဝ် အဝဵုဍုင် ဂတဂှ် ပွိုင် ၂၂ သၞာံပၠန် စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၂၀၁၁၊<ref>{{cite news|title=How Myanmar's Fragile Push for Democracy Collapsed in a Military Coup|url=https://time.com/5934896/myanmar-aung-san-suu-kyi-detained-coup/|access-date=1 February 2021|website=Time|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201014938/https://time.com/5934896/myanmar-aung-san-suu-kyi-detained-coup/|url-status=live|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201014938/https://time.com/5934896/myanmar-aung-san-suu-kyi-detained-coup/}}</ref> အတိုင်လၟေင်အစဳအဇန် သွက်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန် မပ္တိတ်လဝ်ဂှ်တုဲ ချူခၞံဗဒှ် သဇိုင်သၞောဝ်လဒက်ပတန်ဍုင်မွဲ တုဲဒှ်အာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၈။ အကြာသၞာံ ၂၀၁၁ ကဵု ၂၀၁၅ ဂှ် အလဵုအသဳညးဍုင်ကွာန် နကဵုဗော်ကျဖောတ် ဂွံဒှ် အလဵုအသဳဍုင်။ နကဵုသဘင်မာဲ၂၀၁၅ ဂှ် နကဵုဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ ဂွံဒှ်အလဵုအသဳ။<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite news|title=As Myanmar opens to the world, the mess inside becomes more apparent|first=Nisid|last=Hajari|date=12 September 2017|work=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/myanmars-transition|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=16 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016104957/https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/myanmars-transition|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[ဝှာင်:Burmese-Election result Pong State.jpg|thumb|350px|လၟိဟ်မာဲ သွက်စၠတ်ထဝ်ညးဍုင်ကွာန် နူကဵုပွိုင်ဍုင်ပံင် နူကဵု သဘင်မာဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၅ ကဵု ၂၀၂၀။
သၞာံ ၂၀၁၅ ဟိုတ်နူ ဗော်မန် ဒှ်ဒၟံင်ၜါဗော်တုဲ ဗော်မန်ၜါဂှ် ကလိဂွံမာဲ သီုဖအိုတ် ၁၁,၄၄၀၊ ဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ ၃၂,၈၃၁၊ ဗော်ကျဖောတ် ကလိဂွံ ၂၂.၇၄၈။
သၞာံ ၂၀၂၀ ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဗော်မန်ၜါ ဒှ်အာမွဲတုဲ ဗော်ညဳသၟဟ်မန် ကလိဂွံမာဲ ၂၇,၇၂၉၊ ဗော်ကျဖေတ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ ၂၁,၅၅၂ (ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဗော်ညးတအ် ပါ်တိတ်အာ ပြည်ထောင်စုကောင်းကျိုးဆောင်ပါတီ တုဲ မာဲညးတအ်ပြး ဒှ်မာန်)၊ နကဵု အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳဂှ် ကလိဂွံမာဲ သီုဖအိုတ် ၆၄,၈၆၃၊ ဂၠိုင်တိုန် နူအလန်မတုဲကၠုင် ၜါဆပြင်င်။
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဗော်မန်ဒှ်ၜါ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၅တုဲ ကောန်မန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စုတ်မာဲကဵု ဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ၊ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၀ ဂှ် ဗော်မန် ဒှ်မွဲ ကောန်မန်တအ် စုတ်မာဲကဵု ဗော်မန် ဂၠိုင်တိုန်ၜါဆမ္ဂး မၞိဟ်မစုတ်မာဲကဵု ဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳဂှ် ဒးအောန်စှ်ေ နူသၞာံ ၂၀၁၅။ ဆဂး ဟွံဒှ်ဗီုဂှ် ဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ ကလိဂွံမာဲ ဂၠိုင်တိုန်ၜါဆပၠန်ဂှ်ရ လၟိဟ်မာဲ မဒှ်သံသယျ ဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ မပၠုပ်စုတ်လဝ် မမာဲအလီ ပ္ဍဲပွိုင်ဆန္ဒမာဲဏအ် အောန်အိုတ် ၜါလက်ပြင်င်ဂှ် မဟီုမာန်။ ညံင်ရဴဏအ်ကီုဂှ် ပွိုင်ဍုင်တၞဟ်တအ်လေဝ် ဂွံဆဵုဒၟံင်ကီု။ (လၟိဟ်မမာဲတအ်ဂှ် ကေတ်နူ စရင် UEC)
<ref>{{cite web|url=<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?height=314&href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fbee.monzel%2Fvideos%2F10158898498880040%2F&show_text=true&width=560" width="560" height="429" style="border:none;overflow:hidden" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="true" allow="autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; picture-in-picture; web-share" allowFullScreen="true"></iframe>|title=Analysis of Burmese 2020 Election based on data from Union Electoral Commission (UEC).|editor=Bee Htaw Monzel|date=5 January 2021|website=Bee Htaw Monzel's Facebook]]}}</ref>]]
[[File:Map_Pyithu_Hluttaw_Election_Results_2020_IFES_MIMU1707v02_24Nov2020_A3.pdf|thumb|သွဟ်မာဲ အတိုင်ကမ္မရှေန်သဘင်မာဲ မပလဝ်ဒတန်၊ ဒၞာဲအသာ်ဗကေတ်ဂှ် မဒှ်ဒၞာဲ ဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ မဂွံဇၞးလဝ်။]]
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိတု နဝ်ဝေမ်ပါ ၈၊ ၂၀၂၀ ဂှ် အာယုက်ပါလဳမာန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကြပ်ပေင်မသုန်သၞာံတုဲ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် သဘင်မာဲနာနာ။ အတိုင်ကမ္မရှေန်သဘင်မာဲ မလလောင်တြးမ္ဂး သွက်ခုင်ပါလဳမာန် သီုဖအိုတ် ၄၇၆ ခုင်ဂှ် ဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ မဒှ်ဗော်သၟဝ်ဒဝ်အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ ကလိဂွံ ၃၉၆ ခုင်၊ ဗော်မထံက်ဂလာန် ဒပ်ပၞာန် ဗော်ကျဖောတ် ကလိဂွံ ဆ ၃၃ ခုင်၊ ဗော်ဂကူသေံဇၞော် ကလိဂွံ ၁၅ ခုင်၊ ဗော်ယခေင် ၈ ခုင်၊ နကဵုဗော်ညဳသၟဟ်မန် ကလိဂွံ ၅ ခုင်တုဲ သၟေဟ်ဂှ် ဗော်ကောန်ဍုင်အရင်တၞဟ်တအ် ကလိဂွံညိညရ။<ref name=":0">{{cite news|last=Beech|first=Hannah|date=31 January 2021|title=Myanmar’s Leader, Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, Is Detained Amid Coup|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/31/world/asia/myanmar-coup-suu-kyi.html|access-date=31 January 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>သဘင်မာဲဂှ် ဟွံစှ်ေကဵုဗဗွဲဓဝ်၊ နကဵုဗော်ကျဖောတ်၊ ဒပ်ပၞာန်ကီု သီုကဵု ဗော်ကောန်ဍုင်အရင်ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ဗော်ညဳသၟဟ်ဂကူမန်လေဝ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜးကဵုလဝ် ကမ္မရှေန်သဘင်မာဲ UEC၊ ကေုာံ သမ္မတဍုင်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် နကဵုဗော်တအ်ဏအ် နွံပၟိက် မိက်ဂွံလ္ၚတ်စရင်မာဲဂမၠိုင်တုဲ အာတ်မိက် စရင်မာဲဂမၠိုင်ကီုလေဝ် နကဵု ကမ္မရှေန်မာဲဂှ် ထ္ၜးဟိုတ်ကဵု အခေါင်အရာပူဂိုလ်ဂမၠိုင်တုဲ ဟွံကဵုအခေါင်ဗဵုစရင်တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite news|last=စံ|first=စိုင်းထွန်း|date=14 December 2020|title= သံဖြူဇရပ် မဲရလဒ်စာရွက်စာတမ်းများ UEC ထုတ်မပေးသဖြင့် MUP ကိုယ်စားလှယ်များက နိုင်ငံတော်သမ္မတထံ တင်ပြသွားမည် |work=BNI Multimedia Group|url=https://www.bnionline.net/mm/news-77442|access-date=02 February 2021|issn=|quote=“အချက်အလက် အချို့ရှိတယ် အဲတာတွေကို ခိုင်မာအောင်လုပ်ဖို့အတွက် စာရွက်စာတမ်းတောင်းတယ်။ သူတို့က မခိုင်မာရင်မတောင်းနဲ့ ဆိုတော့ ခိုင်မာနေမှတော့ ဘာလို့တောင်းတော့မှာလဲ။ ဟိုဘက်က တပ်ဘက်က တောင်းတာတော ဘာတွေ မသိဘူး။ ဒီတစ်ကြိမ်စဉ်စားထားတာ တိုင်ပင်ပြောဆိုထားကြတာက ရှိတဲ့အချက်တွေကြောင့် သံသယဖြစ်တယ်။ ဘယ်လိုဆက်လက်အရေးယူမလဲဆိုတာ သမ္မတရုံးကို စာတင်တာမျိုး ထုတ်ပြန်စာ ထုတ်တာမျိုး လုပ်သွားမယ်” ဟု MUP ပါတီမှ သံဖြူဇရပ်မြို့နယ် ပြည်နယ်လွှတ်တော် မဲဆန္ဒနယ်(၁) ဝင်ရောက်ယှဉ်ပြိုင်ခဲ့သူ ဦးထွန်းမြင့်ကျော်က ဆိုသည်။}}</ref>
စပ်ကဵု သွဟ်မာဲ ကေုာံ မာဲဟွံဗဗွဲဓဝ်ဂှ်တုဲ နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန် လ္ၚတ်စရင်မာဲဂမၠိုင်တုဲ ချူပ္တိတ်လိက်လလောင်တြး၊ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်သဘင်ပသောင်ပရိုင် နူကဵု ဒဳဇြေန်ပါ ၂၃၊ ၂၀၂၀ စဵုကဵု ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၁၆ ဂှ် ဂွံအာ သီုဖအိုတ် ၂၀ အလန်။ သဘင်ပသောင်ပရိုင် အလန်လက္ကရဴအိုတ်ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၂၆ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျးပၞာန်၊ နေပျဳတဝ်။ ပ္ဍဲဂှ် နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန် အလုံမွဲကၟိန်ဍုင် ပွိုင်ဍုင်နွံ ၃၁၄ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ဂှ် စၟဳစၟတ်ရံင် စရင်မာဲ ချိုတ်တ်ပၠိုတ်တ်တုဲ ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် စရင်မာဲထပ်ဒၟံင်၊ စရင်မာဲမဖန်ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လီဠာန်လဝ်တအ်ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် သီုဖအိုတ် နွံ ၇,၆၂၃,၇၂၅ တၠ။ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ မၞိဟ်မွဲ မနွံကဵုစရင်မာဲ ၜါပိပွိုင်ဍုင်ဂှ်လေဝ် နွံဒၟံင်ပၠန်တုဲ သီုဖအိုတ် လၟိဟ်မာဲဟွံဗဗွဲဓဝ် နွံဒၟံင် ၈ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ်ပြင်င်ဂှ် ညးတအ်ဂွံဆဵုကေတ်ရ။<ref>{{cite news|last=|first=|date=26 January 2021|title=တပ်မတော်သတင်းမှန်ပြန်ကြားရေးအဖွဲ့က မီဒီယာများအားတွေ့ဆုံ၍ သတင်းစာရှင်းလင်းပွဲပြုလုပ်|work=Tatmadaw Information Team|url=http://dsinfo.org/node/911?fbclid=IwAR2hQgC1fgwVSHihUu6DbWg6NQSLCMVMWYWTJzOw-ZPU_v4MvvvU6DG3Ryw|access-date=02 February 2021|issn=|quote=ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ ကျင်းပပြီးနောက် ပြန်လည်ဆန်းစစ်ရာတွင် တရားမျှတမှုမရှိသည့်အခြေအနေများ၊ မရိုးသားမှုများကို တွေ့ရှိရသဖြင့် ဝေဖန်ထောက်ပြမှုများကို လုပ်ဆောင်နေရခြင်းဖြစ် ကြောင်း၊ ဥပဒေကို မိမိလိုရာဆွဲ၍ လုပ်ဆောင်ခြင်းများတွင် မသင့်လျှော်ကြောင်း၊ ဖြစ်ပျက်ခဲ့သည့် အမှားအယွင်းများကို ထောက်ပြရခြင်းမှာ မိမိတို့နိုင်ငံ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ၏ ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာကို များစွာထိခိုက်စေနိုင်မည်ဖြစ်သည့်အတွက် ဝေဖန်ထောက်ပြနေခြင်းဖြစ်ကြောင်း” ဖြင့် ပြောကြားခဲ့ကြောင်း၊ တပ်မတော်အနေဖြင့် နိုင်ငံအတွင်းရှိ မြို့နယ် ၃၁၄ မြို့နယ်အား စာရင်းဇယားအရ စနစ်တကျစိစစ်ပြီး ထပ်နေသည့်မဲစာရင်းများ၊ မသမာမှုပြုနိုင်သည့် မဲစာရင်းများကို ၂၀၂၀ ပြည့်နှစ်၊ ဒီဇင်ဘာလ ၂၃ ရက်နေ့မှ ၂၀၂၁ ခုနှစ် ဇန်နဝါရီ ၁၆ ရက်အထိ အကြိမ် ၂၀ ထုတ်ပြန်ခဲ့ကြောင်း၊ မြို့နယ်တစ်ခုချင်းအတွင်း မဲမသမာမှု ဖြစ်နိုင်သည့်စာရင်းများ ဖြစ်ပြီး မဲမသမာမှုပြုနိုင်သည့်စာရင်း စုစုပေါင်း ၇၆၂၃၇၂၅ ဦးရှိသည်ကို တွေ့ရှိရပါကြောင်း၊ တိုင်းဒေသကြီးနှင့် ပြည်နယ်တစ်ခုချင်း အတွင်းရှိသည့် မြို့နယ်တစ်ခုနှင့် တစ်ခုအကြား ထပ်နေသည့်မဲစာရင်းများကိုလည်း ၂၅ ရက်နေ့တွင် အပြီးသတ် ထုတ်ပြန်ပေးခဲ့ပြီး စုစုပေါင်း ၁၀၇၀၁၀၀ ဦးဖြစ်ကာ မဲသမာမှု ပြုနိုင်သည့်စာရင်း ၈ သန်း ကျော်ဖြစ်ပါကြောင်း။}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> အစာပရိုင်မွဲသၟာန်တုဲ ညးမပသောင်ပရိုင် ဂဥုပ်ဗိုလ်ဇော်မင်းထွန်းဟီု "နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန်ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူဏအ်တုဲ ဟွံသီအဝဵုဂှ် ဟီုဟွံမာန်။"။<ref>[https://www.myanmar-now.org/mm/multimedia/5594 အာဏာမသိမ်းဘူးလို့ ‘မပြောနိုင်’ ဟု တပ်မတော် ခြိမ်းခြောက်]</ref> စပ်ကဵု တင်မပတိုန်ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ သဘင်မာဲသၞာံ ၂၀၂၀ ဟွံစှ်ေကဵုဗဗွဲဓဝ်ဂှ် ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၂၈ဂှ် နကဵုကမ္မရှေန်သဘင်မာဲ (UEC) ကလေင်ခၠေဝ်ဟီု "သဘင်မာဲသၞာံ ၂၀၂၀ ဂှ် စရင်မာဲဗၠေတ်ယောင်ယာညိညနွံကီုလေဝ် ညံင်ရဴဒပ်ပၞာန်စုတ်စောဲ ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်မဟွံဂွံစှ်ေကဵုသၞောဝ်ဂှ် ဟွံမဲ"။ အတိုင်ဒပ်ပၞာန် မအာတ်မိက်လဝ် နကဵုကမ္မရှေန်မာဲ ပ္ညဳကုအလဵုအသဳတုဲ ညံင်ဂွံဂၠာဲသွဟ်ဂှ် နကဵုကမ္မရှေန်သဘင်မာဲဟီု "အတိုင်သဇိုင်ဥပဒေမ္ဂး ကမ္မရှေန်သဘင်မာဲဂှ် ကလိဂွံလဝ် အဝဵုကၞောတ်အထောတ်ရတုဲ နကဵုကမ္မရှေန် သွက်ဂွံပ္ညဳ ကုအလဵုအသဳ ပ္ဍဲသၞောဝ် ဟွံဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ်"။<ref>{{cite news|last=ခွား|first=စောဖိုး|date=28 January 2021|title=တပ်မတော်စွပ်စွဲသလို ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ မဲမသမာမှု မရှိခဲ့ကြောင်း ကော်မရှင် တုံ့ပြန်|work=RFA News|url=https://www.rfa.org/burmese/news/myanmar-election-update-uec-response-army-01282021054530.html|access-date=02 February 2021|issn=|quote=ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ အငြင်းပွားမှုတွေနဲ့ ပတ်သက်ပြီး တပ်မတော်က တောင်းဆိုထားသလို ကော်မရှင်နဲ့ အစိုးရတို့ အမြန်ညှိနှိုင်း အဖြေရှာကြဖို့ကိစ္စနဲ့ ပတ်သက်ပြီး ပြည်ထောင်စုရွေးကောက်ပွဲကော်မရှင်ဟာ ဖွဲ့စည်းပုံအခြေခံ ဥပဒေအရ လုပ်ပိုင်ခွင့်အာဏာ ပေးအပ်ခံထားရတဲ့အဖွဲ့ဖြစ်ပြီး ရွေးကောက်ပွဲဆိုင်ရာကိစ္စရပ်တွေကို လက်ရှိအာဏာရ အစိုးရနဲ့ ညှိနှိုင်းရမယ်လို့ ဥပဒေမှာပြဌာန်းထားတာ မရှိဘူးလို့လည်း ကော်မရှင်က ပြောပါတယ်။}}</ref>
ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၂၈ နကဵု ဂဥုပ်ဗိုလ်ဇမၞော် မင်းအောင်လှိုင် ကဵုဗစိုပ်လိက် ဇရေင်ဒဝ်အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ နကဵုတၞးလိက် မချူလဝ် နကဵုတဲ ဘာသာဗၟာဂှ် ကလေင်ကၠာဲလဝ် နကဵုဘာသာမန် အတိုင်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။
{{quote|တင်မနွံပၟိက်ဒပ်ပၞာန်
စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၂၈၊ ၁၊ ၂၀၂၁
၁။ သဘင်မာဲ မကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၂၀ ဂိတုနဝ်ဝေမ်ပါ (၈) ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲစရင်မာဲတမ်မူလဂမၠိုင်ဂှ် အဆံင်ပွိုင်ဍုင်၊ ရး ကေုာံ တွဵုရးဂမၠိုင် နကဵုအလုံမွဲကမိန်ဍုင်ဂှ် ကလေင်စၟဳစၟတ်ရံင်မ္ဂး ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် စရင်ယၟုထပ်ဒၟံင်၊ ဂၞန်စၟတ်သမ္တီကောန်ဍုင် တုပ်ဒၟံင်၊ မၞိဟ်အာယုက် လတူ (၁၀၀) နွံဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။ ၜိုတ်မဂွံဆဵုကေတ်မ္ဂး လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် (၁၀,၄၈၂,၁၁၆) ဂှ် စရင်ထပ်ဒၟံင်တုဲ မဒးဒှ်သံသယျမာန် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ်လဝ်ဂှ်ရ သ္ဒးပံက်ဂကောံစၟဳစၟတ်တုဲ ကလေင်စၟဳစၟတ်ကဵုညိ။
၂။ ပ္ဍဲအရာမကလေင်စၟဳစၟတ်စရင်မာဲတအ်ဂှ် နကဵု "UEC" ၜိုန်ရ သ္ဒးကၠောန် နဒဒှ် အဓိကကီုလေဝ်၊ လတူ "UEC" ဂှ် ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ ဟွံမဲတုဲ၊ ညံင်ဂွံဒက်ကဵု "UEC" တၟိ၊ ကာလဒက်ပၠန်ရ မၞိဟ်ပူဂိုလ် မနွံကဵုဓဝ်ယာ နူကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန်လေဝ် ညံင်ဂွံပါလုပ်။
၃။ နကဵု "UEC" တၟိ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ မကလေင်စၟဳစၟတ်ဒၟံင် လၟိဟ်မမာဲ မဒးဒှ်သံသယ ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ဂှ် နကဵုအမိင်အသံ သမ္မတ ညံင်ဂွံပဆုဲထောအ် ကမၠောန်မကော်စၠတ်ထဝ် အလန်တတိယ တုဲပၠန် အရာမနွံပၟိက် မဒးကၠောန်တအ်ဂှ် စနူတ္ၚဲဏအ် (၂၈၊ ၀၁၊ ၂၀၂၁) တုဲ ဆက်ကၠောန်အာညိ။
၄။ စရင်အင် အတိုင် ဒပ်ပၞာန်မဂၠာဲဆဵုလဝ််တအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ကရောမ်လိက်ဏအ်ဂှ် တောဲဗစိုပ်လဝ်ကီုရ။
၅။ အတိုင် တင်မနွံပၟိက် ဒပ်ပၞာန်ဏအ် ယဝ်ရ ဟွံကၠောန်ဖန်ကဵုမ္ဂး နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန် ဆက်ရေင်တၠုင်ကၠောန်အာ အတိုင်သဇိုင်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေလဒက်ပတန် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံသမ္မတဗၟာ သၞာံ ၂၀၀၈။
ဂဥုပ်က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာဒပ်ပၞာန် (စၞး)}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-01|title=ဒေါ်အောင်ဆန်းစုကြည်ထံသို့ ဗိုလ်ချုပ်မှူးကြီး မင်းအောင်လှိုင် ပေးပို့ခဲ့တဲ့စာ|url=https://www.rfa.org/burmese/news/army-letter-to-dassk-02012021012235.html|access-date=2021-02-01|website=RFA-Burmese|language=Burmese|quote=
တပ်မတော်၏လိုလားချက်
ရက်စွဲ ၂၈.၁.၂၀၂၁
၁။ ၂၀၂၀ ပြည့်နှစ်၊ နိုဝင်္ဘာလ (၈) ရက်နေ့တွင် ကျင်းပပြလုပ်ခဲ့သည့် ရွေးကောက်ပွဲနှင့် ပတ်သက်၍ မူလမဲစာရင်းများအား မြို့နယ်အဆင့်၊ တိုင်းနှင့် ပြည်နယ်အဆင့်နှင့် တစ်နိုင်ငံလုံးအတိုင်းအတာအရ မဲစာရင်းများအား ပြန်လည်စိစစ်ခဲ့ရာ ယနေ့အထိ အမည်စာရင်း ထပ်နေခြင်း၊ မှတ်ပုံတင်အမှတ်တူညီနေခြင်း၊ အသက် (၁၀၀) နှစ် ကျော်နေသူများစွာ ပါဝင်နေခြင်း စသဖြင့် အချက်အလက်တူများ ဖော်ထုတ် စိစစ်တွေ့ရှိရပါသည်။ တွေ့ရှိချက်အရ စာရင်းထပ်နေမှုသည် (၁၀,၄၈၂,၁၁၆) ဦးခန့် ထပ်နေသဖြင့် အဆိုပါ မသင်္ကာဖွယ်တွေ့ရှိမှုအပေါ် ပြန်လည်၍ အဖွဲ့စုံဖြင့် စစ်ဆေးပေးရန်။
၂။ ထိုသို့ မဲစာရင်း ထပ်နေမှုအား စစ်ဆေးရာတွင် "UEC" မှ အဓိက ဆောင်ရွက်ရမည်ဖြစ်သော်လည်း "UEC" အား ယုံကြည်ရသည့်အဆင့် မရှိသဖြင့် "UEC" အသစ်အား အသစ်ပြန်လည်ဖွဲ့စည်းပေးရန်နှင့် ဖွဲ့စည်းရာတွင် တပ်မတော်၏ အကြံပြုသည့် သမာသမတ်ရှိသည့် လူပုဂ္ဂိုလ်များကိုလည်း ထဲ့သွင်း ဖွဲ့စည်းပေးရန်။
၃။ မဲစာရင်းများ မသင်္ကာဖွယ် အမြောက်အများ ကိန်းဂဏန်းမှားယွင်းမှုအပေါ် "UEC" ကော်မရှင်အဖွဲ့ အသစ်ဖြင့် စစ်ဆေးစဉ်ကာလအတွင်း တတိယအကြိမ်လွှတ်တော် ခေါ်ယူကျင်းပမှုအား နိုင်ငံတော် သမ္မတ၏ အခွင့်အာဏာအရ ဆိုင်းငံ့ပေးပါရန်နှင့် လိုလားချက်များအား ယနေ့ (၂၈.၁.၂၀၂၁) ရက်နေ့မှ စတင် ဆောင်ရွက်ပေးနိုင်ပါရန်။
၄။ တပ်မတော်၏ စစ်ဆေးတွေ့ရှိချက် ဦးစီးဇယားတစ်စုံကိုလည်း ဤစာနှင့်အတူ ပူးတွဲပေးပို့ပါသည်။
၅။ တပ်မတော်၏ လိုလားချက်အပေါ် တုန့်ပြန်အရေးယူ ဆောင်ရွက်ခြင်းမပြုပါက ၂၀၀၈ ခုနှစ် ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော် ဖွဲ့စည်းပုံ အခြေခံဥပဒေနှင့်အညီ တပ်မတော်မှ ဆက်လက် ဆောင်ရွက်သွားမည် ဖြစ်ပါသည်။
တပ်မတော်ကာကွယ်ရေးဦးစီးချုပ် (ကိုယ်စား)}}</ref>
၂၉ ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ဂှ် နူကဵု ဂကောံလ္ၚတ်သဘင်မာဲ ၁၂ ဂကောံ အပ္ဍဲဍုင် လလောင်တြး၊ နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန်ကီု ဗော်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ်ကီု ဒုင်တဲ လတူသွဟ်မာဲတုဲ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်မစၠောအ်တဲ အဝဵုဍုင်ဂှ် ညံင်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂွံၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ဗိုင်ရီုဗင်ကဵုညိ။<ref>{{cite news|last=|first=|date=29 January 2021|title=ရွေးကောက်ပွဲရလဒ် လက်ခံကြဖို့ စောင့်ကြည့်လေ့လာသူတွေ တိုက်တွန်း|work=RFA News|url=https://www.rfa.org/burmese/news/election-observers-urge-political-stability-01292021065642.html|access-date=02 February 2021|issn=|quote=၂၀၂၀ ပြည့်နှစ် အထွေထွေရွေးကောက်ပွဲအကြိုကာလ လုပ်ငန်းစဉ်တွေကစလို့ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲအလွန်ကာလ အထိ စောင့်ကြည့်လေ့လာခဲ့တဲ့ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲဆိုင်ရာပြည်သူ့လှုပ်ရှားမှုအဖွဲ့ PACE၊ လွတ်လပ်မျှတသော ရွေးကောက်ပွဲများဆိုင်ရာပံ့ပိုးရေးကွန်ရက်အဖွဲ့ (MYNFREL)၊ နယူးမြန်မာဖောင်ဒေးရှင်း၊ ဖန်တီးအိမ် စတဲ့ စောင့်ကြည့်လေ့လာရေးအဖွဲ့ ၁၂ ဖွဲ့က ကြေညာချက်ထုတ်လိုက်တာပါ။}}</ref> ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ နကဵု သံဃမဟာနာယကကီု သီုကဵု ရုင်ကလုတ်ဍုင်နာနာ ဖတိုက်ဖအောဝ် ညံင်ဂွံပသောင်ပြသၞာ ဗွဲမၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်။<ref>{{cite news|last=|first=|date=29 January 2021|title=တပ်မတော်ကို သံဃမဟာနာယကနဲ့ နိုင်ငံတကာသံရုံးတွေ ဝေဖန်တိုက်တွန်း|work=RFA News|url=https://www.rfa.org/burmese/news/statements-and-views-over-military-stages-a-coup-01292021172115.html|access-date=02 February 2021|issn=|quote=}}</ref> ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၃၁ ဂှ် နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန် လလောင်တြး ဒဒှ်ရ ဂကောံဍုင်နာနာတအ် ညံင်ဟွံဂွံထံက်ဂလာန် လတူသွဟ်မာဲ မကၠောန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲနဝ်ဝေမ်ဗါ (၈)။ တုဲပၠန် ပ္ဍဲလိက်လလောင်တြးဂှ် ဆက်ချူလဝ် နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန်ဂှ် အတိုင်သဇိုင်သၞောဝ် ၂၀၀၈ ဗွဲမကိတ်ညဳ ကုဍာ်ဒကေဝ်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳဂှ် ဆက်ကၠောန်အာ စပ်ကဵုသဘင်မာဲဂှ်ရောင်။<ref>{{cite news|last=|first=|date=31 January 2021|title= ရွေးကောက်ပွဲရလဒ်ကို မထောက်ခံဖို့ နိုင်ငံတကာအသိုင်းအဝိုင်းကို တပ်မတော် တိုက်တွန်း|work=RFA News|url=https://www.rfa.org/burmese/news/army-urges-diplomats-not-support-election-result-01312021104723.html|access-date=02 February 2021|issn=|quote=တပ်မတော်အနေနဲ့ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲနဲ့ ပတ်သက်ပြီး ၂၀၀၈ ဖွဲ့စည်းပုံနဲ့အညီ ဒီမိုကရေစီစံနှုန်းတွေနဲ့အညီဖြစ်ဖို့ လုပ်ဆောင်သွားမယ်လို့ တပ်မတော်ရဲ့ထုတ်ပြန်ချက်မှာ ပြောထားပေမယ့် ဘာဆက်လုပ်မယ်ဆိုတာကို သေသေချာချာပြောမထားပါဘူး}}</ref>
==မကတဵုဒှ်==
ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၁၊ ၂၀၂၁ ဂှ် နကဵု ဒုတိယသမ္မတ(၁) ဦးမြင့်ဆွေ ညးမဒှ်သမ္မတ မဂွံဒုင်ခပ္တိုန်လဝ် နူကဵုသွာင်ပၞာန် နူသၞာံ ၂၀၁၆ မာတ် ၁၅ ဂှ် ရုဲစှ်ပ္တိုန် နဒဒှ်သမ္မတ (ယာယဳ)တုဲ ပ္တိတ်လိက်အသံ စၟတ် (၁/၂၀၂၁)၊ ပ္ဍဲလိက်အသံဂှ် ချူလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ သဘင်မာဲမကၠောန်လဝ်ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဒစဵုဒစး ကုသၞောတ်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ၊ ဗၠေတ်ယောင်ယာဒၟံင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်တုဲ ဒစဵုဒစးဒၟံင် ကုတၠုင်လအာ ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မတွဟ်ဂး အဝဵုကၞောတ်အထောတ်ဍုင် သ္ဒးစှ်ေကၠုင် နူညးဍုင်ကွာန်ရ။ သွက်ဂွံပသောင်ပြသၞာစရင်မာဲဂှ် နကဵု ကမ္မရှေန်မာဲကီု သီုကဵု ညးမဂွံလဝ်အဝဵုဂှ် တးပါဲဒၟံင်ရ။ ကောံဓရီုစၠတ်ထဝ်ဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံပဆုဲကဵု မအာတ်မိက်လဝ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဟွံပဆုဲကဵု။ အတိုင်သဇိုင်ဥပဒေ (၂၀၀၈) ပိုဒ်ဇမၞော် ၄၁၇ မ္ဂး အရာဝွံ ဒှ်အရာ မကေမ်ဇြာပ်ကေတ် အဝဵုဍုင် နကဵုနဲအဓမ္မတုဲ အရာဝွံ မပကဵု ညံင်ပရေင်ညဳသၟဟ်ကောန်ဂကူဂမၠိုင် ဂွံလီု၊ တုဲပၠန် ပရေင်ရုသံင်လေဝ် ကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံင်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ သွက်ဂွံဆက်အာ တရဴဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳဂှ် ဝါတ်ဂါတ်၊ ဟွံလောဲသွာကၠုင်ရ။ တၞဟ်နဂွံ စၟဳစၟတ်စရင်မာဲ၊ ကေတ်အရေဝ် လတူ ညးမကလိလောန်လဝ်ဒုဟ်တအ်ဂှ်တုဲ အတိုင်သဇိုင်ဥပဒေ (၂၀၀၈) ပိုဒ်ဇမၞော် ၄၁၈ ပိုဒ်လပါ် (က)ဂှ် အဝဵုပတန်သၞောဝ်၊ အဝဵုပကင်ရင်၊ အဝဵုသ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်သၞောဝ်တအ်ဂှ် ပအပ်ကဵု ဂဥုပ်က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ်ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာဒပ်ပၞာန်ရ။ အကာဲအရာကာတၟေင်ဂှ် ဆက်စပ် အလုံမွဲပယျဵုကမိန်ဍုင်တုဲ အတိုင်သဇိုင်ဥပဒေ ပိုဒ်ဇမၞော် ၄၁၇ စနူတ္ၚဲဝွံတုဲ ပွိုင်မွဲသၞာံ။<ref>{{cite news|date=1 February 2021|title=ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတမြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော် နိုင်ငံတော်သမ္မတရုံး ဥပဒေကဲ့သို့ အာဏာတည်သောအမိန့် အမိန့်အမှတ်(၁/၂၀၂၁) ၁၃၈၂ ခုနှစ်၊ ပြာသိုလပြည့်ကျော် ၅ ရက် (၂၀၂၁ ခုနှစ်၊ ဖေဖော်ဝါရီလ ၁ ရက်)|work=Tatmadaw Information Team|url=http://dsinfo.org/node/930?fbclid=IwAR22utqRYb8Wr92iO6albm24KSRYvO9sIpdRSUJu3X2cPcKr8c9Eo6JkePI|access-date=2 February 2021|accessdate=2 February 2021|archivedate=9 April 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409172349/https://dsinfo.org/node/930?fbclid=IwAR22utqRYb8Wr92iO6albm24KSRYvO9sIpdRSUJu3X2cPcKr8c9Eo6JkePI}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=1 February 2021|title=The Republic of the Union of Myanmar The Office of the President Order Number (1/2021) February 1, 2021The Republic of the Union of Myanmar The Office of the President Order Number (1/2021) February 1, 2021|work=Tatmadaw Information Team|url=https://www.facebook.com/TatmadawInformationTeam/posts/239462831130686|access-date=2 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1 February 2021|title=Myanmar military stages coup, declares state of emergency for a year|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/international/world-news-politics/myanmar-military-stages-coup-declares-state-of-emergency-for-a-year-945864.html|access-date=1 February 2021|website=[[Deccan Herald]]|language=en}}</ref>
ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၁ အခိင်ဂယး ကိုပ်ကၠာ တ္ၚဲဟွံတၟးဂှ် ဒဝ်အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ၊ သမ္မတဝေန်မျေအ်၊ ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်ဇၞော် နူကဵုဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နကဵုပၞာန် ကၠုင်ကော်ဏာရ။<ref name=":1">{{cite web|last=Foundation|first=Thomson Reuters|title=Aung San Suu Kyi and other leaders arrested, party spokesman says|url=https://news.trust.org/item/20210131230656-kkg7f|access-date=1 February 2021|website=news.trust.org|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201003325/https://news.trust.org/item/20210131230656-kkg7f|url-status=live|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201003325/https://news.trust.org/item/20210131230656-kkg7f}}</ref>တုဲ နူကဵု ဌာနတဳဝဳ မြဝတဳ လလောင်တြး ဒဒှ်ရ နကဵုဍုင် လလောင်တြးလဝ် အကာဲအရာကာတၟေင်၊ ပွိုင်မွဲသၞာံရ။<ref>{{Cite news|date=1 February 2021|title=Myanmar military says it is taking control of the country|url=https://apnews.com/article/aung-san-suu-kyi-myanmar-dda3d013897e14d5d0bd44d19eac9cd1|access-date=1 February 2021|work=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref>
[[File:Military blocked Mandalay Region Government Office.jpg|thumb|ပၞာန် ကၟာတ်လဝ် ဂၠံင်မအာကဵု ပါလဳမာန်ရးဇမၞော်မာန္တလေ]]
တုဲပၠန် ဝန်ဇၞော် ၂၄ တၠဂှ် ပ္တိတ်ထောအ် နူကဵုတာလျိုင်တုဲ ဝန်ဇၞော်တၟိ ၁၁ တၠဂှ် ထပ်ဗပေင်စုတ် ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲတအ်ဂှ်ရ။<ref name="bbc1">{{cite news|date=2021-02-01|title=Myanmar coup: Aung San Suu Kyi detained as military seizes control|language=en-GB|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-55882489|access-date=2021-02-01}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲမသီအဝဵုဂှ်ဟေင် နူကဵုရုင်ဂဥုပ်ကဍိုက်ကဍိုပ်ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာဒပ်ပၞာန် လလောင်တြး ပရေင်ကမၠောန်အဓိက (၅)
# ကလေင်ဒက်ပ္တန် ကမ္မရှေန်သဘင်မာဲတၟိတုဲ စရင်မာဲဂမၠိုင် ကလေင်စၟဳစၟတ်တုဲမ္ဂး အရာမကၠောန်ထေက်တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်ကၠောန်အာ အတိုင်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေရောင်။
# ပရေင်ကမၠောန်မစဵုဒၞာ ကပ်ယဲကဝ်ဝိဒ်-၁၉ ဂှ် ညံင်အသိင်ဟွံဂွံလီု ဆက်ကၠောန်အာရောင်။
# ဟိုတ်နူ ကပ်ယဲကဝ်ဝိဒ်-၁၉ တုဲ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မဒးဒုင်လီုလာ်ဒၟံင်တအ်ဂှ် ၜိုတ်မကၠောန်ဖန်ဂွံဂှ် ဗွဲမပြဟ် ပလေဝ်ပလေတ်ကၠောန်အာရောင်။
# ညံင်အလုံမွဲကၟိန်ဍုင် ဂွံၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်မာန်ဂှ် လိက်ကသုက်ပရေင်ဒေါအ်ပန်ပှ်ောအလုံမွဲဍုင် ညံင်ဂွံဒှ်ဂှ် ၜိုတ်မကၠောန်ဖန်ဂွံဂှ် စွံအရီုတုဲ ကၠောန်အာရောင်။
# ကမၠောန်မသ္ဒးကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလ အကာဲအရာကာတၟေင်တုဲဒှ်အာတုဲ အတိုင်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် (၂၀၀၈) ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်အာ သဘင်မာဲသၞောတ်ဗော်ဇဳ မနွံကဵုဗၠးၜးဓဝ်ယာတုဲ အဝဵုဍုင်ဂှ် ကလေင်ပအပ်ကဵုပၠန်ရောင်။<ref>{{Cite news|date=1 February 2021|title=ကြေညာချက်အမှတ် (၁/၂၀၂၁)|url=https://www.facebook.com/TatmadawInformationTeam/posts/239269197816716|access-date=3 February 2021|work=တပ်မတော်ကာကွယ်ရေးဦးစီးချုပ်ရုံး}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1 February 2021|title=ကြေညာချက်အမှတ် (၁/၂၀၂၁)|url=http://dsinfo.org/node/931?fbclid=IwAR2qkwyIt3jtgmmcdm7It7OQDlosgQDayNUEbc7R2hR3UC-GiyyWLiHvFSo|access-date=3 February 2021|work=တပ်မတော်ကာကွယ်ရေးဦးစီးချုပ်ရုံး}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
ကြဴနူ မသီကေတ်အဝဵုဍုင်တုဲ ဒက်ပ္တန် ကံင်သဳစၟိန်ပြမာန် နကဵုမၞိဟ် ၁၆ တၠ။ ပ္ဍဲဂှ် နူကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန် ၈ တၠ၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ၈ တၠ။ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ၈ တၠဂှ် မန်းငြိမ်မောင် ဂှ် ကေင်ကာဗဟဵုကေအေန်ယူ (တြေံ) (ဗော်ကရေင်)၊ နူကဵုဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ(တြေံ) ၜါတၠ၊ ဦးသိန်းညွန့် ကဵု ဦးခင်မောင်ဆွေ ဂှ် မၞိဟ်နူဗော်အမျိုးသားဒီမိုကရေစီအင်အားစု မဒှ်ဗော် မပါ်တိတ် နူကဵု အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳ၊ ဒေါ်အေးနုစိန် ဂှ် ဒုဥက္ကဋ္ဌ ဗော်ကောန်ဂကူယခေင်၊ စောဒန်နီယယ် ဂှ် ညးအုပ်ကာနာနာ ဗော်ဇၞော်မောဝ်ကောန်ဂကူကရေင်ဍာဲ အတိုင်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။
{| class="wikitable"
|'''လၟေင်'''
|'''ယၟု'''
|'''ဌာနန္တရ'''
|-
|၁
|ဗိုလ်ချုပ်မှူးကြီး [[မင်းအောင်လှိုင်]]
|ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ
|-
|၂
|ဒုတိယဗိုလ်ချုပ်မှူးကြီး [[စိုးဝင်း (ဒုတိယဗိုလ်ချုပ်မှူးကြီး)|စိုးဝင်း]]
|ဒုတိယဥက္ကဋ္ဌ
|-
|၃
|ဗိုလ်ချုပ်ကြီး [[မြထွန်းဦး]]
|rowspan=12|ကောန်ဂကောံ
|-
|၄
|ဗိုလ်ချုပ်ကြီး [[တင်အောင်စန်း]]
|-
|၅
|ဗိုလ်ချုပ်ကြီး [[မောင်မောင်ကျော်]]
|-
|၆
|ဒုတိယဗိုလ်ချုပ်ကြီး[[မိုးမြင့်ထွန်း]]
|-
|၇
|ဖဒို[[မန်းငြိမ်းမောင်]]
|-
|၈
|ဦး[[သိန်းညွန့် (နိုင်ငံရေးသမား)|သိန်းညွန့်]]
|-
|၉
|ဦး[[ခင်မောင်ဆွေ]]
|-
|၁၀
|ဒေါ်အေးနုစိန်
|-
|၁၁
|Jeng Phang နော်တောင်
|-
|၁၂
|ဦးမောင်းဟာ
|-
|၁၃
|ဦးစိုင်းလုံးဆိုင်
|-
|၁၄
|စောဒန်နီယယ်
|-
|၁၅
|ဒုတိယဗိုလ်ချုပ်ကြီး[[အောင်လင်းဒွေး]]
|ညးအုပ်ကာနာနာ
|-
|၁၆
|ဒုတိယဗိုလ်ချုပ်ကြီး[[ရဲဝင်းဦး]]
|ဖက်ဆော ညးအုပ်ကာနာနာ
|}
၂၀၂၁ ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၂ ဂှ် နကဵု ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ ကံင်သဳစၟိန်ပြမာန်ဍုင် (ဝါ) ဂဥုပ်သကိုပ်ဗိုလ်ပၞာန် မင်းအောင်လှိုင် ဒက်ပ္တန် ကမ္မရှေန်သဘင်မာဲကၟိန်ဍုင် သွက်ဂွံစၟဳစၟတ်မာဲ မကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၂၀ နဝ်ဝေမ်ဗါ ၈ အတိုင်မၞိဟ်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။
#ဦးသိန်းစိုး (ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ)
#ဦးသောင်းတင် (ကောန်ဂကောံ)
#ဦးသန်းထွန်း (ကောန်ဂကောံ)
#ဦးကျောက် (ကောန်ဂကောံ)
#ဦးအောင်စောဝင်း (ကောန်ဂကောံ)
#ဦးသန်းဝင်း (ကောန်ဂကောံ)
#ဦးစောဘလှိုင် (ကောန်ဂကောံ)
#ဦးစိုးဦး (ကောန်ဂကောံ)
===ဗလးကောန်ထံင်===
ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၁၂၊ ၂၀၂၁ ဂှ် နကဵု ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ ကံင်သဳစၟိန်ပြမာန်ဍုင် ဂဥုပ်ဗိုလ်ဇမၞော် မင်းအောင်လှိုင် ဗလးကဵု ကောန်ထံင် ၂၃၃၁၄ တၠ၊ ပၞောဝ်ကဵုကောန်ထံင် မဗၠးတိတ်ကၠုင်တအ်ဂှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်ဂကူယခေင် ဒံက်တာအေးမောင် ကေုာံ အစာချူလိက် ဂကူယခေင် ဝေဟင်အောင် ညးမဒးလဝ်ထံင် ဟိုတ်နူမကၠောန် တ္ၚဲဍုင်ယခေင်လီု ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၈ဂှ်တုဲ မဒးဒုင်ဖျေဟ်လဝ်ထံင် ၂၀ သၞာံဂှ်ကီု၊ တုဲပၠန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု မၞိဟ်မဗၠးတိတ်တအ်ဂှ် ဂကူယခေင် ပါလုပ်ဒၟံင် သီုဖအိုတ် ၆၄၀ တၠ၊ ကောန်ဍုင်သအာင် ပါ ၅၅ တၠ၊ ဦးကြည်လင်း မၞိဟ်မဒးဒုင်ရပ်လဝ် နကဵုဒုဟ် မဂစိုတ် ဦးကိုနီဂှ်လေဝ် ဂွံဗၠးတိတ်ကၠုင်ကီုရ။<ref>{{Cite news|date=12 February 2021|title=အကျဉ်းသား နှစ်သောင်းကျော်ကို စစ်ကောင်စီ လွတ်ငြိမ်းသက်သာခွင့်ပေး|url=https://www.rfa.org/burmese/news/nationwide-prisoners-released-02122021050910.html|access-date=12 February 2021|work=RFA Burmese, ရဲစည်သူကာ}}</ref>ဦးကိုနီဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် မကဵုကသပ် လပါ်သၞောဝ် ကုဗော်အေန်အေဝ်ဒဳမွဲတၠတုဲ ဒးဒုင်ပန်ဂစိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞေဟ်က္ၜင်ကျာလ္ဂုင်။
==ကလေင်ပၠန်==
===ထၜးဆန္ဒ===
ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲပၞာန်သီအဝဵုဂှ် ကောန်ဍုင်ဗၟာၜိုတ် ၂၀၀ ကောံရေင်သကအ်တုဲ အာထၜးဆန္ဒ ဂတမုက်ရုင်ကလုတ်ဗၟာ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်က္ၜင်ကံက်၊ ရးနိဂီုသေံ။<ref name="Thaiprotest">{{cite web|date=1 February 2021|title=ด่วน! ชาว 'เมียนมา' ชู 3 นิ้วบุกประท้วงหน้าสถานทูต ต้านรัฐประหารในประเทศ|url=https://www.bangkokbiznews.com/news/detail/920306|access-date=1 February 2021|website=Bangkok Biz News|language=th|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182031/https://www.bangkokbiznews.com/news/detail/920306|url-status=live}}</ref> ထၜးဆန္ဒဂှ် နကဵုဗၠာဲသၟိင်သေံ လုပ်ပသောင်တုဲ တုဲဒှ်အာ၊ ညးထၜးဆန္ဒၜါတၠ ဒးအာဝပ်တုဲ ဒးတိုန်ရုင်ဂဥုဲ၊ မၞိဟ်ၜါတၠ ဒးဒုင်ရပ်။<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/1/myanmar-military-stages-coup-against-aung-san-suu-kyi-live|title=Myanmar’s military stages coup d’etat: Live news|first1=Virginia|last1=Pietromarchi|first2=Mersiha|last2=Gadzo|website=[[Al Jazeera]]|accessdate=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182055/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/1/myanmar-military-stages-coup-against-aung-san-suu-kyi-live|url-status=live}}</ref>ညံင်ရဴဂှ်ကီု ကောန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ မနွံပ္ဍဲတဝ်ကျဝ်၊ ရးနိဂီုဂျပါန်တအ် ကောံအာ ဂတမုက် တက္ကသိုလ်ကုလသမဂ္ဂတုဲ ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဒစဵုဒစး ပၞာန်သီအဝဵု။<ref>{{cite web|date=1 February 2021|title=Myanmar workers in Japan protest against Tatmadaw’s actions|url=https://www.mmtimes.com/news/myanmar-workers-japan-protest-against-tatmadaws-actions.html|access-date=1 February 2021|website=[[The Myanmar Times]]|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182053/https://www.mmtimes.com/news/myanmar-workers-japan-protest-against-tatmadaws-actions.html|url-status=live|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182053/https://www.mmtimes.com/news/myanmar-workers-japan-protest-against-tatmadaws-actions.html}}</ref>
နကဵုအပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဂှ် ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၂ ဗတံ ၈ နာဍဳ မၞိဟ်ညိည ရပ်လဝ် ဗီုရုပ် ဒဝ်အံင်သာန်သုကျဳတုဲ တိတ်ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ၜိုတ် ၁၅ မိနေတ်။<ref>{{Cite web|title=စစ်အာဏာသိမ်းမှုကို အနုနည်းအာဏာဖီဆန်မှု တချို့ရှိလာခြင်း|url=https://burmese.voanews.com/a/myanmar-civil-disobedience-movement-/5762587.html|access-date=2021-02-02|website=ဗွီအိုအေ|language=my}}</ref> တ္ၚဲယး ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၄ ဂတမုက်တက္ကသိုလ်ဂဥုဲမာန္တလေ မၞိဟ်ၜိုတ် ၃၀ တၠ တိတ်ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒတုဲ ဒးဒုင်ရပ်။<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-04|title=Mandalay citizens protest against Tatmadaw rule|url=https://www.mmtimes.com/news/mandalay-citizens-protest-against-tatmadaw-rule.html|access-date=2021-02-04|website=The Myanmar Times|accessdate=2021-02-11|archivedate=2021-02-04|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204113803/https://www.mmtimes.com/news/mandalay-citizens-protest-against-tatmadaw-rule.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Four arrested in Mandalay after street protest against military coup|url=https://www.myanmar-now.org/en/news/four-arrested-in-mandalay-after-street-protest-against-military-coup|access-date=2021-02-04|website=Myanmar NOW|language=en}}</ref> စနူဂှ်တုဲ လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် မတိတ်ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒဂှ် ဂၠိုင်င်တိုန် ရိုဟ်ဒဒှ်တ္ၚဲ ကၠောအ်ကြပ်မွဲအလုံဍုင်တုဲ ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၈ ဂှ် အလဵုအသဳပ္တိတ် အမိင်တိတ်ဗတံဟွံဂွံ တုဲပၠန် မၞိဟ်ဂၠိုင်နူမသုန် ကောံဟွံဂွံ နကဵုပိုဒ်ဇၞော် ၁၄၄။ ဆဂး ပရေင်ထၜးဆန္ဒဂှ် ဟွံဍိုန်စှ်ေ ဆက်ဂၠိုင်တိုန်။
=== ဒစဵုဒစး ===
ပ္ဍဲ ၂ ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၂၀၂၁ ဂှ် သၟာကမၠောန်ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ ပေါင်မသၟိင်ဂမၠိုင် ဒၞာဲဗွဲမဂၠိုင် အလုံမွဲဍုင် သီုကဵု ဍုင်ဇၞော်နေပျဳတဝ်၊ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကာမ်ပုင်ဟွံကလင်အမိင် (a national civil disobedience campaign) နကဵုမဒစဵုဒစး လတူပၞာန်သီအဝဵု။<ref>{{cite web|date=2 February 2021|title=Nay Pyi Taw, Mandalay healthcare staff to join 'Civil Disobedience Campaign'|url=https://www.mmtimes.com/news/nay-pyi-taw-mandalay-healthcare-staff-join-civil-disobedience-campaign.html|access-date=2 February 2021|website=The Myanmar Times|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131330/https://www.mmtimes.com/news/nay-pyi-taw-mandalay-healthcare-staff-join-civil-disobedience-campaign.html|url-status=live|accessdate=3 February 2021|archivedate=3 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131330/https://www.mmtimes.com/news/nay-pyi-taw-mandalay-healthcare-staff-join-civil-disobedience-campaign.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2 February 2021|title=Myanmar Medics Prepare Civil Disobedience Against Military Rule|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-medics-prepare-civil-disobedience-military-rule.html|access-date=2 February 2021|website=The Irrawaddy|language=en-US|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131324/https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-medics-prepare-civil-disobedience-military-rule.html|url-status=live}}</ref>"ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ဒဒှ်မဟွံကလင်အမိင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် - Civil Disobedience Movement" ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် မုက်လိက်ဝှုက်ၜောက်မွဲဂှ် ပွိုင်ၜါတ္ၚဲ မၞိဟ်ဗွက်ကြဴ ဒှ်အာ ၁၀၀,၀၀၀ ပြင်င်။<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|title=Thailand's Amata halts $1bn Myanmar property project after coup|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Myanmar-Coup/Thailand-s-Amata-halts-1bn-Myanmar-property-project-after-coup|access-date=2021-02-02|website=Nikkei Asia|language=en-GB|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203020504/https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Myanmar-Coup/Thailand-s-Amata-halts-1bn-Myanmar-property-project-after-coup|url-status=live|accessdate=2021-02-03|archivedate=2021-02-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203020504/https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Myanmar-Coup/Thailand-s-Amata-halts-1bn-Myanmar-property-project-after-coup}}</ref>သၟာကမၠောန်ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် နူကဵု ရုင်ဂဥုဲဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂၠင် စုတ်လဝ်တဆိပ်ပ္ဍဲသြိုဟ်တုဲ ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဒဒှ် မဟွံမဲပၟိက် လတူပၞာန်သီအဝဵုရ။<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2021-02-02|title=After coup, medical workers spearhead civil disobedience campaign|url=https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/after-coup-medical-workers-spearhead-civil-disobedience-campaign/|access-date=2021-02-02|website=Frontier Myanmar|language=en-US|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131438/https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/after-coup-medical-workers-spearhead-civil-disobedience-campaign/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Matthew Tostevin |author2=Grant McCool |author3=Stephen Coates |title=Myanmar doctors stop work to protest coup as UN considers response |url=https://www.afr.com/world/asia/myanmar-doctors-stop-work-to-protest-coup-as-un-considers-response-20210203-p56z7z |website=Financial Review |access-date=3 February 2021 |date=3 February 2021|archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131358/https://www.afr.com/world/asia/myanmar-doctors-stop-work-to-protest-coup-as-un-considers-response-20210203-p56z7z |url-status=live }}</ref>
ကောန်ဍုင်လ္ဂုင်တအ် ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒတက်စေဝ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်သဝ်တ္ၚဲ နဒဒှ် မဒစဵုဒစး လတူပၞာန်သီအဝဵု။<ref>{{cite web |author1=Reuters Staff |title=Anti-coup protests ring out in Myanmar's main city |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-politics/anti-coup-protests-ring-out-in-myanmars-main-city-idUSKBN2A139S |website=Reuters |access-date=3 February 2021 |date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131442/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-politics/anti-coup-protests-ring-out-in-myanmars-main-city-idUSKBN2A139S |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Myanmar coup latest: UN Security Council stops short of issuing statement|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Myanmar-Coup/Myanmar-coup-latest-UN-Security-Council-stops-short-of-issuing-statement|access-date=2021-02-02|website=Nikkei Asia|language=en-GB|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203015938/https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Myanmar-Coup/Myanmar-coup-latest-UN-Security-Council-stops-short-of-issuing-statement|url-status=live|accessdate=2021-02-03|archivedate=2021-02-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203015938/https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Myanmar-Coup/Myanmar-coup-latest-UN-Security-Council-stops-short-of-issuing-statement}}</ref> ပ္ဍဲဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၂၊ အခိင်သဝ်တ္ၚဲ ၈ နာဍဳဂှ် လတူဍုင်လ္ဂုင် မၞိဟ်ညိည တိတ်ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကရေဲဗလးကဵုဒဝ်အံင်သာန်သုကျဳ ပွိုင်ၜိုတ် ၁၅ မိနေတ်။<ref>{{Cite web|title=စစ်အာဏာသိမ်းမှုကို အနုနည်းအာဏာဖီဆန်မှု တချို့ရှိလာခြင်း|url=https://burmese.voanews.com/a/myanmar-civil-disobedience-movement-/5762587.html|access-date=2021-02-02|website=ဗွီအိုအေ|language=my|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131338/https://burmese.voanews.com/a/myanmar-civil-disobedience-movement-/5762587.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
===ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂၠးကဝ်===
<!-- Do not add tweets. It is [[WP:UNDUE]]. Need a secondary source. -->[[File:Reacció al cop d'estat de Myanmar de 2021.svg|thumb|{{legend|#0000ffff|ဍုင်ဗၟာ}}<div class="legend"><span class="legend-color" style="background:#4daf4aff;"> </span> ဒစဵုဒစး ပၞာန်သီအဝဵု</div>{{legend|#80c87dff|မဒှ်ဓဝိင် ဗွဲတၟေင်}}{{legend|#fee000ff|မံင်လဒေါဝ်}}{{legend|#c0c0c0ff|မုဟွံဟီု}}]]
ရးနိဂီု ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု [[Bangladesh]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Bangladesh wants democratic process upheld in Myanmar|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/world/south-east-asia/2021/02/01/military-coup-in-myanmar-not-necessarily-to-affect-rohingya-repatriation|access-date=1 February 2021|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]|publisher=2A Media Limited.|date=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201063550/https://www.dhakatribune.com/world/south-east-asia/2021/02/01/military-coup-in-myanmar-not-necessarily-to-affect-rohingya-repatriation|url-status=live}}</ref> [[China]],<ref>{{cite web|year=1 February 2021|title=China 'notes' Myanmar coup, hopes for stability|publication-place=REUTERS|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-politics-china/china-notes-myanmar-coup-hopes-for-stability-idUSKBN2A11P2?il=0|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131344/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-politics-china/china-notes-myanmar-coup-hopes-for-stability-idUSKBN2A11P2?il=0|url-status=live}}</ref> [[India]],<ref>{{cite web|date=1 February 2021|title=Deeply concerned by developments in Myanmar, says India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/deeply-concerned-by-developments-in-myanmar-says-india/articleshow/80623041.cms|access-date=1 February 2021|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182036/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/deeply-concerned-by-developments-in-myanmar-says-india/articleshow/80623041.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Indonesia]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesia Urges All Parties in Myanmar to Exercise Self-Restraint|url=https://kemlu.go.id/portal/en/read/2118/siaran_pers/indonesia-urges-all-parties-in-myanmar-to-exercise-self-restraint|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia]]|accessdate=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182046/https://kemlu.go.id/portal/en/read/2118/siaran_pers/indonesia-urges-all-parties-in-myanmar-to-exercise-self-restraint|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Malaysia]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Release: Latest Situation in Myanmar|url=https://twitter.com/MalaysiaMFA/status/1356122970159104000|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Malaysia)]]|accessdate=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182040/https://twitter.com/MalaysiaMFA/status/1356122970159104000|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Pakistan]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Pakistan hopes from all sides in Myanmar to be restraint, work for peace: Zahid Hafeez|url=https://www.radio.gov.pk/01-02-2021/pakistan-hopes-from-all-sides-in-myanmar-to-be-restraint-work-for-peace-zahid-hafeez|access-date=1 February 2021|website=www.radio.gov.pk|language=en|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201144030/https://www.radio.gov.pk/01-02-2021/pakistan-hopes-from-all-sides-in-myanmar-to-be-restraint-work-for-peace-zahid-hafeez|url-status=live|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201144030/https://www.radio.gov.pk/01-02-2021/pakistan-hopes-from-all-sides-in-myanmar-to-be-restraint-work-for-peace-zahid-hafeez}}</ref> [[Philippines]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lee-Brago |first1=Pia |title=Philippines following Myanmar situation with deep concern |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2021/02/03/2074984/philippines-following-myanmar-situation-deep-concern |access-date=2 February 2021 |work=Philstar.com |date=3 February 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131356/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2021/02/03/2074984/philippines-following-myanmar-situation-deep-concern |url-status=live }}</ref> [[South Korea]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20210201009200325|title=S. Korea expresses concerns over Myanmar coup|website=[[Yonhap News Agency]]|date=1 February 2021|accessdate=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201100350/https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20210201009200325|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Singapore]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mfa.gov.sg/Newsroom/Press-Statements-Transcripts-and-Photos/2021/02/20210201-Myanmar|title=MFA Spokesperson's Comments in Response to Media Queries on the Detention of Myanmar Leaders and Officials|date=1 February 2021|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs Singapore|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182043/https://www.mfa.gov.sg/Newsroom/Press-Statements-Transcripts-and-Photos/2021/02/20210201-Myanmar|url-status=live}}</ref> တအ်ဂှ် ဟီုပ္တိတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးတအ် ဒှ်ဓဝိင် လတူပၞာန်သီအဝဵုတုဲ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဗ္တိုက်ဖအောဝ် ညံင်ဂွံဂၠာဲသွဟ် နကဵုမဆဵုဂဗတက်ကျာ အကြာအလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ဒပ်ပၞာန်။ [[Australia]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Tillett |first1=Andrew |title=Australia joins global condemnation of Myanmar generals |url=https://www.afr.com/world/asia/myanmar-leader-aung-san-suu-kyi-detained-20210201-p56ycy |website=Financial Review |access-date=3 February 2021 |language=English |date=Feb 1, 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201020736/https://www.afr.com/world/asia/myanmar-leader-aung-san-suu-kyi-detained-20210201-p56ycy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Statement on Myanmar|url=https://www.foreignminister.gov.au/minister/marise-payne/media-release/statement-myanmar|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201093854/https://www.foreignminister.gov.au/minister/marise-payne/media-release/statement-myanmar|archive-date=1 February 2021|access-date=|website=Minister for Foreign Affairs – Minister for Women – Senator the Hon Marise Payne|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201093854/https://www.foreignminister.gov.au/minister/marise-payne/media-release/statement-myanmar}}</ref> [[Canada]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cultmtl.com/2021/02/justin-trudeau-on-myanmar-the-democratic-process-must-be-respected/|title=Justin Trudeau on Myanmar: “The democratic process must be respected”|date=2 February 2021|website=Cult MTL|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131331/https://cultmtl.com/2021/02/justin-trudeau-on-myanmar-the-democratic-process-must-be-respected/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[France]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uk.sports.yahoo.com/news/myanmar-aung-san-suu-kyi-072052284.html|title=France calls on Myanmar military to release Suu Kyi, respect election results|website=uk.sports.yahoo.com|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131433/https://consent.yahoo.com/v2/collectConsent?sessionId=2_cc-session_74704c41-a143-4ae4-8f5b-1e4af6cd3535|url-status=live|accessdate=3 February 2021|archivedate=3 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131433/https://consent.yahoo.com/v2/collectConsent?sessionId=2_cc-session_74704c41-a143-4ae4-8f5b-1e4af6cd3535}}</ref> [[Germany]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/germany-condemns-myanmar-coup-in-strongest-terms-/2129847 |title=Germany condemns Myanmar coup ‘in strongest terms’ |publisher=Aa.com.tr |date=2020-11-08 |accessdate=2021-02-02 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201104100/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/germany-condemns-myanmar-coup-in-strongest-terms-/2129847 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Japan]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Japan urges Myanmar military to free Suu Kyi, restore democracy |url=https://mb.com.ph/2021/02/01/japan-urges-myanmar-military-to-free-suu-kyi-restore-democracy/ |access-date=2 February 2021 |work=Manila Bulletin |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=1 February 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201094835/https://mb.com.ph/2021/02/01/japan-urges-myanmar-military-to-free-suu-kyi-restore-democracy/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[New Zealand]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Mahuta|first=Nanaia|date=1 February 2021|title=New Zealand statement on Myanmar|url=https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/new-zealand-statement-myanmar|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=1 February 2021|website=via beehive.gov.nz}}</ref> [[Spain]],<ref>{{cite web|date=1 February 2021|title=Sánchez condena el golpe de Estado en Myanmar y pide vuelta a la democracia|url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/politica/20210201/6213485/sanchez-condena-golpe-myanmar-pide-vuelta-democracia.html|access-date=1 February 2021|website=[[La Vanguardia]]|language=es|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131521/https://www.lavanguardia.com/politica/20210201/6213485/sanchez-condena-golpe-myanmar-pide-vuelta-democracia.html|url-status=live|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=3 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131521/https://www.lavanguardia.com/politica/20210201/6213485/sanchez-condena-golpe-myanmar-pide-vuelta-democracia.html}}</ref> [[Sweden]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/foreign-minister-condemns-military-coup-in-myanmar|title=Foreign Minister condemns military coup in Myanmar|publisher=Sveriges Radio|website=sverigesradio.se|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201221458/https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/foreign-minister-condemns-military-coup-in-myanmar|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Turkey]],<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bir|first1=Burak|title=Turkey condemns, 'deeply concerned' by coup in Myanmar|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-condemns-deeply-concerned-by-coup-in-myanmar/2129572|access-date=1 February 2021|work=[[Anadolu Agency]]|date=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182117/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkey-condemns-deeply-concerned-by-coup-in-myanmar/2129572|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[United Kingdom]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/uk-condemns-military-coup-in-myanmar/2129749|title=UK condemns military coup in Myanmar|date=1 February 2021|work=[[Anadolu Agency]]|language=en|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182110/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/uk-condemns-military-coup-in-myanmar/2129749|url-status=live}}</ref> ကေုာံ [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/01/31/statement-by-white-house-spokesperson-jen-psaki-on-burma/|title=Statement by White House Spokesperson Jen Psaki on Burma|date=1 February 2021|website=The White House|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201072432/https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/01/31/statement-by-white-house-spokesperson-jen-psaki-on-burma/|url-status=live|accessdate=1 February 2021|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201072432/https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/01/31/statement-by-white-house-spokesperson-jen-psaki-on-burma/}}</ref> ဒစဵုဒစး လတူပၞာန်သီအဝဵုတုဲ သီုဗ္တိုက်ဖ္အောဝ် ညံင်ဂွံဗလးကဵု မၞိဟ်မရပ်လဝ်တအ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ပၞာန်သီအဝဵုတုဲ နကဵု သ္ၚိဗတာင် ရးနိဂီုပံင်ကောံကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ထ္ပိုတ်အဆက် ကုဍုင်ဗၟာ။<ref>{{cite web |author1=Patrick Wintour |author2=Julian Borger |title=Myanmar coup: Joe Biden threatens to resume sanctions |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/01/myanmar-coup-us-and-china-divided-in-response-to-army-takeover-aung-san-suu-kyi |website=The Guardian |access-date=2 February 2021 |language=English |date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201113643/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/01/myanmar-coup-us-and-china-divided-in-response-to-army-takeover-aung-san-suu-kyi |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=‘Serious blow to democracy’: World condemns Myanmar military coup|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/1/world-reacts-to-military-coup-in-myanmar|access-date=1 February 2021|work=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=1 February 2021|language=en|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201175726/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/1/world-reacts-to-military-coup-in-myanmar|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/monde/la-maison-blanche-menace-les-auteurs-du-coup-d%c3%a9tat-militaire-du-myanmar-de-sanctions/2129551|title=La Maison Blanche menace les auteurs du coup d'État militaire du Myanmar de sanctions|trans-title=White House threatens perpetrators of Myanmar military coup with sanctions|last=Cherni|first=Hajer|date=1 February 2021|work=[[Anadolu Agency]]|accessdate=1 February 2021|language=French|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182127/https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/monde/la-maison-blanche-menace-les-auteurs-du-coup-d%C3%A9tat-militaire-du-myanmar-de-sanctions/2129551|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Cambodia]], [[Thailand]], ကေုာံ [[Vietnam]] ဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ မထံက်ဂလာန် မွဲလပါ်ဂှ် ဟွံဒုင်တဲတုဲ အရာဝွံ ဆေင်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကုကိစ္စအပ္ဍဲဍုင်ညးတအ်ဟေင်။<ref>{{cite news|title=West condemns Myanmar coup but Thailand, Cambodia shrug|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/world/2060651/west-condemns-myanmar-coup-but-thailand-cambodia-shrug|access-date=1 February 2021|work=[[Bangkok Post]]|publisher=Bangkok Post Public Company Ltd.|date=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182126/https://www.bangkokpost.com/world/2060651/west-condemns-myanmar-coup-but-thailand-cambodia-shrug|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Myanmar's army seizes power, detains Aung San Suu Kyi|url=https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/myanmars-army-seizes-power-detains-aung-san-suu-kyi-5|access-date=1 February 2021|work=[[National Post]]|agency=Reuters|date=1 February 2021|language=en-CA|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182127/https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/myanmars-army-seizes-power-detains-aung-san-suu-kyi-5|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title= Myanmar military coup: Nordic and Asian reactions|date= 2 February 2021|url= https://scandasia.com/myanmar-military-coup-nordic-and-asian-reactions/|work= ScandAsia|access-date= 2 February 2021|archive-date= 3 February 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131348/https://scandasia.com/myanmar-military-coup-nordic-and-asian-reactions/|url-status= live}}</ref>
ဂကောံရးနိဂီု ဍုင်နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2021-01-31/statement-attributable-the-spokesperson-for-the-secretary-general-myanmar|title=Statement attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary General – on Myanmar|date=31 January 2021|website=United Nations Secretary-General|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182155/https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2021-01-31/statement-attributable-the-spokesperson-for-the-secretary-general-myanmar|url-status=live}}</ref> [[ASEAN]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/myanmar-politics-asean-int/asean-calls-for-return-to-normalcy-in-myanmar-after-coup-idUSKBN2A124A|title=ASEAN calls for "return to normalcy" in Myanmar after coup|work=[[Reuters]]|date=1 February 2021|accessdate=1 February 2021|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131337/https://www.reuters.com/article/myanmar-politics-asean-int/asean-calls-for-return-to-normalcy-in-myanmar-after-coup-idUSKBN2A124A|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.detik.com/internasional/d-5357097/negara-negara-asean-bahas-kudeta-militer-di-myanmar|title=Negara-negara ASEAN Bahas Kudeta Militer di Myanmar|trans-title=Intergovernmental Organization ASEAN Discusses Military Coup in Myanmar|first=Novi|last=Christiastuti|date=1 February 2021|accessdate=1 February 2021|lang=id|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182144/https://news.detik.com/internasional/d-5357097/negara-negara-asean-bahas-kudeta-militer-di-myanmar|url-status=live|archivedate=1 February 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201182144/https://news.detik.com/internasional/d-5357097/negara-negara-asean-bahas-kudeta-militer-di-myanmar}}</ref> ကေုာံ ဥရောပသမဂ္ဂ တအ် ပ္တိတ်လလောင်ဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ ဒှ်ဓဝိင် လတူအရာဏအ်တုဲ အာတ်မိက် သီုၜါလပါ် ညံင်ဂွံဂၠာဲသွဟ် နကဵုနဲတက်ကျာရေင်သကအ်။ နကဵု ဥရောပသမဂ္ဂဂှ် ဒစဵုဒစး ပ္ဍဲအရာပၞာန်မသီအဝဵုတုဲ ညံင်ဂွံဗလးကဵု မၞိဟ်မရပ်လဝ်တအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် အာတ်မိက်ဏာကီုရ။<ref name=politcoeu>{{cite news|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-reacts-to-myanmar-military-coup/|title=EU leaders condemn military coup in Myanmar|last=Adkins|first=William|date=1 February 2021|work=[[Politico]]|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131434/https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-reacts-to-myanmar-military-coup/|url-status=live}}</ref>
ဟိုတ်နူ ပၞာန်သီအဝဵုဏအ်တုဲ နကဵု [[ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု|ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] ကော်ကောံဓရီု ကာမံက်တိုန်မွဲ သွက်ဂွံချူပ္တိတ် လိက်ပဋိညာန် "အရာမလဇုဲလဇကဵုဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဗၟာ ("restoration of democracy" in Myanmar)၊ တုဲ ဒစဵုဒစး လတူပၞာန်ဗၟာ မသီအဝဵုတုဲ အာတ်မိက် ညံင်ဂွံဗလးကဵု မၞိဟ်မရပ်လဝ်တအ်ကီုလေဝ်၊ လိက်လလောင်တြးဂှ် ဟွံဒှ်ပ္တိတ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဟွံကလိဂွံ အထံက်ဂလာန် နူကဵု ဂကောံထာဝရ ၁၅ ဍုင်သီုဖအိုတ်၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် ဍုင်ကြုက် ကဵု ဍုင်ရုရှာ ဒစဵုဒစးရ။<ref>{{cite news |title=UNSC takes no action on coup in Myanmar |url=https://www.gulftoday.ae/news/2021/02/03/unsc-takes-no-action-on-coup-in-myanmar |access-date=3 February 2021 |work=Gulf Today |date=3 February 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131416/https://www.gulftoday.ae/news/2021/02/03/unsc-takes-no-action-on-coup-in-myanmar |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=AFP |author2=jt |title=UN Security Council searches for unity on Myanmar |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/myanmar-un-security-council-emergency-meeting-uk-china-14097148 |website=Channel News Asia |access-date=3 February 2021 |language=English |date=Feb 2, 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131415/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/myanmar-un-security-council-emergency-meeting-uk-china-14097148 |url-status=live |accessdate=3 February 2021 |archivedate=3 February 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131415/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/myanmar-un-security-council-emergency-meeting-uk-china-14097148 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=AL JAZEERA AND NEWS AGENCIES |title=Security Council fails to agree statement condemning Myanmar coup |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/3/security-council-fails-to-agree-statement-condemning-myanmar-coup |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=3 February 2021 |language=English |date=Feb 3, 2021 |quote=The UN Security Council has failed to agree on a joint statement condemning Monday’s coup in Myanmar, after a two hour long emergency meeting failed to secure the support of China, a key Myanmar ally and a veto-holding permanent member of the council. |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203041029/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/3/security-council-fails-to-agree-statement-condemning-myanmar-coup |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=AP |title=UN Security Council takes no action on Myanmar coup |url=https://www.euronews.com/2021/02/03/un-security-council-takes-no-action-on-myanmar-coup |website=Euronews |access-date=3 February 2021 |language=English |date=February 3, 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203131406/https://www.euronews.com/2021/02/03/un-security-council-takes-no-action-on-myanmar-coup |url-status=live }}</ref> ဍုင်ကြုက် မဒှ်ဍုင် ကောန်ဂကောံထာဝရ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီုဂှ်တုဲ ကလိဂွံလဝ် အဝဵုဗေတဝ် (ဝါ) အဝဵုတးပါဲ သွက်ဂွံပ္တိတ်လိက်လလောင်တြးဂှ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |author1= |title=Myanmar coup: China blocks UN condemnation as protest grows |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-55913947 |website=BBC News |access-date=3 February 2021 |language=English |date=Feb 3, 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203101508/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-55913947 |url-status=live }}</ref> စၞးဂှ် နကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ပ္တိတ်လိက်လလောင်တြး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၄၊ မဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ နကဵု ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ဒှ်ဓဝိင်ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ပ္ဍဲအရာ နကဵုဒပ်ပၞာန် လလောင်တြး အကာဲအရာကာတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၁။ တုဲပၠန် နကဵုကံင်သဳမိက်ဂွံကဵု ဍုင်ဗၟာ ဆက်အာ ဂၠံင်တရဴဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳတုဲ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံဒှ် ပရေင်ဆီပါ်ဍာ်ဇွောဝ်ဂှ် ဝေင်ပါဲညိရ။<ref>{{cite web |author1=Security Council |title=Security Council Press Statement on Situation in Myanmar |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2021/sc14430.doc.htm |website=United Nations |access-date=4 February 2021 |language=English |date=February 5, 2021 |archive-date=5 February 2021}}</ref>
==ဆက်ဗှ်==
* [[သဘင်မာဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ ၂၀၂၀]]
* [[ထၜးဆန္ဒဍုင်ဗၟာ ၂၀၂၁]]
==နိဿဲ==
{{reflist|30em}}
[[Category:BEHM]]
[[Category:ဝင်]]
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'''အခေါင်ဂကူမန် နူအလဵုအသဳဂမၠိုင်'''ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် နူကဵု ဍုင်မန် မဒးဒုင်သီပၠံင်ကေတ် နကဵုဗၟာတုဲ အခေါင်အရာသွက်ဂကူမန်ဂှ် ဂကူမန်တအ် ဂစာန်ဗတိုက်ကၠုင် နကဵုနဲကဲနာနာသာ် နကဵုလွဟ်ကီု သီုကဵု နဲမအာတ်မိက်ကေတ် လတူခုင်ကီုရ။ အခေါင်ဂကူမန်ဟီုမ္ဂး ဒှ်အခေါင်တၟေင် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်အရေဝ်၊ လိက်၊ ကေုာံ ဒေသဇကု ဇကုပကင်ရင်ကေတ်တ်တအ်ရ။ အခေါင်ပရေင်ပညာ နကဵုဘာသာမန်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲဂကူမန် နွံၜါသွာင်၊ သွာင်လိက်ပရိယတ် ကေုာံ သွာင်လိက်ဘာတန်။ သွာင်လိက်ပရိယတ်ဂှ် ဗွဲတၟေင် ခမဳသင်မန် မဗတောန်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲဘာပရိယတ္တိမန်ဂမၠိုင်၊ မပ္တံကဵု ဘာလကျာ်၊ ဘာသဳလတအ်တုဲ ဘာတန်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဘာပရေင်ပညာဓမ္မတာ မဗတောန် ပ္ဍဲဘာတန်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။
==မန်အာတ် အခေါင်မန် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်==
နကဵု အင်္ဂလိက် အတိုင်မတုပ်လဝ်စိုတ် ကုဒပ်မဟာမိတ် (အမေရိကာန်) ပ္ဍဲ[[လိက်ကသုက် အာတ်လာန်တိစ်|လိက်ကသုက်အာတ်လာန်တိစ်]] ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အာစိုပ်ဒတုဲတုဲမ္ဂး နကဵုဗြိတိန် သ္ဒးကဵုဗၠးၜး ကုဍုင်ကဝ်လဝ်နဳဂမၠိုင်ရောင်တုဲ<ref>{{cite book| last=Stone| first=Julius| title=Peace Planning and the Atlantic Charter| journal=[[Australian Quarterly]]| date=June 1942| issn=0005-0091| jstor=20631017| volume=14| pages=5–22| number=2}}</ref> တၞဟ်နဂွံကဵု ဍုင်ဗၠးၜး ကုဍုင်ဗၟာဂှ် ညးဖျေဟ်လဝ်လၟေင်ဂၠံင် မကော်ဂး လိက်ကသုက်အံင်သာန်-အေတ်လဳ။<ref>[https://burmastar1010.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/44172419-aungsan-atlee-agreement.pdf Aung San-Atlee Agreement], 27 January 1947 </ref> အတိုင်လၟေင်ကမၠောန်ဂှ် တၞဟ်နမဂွံဓဇက်သၞောဝ်လဒက်ပ္တန်ဍုင်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၇ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် သဘင်မာဲပတန်ဍုင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသဘင်မာဲဂှ် နကဵုကောန်မန် ၜိုန်လုပ်ပြိုင်ကီုလေဝ် ဟွံကလိဂွံဇမၞး။ ဟိုတ်နူဂှ်တုဲ နကဵု နာဲဘလောန် (နာဲယှိုယ်ကျေန်) က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ်တုဲ နာဲစံသူ၊ နာဲစိန်ထွန်းတအ် တိုန်အာလ္ဂုင် သွက်ဂွံအာတ်မိက် အခေါင်အရာတၟေင် သွက်ဂကူမန် သီုဖအိုတ် (၇) တင် အတိုင်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။
# သဘင်သွဟ်လိက် ကလေင်ပထမ အလဵုအသဳ သွက်ခမဳသင်မန်တအ်ဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံကဵုအခေါင်သှ် နကဵုဘာသာမန်။
# သွက်ခမဳသင်မန်တအ်ဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံပံက်ကဵု ကမ္မတဳကလေင်ပထမမန်မွဲ။
# ကောန်ၚာ်မန် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲဒေသမန်ဂမၠိုင်ဂှ် စဵုကဵု တန်မူလ ညံင်ဂွံဗတောန်ကဵု နကဵုဘာသာမန်။
# ညံင်ဂွံပံက်ကဵု ဂကောံဗောတ်ပရေင်ပညာမန်။
# ပ္ဍဲကဵုဒေသမန်ဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံခကဵု ပေါင်မသၟိင် (သၞဴဒဴသၟိင်) ဂကူမန်။
# ညံင်ရဴဂကူတၞဟ် မနွံကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန်တၞဟ်ခြာ ညးကဵုညးဂှ် ဒပ်ပၞာန်ဂကူမန်မွဲ ဗွဲတၞဟ်ခြာ ညံင်ကဵုဒက်ပ္တန်ကဵု။
# ကံင်သဳကေင်ကာဂကူမန် မနွံကဵု အခေါင်အဝဵုပေင်င်ဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံပံက်ကဵု။
ဆဂး နကဵုသၟိင်ဗၟာ ဆမွဲတင်ကီု ဟွံသၠးကဵု အခေါင်တအ် သွက်ဂကူမန်ရ။<ref name=Pantha>{{cite book| last=သာ| first=နိုင်ပန်း| title=ရာမညနိကာယဂိုဏ်းသမိုင်း နှင့် မွန်သာသနာ| journal=| date=ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၂၀၁၆| issn=| jstor=| volume=| pages=83–87| number=}}</ref> ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ စၞးဂှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်မန်တအ် "အခေါင်ဇကု ဍေဟ်ဟွံကဵုဇကုမ္ဂး ဇကုဒးအာတ်ဍုင်!" ဂးတုဲ ဂလိုင်ပတိုန် အသိင်ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်တုဲ နူဂှ် အာတ်မိက် ညံင်ဂွံကဵု တွဵုရးဍုင်မန် မနွံကဵု အဝဵုပေင်င်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ဗော်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်မန် နွံဒၟံင်ၜါ၊ ဗော်သွးမန်ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် (မွန်တိုင်းရင်းသားအစည်းအရုံး) မဒှ်ဗော် အစာနာဲဖဝ်ချိုဝ် မပၠတရဴ ကဵု ဗော်ဂဥုပ်သၠးပွးမန် (မွန်လွတ်လပ်ရေးအဖွဲ့ချုပ်) မဒှ်ဗော် နာဲဘလောန် (နာဲယှိုယ်ကျေန်) မပၠတရဴ။ ဗော်ၜါဂှ် ပံင်ပကောံတုဲ ဒက်ပ္တန် ဗော်ဂဥုပ်ကေင်ကာမန် (မွန်လူမျိုးရေးရာအဖွဲ့ချုပ်)။ နကဵု ဗော်ဂဥုပ်ကေင်ကာမန်ဂှ် ကၠောန် သဘင်ကောံဓရီုဇၞော်ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဖအံက် (အခိင်ဂှ် ဖအံက် နွံသၟဝ် ပွိုင်ဍုင်မုဟ်ဍုင်) ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဨပြဳ ၂၃၊ ၁၉၄၈။ ကြဴနူဂှ်ညိ ဒက်ပ္တန် "ဒပ်စဵုဒၞာဂကူမန်"၊ ဟိုတ်နူဏအ်တုဲ နကဵုသၟိင်ဗၟာလေဝ် ကရေပ်ဂရတ်ကၠုင် နကဵုနဲနာနာသာ်တုဲ ၁၉၆၈ အဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၉ (သက္ကရာဇ်ဍုင် ၁၃၁၀ ဂိတုခ္ဍဲသဳပေင်)ဂှ် နကဵုဒပ်စဵုဒၞာဂကူမန် စချဳဓရာင် ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတး နကဵုလွဟ်တုဲ လုပ်သီ ရုင်ဗၠာဲသၟိင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref name=Pantha/> မပစၟတ်သမ္တီ ကုတ္ၚဲဂှ်တုဲ တ္ၚဲခ္ဍဲသဳပေင်ဂှ် ကောန်မန်တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် တ္ၚဲပၠန်ဂတးမန်။
==အခေါင်ပရေင်ပညာ နကဵုဘာသာမန်==
===လိက်ပရိယတ်===
သၞာံ ၁၉၅၂ ဂှ် နကဵု အလဵုအသဳဗၟာဖဆပလ ပစၟတ်သမ္တီ ကဵုအခေါင် ကုခမဳသင်မန်တအ် သွက်ဂွံသှ် လိက်ပရိယတ် နကဵုဘာသာမန် ပ္ဍဲသဘင်သွဟ်လိက်ကလေင်ပထမ (တန်မူလ၊ တန်ဍောတ်၊ တန်လဒေါဝ်၊ တန်ဇၞော်) ကီု သီုကဵု တန်ဓမ္မာစရိယ (တန်အစာလိက်)။<ref name=Pantha/> စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂ ဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ ဍုင်စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်တဲပကင်ရင်ပၞာန် နူဂှ် ဍုင်ဂှ် ပကင်ရင် နကဵုသၞောတ်မွဲဗော် နကဵုဗော် (မြန်မာ့ဆိုရှယ်လစ်စနစ်လမ်းစဥ်ပါတီ)<ref name="thantmyintu">{{cite book |ref=Myint-U| last=Myint-U | first=Thant | title=The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma |url=https://archive.org/details/riveroflostfoots0000than_d0r2| year=2006 | publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux | isbn=978-0-374-16342-6}}</ref>ကီုလေဝ် အခေါင်သွက်ဂကူမန် လပါ်လိက်ပရိယတ် သွက်ဂွံသှ် နကဵု ဘာသာမန်ပေင်င်ဂှ် ဆက်နွံဒၟံင် အတိုင်ဂှ်ရ။ စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၉၈၄ နကဵုဌာနပရေင်ပညာပရိယတ် သၠာဲ သၞောတ်လိက်ပရိယတ် ကလေင်ပထမ မထပ်စုတ် ဘာသာဗၟာ မွဲဘာသာဂှ် သွက်ခမဳသင်မန်တအ်လေဝ် ဘာသာဗၟာ မွဲဘာသာဂှ် သ္ဒးသှ် ဗီုဗၟာကီုရောင် ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ရ။ နကဵုခမဳသင်မန် လပါ်ဂိုဏ်သုဓမ္မာ (ရာမညနိကာယ) မဒှ် သင်လပါ်ဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲဂကူမန်ဂှ် ဟွံဒုင်တဲ၊ စၞးဘာသာဗၟာဂှ် ဒးဒှ် ဘာသာမန်။ လုကဴ ဟွံကလိဂွံ ဗီုဏအ်မ္ဂး ဗဂပ်ဗဗေင် ဟွံလုပ်သှ်လိက် ပ္ဍဲအလဵုအသဳရ။<ref name=Pantha/> စၞးဂှ် ဒက်ပ္တန် ဂကောံရာမညဓမ္မာစရိယ တုဲ ကၠောန်သဘင်သှ်လိက် နဲဇကုကဵုဇကုရ။ ဆဂး သင်ဂိုဏ် မဟာယျေန်၊ ကေုာံ ယှိုယ်ကျေန်မန် (ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်) တအ်ဂှ် ဒုင်တဲ သှ်နကဵုဘာသာဗၟာ မွဲဘာသာရ။
စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၉၈၈ ကြဴနူ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ၈၈၈၈ တုဲ ပၞာန်ကလေင်သီအဝဵုဍုင်တုဲ ဒက်ပ္တန် ဂကောံဒက်ပ္တန်ညိင်ဝတ်ၜိုဟ်လဒမ်ဍုင် (နိုင်ငံတော်ငြိမ်ဝပ်ပိပြားမှုတည်ဆောက်ရေးအဖွဲ့ - နဝတ) ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/pyithu_hluttaw_election_law.htm |title=Pyithu Hluttaw Election Law |access-date=11 July 2006 |date=31 May 1989 |work=State Law and Order Restoration Council |publisher=iBiblio.org}}</ref> ပ္ဍဲကဵု အလဵုအသဳပၞာန်ဏအ် သင်မန်တအ် ဆက်အာတ် ဂရင်ဗ္တီ ညံင်သင်မန်တအ် ဂွံကလိဂွံအခေါင်သှ်လိက်ပရိယတ် နကဵုဘာသာမန်ပေင်င်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၈၉ ဂှ်ရ နကဵုသၟိင်ပၞာန်နဝတ ကဵုအခေါင်သှ် နကဵုဘာသာမန်ပေင်င် ၜါတန်၊ တန်မူလ ကဵု တန်ဍောတ်။ နကဵုခမဳသင်မန်တအ် ဆက်အာတ်ဒၟံင်တုဲ စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၉၉၄ ဂှ် တန်လဒေါဝ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံအခေါင်သွဟ် နကဵုဘာသာမန်ပေင်င်၊ ခမဳသင်မန်တအ် ဆက်အာတ်ဒၟံင်တုဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၈ ဂှ် အလုံမွဲပရေင်ပညာပရိယတ် ကလေင်ပထမ သီုကဵု တန်ဇၞော်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ အခေါင်သွဟ် နကဵုဘာသာမန်ပေင်င်ပၠန်ရ။ သွက်အခေါင် တန်ဇၞော်ဂှ် နကဵုဗော်ဍုင်မန်တၟိ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်မပညဳပညပ်ဒေါအ်ပွန်ပွောဟ်ကီု သီုကဵု ကြဴနူဂှ် ဗိုင်ဟီုဂရင်ဗ္တီလဝ်ကီုရ။<ref name=Pantha/>
===လိက်ဘာတန်===
သၞာံ ၁၉၅၂ နကဵု အလဵုအသဳဗၟာဖဆပလ ပစၟတ်သမ္တီ ကဵုအခေါင်ဗတောန်လိက် ဘာသာမန် ပ္ဍဲဘာတန် ပ္ဍဲကွာန်မန်ဂမၠိုင် နူတန်မူလ စဵုကဵု တန်ပဉ္စမ။ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ ကမၠောန်ဇၞော်မောဝ်ပတိုန် ယေန်သၞာင်မန် မပ္တံကဵု အနုသုခုမမန်တအ်လေဝ် ဖန်ဇန်ကၠောန်ကၠုင် နွံကီုရ။<ref name=Pantha/>
သၞာံ ၂၀၁၁
<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kicnews.org/2012/07/မြန္ပညာေရးအတြက္-အစိုးရမ/ |title=မွန်ပညာရေးအတွက် အစိုးရမှထောက်ပံ့မှုပေးမည်ဟု ပြော|last=ယဥ် |first=နန်း |date=July 20, 2012 |website=Karen Information Center|publisher=Open |access-date=24 Feb. 2021 |quote=မွန်စာပေကို ကျောင်းချိန်ပြင်ပ၌သာ သင်ကြားခွင့်ပေးပြီး ၎င်းအတွက် ပညာရေးထောက်ပံ့ကြေး ပေးဆောင် သွားမည်ဟု သမ္မတဦးသိန်းစိန်က တိုင်းရင်းသားညီနောင် ၆ပါတီနှင့် တွေ့ဆုံခဲ့စဉ် ပြောကြားခဲ့သည်။
သမ္မတနှင့် ဒီမိုကရေစီ မဟာမိတ် ၁၀ပါတီတို့ တွေ့ဆုံခဲ့ကြစဉ် တိုင်းရင်းသားစာပေသင်ကြားရေးကိစ္စနှင့် ပတ်သက်ပြီး ညီနောင် ၆ပါတီ ကိုယ်စား မွန်ဒေသလုံးဆိုင်ရာ ဒီမိုကရေစီပါတီ ဒုဥက္ကဌ ဒေါက်တာလှအောင်က တင်ပြခဲ့သည်ကို သမ္မတက ထိုကဲ့သို့ ပြောဆိုခဲ့ခြင်း ဖြစ်သည်။
ဒေါက်တာလှအောင်၏ တင်ပြချက်ကို ရထားပို့ဆောင်ရေးဝန်ကြီးဌာန ပြည်ထောင်စုဝန်ကြီး ဦးအောင်မင်းက သမ္မတ၏ ခွင့်ပြုချက်ဖြင့် “မွန်တွေ စာပေသင်ကြားရေးနဲ့ပတ်သက်ပြီး တင်ပြမယ်ဆိုတာ ကျနော်တို့ သိပြီးသားပါ။ မွန်စာပေကို ကျောင်းချိန်ပြင်ပမှာ သင်ကြားဖို့ လည်း ကျနော်တို့ သဘောတူထားပြီးသား။ စာပေသင်ကြားဖို့အတွက်ကိုလည်း အစိုးရကနေ တနှစ်ကို ဒေါ်လာတစ်သန်း ထောက်ပံ့သွား မယ်”ဟု ပြောခဲ့သည်။
အစိုးရ၏ ကျောင်းချိန်ပြင်ပ စာပေသင်ကြားရေးသည် လက်တွေ့တွင် အကောင်အထည်ဖော်ရန် မလွယ်ကူကြောင်း ၎င်းသည် တိုင်းရင်း သားတို့၏ တောင်းဆိုမှုများကို လုံးဝ ဂရုမစိုက်သည့်သဘော သက်ရောက်ကြောင်း အမျိုးသားလွှတ်တော် ကိုယ်စားလှယ် ဒေါက်တာ ဗညားအောင်မိုးက ပြောသည်။
“တကယ်တော့ ကျောင်းချိန်ပြင်ပ စာပေသင်ကြားတဲ့ကိစ္စက နည်းလမ်းသိပ်မကျဘူး။ လွှတ်တော်မှာ ကျနော်တို့တင်တာက တိုင်းရင်းသား အားလုံး ပြည်နယ်အားလုံးသူတို့ရဲ့ ကိုယ်ပိုင်ပညာရေးစနစ်နဲ့ မွန်ဆို မွန်ပညာရေးဌာန၊ ကရင်ဆို ကရင်ပညာရေးဌာန သူ့ပြည်နယ်နဲ့ သူ့စာ ပေနဲ့ဖြစ်ဖို့ တင်တာ။ အဲဒါကို လူမျိုးပေါင်း ၁၃၅ကျော်တယ်။ လုပ်လို့မရဘူးဆိုပြီး ပညာရေးဝန်ကြီးက ပြောတယ်။ တိုင်းရင်းသားစာပေတွေ ဘာသာစကားတွေ မပျောက်သွားအောင် တင်ပြတယ်။ ဘယ်တိုင်းရင်းသားမှာ ဘာသာဘယ်နှစ်ခုရှိတယ်ဆိုပြီးတော့ ငြင်းတယ်”ဟု ဒေါက်တာဗညားအောင်မိုးက ပြောသည်။
အစိုးရစာသင်ကျောင်းတွင် တိုင်းရင်းသားစာပေ သင်ကြားခွင့်ရရှိရန်အတွက် ပထမအကြိမ် အမျိုးသားလွှတ်တော် ပထမ ပုံမှန် အစည်းအ ဝေးတွင် ဒေါက်တာဗညားအောင်မိုးက တင်ပြခဲ့သော်လည်း လွှတ်တော်က ၎င်းအဆိုကို ငြင်းဆိုခဲ့သည်။
သို့သော် တိုင်းရင်းသားစာပေကို ကျောင်းချိန်အတွင်း သင်ကြားခွင့်ရရှိရန် ဆက်လက် တောင်းဆိုသွားမည်ဟုလည်း ၎င်းက ပြောသည်။
ယခင် မွန်ပြည်သစ်ပါတီနှင့် အစိုးရငြိမ်းချမ်းရေးဖော်ဆောင်မှု ကိုယ်စားလှယ် ဦးအောင်မင်းတို့ တွေ့ဆုံခဲ့ကြစဉ်က မွန်ပညာရေးဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုး တက်ရေးအတွက် မွန်ပြည်သစ်ပါတီက တောင်းဆိုခဲ့သည့်အပေါ် ယခုကဲ့သို့ မွန်ပညာရေးကို ထောက်ပံ့ပေးခြင်းဖြစ်ကြောင်း ရခိုင်အမျိုး သားတိုးတက်ရေးပါတီ အတွင်းရေးမှူး ဦးဦးလှစောက ပြောသည်။
ထိုနည်းတူ သျှမ်းစာပေကို ကျောင်းချိန်အတွင်း သင်ကြားခွင့်ရနိုင်ရန်နှင့် သျှမ်းစာပေအနေနှင့် သင်ရိုးညွှန်းတမ်းတခုတည်းဖြစ်အောင် သျှမ်းစာပေနှင့် ယဉ်ကျေးမှုကော်မတီတို့က ကြိုးပမ်းလျှက်ရှိသည်။
ပြီးခဲ့သည့် မေလကလည်း တိုင်းရင်းသားစာပေ သင်ကြားရေးနှင့် ပတ်သက်ပြီး အခြေခံပညာမူလတန်းအဆင့်တွင် တိုင်းရင်းသားစာပေကို ကျောင်းချိန်ပြင်ပတွင် သင်ကြားခွင့်ပြုမည်ကို ပညာရေးဌာန ပြည်ထောင်စုဝန်ကြီး ဒေါက်တာမြအေးက တိုင်းရင်းသားဘာသာ သင်ကြား ရေး အစည်းအဝေးတရပ်တွင် ပြောဆိုခဲ့သည်။}}</ref>
==နိဿဲ==
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အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် အဝတ္ထု
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[[ဝှာင်:UNESCO-ICH-blue.svg|thumb|150x150px|တဆိပ်သင်္ကေတ ပဋိညာန် ပၟင်ပၟဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် အဝတ္ထု ]]
'''အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် အဝတ္ထု''' ('''intangible cultural heritage''' - '''ICH''') ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မကၠောန်ပဒၟံင်၊ မကလေင်ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးဒၟံင်၊ မဒုင်စသိုင်၊ လညာတ်ပညာ ကေုာံ ကွတ်တဲ နကဵု ဂကောံမဆေင်စပ် ကုပရေင်ပညာ၊ သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ မကော်ဂး ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ('''United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization -''' UNESCO မစၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နဒဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်မွဲရ။ စမြိုင်၊ ဒတန်ဝင်၊ စမြိုင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ ကပေါတ်အနုပညာဂမၠိုင်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲဝတ္ထု။ အာဲကၟာဲ အဝတ္ထုဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မဟွံမဲ ကုဒဗျ၊ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ဗီုကဵု ပေါမ်အာဂီု၊ ကယျိုင်ကယျဝ်၊ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ၊ အခိုက်ကၞာ၊ ပညာ ကေုာံ အရေဝ်ဘာသာတအ်ရ။
အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် အဝတ္ထုဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ပလဝ်ဒတန် နကဵု ဂကောံရးနိဂီုဂမၠိုင် မလုပ်လဝ် ယူနေတ်သကဝ်၊ မွဲစွံ ကုအာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်ဝတ္ထု လိုက် မပတၟေင် စွံအာရီု ကုအာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင် အဝတ္ထုရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၁ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ပသုတေသန သမာန်ဇာန်<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=EN&meeting_id=00057#meet_00057|title=Meeting of 2001|publisher=UNESCO}}</ref> အကြာ ရးနိဂီုဂမၠိုင် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမဟွံသေင်ကုအလဵုအသဳဂမၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ပံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပွံက် အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုတုဲ ပဋိညာန် ပၟင်ပၟဲ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထု<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=EN&pg=home|title=Official website|publisher=UNESCO}}</ref> ဂှ် ဓဇက်ချူလဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၃ သွက်ဂွံမင်မဲ ကေုာံ ဇၞော်ပၟဝ်ပတိုန် အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုဂမၠိုင်ရ။
== ပွံက် ==
[[ဝှာင်:Cafe-schwarzenberg-innen-viennaphoto-at.jpg|right|thumb|ယေန်သၞာင် သ္ၚိ/ဖျာကဝ်ဖဳဝိန်နေသ် (The Viennese coffee house culture) မဒှ် ဗီုပြင် အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင် ဗွဲတၟေင်မွဲ။
]]
ပ္ဍဲပဋိညာန် ပၟင်ပၟဲ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုဂှ် ညးပံက်လဝ် ပွံက် အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထု မြဴသာ်ဝွံ - အရာ မကၠောန်ဗဒှ်ဒၟံင်၊ မကလေင်ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးဒၟံင်၊ အရာမဒုင်စသိုင်ဂွံ သီုကဵု လညာတ်ညာဏ် ကေုာံ ကွတ်တဲ (သီုကဵု ကပေါတ်ကွိင်ကွိုက်၊ အရပ်အရာ၊ အနုပညာ၊ ယေန်သၞာင်)၊ နကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂမၠိုင်၊ ဂကောံဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အရာလ္ၚဵုမ္ဂး နကဵုမၞိဟ်ပူဂိုလ်မွဲမွဲ မကၠောန်ပဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် မဆေင်စပ် ကုအာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်ညးတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထု ရ။ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ညး ကော်စ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်ဂမျိုင်၊ တုဲ အရာဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံ လုပ်အဝေါင် အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုအိုတ်ရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/services/documentation/archives/multimedia/?id_page=13|title=Definition of Intangible Heritage}}</ref>
* အခိုက်ကၞာ မဆေင်ကဵု ပါင် မပ္တံကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ နဒဒှ် လၟောဝ်ဒမြေပ် ကုအာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထု၊
* အနုသုခုမ မထ္ၜးပျး၊
* အခိုက်မကၠောန်ပဒၟံင် နကဵုပရေင်မၞိဟ်၊ အခိုက်ကၞာ ကေုာံ သဘင်၊
* လညာတ်ပညာ ကေုာံ မကၠောန်ပဒၟံင် မဆက်စပ် ကုသဘာဝ ကေုာံ အကာသ၊
* ကွတ်တဲ အခိုက်တြေံတြဟ်
[[ဝှာင်:Music_lesson_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2421.jpg|right|thumb|ရုပ်ကသူ သၟာဂဳတ လတူထၟာဲဂကူဂရိတ်တေံ (ၜိုတ် 510 BC).]]
အရာမွဲမွဲ မဂွံစၟတ်သမ္တီ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်ဂှ် ဗွဲဓမ္မတာမ္ဂး ဒှ်အရာ (ဝါ) ယေန်သၞာင် မကၠောန်ပ မင်မဲကၠုင် နူတၞောဝ်အဆက်ဆက်ရ။ အာဲကၟာဲလ္ၚဵုဂှ် နွံကဵု င္ၚုဟ်မး ယေန်သၞာင် (ဝါ) အသဝ်တၟေင်ဂုန် မနွံ ဗီုပြင် ဝတ္ထုအနုသုခုမ ဗီုကဵု စမြိုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကွတ်တဲအနုသုခုမတအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ယေန်သၞာင်ဂှ် အရာဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒှ်အရာ မရပ်ထ္ၜး နကဵုတဲ ဟွံဂွံ (ဝါ) အဝတ္ထု ဗီုကဵု ဒွက်၊ [[ဂဳတ|ဂဳတ]]၊ လလှ်ေ၊ သုတ်ဇာတ်၊ ကွတ်၊ စၞ၊ ကွတ်တဲ ကေုာံ သဘင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ အရာတအ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ယေန်သၞာင် မစၟတ်သမ္တီဂွံ ဆဂး ရပ်ဟွံဂွံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကြိုင်စွံလဝ် နကဵု ခရိုင် ဗီုကဵု တိုက်ထၜးပယး ဟွံဂွံတုဲ နကဵု မကၠောန်ပ ချဳဓရာင်ဟေင် အရာဂှ် သှ်ေမာန်ရ။ ဥပမာ ကွိင်ကျာံမန်ဂှ် တူရိယာကျာံဂှ် ၜိုန်ဒှ် ကပေါတ်တူရိယာ မလုပ်လၟိဟ် ယေန်သၞာင်မွဲ ကီုလေဝ် မၞိဟ်မွဲမွဲ တိင်ဟေင် အရာတၟေင် ကွိင်ကျာံဂှ် မဂွံဒုင်စသိုင်မာန်ရ။ တူရိယာဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ ကြိုင်စွံလဝ် ပ္ဍဲတိုက်ထၜးပယးဂွံကီုလေဝ် ရမ္သာင် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်မတိင်ဂျိုင်င်ဂှ် ပဒေါအ်စွံလဝ် ပ္ဍဲတိုက်ထၜးပယး ဟွံဂွံရ။ အရာမကၠောန် ချဳဓရာင် ကပေါတ်အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်ဂှ် နကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ညးကော်စ "ရတ်ကောန်မနုဿ Human Treasures"။ မစဵုဒၞာ မင်မဲ ညံင်အရေဝ်ဘာသာမွဲမွဲ ဟွံဂွံကၠေအ်အာဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မမင်မဲ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင် အဝတ္ထု ဇၞော်အိုတ် ကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ်ရ။ မ ုဟိုတ်ရောမ္ဂး အရေဝ်ဘာသာဂှ် ဒှ်င္ၚုဟ်မး ယေန်သၞာင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် သၠုင်အိုတ်ရ။
[[ဝှာင်:No-Maske_Zo-onna_Museum_Rietberg_RJP_4024.jpg|right|thumb|ဂရောပ်မုက် နောဟ် (Noh mask); ဂှ် နကဵု ဍုင်ဂျပါန် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲအဝတ္ထု<ref name="Yang">{{Cite book|title=Cultural Protection Policy in Korea: Intangible Cultural Properties and Living National Treasures|url=https://archive.org/details/culturalprotecti0000yang|author=Yang Jongsung|publisher=Jimoondang International|year=2003|isbn=978-1931897051|pages=33ff}}</ref>]]
အတိုင်ပဋိညာန် ၂၀၀၃ ပၟင်ပၟဲ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုမ္ဂး အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထု (ဝါ) အာဲကၟာဲဂမျိုင် ဂှ် ဒှ်အဓိက ယေန်သၞာင်နာနာသာ် ကောန်မနုဿတအ်တုဲ၊ သွက်ဂွံ ဆက်ခၞံဗဒှ်ပခိုဟ်ပတိုန်ရ။ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုဂှ် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် အတိုင်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။
<blockquote>အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထု ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမကၠောန်ပဒၟံင်၊ မပစၞးဗမံက်ထၜးဒၟံင်၊ မဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးဒၟံင်၊ လညာတ်ပညာ၊ ကွတ်တဲ - မပ္တံကဵု တူရိယာ၊ ကိရိယာ၊ ကပေါတ်အနုသုခုမ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် မဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကုအရာတအ်ဂှ် ကုဂကောံမၞိဟ်မွဲမွဲ၊ ဂကောံမွဲမွဲ၊ ကေုာံ ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲလ္ၚဵုမ္ဂး နကဵုပူဂိုလ်မွဲမွဲ မဂွံဒုင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒှ်အရာမဆက်စပ် ကုအာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်ညးတအ်ဂှ်ရ။ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုတအ်ဂှ် စေန်ဆက်ကၠုင် နူမွဲတၞောဝ် ကဵုမွဲတၞောဝ်တုဲ ဆက်ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်ဒၟံင် အဆက်ဆက် နကဵုဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံ သွက်ဂွံရနုက်ဗပေင် ကဵုပွဳပွူညးတအ်၊ အရာမဆက်စပ် ကုသဘာဝညးတအ်၊ တၞောဝ်ဝင်ညးတအ် ကေုာံ နကဵုအာရီုမပစၟတ်သမ္တီတၞဟ်ခြာတၟေင်၊ မဗမံက်ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ရှ်ေသှ်ေရဴဂဴ ယေန်သၞာင်တၞဟ်ခြာနာနာ ကေုာံ အရာကောန်မၞိဟ် မခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ်တအ်ရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် ပဋိညာန်ဏအ်ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံစွံအာရီု ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထု ညံင်ဂွံဒှ် သဟဇာတ သ္ဂောအ်ပခိုဟ်ပတိုန် အခေါင်အရာမၞိဟ်ကီု သီုကဵု နကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်မွဲကုမွဲကီု၊ နကဵု ဂကောံမွဲကုမွဲကီု၊ နကဵု ပူဂိုလ်မွဲကုမွဲကီု ညံင်ဂွံစွံရှ်ေသှ်ေရဴဂဴ ရေင်သကအ်၊ ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံဇၞော်မောဝ်ပတိုန် ဍာ်ဇမၠိင်ရ။
<br>
Intangible Cultural Heritage means the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artifacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage. This intangible cultural heritage, transmitted from generation to generation, is constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity. For the purposes of this Convention, consideration will be given solely to such intangible cultural heritage as is compatible with existing international human rights instruments, as well as with the requirements of mutual respect among communities, groups and individuals, and of sustainable development.</blockquote>
=== ဝင်ပါင် ===
အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုဂှ် ဟွံတုပ် ကုဝင်ပါင်၊ အရာမရပ်လဝ်ရမ္သာင်၊ အရာမဟီုတွဟ် ကေုာံ ဗမံက်ထ္ၜးတင်ဂၞင်ဝင် (ဗွဲတၟေင်၊ အခိုက်တဝှ်ပါင်)တအ်တုဲ ဒှ်အရာ မပသဇိုင် ကုပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ ပူဂိုလ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် ညးမဟီုတွဟ်တအ်ရ။
=== အာဲကၟာဲ စၞ ===
စၞစဂမၠိုင်လေဝ် နကဵု ယူနေတ်သကဝ်ဖန်ဇန် ညံင်ဂွံပၠုပ်စၟတ်သမ္တီ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုဂၠိုင်င်ကီုရ။<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://frictions.hypotheses.org/184|title=At the UNESCO feast: introduction}}</ref> စၞလဒေါဝ်ဗမံက်၊<ref>{{Cite book|title=Le régime UNESCO (Discours et pratiques alimentaires en Méditerranée vol. III)|url=https://www.academia.edu/27222415}}</ref> စၞအခိုက်မေက်သဳကာန် ကေုာံ စၞအခိုက်ဂျပါန်တအ်ဂှ် နဒဒှ် ဥပမာ စၞမပၠုပ်စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်ရ။
=== အာဲကၟာဲလလှ်ေ ===
ပ္ဍဲကဵု စရင်အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထု ယူနေတ်သကဝ်တအ်ဂှ် ဂကူလှ်ေဂမၠိုင်လေဝ် ပါလုပ်ဒၟံင်ကီုတုဲ အရာဏအ်ဂှ် ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကုဂဳတ ကေုာံ သဘင်ကၞာ နူကဵုဍုင်လိုက်နာနာရ။ လှ်ေအခိုက်ကၞာမပူဇဴ နူဍုင်အလ်ဂေရဳယျာ လလှ်ေမအဒိ Ma'di ကေုာံ လလှ်ေသေဗိဗ၊ လလှ်ေ နူ ဥဂါန်ဒါ ကေုာံ ကလ်ဗေလဳယျာ၊ လလှ်ေရာဇသတာန် နူအိန္ဒိယ ကေုာံ လလှ်ေနကဵုဂကောံ နူကဵု စူဗါန်ရုမ်ဗါ (Cuban rumba) တအ်ဂှ်ဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုအိုတ်ရ။
=== အာဲကၟာဲဒဳဂျဳတလ် Digital heritage ===
အာဲကၟာဲဒဳဂျိတလ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အာဲကၟာဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵုလောကဒဳဂျဳတလ် ကေုာံ ပၠုပ်စုတ်လဝ် လစှ်ေကဏ္ဍ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထုကီုရ။<ref name="nova">{{Cite journal|title=Transmitting Al Ardha: Traditional Arab Sword Dance|first=Muqeem|last=Khan|date=1 March 2015|journal=International Journal of Heritage in the Digital Era|volume=4|issue=1|pages=71–86|doi=10.1260/2047-4970.4.1.71}}{{Dead link|date=December 2017}}</ref> အရာဏအ်ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ဂိုင်ဒေပ်လဝ် အရာဂမၠိုင် နကဵု ဒဳဂျဳတလ် ကေုာံ စကာ ဒဳဂျဳတလ်တုဲ ညံင်ဂွံထိင်ဒဝ်မင်မဲ အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Heritage: New Media and Cultural Heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Theorizing Digital Cultural Heritage: A Critical Discourse}}</ref>
== နကဵုရးနိဂီု ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!လၟေင်
!ရးနိဂီု
!လၟိဟ် အာဲကၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်အဝတ္ထု မစၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နကဵု ယူနေတ်သကဝ်
|-
|1
|{{Flag|China}}
|42<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/china-CN|title=China - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|2
|{{Flag|France}}
|23<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/france-FR|title=France - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|3
|{{Flag|Japan}}
|22<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/japan-JP|title=Japan - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|4
|{{Flag|South Korea}}
|21<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/republic-of-korea-KR|title=Republic of Korea - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|5
|{{Flag|Spain}}, {{Flag|Turkey}}
|20<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/spain-ES|title=Spain - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/turkey-TR|title=Turkey - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|6
|{{Flag|Croatia}}
|17<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/croatia-HR|title=Croatia - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|7
|{{Flag|Iran}}
|16<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/iran-islamic-republic-of-IR|title=Iran - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|8
|{{Flag|Mongolia}}, {{Flag|Azerbaijan}}
|15<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/mongolia-MN|title=Mongolia - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/azerbaijan-AZ|title=Azerbaijan - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|9
|{{Flag|Belgium}}, {{Flag|Italy}}
|14<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/belgium-BE|title=Belgium - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/italy-IT|title=Italy - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|10
|{{Flag|India}}, {{Flag|Vietnam}}
|13<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/india-IN|title=India - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/viet-nam-VN|title=Viet Nam - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|11
|{{Flag|Colombia}}, {{Flag|Peru}}
|12<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/state/colombia-CO|title=Colombia - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/state/peru-PE|title=Peru - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|12
|{{Flag|Indonesia}}, {{Flag|Mexico}}, {{Flag|United Arab Emirates}}, {{Flag|Kazakhstan}}
|11<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/indonesia-ID|title=Indonesia - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/mexico-MX|title=Mexico - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/united-arab-emirates-AE|title=United Arab Emirates - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/kazakhstan-KZ|title=Kazakhstan - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|13
|{{Flag|Morocco}}, {{Flag|Oman}}, {{Flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
|10<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/morocco-MA|title=Morocco - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/oman-OM|title=Oman - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/kyrgyzstan-KG|title=Kyrgyzstan - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|14
|{{Flag|Brazil}}, {{Flag|Uzbekistan}}, {{Flag|Greece}}
|9<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/brazil-BR|title=Brazil - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/uzbekistan-UZ|title=Uzbekistan - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/greece-GR|title=Greece - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|15
|{{Flag|Mali}}, {{Flag|Portugal}}, {{Flag|Algeria}}, {{Flag|Austria}}, {{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|8<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/mali-ML|title=Mali - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/portugal-PT|title=Portugal - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/algeria-DZ|title=Algeria - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/austria-AT|title=Austria - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/saudi-arabia-SA|title=Saudi Arabia - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|-
|16
|{{Flag|Armenia}}, {{Flag|Bolivia}}, {{Flag|Bulgaria}}, {{Flag|Romania}}, {{Flag|Slovakia}}, {{Flag|Venezuela}}
|7<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/armenia-AM|title=Armenia - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/bolivia-plurinational-state-of-BO|title=Bolivia - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/bulgaria-BG|title=Bulgaria - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/romania-RO|title=Romania - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/slovakia-SK|title=Slovakia - intangible heritage}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/venezuela-bolivarian-republic-of-VE|title=Venezuela - intangible heritage}}</ref>
|}
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== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[ကဏ္ဍ:BEHM]]
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ကဆံင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် စိတ္တဇပရေင်မၞိဟ် အေရိက်သောန်
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'''ကဆံင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် စိတ္တဇပရေင်မၞိဟ် အေရိက်သောန် (Erikson's stages of psychosocial development)''' ဂှ် ဒှ်လညာတ် မစပ်ကဵု စိတ္တဇ ပ္ဍဲကဝက်ဒုတိယဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ နကဵု အေရိက် အေရိက်သောန် (Erik Erikson) ကေုာံ ဇောန် အေရိက်သောန် (Joan Erikson) မဒှ် တေသြရဳ သမ္ၚေဝ်စိတ္တဇ မဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး ဗိုင်ခြာလဝ် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်စိတ္တဇ ဒစာံကဆံင် သွက်မၞိဟ်ဓမ္မတာ မထတ်ယုက်မွဲ နူကဵု ဘဝအံင်င္ၚေဝ် စဵုကဵု ကၞောတ် ဘဝမၞိဟ်ဇနော်ရ။ အတိုင်လညာတ် တေသြရဳအေရိသောန်မ္ဂး သွဟ်နူကဵု ဇၟာပ်ပ်ကဆံင်ဂှ် လပါ်ခိုဟ်ကဵုဒှ် လပါ်ပရေအ်ကဵုဒှ် ဓလီုဖ္ဍိုက်ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကုကဆံင်တၞဟ်တအ်ရ။<ref>{{Cite journal|last=ESCALONA|first=S.|date=1951-03-02|title=Childhood and of the Society. Erik H. Erikson. New York: Norton, 1950. 397 pp. $4.00|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.113.2931.253|journal=Science|volume=113|issue=2931|pages=253|doi=10.1126/science.113.2931.253|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> အေရိသောန် ချူပ္တိတ်လိက်မွဲ မနွံယၟု " ''Childhood and Society (ဘဝကောန်င္ၚာ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်)"'' ပ္ဍဲၜိုတ် ၁၉၅၀တအ်တုဲ သုတေသနညးဂှ် ယၟုမြဟ်တဴ နကဵု ဇၞော်မောဝ်စိတ္တဇပရေင်မၞိဟ် (၈) ကဆံင် (the eight stages of psychosocial development) ရ။<ref name="Knight 1047–1058">{{Cite journal|last=Knight|first=Zelda Gillian|date=2017-09-01|title=A proposed model of psychodynamic psychotherapy linked to Erik Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/cpp.2066|journal=Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy|volume=24|issue=5|pages=1047–1058|doi=10.1002/cpp.2066}}</ref> ဗွဲကိုပ်ကၠာ အေရိသောန်ဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် မဒုင်ကေတ်လဝ် လညာတ် ကဆံင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်စိတ္တဇလိင်္ဂ သိဂ်မုန်ဒ် ဖြေဒ် (Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stages of development)ရ။ ညးစကၠောန်စမ်ၜတ် လညာတ်တေသြရဳ ဖြေဒ် ဗွဲတၟေင်ရ။ ဆဂး ညးဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် မပါ်လဝ် အကြာ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်ဇဳဝစိတ္တဇပရေင်မၞိဟ် (biopsychosocial development) ကဵု ဗီုလဵု အကာဲအရာပွဳပွူ မခ္ဍဳလျတ် ဇီုကပိုက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်တုဲ မလ္ၚတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ဟိန်ညးမလ္ၚတ် ပသုတေသန မဒုင်သဇိုင် ကုတေသြရဳဖြေဒ်ဂှ် ခြာဟွံလအ်ဂှ် နူကဵု လညာတ်တေသြရဳဖြေဒ်ဂှ် ညးဇၞော်မောဝ်ပတိုန် လညာတ်တေသြရဳ ညးအပိုင်ရ။<ref name="Knight 1047–1058" />
လညာတ်တေသြရဳ ကဆံင် အေရိက်သောန်ဂှ် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးကဵု ဇၟာပ်ပ်မၞိဟ် မနွံကဵု ကဆံင်ဘဝဒစာံကဆံင် မကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူ ဒြဟတ်ဓမြိုဟ် ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကဵု အခိုက်ယေန်သၞာင်မၞိဟ်။ ဒြဟတ်ဓမြိုဟ်ပြသၞာၜါလပါ်ဂှ် ဗဒှ်ကဵု ပြသၞာစိတ္တဇပရေင်မၞိဟ်တုဲ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံဒၟံင် ဒစာံကဆံင်။ ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ်မွဲမွဲ တတ်ၜက်အာ ဒြဟတ်ဓမြိုဟ်တအ် ဗွဲမအံင်ဇၞးမ္ဂး ဍေဟ်တအ် ကလိဂွံကဆံင် မနွံကဵု င္ၚုဟ်မးရ။ ဥပမာ၊ ယဝ်ရ ကောန်င္ၚာ်မွဲ နူကဆံင်အံင်င္ၚေဝ် လုပ်စိုပ်အာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင်ကဝါ် (toddler stage) နကဵု ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ ဂၠိုင်နူကဵု ဟွံဂံင်ဖျေဟ်စိုတ်မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ကေတ်ဏာ စရိုတ် တင်စၟဳ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင်ဘဝသၟေဟ်တအ်ရ။<ref name="Crain">{{Cite book|title=Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.}}</ref> ကဆံင်မဒးကော်ဆော ဟွံအာစိုပ်ဒတုဲတအ်ဂှ် မလေပ်ဖန်ကဵု ပြသၞာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အနာဂတ်မာန်ရ။ ဆဂး ကဆံင်မတုဲဒှ်လဝ်တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံအာတ်မိက် သွက်ဂွံပ္တုဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင်ဂတဂှ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တင်လမ္ၚတ်မွဲဂှ် သွဟ်ဍေဟ်ထ္ၜးဒၟံင် ဗွဲမကၠးဖ္ဍး ဒဒှ်ရ ဇမၞော်မၟောဝ် (ဝါ) ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်ဂှ် ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကုကသဳဓမြာင်(ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်)ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref name="Duerden2009">{{Cite journal|title=Adventures in Identity Development: The Impact of Adventure Recreation on Adolescent Identity Development|url=http://www.seereducation.com/files/4713/6441/7230/Adv_in_Identity_Dvlp_Duerden_Widmer_Taniguchi__McCoy_2009.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809121149/http://www.seereducation.com/files/4713/6441/7230/Adv_in_Identity_Dvlp_Duerden_Widmer_Taniguchi__McCoy_2009.pdf |date=2017-08-09 }}</ref>
=== ကဆံင် ၁: ပတှ်ေ - ဟွံပတှ်ေ (၀ - ၁၈ ဂိတု)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Erik Erikson|url=https://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/erikson.html}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="true">[https://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/erikson.html "Erik Erikson"]. ''webspace.ship.edu''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-08</span></span>.</cite></ref> ===
*သမာန် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဘဝ: ဂၠးတိဏအ် ပတှ်ေစဂွံဟာ?<ref name="psychology.sunysb">{{cite book |last=Alexander Stone |last=Macnow |title=MCAT Behavioral Science Review |edition=(2014) |date= 2014|publisher=Kaplan Publishing |location=New York City |isbn=978-1-61865-485-4}}</ref>
ကဆံင်မဇၞော်မောဝ် ဗွဲကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ ကောန်င္ၚာ်တအ် မဗတောန် မဆေင်ကဵု ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ - ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟွံပတှ်ေ ညးသအာင်ရ။ ပတှ်ေဂှ် ဍေဟ်ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကုအရာမဆေင်စပ် (affiliation)၊ ပွံင်သကအ် တုဲ သွက်ကောန်င္ၚာ်အံင်င္ၚေဝ်မ္ဂး ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒဍေဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဂလိုင်လဵု ညးမဆေင်စပ်တအ် (ညးမလွဳလွတ်) ရနုက်ဗပေင်ကဵုမာန်ရောရ။ <ref name=Muskigum>{{Cite web |url=http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/erikson.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127075544/http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/erikson.htm |archive-date=2012-11-27 |url-status=dead |accessdate=2021-09-07 |archivedate=2012-11-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127075544/http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/erikson.htm }}</ref> ကောန်င္ၚာ်အံင်င္ၚေဝ်မွဲဂှ် ဟိုတ်မဒး ဗဒဗဒါဲ ဒးတန်တဴဒၟံင် ကုအရီုအဗင် နူညးတၞဟ်ပေင်င်တုဲ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် မဆေင်ကဵု ပတှ်ေ ဍေဟ်ဂှ်လေဝ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု မိအံက်မအံက် - ဗွဲတၟေင် မိအံက်ဍေဟ်ပေင်င်ရ (ညးမလွဳလွတ်)။ ယဝ်ရ မိမကောန်င္ၚာ်ဂှ် ကဵုဓဝ်ဆာန်၊ ဂီုကၠီု ကုကောန်င္ၚာ်ဂှ်မ္ဂး ကောန်င္ၚာ်ဂှ်လေဝ် လွဳကေတ် ဓဝ်ဆာန်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲဇကုကီုတုဲ ကောန်င္ၚာ်ဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် မနွံကဵု လညာတ်ပတှ်ေ ကုညးဂၠးတိတအ်ကီုရ။<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dunkel|first1=Curtis S.|last2=Harbke|first2=Colin|date=2017-03-01|title=A Review of Measures of Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development: Evidence for a General Factor|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-016-9247-4|journal=Journal of Adult Development|language=en|volume=24|issue=1|pages=58–76|doi=10.1007/s10804-016-9247-4|s2cid=152099460|issn=1573-3440}}</ref> ယဝ်ရ ကောန်င္ၚာ်ဂှ် ဟွံကလိဂွံ အရာမနွံပၟိက်သဇိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ဓဝ်ဆာန်၊ ဂီုကၠီုမ္ဂး၊ လညာတ်မဟွံမဲကုပတှ်ေဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကောန်င္ၚာ်ဂှ်တုဲ တင်စၟဳကေတ် နူညးသအာင်မွဲမွဲဂှ်လေဝ် ဟွံကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကောန်င္ၚာ်ဂှ်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ဒဒှ်မဟွံမဲကဵုပတှ်ေ ပ္ဍဲကောန်င္ၚာ် ပကဵု ညံင်ဂွံဒှ် မၞိဟ်မဟွံညိင်ဝတ်၊ မၞိဟ်မနွံကဵုသံသယ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်မဟွံမဲကဵု စိုတ်ဆာန်ဍူတအ်မာန်ရ။<ref name=Bee>{{cite book |last1=Bee |first1=Helen |last2=Boyd |first2=Denise |title=The Developing Child |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205688050 |edition=12th |date=March 2009 |publisher=Pearson |location=Boston, MA |isbn=978-0-205-68593-6}}</ref><ref name=Muskigum />
===ကဆံင် ၂: သြဇာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂွ/ဟွံဂံင် (၁၈ ဂိတု - ၃ သၞာံ)===
*သမာန် ပ္ဍဲဘဝ: ဒဒှ် မဒှ်ဗီုအဲဂှ် ဂွံဒၟံင်ရဟာ?<ref name="psychology.sunysb" />
ကဆံင်ဒုတိယဂှ် ကောန်င္ၚာ်တအ် ကလိဂွံ သွက်ဂွံပကင်ရင် ခန္ဓကာယဍေဟ်တအ်တုဲ အရာဏအ်ဂှ် ဗဒှ်ကဵု သြဇာဍေဟ်တအ်ရ။ ကောန်င္ၚာ် ပ္ဍဲအာယုက်ဏအ်မ္ဂး စိုတ်လုပ်စ မိက်ဂွံလ္ၚတ် မိက်ဂွံတီ နာနာသာ်ရ။ ဍေဟ်တအ် စိုတ်လုပ်စ ကဵုဂဳတ၊ စိုတ်လုပ်စ ကဵုပွဳပွူသဘာဝ မပတံကဵု တၞံဆု၊ တိရစ္ဆာန်တအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဏအ် ညးမရံင်စံင်တအ် ဒးစွံသတိ အရာမဒှ်အန္တရာယ် ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီုဍေဟ်တအ်ရ။ အရာမွဲမွဲ အခိင်ကာလ ဍေဟ်တအ် မဂွံကၠောန်ကေတ်တ်အလဵုဇကုဍေဟ်ဂွံမ္ဂး ဗဒှ်ကဵုဍေဟ်တအ် ညံင်ဂွံနွံကဵု ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေဇကုဇကုဍေဟ်တအ်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ်တအ် ကဵုအခေါင်ကဵုဍေဟ်တအ် ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်ကေတ်တ်တုဲ ဍေဟ်တအ်ပကင်ရင်မာန်မ္ဂး (ဝါ) ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်တုဲ အံင်ဇၞးမ္ဂး ဒှ်အရာမဖန်ကဵု ညံင်ပရေင်သြဇာ (ဝါ) ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေဇကုဇကု ညံင်ဂွံကတဵုဒှ် အပ္ဍဲကောန်င္ၚာ်ဂှ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဏအ် ဍေဟ်စကေတ်တ်ဂွံမ္ဂး ကဵုဍေဟ်စ ကေတ်တ်၊ ဍေဟ်လတက်ပဠောအ်ကေတ်တ်ဂွံမ္ဂး ကဵုဍေဟ်လတက်။
ကောန်င္ၚာ် ပ္ဍဲကဆံင်ဏအ် ယဝ်ရ ဍေဟ်တအ် ကလိဂွံခိုဟ်ဟ်မ္ဂး ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် မနွံကဵု ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေဇကုဇကု လပါ်ခိုဟ်တုဲ ကာလဇၞော်ဂေါဝ်ကၠုင်မ္ဂး အခိင်ကာလမဆဵုဂဗ အခက်အခုဲ ပ္ဍဲဘဝမ္ဂး အလဵုဇကု ဍေဟ်တအ် ပသောင်ပြသၞာဂှ် မာန်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဟွံကလိဂွံခိုဟ်ဟ်မ္ဂး ဍေဟ်တအ် မဒးဒုင်စသိုင် ဟွံညိင်ဝတ်၊ ဖေက်ဂြိုက်။ အေရိက်သောန် စှ်ေစိုတ် သြဇာ ကဵု ဖေက်ဂွ ယဝ်ရ ဆိင်လဒေါဝ်ဒးမ္ဂး ဍေဟ်တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ်မနွံကဵု ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒမဗၠးၜးမွဲရ။
===ကဆံင် ၃: ကသပ်ညာဏ် (initiative) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မဒုင်စသိုင်ဒုဟ် (guilt) (၃-၆ သၞာံ) (စဵုကဵု ကိုပ်ကၠာဟွံဂွံမံင်ဘာ)===
*သမာန် ပ္ဍဲဘဝ: အဲကၠောန်၊ အာ၊ ချဳဓရာင်ဗီုဏအ်ဂှ် ဂွံဒၟံင်ရဟာ?<ref name="psychology.sunysb" />
ကဆံင်တတိယဂှ် ကောန်င္ၚာ်တအ် စတုဲ ပရံင် ပခိုဟ်ပတိုန် အဝဵုသြဇာ ကေုာံ ပကင်ရင် ဂၠးတိ နကဵု ဝေင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအရာမဝေင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာကိစ္စဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ကသဳဓမြာင်မွဲဟာန် ကုညးသအာင်ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဍေဟ်တအ် စဗ္တောန်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲအရာမပၠတရဴ (အာဂတ မပက္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်) ညးတၞဟ်တအ်ကီုရ။
ကောန်င္ၚာ် မကလိဂွံအံင်ဇၞး မကလိဂွံပေင်င် ပ္ဍဲကဵုကဆံင်ဏအ်မ္ဂး အပ္ဍဲဍေဟ်တအ် နွံကဵုဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ ကေုာံ နွံကဵု အစောံစရာဲ သွက်ဂွံ အာဂတပၠတရဴညးတၞဟ်ကီုရ။ ကုကောန်င္ၚာ် မဟွံကလိဂွံပေင်င် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင်ဏအ်မ္ဂး ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒုင်စသိုင် ဒဒှ်မနွံကဵုဒုဟ်၊ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေဇကုဇကု ဟွံမဲ တုဲပၠန် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် မဟွံမဲ ကုကသပ်ညာဏ်တၟိတၟိကီုရ။
အခိင်ကာလ မနွံကဵု သၠဒကေဝ် အကြာ နကဵုပူဂိုလ် မနွံကဵု ကသပ်ညာဏ်တၟိတၟိနာနာ ကေုာံ ပံင်တောဲကၠောန် ကုညးတၞဟ်သအာင်ဂွံမ္ဂး ကလိဂွံဒှ် မၞိဟ်မနွံကဵု ကဆံင်အစောမ်စရာဲ ညးမအာဂတပၠတရဴခိုဟ်မွဲရ။
=== ကဆံင် ၄:ခမၞံ (industry) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စိုတ်ဍောတ် (inferiority) (၇ - ၁၀ သၞာံ) ===
*သမာန် ပ္ဍဲဘဝ: ကမၠောန်ဏအ် အဲကၠောန် ဂွံဟာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လောကမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ လောကအရပ်အရာ?<ref name="psychology.sunysb" />
နူကဵု ကသဳမွဲဟာန် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် မွဲကဆံင်ဂှ် ကောန်င္ၚာ်တအ် ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် မကေတ်ဂုဏ်စရာဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အရာဍေဟ်တအ် မကၠောန်မဗမံက်ထ္ၜး ကေုာံ အစောမ်စရာဲဍေဟ်တအ်ရ။ ကောန်င္ၚာ် မဂွံဒုင် အထိုင်အသး ဟီုပတိုန်စ နူကဵု မိမ ကေုာံ အစာဍေဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ်မနွံကဵု အစောမ်စရာဲတုဲ ကလိဂွံ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ ဇကုဇကုရ။ ကောန်င္ၚာ် မကလိဂွံအောန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟွံကလိဂွံ အထိုင်အသး နူကဵုမိမ၊ အစာ၊ ကေုာံ သကအ်ရဲ/အာယုက်မတုပ် ကုဍေဟ်တအ်မ္ဂး ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ်သံသယ ပ္ဍဲကဵုအစောမ်စရာဲဍေဟ်တအ်တုဲ နွံကဵုဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ နကဵုအစောမ်စရာဲ ဍေဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ကမၠောန်အံင်ဇၞး ဟွံမာန်ရ။
ယဝ်ရ ကောန်င္ၚာ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ စိုတ်မဆိင်ဒး ပ္ဍဲကဵုကဆံင်/ဒတန်ဏအ်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵုစိတ္တဇဍေဟ်တအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်တိုန် ဒဒှ် မနွံကဵု အစောမ်စရာဲ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် မနွံကဵု ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေဇကုဇကု ပ္ဍဲကဵုကမၠောန်တာလျိုင် မကဵုဍေဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ကၠောန်မာန် သှ်ပလးမာန်ရ။
=== ကဆံင် ၅: မၟောန်ဓရောန် (ဒဒှ်မတီဇကုဇကု/တန်ကြန်) (identity) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လၟိုဲလၟောင် (ဒဒှ်မဠိုဲဠောင်) (role confusion) (၁၁ - ၁၉) ===
*သမာန် ပ္ဍဲဘဝ: အဲညးဂှ်ရော တုဲပၠန် မုအဲမဒှ်မာန်ရော?<ref name="psychology.sunysb" />
ကဆံင်မရနုက်ကဵု မသုန်ဏအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကာလအစသၟာဲလေင်၊ မဒှ်အခိင်ကာလ ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံဇၞော်မောဝ် ပရေင်မဒုင်စသိုင် ဇကုညးဂှ်ရောတုဲ အရာဏအ်ဂှ် ခ္ဍဳလျတ် ဆက်စပ်အာ အလုံမွဲဘဝရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိင်ဘဝသၟတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာနူဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အခိင်ကာလ ကောန်င္ၚာ်တအ် မဒးဒုင်ကော်ဆော (ဝါ) ဒှ်အခိင်ကာလ မဖန်ဗဒှ်ကဵု ညံင်သ္ဂောအ်ဒှ် မၞိဟ်မဗၠးၜး ကေုာံ မနွံကဵုဓဝ်ပတှ်ေဇကုဇကုတအ်ရ။ သွက်ညး မကလိဂွံလဝ် အထိုင်အသးတအ်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵုအခေါင်ဏအ်လေဝ် ပရံင် ပခိုင်ကဵု ညံင်သ္ဂောအ်ဒှ် နွံကဵု ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် မနွံကဵု ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ လတူဇကုဇကု၊ မနွံကဵု ဓဝ်ဗၠးၜး မဟွံဒး ဗဒဗဒါဲဒၟံင်ညးတၞဟ် တုဲပၠန် မနွံကဵု အထိင်အဒဝ်ဇကုဇကုမာန်ရ။ သွက်ညး မဆက်တုဲ ဟွံချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ပ္ဍဲအရာ မနွံကဵု ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေဇကုဇကု အရာဇကု မနွံပၟိက်တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်တုဲ ဒုင်စသိုင် ဟွံချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ဟွံတန်ကြန် တုဲပၠန် ဠိုဲဠောင်ဒၟံင် ကိစ္စ ဘဝအနာဂတ်ဇကုရ။
မၟောန်ဓရောန် (identity) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာစိတ္တဗေဒဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမဆေင်စပ် ကုအရာနာနာသာ် မပတံကဵု ကသပ်လညာတ် ကေုာံ င္ၚုဟ်မး မဒှ်အရာ မရီုဗင် မဖန် မပၠတရဴ ပရေင်စိုတ်စရိုတ်ပူဂိုလ်ဂှ်ရ။ ယဝ်ရပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင်ဏအ် ကလိဂွံဍိုက်ပေင် လပါ်ခိုဟ်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ်မနွံကဵု ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေမခိုင်ဗိုန် ပ္ဍဲကဵုဇကုဇကု မနွံကဵု အစောမ်ကဆံင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်မွဲ မနွံပၟိက်ရ။
နကဵု အေရိက်သောန်မ္ဂး ကဆံင်သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာကိစ္စဇၞော် သီုဖအိုတ်ကီုလေဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင် မၟောန်ဓရောန်ပူဂိုလ် (ego-identity)ဏအ်ဂှ် ညးစွံအာရီု ဗွဲတၟေင်ရ။ မၟောန်ဓရောန်ပူဂိုလ်ဟီုဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မဒုင်ကေတ်လဝ် ဇကုဂှ် ညးဂှ်မွဲရော ဗွဲမခိုင်ဗိုန် တန်ကြန်ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် အေရိက်သောန်မ္ဂး မၟောန်ဓရောန်ပူဂိုလ် ပိုယ်ဂှ် ဗွဲမဗဗွဲကဵု ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗပိုယ်ဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲဗက်ဒၟံင် လၟိုန်ကာလရ။
=== ကဆံင် ၆: ဒဒှ်ေဒယှ် (intimacy) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လမ္ၚု (isolation) (၂၀ - ၄၄) ===
*သမာန် ပ္ဍဲဘဝ: အဲဆာန်ဂွံဟာ?
ကဆံင်ဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ဘဝညးဇမၞော်လပါ်စ မဒှ်အခိင် မဒးကော်ဆော ဆေင်ကဵု ပွံင် သကအ်။
အေရိက်သောန် ဟီု၊ မၞိဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒဒှ်မနွံကဵု သကအ် ပွံင် ကုညးမွဲသအာင် မကြပ်ညာန်၊ စိုတ်မလုပ်စရေင်သကအ်ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော်ကွေဟ်ရ။ မၞိဟ်မကလိဂွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ခၞံဗဒှ်ကဵု အဆက်အစပ် ဍာ်ဇမၠိင် ကေုာံ ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ရ။
စွံသတိညိ၊ ဇၟာပ်ပ်ကဆံင်ဂှ် မနွံကဵု အရာမတုဲဒှ် မဗတောန်လဝ် နူကဵုကဆံင်မတုဲကၠုင်လဝ်ဂှ်ရ။ နကဵုလညာတ် အေရိက်သောန်မ္ဂး မၟောန်ဓမြောန်ပူဂိုလ် နူကဵုကဆံင်မတုဲကၠုင်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာကိစ္စဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲအရာမဇၞော်မောဝ် သကအ်လ္ၚောဝ်ရ။ အတိုင်သုတေသနမ္ဂး ကုပူဂိုလ် မနွံကဵု ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေဇကုဇကု မအောန်တအ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ သကအ်ပွံင်ကြပ်ပ်လောန် အောန်ကီုတုဲ မလေပ်ကတဵုဒှ် လမ္ၚု၊ စိုတ်ဓဍိုက်လေဝ် ကတဵုဒှ်စလောဲသွာကီုရ။
ယဝ်ရ ကလိဂွံပေင်င် ပ္ဍဲကဆံင်ဏအ်မ္ဂး ဒှ်အရာမနွံကဵု မဇြိုဟ်နက် မကော်ဂး ဇြဟာန်/ဓဝ်ဆာန်။ ယဝ်ရဟွံကလိဂွံမ္ဂး ဒှ်မၞိဟ် ဒဒှ်မဒှ်သကအ် ကုညးမွဲသအာင်ဂှ် ဂွံဒုင်စသိုင် မဟွံမဲကဵုအဓိပ္ပါယ်။
=== ကဆံင် ၇: တၞောဝ်ဂတ (generativity) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ခတန် (stagnation) (အာယုက် ၄၅ - ၆၄ သၞာံ) ===
* သမာန် ပ္ဍဲဘဝ: ဇကုအဲဂှ် ရိုဟ်စဂွံဒၟံင်ဟာ?
တၞောဝ်ဂတ ဟီုဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မစၞောန်ကဵု တၞောဝ်ဒတောဝ်တၟိ ဂတဂှ်ရ။ ကမၠောန်မဒှ်ဂုဏ်ဖိုလ်ကုဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Socially-valued work) ကဵု ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ်/ကွတ်ပညာ (disciplines) တအ်ဂှ် လုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တၞောဝ်ဂတ ဖအိုတ်ရ။
ကဆံင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ကဆံင်ဘဝမၞိဟ်ဇၞော် မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဘဝပိုယ်မၞိဟ် မစွံအာရီုကဵု ကမၠောန် ကဆံင် ကေုာံ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန်ရ။
ကုမၞိဟ် မကလိဂွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင်ဏအ်မ္ဂး ညးဂွံဒုင်စသိုင် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးဂွံရနုက်ဗပေင် (ဝါ) ဂွံကၠောန်ကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂၠးတိ နကဵု မနွံကဵု စိုတ်ကတိုင်ကမှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သ္ၚိညးဂှ်ကီု သီုကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ရ။ ကုမၞိဟ် မဟွံကလိဂွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵုကဆံင်ဏအ်မ္ဂး မဂွံဒုင်စသိုင် မၞိဟ်မဟွံလုပ်အသုင် မၞိဟ်မဟွံကၠောန်ပတိတ် တုဲ မဂွံဒုင်စသိုင် ဇကုဂှ် ဟွံဒှ် မၞိဟ်ပူဂိုလ်မွဲကီု ပ္ဍဲကဵုဂၠးတိဏအ်ရ။
=== ကဆံင် ၈: မလုပ်အဝေါင် (integrity) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကသ္ၚောမ် (despair) (အာယုက် ၆၅ - စဵုကဵုစုတိ) ===
* သမာန် ပ္ဍဲဘဝ: ဒဒှ်ဘဝအဲဏအ်ဂှ် ခိုဟ်ဒၟံင်ရဟာ?
ပ္ဍဲကဵုကဆံင်ကၞောတ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ကဆံင်ဗယုတုဲ မစွံအာရီု ကလေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဘဝဇကု မတုဲကၠုင်တအ်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵုကဆံင်ဏအ်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်တအ် မလေပ် ကလေင်ရံင် ဘဝဇကု မကၠောန်ကၠုင်လဝ် ယဝ်ရ ညးတအ် ညာတ်ကေတ် အရာညးတအ် မကၠောန်လဝ်ဂှ် မနွံကဵု ဂုဏ်ဖိုလ်လိုက်လောကမ္ဂး ညးတအ် မဂွံဒုင်စသိုင် မိပ်သၠောင်။ ပ္ဍဲအရာမမိပ်သၠောင် ကုဘဝဏအ်ဂှ် ဆမိပ်သၠောင် ကုဘဝညးသၟး ဟွံသေင်၊ သီုမိပ်သၠောင် ကုဘဝညးတၞဟ်ကီုတုဲ ညာတ်လောကဏအ် နကဵုမတ်လပါ်ခိုဟ်။ ကုညးမဟွံညာတ်ကေတ် ဘဝဇကုမွဲ ဇကုကၠောန်လဝ် လပါ်ခိုဟ် ဟွံညာတ်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲကာလဏအ် ဒှ်လၞီကသ္ၚောမ်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲဘဝညးတအ်တုဲ က္ဍုဟ်ဇအိုန်ဇရ ကုဘဝဇကု၊ ညံင်ရဴ မဇအိုန်ဇရ ဘဝဇကုကီု ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဝညးတၞဟ်လေဝ် စွံစိုတ်မေတ္တာ ဟွံမာန်ကီုရ။
== နိဿဲ ==
စပ်ကဵု ကဆံင်ဂမၠိုင်ဂှ် ကၠာဲနူကဵု မုက်လိက် da.reoveme.com "Erik Eriksons scener for psykosocial udvikling.
== Publications ==
* Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society (1st ed.). New York: Norton
* Erikson, Erik H. (1959) Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: International Universities Press.
* Erikson, Erik H. (1968) Identity, Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.
* Erikson, Erik H. and Joan M. (1997) ''The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version''. New York: W. W. Norton
* Sheehy, Gail (1976) Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life. New York: E. P. Dutton.
* Stevens, Richard (1983) Erik Erikson: An Introduction. New York: St. Martin's.
[[ကဏ္ဍ:စိတ္တဗေဒ]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:BEHM]]
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* [[ကြုင်ကွေဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်ကွေဟ်]]
* [[ကအ်ကျာ်၊ ကြုင်ကွေဟ်|ကအ်ကျာ်]]
* [[ကော့ပြောင်းမလာရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ပြောင်းမလာ]]
* [[ငါးဖယ်ချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ငါးဖယ်ချောင်]]
* [[တံတားဦးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တံတားဦး]]
* [[တောင်နားရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တောင်နား]]
* [[ထိဝါးကလိရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ထိဝါးကလိ]]
* [[နွတ်အောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နွတ်အောက်]]
* [[ဘုရားငုတ်တိုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဘုရားငုတ်တို]]
* [[မင်္ဂလာကုန်းရွာ၊ ကျုံကွယ်|မင်္ဂလာကုန်း]]
* [[မြိုင်သာယာရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မြိုင်သာယာ]]
* [[ရာနိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရာနိုင်]]
* [[သာယာကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သာယာကုန်း]]
* [[အုံးတပင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အုံးတပင်]]
|group6 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြုင်စိင်
|list6 =
* [[ကြုင်စိင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်စိင်]]
* [[ကအ်မင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်မင်]]
* [[ကအ်ကလေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကလေင်]]
|group7 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြုင်ဝါန်
|list7 =
* [[ကြုင်မနေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်မနေင်]]
* [[ကြုင်ဝါန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်ဝါန်]]
|group8 = ကြီးအုပ်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list8 =
* [[ကရင်လှိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကရင်လှိုင်]]
* [[ကြီးအုပ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြီးအုပ်]]
* [[ရှမ်းကျွန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းကျွန်း]]
|group9 = ကလိုင်းကနိုင်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list9 =
* [[ကဇွန်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကဇွန်းကုန်း]]
* [[ကလိုင်းကနိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကလိုင်းကနိုင်]]
* [[သုံးအိမ်စုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သုံးအိမ်စု]]
* [[အပေါ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အပေါ်ရွာ]]
* [[အောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အောက်ရွာ]]
|group10 = ဂကောံကွာန်င္ၚာင်
|list10 =
* [[ကွာန်င္ၚာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကွာန်င္ၚာင်]]
* [[ဂြိုပ်ဗပုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဂြိုပ်ဗပုင်]]
|group11 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ကဠတ်
|list11 =
* [[ခဒုင်ကြေဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဒုင်ကြေဟ်]]
* [[ကအ်ကဠတ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကဠတ်]]
* [[ကအ်ဒုန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဒုန်]]
* [[ပန်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပန်းကုန်း]]
* [[မွေဟောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မွေဟောက်]]
* [[မကသာံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မကသာံ]]
* [[ရှမ်းရွာကြီးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းရွာကြီး]]
* [[သင်္ဃန်းချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သင်္ဃန်းချောင်]]
* [[ဦးတိုချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဦးတိုချောင်]]
|group12 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ဇမၠိင်
|list12 =
* [[ပါင်ကၟာဒကှ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပါင်ကၟာဒကှ်]]
* [[ကအ်ကျာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကျာ်]]
* [[ကော့ခလိန်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဇမၠိင်]]
|group13 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ပၞဟ်
|list13 =
* [[ကအ်ဒုန်၊ ကအ်ပၞဟ်|ကအ်ဒုန်]]
* [[ကအ်ပၞဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ပၞဟ်]]
* [[ဝါဗ္ၚ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝါဗ္ၚ]]
|group14 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ပလိုင်
|list14 =
* [[ကအ်ပလိုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ပလိုင်]]
|group15 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ခဗုဲ
|list15 =
* [[ကအ်ခဗုဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ခဗုဲ]]
* [[ကအ်ဝါန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဝါန်]]
* [[အံင်ကစေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အံင်ကစေင်]]
* [[အလှာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အလှာ်]]
|group16 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်သိုက်
|list16 =
* [[ကအ်သိုက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်သိုက်]]
|group17 = ဂကောံကွာန်ခဏံင်
|list17 =
* [[ခဏံင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဏံင်]]
|group18 = ဂကောံကွာန်ၜါသွာင်
|list18 =
* [[ဝါသွာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝါသွာင်]]
* [[ကျာ်ပိုတ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျာ်ပိုတ်]]
* [[ကုန်မြာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်မြာင်]]
|group19 = ဂကောံကွာန်ခရီု
|list19 =
* [[ခရီု၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခရီု]]
|group20 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကဍတ်
|list20 =
* [[ကြခတ်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြခတ်ကုန်း]]
* [[ကဍတ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကဍတ်]]
|group21 = ငပုအင်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list21 =
* [[ငပုအင်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ငပုအင်း]]
* [[နောင်နောင်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နောင်နောင်ကုန်း]]
* [[ပရဲဖာထော်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပရဲဖာထော်]]
* [[ရွာသစ်ရွာ၊ ငပုအင်း|ရွာသစ်]]
* [[လွှစင်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ငပုအင်း|လွှစင်ကုန်း]]
|group22 = ဂကောံကွာန်သေံ
|list22 =
* [[ကြာအင်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြာအင်းကုန်း]]
* [[ကွာန်သေံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကွာန်သေံ]]
* [[ကျာ်ပိုတ်၊ ကွာန်သေံ|ကျာ်ပိုတ်]]
* [[ဓဝ်ကှ်ေ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဓဝ်ကှ်ေ (ထပ်ကေး)]]
* [[ဗုင်ကြုက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗုင်ကြုက် (ဗုံကြမ်း]]
|group23 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြေဝ်ဏာ
|list23 =
* [[ကအ်ဆုကၠ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဆုကၠ]]
* [[ကော့ဂေါ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ဂေါ်]]
* [[ကအ်ဇြဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဇြဲ]]
* [[ကအ်ဇၞော်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဇၞော်]]
* [[ကြေဝ်ဏာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြေဝ်ဏာ]]
|group24 = ဂကောံဓမ္မသ
|list24 =
* [[ဓမ္မသ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဓမ္မသ]]
|group25 = ဂကောံကွာန်သၞေဟ်ဍုင်
|list25 =
* [[ကုန်ကၠအ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်ကၠအ်]]
* [[သၞေဟ်ဍုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သၞေဟ်ဍုင်]]
* [[ကုန်မၞိက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်မၞိက်]]
* [[ရှမ်းရွာကလေးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းရွာကလေး]]
|group26 = ပိန်းနဲကုန်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list26 =
* [[ကင်းစုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကင်းစု]]
* [[ကြက်သွန်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြက်သွန်ကုန်း]]
* [[ပိန်းနဲကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပိန်းနဲကုန်း]]
* [[ရော်ဘာနီကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရော်ဘာနီကုန်း]]
* [[လှည်းတန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လှည်းတန်း]]
* [[သိမ်ဖြူကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သိမ်ဖြူကုန်း]]
* [[သုခမြိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သုခမြိုင်]]
|group27 = ဖနုံကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list27 =
* [[ကျွဲခြံကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျွဲခြံကုန်း]]
* [[ကော့ကွရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ကွ]]
* [[ကအ်ခလံက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ခလံက်]]
* [[ကော့ပန်းကျော်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ပန်းကျော်]]
* [[ကော့ဝက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ဝက်]]
* [[ဖနုံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဖနုံ]]
|group28 = ဖားပျောက်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list28 =
* [[ဖားပျောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဖားပျောက်]]
* [[မြန်မာလှိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မြန်မာလှိုင်]]
|group29 = ဖာသိမ်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list29 =
* [[ကန်းနားစုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကန်းနားစု]]
* [[တောင်ကလေးရွာ၊ ဖာသိမ်|တောင်ကလေး]]
* [[တောင်သူကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တောင်သူကုန်း]]
* [[ဖာသိမ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဖာသိမ်]]
* [[ရွာသစ်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရွာသစ်ကုန်း]]
|group30 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ဂလာ
|list30 =
* [[ကအ်ဂလာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဂလာ]]
|group31 = ဂကောံကွာန်ဗြီုဗြဴ
|list31 =
* [[စမ်းနှစ်ခွရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|စမ်းနှစ်ခွ]]
* [[နတ်စမ်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နတ်စမ်း]]
* [[ဗြီုဗြဴကုန်စက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗြီုဗြဴကုန်စက်]]
* [[ဗြီုဗြဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗြီုဗြဴ]]
* [[ဗြီုဗြဴကွာန်တၟိ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗြီုဗြဴကွာန်တၟိ]]
* [[ကုန်ကျာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်ကျာ်]]
* [[မရမ်းခြံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မရမ်းခြံ]]
* [[ရဲမွန်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရဲမွန်]]
* [[အထရံရွာ၊ ဘိန်းဗျော|အထရံ]]
* [[အေးရိပ်သာရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အေးရိပ်သာ]]
|group32 = ဂကောံကွာန်မဂြောဝ်
|list32 =
* [[မဂြောဝ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မဂြောဝ်]]
|group33 = မိကသစ်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list33 =
* [[နရပ်တောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နရပ်တောင်]]
* [[မိကသစ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မိကသစ်]]
* [[မိခွားရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မိခွား]]
* [[မိနွတ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မိနွတ်]]
* [[လေးအိမ်စုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လေးအိမ်စု]]
|group34 = မုဆိုးကျွန်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list34 =
* [[ကအ်ခနိ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ခနိ]]
* [[လဂေါဝ်ဂၠုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လဂေါဝ်ဂၠုင်]]
* [[မုဆိုးကျွန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မုဆိုးကျွန်း]]
|group35 = ရေတွင်းကုန်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list35 =
* [[နောင်လုံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နောင်လုံ]]
* [[မင်္ဂလာကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မင်္ဂလာကုန်း]]
* [[မလေးကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မလေးကုန်း]]
* [[မဟာမြိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မဟာမြိုင်]]
* [[ရှမ်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းကုန်း]]
* [[ရေတွင်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရေတွင်းကုန်း]]
* [[သုခမြိုင်ရွာ၊ ရေတွင်းကုန်း|သုခမြိုင်]]
|group36 = ရေပူကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list36 =
* [[ကော့စပ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့စပ်]]
* [[ရေပူရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရေပူ]]
* [[သရက်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ရေပူ|သရက်ကုန်း]]
* [[အုန်းခြံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အုန်းခြံ]]
|group37 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ကြိက်
|list37 =
* [[ကအ်ကြိက်ကွာန်တၟိ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကြိက်ကွာန်တၟိ]]
* [[ကအ်ကြိက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကြိက်]]
* [[ကအ်လာန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်လာန်]]
|group38 = လမုခိုကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list38 =
* [[ကျာ်ထဝ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျာ်ထဝ်]]
* [[ညောင်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ညောင်ကုန်း]]
* [[ကုန်မြာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်မြာင်]]
* [[လမုခိုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လမုခို]]
* [[ဝါးပျံကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝါးပျံကုန်း]]
* [[အောင်ဗလကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အောင်ဗလကုန်း]]
* [[ဥဩကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဥဩကုန်း]]
|group39 = ဂကောံကွာန်အင်နပရေဟ်
|list39 =
* [[ကၟာကျာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကၟာကျာ်]]
* [[မွန်စုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မွန်စု]]
* [[ရွာတန်းရှည်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရွာတန်းရှည်]]
* [[အင်နပရေဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အင်နပရေဟ်]]
|group40 = ဂကောံကွာန်လှာဂဇာင်
|list40 =
* [[တၟအ်ဗြဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တၟအ်ဗြဴ]]
* [[တဝ်ပလောအ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တဝ်ပလောအ်]]
* [[ဘာဒဵု၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဘာဒဵု]]
* [[မတေဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မတေဲ]]
* [[လှာဂဇာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လှာဂဇာင်]]
|group41 = ဂကောံကွာန်သင်ကၠံ
|list41 =
* [[သင်ကၠံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သင်ကၠံ]]
|group42 = ဂကောံကွာန်ဝင်ရဴ
|list42 =
* [[ကပ်ကတောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကပ်ကတောင်]]
* [[ဒေါင်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဒေါင်းကုန်း]]
* [[ဝင်ရဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝင်ရဴ]]
|group43 = အထရံကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list43 =
* [[ကျောက်ကွဲရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျောက်ကွဲ]]
* [[ကအ်တာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်တာ]]
* [[ကအ်ပှ်လှ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ပှ်လှ်]]
* [[ပေါလေါကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပေါလေါကုန်း]]
* [[မီးသွေးကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မီးသွေးကုန်း]]
* [[အထရံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အထရံ]]
|group44 = ဦးလေးကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list44 =
* [[ဦးလေးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဦးလေး]]
}}<noinclude>
{{collapsible option}}
[[Category:မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ တမ်းပလိတ်များ]]
</noinclude>
qidx9grlftwnjbd8k1ua49even7ujqh
57280
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2026-08-11T09:56:16Z
Htawmonzel
25
57280
wikitext
text/x-wiki
{{Navbox
| name= ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်
| title= [[ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]
| state= {{{state| autocollapse}}}
| listclass= hlist
| above = '''ခရိုင်''':[[ခရိုင်မတ်မလီု]] '''ဍုင်''': [[ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]
|group1 = ဂကောံကွာန်ခဒုင်စေပ်
|list1 =
* [[ခဒုင်စေပ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဒုင်စေပ်]]
* [[ရွှေဝါချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရွှေဝါချောင်]]
|group2 = ဂကောံကွာန်ခဍး
|list2 =
* [[ခဍး၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဍး]]
* [[ခဍးကွာန်သေံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဍးကွာန်သေံ]]
* [[ကၞာလဵု၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကၞာလဵု]]
* [[ဂူၜဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဂူၜဴ]]
* [[ကော့ကလိန်တောင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ကလိန်တောင်]]
* [[နွတ်လီရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နွတ်လီ]]
* [[ပေါ်တော်မူရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပေါ်တော်မူ]]
* [[လှိုင်ကမိန်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လှိုင်ကမိန်]]
* [[လုံပိမြောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လုံပိမြောက်]]
* [[သရက်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သရက်ကုန်း]]
* [[အခွန်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အခွန်]]
|group3 = ဂကောံကွာန်ဆုကၠ
|list3 =
* [[ဆုကၠ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဆုကၠ]]
|group4 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကျာ်ပရာန်
|list4 =
* [[ကျာ်ပရင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျာ်ပရာန်]]
* [[ခဒုင်ပလုဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဒုင်ပလုဲ]]
|group5 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြုင်ကွေဟ်
|list5 =
* [[ကြုင်ကွေဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်ကွေဟ်]]
* [[ကအ်ကျာ်၊ ကြုင်ကွေဟ်|ကအ်ကျာ်]]
* [[ကော့ပြောင်းမလာရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ပြောင်းမလာ]]
* [[ငါးဖယ်ချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ငါးဖယ်ချောင်]]
* [[တံတားဦးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တံတားဦး]]
* [[တောင်နားရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တောင်နား]]
* [[ထိဝါးကလိရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ထိဝါးကလိ]]
* [[နွတ်အောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နွတ်အောက်]]
* [[ဘုရားငုတ်တိုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဘုရားငုတ်တို]]
* [[မင်္ဂလာကုန်းရွာ၊ ကျုံကွယ်|မင်္ဂလာကုန်း]]
* [[မြိုင်သာယာရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မြိုင်သာယာ]]
* [[ရာနိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရာနိုင်]]
* [[သာယာကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သာယာကုန်း]]
* [[အုံးတပင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အုံးတပင်]]
|group6 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြုင်စိင်
|list6 =
* [[ကြုင်စိင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်စိင်]]
* [[ကအ်မင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်မင်]]
* [[ကအ်ကလေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကလေင်]]
|group7 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြုင်ဝါန်
|list7 =
* [[ကြုင်မနေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်မနေင်]]
* [[ကြုင်ဝါန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်ဝါန်]]
|group8 = ကြီးအုပ်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list8 =
* [[ကရင်လှိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကရင်လှိုင်]]
* [[ကြီးအုပ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြီးအုပ်]]
* [[ရှမ်းကျွန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းကျွန်း]]
|group9 = ကလိုင်းကနိုင်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list9 =
* [[ကဇွန်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကဇွန်းကုန်း]]
* [[ကလိုင်းကနိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကလိုင်းကနိုင်]]
* [[သုံးအိမ်စုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သုံးအိမ်စု]]
* [[အပေါ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အပေါ်ရွာ]]
* [[အောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အောက်ရွာ]]
|group10 = ဂကောံကွာန်င္ၚာင်
|list10 =
* [[ကွာန်င္ၚာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကွာန်င္ၚာင်]]
* [[ဂြိုပ်ဗပုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဂြိုပ်ဗပုင်]]
|group11 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ကဠတ်
|list11 =
* [[ခဒုင်ကြေဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဒုင်ကြေဟ်]]
* [[ကအ်ကဠတ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကဠတ်]]
* [[ကအ်ဒုန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဒုန်]]
* [[ပန်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပန်းကုန်း]]
* [[မွေဟောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မွေဟောက်]]
* [[မကသာံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မကသာံ]]
* [[ရှမ်းရွာကြီးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းရွာကြီး]]
* [[သင်္ဃန်းချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သင်္ဃန်းချောင်]]
* [[ဦးတိုချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဦးတိုချောင်]]
|group12 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ဇမၠိင်
|list12 =
* [[ပါင်ကၟာဒကှ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပါင်ကၟာဒကှ်]]
* [[ကအ်ကျာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကျာ်]]
* [[ကော့ခလိန်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဇမၠိင်]]
|group13 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ပၞဟ်
|list13 =
* [[ကအ်ဒုန်၊ ကအ်ပၞဟ်|ကအ်ဒုန်]]
* [[ကအ်ပၞဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ပၞဟ်]]
* [[ဝါဗ္ၚ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝါဗ္ၚ]]
|group14 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ပလိုင်
|list14 =
* [[ကအ်ပလိုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ပလိုင်]]
|group15 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ခဗုဲ
|list15 =
* [[ကအ်ခဗုဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ခဗုဲ]]
* [[ကအ်ဝါန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဝါန်]]
* [[အံင်ကစေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အံင်ကစေင်]]
* [[အလှာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အလှာ်]]
|group16 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်သိုက်
|list16 =
* [[ကအ်သိုက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်သိုက်]]
|group17 = ဂကောံကွာန်ခဏံင်
|list17 =
* [[ခဏံင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဏံင်]]
|group18 = ဂကောံကွာန်ၜါသွာင်
|list18 =
* [[ဝါသွာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝါသွာင်]]
* [[ကျာ်ပိုတ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျာ်ပိုတ်]]
* [[ကုန်မြာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်မြာင်]]
|group19 = ဂကောံကွာန်ခရီု
|list19 =
* [[ခရီု၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခရီု]]
|group20 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကဍတ်
|list20 =
* [[ကြခတ်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြခတ်ကုန်း]]
* [[ကဍတ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကဍတ်]]
|group21 = ငပုအင်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list21 =
* [[ငပုအင်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ငပုအင်း]]
* [[နောင်နောင်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နောင်နောင်ကုန်း]]
* [[ပရဲဖာထော်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပရဲဖာထော်]]
* [[ရွာသစ်ရွာ၊ ငပုအင်း|ရွာသစ်]]
* [[လွှစင်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ငပုအင်း|လွှစင်ကုန်း]]
|group22 = ဂကောံကွာန်သေံ
|list22 =
* [[ကြာအင်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြာအင်းကုန်း]]
* [[ကွာန်သေံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကွာန်သေံ]]
* [[ကျာ်ပိုတ်၊ ကွာန်သေံ|ကျာ်ပိုတ်]]
* [[ဓဝ်ကှ်ေ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဓဝ်ကှ်ေ (ထပ်ကေး)]]
* [[ဗုင်ကြုက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗုင်ကြုက် (ဗုံကြမ်း]]
|group23 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြေဝ်ဏာ
|list23 =
* [[ကအ်ဆုကၠ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဆုကၠ]]
* [[ကော့ဂေါ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ဂေါ်]]
* [[ကအ်ဇြဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဇြဲ]]
* [[ကအ်ဇၞော်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဇၞော်]]
* [[ကြေဝ်ဏာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြေဝ်ဏာ]]
|group24 = ဂကောံဓမ္မသ
|list24 =
* [[ဓမ္မသ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဓမ္မသ]]
|group25 = ဂကောံကွာန်သၞေဟ်ဍုင်
|list25 =
* [[ကုန်ကၠအ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်ကၠအ်]]
* [[သၞေဟ်ဍုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သၞေဟ်ဍုင်]]
* [[ကုန်မၞိက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်မၞိက်]]
* [[ရှမ်းရွာကလေးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းရွာကလေး]]
|group26 = ပိန်းနဲကုန်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list26 =
* [[ကင်းစုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကင်းစု]]
* [[ကြက်သွန်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြက်သွန်ကုန်း]]
* [[ပိန်းနဲကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပိန်းနဲကုန်း]]
* [[ရော်ဘာနီကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရော်ဘာနီကုန်း]]
* [[လှည်းတန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လှည်းတန်း]]
* [[သိမ်ဖြူကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သိမ်ဖြူကုန်း]]
* [[သုခမြိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သုခမြိုင်]]
|group27 = ဖနုံကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list27 =
* [[ကျွဲခြံကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျွဲခြံကုန်း]]
* [[ကော့ကွရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ကွ]]
* [[ကအ်ခလံက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ခလံက်]]
* [[ကော့ပန်းကျော်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ပန်းကျော်]]
* [[ကော့ဝက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ဝက်]]
* [[ဖနုံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဖနုံ]]
|group28 = ဖားပျောက်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list28 =
* [[ဖားပျောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဖားပျောက်]]
* [[မြန်မာလှိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မြန်မာလှိုင်]]
|group29 = ဖာသိမ်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list29 =
* [[ကန်းနားစုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကန်းနားစု]]
* [[တောင်ကလေးရွာ၊ ဖာသိမ်|တောင်ကလေး]]
* [[တောင်သူကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တောင်သူကုန်း]]
* [[ဖာသိမ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဖာသိမ်]]
* [[ရွာသစ်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရွာသစ်ကုန်း]]
|group30 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ဂလာ
|list30 =
* [[ကအ်ဂလာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဂလာ]]
|group31 = ဂကောံကွာန်ဗြီုဗြဴ
|list31 =
* [[စမ်းနှစ်ခွရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|စမ်းနှစ်ခွ]]
* [[နတ်စမ်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နတ်စမ်း]]
* [[ဗြီုဗြဴကုန်စက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗြီုဗြဴကုန်စက်]]
* [[ဗြီုဗြဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗြီုဗြဴ]]
* [[ဗြီုဗြဴကွာန်တၟိ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗြီုဗြဴကွာန်တၟိ]]
* [[ကုန်ကျာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်ကျာ်]]
* [[မရမ်းခြံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မရမ်းခြံ]]
* [[ရဲမွန်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရဲမွန်]]
* [[အထရံရွာ၊ ဘိန်းဗျော|အထရံ]]
* [[အေးရိပ်သာရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အေးရိပ်သာ]]
|group32 = ဂကောံကွာန်မဂြောဝ်
|list32 =
* [[မဂြောဝ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မဂြောဝ်]]
|group33 = မိကသစ်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list33 =
* [[နရပ်တောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နရပ်တောင်]]
* [[မိကသစ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မိကသစ်]]
* [[မိခွားရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မိခွား]]
* [[မိနွတ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မိနွတ်]]
* [[လေးအိမ်စုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လေးအိမ်စု]]
|group34 = မုဆိုးကျွန်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list34 =
* [[ကအ်ခနိ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ခနိ]]
* [[လဂေါဝ်ဂၠုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လဂေါဝ်ဂၠုင်]]
* [[မုဆိုးကျွန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မုဆိုးကျွန်း]]
|group35 = ရေတွင်းကုန်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list35 =
* [[နောင်လုံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နောင်လုံ]]
* [[မင်္ဂလာကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မင်္ဂလာကုန်း]]
* [[မလေးကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မလေးကုန်း]]
* [[မဟာမြိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မဟာမြိုင်]]
* [[ရှမ်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းကုန်း]]
* [[ရေတွင်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရေတွင်းကုန်း]]
* [[သုခမြိုင်ရွာ၊ ရေတွင်းကုန်း|သုခမြိုင်]]
|group36 = ရေပူကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list36 =
* [[ကော့စပ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့စပ်]]
* [[ရေပူရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရေပူ]]
* [[သရက်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ရေပူ|သရက်ကုန်း]]
* [[အုန်းခြံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အုန်းခြံ]]
|group37 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ကြိက်
|list37 =
* [[ကအ်ကြိက်ကွာန်တၟိ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကြိက်ကွာန်တၟိ]]
* [[ကအ်ကြိက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကြိက်]]
* [[ကအ်လာန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်လာန်]]
|group38 = လမုခိုကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list38 =
* [[ကျာ်ထဝ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျာ်ထဝ်]]
* [[ညောင်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ညောင်ကုန်း]]
* [[ကုန်မြာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်မြာင်]]
* [[လမုခိုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လမုခို]]
* [[ဝါးပျံကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝါးပျံကုန်း]]
* [[အောင်ဗလကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အောင်ဗလကုန်း]]
* [[ဥဩကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဥဩကုန်း]]
|group39 = ဂကောံကွာန်အင်နပရေဟ်
|list39 =
* [[ကၟာကျာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကၟာကျာ်]]
* [[အုံမန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အုံမန်]]
* [[ရွာတန်းရှည်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရွာတန်းရှည်]]
* [[အင်နပရေဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အင်နပရေဟ်]]
|group40 = ဂကောံကွာန်လှာဂဇာင်
|list40 =
* [[တၟအ်ဗြဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တၟအ်ဗြဴ]]
* [[တဝ်ပလောအ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တဝ်ပလောအ်]]
* [[ဘာဒဵု၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဘာဒဵု]]
* [[မတေဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မတေဲ]]
* [[လှာဂဇာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လှာဂဇာင်]]
|group41 = ဂကောံကွာန်သင်ကၠံ
|list41 =
* [[သင်ကၠံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သင်ကၠံ]]
|group42 = ဂကောံကွာန်ဝင်ရဴ
|list42 =
* [[ကပ်ကတောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကပ်ကတောင်]]
* [[ဒေါင်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဒေါင်းကုန်း]]
* [[ဝင်ရဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝင်ရဴ]]
|group43 = အထရံကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list43 =
* [[ကျောက်ကွဲရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျောက်ကွဲ]]
* [[ကအ်တာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်တာ]]
* [[ကအ်ပှ်လှ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ပှ်လှ်]]
* [[ပေါလေါကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပေါလေါကုန်း]]
* [[မီးသွေးကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မီးသွေးကုန်း]]
* [[အထရံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အထရံ]]
|group44 = ဦးလေးကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list44 =
* [[ဦးလေးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဦးလေး]]
}}<noinclude>
{{collapsible option}}
[[Category:မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ တမ်းပလိတ်များ]]
</noinclude>
fkdbro8g28fx86z2nurblrofujzc5ky
57283
57280
2026-08-11T09:58:39Z
Htawmonzel
25
57283
wikitext
text/x-wiki
{{Navbox
| name= ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်
| title= [[ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]
| state= {{{state| autocollapse}}}
| listclass= hlist
| above = '''ခရိုင်''':[[ခရိုင်မတ်မလီု]] '''ဍုင်''': [[ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]
|group1 = ဂကောံကွာန်ခဒုင်စေပ်
|list1 =
* [[ခဒုင်စေပ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဒုင်စေပ်]]
* [[ရွှေဝါချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရွှေဝါချောင်]]
|group2 = ဂကောံကွာန်ခဍး
|list2 =
* [[ခဍး၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဍး]]
* [[ခဍးကွာန်သေံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဍးကွာန်သေံ]]
* [[ကၞာလဵု၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကၞာလဵု]]
* [[ဂူၜဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဂူၜဴ]]
* [[ကော့ကလိန်တောင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ကလိန်တောင်]]
* [[နွတ်လီရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နွတ်လီ]]
* [[ပေါ်တော်မူရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပေါ်တော်မူ]]
* [[လှိုင်ကမိန်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လှိုင်ကမိန်]]
* [[လုံပိမြောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လုံပိမြောက်]]
* [[သရက်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သရက်ကုန်း]]
* [[အခွန်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အခွန်]]
|group3 = ဂကောံကွာန်ဆုကၠ
|list3 =
* [[ဆုကၠ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဆုကၠ]]
|group4 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကျာ်ပရာန်
|list4 =
* [[ကျာ်ပရင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျာ်ပရာန်]]
* [[ခဒုင်ပလုဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဒုင်ပလုဲ]]
|group5 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြုင်ကွေဟ်
|list5 =
* [[ကြုင်ကွေဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်ကွေဟ်]]
* [[ကအ်ကျာ်၊ ကြုင်ကွေဟ်|ကအ်ကျာ်]]
* [[ကော့ပြောင်းမလာရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ပြောင်းမလာ]]
* [[ငါးဖယ်ချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ငါးဖယ်ချောင်]]
* [[တံတားဦးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တံတားဦး]]
* [[တောင်နားရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တောင်နား]]
* [[ထိဝါးကလိရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ထိဝါးကလိ]]
* [[နွတ်အောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နွတ်အောက်]]
* [[ဘုရားငုတ်တိုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဘုရားငုတ်တို]]
* [[မင်္ဂလာကုန်းရွာ၊ ကျုံကွယ်|မင်္ဂလာကုန်း]]
* [[မြိုင်သာယာရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မြိုင်သာယာ]]
* [[ရာနိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရာနိုင်]]
* [[သာယာကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သာယာကုန်း]]
* [[အုံးတပင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အုံးတပင်]]
|group6 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြုင်စိင်
|list6 =
* [[ကြုင်စိင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်စိင်]]
* [[ကအ်မင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်မင်]]
* [[ကအ်ကလေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကလေင်]]
|group7 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြုင်ဝါန်
|list7 =
* [[ကြုင်မနေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်မနေင်]]
* [[ကြုင်ဝါန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြုင်ဝါန်]]
|group8 = ကြီးအုပ်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list8 =
* [[ကရင်လှိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကရင်လှိုင်]]
* [[ကြီးအုပ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြီးအုပ်]]
* [[ရှမ်းကျွန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းကျွန်း]]
|group9 = ကလိုင်းကနိုင်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list9 =
* [[ကဇွန်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကဇွန်းကုန်း]]
* [[ကလိုင်းကနိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကလိုင်းကနိုင်]]
* [[သုံးအိမ်စုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သုံးအိမ်စု]]
* [[အပေါ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အပေါ်ရွာ]]
* [[အောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အောက်ရွာ]]
|group10 = ဂကောံကွာန်င္ၚာင်
|list10 =
* [[ကွာန်င္ၚာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကွာန်င္ၚာင်]]
* [[ဂြိုပ်ဗပုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဂြိုပ်ဗပုင်]]
|group11 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ကဠတ်
|list11 =
* [[ခဒုင်ကြေဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဒုင်ကြေဟ်]]
* [[ကအ်ကဠတ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကဠတ်]]
* [[ကအ်ဒုန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဒုန်]]
* [[ပန်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပန်းကုန်း]]
* [[မွေဟောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မွေဟောက်]]
* [[မကသာံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မကသာံ]]
* [[ရှမ်းရွာကြီးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းရွာကြီး]]
* [[သင်္ဃန်းချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သင်္ဃန်းချောင်]]
* [[ဦးတိုချောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဦးတိုချောင်]]
|group12 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ဇမၠိင်
|list12 =
* [[ပါင်ကၟာဒကှ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပါင်ကၟာဒကှ်]]
* [[ကအ်ကျာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကျာ်]]
* [[ကော့ခလိန်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဇမၠိင်]]
|group13 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ပၞဟ်
|list13 =
* [[ကအ်ဒုန်၊ ကအ်ပၞဟ်|ကအ်ဒုန်]]
* [[ကအ်ပၞဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ပၞဟ်]]
* [[ဝါဗ္ၚ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝါဗ္ၚ]]
|group14 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ပလိုင်
|list14 =
* [[ကအ်ပလိုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ပလိုင်]]
|group15 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ခဗုဲ
|list15 =
* [[ကအ်ခဗုဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ခဗုဲ]]
* [[ကအ်ဝါန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဝါန်]]
* [[အင်ဂစေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အင်ဂစေင်]]
* [[အလှာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အလှာ်]]
|group16 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်သိုက်
|list16 =
* [[ကအ်သိုက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်သိုက်]]
|group17 = ဂကောံကွာန်ခဏံင်
|list17 =
* [[ခဏံင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခဏံင်]]
|group18 = ဂကောံကွာန်ၜါသွာင်
|list18 =
* [[ဝါသွာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝါသွာင်]]
* [[ကျာ်ပိုတ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျာ်ပိုတ်]]
* [[ကုန်မြာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်မြာင်]]
|group19 = ဂကောံကွာန်ခရီု
|list19 =
* [[ခရီု၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ခရီု]]
|group20 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကဍတ်
|list20 =
* [[ကြခတ်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြခတ်ကုန်း]]
* [[ကဍတ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကဍတ်]]
|group21 = ငပုအင်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list21 =
* [[ငပုအင်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ငပုအင်း]]
* [[နောင်နောင်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နောင်နောင်ကုန်း]]
* [[ပရဲဖာထော်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပရဲဖာထော်]]
* [[ရွာသစ်ရွာ၊ ငပုအင်း|ရွာသစ်]]
* [[လွှစင်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ငပုအင်း|လွှစင်ကုန်း]]
|group22 = ဂကောံကွာန်သေံ
|list22 =
* [[ကြာအင်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြာအင်းကုန်း]]
* [[ကွာန်သေံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကွာန်သေံ]]
* [[ကျာ်ပိုတ်၊ ကွာန်သေံ|ကျာ်ပိုတ်]]
* [[ဓဝ်ကှ်ေ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဓဝ်ကှ်ေ (ထပ်ကေး)]]
* [[ဗုင်ကြုက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗုင်ကြုက် (ဗုံကြမ်း]]
|group23 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကြေဝ်ဏာ
|list23 =
* [[ကအ်ဆုကၠ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဆုကၠ]]
* [[ကော့ဂေါ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ဂေါ်]]
* [[ကအ်ဇြဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဇြဲ]]
* [[ကအ်ဇၞော်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဇၞော်]]
* [[ကြေဝ်ဏာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြေဝ်ဏာ]]
|group24 = ဂကောံဓမ္မသ
|list24 =
* [[ဓမ္မသ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဓမ္မသ]]
|group25 = ဂကောံကွာန်သၞေဟ်ဍုင်
|list25 =
* [[ကုန်ကၠအ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်ကၠအ်]]
* [[သၞေဟ်ဍုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သၞေဟ်ဍုင်]]
* [[ကုန်မၞိက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်မၞိက်]]
* [[ရှမ်းရွာကလေးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းရွာကလေး]]
|group26 = ပိန်းနဲကုန်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list26 =
* [[ကင်းစုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကင်းစု]]
* [[ကြက်သွန်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကြက်သွန်ကုန်း]]
* [[ပိန်းနဲကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပိန်းနဲကုန်း]]
* [[ရော်ဘာနီကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရော်ဘာနီကုန်း]]
* [[လှည်းတန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လှည်းတန်း]]
* [[သိမ်ဖြူကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သိမ်ဖြူကုန်း]]
* [[သုခမြိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သုခမြိုင်]]
|group27 = ဖနုံကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list27 =
* [[ကျွဲခြံကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျွဲခြံကုန်း]]
* [[ကော့ကွရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ကွ]]
* [[ကအ်ခလံက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ခလံက်]]
* [[ကော့ပန်းကျော်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ပန်းကျော်]]
* [[ကော့ဝက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့ဝက်]]
* [[ဖနုံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဖနုံ]]
|group28 = ဖားပျောက်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list28 =
* [[ဖားပျောက်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဖားပျောက်]]
* [[မြန်မာလှိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မြန်မာလှိုင်]]
|group29 = ဖာသိမ်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list29 =
* [[ကန်းနားစုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကန်းနားစု]]
* [[တောင်ကလေးရွာ၊ ဖာသိမ်|တောင်ကလေး]]
* [[တောင်သူကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တောင်သူကုန်း]]
* [[ဖာသိမ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဖာသိမ်]]
* [[ရွာသစ်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရွာသစ်ကုန်း]]
|group30 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ဂလာ
|list30 =
* [[ကအ်ဂလာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ဂလာ]]
|group31 = ဂကောံကွာန်ဗြီုဗြဴ
|list31 =
* [[စမ်းနှစ်ခွရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|စမ်းနှစ်ခွ]]
* [[နတ်စမ်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နတ်စမ်း]]
* [[ဗြီုဗြဴကုန်စက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗြီုဗြဴကုန်စက်]]
* [[ဗြီုဗြဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗြီုဗြဴ]]
* [[ဗြီုဗြဴကွာန်တၟိ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဗြီုဗြဴကွာန်တၟိ]]
* [[ကုန်ကျာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်ကျာ်]]
* [[မရမ်းခြံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မရမ်းခြံ]]
* [[ရဲမွန်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရဲမွန်]]
* [[အထရံရွာ၊ ဘိန်းဗျော|အထရံ]]
* [[အေးရိပ်သာရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အေးရိပ်သာ]]
|group32 = ဂကောံကွာန်မဂြောဝ်
|list32 =
* [[မဂြောဝ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မဂြောဝ်]]
|group33 = မိကသစ်ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list33 =
* [[နရပ်တောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နရပ်တောင်]]
* [[မိကသစ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မိကသစ်]]
* [[မိခွားရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မိခွား]]
* [[မိနွတ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မိနွတ်]]
* [[လေးအိမ်စုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လေးအိမ်စု]]
|group34 = မုဆိုးကျွန်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list34 =
* [[ကအ်ခနိ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ခနိ]]
* [[လဂေါဝ်ဂၠုင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လဂေါဝ်ဂၠုင်]]
* [[မုဆိုးကျွန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မုဆိုးကျွန်း]]
|group35 = ရေတွင်းကုန်းကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list35 =
* [[နောင်လုံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|နောင်လုံ]]
* [[မင်္ဂလာကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မင်္ဂလာကုန်း]]
* [[မလေးကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မလေးကုန်း]]
* [[မဟာမြိုင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မဟာမြိုင်]]
* [[ရှမ်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရှမ်းကုန်း]]
* [[ရေတွင်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရေတွင်းကုန်း]]
* [[သုခမြိုင်ရွာ၊ ရေတွင်းကုန်း|သုခမြိုင်]]
|group36 = ရေပူကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list36 =
* [[ကော့စပ်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကော့စပ်]]
* [[ရေပူရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရေပူ]]
* [[သရက်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ရေပူ|သရက်ကုန်း]]
* [[အုန်းခြံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အုန်းခြံ]]
|group37 = ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ကြိက်
|list37 =
* [[ကအ်ကြိက်ကွာန်တၟိ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကြိက်ကွာန်တၟိ]]
* [[ကအ်ကြိက်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ကြိက်]]
* [[ကအ်လာန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်လာန်]]
|group38 = လမုခိုကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list38 =
* [[ကျာ်ထဝ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျာ်ထဝ်]]
* [[ညောင်ကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ညောင်ကုန်း]]
* [[ကုန်မြာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကုန်မြာင်]]
* [[လမုခိုရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လမုခို]]
* [[ဝါးပျံကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝါးပျံကုန်း]]
* [[အောင်ဗလကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အောင်ဗလကုန်း]]
* [[ဥဩကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဥဩကုန်း]]
|group39 = ဂကောံကွာန်အင်နပရေဟ်
|list39 =
* [[ကၟာကျာ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကၟာကျာ်]]
* [[အုံမန်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အုံမန်]]
* [[ရွာတန်းရှည်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ရွာတန်းရှည်]]
* [[အင်နပရေဟ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အင်နပရေဟ်]]
|group40 = ဂကောံကွာန်လှာဂဇာင်
|list40 =
* [[တၟအ်ဗြဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တၟအ်ဗြဴ]]
* [[တဝ်ပလောအ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|တဝ်ပလောအ်]]
* [[ဘာဒဵု၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဘာဒဵု]]
* [[မတေဲ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မတေဲ]]
* [[လှာဂဇာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|လှာဂဇာင်]]
|group41 = ဂကောံကွာန်သင်ကၠံ
|list41 =
* [[သင်ကၠံ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|သင်ကၠံ]]
|group42 = ဂကောံကွာန်ဝင်ရဴ
|list42 =
* [[ကပ်ကတောင်ရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကပ်ကတောင်]]
* [[ဒေါင်းကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဒေါင်းကုန်း]]
* [[ဝင်ရဴ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဝင်ရဴ]]
|group43 = အထရံကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list43 =
* [[ကျောက်ကွဲရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကျောက်ကွဲ]]
* [[ကအ်တာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်တာ]]
* [[ကအ်ပှ်လှ်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ကအ်ပှ်လှ်]]
* [[ပေါလေါကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ပေါလေါကုန်း]]
* [[မီးသွေးကုန်းရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|မီးသွေးကုန်း]]
* [[အထရံရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|အထရံ]]
|group44 = ဦးလေးကျေးရွာအုပ်စု
|list44 =
* [[ဦးလေးရွာ၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်|ဦးလေး]]
}}<noinclude>
{{collapsible option}}
[[Category:မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ တမ်းပလိတ်များ]]
</noinclude>
8re6240aieyuvdk62ivc3fen05xcvte
ကွာန်င္ၚာင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်
0
4703
57273
56158
2026-08-11T04:50:36Z
~2026-44034-36
5555
/* */ မလိက်
57273
wikitext
text/x-wiki
{{Infobox settlement
|name = ကွာန်ၚာင်
|official_name =
|pushpin_label_position = bottom
|settlement_type = ကွာန်
|image_skyline =
|image_map =
|map_caption =
|pushpin_map = မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ
|pushpin_map_caption = ဒၞာဲကွာန်င္ၚာင် မၞုံ
|subdivision_type = ကၟိန်ဍုင်
|subdivision_name = {{Flag|Myanmar}}
|subdivision_type1 = တွဵုရး
|subdivision_name1 = {{Flag|Mon}}[[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်|တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]]
|subdivision_type2 = ခရိုင်
|subdivision_name2 = ခရိုင်မတ်မလီု
|subdivision_type3 = ပွိုင်ဍုင်
|subdivision_name3 = ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်
|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_total_km2 =
|population_total =
|population_urban =
|population_rural =
|population_as_of =
|population_footnotes =
|population_density_km2 = auto
|coordinates = {{Coord|16.333839|97.794647|region:MM|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
|elevation_ft =
|elevation_m =
|timezone = အခိင်ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ
|utc_offset = +6.30
|website =
}}
'''ကွာန်ၚာၚ်'''({{Lang-en|Kwan Ngine}}၊ {{Lang-my|ကွမ်ငန်းရွာ}})ဂှ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ [[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]]၊ [[ခရိုင်မတ်မလီု]]၊ [[ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]၊ ဂကောံင္ၚာင်၊ ဂၞန်ကောဒ်ကွာန်ဂှ် ၁၉၅၀၂၅။ အတိုင်စရင်မၞိဟ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၄ မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲဂကောံင္ၚာင် မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် နွံ ၁၀၄၉၊ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ နွံ ၈၃၈ တုဲ သီုဖအိုတ် မၞိဟ်ပဒတဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဂှ် ၁၈၈၇ တၠရ။<ref>{{cite web|url=http://themimu.info/place-codes|title=Place codes (Pcodes)|work=Myanmar Information Management Unit|date=June 2020|accessdate=2020-12-20|archivedate=2020-11-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201121081823/https://themimu.info/place-codes}}</ref>
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist}}
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]
{{ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်}}{{တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်}}
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အင်ကစေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်
0
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Htawmonzel
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{{Infobox settlement
|name = ကွာန်အင်ကစေင်
|official_name =
|pushpin_label_position = bottom
|settlement_type = ကွာန်
|image_skyline =
|image_map =
|map_caption =
|pushpin_map = မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ
|pushpin_map_caption = ဒၞာဲကွာန်အံင်ကစေင်မၞုံ
|subdivision_type = ကၟိန်ဍုင်
|subdivision_name = {{Flag|Myanmar}}
|subdivision_type1 = တွဵုရး
|subdivision_name1 = {{Flag|Mon}}[[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်|တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]]
|subdivision_type2 = ခရိုင်
|subdivision_name2 = ခရိုင်မတ်မလီု
|subdivision_type3 = ပွိုင်ဍုင်
|subdivision_name3 = ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်
|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_total_km2 =
|population_total =
|population_urban =
|population_rural =
|population_as_of =
|population_footnotes =
|population_density_km2 = auto
|coordinates =
|coordinates = {{Coord|16.4453506469727|97.7914123535156|region:MM|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
|elevation_ft =
|elevation_m =
|timezone = အခိင်ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ
|utc_offset = +6.30
|website =
}}
'''ကွာန်အင်ကစေင်'''({{Lang-en|Ankasin}}၊ {{Lang-my|အံကစင်ရွာ}})ဂှ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ [[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]]၊ [[ခရိုင်မတ်မလီု]]၊ [[ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]၊ ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ခဗုဲ၊ ဂၞန်ကောဒ်ကွာန်ဂှ် ၁၉၅၀၀၆။ အတိုင်စရင်မၞိဟ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၄ မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ခဗုဲ မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် နွံ ၂၆၇၈၊ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ နွံ ၃၀၈၈ တုဲ သီုဖအိုတ် မၞိဟ်ပဒတဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဂှ် ၅၇၆၆ တၠရ။<ref>{{cite web|url=http://themimu.info/place-codes|title=Place codes (Pcodes)|work=Myanmar Information Management Unit|date=June 2020|accessdate=2020-12-20|archivedate=2020-11-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201121081823/https://themimu.info/place-codes}}</ref>
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist}}
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]
{{ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်}}{{တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်}}
012zlb74qymxrmxqbz7v7poldr2pg5d
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Htawmonzel
25
Htawmonzel ပြံင်ပဆုဲလဝ် မုက်လိက် [[အံင်ကစေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]] ဇရေင် [[အင်ကစေင်၊ ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]] သီုကဵု ဟွံဂွံ ဂိုင်စွံလဝ် မကလေင်ပညုင်
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{{Infobox settlement
|name = ကွာန်အင်ကစေင်
|official_name =
|pushpin_label_position = bottom
|settlement_type = ကွာန်
|image_skyline =
|image_map =
|map_caption =
|pushpin_map = မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ
|pushpin_map_caption = ဒၞာဲကွာန်အံင်ကစေင်မၞုံ
|subdivision_type = ကၟိန်ဍုင်
|subdivision_name = {{Flag|Myanmar}}
|subdivision_type1 = တွဵုရး
|subdivision_name1 = {{Flag|Mon}}[[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်|တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]]
|subdivision_type2 = ခရိုင်
|subdivision_name2 = ခရိုင်မတ်မလီု
|subdivision_type3 = ပွိုင်ဍုင်
|subdivision_name3 = ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်
|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_total_km2 =
|population_total =
|population_urban =
|population_rural =
|population_as_of =
|population_footnotes =
|population_density_km2 = auto
|coordinates =
|coordinates = {{Coord|16.4453506469727|97.7914123535156|region:MM|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
|elevation_ft =
|elevation_m =
|timezone = အခိင်ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ
|utc_offset = +6.30
|website =
}}
'''ကွာန်အင်ကစေင်'''({{Lang-en|Ankasin}}၊ {{Lang-my|အံကစင်ရွာ}})ဂှ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ [[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]]၊ [[ခရိုင်မတ်မလီု]]၊ [[ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]၊ ဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ခဗုဲ၊ ဂၞန်ကောဒ်ကွာန်ဂှ် ၁၉၅၀၀၆။ အတိုင်စရင်မၞိဟ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၄ မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲဂကောံကွာန်ကအ်ခဗုဲ မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် နွံ ၂၆၇၈၊ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ နွံ ၃၀၈၈ တုဲ သီုဖအိုတ် မၞိဟ်ပဒတဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဂှ် ၅၇၆၆ တၠရ။<ref>{{cite web|url=http://themimu.info/place-codes|title=Place codes (Pcodes)|work=Myanmar Information Management Unit|date=June 2020|accessdate=2020-12-20|archivedate=2020-11-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201121081823/https://themimu.info/place-codes}}</ref>
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist}}
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်]]
{{ပွိုင်ဍုင်ကျာ်မြဟ်}}{{တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်}}
012zlb74qymxrmxqbz7v7poldr2pg5d
တၟိ၊ ဘာဂိုဏ်ရာမညနိကာယ ကွာန်တံင်ပိုအ်
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Htawmonzel
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'''ဘာတၟိ''' ဂိုဏ်ရာမညနိကာယဝွံ နွံပ္ဍဲကွာန်တံင်ပိုအ် ပွိုင်ဍုင်မုဟ်ဍုင်၊ တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်။ အတိုင်စရင်လုပ်ဒဂိုန် နူရုင်ရာမညနိကာယမ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲဘာဝွံ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၁ ဂှ် သင်လုပ်ဒဂိုန် နွံ ခမဳ ၁၀ ဇကု၊ ထပိုယ် ၂၅ ဇကု။
== သင်မလုပ်ဒဂိုန် ==
သၞာံ ၂၀၂၁ သင်မလုပ်ဒဂိုန် နွံ ခမဳ ၁၀ ဇကု၊ ထပိုယ် ၂၅ ဇကု။ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၅ (၁၃၈၆) သင်မလုပ်ဒဂိုန် ခမဳ ၅ ဇကု၊ ထပိုယ် ၁၀ ဇကု။<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date=28 June 2025 |title=စရင်သင်လုပ်ဒဂိုန် သၞာံ ၁၃၈၆ |url=https://ramonnyanikaya.com/2025/06/28/%e1%80%85%e1%80%9b%e1%81%9a%e1%80%ba%e1%80%9e%e1%81%9a%e1%80%ba%e1%80%9c%e1%80%af%e1%80%95%e1%80%ba%e1%80%92%e1%80%b9%e1%80%82%e1%80%ad%e1%80%af%e1%80%94%e1%80%ba-%e1%81%8a-%e1%81%81%e1%81%83%e1%81%88/?fbclid=IwY2xjawLM8qZleHRuA2FlbQIxMQBicmlkETBQRUg2MW44WGxkNEhiRlV2AR6I09YAAg2-mrHB2uC766lsHGC1zGjy6BdYBXfhrd3IaFHeiyE_tqQXkIXW8w_aem_KlD_0FJJhPuiKMuKr9ho5Q |website=ရာမညနိကာယ |location= |publisher=Open |access-date=28 June 2025}}</ref>
==ကျာ်ဇၞော်မနွံပိုန်ဘာဂမၠိုင်==
# ကျာ်ဇၞော်ဘဒ္ဒန္တပုပ္ဖရမ္မ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/plugins/post.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fpermalink.php%3Fstory_fbid%3Dpfbid02vN9cFtSKscEWieJfvmDRdG8uWhDgxnbVri1EeQBgbdn3iXZbewVXuN6c7dBZ8JAol%26id%3D2044033722501918&show_text=true&width=500|title=စရင်သင်လုပ်ဒဂိုန် ရာမညနိကာယ |last= |first= |date=September 22, 2021 |website=ရုင်ရာမညနိကာယ-Wffice of Ramonnyanikaya |publisher=Open |access-date=October 4, 2022 |quote=}}</ref> သၞာံ ၂၀၂၆ ဂိတုအဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၀ (သက္ကရာဇ် ၁၃၈၈ ဂိတုဒဂိုန် ၁၂ စွေက်) တ္ၚဲစန် အခိင်၂၁း၃၃ စုတိကလိလောန်စဴအာသွရ်။ အခိင်မကလိလောန်စဴသွရ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ အာယုက် ၉၅၊ သိက္ခာ ၇၄ ဝှ်။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/plugins/post.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2F2xuo86wrww%2Fposts%2Fpfbid08uxFnXpF2LzjuCf7ENsV9d6wjmjUM8PQDraDpsdHLbNSMajDsQ1nhhahkikw85HCl&show_text=true&width=500"|title=ကျာ်ဇၞော်စဴသွရ် |last= |first= |date=August 10, 2026 |website=အစာ ဝေပုလ်|publisher=Open |access-date=August 10, 2026 |quote=}}</ref>
==နိဿဲ==
{{Reflist}}[[ကဏ္ဍ:ဘာလကျာ်မန်]] [[ကဏ္ဍ:ဘာလကျာ်မန် ပွိုင်ဍုင်မုဟ်ဍုင်]]
9wqr2w8xfidh5e89di6pl9tty10kp13
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Htawmonzel
25
/* ကျာ်ဇၞော်မနွံပိုန်ဘာဂမၠိုင် */
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'''ဘာတၟိ''' ဂိုဏ်ရာမညနိကာယဝွံ နွံပ္ဍဲကွာန်တံင်ပိုအ် ပွိုင်ဍုင်မုဟ်ဍုင်၊ တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်။ အတိုင်စရင်လုပ်ဒဂိုန် နူရုင်ရာမညနိကာယမ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲဘာဝွံ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၁ ဂှ် သင်လုပ်ဒဂိုန် နွံ ခမဳ ၁၀ ဇကု၊ ထပိုယ် ၂၅ ဇကု။
== သင်မလုပ်ဒဂိုန် ==
သၞာံ ၂၀၂၁ သင်မလုပ်ဒဂိုန် နွံ ခမဳ ၁၀ ဇကု၊ ထပိုယ် ၂၅ ဇကု။ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၅ (၁၃၈၆) သင်မလုပ်ဒဂိုန် ခမဳ ၅ ဇကု၊ ထပိုယ် ၁၀ ဇကု။<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date=28 June 2025 |title=စရင်သင်လုပ်ဒဂိုန် သၞာံ ၁၃၈၆ |url=https://ramonnyanikaya.com/2025/06/28/%e1%80%85%e1%80%9b%e1%81%9a%e1%80%ba%e1%80%9e%e1%81%9a%e1%80%ba%e1%80%9c%e1%80%af%e1%80%95%e1%80%ba%e1%80%92%e1%80%b9%e1%80%82%e1%80%ad%e1%80%af%e1%80%94%e1%80%ba-%e1%81%8a-%e1%81%81%e1%81%83%e1%81%88/?fbclid=IwY2xjawLM8qZleHRuA2FlbQIxMQBicmlkETBQRUg2MW44WGxkNEhiRlV2AR6I09YAAg2-mrHB2uC766lsHGC1zGjy6BdYBXfhrd3IaFHeiyE_tqQXkIXW8w_aem_KlD_0FJJhPuiKMuKr9ho5Q |website=ရာမညနိကာယ |location= |publisher=Open |access-date=28 June 2025}}</ref>
==ကျာ်ဇၞော်မနွံပိုန်ဘာဂမၠိုင်==
* ကျာ်ဇၞော်ဘဒ္ဒန္တပုပ္ဖရမ္မ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/plugins/post.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fpermalink.php%3Fstory_fbid%3Dpfbid02vN9cFtSKscEWieJfvmDRdG8uWhDgxnbVri1EeQBgbdn3iXZbewVXuN6c7dBZ8JAol%26id%3D2044033722501918&show_text=true&width=500|title=စရင်သင်လုပ်ဒဂိုန် ရာမညနိကာယ |last= |first= |date=September 22, 2021 |website=ရုင်ရာမညနိကာယ-Wffice of Ramonnyanikaya |publisher=Open |access-date=October 4, 2022 |quote=}}</ref> သၞာံ ၂၀၂၆ ဂိတုအဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၀ (သက္ကရာဇ် ၁၃၈၈ ဂိတုဒဂိုန် ၁၂ စွေက်) တ္ၚဲစန် အခိင်၂၁း၃၃ စုတိကလိလောန်စဴအာသွရ်။ အခိင်မကလိလောန်စဴသွရ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ အာယုက် ၉၅၊ သိက္ခာ ၇၄ ဝှ်။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/plugins/post.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2F2xuo86wrww%2Fposts%2Fpfbid08uxFnXpF2LzjuCf7ENsV9d6wjmjUM8PQDraDpsdHLbNSMajDsQ1nhhahkikw85HCl&show_text=true&width=500"|title=ကျာ်ဇၞော်စဴသွရ် |last= |first= |date=August 10, 2026 |website=အစာ ဝေပုလ်|publisher=Open |access-date=August 10, 2026 |quote=}}</ref>
==နိဿဲ==
{{Reflist}}[[ကဏ္ဍ:ဘာလကျာ်မန်]] [[ကဏ္ဍ:ဘာလကျာ်မန် ပွိုင်ဍုင်မုဟ်ဍုင်]]
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အံင်ဇေယျ
0
6204
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2026-08-10T15:25:57Z
InternetArchiveBot
1698
Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260809)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]
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{{
Infobox royalty
|name=အံင်ဇဲယျ <br/> {{my|အလောင်းဘုရား}}
|image=Alaungpaya.JPG
|caption=Statue of Alaungpaya in front of the [[National Museum of Myanmar (Yangon)|National Museum, Yangon]]
|succession=[[List of Burmese monarchs|King of Burma]]|reign=29 February 1752{{snd}}11 May 1760<ref name=mmt-1-52>Maung Maung Tin Vol. 1 1905: 52</ref><ref name=cb-1>Buyers, Alaungpaya</ref>
|coronation=17 April 1752
|predecessor=[[Mahadhammaraza Dipadi]]
|regent=
|reg-type=
|successor=[[Naungdawgyi]]
|suc-type=Successor
|birth_date={{OldStyleDate|24 August|1714|13 August}} <br> Friday, 1st waning of Tawthalin 1076 [[Burmese calendar|ME]]<ref name=mmt-1-246>Maung Maung Tin Vol. 1 1905: 246</ref>
|birth_place=[[Shwebo|Moksobo]]
|death_date={{death date and age|1760|5|11|1714|9|24|df=y}} <br> Sunday, 12th waning of Kason 1122 [[Burmese calendar|ME]]<ref name=mmt-1-246/>
|death_place=Kinywa, [[Mottama|Martaban]]
|burial_date=May 1760
|burial_place=[[Shwebo]]
|spouse=[[Yun San]]
|issue=[[Naungdawgyi]] <br/> [[Hsinbyushin]] <br/> [[Bodawpaya]]
|issue-link=#Family
|issue-pipe=among others...
|full name=Sīri Pavara Vijaya Nanda Jatha Mahādhammarāja <br/> {{my|သီရိ ပဝရ ဝိဇယ နန္ဒ ဇဌ မဟာ ဓမ္မရာဇ}}
|house=[[Konbaung dynasty|Konbaung]]
|father=[[Min Nyo San]]
|mother=[[Saw Nyein Oo]]
|signature=
|religion=[[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|type=monarch.
}}
'''အံင်ဇဲယျ (Alaungpaya)''' ({{Lang-my|အလောင်းဘုရား}}, {{IPA-my|ʔəláʊɰ̃ pʰəjá|pron}}; သီုကဵု မကော်စ အလံင်ဖယျာ (၂၄ အဝ်ဂေတ် [လဆောဝ်ဟီု ၁၃ အဝ်ဂေတ်]၁၇၁၄ {{Snd}} ၁၁ မေ ၁၇၆၀) ဂှ် ဒှ်သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ်ဂကူဗၟာ ညးမစံင်ပလီု ဍုင်မန်ဂမၠိုင်၊ ဂစိုတ်ပဠက် ဂကူမန်တုဲ ဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် တၞောဝ်သၟိင်ဗၟာကုံဗံင်။ ကိုပ်ကၠာညးဟွံဂွံချိုတ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဘဲအခိင်မဗတိုက်ဒၟံင် နိဂီုသေံဝွံ နူဘဝ ညးဇၞော်ကွာန်မွဲဂှ် ဂွံဒှ်သၟိင်ဂကူဗၟာတုဲ အာဗတိုက်ပလီုလဝ် မဏိပူရ်၊ သီကေတ် ဍုင်လာန်နာ၊ ဗတိုက်ပလီုကၠေအ် ဍုင်မန် သီုဂွံဂစိုတ်ပဠက်ဏာလဝ် ဂကူမန်တအ်ကီုရ။ အခိင်မဗတိုက် နိဂီုသေံဂှ် ဒးသေနတ် လပါ်လက်ကြဴတုဲ ဂရေက်စဴ စိုပ်ဗဒါဲမုတ္တမဂှ် ချိုတ်အာရ။ ဍုင်လ္ဂုင် နူကဵု ဒၞာဲမဒှ်ဒၟံင်ကွာန်တမ္ၚာဂှ် လုပ်သီကေတ်တုဲ ပဒတဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကွာန်ဂှ်တုဲ သၠာဲထောအ်ယၟုဍုင် ဍုင်ယာန်ဂုန် နကဵု ဘာသာဗၟာ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဍုင်သၞအိုတ် (ဝါ) သၞ မဒှ်ဂကူမန် အိုတ်ရ။
နကဵု ဂကူဗၟာတအ်မ္ဂး ပၠုပ်စုတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲစရင် သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ်ဗၟာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် မွဲကရောမ် ကု သၟိင်အနဝ်ရထာ ကေုာံ သၟိင်ဖရင်နံင် မဒှ်သၟိင် မသီကေတ် ရးနိဂီုမန်ဂမၠိုင်တုဲ စုတ်ပၠုပ်လဝ် သၟဝ်တဲ ဂကူဗၟာညးတအ်ရ။
== ဝင်အတိက် ==
အံင်ဇဲယျ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် (ဇမၞးလတူဇမၞး) က္တဵုဒှ်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကွာန်မုသုဲဗဝ်၊ မဒှ်ကွာန်လၟ မနွံဗဒါဲကြုင်မူ နူဍုင်ဇၞော်အင်ဝ ဗွဲဒိုဟ်ဗာယပ် နွံၜိုတ် ၁၀၀ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (၆၂ တိုင်) ပ္ဍဲ ၂၄ အဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၇၁၄ ဇရေင် မအံက် မင်ညိုသာန် (မင်းညိုစံ) မိအံက် စောညိင်ဥူ (စောငြိမ်းဦး) ရ။ ညးဒှ် ကောန်မရနုက်ကဵု ၜါ။ အပါညးဂှ် ဒှ်ဇမၞော်ကွာန် ကွာန်မုသဝ်ဗဝ်၊ အနာဲညး ကျဝ်သောဲထေန် (ကျော်စွာထင်)၊ ဗွဲကြဴ ကလိဂွံ ယၟု စဳတာမင်ဂျဳ (စည်သာမင်းကြီး)၊ မဒှ် သၟိင်စဍုင် ခရိုင်မူ။ နကဵု အံင်ဇဲယျမ္ဂး ညးဟီု ညးဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ်တၞောဝ်သၟိင်ဗၟာ ဍုင်အင်ဝ မဝ်ညှေန်သတဝ် (မိုးညှင်း သတိုး)၊ သၟိင်နရပတိ ပထမ ကေုာံ သၟိင်သဳဟသူရ မစောန်ဆက်ကၠုင် နူကဵု တၞောဝ်သၟိင် ဍုင်ဗုကာံရ။ သၞာံ ၁၇၃၀ အံင်ဇဲယျ သၞက်ကရောဲ ကု ကောန်ၝောအ်ကောန်ဒေအ်ညးယောန်သာန် 1730 (ယွန်းစံ)၊ မဒှ် ကောန်ဝုတ် ညးဇၞော် ကွာန်စဳပုတ္တရာ မဒှ်ကွာန် ဗဒါဲကွာန်မုသဝ်ဗဝ် ရ။ ညးတအ် က္လိဂွံ ကောန်တြုဟ် တြဴ ကောန်ဗြဴ ပိ (ကောန်ဗြဴစတုတ္တဂှ် ချိုတ်နူဍောတ်တ်)။
== ညးဇၞော် ကွာန်မုသဝ်ဗဝ် ကေုာံ ဒု-ညးဇၞော် ဒေသကွာန်မူ ==
အံင်ဇဲယျ က္တဵုဒှ်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲလက်ထက် တၞောဝ်သၟိင်တံင်ငူ အဝဵုသြဇာသၠုင်တုဲ ဍုင်အင်ဝဂှ် ဒြဟတ်ဍိုန်လျ၊ စဵုဒၞာ သၞဍုင်မဏိပူရ်တုဲ နူ သၞာံ ၁၇၂၄ ဂှ် အလုံမွဲ ဒေသဍုင်ဗၟာသကုတ်လတူဂှ် ဟွံမဲကဵု ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်လလမ်ရ။ ဍုင်ဇင်မာဲ မပုန်တိတ် နူအင်ဝ နူသၞာံ ၁၇၂၇ ဂှ် နကဵုအင်ဝ က္လေင်သီကေတ် ဟွံမာန်၊ ဍုင်သေံဇၞော်ဂမၠိုင် မဒးဒုင် သီဏာလဝ် ကုကြုက်မာန်ဆူ နူကဵု သၞာံ ၁၇၃၀တအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် စဵုဒၞာကဵု ဟွံမာန်။
ဒေသမူဂှ်လေဝ် အဝဵုသြဇာ မဏိပူရ် ဓလီုဂွံကီုရ။ ၜိုန်ရ နကဵုဍုင်ဂှ် ဍုင်ဗၟာဂှ် ဇၞော်နူ မဏိပူရ် တၟာဂလိုင်ကီုလေဝ် နကဵုအင်ဝ စဵုဒၞာဗတိုက်ကဵု မဏိပူရ် ဟွံမာန်ရ။ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ဒးဒုင်ဒၟံင် ဘဲပၞာန်မဏိပူရ် ကေုာံ ဒးဒုင်သီထ္ၜောဝ်ဏာ ဒြပ်ရတ်ဂမၠိုင်တအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် မုဟွံဂံင်ဟီုအိုတ်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ဍုင်မကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံင် ဗီုဏအ်ဂှ် မၞိဟ် ဗီုကဵုအံင်ဇဲယျတအ် သွက်ဂွံလုပ်ကေတ်တာလျိုင်ဂှ် ဖန်ဇန်ကၠုင်ရ။ နကဵုညးတေအ် ညးတေအ် ဂွစၞးအပါညးတေအ် ပမၞိဟ်ဇၞော်ကွာန်မွဲတုဲ မုလေဝ် စဵုဒၞာကဵု ဍုင်ကွာန် ဟွံမာန်။ ညးဂှ် ဒှ်မၞိဟ် သမၠုင်မွဲ မနွံသမၠုင် ၅ ပေ ၁၁ ၝောအ်တဲ (၁,၈၀ သေတ္တဳမဳတာ) (အတိုင်ကလုတ်အင်္ဂလိက် မချူဗၟံက်လဝ်) ညးပ္ကောံမၞိဟ်တုဲ စဵုဒၞာကွာန်၊ ဗတိုက်ကဵု ရဲသပုန်ဂမၠိုင်၊ ဒမၠဂမၠိုင်ရ။
နကဵုသၟိင်ဍုင်အင်ဝ ဒှ်ကၠုင် ဂဝိင် သပုန်အပ္ဍဲအကြာဂကူဇကု ညံင်ဟွံဂွံမံက်တိုန်ကၠုင်ကီုရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၇၃၆၊ သၟိင်တံင်ငူရာဇာ ညးမဒှ် သကိုပ်ပၞာန်ဍုင်အင်ဝ ကော်ဆဵု အံင်ဇဲယျ သွက်ဂွံစၟဳစၟတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးဇၞော်ကွာန်တအ်ဂှ် ဂစာန်ပုန်ဒၟံင် ကုဍုင်ဟာရ။ တံင်ငူရာဇာ ညာတ်ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ အံင်ဇဲယျ ဟွံကဵု ဘဲကုဍုင်တုဲ ပ္အပ်ကဵု မဟိမုဗလနန္ဒကျဝ် ကုအံင်ဇဲယျရ။ အံင်ဇဲယျ ဂွံဒှ် ဒု-ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ ဒေသမူ မွဲစွံ ကုအနာဲညး နဒဒှ် ဥက္ကဋ္ဌဒေသဂှ်ရ။ ညးဂွံဒှ် သၟိင်အခေါန် မကော်စ ဗီုဗၟာ ကျေကိုင် (ကြေးကိုင်, {{IPA-my|tɕéɡàɪɰ̃|}})၊ မဒှ်မၞိဟ် မဂွံအခေါင် ကံက်အခေါန် ကေုာံ ကဵုအမိင် ပ္ဍဲအရာအကံက်အခေါန်ရ။
== မဒက်ပ္တန် တၞောဝ်သၟိင်ကုံဗံင်==
အဝဵုသြဇာ အင်ဝဂှ် ဆက်တုဲ ဍိုန်လျစှ်ေဒၟံင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၇၄၀ မန် နူကဵု ဒေသသၟဝ် လလောင်တြး ဍုင်ဗၠးၜးတုဲ က္လေင်ဒက်ပ္တန် ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ဟံသာဝတဳ မစွံလဝ် ရာဇဌာနဳ ပ္ဍဲဗဂေါ။ နကဵု အင်ဝ ၜိုန်ရကၠုင်ဗတိုက်ဒၟံင် ဟံသာဝတဳဂၠိုင် ကဵုအလန် ကီုလေဝ် က္လေင်သီကေတ် ဟံသာဝတဳ ဟွံမာန်။ သၞာံ ၁၇၅၁ ဂှ် နကဵုမန် ဇက်တိုန် ဍုင်အင်ဝ နကဵုဒြဟတ်ဇၞော်ဇၞော်၊ သၞာံ ၁၇၅၂ ဂှ် နကဵုမန် က္လိဂွံအရီုအဗင်သေနာတ် အမၠံက် နူပြင်သေတ် ကမ္မဏဳ ပြင်သေတ်-အိန္ဒိယဗမံက် (French East India Company) ကေုာံ ဒါတ် ကေုာံ ပဝ်တူဂြဳတုဲ သီဂွံအာ ဍုင်အင်ဝတုဲ အလုံမွဲ ဒေသဍုင်ဗၟာဂှ် ဒးဒုင်သစ္စာ ကုသၟိင်မန်ရ။ ဆဂး ညးလ္ၚဵု ဗီုကဵု အံင်ဇဲယျဂှ် ဟွံဒုင်သစ္စာ စၞးဂှ် တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကုမန်ရ။
အံင်ဇဲယျ ပ္ကောံဂွံ သီုဖအိုတ် ၄၅ ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသမူ သွက်ဂွံတဝ်စၞေဟ်ကဵုမန်ရ။<ref name="Damrong">Rajanubhab, D., 2001, Our Wars With the Burmese, Bangkok: White Lotus Co. Ltd., {{ISBN|9747534584}}</ref>{{Rp|291–292}} ညးတအ် ပ္ကောံလဝ် မၞိဟ်ဂမၠိုင်တုဲ ပခိုင်လဝ် ဒပ်ပ္ဍဲကဵု မုသဝ်ဗဝ်ဂှ်ရ။<ref name="Damrong" />{{Rp|291–292}} ပ္ဍဲ ၂၉ ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၁၇၅၂ (ဂိတုပေင်ဖဝ်ရဂိုန် ၁၁၁၃) ဂှ် ကၟာင်ဍုင်အင်ဝ လပါ်မ္ၚး သရိုဟ်၊ ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲဂှ် အံင်ဇဲယျ ခပ္တိုန် ဇကုဇကု နဒဒှ် သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ်မွဲတုဲ ကဵုယၟုဇကု အလံင်ဖယျာ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဗောဓိသတ် အလံင်ကျာ်တုဲ ဒက်ပ္တန် တၞောဝ်သၟိင်ကုံဗံင်ရ။ မဟိမုသၟိင်တၠညး ပေင်ပေင်ဂှ် သဳရိပဝရ ဝိဇယနန္ဒဇာထ မဟာဓမ္မ ရာဇာဓိရာဇာ အလောင်းမင်းတရားကြီး။<ref name="Damrong" />{{Rp|291–292}}
ဇၟာပ်မၞိဟ်ဂှ် ဒုင်တဲ ညးသီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင်ရ။ ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်မန် သီဂွံအာ ဍုင်အင်ဝ ပ္ဍဲ ၂၃ မာတ် ၁၇၅၂ ဂှ်တုဲ အလဵုဇကု အပါညး ညိုသာန် ဒုင်ကျကီုရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲညးတအ် လွဟ် ကေုာံ မကမ် နွံဆ ညိညဓဝ်တုဲ နကဵု နဲလဵုလေဝ် ဂွံတဝ်စၞေဟ် ကုပၞာန်ဟံသာဝတဳ ဟွံမာန်ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ်အံင်ဇဲယျမ္ဂး "မၞိဟ်ဂၠိုင်အောန် ဒြဟတ်ဂၠိုင်အောန်ဂှ် အဓိက ဟွံသေင်၊ ကောန်ပၞာန်ဇကု မနွံကဵု ဂြိုဟ်ဇေတ်ဇေတ် ကေုာံ စိုတ်ထတ်ဇေတ်ဇေတ်ဂှ်ဟေင် အဓိကရ။" တုဲ ညးပခိုင်ဗဗိုန်လဝ် ကၟာင်ကွာန်မုသဝ်ဗဝ်ဂှ်ရ။ ဂြိုပ်ဒဵု မနွံမ္ၚးကွာန်တအ်ဂှ် ညးကဵု သ္အးပသောင် ဖလာတ်လဝ်၊ တုဲပၠန် ကၟာဍာ်ဂမၠိုင်လေဝ် ညးကဵု ပလီုထောအ်ဖအိုတ်ရ။
== ကလေင်ပ္ကောံ နိဂီုဗၟာ (၁၇၅၂ - ၁၇၅၉) ==
=== ဍုင်ဗၟာ လတူ (၁၇၅၂ - ၁၇၅၄) ===
ကုံဗံင်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဂကောံသပုန်ညိည မပြးဇးဒၟံင် အတေအ်မွဲဂကောံ အဏအ်မွဲဂကောံ ပ္ဍဲဒေသဍုင်ဗၟာလတူဂှ်ရ။ နကဵုမန်တအ်ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ တော်ဗၠေတ် ပတှ်ေကေတ် သၟိင်တၠဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဗၟာတအ်ဂှ် ဒုင်သစ္စာဇကုအိုတ်တုဲ ကောန်ပၞာန်ဇကု ပိစွံၜါစွံဂှ် ကဵုက္လေင်ဖျဴနင် ဍုင်ဗဂေါတုဲ ပ္ဍဲအင်ဝဂှ် ကောန်ပၞာန်သှ်ေဒၟံင် ဟွံပေင် မွဲလက်၊ သွက်ဂွံ ဗတိုက် ကုရဲသပုန်တအ်ဂှ်ရ။<ref name="Damrong">Rajanubhab, D., 2001, Our Wars With the Burmese, Bangkok: White Lotus Co. Ltd., {{ISBN|9747534584}}</ref>{{Rp|291–292}}
ပၞာန်ဟံသာဝတဳ ဖျေဟ်လဝ်ဒပ် မ္ၚးဍုင် ဗွဲဒိုဟ်သၟဝ်ကျာ အခိင်လၟုဟ် နွံ သၠုင်ကျာသေတ်ကိုင်တုဲ ဒက်လဝ် မိတ် ကုသေံကွေဟ် ဍုင်မဒယ အခိင်လၟုဟ် မနွံပ္ဍဲရးမာန္တလေ လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ။
ပၞာန်ဟံသာဝတဳ မဗလးနင် ဒပ်ပၞာန်ဇကု သွက်အံင်ဇဲယျ ဂွံယဵုဒုင်သစ္စာ ဗွဲကိုပ်ကၠာ ၜါဒပ်ဂှ် နကဵု ဒပ်အံင်ဇဲယျ နကဵု နဲပြယာဲဂှ် လၞိန်ဗပိန်မာန်အာရ။ တုဲဂှ် ဒပ်ဟံသာဝတဳ နကဵုအလဵုဇကု သကိုပ်ပၞာန် တၠဗန် ကၠုင်ဗတိုက် နကဵု ဒြဟတ်ပၞာန်မဂၠိုင်ကဵုလ္ၚီကီုလေဝ် ကေတ်ဇၞးအံင်ဇဲယျ ဟွံမာန်၊ ဒးက္လေင်စဴကၠုင်ရ။ ပရိုင်ဂှ် ပြးဇးအာ အလုံဒေသမွဲတုဲ အံင်ဇဲယျ ပ္ကောံဂွံအာ မၞိဟ်အလုံမွဲဒေသမူဂှ်ကီု သီုကဵု ဒေသတၞဟ်တအ်ရ။ နကဵု မခပ္တိုန် ကလောကောဒေအ်ဇကု နဒဒှ် သကိုပ်ဒပ်တုဲ ဒက်ပ္တိုန် ဒပ်နာနာသာ်ရ။ တုဲဂှ် ဗၟာဒေသတၞဟ်တအ်လေဝ် ကၠုင်ကောံ ကုအံင်ဇဲယျ၊ တုဲပၠန် ပၞာန်ဗၟာ နူကဵု နန်အင်ဝတြေံဂှ်လေဝ် ကၠုင်ပံင် ကုအံင်ဇဲယျကီုရ။ ၜိုတ် အံက်တဝ်ဗါ ၁၇၅၂ ညးဗ္တိုက် ကုဒပ်မန်ဟံသာဝတဳ မနွံပ္ဍဲလပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဍုင်အင်ဝတုဲ ဒပ်ပၞာန်မန် မနွံလတူဍုင်အင်ဝတအ်ဂှ်ကီု သီုကဵု ဒပ်သေံကွေဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒးဆုတ်စှ်ေကၠုင် ပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲအင်ဝအိုတ်ရ။
ၜိုန်ရ ပၞာန်မန်တအ် ဒးကျဒၟံင် ဂၠိုင်ကဵုအလန်ကီုလေဝ် နကဵု ဗဂေါဂှ် ဟွံဗလးဏာ ဒပ်ပၞာန်နူကဵု ဟံသာဝတဳဏီဖိုဟ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၇၅၄ ဇာန္နဝါရဳ ၃ ဂှ် ဒပ်ပၞာန်က
(ဝါ) ဒပ်အံင်ဇဲယျ သီဂွံအာ ဍုင်အင်ဝရ။ အံင်ဇဲယျ သီဂွံ ဍုင်အင်ဝတုဲ သၟိင်သေံဂမၠိုင် စဵုကဵု စိုပ်မဝ်မိတ်ဂှ် ကၠုင်ခစ အံင်ဇဲယျ ဖအိုတ်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲဂိတုမာတ် ၁၇၅၄ ဂှ် ဟံသာဝတဳ ဗလးဏာ ဒပ်ဇကု သွက်ဂွံအာ ဗ္တိုက်အင်ဝရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲၜိုတ် ဂိတုမေဂှ် ဒပ်ပၞာန်မန်တအ် ဒးဆုတ်စှ်ေကၠုင်တုဲ အံင်ဇဲယျ ဂွံပိုင်အာ အလုံမွဲ ဒေသလတူဂှ်ရ။
=== ဍုင်ဗၟာ သၟဝ် (၁၇၅၅–၁၇၅၇) ===
[[ဝှာင်:Konbaung-hanthawaddy-war-1755-1757.png|thumb|ပၞာန်ကုံဗံင်အံင်ဇဲယျ မလုပ်သီကေတ် ဍုင်မန်၊ ကြဴနူ သီဂွံ ဍုင်ဗဂေါတုဲ သီုအာဗတိုက်လဝ် ဇင်မာဲ၊ မုတ္တမ၊ ထဝါဲ။ ]]
နကဵု ပၞာန်အကြာ ဍုင်ဗဂေါ ကဵု ဍုင်အင်ဝဂှ် အံင်ဇဲယျ ကေုာံ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်ဗၟာတအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် အဓိကဵုဂကူ အကြာ ဂကူဗၟာ ကဵု ဂကူမန်ရ။ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်မန် မနွံဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲဒေသ ဒၞာဲဂကူဗၟာဂၠိုင်တအ်ဂှ် ပါဲဘဲလမျီုတုဲ ဒးဒြေပ်ဒဴစှ်ေကၠုင် လပါ်ဍုင်မန်အိုတ်ရ။ ဍုင်တံင်ငူဂှ်လေဝ် အံက်တဝ်ဗါ ၁၇၅၄ဂှ် ဂကူဗၟာတအ် သီကေတ်အဝဵု နူမန်တုဲ ပံင်ကဵု အံင်ဇဲယျကီုရ။ အရာဏအ်ဂှ် ဗဒှ်ကဵု သွက်ဒြဟတ်ပၞာန်ဗၟာအံင်ဇဲယျ ဂွံဇၞော်တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန်ကီုရ။
ပါဲနူ ဂကူဗၟာတုဲ ဂကူသေံ၊ ကချေင်၊ ကုကဳတအ်လေဝ် နဒဒှ် ဍိက်ဗၟာဂှ် ဒးလုပ် ပ္ဍဲဒပ်ပၞာန်အံင်ဇဲယျတုဲ ကၠုင်ဗတိုက် ဍုင်မန် ပ္ဍဲဇာန္နဝါရဳ ၁၇၅၅ ဂှ်ရ။ ၜိုတ် ဂိတုမေဂှ် ပၞာန်အံင်ဇဲယျ သီဂွံအာ ရးဖာသီ ကေုာံ ဍုင်လ္ဂုင်တုဲ ဍုင်လ္ဂုင် (ဒဂုင်) ဂှ် ရန်တၟအ်ကဵု ဂကူမန် မဒှ်သၞဗၟာအိုတ်တုဲ ညးသၠာဲထောအ် ယၟု နကဵုဘာသာဗၟာ ယာန်ကုန် (ရန်ကုန်) (ရန် = သၞ/မန်၊ ကုန် = အိုတ်) ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲဍုင်သြေင်ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူဒပ်ပၞာန်ပြင်သေတ်တအ်လေဝ် နွံဒၟံင်ကီုတုဲ နကဵု ဒပ်အံင်ဇဲယျ ဗတိုက်သီကေတ် ဟွံမာန်ရ။
အံင်ဇဲယျ ဒက်မိတ် ကုကုမ္မဏဳအိန္ဒိယဗမံက် (East India Company) မဒှ် ကုမ္မဏဳအင်္ဂလိက်တုဲ တုပ်လဝ်စိုတ် ဗတိုက်ကဵုမန်တုဲ နကဵုဗၟာ ကဵုတိဍာ် ကုအင်္ဂလိက်တုဲ အံင်ဇဲယျ က္လိဂွံ ဒြဟတ်လွဟ်၊ သေနာတ်၊ ကေုာံ ကောန်ပၞာန် အင်္ဂလိက် သွက်ဂွံဗတိုက်ကဵုမန်ရ။ ၜိုန်ဂှ်ရ ဒပ်ပၞာန်အံင်ဇဲယျ ဒးဗတိုက် ကဵုဒပ်မန် ပ္ဍဲသြေင် ပွိုင် ၁၄ ဂိတုတုဲ ပ္ဍဲဂိတုဂျူလာင် ၁၇၅၆ ဂှ် သီဂွံအာ ဍုင်သြေင်ရ။ ဍုင်သြေင် စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်တဲ အံင်ဇဲယျတုဲ ဒပ်ပၞာန်အံင်ဇဲယျ နကဵု ဒြဟတ်ပၞာန်အင်္ဂလိက်၊ ကေုာံ ကောန်ဒဵုဂမၠိုင် အာဗတိုက်ဍုင်ဗဂေါတုဲ ဂိတုမေ ၁၇၅၇ ဂှ် အံင်ဇဲယျ သီဂွံအာ ဍုင်ဗဂေါတုဲ ဍုင်ဗၠးၜးမန်တၟိတၟိ မဒက်ပ္တန်ဂွံ ဆ ၁၇ သၞာံဓဝ်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဒးဒုင်စံင်၊ ဂကူမန်လေဝ် ဒးဒုင်စံင်ယဇ် လၟိဟ်ဂၠိုင်ကဵုကိုဋ်ရ။
နူဂှ် ပၞာန်အံင်ဇဲယျ ဆက်ဗ္တိုက်အာ ဍုင်ဇင်မာဲ ကေုာံ ဍုင်သေံတၞဟ်တုဲ ဇင်မာဲ ဒးဒုင်မံင်သၟဝ် ပလံင်အခေါင်ရ။ သၟိင်ဍုင်မတ္တမ ကဵု သၟိင်ထဝါဲလေဝ် ဒုင်ပလံင်အခေါင်ကီုရ။
=== ဍုင်သေံဇၞော် သၟေဟ်ဂမၠိုင် (၁၇၅၈ - ၁၇၅၉) ===
ပ္ဍဲ ၁၇၅၈ ဂှ် အံင်ဇဲယျ ဇက်ပၞာန် လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ မဒှ်သၟိင်ဍုင်သေံဇၞော် (အခိင်လၟုဟ် တွဵုရးကချေင် လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ ကဵု လပါ်ဗမံက်) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲကြုက်တအ် မသီကေတ်လဝ် နူ ၁၇၃၀တအ်ဂှ်ရ။ ၜိုတ် ၁၇၅၉ လပါ်စဂှ် ဒေသတအ်ဂှ် စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်တဲဗၟာ သီုဖအိုတ်ပၠန်ရ။ ဗွဲကြဴ ဒေသတအ်ဂှ် ကြုက်ကလေင်သီကေတ်ပၠန်ရ။
=== Cape Negrais (1759) ===
Alaungpaya then turned his attention to the East India Company (EIC) outpost at Cape Negrais at the southwestern tip of the Irrawaddy Delta. The British, concerned with the success of French-backed Hanthawaddy, had landed the island back in 1753, constructing a fort there. During the war with Hanthawaddy, Alaungpaya offered to cede the island to the British in return for military help. However, the British turned down Alaungpaya's offer, as they claimed they could not spare any arms because they too were engaged in their own war against the French. In 1758, Alaungpaya got the news that the East India Company's agents had sold ammunition and arms (500 muskets) to Mon rebels. (Historian GE Harvey claims that the news was a fabrication of Alaungpaya's advisers and that the arms provided were ''five'' muskets, not 500.) On 6 October 1759, a 2000-strong Konbaung battalion overran the fort, demolishing it as they withdrew.<ref name="geh-240" />
== External wars ==
=== Manipur (1756, 1758) ===
[[ဝှာင်:Cassay_horseman.gif|thumb|A Manipuri Cassay horseman in the service of Konbaung army]]
=== Siam (1759–1760) ===
[[ဝှာင်:Burmese-siamese-war-1759-1760.png|thumb|The main battle route in the Burmese-Siamese War]]
The Ayutthaya Kingdom was one of Southeast Asia's most wealthiest and most cosmopolitan polities in the 18th century. Prior to the Konbaung dynasty's rise, Ayutthaya Siam and Taungoo Burma had been relatively peaceful for over 150 years, with a brief period of hostilities when King Narai of Ayutthaya launched an ill-fated expedition to vassalize Burmese-aligned Lan Na in the mid 17th century. The Konbaung dynasty had harbored to seize Ayutthaya's wealth and resources for the benefit of its own rulers.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of Ayutthaya|date=11 May 2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-19076-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GHiuDgAAQBAJ|language=en}}</ref>
Siamese and Burmese interests in the Tenasserim have clashed on and off since the 16th century. Since the Burmese reconquest of Northern Tenasserim in the early 17th century, control of the economically lucreative Tenasserim coast was shared between Siam and Burma: Burma controlling the Northern Tenasserim ports of Mawlamyine and Tavoy while Siam controlled the Southern Tenasserim ports of Mergui and Tenasserim.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of Ayutthaya|date=11 May 2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-19076-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GHiuDgAAQBAJ|language=en}}</ref>
Ayutthaya's support of the Mon rebels against Upper Burma, particularly in the aftermath of the fall of Lower Burma encouraged Alaungpaya to attempt an all-out attack on Ayutthaya in order to end Ayutthaya as a formidable opponent against Alaungpaya's interests for internal security and in an attempt to recreate Bayinnaung's conquests.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of Siam|date=1924|publisher=T. Fisher Unwin|url=https://archive.org/details/ost-history-historyofsiam035038mbp/page/n269/mode/2up?view=theater|language=English}}</ref>
=== Invasion of Ayutthaya ===
After the rainy season of 1759, Alaungpaya and his armies returned to the south to deal with the still-unstable Lower Burma. One year back, a major Mon rebellion broke out, temporarily driving out the Konbaung governor of Pegu (Bago). Although the rebellion was put down, Mon resistance was still operating in the [[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်|upper Tenasserim coast]] (present-day Mon State), where Konbaung control was still largely nominal. Siam provided shelter to the rebel leaders and their resistance troops. Alaungpaya sought assurances from the Siamese king that they would not intervene in the Burmese affairs and to surrender rebel leadership. But the Siamese king refused Burmese demands and prepared for war.
In December 1759, Alaungpaya's 40,000-strong Burmese army left Martaban to invade Siam via Tenasserim. His second son, Hsinbyushin was his deputy. The Burmese occupied the town of Tenasserim, moved eastward over the Tenasserim Hills to the shore of the Gulf of Siam, turned north and captured the coastal towns, Kuwi, Pran Buri, and Phetchaburi. Siamese resistance stiffened as the Burmese approached the capital of Ayutthaya, but nonetheless, they were driven back with heavy losses in men, guns, and ammunition.
The Burmese armies reached Ayutthaya in April 1760. Only five days into the siege, however, Alaungpaya suddenly fell ill. Thai sources say he was wounded by a cannon shell explosion while he was inspecting the cannon corps at the front, but Burmese sources state clearly that he fell ill, and given the inglorious nature of death by illness it is unlikely they were trying to hide the truth. His ailment has been stated as "dysentery" or "scrofula"
The Burmese began their retreat on 17 April 1760 (3rd waxing of Kason 1122 ME). Only Minkhaung Nawrahta's 6000 men and 500 Cassay cavalrymen remained as the rearguard, successfully fending off Siamese attacks along the route of retreat.
Although the Burmese did not achieve the ultimate objective of toppling Ayutthaya, they formally annexed the upper Tenasserim coast and shifted the border down the coast at least to the Dawei-Myeik corridor.
== Death ==
[[ဝှာင်:Alaungpaya's_tomb,_Shwebo.jpg|thumb|Alaungpaya's tomb in Shwebo.]]
Alaungpaya died on Sunday, 11 May 1760 (12th waning of Kason 1122 ME) at the dawn, at Kinywa, near Martaban, after being rushed back from the Siamese front by the advance guard. He had longed for the sights and sounds of home, Shwebo for one last time but it was not to be. His death was made public at Yangon, and his body was taken upstream on a state barge. At Kyaukmyaung landing stage near Shwebo, the whole court came out to meet it, and bore it solemnly through the Hlaingtha Gate of Shwebo. He was buried with the ritual of the kings in the palace city, which once had been his lowly village, amid the mourning of an entire people. He had reigned only eight years, and was not yet 46 when he died. Historian Harvey writes that "men are remembered by the years they use, not by the years they last".
Alaungpaya was succeeded by his eldest son, Naungdawgyi, despite his second son Hsinbyushin's attempt to take over the throne.
== Administration ==
=== Government ===
Alaungpaya spent most of his reign in the military campaigns. For the administration of his newly acquired territories, he largely continued the policies of the Restored Taungoo kings—the most important aspect of which was to reduce the number of hereditary viceroyships. Aware that hereditary viceroyships were a constant cause of instability, the king appointed governors in most of his newly conquered territories throughout the Irrawaddy valley. By and large, he reappointed existing governors if they submitted to him without a fight. In fact, most ethnic Mon governors of the south retained their position. He appointed only three viceroys: one at the Seven Hill Districts (present-day Magway Region centered around Mindon), another at Taungoo and the other at Bago, and none of them was hereditary. He made the viceroyships only because of his special personal relationships with those men. (The viceroy of Taungoo was his younger brother, for example. After the death of the incumbents, the offices automatically became governorships.) In accordance with the Taungoo policy, he allowed hereditary viceroyships only in the peripheral regions like the Shan States and Lan Na. (Later Konbaung kings would gradually reduce the number of hereditary viceroyships even in the Shan States.)
One key policy change that Alaungpaya initiated, and followed by latter Konbaung kings, was the establishment of military colonies and civilian settlement in Lower Burma. This policy would prove instrumental in eclipsing the Mon civilization by the early 19th century.
=== Infrastructure ===
[[ဝှာင်:Shwebo_Palace.jpg|thumb|Shwebo Palace]]
[[ဝှာင်:Yangon_at_night.jpg|thumb|Yangon today]]
Most of the non-military work he commissioned came during a few brief hiatuses between campaigns. In 1752, he designated Shwebo as the capital of his kingdom and enlarged what once was a mid-size village into a sizable city. He built a palace on the model of those erected by the ancient kings. In 1758, he built the Mahananda Lake to supply Shwebo with water. He also built canals by damming the Mu river for agriculture but the work decayed after his death.
His most significant and enduring work was the founding of Yangon. After he conquered the pagoda town of Dagon in 1755, he added settlements with people from his home region. (The Mu-valley place names like Ahlon and Kyaukmyaung still endure to this date in Yangon.) By the eve of the First Anglo-Burmese War, Yangon had replaced Syriam (Thanlyin) as the chief port city of the kingdom.
=== Judiciary ===
For the land of the law, in 1755 he commissioned the ''Manu Kye dhammathat'' (lit. Manu Kye Law Book), a compilation of existing laws and customs, and of the rulings preserved in previous law books. Although the law book was poorly arranged and offered little explanations on contradictory passages, it attained enormous popularity, owing to its encyclopedic nature and to its being written in simple [[ဘာသာဗၟာ|Burmese]] with little Pali.
=== Leadership style ===
Alaungpaya was a charismatic military "leader of the first quality" who deeply inspired his people to do greater things. He was lavish in his praise and rewards but also merciless in failure. According to GE Harvey, "men felt that when he led them they could not fail", and "to be named at one of his investitures was the ambition of men's lives."
== Legacy ==
[[ဝှာင်:Pyinoolwin_--_DSA_Alaungpaya.JPG|left|thumb|Statue of Alaungpaya in front of the DSA]]
=== Rise of Konbaung Dynasty ===
The most important legacy of Alaungpaya was the restoration of central rule in Burma for the first time in four decades, and the rise of the Konbaung Dynasty. Alaungpaya, according to the Burmese historian Htin Aung, led a people "divided and broken, humiliated and ashamed" and "left to his successors a people united and confident, holding up their heads again in pride and in glory". But Htin Aung also cautions that Alaungpaya "had led his people in waging war but his leadership was still sorely needed to wage a peace. He had roused his people to the fever heat of nationalism but he was denied the time and the opportunity to calm them down to tolerance and restraint". Indeed, overconfident Konbaung kings that followed him would go to war with all the neighbors in the next seven decades on their way to founding the second-largest Burmese empire, until they were defeated by the British in present-day northeastern India.{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}
=== Charges of Bamar nationalism ===
Alaungpaya has also been named as the first king of Burma to consciously manipulate ethnic identity as a means to military and political domination. To date, Mon nationalists hold him accountable for the utter destruction of the Mon country, and the end of centuries-long Mon dominance of Lower Burma. According to one Mon nationalist historian, "the racial oppression practiced by Alaungpaya was worse than that of previous kings. He ended the cultural autonomy adopted by the Burmese rulers of the Pagan era, and by kings Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung, and colonized the Mon state".
The charges need to be balanced with the fact that Alaungpaya was merely reacting to what historian Victor Lieberman calls "dismally self-defeating" policy of ethnic polarization of the Restored Hanthawaddy. It was the self-professed Mon kingdom that first attacked his homeland in 1752 and had begun persecutions and pogroms against Bamars in the south since 1740. The upstart southern kingdom had portrayed itself "as a quintessentially Mon kingdom, ordained by prophecy, wherein Mon language and cultural symbols would enjoy pride of place, and the Burman north would become a tributary". About 8,000 Bamars were massacred in 1740 alone. After executing scores of Avan captives in 1754, the Hanthawaddy leadership obliged all Bamars to wear an earring with the stamp of the Bago heir-apparent and to cut their hair in Mon fashion as a sign of loyalty to the southern kingdom. Moreover, while Alaungpaya was merciless in his sacks of Thanlyin and Bago where the moats "ran red with gore", elsewhere he reappointed Mon governors who submitted.
In all, Alaungpaya's rule of Lower Burma lasted less than two years, most of which he spent elsewhere fighting. Indeed, it was the latter kings of Konbaung that increasingly suppressed Mon culture with each rebellion in 1762, 1774, 1783, 1792, and 1824–1826.
=== မရှ်ေသှ်ေ ===
[[ဝှာင်:Pyinoolwin_--_DSA_Front_Gate.JPG|left|thumb|300x300px|Statue of Alaungpaya (far right) along with the statues of Anawrahta (far left) and Bayinnaung (middle) in front of the DSA.]]
Alaungpaya, as the founder of the Third Burmese Empire, is considered one of the three greatest Burmese kings, alongside Anawrahta and Bayinnaung, the founders of the First and Second Burmese Empires, respectively.
* Team Alaungpaya, one of the five student teams in Burmese schools
* Statue of Alaungpaya is one of three statues of kings that towers over the Naypyidaw square. The other two are the statues of Anawrahta and Bayinnaung.
* Statue of Alaungpaya is one of three statues of kings in front of the Defence Services Academy. The other two are the statues of Anawrahta and Bayinnaung.
* UMS Aung Zeya, Myanmar Navy Frigate
* [[Aung Zeya Bridge]], a suspension bridge in Yangon
* [[Aung Zeya Road]], a road in Yangon
* The Golden Letter of King Alaungpaya to King George ll of Great Britain of 7 May 1756 was inscribed into the UNESCO Memory of the World register. It contains a proposal for trade between the two countries, with text engraved on a pure gold leaf, decorated with 24 rubies, which is the sole surviving golden letter from Burma.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Golden Letter of the Burmese King Alaungphaya to King George II of Great Britain {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-8/the-golden-letter-of-the-burmese-king-alaungphaya-to-king-george-ii-of-great-britain/}}</ref>
== ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ==
=== ဂၞကျာ်ဂမၠိုင် ===
# Me Yun San, Chief Queen
# Shin Pyei
# Shin Min Du
# Thida Mahay
# Shin Kla
# Shin Shwe Kho Gyi
# Shin Shwe Kho Gale
=== ကောန်တြုဟ်ဂမၠိုင် ===
# Naungdawgyi, 1734–1763
# Hsinbyushin, 1736–1776
# [[Amyint Mintha]], 1743–1777
# Bodawpaya, 1745–1819
# [[Pakhan Mintha]], 1749–1802
# [[Sitha Mintha]], 1753–1782
# [[Pindale Mintha]], 1754–1785
# [[Myingun Mintha]], d. 1804
# Kodaw-gyi, died young
# Myawaddy Mintha, d. 1792
=== ကောန်ဝုတ်ဂမၠိုင် ===
# Khin Myat Hla, died young
# Me Tha, Sri Maha Mangala Devi, Princess of Kanni, b. 1738
# Me Myat Hla, 1745–1788
# Me Sin, Princess of Bago, 1747–1767
# Me Minkhaung, Princess of Pandaung
# Min Shwe Hmya, Princess of Zindaw, b. 1754
# Me Nyo Mya, Princess of Pin
== တင်စၟတ် ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== ပြကိုဟ် ==
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*
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* {{Cite book|last=Phayre|first=Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P.|title=History of Burma|year=1883|publisher=Susil Gupta|location=London}}
* {{Cite book|last=Royal Historical Commission of Burma|title=[[Hmannan Yazawin]]|year=1832|location=Yangon|publisher=Ministry of Information, Myanmar}}
* {{Cite book|last=South|first=Ashley|title=Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: the Golden Sheldrake|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2003}}
== လေန် မ္ၚး ==
* [http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/10288/1/Baker_Account.pdf Capt. George Baker, Observations at Persaim and in the Journey to Ava and Back in 1755]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} SOAS
* [[iarchive:TreatyBetweenAlaung-hpayaAndTheBritishEastIndiaCompanyIn1757|Treaty between Alaung-hpaya and the British East India Company in 1757]] SOAS
* {{Cite web|url=http://web.soas.ac.uk/burma/pdf/Lester.pdf|title=Robert Lester, Proceedings of an Embassy to the King of Ava, Pegu, &C. in 1757}} SOAS
* {{Cite web|url=http://web.soas.ac.uk/burma/pdf/Alves1.pdf|title=Capt. Walter Alves, Diary of the Proceedings of an Embassy to Burma in 1760|accessdate=2023-02-28|archivedate=2007-01-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070103042208/http://web.soas.ac.uk/burma/pdf/Alves1.pdf}} SOAS
* Michael Symes, [http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs09/4.1Symes-red.pdf An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava, sent by the Governor-General of India, in the year 1795], detailed descriptions of Alaungpaya's military campaigns in the south during the 1750s.
* [http://der-goldene-brief.gwlb.de/index.php?id=280 The Golden Letter of King Alaungphaya to King Georg II.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323135035/http://der-goldene-brief.gwlb.de/index.php?id=280 |date=2022-03-23 }}, 7 May 1756, description by the Lower Saxony State Library, owner of the letter (German)
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Konbaung Dynasty]]|24 August|1714|11 May|1760}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Mahadhammaraza Dipadi]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Burmese monarchs|King of Burma]]|years=29 February 1752{{snd}}11 May 1760}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Naungdawgyi]]}}
{{s-end}}
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပြန်လည်မဆန်းစစ်ရသေးသော ဘာသာပြန်များပါဝင်သည့် စာမျက်နှာများ]]
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အဖဂါန်နိသတာန်
0
6228
57192
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2026-08-10T14:19:29Z
InternetArchiveBot
1698
Add 9 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260809)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]
57192
wikitext
text/x-wiki
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
| common_name = Afghanistan
| native_name = {{unbulleted list|{{native name|ps|د افغانستان اسلامي امارت|italic=no}}<br />{{small|{{transliteration|ps|Də Afġānistān Islāmī Imārat}}}}|{{native name|prs|امارت اسلامی افغانستان|italic=no}}<br />{{small|{{transliteration|prs|Imārat-i Islāmī-yi Afghānistān}}}}}}
| image_flag = Flag of Taliban.svg
| flag_caption = Flag
| image_coat = Arms of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.svg
| alt_coat = Coat of Arms of the Islamic Emirate<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://law.acku.edu.af/fa/download/file/fa/12686/77746 |title=Archived copy |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=3 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603201955/http://law.acku.edu.af/fa/download/file/fa/12686/77746 |url-status=dead |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=3 June 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603201955/http://law.acku.edu.af/fa/download/file/fa/12686/77746 }}</ref>
| symbol_type = [[Emblem of Afghanistan|Emblem]]
| national_anthem = {{lang|ps|دا د باتورانو کور}}<br />{{transliteration|ps|Dā Də Bātorāno Kor}}<br />"[[This Is the Home of the Brave]]"<ref name="Tharoor">{{Cite news|last=Tharoor|first=Ishaan|date=19 June 2013|title=The Taliban's Qatar Office: Are Prospects for Peace Already Doomed?|magazine=Time|url=https://world.time.com/2013/06/19/the-talibans-qatar-office-are-prospects-for-peace-already-doomed/|access-date=19 August 2021|issn=0040-781X|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=19 August 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819021327/https://world.time.com/2013/06/19/the-talibans-qatar-office-are-prospects-for-peace-already-doomed/}}</ref>{{parabr}}
| image_map = {{switcher|[[File:Afghanistan (orthographic projection).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Afghanistan on the globe|[[File:Afghanistan - Location Map (2013) - AFG - UNOCHA.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Map of Afghanistan}}
| capital = [[Kabul]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|34|31|N|69|11|E|region:AF_source:geonames|display=inline,title}}<ref>[{{geonameslink|gnid=1149361|name=islamic-republic-of-afghanistan}} Islamic Republic of Afghanistan] in [{{geonamesabout}} Geonames.org (CC BY)]</ref>
| largest_city = Kabul
| official_languages = {{hlist|[[Pashto]]|[[Dari]]}}
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list
| 42% [[Pashtun]]
| 27% [[Tajiks|Tajik]]
| {{figure space}}9% [[Hazaras|Hazara]]
| {{figure space}}9% [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]]
| {{figure space}}4% [[Aimaq people|Aimaq]]
| {{figure space}}3% [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]]
| {{figure space}}2% [[Baloch people|Baloch]]
| {{figure space}}4% [[Ethnic groups in Afghanistan|Others]]
}}
| ethnic_groups_ref = {{Efn|The last census in Afghanistan was conducted in 1979, and was itself incomplete. Due to the [[Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)|ongoing conflict]] in the country, no official census has been conducted since.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://afghanistan.unfpa.org/en/node/15230|title = Population Matters|date = 3 March 2016|accessdate = 13 March 2023|archivedate = 16 August 2021|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20210816021136/https://afghanistan.unfpa.org/en/node/15230}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/afghanistans-ethnic-mosaic/articleshow/85552093.cms
| title=Afghanistan's ethnic mosaic| author=timesofindia| website=[[The Times of India]]| date= 23 August 2021| publisher= | via=}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web | url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/afghanistan-population
| title="Afghanistan Population 2021"| author=World Population Review| date= 19 September 2021| publisher= | via=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1258799/afghanistan-share-of-population-by-ethnic-group/
| title=Distribution of Afghan population by ethnic group 2020| author=statista.com| date= 20 August 2021| publisher= | via=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghan-ethnic-groups-brief-investigation
| title=Afghan Ethnic Groups: A Brief Investigation| author=reliefweb.int| date= 14 August 2011| publisher= | via=}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups_year = 2019 unofficial estimates
| religion = {{unbulleted list
| 99.7% [[Islam in Afghanistan|Islam]] ([[State religion|official]])
| 0.3% [[Demographics of Afghanistan#Religion|Others]]
}}
| religion_year = 2009
| demonym = [[Afghans|Afghan]]{{Efn|Other demonyms that have been used are Afghani,<ref>Dictionary.com. [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]], Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghani Reference.com] (Retrieved 13 November 2007).</ref> Afghanese and Afghanistani (see [[Afghans]] for further details)<ref>Dictionary.com. [[WordNet]] 3.0. [[Princeton University]]. [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistani Reference.com] (Retrieved 13 November 2007). {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328102257/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistani |date=28 March 2014}}</ref>|name="Demonym"|group="Note"}}<ref name="Constitution of Afghanistan">{{cite web|title=Constitution of Afghanistan|url=https://www.afghanembassy.us/about-afghanistan/constitution/|year=2004|access-date=16 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920112856/http://www.afghanembassy.us/about-afghanistan/constitution/|archive-date=20 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Afghan {{!}} meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |publisher=the Cambridge English Dictionary |isbn=9781107660151 |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/afghan }}</ref>
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[totalitarian]]<ref>*{{cite journal |last1=Sakhi |first1=Nilofar |title=The Taliban Takeover in Afghanistan and Security Paradox |journal=Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs |date=December 2022 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=383–401 |doi=10.1177/23477970221130882 |s2cid=253945821 |quote=Afghanistan is now controlled by a militant group that operates out of a totalitarian ideology.}}
*{{cite web |last1=Madadi |first1=Sayed |title=Dysfunctional centralization and growing fragility under Taliban rule |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/dysfunctional-centralization-and-growing-fragility-under-taliban-rule |website=[[Middle East Institute]] |access-date=28 November 2022 |date=6 September 2022 |quote=In other words, the centralized political and governance institutions of the former republic were unaccountable enough that they now comfortably accommodate the totalitarian objectives of the Taliban without giving the people any chance to resist peacefully. }}
*{{cite web |last1=Sadr |first1=Omar |title=Afghanistan's Public Intellectuals Fail to Denounce the Taliban |url=https://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/omar-sadr-afghanistan-taliban-rule-totalitarianism-human-rights-news-2441/ |website=Fair Observer |access-date=28 November 2022 |date=23 March 2022 |quote=The Taliban government currently installed in Afghanistan is not simply another dictatorship. By all standards, it is a totalitarian regime. }}
*{{cite web |title=Dismantlement of the Taliban regime is the only way forward for Afghanistan |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/southasiasource/dismantlement-of-the-taliban-regime-is-the-only-way-forward-for-afghanistan/ |website=[[Atlantic Council]] |access-date=28 November 2022 |date=8 September 2022 |quote=As with any other ideological movement, the Taliban's Islamic government is transformative and totalitarian in nature. }}
*{{cite web |last1=Akbari |first1=Farkhondeh |title=The Risks Facing Hazaras in Taliban-ruled Afghanistan |url=https://extremism.gwu.edu/risks-facing-hazaras-taliban-ruled-afghanistan |website=[[George Washington University]] |access-date=28 November 2022 |date=7 March 2022 |quote=In the Taliban's totalitarian Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, there is no meaningful political inclusivity or representation for Hazaras at any level. |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=14 January 2023 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114164914/https://extremism.gwu.edu/risks-facing-hazaras-taliban-ruled-afghanistan }}</ref> [[provisional government|provisional]] [[theocratic]] [[Islamic state|Islamic]] [[emirate]]<!--Non-monarchical emirate--><ref>
*{{cite news |last1=Choi |first1=Joseph |title=EU: Provisional Taliban government does not fulfill promises |url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/571292-eu-provisional-taliban-government-does-not-fulfill-promises |access-date=18 March 2022 |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=8 September 2021}}
*{{cite news |last1=Bezhan |first1=Frud |title=Key Figures In The Taliban's New Theocratic Government |url=https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-government-figures/31448372.html |access-date=6 February 2022 |work=[[Radio Farda]] |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |date=7 September 2021}}
*{{cite news |last1=George |first1=Susannah |title=Inside the Taliban campaign to forge a religious emirate |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2023/afghanistan-taliban-islamic-law-rights/ |access-date=19 February 2023 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=18 February 2023}}</ref>
| leader_title1 = [[Supreme Leader of Afghanistan|Supreme Leader]]
| leader_name1 = {{nowrap|[[Hibatullah Akhundzada]]}}
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Hasan Akhund]] ([[Acting prime minister|acting]])
| leader_title3 = [[Chief Justice of Afghanistan|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name3 = [[Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai]]
| legislature = [[Leadership Council of Afghanistan|Leadership Council]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan's Taliban ruler faces rare internal criticism, revealing divisions |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/afghanistan-taliban-divisions-supreme-leader-akhundzada-rare-criticism/ |access-date=19 February 2023 |work=[[CBS News]] |date=17 February 2023 |quote=Its commanders and politicians take their orders from a powerful leadership council based not in the capital of Kabul, but in the Taliban's traditional homeland of Kandahar, in southern Afghanistan.}}</ref>
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Afghanistan|Formation]]
| established_event1 = [[Hotak dynasty]]
| established_date1 = [[Mirwais Hotak|1709]]–[[Siege of Kandahar|1738]]
| established_event2 = {{nowrap|[[Durrani Empire]]}}
| established_date2 = 1747–1823
| established_event3 = [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Emirate]]
| established_date3 = 1823–1839
| established_event4 = [[Durrani Empire|Restoration of the Durrani Kingdom]]
| established_date4 = [[First Anglo-Afghan War|1839–1842]]
| established_event5 = [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Restoration of the Emirate]]
| established_date5 = [[First Anglo-Afghan War|1842–1926]]
| established_event6 = [[Dost Mohammad Khan|Dost Mohammad unites Afghanistan]]
| established_date6 = [[Herat Campaign of 1862–63|27 May 1863]]
| established_event7 = [[Treaty of Gandamak|Anglo-Afghan Agreement]]
| established_date7 = [[Second Anglo-Afghan War|26 May 1879]]
| established_event8 = [[Third Anglo-Afghan War|Independence]]
| established_date8 = [[Afghan Independence Day|19 August 1919]]
| established_event9 = [[Kingdom of Afghanistan|Kingdom]]
| established_date9 = 9 June 1926
| established_event10 = [[Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)|Republic]]
| established_date10 = [[1973 Afghan coup d'état|17 July 1973]]
| established_event11 = [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Democratic Republic]]
| established_date11 = [[Saur Revolution|27–28 April 1978]]
| established_event12 = [[Islamic State of Afghanistan|Islamic State]]
| established_date12 = 28 April 1992
| established_event13 = [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Islamic Emirate]]
| established_date13 = 27 September 1996
| established_event14 = {{nowrap|[[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan|Islamic Republic]]}}
| established_date14 = 26 January 2004
| established_event15 = [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|Restoration of Islamic Emirate]]
| established_date15 = 15 August 2021
| area_km2 = 652,867<ref>Central Statistics Office Afghanistan</ref>
| area_rank = 40th
| area_sq_mi = 252,072
| percent_water = negligible
| population_estimate = 38,346,720<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Afghanistan|access-date=24 September 2022|year=2022}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2022
| population_estimate_rank = 37th
| population_density_km2 = 48.08
| population_density_sq_mi = 119
| population_density_rank = 174th
| GDP_PPP = $72.911 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=63&pr.y=8&sy=2018&ey=2023&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Afghanistan |publisher=International Monetary Fund |access-date=14 November 2018}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2018
| GDP_PPP_rank = 96th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,024<ref name="imf2"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 169th
| GDP_nominal = $21.657 billion<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2018
| GDP_nominal_rank = 111st
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $493<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 177th
| HDI = 0.478<!-- number only -->
| HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year -->
| HDI_change = decrease<!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022: Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping our Future in a Transforming World|date=2022|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|pages=284|isbn=9789211264517|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="UNHDRDiff">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 180th
| currency = [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] ({{lang|prs|افغانی}})
| currency_code = AFN
| time_zone = [[Afghanistan Time]]
| utc_offset = +4:30<br />[[Lunar Hijri calendar|Lunar Calendar]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=8am |date=2022-03-26 |title=Taliban Changes Solar Year to Hijri Lunar Calendar |url=https://8am.af/eng/taliban-changes-solar-year-to-hijri-lunar-calendar/ |access-date=2022-09-04 |website=Hasht-e Subh Daily |language=en-US |accessdate=2023-03-13 |archivedate=2022-09-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904224713/https://8am.af/eng/taliban-changes-solar-year-to-hijri-lunar-calendar/ }}</ref>
| DST_note = ''[[Daylight saving time|DST]] is not observed''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timeanddate.com/time/time-zones-interesting.html|title=Half Hour and 45-Minute Time Zones|website=www.timeanddate.com}}</ref>
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Afghanistan|+93]]
| cctld = [[.af]]<br />[[افغانستان.]]
| status = [[UN member state]] under an [[Recognition of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|unrecognized government]]
| today =
}}
'''အဖဂါန္နိသတာန်''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Afghanistan.ogg|æ|f|ˈ|ɡ|æ|n|ᵻ|s|t|æ|n|,_|æ|f|ˈ|ɡ|ɑː|n|ᵻ|s|t|ɑː|n}}}} ယၟုပေင်ပေင် ပ္ဍဲသၞောဝ်မ္ဂး '''ဍုင်စောဖါအေဿလာမ် အဖဂါန်န္နိသတာန် (Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan)''',{{efn|{{bulleted list|{{lang-ps|د افغانستان اسلامي امارت}}|{{lang-prs|امارت اسلامی افغانستان}}}}}} ဒှ် နိဂီုကမၠက် မနွံမွဲဒမြိပ်ဂၠံင် လဒေါဝ်အာရှ ကေုာံ အာရှသၠုင်ကျာ။ မစၟတ်သမ္တီ မဒှ်ဍုင်လဒေါဝ်ဂြိုဟ်အာရှ၊<ref>{{Cite web|title=Securing Stability in Afghanistan, the 'Heart of Asia'|url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/11/securing-stability-in-afghanistan-the-heart-of-asia/|access-date=2022-02-25|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US}}</ref> မဒှ်ဍုင် ပယျဵု ဆက်ကု ဍုင်ပါကိသတာန် ဗွဲဒိုဟ် ဗမံက် ကဵု သၠုင်ကျာ၊{{efn|The [[Government of India]] regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all of [[Kashmir]] to be part of India. However, this is [[Kashmir conflict|disputed]], and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. Source: {{cite web |title=Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management) |url=https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf|access-date=1 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150317182910/https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf|archive-date=17 March 2015|url-status=dead}}}} အဳရာန် ဗွဲဒိုဟ်ပလိုတ်၊ တုခ်မေန်နိသတာန် ဗွဲဒိုဟ် ဗာယပ်၊ ဥဇဗေကိသတာန် ဗွဲဒိုဟ် သၟဝ်ကျာ၊ တာဇိကိသတာန် ဗွဲဒိုဟ်ဨသာန်၊ တုဲပၠန် ဍုင်ကြုက်ဂှ် ဗွဲဒိုဟ်ဨသာန် ကေုာံ ဗမံက်။ သမၠဲတိ နွံ ၆၅၂,၈၆၄ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာပန်ကၠင် (၂၅၂,၀၇၂ တိုင်ပန်ကၠင်)၊ နိဂီုကရေက် လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ ကဵု နေရတိဂှ် ဒှ်ဒေသကုန်ဒဵုဂမၠိုင် မဒှ်ဓရောင်ဒဵု ဟိန္ဒုကုရှ် (Hindu Kush)ရ။ ကာဗူ ဂှ် ဒှ်ဍုင်ဇၞော်အိုတ်တုဲ ဒှ်ဍုင်ရာဇဌာန်ရ။ အတိုင်စရင် နူသၞာံ ၂၀၂၁မ္ဂး လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲအဖဂါန္နိသတာန်ဂှ် နွံ ၄၀,၂ မဳလဳယာန်၊<ref name=":2" /> (နွံစ ၜိုတ် ၃၂,၉ မဳလဳယာန်<ref>{{cite report|title=د هېواد د وګړو اټکل برآورد نفوس کشور1399|language=ar,en|trans-title=Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2020–21|url=https://www.nsia.gov.af:8080/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B3-%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1-%DB%B1%DB%B3%DB%B9%DB%B9-%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AE%DB%80-%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703171906/https://www.nsia.gov.af:8080/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B3-%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1-%DB%B1%DB%B3%DB%B9%DB%B9-%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AE%DB%80-%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84.pdf|archive-date=3 July 2020|access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>) မဒက်ပ္တန်လဝ် နကဵု ဂကူနာနာ ဂကူပါသတုန်၊ တာဂျိတ်၊ ဟာဇရာသ်၊ ဥဇဗေက်၊ တူကမာန်၊ ကဳဇဳဗေသ် composed of ethnic ပါသတုန် (Pashtuns)၊ တာဂျိတ် (Tajiks)၊ ဟာဇရာသ် (Hazaras)၊ ဥဇဗေက် (Uzbeks)၊ တူကမာန် (Turkmens)၊ ကဳဇဳဗေသ် (Qizilbash)၊ အာဲမက် (Aimak)၊ ပါရှယဳ (Pashayi)၊ ဗလောက် (Baloch)၊ ပမိရိသ် (Pamiris)၊ နုရိသတာန်နိ (Nuristanis) ကေုာံ ဂကူတၞဟ်တအ်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲဒေသ အဖဂါန္နိသတာန်ဂှ် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် စပဒတဴကၠုင် နူကဵု အခိင်ခေတ်တၟိလဒေါဝ်၊ တုဲပၠန် ရးနိဂီုဂှ် နွံတန်တဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲမွဲဒမြိပ် ဂၠံင်သုတ် မဒှ်ဂၠံင် မလုပ်ဝင်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲမွဲဒမြိပ်ဂၠံင်ဂှ် နွံကဵု အာဲတၟာဲယေန်သၞာင်တြေံဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-17443-0_1|doi = 10.1007/978-1-349-17443-0_1|chapter = The Land and the People in History|title = Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964–83|year = 1984|last1 = Hyman|first1 = Anthony|pages = 3–22|isbn = 978-0-333-36353-9}}</ref> Popularly referred to as the [[graveyard of empires]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pillalamarri|first=Akhilesh|title=Why Is Afghanistan the 'Graveyard of Empires'?|url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/06/why-is-afghanistan-the-graveyard-of-empires/|access-date=2022-02-25|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US}}</ref> the land has historically been home to various peoples and [[Invasions of Afghanistan|has witnessed numerous military campaigns]], including those by [[Persian empire|the Persians]], [[Alexander the Great]], the [[Maurya Empire]], [[Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|Arab Muslims]], the [[Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire|Mongols]], the [[European influence in Afghanistan#The Great Game|British]], the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet Union]], and most recently by [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|a US-led coalition]]. Afghanistan also served as the source from which the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrians]] and the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], amongst others, rose to form major empires.<ref name="Galvin-PreIslamic">{{cite web |url=http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/PreIslamic.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011103002246/http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/PreIslamic.html |archivedate=3 November 2001|title=The Pre-Islamic Period |publisher=Illinois Institute of Technology |work=Afghanistan Country Study |first=Luke |last=Griffin |date=14 January 2002 |access-date=14 October 2010}}</ref> The various conquests and periods in both the [[Greater Iran|Iranian]] and [[Greater India|Indian]] cultural spheres<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|last=Denise Cush |first= Catherine Robinson, Michael York|year=2012|page=200|isbn=9781135189792|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA200}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The remarkable rugs of war, Drill Hall Gallery|date=30 July 2021|publisher=The Australian|url=https://amp.theaustralian.com.au/arts/review/the-remarkable-rugs-of-war-drill-hall-gallery/news-story/49fb932f8be798b1641425be98e4e0db|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122182853/https://amp.theaustralian.com.au/arts/review/the-remarkable-rugs-of-war-drill-hall-gallery/news-story/49fb932f8be798b1641425be98e4e0db|archive-date=22 November 2021|access-date=22 November 2021|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> made the area a center for [[Zoroastrianism]], Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam throughout history.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.redlandsdailyfacts.com/2021/09/15/professing-faith-religious-traditions-in-afghanistan-are-diverse/|title=Professing Faith: Religious traditions in Afghanistan are diverse|date=16 September 2021}}</ref>
The modern state of Afghanistan began with the [[Durrani dynasty]] in the 18th century, with the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Afghan Empire]] being formed by [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]. The Durrani Empire led conquests in which, at its peak, encompassed land that spanned from [[eastern Iran]] to [[North India|northern India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghanistan: the land that forgot time|date=26 October 2001|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/26/afghanistan.terrorism11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Pashtun will outlast all empires, but can they hold Afghanistan's center?|date=30 September 2021|author=Pepe Escobar|url=https://thecradle.co/Article/columns/2260|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=10 October 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010074808/https://thecradle.co/Article/columns/2260}}</ref> However, {{Weasel inline|text=it is argued|date=February 2023}} that [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] laid the foundations of the [[Emirate of Afghanistan|first modern Afghan state]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=1995|title=DŌST MOḤAMMAD KHAN |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/dost-mohammad-khan |url-status=live |access-date=February 8, 2023|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> Following the Durrani Empire's decline and the death of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] and [[Timur Shah Durrani|Timur Shah]], it was divided into multiple smaller independent kingdoms, including but not limited to [[Herat (1793–1863)|Herat]], [[Principality of Qandahar|Kandahar]] and [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Kabul]]. Afghanistan would be reunited in the 19th century after seven decades of civil war from 1793 to 1863, with wars of unification led by [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] from 1823 to 1863, where he conquered the independent principalities of Afghanistan under the Emirate of Kabul. Dost Mohammad died in 1863, days after [[Herat Campaign of 1862–63|his last campaign to unite Afghanistan]], and Afghanistan was consequently [[Afghan Civil War (1863–1869)|thrown back into civil war]] with fighting amongst his successors. During this time, Afghanistan became a [[buffer state]] in the [[Great Game]] between the [[British Empire]] (in [[British Raj|British-ruled India]]) and the [[Russian Empire]]. From India, the British attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but were repelled in the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]]. However, the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] saw a British victory and the successful establishment of British political influence over Afghanistan. Following the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] in 1919, Afghanistan became free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged as the independent [[Kingdom of Afghanistan]] in June 1926 under [[Amanullah Khan]]. This monarchy lasted almost half a century, until [[Mohammed Zahir Shah|Zahir Shah]] was [[1973 Afghan coup d'état|overthrown in 1973]], following which the [[Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)|Republic of Afghanistan]] was established.
Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including [[Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)|coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars]]. The conflict began in 1978 when a [[Saur Revolution|communist revolution]] established a [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|socialist state]], and subsequent infighting prompted the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan]] in 1979. [[Mujahideen]] fought against the Soviets in the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] and [[Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)|continued]] [[Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)|fighting]] [[Afghan Civil War (1996-2001)|amongst themselves]] following the [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|Soviets' withdrawal in 1989]]. The [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalist]] [[Taliban]] controlled most of the country by 1996, but their [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]] received little international recognition before its overthrow in the 2001 [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|US invasion of Afghanistan]]. The Taliban returned to power in 2021 after [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|capturing Kabul]] and overthrowing the government of the [[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]], thus bringing an end to the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|2001–2021 war]].<ref name="CTC 2021">{{cite journal |author-last=Watkins |author-first=Andrew H. |date=November 2021 |url=https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/CTC-SENTINEL-092021.pdf |title=An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months |url-status=live |editor1-last=Cruickshank |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Hummel |editor2-first=Kristina |journal=[[CTC Sentinel]] |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1–14 |publisher=[[Combating Terrorism Center]] |location=[[West Point, New York]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129104726/https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/CTC-SENTINEL-092021.pdf |archive-date=29 November 2021 |access-date=29 November 2021 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129104726/https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/CTC-SENTINEL-092021.pdf |date=29 November 2021 }}</ref> Although initially claiming it would form an inclusive government for the country, in September 2021 the Taliban re-established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan with an [[interim government]] made up entirely of Taliban members.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-09 |title=Who Will Run the Taliban Government? |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/afghanistan/who-will-run-taliban-government |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=www.crisisgroup.org |language=en}}</ref> The Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Taliban: Unrecognized and unrepentant |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/taliban-unrecognized-and-unrepentant |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=Middle East Institute |language=en}}</ref>
Afghanistan is rich in natural resources, including [[lithium]], [[iron]], [[zinc]], and [[copper]]. It is also the world's largest producer of [[opium]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-24 |title=What's the Taliban's record on opium production? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58308494 |access-date=2022-05-07 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> second largest producer of [[cannabis]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Morocco seizes over 840 kg of cannabis – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-08/06/c_138288434.htm |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=www.xinhuanet.com}}</ref> and third largest of both [[saffron]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Afghanistan's Saffron on Media {{!}} AfGOV |url=https://www.mail.gov.af/en/afghanistan%E2%80%99s-saffron-media |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=www.mail.gov.af |accessdate=2023-03-13 |archivedate=2023-04-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408010552/https://www.mail.gov.af/en/afghanistan%E2%80%99s-saffron-media }}</ref> and [[Cashmere wool|cashmere]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taliban Takeover Puts Afghanistan's Cashmere, Silk Industries at Risk |url=https://www.businessoffashion.com/news/global-markets/taliban-takeover-puts-afghanistans-cashmere-silk-industries-at-risk/ |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=The Business of Fashion |language=en}}</ref> The country is a member of the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] and a founding member of the [[Organization of Islamic Cooperation]]. Due to the effects of war in recent decades, the country has dealt with high levels of [[terrorism]], [[Poverty in Afghanistan|poverty]], and [[Undernutrition in children|child malnutrition]]. Afghanistan's economy is the world's 96th-largest, with a [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) of $72.9 billion by [[purchasing power parity]]. However, Afghanistan remains among the world's [[least developed countries]], ranking 180th in the [[Human Development Index|Human development Index]], while its per capita GDP (PPP) ranks 169th out of 186 countries {{As of|2018|lc=y}}.
== Etymology ==
{{Main|Name of Afghanistan}}
Some scholars suggest that the [[Root (linguistics)|root]] name [[Afghan (ethnonym)|''Afghān'']] is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''[[Aśvaka]]n'', which was the name used for ancient inhabitants of the [[Hindu Kush]].<ref>
*''"The name Afghan has evidently been derived from Asvakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian... "'' (Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180. See also: Alexander's Invasion of India, p 38; J.W. McCrindle).
*''"Even the name Afghan is Aryan being derived from Asvakayana, an important clan of the Asvakas or horsemen who must have derived this title from their handling of celebrated breeds of horses"'' (See: Imprints of Indian Thought and Culture Abroad, p 124, Vivekananda Kendra Prakashan).
*cf: ''"Their name (Afghan) means "cavalier" being derived from the [[Sanskrit]], ''Asva'', or ''Asvaka'', a horse, and shows that their country must have been noted in ancient times, as it is at the present day, for its superior breed of horses. Asvaka was an important tribe settled north to Kabul river, which offered a gallant resistance but ineffectual resistance to the arms of Alexander "''(Ref: Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1999, p 275, Royal Scottish Geographical Society).
*''"Afghans are Assakani of the [[Greeks]]; this word being the [[Sanskrit]] [[Ashvaka]] meaning 'horsemen'"'' (Ref: Sva, 1915, p 113, Christopher Molesworth Birdwood).
*Cf: ''"The name represents Sanskrit Asvaka in the sense of a ''cavalier'', and this reappears scarcely modified in the Assakani or Assakeni of the historians of the expedition of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]"'' (Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial [[Anglo-Indian]] words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological..by Henry Yule, AD Burnell).</ref> ''Aśvakan'' literally means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or "[[cavalry]]men" (from ''[[aśva]]'', the [[Sanskrit]] and [[Avestan]] words for "[[horse]]").<ref>{{cite book |title=Ancient India |first=Ramesh Chandra |last=Majumdar |author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar |edition=Reprinted |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |orig-year=1952 |isbn=978-8-12080-436-4 |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC&pg=PA99}}</ref> However, others such as Ibrahim Khan have contended that the word Afghan comes from [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Khan |first=Ibrahim |date=2022-05-03 |title=په افغان ټکي کښې پټه کيسه |url=http://khyber.org/pacademy/journal3/index.php/path/article/view/265 |journal=Pashto |language=en |volume=51 |issue=663 |issn=2789-8342 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606020051/http://khyber.org/pacademy/journal3/index.php/path/article/view/265 |date=2022-06-06 }}</ref>
Historically, the ethnonym ''Afghān'' was used to refer to ethnic [[Pashtuns]].<ref name="Afghan">{{cite encyclopedia |author=Ch. M. Kieffer |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afgan-in-current-political-usage-any-citizen-of-afghanistan-whatever-his-ethnic-tribal-or-religious-affiliation |title=Afghan |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |edition=online |publisher=Columbia University |date=15 December 1983|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116233835/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afgan-in-current-political-usage-any-citizen-of-afghanistan-whatever-his-ethnic-tribal-or-religious-affiliation |archive-date=16 November 2013 }}</ref> The Arabic and Persian form of the name, ''Afġān'', was first attested in the 10th-century geography book ''[[Hudud al-'Alam]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Afghans|last1=Vogelsang|first1=Willem|year=2002|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|isbn=0-631-19841-5|page=18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9kfJ6MlMsJQC&pg=PA18|access-date=6 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709112010/https://books.google.com/books?id=9kfJ6MlMsJQC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA18|archive-date=9 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The last part of the name, "''[[-stan]]''", is a Persian suffix meaning "place of". Therefore, "Afghanistan" translates to "land of the Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns" in a historical sense. According to the third edition of the ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'':<ref>{{EI3|last=Nölle-Karimi|first=Christine|title=Afghanistan until 1747|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_24776|year=2020}}</ref>
{{blockquote|The name Afghanistan (Afghānistān, land of the Afghans / Pashtuns, ''afāghina'', sing. ''afghān'') can be traced to the early eighth/fourteenth century, when it designated the easternmost part of the [[Kartid]] realm. This name was later used for certain regions in the [[Safavid Iran|Ṣafavid]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] empires that were inhabited by Afghans. While based on a state-supporting elite of [[Durrani|Abdālī / Durrānī]] Afghans, the [[Durrani Empire|Sadūzāʾī Durrānī polity]] that came into being in 1160 / 1747 was not called Afghanistan in its own day. The name became a state designation only during the colonial intervention of the nineteenth century.}}
The term "Afghanistan" first appeared in 1855, during the reign of [[Dost Mohammad Khan]].{{sfn|Lee|2019|p=317}}
== Ancient history ==
{{Main|History of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Nomads in Badghis Province.jpg|thumb|Tents of [[Afghans|Afghan]] [[nomad]]s in the northern [[Badghis Province|Badghis province]] of Afghanistan. Early peasant farming villages came into existence in Afghanistan about 7,000 years ago.]]
Many empires and kingdoms have also risen to power in Afghanistan, such as the [[Greco-Bactrians]], [[Indo-Scythians]], [[Kushan]]s, [[Kidarites]], [[Hephthalites]], [[Alkhons]], [[Nezaks]], [[Zunbils]], [[Turk Shahi]]s, [[Hindu Shahi]]s, [[Lawiks]], [[Saffarids]], [[Samanids]], [[Ghaznavids]], [[Ghurids]], [[Khalji]]s, [[Kartids]], [[Lodi dynasty|Lodis]], [[Sur Empire|Surs]], [[Mughals]], and finally, the [[Hotak dynasty|Hotak]] and [[Durrani Empire|Durrani]] dynasties, which marked the political origins of the modern state.{{sfn|Runion|2007|page=44–49}} Throughout millennia several cities within the modern day Afghanistan served as capitals of various empires, namely, Bactra ([[Balkh]]), Alexandria on the Oxus ([[Ai-Khanoum]]), [[Kapisi]], [[Sigal, Sakastan|Sigal]], [[Kabul]], [[Kunduz]], [[Zaranj]], [[Firozkoh]], [[Herat]], Ghazna ([[Ghazni]]), Binban ([[Bamyan]]), and [[Kandahar]].
The country has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the [[ancient Iranian peoples]] who established the dominant role of [[Indo-Iranian languages]] in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within vast regional empires; among them the [[Achaemenid Empire]], the [[Macedonian Empire]], the [[Maurya Empire]], and the [[Islamic Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity|author=George Erdosy|page=321|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6ZRShEIFwMC|isbn=3110144476|date=1995}}</ref> For its success in resisting foreign occupation during the 19th and 20th centuries, Afghanistan has been called the "[[graveyard of empires]]",{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=255}} though it is unknown who coined the phrase.<ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0362-4331| last = Nordland| first = Rod| title = The Empire Stopper| work = The New York Times| date = 29 August 2017| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/29/world/asia/afghanistan-graveyard-empires-historical-pictures.html| quote = Afghanistan has long been called the "graveyard of empires" – for so long that it is unclear who coined that disputable term.| access-date = 18 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181205023840/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/29/world/asia/afghanistan-graveyard-empires-historical-pictures.html| archive-date = 5 December 2018| url-status = live}}</ref>
===Prehistory and antiquity===
{{Main|Ancient history of Afghanistan}}
Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to [[Egypt]] in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites.<ref name="JFS">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/text_761569370___42/Afghanistan.html |title=Afghanistan – John Ford Shroder, University of Nebraska |publisher=Encarta |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040717092902/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761569370___42/Afghanistan.html |archive-date=17 July 2004 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1881896-1,00.html |title=Afghanistan: A Treasure Trove for Archaeologists |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=26 February 2009 |access-date=13 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726153721/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C1881896-1%2C00.html |archive-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=dead |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=26 July 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726153721/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1881896-1,00.html }}</ref>
[[File:Indus Valley Civilization, Mature Phase (2600-1900 BCE).png|thumb| The extent of the [[Indus Valley civilization]] during its mature phase|upright=1.2]]
====Ancient era====
{{see also|Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan}}
[[Archaeological]] exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west, and north. Artifacts typical of the [[Paleolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age|Bronze]], and [[Iron Age]]s have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of [[Mundigak]] (near [[Kandahar]] in the south of the country) was a center of the [[Helmand culture]]. More recent findings established that the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilization today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. In more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the [[Oxus River]] at [[Shortugai]] in northern Afghanistan.<ref name="The Ancient Indus pp.1">{{cite book|title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society|page=1|author=Rita Wright|date=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ|isbn=978-0521576529|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628065355/https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ|archive-date=28 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. pp.96</ref> There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well. An Indus Valley site has been found on the [[Oxus River]] at [[Shortugai]] in northern Afghanistan, shows Afghanistan to have been a part of Indus Valley Civilization.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xjGtwAACAAJ|title=Notes on Shortugai: An Harappan Site in Northern Afghanistan|publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilization of Central Asia|author=Louis Depree|year=1981}}</ref>
After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were many [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]-speaking [[Indo-Iranians]]. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the [[Caspian Sea]]. The region at the time was referred to as [[Ariana]].<ref name="JFS" /><ref>Bryant, Edwin F. (2001) ''The quest for the origins of Vedic culture: the Indo-Aryan migration debate'' [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0-19-513777-4}}.</ref>
[[File:ScythianBelt.jpg|thumb|left|A "Bactrian gold" [[Scythian]] belt depicting [[Dionysus]], from [[Tillya Tepe]] in the ancient region of [[Bactria]]]]
By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the [[Medes]] and incorporated [[Arachosia]], [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]], and [[Bactria]] within its eastern boundaries. An [[Epigraphy|inscription]] on the tombstone of [[Darius I of Persia]] mentions the [[Kabulistan|Kabul Valley]] in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909000527/http://www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 September 2012 |title=Chronological History of Afghanistan – the cradle of Gandharan civilisation |publisher=Gandhara.com.au |date=15 February 1989 |access-date=19 May 2012 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=9 September 2012 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120909000527/http://www.gandhara.com.au/afghan_table.html }}</ref> The region of [[Arachosia]], around [[Kandahar]] in modern-day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to [[Persis|Persia]] and is thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism".<ref name="Gnoli 1989 133">{{Cite book|last=Gnoli|first=Gherado|title=The Idea of Iran, an Essay on its Origin|publisher=Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente|year=1989|pages=133|quote=... he would have drawn inspiration from a ireligious policy which intended to counteract the Median Magi's influence and transfer the 'Avesta-Schule' from Arachosia to Persia: thus the Avesta would have arrived in Persia through Arachosia in the 6th century B.C. [...] Alltough [...] Arachosia would have been only a second fatherland for Zoroastrianism, a significant role should still be attributed to this south-eastern region in the history of the Zoroastrian tradition.}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite book|last=Gnoli|first=Gherado|title=The Idea of Iran, an essay on its Origin|publisher=Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente|year=1989|pages=133|quote=linguistic data [...] prove the presence of the Zoroastrian tradition in Arachosia both in the Achaemenian age, in the last quarter of the 6th century, and in the Seleucid age.}}</ref><ref name="ARACHOSIA – Encyclopaedia Iranica">{{Cite web|title=ARACHOSIA – Encyclopaedia Iranica|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/arachosia|access-date=19 February 2021|website=iranicaonline.org}}</ref>
[[Alexander the Great]] and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating [[Darius III of Persia]] a year earlier in the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the [[Seleucid Empire]] controlled the region until 305 BCE when they gave much of it to the [[Maurya Empire]] as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of the [[Hindu Kush]] until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after [[Ashoka]]'s rule ended, leading to the [[Hellenistic]] reconquest by the [[Greco-Bactrians]]. Much of it soon broke away from them and became part of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]. They were defeated and expelled by the [[Indo-Scythians]] in the late 2nd century BCE.<ref name="LoC-pdf">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf |title=Country Profile: Afghanistan |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] on Afghanistan | date=August 2008 |access-date=10 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408085103/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf |archive-date=8 April 2014 }}</ref>{{sfn|Runion|2007|page=44}}
[[File:Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg|thumb|Approximate maximum extent of the [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]], formed by the fragmentation of [[Alexander the Great]]'s Empire, circa 180 BCE]]
{{ Annotated image
| image=Hephthalites (map).jpg
| = right
| annotations =
{{Annotation|75|80|[[Sasanian Empire|{{center|SASANIAN<br />EMPIRE}}]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|15|60|[[Byzantine Empire|{{center|BYZANTINE<br />EMPIRE}}]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|250|55|[[Northern Wei|{{center|NORTHERN<br />WEI}}]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|273|95|[[Liang dynasty|{{center|LIANG}}]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|155|90|[[Alchon Huns|{{center|Alchon<br />Huns}}]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|180|110|[[Gupta Empire|{{center|GUPTA<br />EMPIRE}}]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|230|27|[[Rouran Khaganate|JUAN-JUAN KHAGANATE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|190|13|[[Tiele people|Gaoju Turks]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
|caption= {{center|The Imperial [[Hephthalites]] c. 500 CE}}
}}
The [[Silk Road]] appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia and north to the cities of [[Bukhara]], [[Samarkand]] and [[Khiva]] in present-day Uzbekistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unama.unmissions.org/afghanistan-and-silk-road-land-heart-world-trade-bijan-omrani|title='Afghanistan and the Silk Road: The land at the heart of world trade' by Bijan Omrani|date=8 March 2010|website=UNAMA|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=16 August 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816022140/https://unama.unmissions.org/afghanistan-and-silk-road-land-heart-world-trade-bijan-omrani}}</ref> Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and trading [[lapis lazuli]] stones<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/countries-alongside-silk-road-routes/afghanistan|title=Afghanistan – Silk Roads Programme|website=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref> mainly from the [[Badakhshan]] region.
During the first century BCE, the [[Parthian Empire]] subjugated the region but lost it to their [[Indo-Parthian]] vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast [[Kushan Empire]], centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, making [[Buddhism]] flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the [[Sassanids]] in the 3rd century CE, though the [[Indo-Sassanids]] continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by the [[Kidarite]]s who, in turn, was replaced by the [[Hephthalites]]. They were replaced by the [[Turk Shahi]] in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was called [[Hindu Shahi]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wink|first=André|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7Th-11th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|year=2002|publisher=BRILL|isbn=0-391-04173-8|page=125|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201142728/https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|archive-date=1 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by [[Buddhist]] culture.<ref name="Habibi">{{cite web |url=http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Afghan_and_Afghanistan.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023100306/http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Afghan_and_Afghanistan.htm|archive-date=23 October 2008 |title=Afghan and Afghanistan |work=[[Abdul Hai Habibi]]|publisher=alamahabibi.com|year=1969|access-date=17 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Higham|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA141|year=2014|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0996-1|page=141}}</ref>
=== Medieval history ===
{{Main|Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|Mongol invasion of Central Asia}}
====Islamic conquest====
[[File:Saffarid dynasty 861-1003.png|thumb|left|[[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarid]] rule at its greatest extent under [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar]]]]
[[Arab]] [[Muslim]]s brought Islam to [[Herat]] and [[Zaranj]] in 642 CE and began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before the [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan|arrival of Islam]], the region used to be home to various beliefs and cults, often resulting in [[Syncretism]] between the dominant religions<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Weber|first1=Olivier|url=|title=Eternal Afghanistan|last2=Unesco|date=2002|publisher=Chêne|isbn=978-92-3-103850-1|quote=Gradually there emerged a fabulous syncretism between the Hellenistic world and the Buddhist universe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Grenet|first=Grenet|title=Zoroastriansm among the Kushans|year=2016}}</ref> such as [[Zoroastrianism]],<ref name="Gnoli 1989 133"/><ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="ARACHOSIA – Encyclopaedia Iranica"/> [[Buddhism]] or [[Greco-Buddhism]], [[Ancient Iranian religion]]s,<ref name="Allen">{{Cite book|last=Allen|first=Charles|url=|title=The Search For Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History|date=5 November 2015|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-0-349-14218-0|quote=With Aurmuzd, Sroshard, Narasa and Mihr, we are on safer ground because all are Zoroastrian deities: Aurmuzd is the supreme god of light, Ahura Mazda; and Mihr, the sun god, is linked with the Iranian Mithra. Exactly the same non-Buddhist[...]}}</ref> [[Hinduism]], [[Christianity]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gorder|first1=A. Christian Van|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeHAxxEpe-cC&q=nestorian+christians+Afghanistan&pg=PA34|title=Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-muslims in Iran|date=2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7391-3609-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kennedy|first1=Hugh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pk7BS9XC10QC&q=Zaranj+christians+Afghanistan&pg=PT127|title=The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In|date=9 December 2010|publisher=Orion|isbn=978-0-297-86559-9|quote=.. when the patriarch at Ctesiphon had to broker a compromise that left one bishop at the capital Zaranj and another further east at Bust, now in southern Afghanistan. A Christian text composed in about 850 also records a monastery of ...}}</ref> and [[Judaism]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yossef|first1=Noam Bar'am-Ben|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wVMwAAAAYAAJ&q=Judaism+in+Afghanistan+ghor|title=Brides and Betrothals: Jewish Wedding Rituals in Afghanistan|date=1998|publisher=Israel Museum|isbn=978-965-278-223-6|quote=The Jews of Afghanistan According to tradition, the first Jews reached ... in Hebrew script found in the Tang - e Azao Valley in the Ghor region ...}}</ref><ref name="EndeSteinbach2010">{{cite book|last1=Ende|first1=Werner|title=Islam in the World Today: A Handbook of Politics, Religion, Culture, and Society|last2=Steinbach|first2=Udo|date=15 April 2010|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=9780801464898|page=257|quote=At the time of the first Muslim advances, numerous local natural religions were competing with Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and Hinduism in the territory of modern Afghanistan.}}</ref> An exemplification of the syncretism in the region would be that people were patrons of Buddhism but still worshipped local Iranian gods such as [[Ahura Mazda]], [[Nana (Kushan goddess)|Lady Nana]], [[Anahita]] or [[Mithra|Mihr(Mithra)]] and portrayed [[Greek mythology|Greek Gods]] like [[Heracles]] or [[Tyche]] as protectors of Buddha.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Adrych|first1=Philippa|url=|title=Images of Mithra|last2=coins)|first2=Robert Bracey (Writer on|last3=Dalglish|first3=Dominic|last4=Lenk|first4=Stefanie|last5=Wood|first5=Rachel|date=2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-879253-6|quote=The Rabatak inscription includes Miiro amongst a list of gods: Nana, Ahura Mazda, and Narasa. All of these gods likely had images dedicated at the Bagolaggo, presumably alongside statues of Kanishka}}</ref><ref name="Allen"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Allen|first=Charles|url=|title=The Search For Shangri-La: A Journey into Tibetan History|date=5 November 2015|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-0-349-14218-0|quote=The two most important deities are goddesses: one is the lady Nana', daughter of the moon god and sister of the sun god, the Kushan form of Anahita, Zoroastrian goddess of fertility}}</ref> The [[Zunbils]] and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870 CE by the [[Saffarid dynasty|Saffarid]] Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the [[Samanids]] extended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side by side in Kabul before the [[Ghaznavids]] rose to power in the 10th century.<ref name="Elliot-2">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=98 |title=A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul |work=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |location=London | date=1867–1877 |access-date=18 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408220905/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=98 |archive-date=8 April 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Mustawfi">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=16301012&ct=16 |title=The Geographical Part of the NUZHAT-AL-QULUB |author =Hamd-Allah Mustawfi of Qazwin |work=Translated by Guy Le Strange |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |year=1340 |access-date=19 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726144951/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=16301012&ct=16 |archive-date=26 July 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Elliot-3">{{cite web |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=100 |title=A.—The Hindu Kings of Kábul (p.3) |work=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |location=London | date=1867–1877 |access-date=18 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726133107/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201012&ct=100 |archive-date=26 July 2013 }}</ref>
By the 11th century, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively [[Islamized]] the wider region,{{sfn|Ewans|2002|page=22–23}} with the exception of [[Kafiristan]].<ref name="nuristan.info">{{cite web|url=http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|title=Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: Peoples and Languages of Nuristan|author=Richard F. Strand|date=31 December 2005|work=nuristan.info|author-link=Richard Strand|access-date=2 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401180243/http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Mahmud made [[Ghazni]] into an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the historian [[Al-Biruni]] and the poet [[Ferdowsi]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Afghanistan: A Country Study|date=1986|publisher=Foreign Area Studies, The American University|editor1=Richard Nyrop|editor2=Donald Seekins|page=10}}</ref> The [[Ghaznavid dynasty]] was [[Siege of Lahore (1186)|overthrown by the Ghurids in 1186]], whose architectural achievements included the remote [[Minaret of Jam]]. The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century before being conquered by the [[Khwarazmian dynasty]] in 1215.{{sfn|Ewans|2002|page=23}}
====Mongols and Babur with the Lodi Dynasty====
[[File:Genghis Khan empire-en.svg|thumb|260px|[[Mongol invasions and conquests]] depopulated large areas of Afghanistan]]
In 1219 CE, [[Genghis Khan]] and his [[Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire|Mongol army overran the region]]. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of [[Herat]] and [[Balkh]] as well as [[Bamyan, Afghanistan|Bamyan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |title=Central Asian world cities |publisher=Faculty.washington.edu |date=29 September 2007 |access-date=6 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723185841/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |archive-date=23 July 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=18 January 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118121401/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm }}</ref> The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society.<ref>{{cite news |last=Page |first=Susan |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-02-17-afghanistan-forces_N.htm |title=Obama's war: Deploying 17,000 raises stakes in Afghanistan |work=USA Today |date=18 February 2009 |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513040037/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-02-17-afghanistan-forces_N.htm |archive-date=13 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mongol rule continued with the [[Ilkhanate]] in the northwest while the [[Khalji dynasty]] administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of [[Timur]] (aka Tamerlane), who established the [[Timurid Empire]] in 1370. Under the rule of [[Shah Rukh]] the city{{which|date=August 2021}} served as the focal point of the [[Timurid Renaissance]], whose glory matched [[Florence]] of the [[Italian Renaissance]] as the center of a cultural rebirth.<ref>Periods of World History: A Latin American Perspective – Page 129</ref><ref>The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia – Page 465</ref>
In the early 16th century, [[Babur]] arrived from [[Ferghana]] and captured Kabul from the [[Arghun dynasty]].{{sfn|Barfield|2012|pp=92–93}} [[Babur]] would go on to conquer the Afghan [[Lodi dynasty]] who had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the [[First Battle of Panipat]].{{sfn|Barfield|2012|pp=75}} Between the 16th and 18th century, the Uzbek [[Khanate of Bukhara]], Iranian [[Safavids]], and Indian [[Mughals]] ruled parts of the territory.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|pp=319, 321}} During the Medieval Period, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Two of the four capitals of Khorasan ([[Herat]] and [[Balkh]]) are now located in Afghanistan, while the regions of [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]], [[Zabulistan]], [[Ghazni]], [[Kabulistan]], and [[name of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] formed the [[frontier]] between Khorasan and [[Hindustan]]. However, up to the 19th century the term Khorasan was commonly used among natives to describe their country; [[Sir George Elphinstone]] wrote with amazement that the country known to outsiders as "Afghanistan" was referred to by its own inhabitants as "Khorasan" and that the first Afghan official whom he met at the border welcomed him to Khorasan.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ziaeDwAAQBAJ&q=elphinstone+khorasan&pg=PA128|title=Mountstuart Elphinstone in South Asia: Pioneer of British Colonial Rule|first=Shah Mahmoud|last=Hanifi|date=15 July 2019|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780190914400}}</ref><ref name="EI">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJQ3AAAAIAAJ|chapter=Khurasan |title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |page=55 |quote=In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the term "Khurassan" frequently had a much wider denotation, covering also parts of what are now Soviet Central Asia and Afghanistan |publisher=Brill |year=2009}}</ref><ref name="Routledge">{{cite book |title=Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325–1354 |last1=Ibn Battuta |edition=reprint, illustrated |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-34473-9 |page=416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&pg=PA180|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416132656/https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&pg=PA180 |archive-date=16 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Firishta">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201016&ct=199 |title=The History of India |volume=6 |chapter=Chapter 200: Translation of the Introduction to Firishta's History |page=8 |access-date=22 August 2010 |author =Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah |others=Sir H. M. Elliot |publisher=Packard Humanities Institute |location=London |year=1560|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726121158/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=80201016&ct=199 |archive-date=26 July 2013 |author-link=Firishta }}</ref>
==Modern history==
=== Hotak Dynasty ===
[[File:Map of the Hotak Empire 1715, Mirwais Hotak.png|thumb|300px|Map of the Hotak Empire during the Reign of [[Mirwais Hotak]], 1709–1715.]]
{{Main|Hotak dynasty}}
In 1709, [[Mirwais Hotak]], a local [[Ghilzai]] tribal leader, successfully rebeled against the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]]. He defeated [[Gurgin Khan]], the Georgian governor of Kandahar under the Safavids, and established his own kingdom. Also defeating many attempts for the Safavids to annex the Kingdom.<ref name="Browne">{{cite web|url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D90001014%26ct%3D29 |title=A Literary History of Persia, Volume 4: Modern Times (1500–1924), Chapter IV. An Outline of the History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722–1922) |author=Edward G. Browne |publisher=[[Packard Humanities Institute]] |access-date=9 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726142425/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D90001014&ct=29 |archive-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mirwais died of natural causes in 1715 and was succeeded by his brother [[Abdul Aziz Hotak|Abdul Aziz]], who was soon killed by Mirwais' son [[Mahmud Hotak|Mahmud]] for possibly planning to sign a peace with the Safavids. Mahmud led campaigns into modern Iran, with his first attempt in 1719 besieging [[Kerman]], however this attempt failed. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of [[Isfahan]], and captured the city after the [[Battle of Gulnabad]] and proclaimed himself King of Persia.<ref name="Browne" /> The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by [[Nader Shah]] after the 1729 [[Battle of Damghan (1729)|Battle of Damghan]].
==== Fall of the Hotak Dynasty ====
[[File:Mapofthehotaks1728.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of the Hotak Empire at its height in 1728. Disputed between [[Hussain Hotak]] (Centered in Kandahar) and [[Ashraf Hotak]] (centered in Isfahan)]]
In 1738, [[Nader Shah]] and his [[Afsharid dynasty|forces]] captured Kandahar in the [[siege of Kandahar]], the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah [[Hussain Hotak]]. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forces [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|invaded India]], Nader Shah had plundered [[Delhi]], alongside his 16 year old commander, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] who had assisted him on these campaigns. Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747.<ref name="Brit-Durrani">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani |title=Ahmad Shah Durrani |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=9 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404104909/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani |archive-date=4 April 2014 }}</ref><ref name="Engels">{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm |title=Afghanistan |access-date=25 August 2010 |author =Friedrich Engels |work=Andy Blunden |publisher=The New American Cyclopaedia, Vol. I |year=1857|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427034439/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/afghanistan/index.htm |archive-date=27 April 2014 |author-link=Friedrich Engels }}</ref>
==== Rise of the Durrani Empire ====
{{Main|Durrani Empire|Ahmad Shah Durrani}}
After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] had returned to Kandahar with a contingent of 4,000 [[Pashtuns]]. The Abdalis had "unanimously accepted" Ahmad Shah as their new leader. With his ascension in 1747, Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns against the [[Mughal Empire]], [[Maratha Empire]], and then receding, [[Afsharid Empire]]. Ahmad Shah had captured [[Kabul]] and [[Peshawar]] from the Mughal appointed governor, Nasir Khan. Ahmad Shah had then conquered [[Herat]] in 1750, and had also captured [[Kashmir]] in 1752.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&q=durrani+capture+kashmir&pg=PA43 | title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris| isbn=9781849043427| last1=Snedden| first1=Christopher| year=2015}}</ref> Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], (1750–1751) and (1754–1755).<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Noelle-Karimi|first=Christine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kdl9oAEACAAJ|title=The Pearl in Its Midst: Herat and the Mapping of Khurasan (15th–19th Centuries)|date=2014|publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press|isbn=978-3-7001-7202-4}}</ref> His first campaign had seen the siege of [[Mashhad]], however he was forced to retreat after 4 months. In November 1750, he moved to siege [[Khanate of Nishapur|Nishapur]], however he was unable to capture the city and was forced to retreat after heavy losses in early 1751. Ahmad Shah returned in 1754, he captured [[Ferdows|Tun]], and on 23 July, he sieged [[Mashhad]] once again. Mashhad had fallen on 2 December, however [[Shahrokh Shah|Shahrokh]] was [[Afsharid Iran|reappointed]] in 1755. He was forced to give up [[Torshiz]], [[Bakharz]], [[Torbat-e Jam|Jam]], [[Khaf, Iran|Khaf]], and [[Torbat-e Heydarieh|Turbat-e Haidari]] to the Afghans, as well as accepting Afghan sovereignty. Following this, Ahmad Shah had sieged [[Khanate of Nishapur|Nishapur]] once again, and captured it.
==== Objectives and Invasions of India ====
{{Main|Indian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani}}
[[File:Portrait of Ahmad-Shah Durrani. Mughal miniature. ca. 1757, Bibliothèque nationale de France.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] {{Circa|1757}}.]]
Ahmad Shah invaded India 8 times during his reign. With the capture of [[Peshawar]], Ahmad Shah had used this as a convenient striking point to lead his military campaigns into [[Punjab]] and India.
Ahmad Shah had sought out multiple reasons for his invasions, Ahmad Shah saw Afghanistan in a dire state, and one that needed to expand and exploit a weak but rich neighboring country, which Ahmad Shah had capitalized on in multiple opportunities during his Invasions of India, he sought the reasons needed to fill his treasury in a war-plunder conquest based economy.{{sfn|Mehta|p=248}} Ahmad Shah had launched his first invasion in 1748, crossing the indus river, his armies sacked and absorbed [[Lahore]] into the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Realm]]. Ahmad Shah had met Mughal armies at the [[Battle of Manupur (1748)]], where he was defeated and forced to retreat to back to Afghanistan.<ref>{{Google books |id=NbUB_ACAR5QC |page=509 |title=History of Islam}}</ref> Ahmad Shah had returned the next year in 1749, where he had captured the area around [[Lahore]] and [[Punjab]], presenting it as an Afghan victory for this campaign.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}} From 1749 to 1767, Ahmad Shah would lead 6 more invasions, the most important being his sixth invasion, with the [[Third Battle of Panipat]], which created a power vacuum in northern India, halting [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] expansion.
===Death of Ahmad Shah and his successors===
{{Main|Timur Shah Durrani|Zaman Shah Durrani|Mahmud Shah Durrani|Shah Shujah Durrani}}
Ahmad Shah Durrani had died in October 1772, what followed would be a civil war in succession, with his named successor, [[Timur Shah Durrani]] succeeding him after the defeat of his brother, Suleiman Mirza.<ref name="Drahm">{{cite journal |last1=Drahm |first1=Abdel |title=Afghanistan A History From 1260 To The Present |journal=AAF |date=2020 |page=146 |url=https://archive.org/details/Book_1094 |access-date=4 October 2021}}</ref>
[[Timur Shah Durrani]] ascended to the throne in November 1772, having defeated a coalition under Shah Wali Khan, the influential prime minister of the [[Durrani Empire]], and Humayun Mirza. Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating power toward himself and people loyal to him, purging Durrani Sardars and influential tribal leaders in [[Kabul]] and [[Kandahar]] to bring support toward himself. Timur Shah's reforms also saw the capital of the [[Durrani Empire]] being shifted from [[Kandahar]] to [[Kabul]], being able to cover the empire better as a base of ordination since it was essentially the heartland of the empire. This reform saw [[Kabul]] as the modern capital of Afghanistan today. Having consolidated power to himself, Timur Shah would fight multiple series of rebellions to consolidate and hold the empire apart, Timur Shah would also lead campaigns into [[Punjab]] against the Sikhs like his father did, however being more successful. Most prominent example of his battles during this campaign would be where Timur Shah led his forces under Zangi Khan Durrani, with over 18,000 men total of Afghan, Qizilbash, and Mongol cavalrymen. Against over 60,000 Sikh men. The Sikhs would lose over 30,000 in this battle and would stage a Durrani resurgence in the [[Punjab]]. region<ref name="Fayz">{{cite journal |last1=Muhammad Katib Hazarah |first1=Fayz |title=The History Of Afghanistan Fayż Muḥammad Kātib Hazārah's Sirāj Al Tawārīkh By R. D. Mcchesney, M. M. Khorrami |journal=AAF |date=2012 |page=131 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-history-of-afghanistan-fayz-muhammad-katib-hazarahs-siraj-al-tawarikh-by-r.-/page/n63/mode/2up?view=theater |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> The Durranis lost [[Multan]] in 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death, following this victory by Timur Shah, Timur Shah was able to lay siege to [[Multan]] and recapture it,<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Muhammad Khan |first1=Ashiq |title=THE LAST PHASE OF MUSLIM RULE IN MULTAN (1752–1818) |date=1998 |issue=1 |page=159 |publisher=University of Multan, MULTAN |url=http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/handle/123456789/5209 |access-date=4 December 2021 |type=Thesis |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204042026/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/handle/123456789/5209 |url-status=dead }}</ref> incorporating it into the Durrani empire once again, reintegrating it as a province until the [[siege of Multan (1818)]]. Timur Shah would be succeeded by his son, [[Zaman Shah Durrani]] after his death on 18 or 20 May 1793. Timur Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation of the empire. However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, a mistake that would plunge the empire in civil war over succession crises.{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=155}}
[[Zaman Shah Durrani]] would succeed to the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Throne]] following the death of his father, Timur Shah Durrani. This instigated civil war with his brothers, [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]], and Humayun Mirza revolting against him. With Humayun centered in [[Kandahar]], and Mahmud Shah centered in [[Herat]].{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=158}} Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and also force the loyalty of [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]].{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=158}} Securing his position on the throne, Zaman Shah had led 3 campaigns into [[Punjab]], with the first two campaigns capturing [[Lahore]], but being forced to retreat due to intel about a possible [[Qajar Iran|Qajar]] invasion, or his brother, [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]] revolting. Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign for [[Punjab]] in 1800 to deal with a rebellious Ranjit Singh.{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=162}} However, he was forced to withdraw, with his brother, [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]] revolting, Zaman Shah would be toppled from his reign, replaced by his brother, [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]].{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=162}} However, just under 2 years in his reign, [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]] would be deposed by his brother, [[Shah Shuja Durrani]], on 13 July 1803.{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=166}} Shah Shuja would attempt to consolidate the [[Durrani Empire|Durrani Realm]], which had been long striven by civil war. Shah Shuja would later be deposed by his brother at the [[Battle of Nimla (1809)]],{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=172}} where [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]] would defeat and force Shah Shuja to flee, with Shah Mahmud usurping the throne again for his second reign beginning on 3 May 1809.{{sfn|Drahm|2020|p=176}}
==== Barakzai dynasty and British wars ====
{{Further|Dost Mohammad Khan|Herat (1793–1863)|Maimana Khanate|Principality of Qandahar|European influence in Afghanistan|Anglo-Afghan Wars|Durand Line|Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)}}
[[File:History of Afghanistan 1839-1863 Gif.gif|thumb|500px|Gif Map of Afghanistan 1839–1863, showing the First Anglo-Afghan war, and unification of Afghanistan by Dost Mohammad Khan.]]
By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the [[Qajar dynasty|Persians]] in the west and the [[Sikh Empire]] in the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the [[Barakzai dynasty|Barakzai tribe]], installed many of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire, mostly ruling as governors of major cities and provinces. After his murder for apparent treason against the Durrani king. Fateh Khan would be sentenced by [[Mahmud Shah Durrani]], having him executed. His brothers rebeled and a civil war brew between the Sadozais and the Barakzais. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan had fractured into many states, this included the [[Principality of Qandahar]], [[Herat (1793–1863)|Emirate of Herat]], Khanate of Qunduz, [[Maimana Khanate]], and many more states. The most prominent state being the [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Emirate of Kabul]], ruled by Dost Mohammad Khan after he declared himself emir and was bestowed upon the title of [[Amir al-Mu'minin]] in summer 1826 after he usurped the throne from his brother, [[Sultan Mohammad Khan]].<ref name="Tanner 2009 126">{{cite book |title=Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban |last=Tanner |first=Stephen |year=2009 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0-306-81826-4 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=J3pUS_-uD-oC |page=126 }} |page=126}}</ref>{{Cite book|last=Lee|first=Jonathan L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSWDDwAAQBAJ|title=Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present|date=15 January 2019|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-78914-010-1|language=en}} With the collapse of the Durrani Empire, and the exile of the Sadozai Dynasty to be left to rule in [[Herat (1793–1863)|Herat]] while Afghanistan was in this turbulent period of civil war, [[Punjab]] and [[Kashmir]] were lost to [[Ranjit Singh]] ruler of the [[Sikh Empire]], who invaded [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in March 1823 and captured the city of [[Peshawar]], placing the Peshawar Sardars under his suzerainty. (one of the many entities that split following the collapse of the [[Durrani Empire]]), at the [[Battle of Nowshera]].<ref name="Nalwa">{{cite book |title=Hari Singh Nalwa, "champion of the Khalsaji" (1791–1837) |last=Nalwa |first=Vanit |year=2009 |isbn=978-81-7304-785-5 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=ULhgNexD92QC |page=198 }} |page=198}}</ref> In 1837, Dost Mohammad Khan attempted to retake Peshawar and sent a large force under his son, [[Wazir Akbar Khan]], leading to the [[Battle of Jamrud]] near the [[Khyber Pass]]. [[Wazir Akbar Khan|Akbar Khan]] and the Afghan army failed to capture the [[Jamrud Fort]] from the [[Sikh Khalsa Army]], but killed Sikh Commander [[Hari Singh Nalwa]], thus ending the [[Afghan-Sikh Wars]]. By this time the British were advancing from the east, conquering the Sikh Empire after it had its own period of turbulence following the death of Ranjit Singh, directly bringing the [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Emirate of Kabul]] to conflict in the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|first major conflict]] during "[[the Great Game]]".<ref name="Chahryar">{{cite book |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century |last=Chahryar |first=Adle |year=2003 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103876-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AzG5llo3YCMC&pg=PA296|page=296}}</ref>
In 1839, a [[British Army|British]] expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan, invading the [[Principality of Qandahar]], and in August 1839, seized [[Kabul]], forcing Dost Mohammad into exile with other factions and rebels in Afghanistan, while he was replaced with the former Durrani ruler [[Shah Shuja Durrani|Shah Shuja]] [[List of heads of state of Afghanistan|Durrani]] as the new ruler of [[Kabul]], and unbeknownst to him, a de facto puppet on the throne.<ref name=ingram1980>{{cite journal |jstor=40105749 |url=http://pahar.in/wpfb-file/1980-great-britains-great-game-an-introduction-by-ingram-from-intl-hist-rev-v2-s-pdf/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816181410/http://pahar.in/wpfb-file/1980-great-britains-great-game-an-introduction-by-ingram-from-intl-hist-rev-v2-s-pdf/ |archive-date=16 August 2016 |title=Great Britain's Great Game: An Introduction |last1=Ingram |first1=Edward |journal=The International History Review |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=160–171 |year=1980 |doi=10.1080/07075332.1980.9640210 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816181410/http://pahar.in/wpfb-file/1980-great-britains-great-game-an-introduction-by-ingram-from-intl-hist-rev-v2-s-pdf/ |date=16 August 2016 }}</ref><ref name=ingram1984>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fr9cAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 In Defence of British India: Great Britain in the Middle East, 1775–1842] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106130452/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fr9cAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |date=6 January 2017 }} By Edward Ingram. Frank Cass & Co, London, 1984. {{ISBN|0714632465}}. p7-19</ref> Following an uprising that saw the assassination of [[Shah Shuja Durrani|Shah Shuja]], the [[1842 retreat from Kabul]] of British-Indian forces and the [[1842 retreat from Kabul|annihilation]] of [[William George Keith Elphinstone|Elphinstone]]'s army, and the punitive expedition of [[Battle of Kabul (1842)|The battle of Kabul]] that led to its sacking, the British gave up on their attempts to try and subjugate Afghanistan, which allowed Dost Mohammad Khan to return as ruler. Dost Mohammad Khan would spend most of his reign consolidating the parts of Afghanistan that were lost in the Afghan civil war which raged from 1793–1863. Dost Mohammad Khan would launch numerous campaigns after returning to rule in 1842, ruling only from Kabul, Ghazni, and other cities when he had returned. Dost Mohammad united most of the Afghan realm in his reign, securing the last major state, [[Herat (1793–1863)|Herat]], in the [[Herat campaign of 1862–1863]]. Dost Mohammad died on 9 June 1863, a few weeks after his [[Herat campaign of 1862–1863|campaign]] to capture [[Herat (1793–1863)|Herat]]. Dost Mohammad's successors would fight for the throne of Afghanistan, between [[Sher Ali Khan]], [[Mohammad Afzal Khan]], and [[Mohammad Azam Khan]] in the [[Afghan Civil War (1863–1869)]]. Sher Ali would win this civil war and would go on to rule the realm until In 1878, the British had returned in the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] which was fought over perceived Russian influence in the region, [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] replaced [[Mohammad Ayub Khan (Emir of Afghanistan)|Ayub Khan]] who had succeeded [[Sher Ali Khan]] after his death in 1879. Britain would gain control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of the [[Treaty of Gandamak]] of 1879, making it an official [[British Protectorate|British Protected State]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Onley |first1=James |title=THE RAJ RECONSIDERED: BRITISH INDIA'S INFORMAL EMPIRE AND SPHERES OF INFLUENCE IN ASIA AND AFRICA |date=March 2009 |volume=XL |publisher=Routledge |id=Page 9 of URL/Page 52 |url=https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=18 September 2021 |accessdate=2023-03-13 |archivedate=2022-10-09 |archiveurl=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf }}</ref> In 1893, Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the ethnic [[Pashtun]] and [[Baloch people|Baloch]] territories were divided by the [[Durand Line]], which forms the modern-day border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. [[Shia Islam in Afghanistan|Shia]]-dominated [[Hazarajat]] and pagan [[Kafiristan]] remained politically independent until being [[Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|conquered]] by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghan-women-hope-more-gains-under-new-administration|title=Afghan Women Hope for More Gains Under New Administration – Afghanistan|website=ReliefWeb}}</ref> The ''Iron Amir'' viewed railway and telegraph lines coming from the Russian and British as "[[trojan horse]]s" and therefore prevented railway development in Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/21/afghan.rail/index.html|title=Afghan rail plan among proposals for donors|date=21 January 2002|website=CNN|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=13 August 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813160454/https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/21/afghan.rail/index.html}}</ref> He died in 1901, succeeded by his son, [[Habibullah Khan]].
[[File:Afghan foot soldiers in 1841.jpg|thumb|left|Afghan tribesmen in 1841, painted by British officer [[James Rattray]]]]
{{blockquote|How can a small power like Afghanistan, which is like a goat between these lions [Britain and Russia] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding mill, [could] stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?|author=[[Abdur Rahman Khan]], the "Iron Amir", in 1900<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/2.htm|title=Afghanistan – HISTORY|website=countrystudies.us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=REwmr2bFYfkC&pg=PA2|title = Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion in Perspective|isbn = 9780817982133|last1 = Arnold|first1 = Anthony|date = June 1985}}</ref>}}
During the [[First World War]], when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the Central Powers in the [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition]], to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy]]. Their efforts to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it caused discontent among the population for keeping neutrality against the British. Habibullah was assassinated during a hunting trip in February 1919, and [[Amanullah Khan]] eventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan provoked the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]], entering British India via the [[Khyber Pass]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Afghanistan in the Great War|first=Christopher|last=Wyatt|date=2 September 2015|journal=Asian Affairs|volume=46|issue=3|pages=387–410|doi=10.1080/03068374.2015.1081001|s2cid = 159788830}}</ref>
[[File:King Amanullah standing.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Emir of Afghanistan|Emir]] [[Amanullah Khan|Amanullah]] invaded British India in 1919 and proclaimed Afghanistan's full independence thereafter. He proclaimed himself [[King of Afghanistan]] in June 1926.]]
After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919|Treaty of Rawalpindi]] on 19 August 1919, [[Emir of Afghanistan|Emir]] Amanullah Khan declared the [[Emirate of Afghanistan]] a [[sovereign state|sovereign]] and fully [[independent state]]. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Weimar Republic]] of Germany.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pj8DIT_bva0C&pg=PA42|title=The Origins of Conflict in Afghanistan|first=Jeffery J.|last=Roberts|date=14 June 2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275978785}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title='Drang Nach Osten' Continued? Germany and Afghanistan during the Weimar Republic|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-history_1997-04_32_2/page/235|last=Nicosia |first= Francis R.|year=1997|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=32|issue=2|pages=235–257|doi = 10.1177/002200949703200207|jstor = 261243|s2cid = 160565967}}</ref> He proclaimed himself [[King of Afghanistan]] on 9 June 1926, when the Emirate of Afghanistan became the [[Kingdom of Afghanistan]]. Following a 1927–28 tour of Europe and [[Turkey]], he introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was [[Mahmud Tarzi]], an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 [[constitution of Afghanistan|constitution]], which made elementary education compulsory. The institution of [[slavery]] was abolished in the Emirate of Afghanistan in 1923.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | year = 1976| volume = 25| encyclopedia = [[Encyclopedia Americana]]|publisher=Americana Corporation | page = 24 |title=Afghanistan }}</ref> King Amanullah's wife, [[Soraya Tarzi|Queen Soraya]], was an important figure during this period in the fight for woman's education and against their oppression.<ref>{{Cite news|date=10 September 2020|title=Queen Soraya of Afghanistan: A woman ahead of her time|url=https://arab.news/5hdva|access-date=3 July 2021|website=Arab News}}</ref>
Some of the reforms that were put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional [[burqa]] for women and the opening of several co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders, and this led to the [[Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)]]. Faced with the overwhelming armed opposition, King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell to [[Saqqawist]] forces led by [[Habibullah Kalakani]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|title=Kabul under siege: Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising|last1=Muḥammad|first1=Fayz̤|last2=McChesney|first2=R. D.|date=1999|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=9781558761544|pages=39, 40|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404143046/https://books.google.nl/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=4 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Prince]] [[Mohammed Nadir Shah]], Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|title=Kabul under siege: Fayz Muhammad's account of the 1929 Uprising|last1=Muḥammad|first1=Fayz̤|last2=McChesney|first2=R. D.|date=1999|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=9781558761544|pages=275, 276|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404143046/https://books.google.nl/books?id=A4_jAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=4 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> He abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization, but was assassinated in 1933 by [[Abdul Khaliq Hazara (assassin)|Abdul Khaliq]], a fifteen-year-old [[Hazara people|Hazara]] student who was an [[Amanullah loyalist]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Culture and customs of Afghanistan |last1=Hafizullah |first1=Emadi |year=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=0-313-33089-1 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bY8ck6iktikC&pg=PA35 |access-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225052702/https://books.google.com/books?id=bY8ck6iktikC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA35 |archive-date=25 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[Mohammed Zahir Shah]], Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned as King from 1933 to 1973. The [[Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947|tribal revolts of 1944–1947]] saw King Zahir's reign challenged by [[Zadran (Pashtun tribe)|Zadran]], [[Safi (Pashtun tribe)|Safi]], [[Mangal (Pashtun tribe)|Mangal]], and [[Wazir (Pashtun tribe)|Wazir]] tribesmen led by [[Mazrak Zadran]], [[Salemai]], and [[Faqir Ipi|Mirzali Khan]], among others, many of whom were [[Amanullah loyalist]]s. Close relations with the Muslim states Turkey, the [[Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq]] and [[Pahlavi dynasty|Iran/Persia]] were also pursued, while further international relations were sought by joining the [[League of Nations]] in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a [[Da Afghanistan Bank|national bank]], and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry.<ref name="Eur2002"/> The country built close relationships with the [[Axis powers]], with [[Nazi Germany]] having the largest share in Afghan development at the time, along with the [[Kingdom of Italy]] and the [[Empire of Japan]].<ref name="Hyman2016">{{cite book|author=Anthony Hyman|title=Afghanistan under Soviet Domination, 1964–91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvO-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|date=27 July 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-349-21948-3|page=46}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Afghanistan has performed the function in central Asia which Korea and Laos-Cambodia have performed in East and Southeast Asia: a regional flashpoint of colliding Great Power interests.|author=James Phillips of [[The Heritage Foundation]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.heritage.org/node/22867/print-display|date = October 25, 1979| title=The Heritage Foundation }}</ref>}}
===Contemporary history===
[[File:Zahir Shah of Afghanistan in 1930s-cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mohammed Zahir Shah|King Zahir]], the last reigning monarch of Afghanistan, who reigned from 1933 until 1973.]]
Until 1946, King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister]] and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, [[Shah Mahmud Khan]], became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], the king's cousin and brother-in-law, and a [[Pashtun]] nationalist who sought the creation of a [[Pashtunistan]], leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1103837.html|title=Afghanistan: History Of 1973 Coup Sheds Light On Relations With Pakistan|access-date=6 July 2019|date=18 July 2003|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|author=Ron Synovitz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626230602/https://www.rferl.org/a/1103837.html|archive-date=26 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> During his ten years at the post until 1963, Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with the [[Soviet Union]]. Afterward, the [[1964 Constitution of Afghanistan|1964 constitution]] was formed, and the first non-royal Prime Minister was sworn in.<ref name="Eur2002">{{cite book|author=Eur|title=The Far East and Australasia 2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LclscNCTz9oC&pg=PA62|year=2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-85743-133-9|page=62}}</ref>
King Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. However, Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in [[World War II]] nor aligned with either power bloc in the [[Cold War]] thereafter. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure in the post-war period. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Soviet [[development aid]] than any other country. Afghanistan had, therefore, good relations with both Cold War enemies. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a [[1973 Afghan coup|bloodless coup]] and became the first [[President of Afghanistan]], abolishing the monarchy.
====Democratic Republic and Soviet war====
{{main|Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Soviet–Afghan War|Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)}}
{{further|History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)}}
{{multiple image
|image1=Afgan1987 Gardez UAZ469.jpg
|caption1=Soviet troops in [[Gardez]], Afghanistan in 1987
|image2=Jamiat e-Islami in Shultan Valley 1987 with Dashaka.jpg
|caption2=[[Hezb-i Islami Khalis]] fighters in the Sultan Valley of [[Kunar Province]], 1987
|width2=150
}}
In April 1978, the communist [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-President [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], in what is called the [[Saur Revolution]]. The PDPA declared the establishment of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]], with its first leader named as [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|People's Democratic Party]] general secretary [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]].{{sfn|Ewans|2002|page=186–88}} This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and secluded (albeit peaceful) country to a hotbed of international terrorism.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0FvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR16|title=Afghanistan War: A Documentary and Reference Guide|first=Ryan|last=Wadle|date=1 October 2018|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781440857478}}</ref> The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state of [[War in Afghanistan (1978–present)|civil war]] by 1979, waged by guerrilla ''[[mujahideen]]'' (and smaller [[Maoist]] guerrillas) against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into a [[proxy war]] as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United States [[Operation Cyclone|supported]] them through Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI),<ref name=Meher>{{cite book |last=Meher |first=Jagmohan |title=America's Afghanistan War: The Success that Failed |publisher=Gyan Books |year=2004 |pages=68–69, 94 |isbn=978-81-7835-262-6}}</ref> and the [[Soviet Union]] sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hussain |first=Rizwan |title=Pakistan and the Emergence of Islamic Militancy in Afghanistan |url=https://archive.org/details/pakistanemergenc0000huss |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/pakistanemergenc0000huss/page/108 108]–109 |isbn=978-0-7546-4434-7}}</ref> Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA – the dominant [[Khalq]] and the more moderate [[Parcham]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Afghanistan: A Modern History|publisher=[[I.B.Tauris]]|year=2005|isbn=978-1850438571|last=Rasanayagam |first= Angelo|page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistan00ange/page/73 73]|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistan00ange|url-access=registration|access-date=31 May 2019}}</ref>
In September 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by fellow Khalq member, then-prime minister [[Hafizullah Amin]], who assumed the new general secretary of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|People's Democratic Party]]. The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin and thousands of people went missing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/83854.stm|title=Afghanistan: 20 years of bloodshed|publisher=BBC|date=26 April 1998|access-date=4 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217184807/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/83854.stm|archive-date=17 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Displeased with Amin's government, the [[Soviet Army]] invaded the country in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin just three days later.{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=234}} A Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham's [[Babrak Karmal]] but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the beginning of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kalinovsky |first=Artemy M. |title=A Long Goodbye: The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan |url=https://archive.org/details/longgoodbyesovie0000kali |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2011 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/longgoodbyesovie0000kali/page/25 25]–28 |isbn=978-0-674-05866-8}}</ref> The United States and Pakistan,<ref name=Meher/> along with smaller actors like Saudi Arabia and China, continued supporting the rebels, delivering billions of dollars in cash and weapons including two thousand [[FIM-92 Stinger]] [[surface-to-air missiles]].<ref name="The Brunei Times">{{cite web |year=2009 |url=https://www.bt.com/analysis/2008/12/17/story_of_us_cia_and_taliban |title=Story of US, CIA and Taliban |work=[[The Brunei Times]] |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205090713/http://www.bt.com.bn/analysis/2008/12/17/story_of_us_cia_and_taliban |archive-date=5 December 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=5 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205090713/http://www.bt.com.bn/analysis/2008/12/17/story_of_us_cia_and_taliban }}</ref><ref name="The Nation">{{cite web |year=1999 |url=http://www.thenation.com/article/cost-afghan-victory?page=0,1 |title=The Cost of an Afghan 'Victory' |work=[[The Nation]] |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302090727/http://www.thenation.com/article/cost-afghan-victory?page=0%2C1 |archive-date=2 March 2014 |url-status=dead |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=2 March 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302090727/http://www.thenation.com/article/cost-afghan-victory?page=0%2C1 }}</ref> Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of between 562,000<ref name="562k">{{cite journal|last1=Lacina|first1=Bethany|last2=Gleditsch|first2=Nils Petter|url=http://www.bethanylacina.com/LacinaGleditsch_newdata.pdf|title=Monitoring Trends in Global Combat: A New Dataset of Battle Deaths|journal=European Journal of Population|volume=21|issue=2–3|year=2005|page=154|doi=10.1007/s10680-005-6851-6|s2cid=14344770|access-date=1 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006175909/http://www.bethanylacina.com/LacinaGleditsch_newdata.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006175909/http://www.bethanylacina.com/LacinaGleditsch_newdata.pdf |date=6 October 2014 }}</ref> and 2 million Afghans,<ref name="Kakar">{{Cite book|url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;brand=ucpress|title=The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982|last=Kakar|first=Mohammed|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520208933|quote=The Afghans are among the latest victims of genocide by a superpower. Large numbers of Afghans were killed to suppress resistance to the army of the Soviet Union, which wished to vindicate its client regime and realize its goal in Afghanistan.|date=3 March 1997|access-date=7 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106175142/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;brand=ucpress|archive-date=6 January 2017|url-status=live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106175142/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;brand=ucpress |date=6 January 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2chrSJCW54C&pg=PA129|title=The Widening Circle of Genocide|last=Klass|first=Rosanne|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=1994|isbn=978-1-4128-3965-5|page=129|quote=During the intervening fourteen years of Communist rule, an estimated 1.5 to 2 million Afghan civilians were killed by Soviet forces and their proxies- the four Communist regimes in Kabul, and the East Germans, Bulgarians, Czechs, Cubans, Palestinians, Indians and others who assisted them. These were not battle casualties or the unavoidable civilian victims of warfare. Soviet and local Communist forces seldom attacked the scattered guerilla bands of the Afghan Resistance except, in a few strategic locales like the Panjsher valley. Instead they deliberately targeted the civilian population, primarily in the rural areas.}}</ref><ref name="Reisman">{{cite web|url=http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf|title=Genocide and the Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan|last1=Reisman|first1=W. Michael|last2=Norchi|first2=Charles H.|access-date=7 January 2017|quote=According to widely reported accounts, substantial programmes of depopulation have been conducted in these Afghan provinces: Ghazni, Nagarhar, Lagham, Qandahar, Zabul, Badakhshan, Lowgar, Paktia, Paktika and Kunar...There is considerable evidence that genocide has been committed against the Afghan people by the combined forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026182528/http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf|archive-date=26 October 2016|url-status=live|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=26 October 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026182528/http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/afghan/genocide.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good|url-access=registration|title=Afghanistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban|last=Goodson|first=Larry P.|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-295-98050-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good/page/5 5]}}</ref><ref name="Soviet-war-video">{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYUzL1qhltA |title=Soldiers of God: Cold War (Part 1/5) |publisher=CNN |year=1998 |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20160229172016/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DvYUzL1qhltA |archive-date=29 February 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="landmines">[[UNICEF]], [http://www.unicef.org/graca/mines.htm Land-mines: A deadly inheritance] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805102916/http://www.unicef.org/graca/mines.htm | date=5 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Landmines-in-Afghanistan-A-Decades-Old-Danger-06143/ |title=Landmines in Afghanistan: A Decades Old Danger |publisher=Defenseindustrydaily.com | date=1 February 2010 |access-date=6 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111130437/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Landmines-in-Afghanistan-A-Decades-Old-Danger-06143/ |archive-date=11 January 2014 }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}} and displaced about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly to [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/prm/releases/onepagers/202635.htm |title=Refugee Admissions Program for Near East and South Asia |publisher=Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration |access-date=29 December 2013 }}</ref> Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions of [[landmine]]s were planted,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1051546.html|title=Afghanistan: Land Mines From Afghan-Soviet War Leave Bitter Legacy (Part 2)|website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|last1=Recknagel |first1=Charles }}</ref> and some cities such as [[Herat]] and [[Kandahar]] were also damaged from bombardment. Pakistan's [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North-West Frontier Province]] functioned as an organizational and networking base for the anti-Soviet Afghan resistance, with the province's influential [[Deobandi]] ulama playing a major supporting role in promoting the 'jihad'.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haroon|first=Sana|year=2008|title=The Rise of Deobandi Islam in the North-West Frontier Province and Its Implications in Colonial India and Pakistan 1914–1996|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume=18|issue=1|pages=66–67|jstor=27755911|doi=10.1017/S1356186307007778|s2cid=154959326}}</ref> After the [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|Soviet withdrawal]], the [[Afghan Civil War (1989-92)|civil war ensued]] until the communist regime under People's Democratic Party leader [[Mohammad Najibullah]] collapsed in 1992.<ref name="Columbia:Afghanistan:History">{{cite web |url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html |title=Afghanistan: History – ''Columbia Encyclopedia'' |publisher=Infoplease.com | date=11 September 2001 |access-date=19 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810051626/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html |archive-date=10 August 2012 }}</ref><ref name=Stenersen>[https://www.prio.org/utility/Download.ashx?x=228 'Mujahidin vs. Communists: Revisiting the battles of Jalalabad and Khost] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802084503/https://www.prio.org/utility/Download.ashx?x=228 |date=2 August 2018 }}. By Anne Stenersen: a Paper presented at the conference ''COIN in Afghanistan: From Mughals to the Americans'', Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), 12–13 February 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2018.</ref>{{sfn|Barfield|2012|pp=239, 244}}
The Soviet-Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan. The [[militarization]] of society led to heavily armed police, private bodyguards, openly armed civil defense groups and other such things becoming the norm in Afghanistan for decades thereafter.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Archived Version|url=http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/6891/1/Aqab_Mehmood_Malik_Strategic_%26_Nuclear_Studies_2015_NDU_19.05.2016.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909110438/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/6891/1/Aqab_Mehmood_Malik_Strategic_%26_Nuclear_Studies_2015_NDU_19.05.2016.pdf|archive-date=9 September 2020|website=prr.hec.gov.pk|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=9 September 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200909110438/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/6891/1/Aqab_Mehmood_Malik_Strategic_%26_Nuclear_Studies_2015_NDU_19.05.2016.pdf}}</ref> The traditional power structure had shifted from clergy, community elders, intelligentsia and military in favor of powerful [[warlords]].<ref name="cdlib">{{Cite web|url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print|title=Afghanistan|website=publishing.cdlib.org|accessdate=2023-03-13|archivedate=2023-01-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121200011/https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft7b69p12h;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print}}</ref>
====Post–Cold War conflict====
{{see also|Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)|Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)|Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Northern Alliance}}
[[File:War in Afganistan (1992–2001).png|thumb|upright=1.5|Development of the civil war from 1992 to late 2001]]
Another civil war broke out after the [[Peshawar Accords|creation]] of a dysfunctional coalition [[Islamic State of Afghanistan|government]] between leaders of various ''mujahideen'' factions. Amid a state of [[anarchy]] and factional infighting,<ref name="Amin Saikal">{{cite book |last=Amin Saikal |author-link=Amin Saikal |title=Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival |edition=2006 1st |page=352 |publisher=I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., London New York |isbn=978-1-85043-437-5|date=13 November 2004 }}</ref><ref name="Human Rights Watch (4)">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands |title=Blood-Stained Hands, Past Atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan's Legacy of Impunity |date=7 July 2005 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212081418/http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2005/07/06/blood-stained-hands |archive-date=12 December 2009}}</ref><ref name="Roy Gutman">GUTMAN, Roy (2008): How We Missed the Story: Osama Bin Laden, the Taliban and the Hijacking of Afghanistan, Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace, 1st ed., Washington D.C.</ref> various ''mujahideen'' factions committed widespread rape, murder and extortion,<ref name="Human Rights Watch (4)" /><ref name="Afghanistan Justice Project">{{cite web |year=2005 |url=http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |title=Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978–2001 |publisher=Afghanistan Justice Project |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221455/http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=4 October 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221455/http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0-01.htm#P81_13959 |title=Afghanistan: The massacre in Mazar-i Sharif. (Chapter II: Background) |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]| date=November 1998| access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081102042606/http://www.hrw.org/reports98/afghan/Afrepor0-01.htm |archive-date=2 November 2008}}</ref> while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting.<ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)" /> Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between different leaders.<ref>{{cite web |year=2005 |url=http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |page=63 |title=Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978–2001 |publisher=Afghanistan Justice Project |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221455/http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf |archive-date=4 October 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=4 October 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221455/http://www.afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf }}</ref> The [[Taliban]] emerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students (''talib'') from Islamic [[Madrassas in Pakistan|madrassas (schools) in Pakistan]],<ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)" /><ref name="Matinuddin, Kamal 1999 pp.25">Matinuddin, Kamal, ''The Taliban Phenomenon, Afghanistan 1994–1997'', [[Oxford University Press]], (1999), pp. 25–26</ref> who soon had military support from Pakistan.<ref name="George Washington University">{{cite web |year=2007 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm#17 |title=Documents Detail Years of Pakistani Support for Taliban, Extremists |publisher=[[George Washington University]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203002159/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB227/index.htm |archive-date=3 December 2013 }}</ref> Taking control of [[Kandahar]] city that year,<ref name="Human Rights Watch (5)" /> they conquered more territories until finally driving out the government of [[Burhanuddin Rabbani|Rabbani]] from Kabul in 1996,<ref name="IRB, Can.,1997">{{cite report |ref={{sfnRef|Chronology of Events|1997}} |title=Afghanistan: Chronology of Events January 1995 – February 1997 |date=February 1997 |publisher=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |url=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/01/16/Af_chronology_1995-.pdf |access-date=28 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012061437/https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/01/16/Af_chronology_1995-.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Coll, ''Ghost Wars'' (New York: Penguin, 2005), 14.</ref> where they established an [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|emirate]]<ref name=c-profile>[https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf Country profile: Afghanistan (published August 2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625161206/https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf |date=25 June 2018 }}(page 3). Library of Congress. Retrieved 13 February 2018.</ref> that gained international recognition from 3 countries: [[Pakistan]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref>{{Cite web
|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11451718
|title=Who are the Taliban?
|date=16 August 2021
|publisher=BBC
|access-date=18 August 2021
|quote=Pakistan was also one of only three countries, along with Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which recognised the Taliban when they were in power in Afghanistan.}}</ref> The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic [[sharia]] law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially [[Taliban treatment of women|women]].<ref name=Skain>{{cite book|last=Skain|first=Rosemarie|title=The women of Afghanistan under the Taliban|url=https://archive.org/details/womenofafghanist0000skai_p3x5|year=2002|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-1090-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/womenofafghanist0000skai_p3x5/page/41 41]}}</ref><ref>* {{cite news |url=https://articles.latimes.com/2001/nov/18/news/mn-5602 |date=18 November 2001 |author1=James Gerstenzan |author2=Lisa Getter |title=Laura Bush Addresses State of Afghan Women |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010184219/http://articles.latimes.com/2001/nov/18/news/mn-5602 |archive-date=10 October 2012 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/a-woman-among-warlords/womens-rights-in-the-taliban-and-post-taliban-eras/66/ |date=11 September 2007 |title=Women's Rights in the Taliban and Post-Taliban Eras |work=A Woman Among Warlords |publisher=[[PBS]] |access-date=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114011223/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/a-woman-among-warlords/womens-rights-in-the-taliban-and-post-taliban-eras/66/ |archive-date=14 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy of [[scorched earth]], burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes.<ref name=Rashid2>{{cite book|last=Rashid|first=Ahmed|title=Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/talibanislamoiln0000rash_x9l1|year=2002|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-830-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/talibanislamoiln0000rash_x9l1/page/253 253]}}</ref><ref name="Newsday 2001">{{cite news|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-10-12/news/0110120312_1_taliban-fighters-massacres-in-recent-years-mullah-mohammed-omar|title=Taliban massacres outlined for UN|date=October 2001|work=Chicago Tribune|first=Edward A|last=Gargan|access-date=24 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916074935/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-10-12/news/0110120312_1_taliban-fighters-massacres-in-recent-years-mullah-mohammed-omar|archive-date=16 September 2011|url-status=live|accessdate=2023-03-13|archivedate=2013-10-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013125154/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-10-12/news/0110120312_1_taliban-fighters-massacres-in-recent-years-mullah-mohammed-omar}}</ref><ref name="papillonsartpalace.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.papillonsartpalace.com/massacre.htm |title=Confidential UN report details mass killings of civilian villagers |access-date=12 October 2001 |work=Newsday |year=2001 |publisher=newsday.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021118162327/http://www.papillonsartpalace.com/massacre.htm |archive-date=18 November 2002 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=18 November 2002 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021118162327/http://www.papillonsartpalace.com/massacre.htm }}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=APAB&d_place=APAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F8B4F98500EA0F8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |agency=Associated Press |title=U.N. says Taliban starving hungry people for military agenda |date=7 January 1998 |access-date=7 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913121938/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=APAB&d_place=APAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F8B4F98500EA0F8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |archive-date=13 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Goodson|first=Larry P.|title=Afghanistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics and the Rise of the Taliban|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-98111-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistansendl00good/page/121 121]}}</ref><ref name="NPR">{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/2002/aug/afghanistan/ |publisher=NPR |title=Re-Creating Afghanistan: Returning to Istalif |date=1 August 2002 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023072254/http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/2002/aug/afghanistan/ |archive-date=23 October 2013 }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}}
[[Battle of Kabul (1992–1996)|After the fall of Kabul]] to the Taliban, [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] and [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] formed the [[Northern Alliance]], later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during the [[Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif (1997–1998)|Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif]] in 1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, [[Pervez Musharraf]], began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.<ref name="Webster University Press Book">{{cite book |last=Marcela Grad |title=Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader |year=2009 |url=https://archive.org/details/massoudintimatep0000grad |edition=1 March 2009 |page=310 |publisher=Webster University Press }}</ref><ref name="George Washington University" /><ref name="History Commons">{{cite web |year=2010 |url=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud |title=Ahmed Shah Massoud |publisher=[[History Commons]] |access-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125130822/http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud |archive-date=25 January 2014 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=25 January 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125130822/http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=ahmed_shah_massoud }}</ref><ref name="Maley">{{cite book |last=Maley |first=William |title=The Afghanistan wars |url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistanwars0000male |year=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-21313-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/afghanistanwars0000male/page/288 288]}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed Rashid/The Telegraph">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1340244/Afghanistan-resistance-leader-feared-dead-in-blast.html |title=Afghanistan resistance leader feared dead in blast |work=The Telegraph |location=London | date=11 September 2001 |first=Ahmed |last=Rashid|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108225950/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1340244/Afghanistan-resistance-leader-feared-dead-in-blast.html |archive-date=8 November 2013 }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}} By 2000 the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered in the north-east. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab [[suicide attack]]ers in [[Panjshir Valley]]. Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001.<ref>"[http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0920/p1s3-wosc.html/(page)/4 Life under Taliban cuts two ways]". ''[[The Christian Science Monitor|CSM]]''. 20 September 2001 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233031/http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/0920/p1s3-wosc.html/(page)/4 | date=30 December 2013 }}</ref>
==== US invasion and Islamic Republic ====
{{Further|War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|Islamic Republic of Afghanistan|Taliban insurgency|Fall of Kabul (2021)}}
{{Cleanup|section|reason=Too overloaded, detailed content already covered by the War article|date=October 2021}}
In October 2001, the [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|United States invaded Afghanistan]] to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand over [[Osama Bin Laden]], the prime suspect of the [[September 11 attacks]], who was a "guest" of the Taliban and was operating his [[al-Qaeda]] network in Afghanistan.<ref name="CNN">{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grugy2txSvc |title=Brigade 055 |publisher=CNN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729101159/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grugy2txSvc|archive-date=29 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author =Rory McCarthy in Islamabad |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/17/afghanistan.terrorism11 |title=New offer on Bin Laden |newspaper=The Guardian | date= 17 October 2001|access-date=17 July 2012 |location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628053351/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/oct/17/afghanistan.terrorism11|archive-date=28 June 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2017/08/21/politics/trump-afghanistan-pakistan-india/index.html 'Trump calls out Pakistan, India as he pledges to 'fight to win' in Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901150353/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/08/21/politics/trump-afghanistan-pakistan-india/index.html |date=1 September 2017 }}. CNN, 24 August 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.</ref> The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion of their country.<ref name="Rejects">{{cite web|date=30 January 2006|title=WPO Poll: Afghan Public Overwhelmingly Rejects al-Qaeda, Taliban|url=http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/10127/Afghanistan_Jan06_art2.pdf;jsessionid=51A568EB80A658471A265A1D06EF8ADB?sequence=3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102172723/http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/10127/Afghanistan_Jan06_art2.pdf;jsessionid=51A568EB80A658471A265A1D06EF8ADB?sequence=3|archive-date=2 January 2017|access-date=2 January 2017|website=[[University of Maryland Libraries]]|quote=Equally large percentages endorse the US military presence in Afghanistan. Eighty-three percent said they have a favorable view of "the US military forces in our country" (39% very favorable). Just 17% have an unfavorable view.}}</ref><ref name="Public Opinion">{{cite web|date=29 January 2015|title=Afghan Futures: A National Public Opinion Survey|url=http://acsor-surveys.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Afghan-Futures-Wave-6-Analysis_FINAL-v2.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329093740/http://acsor-surveys.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Afghan-Futures-Wave-6-Analysis_FINAL-v2.pdf|archive-date=29 March 2017|access-date=2 January 2017|website=[[Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research]]|page=4|quote=Seventy-seven percent support the presence of U.S. forces; 67 percent say the same of NATO/ISAF forces more generally. Despite the country's travails, eight in 10 say it was a good thing for the United States to oust the Taliban in 2001. And much more blame either the Taliban or al Qaeda for the country's violence, 53 percent, than blame the United States, 12 percent. The latter is about half what it was in 2012, coinciding with a sharp reduction in the U.S. deployment.}}</ref> During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban regime came to an end.<ref name="NYTOct8">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/08/world/nation-challenged-attack-us-britain-strike-afghanistan-aiming-bases-terrorist.html |title=A Nation challenged: The attack; U.S. and Britain strike Afghanistan, aiming at bases and terrorist camps; Bush warns 'Taliban will pay a price' |last=Tyler |first=Patrick | date=8 October 2001 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=28 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411134316/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/08/world/nation-challenged-attack-us-britain-strike-afghanistan-aiming-bases-terrorist.html |archive-date=11 April 2014 }}</ref>
[[File:Inbound Choppers in Afghanistan 2008.jpg|thumb|right|US troops and [[Boeing CH-47 Chinook|Chinooks]] in Afghanistan, 2008]]
In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the [[Afghan Interim Administration]] under [[Hamid Karzai]] was formed. The [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) was established by the [[UN Security Council]] to help assist the [[Karzai administration]] and provide basic security.<ref>{{UN document |docid=S-RES-1386(2001) |type=Resolution|body=Security Council|year=2001|resolution_number=1386 |access-date=21 September 2007| date=31 May 2001}} – ([[s:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1386|UNSCR 1386]])</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nato.usmission.gov/ |title=United States Mission to Afghanistan|publisher=Nato.usmission.gov|access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021065112/http://nato.usmission.gov/ |archive-date=21 October 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> By this time, after two decades of war as well as an acute [[famine]] at the time, Afghanistan had one of the highest [[infant mortality|infant]] and child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population were hungry,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://merip.org/2001/09/afghanistans-refugee-crisis/|title=Afghanistan's Refugee Crisis|date=24 September 2001|website=MERIP}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-we-do/news-stories/research/afghanistan-civilians-risk|title=Afghanistan: Civilians at Risk|website=Doctors Without Borders – USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://monthlyreview.org/2001/11/01/limbs-of-no-body/|website=Monthly Review |title=Limbs of No Body: The World's Indifference to the Afghan Tragedy|first=Mohsen |last=Makhmalbaf|date=1 November 2001}}</ref> and infrastructure was in ruins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.returntohope.com/inDepth/RebuildingAfghanistan#intro|title=Rebuilding Afghanistan|website=Return to Hope|accessdate=2023-03-13|archivedate=2021-08-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814144505/http://www.returntohope.com/inDepth/RebuildingAfghanistan#intro}}</ref> Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/15/japan.aid.gen/index.html?related|title=Japan aid offer to 'broke' Afghanistan|date=15 January 2002|website=CNN|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=19 November 2002|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021119080524/https://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/15/japan.aid.gen/index.html?related}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/class/intnlrel193/readings/week6/afghan.html|title=Rebuilding Afghanistan: The U.S. Role|website=Stanford University}}</ref>
Taliban forces meanwhile began regrouping inside Pakistan, while more coalition troops entered Afghanistan to help the [[Reconstruction in Afghanistan|rebuilding process]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Julie|last=Fossler|url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/index.aspx|title=USAID Afghanistan|publisher=Afghanistan.usaid.gov|access-date=14 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017104214/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/Index.aspx|archive-date=17 October 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2010/2010_07_09.aspx?lang=eng |title=Canada's Engagement in Afghanistan: Backgrounder |publisher=Afghanistan.gc.ca |date=9 July 2010 |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215180833/http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2010/2010_07_09.aspx |archive-date=15 December 2010 |url-status=dead |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=15 December 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215180833/http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2010/2010_07_09.aspx }}</ref> The [[Taliban insurgency|Taliban began an insurgency]] to regain control of Afghanistan. Over the next decade, ISAF and [[Afghan National Army|Afghan troops]] led many offensives against the Taliban, but failed to fully defeat them. Afghanistan remained one of the poorest countries in the world because of a lack of foreign investment, [[Corruption in Afghanistan|government corruption]], and the Taliban insurgency.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Video/video?id=5484891&tab=9482931§ion=8865284&page=1|work=[[ABC News (US)|ABC News]] |access-date=28 September 2010|title=Pakistan Accused of Helping Taliban| date=31 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221050959/http://abcnews.go.com/Video/video?id=5484891&tab=9482931§ion=8865284&page=1 |archive-date=21 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/7910687/Wikileaks-Pakistan-accused-of-helping-Taliban-in-Afghanistan-attacks.html|work=The Telegraph|access-date=28 September 2010|title=Wikileaks: Pakistan accused of helping Taliban in Afghanistan attacks | date=26 July 2010|location=London|first1=Rob|last1=Crilly|first2=Alex |last2=Spillius|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129073942/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/7910687/Wikileaks-Pakistan-accused-of-helping-Taliban-in-Afghanistan-attacks.html|archive-date=29 January 2014}}</ref>
Meanwhile, Karzai attempted to unite the peoples of the country,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://philanthropynewsdigest.org/news/afghan-president-karzai-receives-philadelphia-liberty-medal|title=Afghan President Karzai Receives Philadelphia Liberty Medal|website=Philanthropy News Digest (PND)}}</ref> and the Afghan government was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name [[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]]. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the [[Afghan National Security Forces]]. Following 2002, nearly five million [[Afghan diaspora|Afghans]] were [[repatriated]].<ref name="Adelman2016">{{cite book|author=Howard Adelman|title=Protracted Displacement in Asia: No Place to Call Home|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLYFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT167|date=15 April 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-07407-6|page=167}}</ref> The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11371138|title=The foreign troops left in Afghanistan|work=BBC News|date=15 October 2015}}</ref> dropping to about 16,000 in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forces.net/operations/afghanistan/how-many-troops-are-currently-afghanistan|title=How Many Troops Are Currently in Afghanistan?|first=18 May 2018|last=at 11:38 am|website=Forces Network}}</ref>
In September 2014 [[Ashraf Ghani]] became president after the [[Afghan presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]] where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred.<ref>{{cite news|title=Huge security as Afghan presidential election looms|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26880022|newspaper=BBC|date=4 April 2014|access-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021190735/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26880022|archive-date=21 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Afghanistan votes in historic presidential election|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26893972|newspaper=BBC|date=5 April 2014|access-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021152941/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26893972|archive-date=21 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Shalizi and Harooni|first=Hamid and Mirwais|title=Landmark Afghanistan Presidential Election Held Under Shadow of Violence|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/04/landmark-afghan-election-_n_5095143.html|newspaper=HuffPost|date=4 April 2014|access-date=21 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225603/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/04/landmark-afghan-election-_n_5095143.html|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Afghanistan's Future: Who's Who in Pivotal Presidential Election|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/afghanistans-future-whos-who-pivotal-presidential-election-n24756|work=NBC News|access-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930203820/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/afghanistans-future-whos-who-pivotal-presidential-election-n24756|archive-date=30 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Afghan president Ashraf Ghani inaugurated after bitter campaign|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/29/afghan-president-ashraf-ghani-inaugurated|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=12 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421221706/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/29/afghan-president-ashraf-ghani-inaugurated|archive-date=21 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=October 2021}} On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led [[Operation Resolute Support]] was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF.<ref name="2014APcessation">{{cite news|title=U.S. formally ends the war in Afghanistan|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|access-date=28 December 2014|agency=Associated Press|issue=online|publisher=CBA News|date=28 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228152651/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|archive-date=28 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Guardian28">{{cite news|title=Nato ends combat operations in Afghanistan|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/28/nato-ends-afghanistan-combat-operations-after-13-years|access-date=11 January 2015|newspaper=The Guardian|date=28 December 2014|location=Kabul|author=Sune Engel Rasmussen in Kabul|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102134349/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/28/nato-ends-afghanistan-combat-operations-after-13-years|archive-date=2 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. formally ends the war in Afghanistan|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|work=CBS News|access-date=12 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228152651/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/america-formally-ends-the-war-in-afghanistan/|archive-date=28 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> and continue their fight against the Taliban.<ref name="soufangroup">{{cite web|url=http://www.soufangroup.com/tsg-intelbrief-afghanistan-16-0/|title=TSG IntelBrief: Afghanistan 16.0|website=The Soufan Group|access-date=27 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809184149/http://www.soufangroup.com/tsg-intelbrief-afghanistan-16-0/|archive-date=9 August 2018|url-status=dead|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=9 August 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809184149/http://www.soufangroup.com/tsg-intelbrief-afghanistan-16-0/}}</ref>
[[File:2021 Taliban Offensive.png|thumb|left|A map of Afghanistan showing the [[2021 Taliban offensive]]]]
On 19 February 2020, the [[US–Taliban deal]] was made in Qatar. The 2020 [[US–Taliban deal]] was one of the critical events that caused the collapse of the [[Afghan National Security Forces]] (ANSF);<ref name="tg1">{{Cite news |last=Borger|first=Julian|title=US withdrawal triggered catastrophic defeat of Afghan forces, damning watchdog report finds|date=18 May 2022|access-date=19 May 2022|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/18/afghanistan-us-withdrawal-defeat-watchdog-report-sigar|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> following the signing of the deal, the US dramatically reduced the number of air attacks and deprived the ANSF of a critical edge in fighting the [[Taliban insurgency]], leading to the Taliban takeover of Kabul.<ref>{{Cite news |title=US withdrawal prompted collapse of Afghan army: Report|date=18 May 2022|access-date=19 May 2022|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/18/us-withdrawal-prompted-collapse-of-afghan-army-report|publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref>
==== Second Taliban era ====
NATO Secretary General [[Jens Stoltenberg]] announced on 14 April 2021 that the alliance had agreed to start [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021)|withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan]] by 1 May.<ref>{{cite news |title=NATO to Cut Forces in Afghanistan, Match US Withdrawal |url=https://www.voanews.com/usa/nato-cut-forces-afghanistan-match-us-withdrawal |work=[[VOA News]] |date=14 April 2021}}</ref> Soon after NATO troops began withdrawing, the [[Taliban]] launched an [[2021 Taliban offensive|offensive against the Afghan government]] and quickly advanced in front of collapsing Afghan government forces.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robertson |first1=Nic |title=Afghanistan is disintegrating fast as Biden's troop withdrawal continues |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/06/24/asia/afghanistan-taliban-offensive-intl-cmd/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=24 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan stunned by scale and speed of security forces' collapse |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/13/afghanistan-stunned-by-scale-and-speed-of-security-forces-collapse |work=The Guardian |date=13 July 2021}}</ref> The Taliban [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|captured the capital city of Kabul]] on 15 August 2021, after regaining control over a vast majority of Afghanistan. Several foreign diplomats and Afghan government officials, including president Ashraf Ghani,<ref>{{cite news |title=President Ashraf Ghani Flees Afghanistan, Taliban Take Over Kabul: Report |work=NDTV.com |url=https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/taliban-enter-afghan-capital-kabul-news-agency-afp-2510885 |url-status=live |access-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815081516/https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/taliban-enter-afghan-capital-kabul-news-agency-afp-2510885 |archive-date=15 August 2021}}</ref> were evacuated from the country, with many Afghan civilians attempting to flee along with them.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Afghan government's collapse is a humiliation for the US and Joe Biden |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/world/asia/2021/08/afghan-government-s-collapse-humiliation-us-and-joe-biden |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=[[New Statesman]] |date=15 August 2021}}</ref> An unofficial "coordination council" led by senior statesmen was formed the next day to transfer the state institutions of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to the Taliban.<ref name="trib">{{cite news |title='Coordination council' to oversee peaceful transfer of power in Afghanistan: Karzai |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2315763/coordination-council-to-oversee-peaceful-transfer-of-power-in-afghanistan-karzai |access-date=16 August 2021 |work=[[The Express Tribune]] |date=15 August 2021}}</ref> On 17 August, first vice president [[Amrullah Saleh]] proclaimed himself caretaker president and announced the formation of an [[National Resistance Front of Afghanistan|anti-Taliban front]] with a reported 6,000+ troops<ref>{{cite web|title=Operations|url=https://www.nrfafg.org/operations|access-date=21 August 2021|website=The National Resistance Front: Fighting for a Free Afghanistan|publisher=National Resistance Front of Afghanistan|archive-date=6 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906001614/https://www.nrfafg.org/operations|url-status=dead|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=6 September 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906001614/https://www.nrfafg.org/operations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Anti-Taliban forces say they've taken three districts in Afghanistan's north|date=21 August 2021|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/anti-taliban-forces-say-theyve-taken-three-districts-afghanistans-north-2021-08-21/|publisher=Reuters|access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref> in the [[Panjshir Valley]], along with [[Ahmad Massoud]].<ref>{{cite web|title=An anti-Taliban front forming in Panjshir? Ex top spy Saleh, son of 'Lion of Panjshir' meet at citadel|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/world/2021/08/17/an-anti-taliban-front-forming-in-panjshir-ex-top-spy-saleh-son-of-lion-of-panjshir-meet-at-citadel.html|access-date=17 August 2021|website=The Week}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=17 August 2021|title=Afghan Vice President Saleh Declares Himself Caretaker President; Reaches Out To Leaders for Support|url=https://www.news18.com/news/world/afghan-vice-president-saleh-declares-himself-caretaker-president-reaches-out-to-leaders-for-support-4097117.html|access-date=17 August 2021|website=News18}}</ref> However, by 6 September, the Taliban had taken control of most of [[Panjshir province|Panjshir Province]], with resistance fighters retreating to the mountains.<ref name="ft">{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/5b4b7b58-1edf-4510-ad15-813487f3c80e |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5b4b7b58-1edf-4510-ad15-813487f3c80e |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Taliban says it has captured last Afghan region of resistance|last1=Kazmin|first1=Amy|last2=Findlay|first2=Stephanie|last3=Bokhari|first3=Farhan|work=[[Financial Times]]|date=6 September 2021|access-date=6 September 2021}}</ref> Clashes in the valley ceased mid-September,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/world/asia/panjshir-resistance-taliban-massoud.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/world/asia/panjshir-resistance-taliban-massoud.html |archive-date=2021-12-28 |url-access=limited|title = In Panjshir, Few Signs of an Active Resistance, or Any Fight at All|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 17 September 2021|last1 = Huylebroek|first1 = Jim|last2 = Blue|first2 = Victor J.}}{{cbignore}}</ref> as Saleh and Massoud had fled to neighboring [[Tajikistan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/middle-east-watch/after-renegade-province%E2%80%99s-fall-panjshir-resistance-leaders-surface-tajikistan|title = The National Interest: Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Afghan resistance has sanctuary in Tajikistan, but fighting Taliban a 'non-viable prospect'|url=https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20211004-afghan-resistance-has-sanctuary-in-tajikistan-but-fighting-taliban-a-non-viable-prospect|agency=FRANCE24.English|website=France 24|date=4 October 2021|access-date=5 October 2021|publication-date=}}.</ref><ref name="ft" />
According to the [[Costs of War Project]], 176,000 people were killed in the conflict, including 46,319 civilians, between 2001 and 2021.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human and Budgetary Costs to Date of the U.S. War in Afghanistan, 2001–2022 {{!}} Figures {{!}} Costs of War|url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/figures/2021/human-and-budgetary-costs-date-us-war-afghanistan-2001-2022|access-date=2021-09-01|website=The Costs of War}}</ref> According to the [[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]], at least 212,191 people were killed in the conflict.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ucdp.uu.se/country/700|title=UCDP – Uppsala Conflict Data Program|website=www.ucdp.uu.se}}</ref> Following the 2001 invasion, more than 5.7 million refugees returned to Afghanistan;<ref>Afghan Refugees, Costs of War, {{cite web |url=http://costsofwar.org/article/afghan-refugees |title=Afghan Refugees | Costs of War |access-date=5 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310001659/http://costsofwar.org/article/afghan-refugees |archive-date=10 March 2013 }}, 2012</ref> however, in 2021, 2.6 million Afghans remained refugees, primarily in Iran and Pakistan, and another 4 million were internally displaced.<ref>{{cite web|title=In numbers: Life in Afghanistan after America leaves|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-57767067|access-date=2021-07-15|website=BBC News|date=13 July 2021}}</ref>
[[File:Taliban Humvee in Kabul, August 2021 (cropped).png|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Taliban fighters in Kabul on a captured [[Humvee]] following the [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|2021 fall of Kabul]].]]The Taliban government is led by [[Head of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|supreme leader]] [[Hibatullah Akhundzada]]<ref>{{Cite news|last=Zucchino|first=David|date=1 September 2021|title=Shifting to Governing, Taliban Will Name Supreme Afghan Leader|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/01/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-government-leader.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/01/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-government-leader.html |archive-date=2021-12-28 |url-access=limited|access-date=6 September 2021|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and acting [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|prime minister]] [[Hasan Akhund]], who took office on 7 September 2021.<ref name="akhund1">{{Cite news|title=گروه طالبان حکومت جدید خود را با رهبری ملا حسن اخوند اعلام کرد|newspaper=BBC News فارسی|url=https://www.bbc.com/persian/afghanistan-58477769}}</ref><ref name="akhund2">{{Cite news|date=7 September 2021|title=Taliban announce new government for Afghanistan|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750}}</ref> Akhund is one of the four founders of the Taliban<ref name=akhund_tribunepk>{{cite news|title=Profile: Who is Afghanistan's new caretaker prime minister?|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2319144/profile-who-is-afghanistans-new-caretaker-prime-minister|newspaper=The Express Tribune |date=8 September 2021}}</ref> and was a deputy prime minister of the previous emirate; his appointment was seen as a compromise between moderates and hardliners.<ref name="akhund3">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750|title=Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=7 September 2021}}</ref> A [[Cabinet of Afghanistan|new, all-male cabinet]] was formed, which included [[Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai]] as minister of justice.<ref name="TOLOnews_Taliban_Cabinet_2.0rc1">{{cite news | title= Taliban Announces Head of State, Acting Ministers | date= 7 September 2021 |newspaper= [[TOLOnews]] | url= https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174556 |access-date= 7 September 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210907182414/https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174556 |archive-date= 7 September 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NPR_Taliban_Cabinet_2.0rc1">{{cite news | title= Taliban Name Their Deputy Ministers, Doubling Down On An All-Male Team | date= 21 September 2021 |website= [[NPR]] | url= https://www.npr.org/2021/09/21/1039232797/taliban-women-all-male-government-cabinet-ministers |access-date= 8 October 2021}}</ref> On 20 September 2021, [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|United Nations Secretary-General]] [[António Guterres]] received a letter from acting [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)|minister of foreign affairs]] [[Amir Khan Muttaqi]] to formally claim Afghanistan's seat as a member state for their official spokesman in [[Doha]], [[Suhail Shaheen]]. The [[United Nations]] did not recognize the previous Taliban government and chose to work with the then-government in exile instead.<ref name="taliban_un_2021_1">{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/9/24/who-will-speak-for-afghanistan-at-the-united-nations|title=Who will speak for Afghanistan at the United Nations?|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=26 September 2021}}</ref>
Western nations suspended most of their humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's August 2021 takeover of the country; the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]] also halted their payments.<ref>{{cite news |title=China urges World Bank, IMF to help Afghanistan |url=https://www.news24.com/news24/world/news/china-urges-world-bank-imf-to-help-afghanistan-20211028 |work=News24 |date=28 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan: Can the Taliban avert a food crisis without foreign aid? |url=https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-can-the-taliban-avert-a-food-crisis-without-foreign-aid/a-59790464 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=11 November 2021}}</ref> More than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute [[Food security|food shortage]] in October 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title='Countdown to catastrophe': half of Afghans face hunger this winter – UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/oct/25/countdown-to-catastrophe-half-of-afghans-face-hunger-this-winter-un |work=The Guardian |date=25 October 2021}}</ref> Human Rights Watch reported on 11 November 2021 that Afghanistan was facing widespread [[famine]] due to an economic and banking crisis.<ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan Facing Famine: UN, World Bank, US Should Adjust Sanctions, Economic Policies |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/11/afghanistan-facing-famine# |work=Human Rights Watch |date=11 November 2021}}</ref>
Though the state of war in the country ended in 2021, armed conflict persists in some regions<ref>{{Cite web |title=One year later, Austin acknowledges lasting questions over Afghanistan war's end |url=https://www.stripes.com/theaters/us/2022-08-30/lasting-questions-afghanistan-withdrawal-7156882.html |access-date=2022-10-01 |website=Stars and Stripes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-09 |title=Karzai says while the war has ended, unity has not yet been achieved {{!}} Ariana News |url=https://www.ariananews.af/karzai-says-while-the-war-has-ended-unity-has-not-yet-been-achieved/ |access-date=2022-10-01 |website=www.ariananews.af |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-26 |title=Briefing by Special Representative Deborah Lyons to the Security Council |url=https://unama.unmissions.org/briefing-special-representative-deborah-lyons-security-council-10 |access-date=2022-10-01 |website=UNAMA |language=en |accessdate=2023-03-13 |archivedate=2022-10-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004064300/https://unama.unmissions.org/briefing-special-representative-deborah-lyons-security-council-10 }}</ref> amid [[Islamic State–Taliban conflict|fighting between the Taliban and the local branch of the Islamic State]], as well as an anti-Taliban [[Republican insurgency in Afghanistan|Republican insurgency]]. A year into Taliban rule, former president Hamid Karzai said in an interview: "In terms of [an] end to widespread fighting and conflict, we are happy — there's more stability, there's more security. But in terms of Afghanistan having a government that all Afghan people find themselves [in], we still have a way to go. In terms of the economy of the country, it's a disaster."<ref>{{Cite news |title=Hamid Karzai stays on in Afghanistan — hoping for the best, but unable to leave |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/08/08/1115674232/afghanistan-taliban-hamid-karzai-us-withdrawal |access-date=2022-10-15}}</ref>
== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Afghanistan}}
{{Map of Afghanistan}}
Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia.<ref name="South Asia">* {{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |title=U.S. maps |publisher=Pubs.usgs.gov |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225134851/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |archive-date=25 December 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=25 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225134851/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/sar |title=South Asia: Data, Projects, and Research |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301035209/http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/sar |archive-date=1 March 2015 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |title=MAPS SHOWING GEOLOGY, OIL AND GAS FIELDS AND GEOLOGICAL PROVINCES OF SOUTH ASIA (Includes Afghanistan) |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225134851/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html |archive-date=25 December 2013 |url-status=live |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=25 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225134851/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1997/ofr-97-470/OF97-470C/asiaGmap.html }}
* {{cite web |url=http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html |title=University of Washington Jackson School of International Studies: The South Asia Center |access-date=2 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100846/http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html |archive-date=2 April 2015 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=2 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402100846/http://jsis.washington.edu/advise/catalog/soasia-b.html }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/sac/ |title=Syracruse University: The South Asia Center |date=26 March 2013 |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326065054/http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/moynihan/programs/sac/ |archive-date=26 March 2015 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ii.umich.edu/csas |title=Center for South Asian studies |access-date=2 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211204817/http://www.ii.umich.edu/csas/ |archive-date=11 December 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="UNdata">{{cite web |url=http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#asia |title=Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings |publisher=[[UNdata]] |date=26 April 2011 |access-date=13 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713041240/http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm |archive-date=13 July 2011 |url-status=live |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=13 July 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713041240/http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#asia }}</ref><ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan |title=Afghanistan |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=17 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225235842/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan |archive-date=25 February 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Tan |first1=Anjelica |title=A new strategy for Central Asia |url=https://thehill.com/opinion/international/483511-a-new-strategy-for-central-asia |work=TheHill |date=18 February 2020 |quote=, as Afghan President Ashraf Ghani has noted, Afghanistan is itself a Central Asian country.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Afghanistan {{!}} meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University |isbn=9781107619500 |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/afghanistan }}</ref> The region centered at Afghanistan is considered the "crossroads of Asia",<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC&pg=PA257|title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia|first=Jason|last=Neelis|date=19 November 2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004181595}}</ref> and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh01.html |title=Afghanistan: Cultural Crossroad at the Heart of Asia |access-date=17 June 2020 |archive-date=30 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830013605/https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh01.html |url-status=dead |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=30 August 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830013605/https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh01.html }}</ref> The renowned [[Urdu]] poet [[Allama Iqbal]] once wrote about the country:<br />{{blockquote|Asia is a body of water and earth, of which the Afghan nation is the heart. From its discord, the discord of Asia; and from its accord, the accord of Asia.}}
At over {{convert|652864|km2|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Land area (sq. km) |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2 |work=World Development Indicators |publisher=World Bank |access-date=13 October 2011 |year=2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029185313/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2 |archive-date=29 October 2013 }}</ref> Afghanistan is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|41st largest country]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html#af |title=CIA Factbook – Area: 41 |publisher=CIA |date=26 November 1991 |access-date=4 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131115000/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html |archive-date=31 January 2014 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=25 December 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225082916/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html%20#af }}</ref> slightly bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size of Texas in the United States. There is no coastline, as Afghanistan is [[landlocked]]. Afghanistan shares its longest land border (the [[Durand Line]]) with Pakistan to the east and south, followed by borders with Tajikistan to the north-east, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the north-west, Uzbekistan to the north and China to the north-east; India recognizes a border with Afghanistan through Pakistani-administered [[Kashmir]].<ref>[https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf "International Land Border."] India Ministry of Home Affairs. Retrieved 13 November 2021.</ref> Clockwise from south-west, Afghanistan shares borders with the [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province]], [[South Khorasan Province]] and [[Razavi Khorasan Province]] of Iran; [[Ahal Region]], [[Mary Region]] and [[Lebap Region]] of Turkmenistan; [[Surxondaryo Region]] of Uzbekistan; [[Khatlon Region]] and [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region]] of Tajikistan; [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] of China; and the [[Gilgit-Baltistan|Gilgit-Baltistan territory]], [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province]] and [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan province]] of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cary Gladstone|title=Afghanistan Revisited|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_KCWVB6W0C&pg=PA121|year=2001|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-421-8|page=121}}</ref>
The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins.<ref name="auto7">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LclscNCTz9oC&pg=PA59|title=The Far East and Australasia 2003|date=2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431339|chapter=Afghanistan: Physical and Social Geography|last=Fisher|first=W. B.|pages=59–60}}</ref> It is dominated by the [[Hindu Kush]] range, the western extension of the [[Himalayas]] that stretches to eastern [[Tibet]] via the [[Pamir Mountains]] and [[Karakoram Mountains]] in Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys, often considered part of the "[[Roof of the World]]". The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest, namely the [[Turkestan]] Plains and the [[Sistan Basin]]; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts, respectively.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_AdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT26|title=Afghanistan|first=Kim|last=Whitehead|date=21 October 2014|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9781633559899}}</ref> Forests exist in the corridor between [[Nuristan]] and [[Paktika]] provinces (see [[East Afghan montane conifer forests]]),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cropwatch.unl.edu/documents/Forests%20of%20Afghanistan.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cropwatch.unl.edu/documents/Forests%20of%20Afghanistan.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Forests of Afghanistan |website=cropwatch.unl.edu |access-date=28 June 2021 |accessdate=2023-03-13 |archivedate=2022-10-09 |archiveurl=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cropwatch.unl.edu/documents/Forests%20of%20Afghanistan.pdf }}</ref> and [[tundra]] in the north-east. The country's highest point is [[Noshaq]], at {{convert|7492|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name="Factbook"/> The lowest point lies in [[Jowzjan Province]] along the Amu River bank, at {{convert|258|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.
[[File:Afghan topo en.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|The mountainous [[topography]] of Afghanistan]]
Despite having numerous rivers and [[list of dams and reservoirs in Afghanistan|reservoirs]], large parts of the country are dry. The [[endorheic]] Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf |title=History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin 1976–2005 |access-date=20 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807214557/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2007 |url-status=live |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=7 August 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807214557/http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sistan.pdf }}</ref> The [[Amu Darya]] rises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearby [[Hari Rud]] flows west towards [[Herat]], and the [[Arghandab River]] from the central region southwards. To the south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of the [[Indus River]],<ref name="auto7"/> such as the [[Helmand River]]. One exception is the [[Kabul River]] which flows in an easterly direction to the Indus ending at the Indian Ocean.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/RiversLakes.htm|title=Afghanistan Rivers Lakes – Afghanistan's Web Site|website=www.afghanistans.com|access-date=12 June 2020|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815172309/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/RiversLakes.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter in the [[Hindu Kush]] and [[Pamir Mountains]], and the melting snow in the spring season enters the [[list of rivers of Afghanistan|rivers, lakes, and streams]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=16066 |title=Snow in Afghanistan: Natural Hazards |publisher=NASA |date=3 February 2006 |access-date=6 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235107/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=16066 |archive-date=30 December 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=30 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235107/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=16066 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/afghanistan-snow-idINDEE80H0BR20120118 |work=Reuters |title=Snow may end Afghan drought, but bitter winter looms |date=18 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233432/http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/01/18/afghanistan-snow-idINDEE80H0BR20120118 |archive-date=30 December 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=30 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233432/http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/01/18/afghanistan-snow-idINDEE80H0BR20120118 }}</ref> However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries of [[Iran]], Pakistan, and [[Turkmenistan]]. As reported in 2010, the state needs more than US$2 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0615/Afghanistan-s-woeful-water-management-delights-neighbors |title=Afghanistan's woeful water management delights neighbors |work=The Christian Science Monitor | date=15 June 2010 |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114131338/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0615/Afghanistan-s-woeful-water-management-delights-neighbors |archive-date=14 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The northeastern Hindu Kush [[mountain range]], in and around the [[Badakhshan Province]] of Afghanistan, is in a [[natural environment#Geological activity|geologically active]] area where earthquakes may occur almost every year.<ref name="crone2007">{{cite techreport |last=Crone |first=Anthony J. |title=Earthquakes Pose a Serious Hazard in Afghanistan |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3027/pdf/FS07-3027_508.pdf |publisher=[[US Geological Survey]] |access-date=14 October 2011 |id=Fact Sheet FS 2007–3027 | date=April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727072311/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3027/pdf/FS07-3027_508.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref> They can be deadly and destructive, causing [[landslide]]s in some parts or [[2009 Afghan avalanches|avalanches]] during the winter.<ref>{{cite web |title=Earthquake Hazards |url=http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/earthquake-hazards |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004040745/http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/earthquake-hazards |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 October 2011 |work=USGS Projects in Afghanistan |publisher=US Geological Survey |access-date=13 October 2011 |date=1 August 2011 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=30 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235224/http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/earthquake-hazards }}</ref> The last strong earthquakes were in [[February 1998 Afghanistan earthquake|1998]], which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan.<ref name="bbcquake2010">{{cite news |title='Seven dead' as earthquake rocks Afghanistan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8628901.stm |access-date=13 October 2011 |newspaper=BBC News | date=19 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231000835/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8628901.stm |archive-date=31 December 2013 }}</ref> This was followed by the [[2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes]] in which over 150 people were killed and over 1,000 injured. A [[2010 Afghanistan earthquake|2010 earthquake]] left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured, and more than 2,000 houses destroyed. In June 2022, a [[June 2022 Afghanistan earthquake|destructive 5.9 earthquake]] struck near the border with Pakistan, killing at least 1,150 people and sparking fears of a major humanitarian crisis.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Noroozi |first1=Ebrahim |title=Deadly quake a new blow to Afghans enervated by poverty |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/world/deadly-quake-a-new-blow-to-afghans-enervated-by-poverty-1.5963026 |access-date=3 July 2022 |agency=[[Associated Press]] |publisher=[[CTV News]] |date=25 June 2022}}</ref>
===Climate===
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map AFG present.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate map]] of Afghanistan<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F.|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data |date=30 October 2018 |volume=5 |pages=180214 |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B }}</ref>]]
Afghanistan has a [[continental climate]] with harsh winters in the [[Hazarajat|central highlands]], the glaciated northeast (around [[Nuristan]]), and the [[Wakhan Corridor]], where the average temperature in January is below {{convert|-15|C}} and can reach {{convert|-26|C}},<ref name="auto7"/> and hot summers in the low-lying areas of the [[Sistan Basin]] of the southwest, the [[Jalalabad]] basin in the east, and the [[Afghan Turkestan|Turkestan]] plains along the [[Amu River]] in the north, where temperatures average over {{convert|35|C}} in July<ref name="Factbook"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Afghanistan {{!}} History, Map, Flag, Capital, Population, & Languages|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan|access-date=23 March 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> and can go over {{convert|43|C}}.<ref name="auto7"/> The country is generally [[arid]] in the summers, with most rainfall falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although proximate to India, Afghanistan is mostly outside the [[monsoon]] zone,<ref name="auto7"/> except the [[Nuristan Province]] which occasionally receives summer monsoon rain.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=69V7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31|title=Terraced Landscapes|first=Drago|last=Kladnik|date=1 September 2017|publisher=Založba ZRC|isbn=9789610500193}}</ref>
===Biodiversity===
{{main|Wildlife of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Schneeleopard- P1020498.jpg|thumb|The [[snow leopard]] is the official national animal of Afghanistan]]
Several types of [[mammal]]s exist throughout Afghanistan. [[Snow leopard]]s, [[Siberian tiger]]s and [[brown bear]]s live in the high elevation [[alpine tundra]] regions. The [[Marco Polo sheep]] exclusively live in the [[Wakhan Corridor]] region of north-east Afghanistan. [[Fox]]es, [[wolves]], [[otter]]s, [[deer]], [[wild sheep]], [[lynx]] and other big cats populate the mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern plains, wildlife include a variety of birds, [[hedgehog]]s, [[gopher]]s, and large carnivores such as [[Golden jackal|jackal]]s and [[Striped hyena|hyena]]s.<ref name="auto8">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5QY3vCg338C&pg=PA22|title=Afghanistan, Second Edition|first1=Jeffrey A.|last1=Gritzner|first2=John F.|last2=Shroder|date=14 June 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438104805}}</ref>
[[Gazelle]]s, [[wild boar|wild pigs]] and jackals populate the [[steppe]] plains of the south and west, while [[mongoose]] and [[cheetah]]s exist in the semi-desert south.<ref name="auto8"/> [[Marmot]]s and [[ibex]] also live in the high mountains of Afghanistan, and [[pheasant]]s exist in some parts of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/PlantAnimal.htm|title=Afghanistan Plant and Animal Life – Afghanistan's Web Site|website=www.afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711065504/http://www.afghanistans.com/information/PlantAnimal.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Afghan hound]] is a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is relatively known in the west.<ref name="auto9">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y20MTE0C9kwC&pg=PA10|title=A Brief History of Afghanistan|first1=Shaista|last1=Wahab|first2=Barry|last2=Youngerman|date=14 June 2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9781438108193}}</ref>
[[Endemic]] fauna of Afghanistan includes the [[Afghan flying squirrel]], [[Afghan snowfinch]], ''[[Paradactylodon]]'' (or the "[[Paghman]] mountain salamander"), ''[[Stigmella kasyi]]'', ''[[Vulcaniella kabulensis]]'', [[Afghan leopard gecko]], ''[[Wheeleria parviflorellus]]'', amongst others. Endemic flora include ''[[Iris afghanica]]''. Afghanistan has a wide variety of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235 breed within.<ref name="auto9"/>
The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation such as [[pine tree]]s, [[spruce tree]]s, [[fir tree]]s and [[larch]]es, whereas the steppe grassland regions consist of [[broadleaf tree]]s, short grass, [[perennial plant]]s and [[shrubland]]s. The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses and small flowering plants.<ref name="auto8"/> Several regions are designated [[List of protected areas of Afghanistan|protected areas]]; there are three [[national parks]]: [[Band-e Amir]], [[Wakhan National Park|Wakhan]] and [[Nuristan National Park|Nuristan]]. Afghanistan had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref>
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Afghans|Demographics of Afghanistan|Afghan diaspora}}
[[File:Afghanistan ethnic groups 2005.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A Cold War-era CIA map showing traditional Afghan tribal territories. [[Pashtun tribes]] form the world's largest tribal society.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ag-afghanistan.de/files/glatzer/tribal_system.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ag-afghanistan.de/files/glatzer/tribal_system.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=The Pashtun Tribal System |last1=Glatzer |first1=Bernt |date=2002 |publisher=Concept Publishers |location=New Delhi }}</ref>]]
The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 32.9 million as of 2019 by the Afghanistan Statistics and Information Authority,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/nsia-estimates-afghanistan-population-329m|title=NSIA Estimates Afghanistan Population at 32.9M|website=TOLOnews}}</ref> whereas the UN estimates over 38.0 million.<ref>{{cite web | title=Afghanistan Population 2020 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs) | website=2020 World Population by Country | date=26 April 2020 | url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/afghanistan-population/ | access-date=13 June 2020}}</ref> In 1979 the total population was reported to be about 15.5 million.<ref>"[https://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/un-afghan-history.shtml United Nations and Afghanistan]". UN News Centre. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031084259/https://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/afghan/un-afghan-history.shtml |date=31 October 2013 }}</ref> About 23.9% of them are [[urban area|urbanite]], 71.4% live in rural areas, and the remaining 4.7% are nomadic.<ref name= "https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/afghanistan-population/">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/|title=Afghan Population Estimates 2020|publisher=Worldmeters|year=2020|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127023212/https://www.worldometers.info/|archive-date=27 November 2020|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> An additional 3 million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in neighboring [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]], most of whom were born and raised in those two countries. As of 2013, Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world, a title held for 32 years.
The current population growth rate is 2.37%,<ref name="Factbook">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Afghanistan|access-date=22 August 2018 |year=2018}}</ref> one of the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82 million by 2050 if current population trends continue.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prb.org/Countries/Afghanistan.aspx |title=Afghanistan – Population Reference Bureau |publisher=[[Population Reference Bureau]] |access-date=29 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202224051/http://www.prb.org/Countries/Afghanistan.aspx |archive-date=2 December 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=2 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202224051/http://www.prb.org/Countries/Afghanistan.aspx }}</ref> The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghan Households in Iran: Profile and Impact |url=http://www.unhcr.org/455835d92.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223013910/https://www.unhcr.org/455835d92.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2018|first1=Piyasiri |last1=Wickramasekara |first2=Jag |last2=Sehgal |first3=Farhad |last3=Mehran |first4=Ladan |last4=Noroozi |first5=Saeid |last5=Eisazadeh |website=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]]}}</ref> Millions have since returned and the war conditions contribute to the country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Is recent Afghanistan survey data suitable for fertility analysis? A regional investigation based on fertility inhibiting determinants|first1=Jamal Abdul|last1=Nasir|first2=Sohail|last2=Akhtar|first3=Syed Arif Ahmed|last3=Zaidi|first4=Andleeb|last4=Rani|first5=Hina|last5=Bano|first6=Andrew|last6=Hinde|date=16 October 2019|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=10|pages=e0223111|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0223111|pmid=31618275|pmc=6795489|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1423111N|doi-access=free}}</ref> Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside Africa. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} The [[Gini coefficient]] in 2008 was 27.8.<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511044958/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI|archive-date=11 May 2014}}</ref>
=== Ethnicity and languages ===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in Afghanistan|Languages of Afghanistan}}
{{see also|Afghans}}
[[File:US Army ethnolinguistic map of Afghanistan -- circa 2001-09.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Ethnolinguistic map of Afghanistan (2001)]]
[[Afghans]] are divided into several [[ethnolinguistic]] groups. Off of sociological research data by [[The Asia Foundation]] in 2019, the [[Pashtuns]] are the largest ethnic group, comprising 39%, followed by [[Tajiks]], comprising 37%.<ref name="AsiaFoundation">See:
*2019: {{cite web
|url = https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/2019_Afghan_Survey_Full-Report_.pdf
|title = Afghanistan in 2019 – A survey of the Afghan people
|pages = 277
|quote = ''D-14. Which ethnic group do you belong to?''
|publisher = [[The Asia Foundation]]
|location = Kabul, Afghanistan
|access-date = 15 September 2021
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210913071117/https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/2019_Afghan_Survey_Full-Report_.pdf
|archive-date = 13 September 2021
|url-status = bot: unknown
|accessdate = 13 March 2023
|archivedate = 15 September 2021
|archiveurl = https://archive.ph/20210915152910/https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/2019_Afghan_Survey_Full-Report_.pdf
}}
*2018: {{cite book |year=2018 |newspaper=[[The Asia Foundation]] |title=Afganistan in 2018. A Survey of the Afghan People |url=https://www.asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/Surveybook2012web1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/Surveybook2012web1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |page=283 }}</ref> of the country's population. The other two major ethnic groups are the [[Hazaras]] and [[Uzbeks]]. A further 10 other ethnic groups are recognized and each are represented in the [[Afghan National Anthem]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2017/08/31/the-roots-of-afghanistans-tribal-tensions|title=The roots of Afghanistan's tribal tensions|newspaper=The Economist|date=31 August 2017}}</ref>
[[Dari]] and [[Pashto]] are the [[official language]]s of Afghanistan; [[bilingualism]] is very common.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of Afghanistan|url=https://www.mfa.gov.af/constitution/chapter-one-state.html|access-date=2 September 2020|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan|archive-date=29 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829115048/https://www.mfa.gov.af/constitution/chapter-one-state.html|url-status=dead|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=29 August 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829115048/https://www.mfa.gov.af/constitution/chapter-one-state.html}}</ref> Dari, which is also referred to as Eastern Persian as it is a variety of and mutually intelligible with [[Persian language|Persian]] (and very often called '[[Farsi]]' by some Afghans like in [[Iran]]) functions as the [[lingua franca]] in Kabul as well as in much of the northern and northwestern parts of the country.<ref name="AO">{{cite web|year=2004|title=Article Sixteen of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan|url=http://www.afghan-web.com/politics/current_constitution.html#preamble|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028065437/http://www.afghan-web.com/politics/current_constitution.html|archive-date=28 October 2013|access-date=13 June 2012|quote=Pashto and Dari are the official languages of the state. Uzbek, Turkmen, Baluchi, Pashai, Nuristani and Pamiri are – in addition to Pashto and Dari – the third official language in areas where the majority speaks them|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=28 October 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028065437/http://www.afghan-web.com/politics/current_constitution.html#preamble}}</ref> Native speakers of Dari, of any ethnicity, are sometimes called [[Farsiwan]]s.<ref name="Iranica">The ''Encyc. Iranica'' makes clear in the article on Afghanistan — Ethnography that "The term Farsiwan also has the regional forms Parsiwan and Parsiban. In religion they are Imami Shia. In the literature they are often mistakenly referred to as Tajik." [https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/afghanistan-COM_4803 Dupree, Louis (1982) "Afghanistan: (iv.) Ethnography", in ''Encyclopædia Iranica''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027090802/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/afghanistan-COM_4803 |date=2021-10-27 }} Online Edition 2006.</ref> Pashto is the native tongue of the [[Pashtuns]], although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/indepth/2019/7/11/what-will-happen-to-afghanistans-national-languages|title=What will happen to Afghanistan's national languages?|first=Austin|last=Bodetti|website=alaraby|date=11 July 2019|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=14 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414230310/https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/indepth/2019/7/11/what-will-happen-to-afghanistans-national-languages}}</ref>
According to [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]], Dari Persian is spoken by 78% ([[First language|L1]] + [[Second language|L2]]) and functions as the lingua franca, while [[Pashto]] is spoken by 50%, [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] 10%, [[English language|English]] 5%, [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] 2%, [[Urdu]] 2%, [[Pashayi languages|Pashayi]] 1%, [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]] 1%, [[Arabic]] 1%, and [[Balochi language|Balochi]] 1% (2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken languages; shares sum to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one language. There are a number of smaller regional languages, including [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Pashayi language|Pashayi]], and [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]].<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Afghanistan}}</ref>
When it comes to foreign languages among the populace, many are able to speak or understand [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Urdu]]-[[Hindi]]), partly due to returning [[Afghans in Pakistan|Afghan refugees]] from [[Pakistan]] and the popularity of [[Bollywood]] films respectively.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjYUAgAAQBAJ|title=Afghanistan – Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture|first1=Nazes|last1=Afroz|first2=Moska|last2=Najib|first3=Culture|last3=Smart!|date=1 December 2013|publisher=Kuperard|isbn=9781857336801}}</ref> [[English language|English]] is also understood by some of the population,<ref name="Afghan2018">The Asia Foundation. [https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018_Afghan-Survey_fullReport-12.4.18.pdf ''Afghanistan in 2018: A Survey of the Afghan People''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807211241/https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018_Afghan-Survey_fullReport-12.4.18.pdf |date=7 August 2019 }}</ref> and has been gaining popularity as of the 2000s.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34215293|title=Pakistan's confusing move to Urdu|first=M. Ilyas|last=Khan|work=BBC News|date=12 September 2015}}</ref> Some Afghans retain some ability in [[Russian language|Russian]], which was [[Russian occupation of Afghanistan|taught in public schools during the 1980s]].<ref name="auto3"/>
=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Mazar-e sharif - Steve Evans.jpg|thumb|[[Blue Mosque (Mazar-i-Sharif)|Blue Mosque]] in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] is the largest [[mosque]] in Afghanistan]]
The CIA estimated in 2009 that 99.7% of the Afghan population was Muslim<ref name="Factbook"/> and most are thought to adhere to the [[Sunni]] [[Hanafi]] school.<ref name="auto6">{{Cite web|url=https://swedishcommittee.org/afghanistan/religion|title=Religion in Afghanistan|website=The Swedish Committee for Afghanistan (SCA)}}</ref> According to [[Pew Research Center]], as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7% [[Shia]] and 3% [[non-denominational Muslim|non-denominational]].<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation|date=9 August 2012|work=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=22 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226113158/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|archive-date=26 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[CIA]] Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia.<ref name="Factbook"/>
Afghan [[Sikhism in Afghanistan|Sikhs]] and [[Hinduism in Afghanistan|Hindus]] are also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar)<ref>{{cite news |last=Majumder |first=Sanjoy |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3138282.stm |title=Sikhs struggle in Afghanistan |work=BBC News | date=25 September 2003 |access-date=19 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222132753/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3138282.stm |archive-date=22 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Lavina Melwani |url=http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml |title=Hindus Abandon Afghanistan |work=Hinduism Today |access-date=19 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070111080626/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1994/4/1994-4-02.shtml |archive-date=11 January 2007}}</ref> accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.religion.info/2005/08/25/afghanistan-sikhs-rebuilding-gurdwaras/|title=Afghanistan: Sikhs rebuilding gurdwaras|date=25 August 2005|website=Religioscope}}</ref> According to [[Deutsche Welle]] in September 2021, 250 remain in the country after 67 were evacuated to India.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chabba |first1=Seerat |title=Afghanistan: What does Taliban rule mean for Sikhs and Hindus? |url=https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-what-does-taliban-rule-mean-for-sikhs-and-hindus/a-59122249 |access-date=25 October 2021 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=8 September 2021}}</ref>
There was a small [[History of the Jews in Afghanistan|Jewish community in Afghanistan]], living mainly in Herat and Kabul. Over the years, this small community was forced leave due to decades of warfare and religious persecution. By the end of the twentieth century, nearly the entire community had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with one known exception, Herat-born [[Zablon Simintov]]. He remained for years, being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagog. He left the country for the US after the second Taliban takeover. A woman who left shortly after him has since been identified as the likely last Jew in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html |title=Afghan Jew Becomes Country's One and Only |author=N.C. Aizenman |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=27 January 2005 |access-date=19 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516090806/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html |archive-date=16 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/news/last-jew-afghanistan-en-route-us-report |title=Last Jew in Afghanistan en route to US: report |author=The New Arab Staff |work=The New Arab |date=7 September 2021 |access-date=17 September 2021 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=9 September 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909025955/https://english.alaraby.co.uk/news/last-jew-afghanistan-en-route-us-report }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author1=Ben Zion Gad |title='Last Jew in Afghanistan' loses title to hidden Jewish family |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/not-the-last-jew-in-afghanistan-after-all-683879 |access-date=7 February 2023 |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=1 December 2021}}</ref>
[[Afghan Christians]], who number 500–8,000, practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition, and there are no public churches.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gebauer |first1=Matthias |date=20 March 2006 |title=Christians in Afghanistan: A Community of Faith and Fear |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,408781,00.html |url-status=live |access-date=25 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127030841/http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,408781,00.html |archive-date=27 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=USSD Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor| year=2009 |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2009 |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130031916/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 November 2009 |access-date=6 March 2010}}</ref>
===Urbanization===
As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher than [[Cambodia]], [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capital [[Kabul]], due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/03/20/can-cities-save-afghanistan/|title=Can Cities Save Afghanistan?|first=Ali|last=Karimi}}</ref> Urbanization in Afghanistan is different from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few cities.<ref name="auto5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/10/unraveling-afghan-art-carpet-weaving-201410917826901821.html|title=Unravelling the Afghan art of carpet weaving|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref>
The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul, located in the east of the country. The other large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the Central Highlands, namely [[Kandahar]] in the south, [[Herat]] in the west, [[Mazar-i-Sharif]], [[Kunduz]] in the north, and [[Jalalabad]] in the east.<ref name="https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/afghanistan-population/" />
{{Largest cities of Afghanistan}}
=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Afghanistan}}
[[File:UNESCO Institute of Statistics Afghanistan Literacy Rate population plus15 1980-2018.png|thumb|upright=1.15|UNESCO Institute of Statistics Afghanistan Literacy Rate population plus15 1980–2018]]
[[Education in Afghanistan]] is overseen by the [[Ministry of Education (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Education]] and the [[Ministry of Higher Education (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Higher Education]]. There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9 million students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. However, the new regime has thus far forbidden female teachers and female students from returning to secondary schools.<ref>{{cite news|date=18 September 2021|title=Afghanistan: Girls excluded as Afghan secondary schools reopen|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58607816|access-date=20 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Blue|first1=Victor J.|last2=Zucchino|first2=David|date=20 September 2021|title=A Harsh New Reality for Afghan Women and Girls in Taliban-Run Schools|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/20/world/asia/afghan-girls-schools-taliban.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/20/world/asia/afghan-girls-schools-taliban.html |archive-date=2021-12-28 |url-access=limited|access-date=20 September 2021|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different [[List of universities in Afghanistan|universities around the country]]. About 21% of these are females.<ref name="USAID-Education">{{cite web |url=https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/education |title=Education |publisher=[[USAID]] |access-date=26 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110231403/https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/education |archive-date=10 November 2018 |url-status=live |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=10 November 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110231403/https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/education }}</ref> Former Education Minister [[Ghulam Farooq Wardak]] had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is required for the remaining children who are deprived of [[formal learning]].<ref name="Wardak seeks $3b in aid for school buildings">{{cite news |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/05/18/wardak-seeks-3b-aid-school-buildings |title=Wardak seeks $3b in aid for school buildings |publisher=Pajhwok Afghan News | date=18 May 2013 |access-date=13 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234222/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/05/18/wardak-seeks-3b-aid-school-buildings |archive-date=30 December 2013|last1=Adina |first1=Mohammad Sabir }}</ref> As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48% and females 29.81%).<ref name="UNESCO UIS Afghanistan">{{Cite web |title=UNESCO UIS: Afghanistan |url=http://uis.unesco.org/ |access-date=6 August 2020 |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref>
The top universities in Afghanistan are the [[American University of Afghanistan]] (AUAF) followed by [[Kabul University]] (KU), both of which are located in Kabul. The [[National Military Academy of Afghanistan]], modeled after the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point, was a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the [[Afghan Armed Forces]]. The [[Afghan Defense University]] was constructed near [[Qargha]] in Kabul. Major universities outside of Kabul include [[Kandahar University]] in the south, [[Herat University]] in the northwest, [[Balkh University]] and [[Kunduz University]] in the north, [[Nangarhar University]] and [[Khost University]] in the east. Kabul University was founded in 1932 and is a respected institute that played a significant part in the country's education;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/Education.htm|title=Afghanistan Education | Afghanistan's Web Site|website=www.afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308065842/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/Education.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> from the 1960s the Kabul University was also a hotbed of radical political ideologies such as Marxism and Islamism, which played major parts in society, politics and the war that began in 1978.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQeRuzzwuCIC&pg=PA38|title=Apocalyptic Realm: Jihadists in South Asia|first=Dilip|last=Hiro|date=17 April 2012|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300183665}}</ref>
After the Taliban regained power in 2021, it became unclear to what extent female education would continue in the country. In March 2022, after they had been closed for some time, it was announced that girl's schools after 6th grade would be reopened shortly. However, shortly before reopening, the order was rescinded and schools for older girls remained closed.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Taliban reverses decision, barring Afghan girls from attending school beyond 6th grade |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/03/23/1088202759/taliban-afghanistan-girls-school |access-date=2022-04-05}}</ref>
Despite the ban, six provinces, [[Balkh Province|Balkh]], [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]], [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]], [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-I-Pul]], [[Faryab Province|Faryab]], and the [[Daykundi Province|Day Kundi]] provinces still allow girl's schools from grade 6 and up.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 January 2023 |title=Afghanistan: Six provinces keep schools open for girls despite nationwide ban |url=https://amu.tv/en/30372/ |url-status=live |access-date=17 February 2023 |website=AmuTV}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Neda Safi |first=Tooba |date=17 February 2023 |title=Girls return to high school in some regions of Afghanistan |url=https://genevasolutions.news/explorations/dispatches-from-women-in-afghanistan/girls-return-to-high-school-in-some-regions-of-afghanistan |url-status=live |access-date=17 February 2023 |website=Geneva Solutions}}</ref>
=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Kabul Military Hospital - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The [[Daoud Khan Military Hospital]] in Kabul is one of the largest [[list of hospitals in Afghanistan|hospitals]] in Afghanistan]]
According to the [[Human Development Index]], Afghanistan is the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|15th least developed country in the world]]. The average [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]] is estimated to be around 60 years.<ref name="WHO">{{cite web |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/136852/1/ccsbrief_afg_en.pdf |title=Afghanistan |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |access-date=17 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722191648/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/136852/1/ccsbrief_afg_en.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="uis.unesco.org">{{cite web |publisher=UNESCO |title=Afghanistan |date=27 November 2016 |url=https://uis.unesco.org/en/country/af |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623093810/http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/af |archive-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> The country's [[maternal mortality]] rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its [[infant mortality]] rate is 66<ref name="uis.unesco.org"/> to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000 live births.<ref name="Factbook"/> The [[Ministry of Public Health (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Public Health]] plans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020. The country has more than 3,000 [[midwifery|midwives]], with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year.<ref name="csm">{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/childbirth-maternal-health-improve-afghanistan-160657704.html |title=Childbirth and maternal health improve in Afghanistan |first=Tom A. |last=Peter |newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor | date=17 December 2011 |access-date=12 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002243/http://news.yahoo.com/childbirth-maternal-health-improve-afghanistan-160657704.html |archive-date=31 December 2013 }}</ref>
There are over 100 [[hospitals in Afghanistan]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaea825.pdf|title=Afghanistan National Hospital Survey|date=August 2004|publisher=Afghan Ministry of Health|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807231748/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaea825.pdf|archive-date=7 August 2019|url-status=live|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=7 August 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807231748/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnaea825.pdf}}</ref> with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The [[French Medical Institute for Children]] and [[Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital]] in Kabul are the leading [[children's hospital]]s in the country. Some of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include the [[Jamhuriat Hospital]] and [[Jinnah Hospital (Kabul)|Jinnah Hospital]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-funded-afghan-hospital-begins-operations/4884454.html|title=Pakistan-funded Afghan Hospital Begins Operations|work=VOA News|first=Ayaz|last=Gul|date=20 April 2019|access-date=28 May 2019|quote=It opens a new chapter in the friendship of the two countries... This is the second-largest hospital [in Afghanistan] built with your support that will serve the needy," Feroz told the gathering.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423111329/https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-funded-afghan-hospital-begins-operations/4884454.html|archive-date=23 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment.
It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility.<ref name="USAID-Health">{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/health |title=Health |publisher=[[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID) |access-date=20 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082306/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/health |archive-date=29 September 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=29 September 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082306/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/health }}</ref> [[Disability]] rate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war.<ref>{{cite web |first=Anne-Marie |last=DiNardo |author2=LPA/PIPOS |url=http://www.usaid.gov/stories/afghanistan/fp_afghan_disabled.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040508140406/http://www.usaid.gov/stories/afghanistan/fp_afghan_disabled.html |archive-date=8 May 2004 |title=Empowering Afghanistan's Disabled Population – 31 March 2006 |publisher=Usaid.gov |date=31 March 2006 |access-date=19 May 2012 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=8 May 2004 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040508140406/http://www.usaid.gov/stories/afghanistan/fp_afghan_disabled.html }}</ref> It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs.<ref>{{cite news |first =Richard |last=Norton-Taylor |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/feb/13/afghanistan |title=Afghanistan's refugee crisis 'ignored' |work=The Guardian | date=13 February 2008 |access-date=19 May 2012 |location=London|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215150225/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/13/afghanistan |archive-date=15 December 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26520 |title=Afghanistan: People living with disabilities call for integration |work=The New Humanitarian |url-status=live |date=2 December 2004 |access-date=28 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920142752/http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=26520 |archive-date=20 September 2011}}</ref> Non-governmental charities such as [[Save the Children]] and [[Mahboba's Promise]] assist orphans in association with governmental structures.<ref>{{cite web |first=Virginia |last=Haussegger |title=Mahboba's Promise |date=2 July 2009 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2615472.htm |website=ABC News (Australia) |access-date=15 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726123857/http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2009/s2615472.htm |archive-date=26 July 2013 }}</ref> [[Demographic and Health Surveys]] is working with the [[Indian Institute of Health Management Research]] and others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on [[maternal death]], among other things.<ref name="MEASUREDHS">{{cite web |url=http://www.measuredhs.com/Where-We-Work/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=71 |title=Afghanistan |publisher=Measuredhs.com |access-date=14 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233502/http://www.measuredhs.com/Where-We-Work/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=71 |archive-date=30 December 2013}}</ref>
== Governance ==
{{Main|Politics of Afghanistan}}
[[File:200229-D-AP390-1529 (49603221753).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|[[Arg, Kabul|The Arg]] (the Presidential palace) in Kabul, photographed in 2020, before the Fall of Kabul]]
Following the effective collapse of the [[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]] during the [[2021 Taliban offensive]], the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate. A new caretaker government was announced on 7 September.<ref name="BBCHardliners"/> As of 8 September 2021, no other country had formally recognized the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as the ''de jure'' government of Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghanistan: Taliban increasingly violent against protesters – UN|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/world-58279900|access-date=25 November 2021|website=BBC News}}</ref>
A traditional instrument of governance in Afghanistan is the ''[[loya jirga]]'' (grand assembly), a [[Pashtun]] consultative meeting that was mainly organized for choosing a new [[head of state]], adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1782079.stm | work=BBC News | title=Q&A: What is a loya jirga? | date=1 July 2002 | access-date=2 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190523165931/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1782079.stm | archive-date=23 May 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref> Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747,{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=295}} with the most recent one occurring in August 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan/politicians-express-mixed-reactions-loya-jirga|title=Politicians Express Mixed Reactions to Loya Jirga|publisher=TOLO News|date=7 August 2020|access-date=10 August 2020|archive-date=10 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810023639/https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan/politicians-express-mixed-reactions-loya-jirga|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/loya-jirga-approves-release-400-taliban-prisoners|title=Loya Jirga Approves Release of 400 Taliban Prisoners|date=9 August 2020|access-date=10 August 2020|publisher=TOLO News}}</ref>
=== Development of Taliban government ===
{{main|Government of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan}}
{{see also|Cabinet of Afghanistan#Islamic Emirate (2021–present)}}
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Hasan Akhund.png
| caption1 = [[Hasan Akhund]]<br /><small>Acting [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister]]</small>
| image2 = Sirajuddin Haqqani (cropped).png
| caption2 = [[Sirajuddin Haqqani]]<br /><small>First [[Deputy Leader of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|Deputy Leader]] and Acting [[Interior Minister of Afghanistan|Interior Minister]]</small>
| image3 = Mullah Yaqoob in January 2022.png
| caption3 = [[Mullah Yaqoob]]<br /><small>Second Deputy Leader and Acting [[Ministry of Defense (Afghanistan)|Defense Minister]]</small>
| image4 = Abdul_Ghani_Baradar.jpg
| caption4 = [[Abdul Ghani Baradar]]<br /><small>Third Deputy Leader and Acting [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|First Deputy Prime Minister]]</small>
| total_width = 270
}}
On 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated [[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin|Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin]] party, [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]], met with both [[Hamid Karzai]], the former [[President of Afghanistan]], and [[Abdullah Abdullah]], the former chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and former [[Chief Executive (Afghanistan)|Chief Executive]], in [[Doha]], [[Qatar]], with the aim of forming a [[national unity government]].<ref>{{cite web|date=16 August 2021|title=Afghanistan's Hekmatyar says heading for Doha with Karzai, Abdullah Abdullah to meet Taliban – Al Jazeera|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghanistans-hekmatyar-says-heading-doha-with-karzai-abdullah-abdullah-meet-2021-08-16/|access-date=18 August 2021|website=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=AFP|date=18 August 2021|title=Taliban met ex-Afghan leader Karzai, Abdullah Abdullah|url=https://www.brecorder.com/news/40114270|access-date=18 August 2021|website=Brecorder}}</ref> President [[Ashraf Ghani]], having fled the country during the Taliban advance to either [[Tajikistan]] or [[Uzbekistan]], emerged in the United Arab Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations and was in talks to return to Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web|last=Macias|first=Natasha Turak, Amanda|date=18 August 2021|title=Ousted Afghan President Ashraf Ghani resurfaces in UAE after fleeing Kabul, Emirati government says|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/18/afghan-president-ashraf-ghani-is-in-uae-after-fleeing-afghanistan.html|access-date=19 August 2021|website=CNBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ghani says he backs talks as Taliban meet with Karzai, Abdullah|url=https://www.newagebd.net/article/146741/ghani-says-he-backs-talks-as-taliban-meet-with-karzai-abdullah|access-date=18 August 2021|website=New Age|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=18 August 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818215958/https://www.newagebd.net/article/146741/ghani-says-he-backs-talks-as-taliban-meet-with-karzai-abdullah}}</ref> Many figures within the Taliban generally agreed that continuation of the [[2004 Constitution of Afghanistan]] may, if correctly applied, be workable as the basis for the new religious state as their objections to the former government were political, and not religious.<ref name="osman">{{cite book|last1=Osman|first1=Borhan|url=https://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/taliban_future_state_final.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/taliban_future_state_final.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=Taliban Views on a Future State|date=July 2016|publisher=[[New York University]]|page=7}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816135549/https://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/taliban_future_state_final.pdf |date=2021-08-16 }}</ref>
Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September after [[Jumu'ah]]. It was added that [[Hibatullah Akhundzada]] would be officially named [[Head of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|Emir]], with cabinet ministers being revealed at the [[Arg (Kabul)|Arg]] in an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named [[head of government]] as [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister]], while other important positions would go to [[Sirajuddin Haqqani]] and [[Mullah Yaqoob]]. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be entrusted to the [[Cabinet of Afghanistan#Islamic Emirate (2021–present)|cabinet]].<ref>{{cite web|date=2 September 2021|title=Afghanistan: Taliban expected to announce new government|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/02/afghanistan-taliban-expected-to-announce-new-government|access-date=2 September 2021|website=The Guardian}}</ref>
[[File:Secretary Pompeo Meets with the Taliban Negotiation Team (50632321483).jpg|thumb|260px|US representative [[Zalmay Khalilzad]] (left) meeting with Taliban leaders, [[Abdul Ghani Baradar]], [[Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai]], [[Sher Mohammad Abbas Stanikzai]], [[Suhail Shaheen]], unidentified. [[Doha]], [[Qatar]] on 21 November 2020.]]
According to CNN, the new government is likely to be a [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Deobandi]]st [[Islamic republic]]. In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran with Haibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role of [[Ali Khamenei|Saayid Ali Khamenei]], and would be based out of [[Kandahar]]. Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government as [[Prime minister|Prime Minister]]. The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over an [[Executive (government)|executive body]] known Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members. [[Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai]] is likely to be promoted to [[Chief justice|Chief Justice]]. According to the report, the new government will take place within the framework of an amended [[1964 Constitution of Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite web|date=31 August 2021|title=Taliban to Follow Iran Model in Afghanistan; Reclusive Hibatullah Akhundzada to be Supreme Leader|url=https://www.news18.com/news/world/talibans-govt-in-afghanistan-on-iran-model-reclusive-hibatullah-akhundzada-to-be-supreme-leader-4149431.html|access-date=3 September 2021|website=News18}}</ref>
However, later interviews disclosed to News18 that negotiations were not yet completed and that representatives were still in Kandahar, and that the announcement of the new government would not take place until 4 September or later.<ref>{{cite web|date=3 September 2021|title=Are Taliban Forming New Govt in Afghanistan Today? Here's the Latest Update on Negotiation Talks|url=https://www.news18.com/news/world/are-taliban-forming-new-govt-in-afghanistan-today-heres-the-latest-update-on-negotiation-talks-4160183.html|access-date=3 September 2021|website=News18}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Taliban close to forming new government in Afghanistan|work=Bangkok Post|publisher=Bangkok Post Public Company|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/world/2175995/taliban-close-to-forming-new-government-in-afghanistan|access-date=3 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=AFP|date=3 September 2021|title=Taliban close to forming new government in Afghanistan|url=https://www.brecorder.com/news/40117744|access-date=3 September 2021|website=Brecorder}}</ref> Government formation was further delayed with the announcement postponed to some time during the week of 6 September, due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Taliban again postpone Afghan govt formation announcement|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/taliban-again-postpone-afghan-govt-formation-announcement/articleshow/85923976.cms?from=mdr|access-date=4 September 2021}}</ref> It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. This culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|date=5 September 2021|title=New 'inclusive' Afghanistan government to be announced soon: Taliban|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/world/new-inclusive-afghanistan-government-to-be-announced-soon-taliban-11630841282911.html|access-date=5 September 2021|website=mint}}</ref> It was speculated that the government would be announced on 11 September 2021, the 20th anniversary of the [[9/11 attacks]], with invitations possibly being extended to the governments of Turkey, China, Iran, Pakistan, and Qatar.<ref>{{cite web|last=Khan|first=Omer Farooq|date=7 September 2021|title=Taliban News: Taliban capture Panjshir, soon to announce future government|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/taliban-claim-panjshir-valley-has-fallen-massoud-vows-to-fight-on/articleshow/85988654.cms|access-date=7 September 2021|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
As of early September, the Taliban were planning the Cabinet to be men-only, stating that women would not be allowed to "work in high-ranking posts" in the government and that women were "ruled out" from the Cabinet. Journalists and other human rights activists, mostly women, [[2021 Afghan protests|protested]] in [[Herat]] and Kabul, calling for women to be included in the Cabinet.<ref>{{cite news|date=8 September 2021|title=Afghanistan: Women protest against all-male Taliban government|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58490819|access-date=9 September 2021}}</ref> The [[Cabinet of Afghanistan#Islamic Emirate (2021–present)|acting Cabinet]] announced on 7 September was men-only, and the [[Ministry of Women's Affairs (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Women's Affairs]] appeared to have been abolished.<ref name="BBCHardliners">{{cite news|date=7 September 2021|title=Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750|access-date=9 September 2021}}</ref> On March 23, 2022, there were reports a cabinet shakeup was underway as another meeting of the Leadership Council was held in Kandahar for the second time since the Taliban Islamic Movement [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|came to power]] as a way to get international recognition. The last meeting of the Leadership Council was held from August 28, 2021, to August 30, 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taliban to reshuffle cabinet to get international recognition |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/taliban-to-reshuffle-cabinet-to-get-international-recognition20220323163506/ |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ANI News |language=en |accessdate=2023-03-13 |archivedate=2022-03-23 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323124248/https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/taliban-to-reshuffle-cabinet-to-get-international-recognition20220323163506/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=The Associated Press |date=23 March 2022 |title=Taliban cancels girls' higher education despite promise |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/afghanistan-girls-education-1.6394296 |website=cbc.ca}}</ref>
=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Provinces of Afghanistan|Districts of Afghanistan}}
Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (''[[wilayat]]'').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ariananews.co/en/afghanistan-provinces/|title=Afghanistan Provinces|access-date=4 July 2019|publisher=Ariana News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704210454/https://ariananews.co/en/afghanistan-provinces/|archive-date=4 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Each province has a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial [[Districts of Afghanistan|districts]], each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor.
The [[list of current governors of Afghanistan|provincial governors]] are now appointed by the [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan]], and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/world/asia/for-afghan-officials-prospect-of-death-comes-with-territory.html|title=For Afghan Officials, Prospect of Death Comes With Territory|last=Ahmed|first=Azam|date=8 December 2012|work=The New York Times|access-date=7 April 2017|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019103603/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/world/asia/for-afghan-officials-prospect-of-death-comes-with-territory.html|archive-date=19 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827204439/http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 |archive-date=27 August 2010 |title=Explaining Elections, Independent Election Commission of Afghanistan |publisher=Iec.org.af |date=9 October 2004 |access-date=4 February 2012 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=27 August 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827204439/http://www.iec.org.af/eng/content.php?id=5&cnid=24 }}</ref> The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.
According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government.<ref>{{cite web|title=An Assessment of Afghanistan's Municipal Governance Framework|url=http://webarchive.urban.org/UploadedPDF/412448-An-Assessment-of-Afghanistans-Municipal-Governance-Framework.pdf|access-date=4 July 2019|publisher=Urban Institute Center on International Development and Governance|author1=Jamie Boex|author2=Grace Buencamino|author3=Deborah Kimble|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704193403/http://webarchive.urban.org/UploadedPDF/412448-An-Assessment-of-Afghanistans-Municipal-Governance-Framework.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2019|url-status=live|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=4 July 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704193403/http://webarchive.urban.org/UploadedPDF/412448-An-Assessment-of-Afghanistans-Municipal-Governance-Framework.pdf}}</ref>
The following is a list of all the 34 provinces in alphabetical order:
[[File:Afghanistan provinces numbered.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Afghanistan is divided into [[provinces of Afghanistan|34 provinces]], which are further divided into a [[Districts of Afghanistan|number of districts]]]]
{{colbegin|colwidth=15em}}
# [[Badakhshan Province|Badakhshan]]
# [[Badghis Province|Badghis]]
# [[Baghlan Province|Baghlan]]
# [[Balkh Province|Balkh]]
# [[Bamyan Province|Bamyan]]
# [[Daykundi Province|Daykundi]]
# [[Farah Province|Farah]]
# [[Faryab Province|Faryab]]
# [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]]
# [[Ghor Province|Ghor]]
# [[Helmand Province|Helmand]]
# [[Herat Province|Herat]]
# [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]]
# [[Kabul Province|Kabul]]
# [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]]
# [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]]
# [[Khost Province|Khost]]
# [[Kunar Province|Kunar]]
# [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]]
# [[Laghman Province|Laghman]]
# [[Logar Province|Logar]]
# [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]]
# [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]]
# [[Nuristan Province|Nuristan]]
# [[Oruzgan Province|Oruzgan]]
# [[Paktia Province|Paktia]]
# [[Paktika Province|Paktika]]
# [[Panjshir Province|Panjshir]]
# [[Parwan Province|Parwan]]
# [[Samangan Province|Samangan]]
# [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-e Pol]]
# [[Takhar Province|Takhar]]
# [[Wardak Province|Wardak]]
# [[Zabul Province|Zabul]]
{{colend}}
=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Afghanistan}}
{{See also|Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)}}
Afghanistan became a member of the [[United Nations]] in 1946.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=642}} Historically, Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the Soviet Union, which provided much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; and [[Afghanistan–India relations|India]], with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Treaty of Friendship|url=https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/6584/Treaty+of+Friendship|access-date=31 December 2020|website=www.mea.gov.in}}</ref> Relations with [[Afghanistan–Pakistan relations|Pakistan]] have often been tense for various reasons such as the [[Durand Line]] border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups.
The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently internationally [[Recognition of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|unrecognized]], but has had notable unofficial ties with [[Afghanistan–China relations|China]], Pakistan, and Qatar.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-08-16/china-enters-high-stakes-relationship-with-post-u-s-afghanistan|title=China Embraces High-Stakes Taliban Relationship as U.S. Exits|date=16 August 2021|work=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=17 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/7/taliban-afghanistan-international-recognition|title = Taliban still struggling for international recognition|work=Al Jazeera|first=Ali M|last=Latifi|date=7 October 2021}}</ref> Under the previous Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number of [[NATO]] and allied nations, particularly the [[Afghanistan–United States relations|United States]], [[Afghanistan–Canada relations|Canada]], [[Afghanistan–United Kingdom relations|United Kingdom]], [[Afghanistan–Germany relations|Germany]], Australia, and [[Afghanistan–Turkey relations|Turkey]]. In 2012, the United States and the then-republic in Afghanistan signed their [[US–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement|Strategic Partnership Agreement]] in which Afghanistan became a [[major non-NATO ally]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Hillary Clinton says Afghanistan 'major non-Nato ally'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18750732|date=7 July 2012|newspaper=[[BBC News]]|access-date=4 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705181134/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18750732|archive-date=5 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Such qualification was rescinded by US President [[Joe Biden]] in July 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Mizelle |first1=Shawna |last2=Fossum |first2=Sam |date=7 July 2022 |title=Biden will rescind Afghanistan's designation as a major non-NATO ally |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/06/politics/afghanistan-major-non-nato-ally-designation-biden-rescind/index.html |access-date= |website=[[CNN]]}}</ref>
===Military===
{{Broader|Afghan Armed Forces}}
The [[Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]] captured a large amount of weapons, hardware, vehicles, aerocrafts, and equipment from the [[Afghan National Security Forces]] following the [[2021 Taliban offensive]] and the [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|Fall of Kabul]]. The total value of the captured equipment has been estimated at US$83 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 October 2021|title=White House defends letting billions in military equipment fall into Taliban hands|url=https://news.yahoo.com/white-house-defends-letting-billions-192700107.html|access-date=12 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012095525/https://news.yahoo.com/white-house-defends-letting-billions-192700107.html|archive-date=12 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Andrzejewski|first=Adam|title=Staggering Costs – U.S. Military Equipment Left Behind In Afghanistan|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/adamandrzejewski/2021/08/23/staggering-costs--us-military-equipment-left-behind-in-afghanistan/|access-date=12 October 2021|website=Forbes}}</ref>
=== Human rights ===
{{See also|Human rights in Afghanistan|Women in Afghanistan|LGBT rights in Afghanistan|Treatment of women by the Taliban|Afghan refugees}}Homosexuality is [[taboo]] in Afghan society;<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ahmadzai |first=Aria |date=7 October 2016 |title=The LGBT community living under threat of death |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36884732}}</ref> according to the Penal Code, homosexual intimacy is punished by up to a year in prison.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Afghanistan | Human Dignity Trust |url=https://www.humandignitytrust.org./country-profile/afghanistan/ |website=www.humandignitytrust.org. |accessdate=2023-03-13 |archivedate=2021-04-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414225749/https://www.humandignitytrust.org/country-profile/afghanistan/ }}</ref> With implementing [[Sharia law]] offenders can be [[Death penalty for homosexuality|punished by death]].<ref>{{Cite news |title='Fake Life': Being Gay in Afghanistan |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-being-gay-fake-life/28731934.html |website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|last1=Bezhan |first1=Frud }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=17 May 2016 |title=LGBT relationships are illegal in 74 countries, research finds |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/gay-lesbian-bisexual-relationships-illegal-in-74-countries-a7033666.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614095346/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/gay-lesbian-bisexual-relationships-illegal-in-74-countries-a7033666.html |archive-date=14 June 2019 |access-date=3 June 2019 |work=The Independent}}</ref> However an ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between children and older men (typically wealthy warlords or elite people) called ''[[bacha bazi]]'' persists.
Religious minorities such as Sikhs,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=Ruchi |date=2020-03-28 |title=For Afghan Sikhs, it's between violence and exodus |language=en-IN |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/for-afghan-sikhs-its-between-violence-and-exodus/article31194107.ece |access-date=2021-09-11 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Hindus,<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Mashal |first1=Mujib |last2=Abed |first2=Fahim |date=2020-07-19 |title=India Offers Escape to Afghan Hindus and Sikhs Facing Attacks |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/19/world/asia/india-afghanistan-sikh-hindu.html |access-date=2021-09-11 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> and Christians have reportedly faced persecution in the country.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last1=Lyons |first1=Kate |last2=Blight |first2=Garry |date=27 July 2015 |title=Where in the world is the worst place to be a Christian? |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2015/jul/27/where-in-the-world-is-it-worst-place-to-be-a-christian |website=[[The Guardian]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Afghan clerics call for Christian convert to be killed despite Western outrage |date=23 March 2006 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SY0IM-ZvDtM |publisher=[[AP Archive]] |language=en}}</ref>
Since May 2022, all women in Afghanistan have been required by law to wear full-body coverings when in public (either a [[burqa]] or an [[abaya]] paired with a [[niqāb]], which leaves only the eyes uncovered).<ref>{{cite news |last1=George |first1=Susannah |title=Taliban orders head-to-toe coverings for Afghan women in public |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/05/07/taliban-orders-head-toe-coverings-afghan-women-public/ |access-date=8 May 2022 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=7 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Graham-Harrison |first1=Emma |title=Taliban order all Afghan women to cover their faces in public |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/07/taliban-order-all-afghan-women-to-wear-burqa |access-date=8 May 2022 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=7 May 2022}}</ref> In a May interview with [[Christiane Amanpour]], First [[Deputy Leader of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|Deputy Leader]] [[Sirajuddin Haqqani]] claimed the decree is only advisory and no form of [[hijab]] is compulsory in Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shelley |first1=Jo |last2=Popalzai |first2=Ehsan |last3=Mengli |first3=Ahmet |last4=Picheta |first4=Rob |title=Top Taliban leader makes more promises on women's rights but quips 'naughty women' should stay home |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/18/asia/amanpour-haqqani-taliban-women-interview-intl/index.html |access-date=20 May 2022 |work=[[CNN]] |date=19 May 2022 |location=[[Kabul]]}}</ref> though this contradicts the reality.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zucchino |first1=David |last2=Akbary |first2=Yaqoob |title=The Taliban Pressure Women in Afghanistan to Cover Up |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/21/world/asia/taliban-afghanistan-women-hijab.html |access-date=22 May 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=21 May 2022 |location=[[Kabul]]}}</ref> It has been speculated that there is a genuine internal policy division over women's rights between hardliners, including Leader Hibatullah Akhundzada, and pragmatists, though they publicly present a united front.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gannon |first1=Kathy |title=Taliban divisions deepen as Afghan women defy veil edict |url=https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-religion-kabul-taliban-aec1a4bb5dc2a91fc19954093a5595e0 |access-date=20 May 2022 |work=[[Associated Press]] |date=8 May 2022 |location=[[Kabul]]}}</ref> Another decree was issued shortly after the first, requiring female TV presenters to cover their faces during broadcasts.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fraser |first1=Simon |title=Afghanistan's female TV presenters must cover their faces, say Taliban |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61508072 |access-date=20 May 2022 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=19 May 2022}}</ref>
In May 2022, the Taliban dissolved Afghanistan's Human Rights Commission along with four other government departments, citing the country's budget deficit.<ref>{{cite news |title=Taliban dissolves Afghanistan's human rights commission as 'unnecessary' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/17/taliban-dissolves-afghanistans-human-rights-commission-as-unnecessary |access-date=20 May 2022 |work=[[Reuters]] |agency=[[The Guardian]] |date=16 May 2022}}</ref>
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Afghan pomegranate processing.jpg|thumb|left|Workers processing [[pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]] (''anaar''), which Afghanistan is famous for in Asia]]
Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $21.7 billion in 2018, or $72.9 billion by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref name="imf2"/> Its [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]] is $2,024 (PPP).<ref name="imf2"/> Despite having $1 trillion or more in mineral deposits,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-12-15/karzai-tells-investors-u-s-will-meet-his-security-pact-demands|title=Karzai Woos India Inc. as Delay on U.S. Pact Deters Billions|first=Kartikay|last=Mehrotra|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=16 December 2013|access-date=23 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011222703/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-12-15/karzai-tells-investors-u-s-will-meet-his-security-pact-demands|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> it remains one of the world's [[least developed countries]]. Afghanistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability.<ref name="auto7"/> The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods but exports only $784 million, mainly fruits and [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]]. It has $2.8 billion in [[external debt]].<ref name="Factbook"/> The service sector contributed the most to the GDP (55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/214.html|title=Field Listing :: GDP – composition, by sector of origin – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=12 June 2020|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214540/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/214.html|url-status=dead|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=11 November 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214540/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/214.html}}</ref>
While the nation's current account deficit is largely financed with donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-10-20/taliban-winning-race-to-capture-1-trillion-afghan-mining-riches |title=The Taliban Is Capturing Afghanistan's $1 Trillion in Mining Wealth |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |date=20 October 2015 |access-date=23 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517034344/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-10-20/taliban-winning-race-to-capture-1-trillion-afghan-mining-riches |archive-date=17 May 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[Da Afghanistan Bank]] serves as the central bank of the nation<ref>{{Cite web| title = Interest Rate Cut in Place, Says Central Bank| work = TOLOnews| access-date = 28 May 2019| url = https://www.tolonews.com/business/interest-rate-cut-place-says-central-bank| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190704193402/https://www.tolonews.com/business/interest-rate-cut-place-says-central-bank| archive-date = 4 July 2019| url-status = live}}</ref> and the [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar.<ref>{{cite news|title=Afghani Falls Against Dollar By 3% In A Month|url=https://www.tolonews.com/business/afghani-falls-against-dollar-3-month|publisher=TOLOnews|date=18 April 2019|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419141610/https://www.tolonews.com/business/afghani-falls-against-dollar-3-month|archive-date=19 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> A number of local and foreign banks operate in the country, including the [[Afghanistan International Bank]], [[New Kabul Bank]], [[Azizi Bank]], [[Pashtany Bank]], [[Standard Chartered Bank]], and the [[First MicroFinance Bank-Afghanistan|First Micro Finance Bank]].
[[File:Afghan carpets being sold.jpg|thumb|[[Afghan rugs]] are one of Afghanistan's main exports]]
One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million [[Afghan diaspora|expatriates]], who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/world/asia/08contract.html |title=Afghan Companies Say U.S. Did Not Pay Them |work=The New York Times |first=Carlotta |last=Gall | date=7 July 2010 |access-date=30 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402005151/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/08/world/asia/08contract.html |archive-date=2 April 2013 }}</ref> Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town]] near Jalalabad.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dcda.gov.af/ |title=the Kabul New City Official Website |publisher=DCDA |access-date=4 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233634/http://www.dcda.gov.af/ |archive-date=30 December 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=30 December 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233634/http://www.dcda.gov.af/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.najeebzarab.af/town_main.php |title=Ghazi Amanullah Khan City |year=2009 |publisher=najeebzarab.af |access-date=15 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429180506/http://www.najeebzarab.af/town_main.php |archive-date=29 April 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=29 April 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429180506/http://www.najeebzarab.af/town_main.php }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.designmena.com/portfolio/aino-mina |title=Case study: Aino Mina |publisher=Designmena.com |access-date=4 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106003655/http://www.designmena.com/portfolio/aino-mina |archive-date=6 January 2014 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=6 January 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106003655/http://www.designmena.com/portfolio/aino-mina }}</ref> Similar development projects have also begun in [[Herat]], [[Mazar-e-Sharif]], and other cities.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/2009/09/02/mazar-i-sharif-khaled-amiri-opinions-21-century-cities-09-ann-marlowe.html A Humane Afghan City?] by Ann Marlowe in [[Forbes]] 2 September 2009. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001216/http://www.forbes.com/2009/09/02/mazar-i-sharif-khaled-amiri-opinions-21-century-cities-09-ann-marlowe.html | date=31 December 2013 }}</ref> An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Michael Sprague |title=AFGHANISTAN COUNTRY PROFILE |url=https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1871/01%20Country%20Profile%20FINAL%20July%202016.pdf |website=usaid.gov |access-date=23 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501062352/https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1871/01%20Country%20Profile%20FINAL%20July%202016.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2017 |url-status=live |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=1 May 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501062352/https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1871/01%20Country%20Profile%20FINAL%20July%202016.pdf }}</ref>
Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in [[Telecommunication|telecom]] investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/economic_growth#Tab=Description |title=Economic Growth |publisher=USAID |access-date=25 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082351/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/economic_growth |archive-date=29 September 2013 }}</ref> [[Afghan rug]]s are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-carpets-idUKKBN1HI2VL|title=Sales of Afghanistan's renowned carpets unravel as war intensifies|newspaper=Reuters|date=12 April 2018|via=uk.reuters.com|last1=Nickel|first1=Rod|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=12 June 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612214646/https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-carpets-idUKKBN1HI2VL}}</ref>
Afghanistan is a member of [[WTO]], [[SAARC]], [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]], and [[OIC]]. It holds an observer status in [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]]. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/AFG/Year/LTST/TradeFlow/EXPIMP/Partner/by-country |title=Access to energy graph |website= wits.worldbank.org/|access-date=13 June 2020}}</ref>
Since the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021, the United States has [[Afghan frozen assets|frozen about $9 billion]] in assets belonging to the [[Da Afghanistan Bank|Afghan central bank]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Taliban blames U.S. as 1 million Afghan kids face death by starvation |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/afghanistan-taliban-blames-us-as-1-million-kids-face-starvation/ |work=CBS News |date=20 October 2021}}</ref> blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in US bank accounts.<ref>{{cite news |title=Is the United States Driving Afghanistan Toward Famine? |url=https://messaging-custom-newsletters.nytimes.com/template/oakv2?campaign_id=30&emc=edit_int_20211029&instance_id=44044&nl=the-interpreter&productCode=INT®i_id=57806557&segment_id=72971&te=1&uri=nyt%3A%2F%2Fnewsletter%2Fde4d3c8a-f805-5843-bf23-d2fd9a6bcf70&user_id=9aa4b6ac6a6bfa9626d966e353fed48b |work=The New York Times |date=29 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan's hunger crisis is a problem the U.S. can fix |url=https://www.msnbc.com/opinion/afghanistan-s-hunger-crisis-problem-u-s-can-fix-n1283618 |work=MSNBC |date=10 November 2021}}</ref>
===Agriculture===
[[File:Afghan Saffron.jpg|thumb|Afghan [[saffron]] has been recognized as the world's best]]
Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/agriculture |title=Agriculture |publisher=USAID |access-date=23 May 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082220/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/agriculture |archive-date=29 September 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=29 September 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929082220/http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/programs/agriculture }}</ref> and has traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/afghanistan/publication/unlocking-potential-of-agriculture-for-afghanistan-growth|title=Unlocking the Potential of Agriculture for Afghanistan's Growth|website=World Bank}}</ref> The country is known for producing [[pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]], grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. It is also known as the world's largest producer of [[Opium production in Afghanistan|opium]] – as much as 16% or more of the nation's economy is derived from the cultivation and sale of opium.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/aan-qa-an-established-industry-basic-facts-about-afghanistans-opium-driven-economy/|title=AAN Q&A: An established industry – Basic facts about Afghanistan's opium-driven economy|publisher=Afghanistan Analysts Network|date=11 July 2017|access-date=10 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807204235/https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/aan-qa-an-established-industry-basic-facts-about-afghanistans-opium-driven-economy/|archive-date=7 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> It is also one of the world's top producers of [[cannabis]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-cannabis-idUSTRE62U0IC20100331|title=Afghanistan now world's top cannabis source: U.N.|newspaper=Reuters|date=31 March 2010|via=www.reuters.com|last1=Burch|first1=Jonathon}}</ref>
[[Saffron]], the most expensive spice, grows in Afghanistan, particularly [[Herat Province]]. In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which authorities and farmers trying to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and Quality Institute.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1602281/world|title=Afghanistan's red gold 'saffron' termed world's best|date=22 December 2019|website=Arab News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/28053-afghan-saffron-worlds-best|title=Afghan Saffron, World's Best|website=TOLOnews}}</ref> Production hit record high in 2019 (19,469 kg of saffron), and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and $1147.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-12/25/c_138657013.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228193104/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-12/25/c_138657013.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 December 2019|title=Saffron production hits record high in Afghanistan|website=Xinhua|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=2 March 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302085429/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-12/25/c_138657013.htm}}</ref>
The availability of cheap diesel-powered water pumps imported from China and Pakistan, and in the 2010s, of cheap solar power to pump water, resulted in expansion of agriculture and population in the southwestern deserts of Afghanistan in [[Kandahar Province]], [[Helmand Province]] and [[Nimruz Province]] in the 2010s. Wells have gradually been deepened, but water resources are limited. Opium is the major crop, but as of 2022, was under attack by the new Taliban government which, in order to suppress opium production, was systematically suppressing water pumping.<ref name="NYT52922">{{cite news |author1=Bryan Denton |author2=David Zucchino |author3=Yaqoob Akbary |title=Green Energy Complicates the Taliban's New Battle Against Opium: The multibillion-dollar trade has survived previous bans. Now, the Taliban are going after solar-powered water pumps to try to dry up poppy crops in the middle of a national economic crisis. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/29/world/asia/afghanistan-opium-taliban.html |access-date=May 29, 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=May 29, 2022|quote=Do not destroy the fields, but make the fields dry out,.... We are committed to fulfilling the opium decree.}}</ref><ref name="AREU52322">{{cite web |author1=David Mansfield |title=When the Water Runs Dry: What is to be done with the 1.5 million settlers in the deserts of southwest Afghanistan when their livelihoods fail? |url=https://areu.org.af/when-the-water-runs-dry/ |website=areu.org.af |publisher=The Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) |access-date=May 29, 2022 |date=May 23, 2022 |accessdate=March 13, 2023 |archivedate=May 29, 2022 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529220041/https://areu.org.af/when-the-water-runs-dry/ }}</ref>
=== Mining ===
{{Main|Mining in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Lapis lazuli]] stones]]
The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, [[lithium]], [[uranium]], [[rare earth element]]s, [[chromite]], gold, [[zinc]], [[talc]], [[barite]], [[sulfur]], lead, [[marble]], precious and [[semi-precious stones]], natural gas, and petroleum.<ref name="peters2007">{{cite techreport |last=Peters |first=Steven G. |title=Preliminary Assessment of Non-Fuel Mineral Resources of Afghanistan, 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3063/fs2007-3063.pdf |publisher=USGS Afghanistan Project/[[US Geological Survey]]/Afghanistan Geological Survey |access-date=13 October 2011 |id=Fact Sheet 2007–3063 | date=October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727053445/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3063/fs2007-3063.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref><ref name="bgs" /> In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by the [[US Geological Survey]] are worth at least {{nowrap|$1 trillion}}.<ref name="bbcminerals">{{cite news |title=Afghans say US team found huge potential mineral wealth |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10311752 |access-date=13 October 2011 |newspaper=BBC News | date=14 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809125352/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10311752 |archive-date=9 August 2013}}</ref>
[[Michael E. O'Hanlon]] of the [[Brookings Institution]] estimated that if Afghanistan generates about $10 billion per year from its [[mining in Afghanistan|mineral deposits]], its [[gross national product]] would double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs.<ref>O'Hanlon, Michael E. [http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0616_afghanistan_minerals_ohanlon.aspx "Deposits Could Aid Ailing Afghanistan"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923172142/http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0616_afghanistan_minerals_ohanlon.aspx |date=23 September 2011 }}, [http://www.brookings.edu/ The Brookings Institution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126030757/https://www.brookings.edu/ |date=26 January 2018 }}, 16 June 2010.</ref> The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average {{convert|2.9|e9oilbbl|e6m3|abbr=unit|order=flip}} of [[crude oil]], {{convert|15.7|e12cuft|abbr=unit|order=flip}} of natural gas, and {{convert|562|e6USbbl|e9L|0|abbr=unit|order=flip}} of [[natural gas liquids]].<ref name="klett2006">{{cite techreport|last=Klett |first=T.R. |title=Assessment of Undiscovered Petroleum Resources of Northern Afghanistan, 2006 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3031/pdf/FS-3031.pdf |publisher=USGS-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines & Industry Joint Oil & Gas Resource Assessment Team |access-date=13 October 2011 | date=March 2006 |id=Fact Sheet 2006–3031|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727060903/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2006/3031/pdf/FS-3031.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref> In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract with [[China National Petroleum Corporation]] (CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://ph.news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-signs-7-bn-oil-deal-china-102107778.html |title=Afghanistan signs '$7 bn' oil deal with China | date=28 December 2011 |access-date=29 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233953/http://ph.news.yahoo.com/afghanistan-signs-7-bn-oil-deal-china-102107778.html |archive-date=30 December 2013 }}</ref>
The country has significant amounts of [[lithium]], copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and other [[minerals]].<ref name=peters2007 /><ref name="bgs">{{cite web |url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/AfghanMinerals/docs/Gold_A4.pdf#search='gold%20and%20copper%20discovered%20in%20afghanistan'|title=Minerals in Afghanistan |publisher=[[British Geological Survey]] |access-date=4 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726155518/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/AfghanMinerals/docs/Gold_A4.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Afghanistan's Mineral Fortune">{{cite web |url=http://www.uvm.edu/ieds/node/568/ |title=Afghanistan's Mineral Fortune |publisher=Institute for Environmental Diplomacy and Security Report |year=2011 |access-date=16 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212153853/http://www.uvm.edu/ieds/node/568 |archive-date=12 December 2013 }}</ref> The [[Khanashin]] [[carbonatite]] in Helmand Province contains {{convert|1000000|t|lk=out}} of [[rare earth element]]s.<ref name="tucker2011">{{cite techreport|last=Tucker |first=Ronald D. |title=Rare Earth Element Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Preliminary Resource Assessment of the Khanneshin Carbonatite Complex, Helmand Province, Afghanistan |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1207/pdf/ofr2011-1207.pdf |publisher=USGS |access-date=13 October 2011 |year=2011 |id=Open-File Report 2011–1207|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727062511/http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1207/pdf/ofr2011-1207.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2013 }}</ref> In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the [[Mes Aynak#Copper Mine|Aynak]] copper mine to the [[China Metallurgical Group]] for $3 billion,<ref>"[http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/06/14/china-us-afghanistan-mineral-mining/ China, Not U.S., Likely to Benefit from Afghanistan's Mineral Riches]". ''Daily Finance''. 14 June 2010 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001630/http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/06/14/china-us-afghanistan-mineral-mining/ | date=31 December 2013 }}</ref> making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/30/world/asia/30mine.html |title=China Willing to Spend Big on Afghan Commerce |work=The New York Times | date=29 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110731145815/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/30/world/asia/30mine.html |archive-date=31 July 2011}}</ref> The state-run [[Steel Authority of India]] won the mining rights to develop the huge [[Hajigak Pass|Hajigak]] iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan.<ref>"[http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-06/indian-group-wins-rights-to-mine-in-afghanistan-s-hajigak.html Indian Group Wins Rights to Mine in Afghanistan's Hajigak] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010060446/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-06/indian-group-wins-rights-to-mine-in-afghanistan-s-hajigak.html | date=10 October 2013 }}". ''Businessweek''. 6 December 2011</ref> Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least {{nowrap|$1 trillion}}.<ref name=bbcminerals /> One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium".<ref name="risen2010">{{cite news|last=Risen|first=James|author-link=James Risen|date=17 June 2010|title=U.S. Identifies Vast Riches of Minerals in Afghanistan|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html|url-status=live|access-date=14 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617204149/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html|archive-date=17 June 2010}}</ref> The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones of [[Bolivia]], which is currently viewed as the country with the largest lithium reserves.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Hosp|first=Gerald|date=31 August 2021|title=Afghanistan: die konfliktreichen Bodenschätze|url=https://www.nzz.ch/wirtschaft/afghanistan-die-konfliktreichen-bodenschaetze-ld.1642056|access-date=1 September 2021|website=[[Neue Zürcher Zeitung]]|language=de}}</ref> Other larger deposits are the ones of [[bauxite]] and [[cobalt]].<ref name=":1" /> In a 2011 news story, the ''[[The Christian Science Monitor|CSM]]'' reported, "The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt of the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the bidding process on Afghanistan's mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional powers."<ref>"[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2011/1228/China-wins-700-million-Afghan-oil-and-gas-deal.-Why-didn-t-the-US-bid China wins $700 million Afghan oil and gas deal. Why didn't the US bid?]". ''The Christian Science Monitor''. 28 December 2011 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001743/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2011/1228/China-wins-700-million-Afghan-oil-and-gas-deal.-Why-didn-t-the-US-bid | date=31 December 2013 }}</ref>
Access to [[biocapacity]] in Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016, Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares<ref name=footprintdata>{{cite web|url=http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=2&type=BCpc,EFCpc|title=Country Trends|publisher=Global Footprint Network|access-date= 23 June 2020}}</ref> of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=David|last2=Hanscom|first2=Laurel|last3=Murthy|first3=Adeline|last4=Galli|first4=Alessandro|last5=Evans|first5=Mikel|last6=Neill|first6=Evan|last7=Mancini|first7=MariaSerena|last8=Martindill|first8=Jon|last9=Medouar|first9=FatimeZahra|last10=Huang|first10=Shiyu|last11=Wackernagel
|first11=Mathis|date=2018|title=Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018|journal=Resources|volume=7|issue=3|pages=58|doi=10.3390/resources7030058|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit.<ref name=footprintdata/>
==Infrastructure==
===Energy===
{{main|Energy in Afghanistan|Renewable energy in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Afghanistan electricity production.svg|thumb|Afghanistan electricity supply 1980–2019]]
According to the [[World Bank]], 98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018, up from 28% in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Access to electricity, rural (% of rural population) – Afghanistan {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.RU.ZS?end=2018&locations=AF&start=2005&view=chart|access-date=28 March 2021|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> Overall the figure stands at 98.7%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?end=2018&locations=AF&start=2005&view=chart|title=Access to electricity (% of population) – Afghanistan|website=[[World Bank]]|accessdate=2023-03-13|archivedate=2021-04-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414225824/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?end=2018&locations=AF&start=2005&view=chart}}</ref> As of 2016, Afghanistan produces 1,400 [[megawatt]]s of power, but still imports the majority of electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tolonews.com/business/afghanistan-has-capacity-produce-310000mw-power|title=Afghanistan Has Capacity To Produce 310,000MW Power|website=TOLOnews}}</ref> The majority of electricity production is via [[hydropower]], helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the mountains.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/05/14/largest-plant-restarts-operations-in-first-step-developing-afghanistan-hydropower|title=Afghanistan Resurrects its Largest Hydropower Plant Toward a Brighter Future|website=World Bank}}</ref> However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen, including in Kabul.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/economy-development-environment/power-to-the-people-how-to-extend-afghans-access-to-electricity/|title=Power to the People: How to extend Afghans' access to electricity|date=3 February 2015|website=Afghanistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref> In recent years an increasing number of [[Solar power|solar]], [[biomass]] and wind power plants have been constructed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/presscenter/IntheNews/renewable-energy-in-afghanistan-atn.html|title=The Power of Nature: How Renewable Energy is Changing Lives in Afghanistan|website=UNDP in Afghanistan|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414230313/https://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/presscenter/IntheNews/renewable-energy-in-afghanistan-atn.html|url-status=dead|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=14 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414230313/https://www.af.undp.org/content/afghanistan/en/home/presscenter/IntheNews/renewable-energy-in-afghanistan-atn.html}}</ref> Currently under development are the [[CASA-1000]] project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and the [[Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India pipeline|Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India]] (TAPI) gas pipeline.<ref name="auto1"/> Power is managed by the [[Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat]] (DABS, Afghanistan Electricity Company).
Important dams include the [[Kajaki Dam]], [[Dahla Dam]], and the [[Sardeh Band Dam]].<ref name="auto2"/>
=== Tourism ===
{{main|Tourism in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Lake in Band-e Amir National Park, March 2008.jpg|thumb|left|[[Band-e Amir National Park]]]]
Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan due to security issues. Nevertheless, some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as of 2016.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/09/27/20000-foreign-tourists-visit-afghanistan-annually |title=20,000 foreign tourists visit Afghanistan annually |publisher=Pajhwok Afghan News (PAN) |editor=Navid Ahmad Barakzai |date=27 September 2016 |access-date=15 May 2017 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123022923/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/09/27/20000-foreign-tourists-visit-afghanistan-annually |url-status=dead }}</ref> In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque [[Bamyan]] Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/coronavirus-shatters-tourism-hopes-in-afghanistan-s-bamyan-province-1.1011018|title=Coronavirus shatters tourism hopes in Afghanistan's Bamyan province|website=The National|date=26 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2017/09/03/more-200000-tourists-visit-bamyan-year|title=More than 200,000 tourists visit Bamyan this year|website=www.pajhwok.com|date=3 September 2017|last1=Basharat|first1=Hakim}}</ref> Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as the [[Wakhan]] Valley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/society/article/2154951/where-instagramers-and-taliban-play-afghanistan|title=Where Instagramers and Taliban play|date=14 July 2018|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref> From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famous [[hippie trail]], attracting many Europeans and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities including [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Kabul]] before crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, and [[Nepal]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail.htm|title= Origins of the hippie trail|website= www.richardgregory.org.uk|access-date= 13 June 2020|archive-date= 11 November 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201111215149/https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail.htm|url-status= dead|accessdate= 13 March 2023|archivedate= 11 November 2020|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20201111215149/https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail-03.htm |title=The hippie trail |website=www.richardgregory.org.uk |access-date=13 June 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308185419/https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail-03.htm |url-status=dead |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=8 March 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308185419/https://www.richardgregory.org.uk/history/hippie-trail-03.htm }}</ref> Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/middle-east/afghanistan/articles/when-afghanistan-was-just-the-laid-back-highlight-on-the-hippie-/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/middle-east/afghanistan/articles/when-afghanistan-was-just-the-laid-back-highlight-on-the-hippie-/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=When Afghanistan was just a laid-back highlight on the hippie trail|first=Oliver|last= Smith|website=The Telegraph|date=20 April 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
[[File:Jam afghanistan ghorprovince islamic architecture.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Minaret of Jam]] is a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]], currently under threat by erosion and flooding]]
The city of [[Ghazni]] has significant history and historical sites, and together with [[Bamyan]] city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/context-culture/bamyan-first-ever-cultural-capital-of-south-asia-a-big-party-but-what-else/|title=Bamyan, First Ever Cultural Capital of South Asia: A big party, but what else?|date=8 June 2015|website=Afghanistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref> The cities of [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]], [[Balkh]], and [[Zaranj]] are also very historic. The [[Minaret of Jam]] in the [[Hari River, Afghanistan|Hari River]] valley is a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]] is kept inside the [[Shrine of the Cloak]] in Kandahar, a city founded by [[Alexander the Great]] and the first capital of Afghanistan. The [[citadel of Alexander]] in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction. In the north of the country is the [[Shrine of Ali]], believed by many to be the location where [[Ali]] was buried.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=115}} The [[National Museum of Afghanistan]] is located in Kabul and hosts a large number of Buddhist, [[Bactria]]n Greek and early Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20200203-the-afghan-artefacts-that-survived-taliban-destruction|title=The Afghan artefacts that survived Taliban destruction|first=Ruchi|last=Kumar|website=www.bbc.com}}</ref>
=== Communication ===
{{Main|Communications in Afghanistan}}
Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided by [[Afghan Telecom]], [[Afghan Wireless]], [[Etisalat]], [[MTN Group]], and [[Roshan (telco)|Roshan]]. The country uses its own space [[satellite]] called [[Afghansat 1]], which provides services to millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2 billion industry, with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://afghanistanembassy.org.uk/english/3155/|title=Connecting Afghanistan: The rise of technology in governance and society – The Embassy of Afghanistan in London|website=afghanistanembassy.org.uk|access-date=20 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180121125742/http://afghanistanembassy.org.uk/english/3155/|archive-date=21 January 2018|url-status=live|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=21 January 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180121125742/http://afghanistanembassy.org.uk/english/3155/}}</ref>
=== Transportation ===
{{Main|Transport in Afghanistan}}
{{See also|List of airports in Afghanistan|Rail transport in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Françoise Foliot - Afghanistan 043.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Salang Tunnel]], once the highest tunnel in the world, provides a key connection between the north and south of the country]]
Due to Afghanistan's geography, transport between various parts of the country has historically been difficult. The backbone of Afghanistan's road network is [[Highway 1 (Afghanistan)|Highway 1]], often called the "Ring Road", which extends for {{convert|2210|km}} and connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/going-in-circles-the-never-ending-story-of-afghanistans-unfinished-ring-road/|title=Going in Circles: The never-ending story of Afghanistan's unfinished Ring Road|publisher=Afghanistan Analysts Network|author=Qayoom Suroush|date=16 January 2015|access-date=7 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707120451/https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/going-in-circles-the-never-ending-story-of-afghanistans-unfinished-ring-road/|archive-date=7 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29bg7g1U6coC&pg=PA118|title=The Geography and Politics of Afghanistan|first=Ramamoorthy|last=Gopalakrishnan|date=13 June 1982|publisher=Concept Publishing Company}}</ref>
The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the economy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/economy-development-environment/going-in-circles-the-never-ending-story-of-afghanistans-unfinished-ring-road/|title=Going in Circles: The never-ending story of Afghanistan's unfinished Ring Road|date=16 January 2015|website=Afghanistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref> A key portion of the Ring Road is the [[Salang Tunnel]], completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and southern Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cary Gladstone|title=Afghanistan Revisited|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_KCWVB6W0C&pg=PA122|year=2001|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-59033-421-8|page=122}}</ref> It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-46016020100209|title=Afghan avalanches kill dozens, trap hundreds|newspaper=Reuters|date=9 February 2010|via=www.reuters.com|last1=Azimy|first1=Yousuf}}</ref> Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on the [[Kabul–Kandahar Highway|Kabul–Kandahar]] and the [[Kabul–Jalalabad Road]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/26/afghan-bus-crash |title=Afghan bus crash kills 45 |work=The Guardian |date=26 April 2013 |access-date=4 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105002154/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/26/afghan-bus-crash |archive-date=5 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant activities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Driving in Afghanistan|url=http://caravanistan.com/transport/driving/afghanistan/|website=Caravanistan|publisher=Caravanistan|access-date=22 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904001045/http://caravanistan.com/transport/driving/afghanistan/|archive-date=4 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Ariana Afghan A310-300 F-GEMO.jpg|thumb|An [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]] [[Airbus A310]] in 2006]]
Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier, [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]],<ref name="EU To Impose Ban on Afghan Planes">{{cite news |title=EU To Impose Ban on Afghan Planes |url=http://news.airwise.com/story/view/1290466447.html |publisher=Airwise News |date=22 November 2010 |quote=Kabul-based [[Safi Airways|Safi]] is the country's No. 2 airline after national carrier Ariana Afghan Airlines |access-date=28 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524011714/http://news.airwise.com/story/view/1290466447.html |archive-date=24 May 2013 |url-status=live |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=24 May 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524011714/http://news.airwise.com/story/view/1290466447.html }}</ref> and by the private company [[Kam Air]]. Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out of the country. These include [[Air India]], [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates]], [[Gulf Air]], [[Iran Aseman Airlines]], [[Pakistan International Airlines]], and [[Turkish Airlines]]. The country has four international airports: [[Hamid Karzai International Airport]] (formerly Kabul International Airport), [[Kandahar International Airport]], [[Herat International Airport]], and [[Mazar-e Sharif International Airport]]. Including domestic airports, there are 43.<ref name="Factbook"/> [[Bagram Air Base]] is a major military airfield.
The country has three rail links: one, a {{convert|75|km|adj=on}} line from [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] to the [[Afghanistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge|Uzbekistan border]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/railways/hairatan-to-mazar-i-sharif/|title=Hairatan to Mazar-i-Sharif railway – Railways of Afghanistan|website=andrewgrantham.co.uk|access-date=3 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224182253/http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/railways/hairatan-to-mazar-i-sharif/|archive-date=24 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> a {{convert|10|km|adj=on}} long line from [[Toraghundi]] to the [[Turkmenistan]] border (where it continues as part of [[Turkmen Railways]]); and a short link from [[Aqina]] across the Turkmen border to [[Kerki]], which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/11/28/afghan-turkmenistan-railroad-inaugurated|title=Afghan-Turkmenistan railroad inaugurated|website=pajhwok.com|date=28 November 2016|access-date=6 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512234058/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2016/11/28/afghan-turkmenistan-railroad-inaugurated|archive-date=12 May 2017|url-status=live|last1=Salehai|first1=Zarghona}}</ref> These lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line between [[Khaf, Iran|Khaf]], Iran and [[Herat]], western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, is under construction as of 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.azernews.az/region/135859.html |title=Khaf-Herat railroad to be launched in Iran soon |date=7 August 2018 |quote="Iran-Afghanistan railway networks through Khaf-Herat Railroad will be completed in the next few months," Yazdani said, according to Mehr news agency on 3 August |access-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928003514/https://www.azernews.az/region/135859.html |archive-date=28 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ifpnews.com/exclusive/iran-strongly-condemns-herat-railway-mine-blast/|title=Iran Strongly Condemns Herat Railway Mine Blast|date=20 May 2019|access-date=7 July 2019|publisher=Iran Front Page|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521080709/https://ifpnews.com/exclusive/iran-strongly-condemns-herat-railway-mine-blast/|archive-date=21 May 2019|url-status=live|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=21 May 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521080709/https://ifpnews.com/exclusive/iran-strongly-condemns-herat-railway-mine-blast/}}</ref> About {{convert|125|km}} of the line will lie on the Afghan side.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://financialtribune.com/articles/economy-domestic-economy/60378/rail-linkup-with-afghanistan-by-march-2018|title=Rail Linkup With Afghanistan by March 2018|date=25 February 2017|access-date=3 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922112855/https://financialtribune.com/articles/economy-domestic-economy/60378/rail-linkup-with-afghanistan-by-march-2018|archive-date=22 September 2018|url-status=live|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=22 September 2018|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922112855/https://financialtribune.com/articles/economy-domestic-economy/60378/rail-linkup-with-afghanistan-by-march-2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Khaf-Herat railway |url=http://www.raillynews.com/2013/khaf-herat-railway/ |website=RaillyNews {{!}} Dailly Railway News in English |date=10 December 2013 |access-date=1 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220114246/http://www.raillynews.com/2013/khaf-herat-railway/ |archive-date=20 December 2017 |url-status=dead |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=20 December 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220114246/http://www.raillynews.com/2013/khaf-herat-railway/ }}</ref> There are various proposals for the construction of additional rail lines in the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=Railways of Afghanistan -Afghan railroads, past, present and future |url=http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/tag/map/ |website=andrewgrantham.co.uk |access-date=1 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208185852/http://www.andrewgrantham.co.uk/afghanistan/tag/map/ |archive-date=8 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow in color and consist of both cars and [[auto rickshaw]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/eastsats/5/2/5_292/_pdf/-char/en |title=The Possibility of Introducing a Regular Bus System in Kandahar |last1=Rahmat |first1=Mohibullah |last2=Mizokami |first2=Shoshi |last3=Fujiwara |first3=Akimasa |journal=Asian Transport Studies |volume=5 |issue=2 |date=2018 |pages=292–309}}</ref> In rural Afghanistan, villagers often use [[donkey]]s, [[mule]]s or [[horse]]s to transport or carry goods. [[Camel]]s are primarily used by the Kochi nomads.<ref name="auto9"/> Bicycles are popular throughout Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UEJDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 | title=Mason's World Encyclopedia of Livestock Breeds and Breeding, 2 Volume Pack| isbn=9781845934668| last1=Porter| first1=Valerie| last2=Alderson| first2=Lawrence| last3=Hall| first3=Stephen J. G.| last4=Phillip Sponenberg| first4=D.| date=9 March 2016}}</ref>
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Afghanistan}}
[[File:CH-NB - Afghanistan, Kulm (Khulm, Kholm)- Menschen - Annemarie Schwarzenbach - SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-21-110.jpg|thumb|An Afghan family near [[Kholm, Afghanistan|Kholm]], 1939 – most Afghans are tribal]]
[[Afghans]] have both common cultural features and those that differ between the regions of Afghanistan, each with distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the country.<ref name="auto7"/> Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and families are often headed by a [[patriarch]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/WayofLife.htm|title=Afghanistan Way of Life | Afghanistan's Web Site|website=www.afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308140824/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/WayofLife.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the southern and eastern region, the people live according to the [[Pashtun culture]] by following [[Pashtunwali]] (the Pashtun way).<ref>{{citation-attribution |{{Cite encyclopedia|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html|title=Afghanistan: a country study|date=1998|publisher=[[Library of Congress]], [[Federal Research Division]]|editor-last=Blood|editor-first=Peter R.|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=904447770|entry=Pashtun|entry-url=https://webharvest.gov/peth04/20041031011222/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0037)|access-date=23 January 2021}}}}</ref> Key tenets of Pashtunwali include [[melmastia|hospitality]], the provision of [[nanawatai|sanctuary]] to those seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=126}} The Pashtuns are largely connected to the culture of [[Central Asia]] and the [[Iranian Plateau]]. The remaining Afghans are culturally [[Persianization|Persian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]]. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called [[Pashtunization]], while some Pashtuns have been [[Persianized]]. Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be strongly religious.<ref name="auto6"/>
Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for personal honor.{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=59}} One writer considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle.<ref name="Heathcote">Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839–1919", Sellmount Staplehurst.</ref> There are various [[ethnic groups in Afghanistan|Afghan tribes]], and an estimated 2–3 million [[Kochi people|nomads]].<ref>"[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76794 Afghanistan: Kuchi nomads seek a better deal]". [[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] Asia. 18 February 2008. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910205256/http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76794 | date=10 September 2011 }}</ref> Afghan culture is deeply [[Islamic culture|Islamic]],{{sfn|Barfield|2012|page=40–41}} but pre-Islamic practices persist.{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=104}} One example is ''[[bacha bazi]]'', a term for activities involving sexual relations between older men and younger adolescent men, or boys.<ref name="BBC Rustam Qobil">{{cite news| last= Qobil| first= Rustam| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11217772| title= The sexually abused dancing boys of Afghanistan| work= [[BBC News]]| date= 7 September 2010| access-date= 20 September 2019| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190818070104/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11217772| archive-date= 18 August 2019| url-status= live}}</ref> [[Child marriage in Afghanistan|Child marriage]] is prevalent in Afghanistan;<ref name="Medica Mondiale">{{cite journal|last=Bahgam|first=S|author2=Mukhatari|title=Study on Child Marriage in Afghanistan|journal=Medica Mondiale|year=2004|pages=1–20|url=http://www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/content/07_Infothek/Afghanistan/Afghanistan_Child_marriage_medica_mondiale_study_2004_e.pdf|access-date=15 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506222217/http://www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/content/07_Infothek/Afghanistan/Afghanistan_Child_marriage_medica_mondiale_study_2004_e.pdf|archive-date=6 May 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506222217/http://www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/content/07_Infothek/Afghanistan/Afghanistan_Child_marriage_medica_mondiale_study_2004_e.pdf |date=6 May 2012 }}</ref> the legal age for marriage is 16.<ref>{{cite web|title=Afghanistan Has a Tougher Law on Child Marriage than Florida|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/20/afghanistan-has-tougher-law-child-marriage-florida|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=20 October 2017|quote=In Afghanistan girls can marry at 16, or at 15 with permission from their father or a judge.|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725072232/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/20/afghanistan-has-tougher-law-child-marriage-florida|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The most preferred marriage in Afghan society is to one's [[parallel cousin]], and the groom is often expected to pay a [[bride price]].{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=122, 198}}
[[File:Kuchi Village.jpg|thumb|A house occupied by nomadic ''kochi'' people in [[Nangarhar Province]]]]
In the villages, families typically occupy [[mudbrick]] houses, or compounds with mudbrick or [[stone wall]]ed houses. Villages typically have a headman (''malik''), a master for water distribution (''mirab'') and a religious teacher (''mullah''). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest.<ref name="auto"/> About 15% of the population are [[nomadic]], locally called ''[[Kochi people|kochis]]''.<ref name="auto7"/> When nomads pass villages they often buy supplies such as tea, wheat and [[kerosene]] from the villagers; villagers buy [[wool]] and milk from the nomads.<ref name="auto"/>
[[Afghan clothing]] for both men and women typically consists of various forms of [[shalwar kameez]], especially ''[[perahan tunban]]'' and ''[[khet partug]]''. Women would normally wear a ''[[chador]]'' for head covering; some women, typically from highly conservative communities, wear the ''[[burqa]]'', a full body covering. These were worn by some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region, but the [[Taliban]] enforced this dress on women when they were in power.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7ATBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|title=What Is Veiling?|first=Sahar|last=Amer|date=2 September 2014|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=9781469617763}}</ref> Another popular dress is the ''[[chapan]]'' which acts as a coat. The ''[[Karakul (hat)|karakul]]'' is a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was constantly worn by President [[Hamid Karzai]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1956862.stm|title=Karzai heads for hat trouble|date=28 April 2002|via=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> The ''[[pakol]]'' is another traditional hat originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerrilla leader [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghan-web.com/culture/clothes/|title=Traditional Afghan Clothes|date=12 March 2018|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=13 August 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813151029/https://www.afghan-web.com/culture/clothes/}}</ref> The ''[[Mazari hat]]'' originates from northern Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/hats-proliferate-symbol-pashtun-protest-movement|title=Hats Proliferate as Symbol of Pashtun Protest Movement | Voice of America – English|website=www.voanews.com}}</ref>
===Architecture===
{{main|Architecture of Afghanistan}}
[[File:Kabul Skyline.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Kabul skyline, displaying both historical and contemporary buildings]]
The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages, including [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Buddhist]] stupas, monasteries, monuments, temples and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are the [[Great Mosque of Herat]], the [[Blue Mosque (Mazar-i-Sharif)|Blue Mosque]], the [[Minaret of Jam]], the [[Chil Zena]], the Qala-i Bost in [[Lashkargah]], the ancient Greek city of [[Ai-Khanoum]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/ArtArchitecture.htm|title=Afghanistan Art and Architecture | Afghanistan's Web Site|website=www.afghanistans.com|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307212319/https://www.afghanistans.com/Information/People/ArtArchitecture.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil wars.<ref>G.V. Brandolini. ''Afghanistan [[cultural heritage]]''. Orizzonte terra, [[Bergamo]]. 2007. p. 64.</ref> The two famous [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]] were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as [[idolatrous]]. Despite that, archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country, some of them dating back to the 2nd century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newsdaily.com/stories/tre67g1cn-us-afghanistan-buddhist-relics/ |title=Afghan archaeologists find Buddhist site as war rages |access-date=16 August 2010 |work=Sayed Salahuddin |date=17 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818151642/http://www.newsdaily.com/stories/tre67g1cn-us-afghanistan-buddhist-relics/ |archive-date=18 August 2010 |url-status=dead |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=18 August 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818151642/http://www.newsdaily.com/stories/tre67g1cn-us-afghanistan-buddhist-relics/ }}</ref> As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afghanistan, European-style architecture is rare but does exist: the Victory Arch at [[Paghman]] and the [[Darul Aman Palace]] in Kabul were built in this style in the 1920s by the Afghans themselves.
===Art and ceramics===
{{see also|Afghan art}}
[[File:Traditional Afghan Embroidery Style.jpg|thumb|left|A traditional Afghan [[embroidery]] pattern]]
Carpet [[weaving]] is an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of these are still [[Handicraft|handmade]] by tribal and nomadic people today.<ref name="auto5"/> Carpets have been produced in the region for thousands of years and traditionally done by women.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://khorasanrugs.com/post/1033364869875/in-afghanistan-weaving-ancient-industry|title=In Afghanistan, weaving ancient industry back into global market|date=21 August 2019|journal=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref> Some crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]], "[[war rugs]]", a variant of [[Afghan rug]]s, were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://speri.dept.shef.ac.uk/2020/01/15/selling-war-commodifying-the-insecurity-of-afghan-women/|title=Selling war: commodifying the (in)security of Afghan women|date=15 January 2020|website=SPERI}}</ref> Every province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gounesco.com/weaving-culture-through-the-afghan-rug/|title=Weaving Culture through the Afghan rug|date=7 December 2017|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=30 August 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830215415/https://www.makeheritagefun.com/weaving-culture-through-the-afghan-rug/}}</ref> In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/context-culture/rug-weavers-and-bride-prices-in-the-northwest-still-expensive-in-spite-of-government-and-taleban-rules/|title=Rug Weavers and Bride Prices in the Northwest: Still expensive in spite of government and Taleban rules|date=12 May 2019|website=Afghanistan Analysts Network – English}}</ref>
[[Pottery]] has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village of [[Istalif]], north of Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://seretandsons.org/giving-back|title=Giving Back – Seret and Sons}}</ref> and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.khaama.com/the-potter-crafting-afghanistans-future-9899/|title=The Potter: Crafting Afghanistan's future|date=27 January 2015|website=The Khaama Press News Agency}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/19/world/asia/afghanistan-istalif-pottery.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/19/world/asia/afghanistan-istalif-pottery.html |archive-date=2022-01-01 |url-access=limited|title=War and Pillaging Couldn't Break an Afghan Village, but a Tumbling Economy May|first=Kareem|last=Fahim|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 August 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Much of ''[[lapis lazuli]]'' stones were earthed in modern-day Afghanistan which were used in [[Chinese porcelain]] as [[cobalt blue]], later used in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] and Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/how-the-color-blue-changed-art-forever/index.html|title=How the quest for the 'perfect blue' changed art forever|first=Isambard |last=Wilkinson|website=CNN}}</ref>
The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known usage of [[oil painting]] found in cave murals in the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=First-ever oil paintings found in Afghanistan |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/04/24/afghanistan.painting/ |date=24 April 2008 |access-date=3 December 2012 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=20 March 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320110145/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/04/24/afghanistan.painting/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World's Oldest Oil Paintings Found in Afghanistan |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,352342,00.html |date=24 April 2008 |access-date=3 December 2012 |publisher=Fox News}}</ref> A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan is [[Gandhara Art]], produced by a fusion of [[Greco-Roman]] art and [[Buddhist art]] between the 1st and 7th centuries CE.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Gandhara-art |title=Gandhara art |publisher=Britannica |access-date=22 August 2018}}</ref> Later eras saw increased use of the [[Persian miniature]] style, with [[Kamaleddin Behzad]] of [[Herat]] being one of the most notable miniature artists of the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] and early [[Safavid]] periods. Since the 1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques in art. [[Abdul Ghafoor Breshna]] was a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century.
=== Media and entertainment ===
{{Main|Media of Afghanistan}}
Afghanistan has around 350 [[List of radio stations in Afghanistan|radio stations]] and over 200 television stations.<ref name=TOLO-2019>{{cite news|title=Suspects Sentenced To Death For Killing Journalist in Kandahar|url=https://www.tolonews.com/afghanistan/suspects-sentenced-death-killing-journalist-kandahar|publisher=[[TOLOnews]]|date=16 April 2019|access-date=28 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417161248/https://www.tolonews.com/afghanistan/suspects-sentenced-death-killing-journalist-kandahar|archive-date=17 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Radio Television Afghanistan]], originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels such as [[TOLO (TV channel)|TOLO]] and [[Shamshad TV]]. The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873,{{sfn|Dupree|1997|page=405}} and there are hundreds of print outlets today.<ref name="TOLO-2019"/> By the 1920s, [[Radio Kabul]] was broadcasting local radio services.<ref name="Whitlock2003">{{cite book|author=Monica Whitlock|title=Land Beyond the River: The Untold Story of Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OW1tAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127|date=24 October 2003|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-27727-7|page=127}}</ref> [[Voice of America]], [[BBC World Service|BBC]], and [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] (RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afghanistan's official languages on radio.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2016/afghanistan|title=Freedom of the Press 2016: Afghanistan|publisher=Freedom House|year=2016|access-date=28 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205122939/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2016/afghanistan|archive-date=5 February 2017|url-status=live|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=5 February 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205122939/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2016/afghanistan}}</ref> Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002, after more than two decades of tight controls.
Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian [[Bollywood]] films and listening to its [[filmi]] songs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/encounters-bollywood-kabul/|title=Encounters with Bollywood in Kabul|date=14 September 2013|website=Himal Southasian}}</ref> It has been claimed that Afghanistan is among the biggest markets for the Hindi film industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/panipat-irks-afghans-founding-father-portrayal-191210053601818.html|title=Bollywood's Panipat irks Afghans over founding father's portrayal|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref> The stereotypes of [[Afghans in India]] (''Kabuliwala'' or ''Pathani'') have also been represented in some Bollywood films by actors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/period-films-like-padmaavat-kesari-and-now-panipat-have-crassly-stereotyped-and-vilified-afghans/cid/1717346|title=Vilifying Afghans in Bollywood|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref> Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including [[Salman Khan]], [[Saif Ali Khan]], [[Aamir Khan]], [[Feroz Khan (Indian actor)|Feroz Khan]], [[Kader Khan]], [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Zarine Khan]], [[Celina Jaitly]], and a number of others. Several Bollywood films have been shot inside Afghanistan, including ''[[Dharmatma]]'', ''[[Khuda Gawah]]'', ''[[Escape from Taliban]]'', and ''[[Kabul Express]]''.
===Music===
{{main|Music of Afghanistan}}
[[ဝှာင်:Afghan rubab.jpg|thumb|The Afghan [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]]]]
Afghan classical music has close historical links with [[Indian classical music]] and use the same Hindustani terminology and theories like [[raga]]. Genres of this style of music include [[ghazal]] (poetic music) and instruments such as the Indian [[tabla]], [[sitar]] and [[harmonium]], and local instruments like [[zerbaghali]], as well as [[dayereh]] and [[tanbur]] which are also known in Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Middle East. The [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]] is the country's national instrument and precurses the Indian [[sarod]] instrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music include [[Ustad Sarahang]] and [[Abdul Rahim Sarban|Sarban]].<ref name="auto4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.songlines.co.uk/explore/guides-and-lists/the-rough-guide-to-world-music-afghanistan|title=Afghanistan – The Rough Guide to World Music|website=Songlines|accessdate=2023-03-13|archivedate=2021-03-08|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308143630/https://www.songlines.co.uk/explore/guides-and-lists/the-rough-guide-to-world-music-afghanistan}}</ref>
Pop music developed in the 1950s through [[Radio Kabul]] and was influential in social change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at first [[Mermon Parwin]].<ref name="auto4"/> Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre was [[Ahmad Zahir]], who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and rich lyrics long after his death in 1979.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2016/06/ahmad-zahir-the-afghan-elvis|title=Ahmad Zahir: The Voice of Afghanistan|website=daily.redbullmusicacademy.com}}</ref><ref name="auto4"/> Other notable masters of traditional or popular Afghan music include [[Nashenas]], [[Ubaidullah Jan]], [[Mahwash]], [[Ahmad Wali]], [[Farhad Darya]], and [[Naghma]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghanland.com/entertainment/music/bio.html |title=Artist Biographies |publisher=Afghanland.com |access-date=17 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809214750/http://www.afghanland.com/entertainment/music/bio.html |archive-date=9 August 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=9 August 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809214750/http://www.afghanland.com/entertainment/music/bio.html }}</ref>
[[Attan]] is the national dance of Afghanistan, a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all backgrounds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wadsam.com/arts-culture/afghanistans-traditional-dance-attan-3090/|title=Afghanistan's Traditional Dance-Attan|date=7 July 2012|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=14 April 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414223632/https://wadsam.com/arts-culture/afghanistans-traditional-dance-attan-3090/}}</ref> The dance is considered part of Afghan identity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.afghanzariza.com/article/articledetail/attan--the-fascinating-national-dance-of-afghanistan|title=Attan – the fascinating national dance of Afghanistan|website=Afghan Zariza|access-date=14 June 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308040731/https://www.afghanzariza.com/article/articledetail/attan--the-fascinating-national-dance-of-afghanistan|url-status=dead|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=8 March 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308040731/https://www.afghanzariza.com/article/articledetail/attan--the-fascinating-national-dance-of-afghanistan}}</ref>
=== Cuisine ===
{{main|Afghan cuisine}}
[[File: Bread of Afghanistan in 2010.jpg|thumb|[[Naan|Non]] (bread) from a local baker, the most widely consumed bread in Afghanistan]]
Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such as wheat, maize, [[barley]] and rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk, [[yogurt]] and [[whey]]. [[Kabuli palaw]] is the [[national dish]] of Afghanistan.<ref name="foodrepublic">{{cite web|url=http://www.foodrepublic.com/2012/07/31/everything-you-need-know-about-afghan-food|title=Everything You Need To Know About Afghan Food|date=31 July 2012|publisher=foodrepublic|first=Tanveer|last=Ali|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213232915/https://www.foodrepublic.com/2012/07/31/everything-you-need-know-about-afghan-food|archive-date=13 February 2013|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=13 February 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213232915/https://www.foodrepublic.com/2012/07/31/everything-you-need-know-about-afghan-food}}</ref> The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and geographic diversity.<ref name="Brittin">{{cite book|last=Brittin|first=Helen|title=The Food and Culture Around the World Handbook|url=https://archive.org/details/foodculturearoun0000brit|year=2011|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/foodculturearoun0000brit/page/20 20]–21}}</ref> Afghanistan is known for its high-quality [[Pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]], grapes, and sweet melons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rareseeds.com/afghan-honeydew-melon/|title=Rare Heirloom Seeds – Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds|website=Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds|access-date=28 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063844/http://www.rareseeds.com/afghan-honeydew-melon/|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans, and a typical diet consists of [[naan]], yoghurt, rice and meat.<ref name="auto"/>
=== Literature ===
{{main|Poetry of Afghanistan}}
Classic [[Persian literature|Persian]] and [[Pashto poetry]] are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/10/567862-feature-western-afghanistan-ancient-love-poetry-thrives-again|title=FEATURE: In Western Afghanistan, an ancient love of poetry thrives again|date=5 October 2017|website=UN News|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=17 August 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817083556/https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/10/567862-feature-western-afghanistan-ancient-love-poetry-thrives-again}}</ref> One of the poetic styles is called [[Landay (poetry)|landay]]. A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology are [[Dev (mythology)|Divs]], monstrous creatures.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXnEDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|title=American Myths, Legends, and Tall Tales: An Encyclopedia of American Folklore [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of American Folklore (3 Volumes)|first1=Christopher R.|last1=Fee|first2=Jeffrey B.|last2=Webb|date=29 August 2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695688}}</ref> Thursdays are traditionally "poetry night" in the city of [[Herat]] when men, women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13931608|title=Afghanistan: 10 facts you may not know|work=BBC News|date=6 July 2011|via=BBC|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304072803/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13931608|archive-date=4 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and writers from the Middle Ages to the present day, among which three mystical authors are considered true national glories (although claimed with equal ardor by Iran), namely: [[Khwaja Abdullah Ansari]] of Herat, a great mystic and [[Sufi]] saint in the 11th century, [[Sanai]] of [[Ghazni]], author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally, [[Rumi]] of [[Balkh]], in the 13th century, considered the persophonist throughout the world as the greatest mystical poet of the entire Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres (novel, theater), movements and stylistic features imported from Europe.
[[Khushal Khan Khattak]] of the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other notable poets include [[Rabi'a Balkhi]], [[Jami]], [[Rahman Baba]], [[Khalilullah Khalili]], and [[Parween Pazhwak]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/cpoets.html |title=Classical Dari and Pashto Poets |publisher=Afghan-web.com |access-date=4 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412113451/http://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/cpoets.html |archive-date=12 April 2014 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=6 October 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006084545/http://www.afghan-web.com/culture/poetry/cpoets.html }}</ref>
===Holidays and festivals===
[[File:هفت میوه.jpg|thumb|Haft Mewa (Seven Fruit Syrup) is popularly consumed during Nowruz in Afghanistan]]
Afghanistan's official New Year starts with [[Nowruz]], an ancient tradition that started as a [[Zoroastrian]] celebration in present-day Iran, and with which it shares the annual celebration along with several other countries. It occurs every year at the [[March equinox|vernal equinox]]. [[Nauruz in Afghanistan|In Afghanistan]], Nowruz is typically celebrated with music and dance, as well as holding [[buzkashi]] tournaments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/middle-east/afghanistan/festivals-and-events|title=Afghanistan Holidays and Festivals|website=www.iexplore.com|accessdate=2023-03-13|archivedate=2021-04-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414224027/https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/middle-east/afghanistan/festivals-and-events}}</ref>
[[Yaldā]], another nationally celebrated ancient tradition,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://en.mehrnews.com/news/112907/Yalda-Iranian-celebration-of-winter-solstice |last=Rezaian |first= Lachin |publisher=[[Mehr News Agency]] |date=20 December 2015 |title=Yalda: Iranian celebration of winter solstice}}</ref> commemorates the ancient goddess [[Mithra]] and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the [[winter solstice]] ({{transliteration|fa|čelle ye zemestān}}; usually falling on 20 or 21 December),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yonOicJi5BEC |title=No More "us" and "them": Classroom Lessons and Activities to Promote Peer Respect |last=Roessing |first= Lesley |date=2012 |page=89|isbn=978-1-61048-812-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2013/dec/20/local/la-me-adv-persian-winter-solstice-20131221 |title=In ancient tradition, Iranians celebrate winter solstice |last=Hamedy |first= Saba |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=20 December 2013}}</ref> during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits—particularly the red fruits watermelon and [[pomegranate]], as well as [[mixed nuts]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ti24AwAAQBAJ |title=Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present |last=Foltz |first= Richard |publisher=Oneworld Publications |date=2013 |page=29|isbn=978-1-78074-307-3 |author-link=Foltz, Richard }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OUtoJovyjMI |title=We Are Iran: The Persian Blogs |last=Alavi |first=Nasrin |date=8 November 2015 |publisher=Soft Skull Press |page=135 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
Religious festivals are also celebrated; as a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic events and festivals such as [[Ramadan]], [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Ashura]] are widely celebrated annually in Afghanistan. The Sikh festival of [[Vaisakhi]] is celebrated by the Sikh community<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/04/11/sikhs-throng-temples-celebrate-vaisakhi|title=Sikhs throng temples to celebrate Vaisakhi|website=www.pajhwok.com|date=11 April 2013|last1=Mahbob|first1=Mahbob Shah}}</ref> and the Hindu festival [[Diwali]] by the Hindu community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/asia/afghan-hindus-and-sikhs-celebrate-diwali-without-pomp-and-splendour-amid-fear-1.668735|title=Afghan Hindus and Sikhs celebrate Diwali without 'pomp and splendour' amid fear|website=The National|date=19 October 2017}}</ref>
[[Afghan Independence Day|National Independence Day]] is celebrated on 19 August to mark the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919]] under King [[Amanullah Khan]] and the country's full independence.<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Afghanistan|access-date=18 August 2009|year=2009}}</ref> Several international celebrations are also officially held in Afghanistan, such as [[International Workers' Day]] and [[International Women's Day]]. Some regional festivals include the Pamir Festival, which celebrates the culture of the [[Wakhi people|Wakhi]] and [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] peoples, the Red Flower Festival (during Nowruz) in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] and the Damboora Festival in [[Bamyan Province]].
=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Afghanistan}}
[[File:Buzkashi game in Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|The ancient national sport of Afghanistan, [[Buzkashi]]]]
Sport in Afghanistan is managed by the [[Afghan Sports Federation]]. [[Cricket]] and [[Association football]] are the two most popular sports in the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/%E2%80%98Cricket-is-now-the-biggest-sport-in-Afghanistan%E2%80%99/article13994180.ece|title=Cricket is now the biggest sport in Afghanistan|work=The Hindu|access-date=4 July 2019|date=11 January 2016|author=Uthra Ganesan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.topendsports.com/world/countries/afghanistan.htm|title=Sport in Afghanistan|access-date=4 July 2019|publisher=Top End Sports|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711025603/https://www.topendsports.com/world/countries/afghanistan.htm|archive-date=11 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association football, [[basketball]], [[volleyball]], [[golf]], [[team handball|handball]], [[boxing]], [[taekwondo]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[bodybuilding]], [[track and field]], [[ice skating|skating]], [[bowling]], [[snooker]], [[chess]], and other sports.
Afghanistan's sports teams are increasingly celebrating titles at international events. [[Afghanistan national basketball team|basketball team]] won the first team sports title at the [[2010 South Asian Games]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tournaments/South-Asian-Games-Shooters-swimmers-shine-as-India-consolidate-dominance/articleshow/5540143.cms|title=South Asian Games: Shooters, swimmers shine as India consolidate dominance|newspaper=The Times of India|date=5 February 2010|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613093112/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tournaments/South-Asian-Games-Shooters-swimmers-shine-as-India-consolidate-dominance/articleshow/5540143.cms|archive-date=13 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Later that year, the country's [[Afghanistan national cricket team|cricket team]] followed it with the winning of [[2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup]].<ref name="ICUP2009-10">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/INTERCONTINENTAL/about.shtml |title=2009–10 Intercontinental Cup |website=CricketEurope |access-date=28 May 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224153614/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/INTERCONTINENTAL/about.shtml |archive-date=24 February 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2023 |archivedate=23 March 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323083553/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/INTERCONTINENTAL/about.shtml }}</ref> In 2012, the country's [[Afghanistan national 3x3 team|3x3 basketball team]] won the gold medal at the [[3-on-3 basketball at the 2012 Asian Beach Games|2012 Asian Beach Games]]. In 2013, Afghanistan's [[Afghanistan national football team|football team]] followed as it won the [[SAFF Championship]].<ref name="SAFF2013">{{cite news |last=Lyse |first=Doucet |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24074786 |title=Precious moments of unity touch Afghans after football triumph |work=BBC News |date=12 September 2013 |access-date=28 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925172338/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24074786 |archive-date=25 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The [[Afghan national cricket team]], which was formed in 2001, participated in the [[2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier]], [[2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One]] and the [[2010 ICC World Twenty20]]. It won the [[ACC Twenty20 Cup]] in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team eventually made it and played in the [[2015 Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://globalvoices.org/2015/02/20/afghanistan-makes-history-in-cricket-world-cup-despite-debut-loss-to-bangladesh/|title=Afghanistan Makes History in Cricket World Cup, Despite Debut Loss to Bangladesh|date=20 February 2015|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528232428/https://globalvoices.org/2015/02/20/afghanistan-makes-history-in-cricket-world-cup-despite-debut-loss-to-bangladesh/|archive-date=28 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]] (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The [[Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground]] serves as the nation's main cricket stadium. There are several other stadiums throughout the country, including the [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium]] near [[Jalalabad]]. Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces.
The [[Afghanistan national football team]] has been competing in international [[Association football|football]] since 1941.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teammelli.com/matchdata/details/matchdetails.php?id=53|title=Statistics: Iran|access-date=28 May 2019|publisher=Team Melli|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103153545/http://www.teammelli.com/matchdata/details/matchdetails.php?id=53|archive-date=3 November 2019|url-status=live|accessdate=13 March 2023|archivedate=3 November 2019|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103153545/http://www.teammelli.com/matchdata/details/matchdetails.php?id=53}}</ref> The national team plays its home games at the [[Ghazi Stadium]] in Kabul, while [[football in Afghanistan]] is governed by the [[Afghanistan Football Federation]]. The national team has never competed or qualified for the [[FIFA World Cup]] but has recently won an international football trophy in 2013.<ref name="SAFF2013"/> The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football.
The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan is [[buzkashi]], mainly popular in the north, but also having a following in other parts of the country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/afghanistans-buzkashi-horses-prepare-for-the-game-of-courage/article22457652.ece|title=Afghanistan's buzkashi horses prepare for the game of courage|newspaper=The Hindu|date=17 January 2018|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> It is similar to [[polo]], played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass.<ref name=twsj>{{cite news|last1=Abi-Habib|first1=Maria|last2=Fazly|first2=Walid|title=In Afghanistan's National Pastime, It's Better to Be a Hero Than a Goat|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703841904576256632384932122|access-date=13 April 2011|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=13 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526095017/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703841904576256632384932122|archive-date=26 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Afghan Hound]] (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was formerly used in [[wolf hunting with dogs|wolf hunting]]. In 2002, traveler [[Rory Stewart]] reported that dogs were still used for wolf hunting in remote areas.<ref>{{cite book|first=Rory|last=Stewart|author-link=Rory Stewart|title=The Places in Between|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz_2AwAAQBAJ|date=2007|publisher=HMH Books|isbn=978-0-15-603593-4|page=100}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{Portal|Afghanistan|Asia}}
* [[Outline of Afghanistan]]
== Explanatory notes==
{{Notelist|refs=
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{{Efn|name=fn1|The phoneme {{IPA|/f/}} ف occurs only in loanwords in Pashto, it tends to be replaced with {{IPA|/p/}} پ. {{IPA|[b]}} is also an allophone of {{IPA|/p/}} before voiced consonants; {{IPA|[v]}} is an allophone of {{IPA|/f/}} before voiced consonants in loanwords.}}-->
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==References==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}
=== General and cited sources ===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813 |last=Mehta |first=Jaswant Lal |date=January 2005 |isbn=9781932705546 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |ref={{sfnref|Mehta}}}}
{{Refend}}
== Further reading ==
{{Main|Bibliography of Afghanistan}}
{{See also|Bibliography of the history of Central Asia}}
{{Refbegin}}
{{Div col|content=
* {{cite book |last=Barfield|first=Thomas|title=Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tg45ygAACAAJ|date=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15441-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bleaney |first1=C. H |last2=Gallego |first2=María Ángeles |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=qCh41lAvg8oC }} |title=Afghanistan: a bibliography |publisher=BRILL |year=2006 |isbn=978-90-04-14532-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Clements |first=Frank |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=bv4hzxpo424C }} |title=Conflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85109-402-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Dupree|first=Louis|author-link=Louis Dupree (professor)|title=Afghanistan|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistan0000dupr|publisher=Oxford Pakistan Paperbacks|edition=2nd|year=1997|isbn=978-0-19-577634-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics|url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistanshort00ewan|last=Ewans|first=Martin|publisher=Curzon Press|date=2002|isbn=0060505087}}
* {{cite book |last=Fowler |first=Corinne |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=o4IrhX7n66YC }} |title=Chasing Tales: Travel Writing, Journalism and the History of British Ideas About Afghanistan |publisher=Rodopi |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-420-2262-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=John C |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=M7nMtaXdAS8C }} |title=Afghanistan: a History of Conflict |publisher=Carlton Books |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84222-597-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Habibi |first=Abdul Hai |author-link=Abdul Hai Habibi |year=2003 |title=Afghanistan: An Abridged History |publisher=Fenestra Books |isbn=978-1-58736-169-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Hopkins |first=B.D. |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=FOMUAQAAIAAJ }} |title=The Making of Modern Afghanistan |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-230-55421-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Robert |title=The Afghan Way of War: How and Why They Fight |year=2011 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=lNuH5YQJr6UC }} |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-979856-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Levi |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KakcAAAAMAAJ |title=The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan |publisher=Collins |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-00-211042-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Malleson |first=George Bruce |author-link=George Bruce Malleson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C |title=History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878 |edition=Elibron Classic Replica |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4021-7278-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Olson |first=Gillia M |url=https://archive.org/details/afghanistan0000olso |url-access=registration |title=Afghanistan |publisher=Capstone Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7368-2685-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Omrani |first1=Bijan |last2=Leeming |first2=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVu_NwAACAAJ|title=Afghanistan: A Companion and Guide |publisher=Odyssey Publications |edition=2nd |year=2011 |isbn=978-962-217-816-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Reddy |first=L.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NubtDf2T3cAC |title=Inside Afghanistan: End of the Taliban Era? |publisher=APH Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-7648-319-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Runion |first=Meredith L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZk9XzqCFGUC |title=The History of Afghanistan |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-313-33798-7}}
}}
{{Refend}}
== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Afghanistan|Afghanistan|s=Portal:Afghanistan|collapsible=collapsed}}
{{EB1911 poster|Afghanistan}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104184342/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ |date=2021-01-04 }}. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* {{GovPubs|Afghanistan}}
* {{Curlie|Regional/Asia/Afghanistan}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Afghanistan}}
* [http://uiuc.libguides.com/afghanistan_research_guide Research Guide to Afghanistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150823112103/http://uiuc.libguides.com/afghanistan_research_guide |date=2015-08-23 }}
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{{Infobox person
| name = ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ
| native_name = သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ ဂေါတမ (Siddhārtha Gautama)
| image = [[ဝှာင်:Tian Tan Buddha by Beria.jpg|thumb]]
Buddha_statue_in_the_Vihara_of_the_Dhammayazika_Pagoda.jpg
| caption = ရုပ်ပဋိမာရုပ် ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ မနွံပ္ဍဲဘာဝိဟာရ
| birth_date = ၜိုတ် ဘဳသဳ ၅၆၃ (ဟွံသေၚ်မ္ဂး ၄၈၀)
| birth_place = ဥဒျာန်လုမ္ဗိနဳ၊ သာကျိယ (လၟုဟ် ဍုၚ်နဳပေါလ်)
| death_date = ၜိုတ် ဘဳသဳ ၄၈၃ (ဟွံသေၚ်မ္ဂး ၄၀၀)
| death_place = ကုသိနာဂဵု၊ မလ္လာ (လၟုဟ် ဍုၚ်အိန္ဒိယ)
| occupation = အ္စာသၠးပွး၊ ညးမထ္ၜးဂၠံၚ်တရဴဓရ်၊ တမ်မူလသာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ
| known_for = မဂြၚ်ဗိုတ်ဓရ်သဗ္ဗညုတညာဏ်၊ သ္ပတမ်ကဵု သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ
| parents = သၟိၚ်သုဒ္ဓေါဒန (မ)၊ ဂၞကျာ်သဳရိမဟာမာယာ (မိ)
| spouse = ဂၞကျာ်ယသောဓရာ
| children = ရာဟုလ
}}
'''ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Gautama Buddha'') ဝွံ ဒှ်ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ ရ။ <ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Bodhi |first=Bhikkhu |title=In the Buddha's Words |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2005}}</ref> ညးဂှ် မံက်ဂတဝ်ကၠုၚ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အိန္ဒိယသက္ကုတိုက် (Indian subcontinent) လ္ပာ်ဗၟံက် ၜိုတ်အကြာ ဘဳသဳ (၆) ကေုာံ ဘဳသဳ (၄) ဗွဝ်ကၠံရ။ ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမဝွံ ဒှ်အ္စာသၠးပွး (Teacher) မွဲဇကု မဗ္တောန်ကဵု နဲကဲ သွက်ဂွံတြုံတြးနူဒဒိုက် ကေုာံ ဂၠံၚ်တရဴ သွက်ဂွံစိုပ် [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] ရ။
ဗွဲကိုပ်ကၠာ ညးဝွံ ဒှ်ကုမ္မာ သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ (Siddhartha) နူကဵုဂကူသာကျိယတုဲ ကြဴနူမညာတ်ကေတ် နိမိတ်ပန် (ဗျု၊ နာ၊ ဂစိုတ်၊ ရဟတ်) ဂှ်တုဲ သၠးကၠေံ ကာမသုခ တိတ်ပ္ဍဲဂြိုပ် သွက်ဂွံဂၠာဲဓရ်တြုံတြးရ။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Armstrong |first=Karen |title=Buddha |url=https://archive.org/details/buddha0000arms |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2001}}</ref> ကြဴနူမပၟဝ်ဓရ်တုဲ ဂြၚ်ဗိုတ်ကေတ် ဓရ်သဗ္ဗညုတညာဏ် ပ္ဍဲသၟဝ်တၞံဗောဓိရ။ ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမဝွံ ဒှ်ညးမဟီုတွံကဵု ဓရ်သစ္စပန် (Four Noble Truths) ကေုာံ မဂ္ဂၚ်ဒ္စာံ (Eightfold Path) မဒှ်သ္ဇိုၚ် သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ ပ္ဍဲကဵုခေတ်လၟုဟ်ရ။
== ဝင် ==
=== Birth and Early Life ===
ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမဝွံ သၠးဂဗ္ဘ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဥဒျာန်လုမ္ဗိနဳ (Lumbini) မနွံအကြာ နိဂြောဓါရာံ ကဵု ဒေဝဒဟ ရ။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Nyanamoli |first=Bhikkhu |title=The Life of the Buddha |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |year=1992}}</ref> မအံက်ညးဂှ် သၟိၚ်သုဒ္ဓေါဒန မဒှ်သၟိၚ်မအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုၚ်ကပ္ပဳလဝှ် တုဲ မိအံက်ညးဂှ် ဂၞကျာ်သဳရိမဟာမာယာ ရ။ ကြဴနူသၠးဂဗ္ဘတုဲ ထပှ်တ္ၚဲ မိအံက်ညး စုတိအာတုဲ မိနော် မိမဟာပဇာပတိဂေါတမဳ ဟေၚ် ဒှ်ညးမလွဳလွါကၠုၚ်ရ။
=== Renunciation and Enlightenment ===
ကာလမကလိဂွံ အာယုဒ္စံါ (၂၉) သၞာံ၊ သိဒ္ဓတ္ထကုမ္မာ သၠးကၠေံ ဂၞကျာ်ယသောဓရာ ကေုာံ ကောန်တြုံရာဟုလတုဲ တိတ်အာပၟဝ်ဓရ်ရ။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Peter |title=An Introduction to Buddhism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013}}</ref> ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ညးလ္ၚတ်ကေတ် နဲကဲသမထ နူကဵုအ္စာ အဠာရကာလာမ ကေုာံ ဥဒ္ဒကရာမပုတ္တ ရ။ ကြဴနူဂှ် ညးပၟဝ်ဓရ် ဒုက္ကရစရိယ ၜိုတ် (၆) သၞာံတုဲ ညာတ်ကေတ် မဇ္ဈိမပဋိပဒါ (ဂၠံၚ်တရဴအဒေါဝ်) ဟေၚ် ဒှ်ဂၠံၚ်တရဴဍာံတုဲ ပ္ဍဲအာယုဒ္စံါ (၃၅) သၞာံ၊ ပ္ဍဲတ္ၚဲသဳဗပေၚ်ဂိတုပသာ်ဂှ် ဂြၚ်ဗိုတ်ကေတ် ဓရ်သဗ္ဗညုတညာဏ် ပ္ဍဲဗုဒ္ဓဂယာ ရ။
== Core Principles ==
ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ ဝေတ်ဗ္တောန်ကဵု ဓရ်သဘာဝဂမၠိုၚ် မနွံသ္ဇိုၚ်အတိုၚ်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ-<ref name=":0" />
=== Four Noble Truths (ဓရ်သစ္စပန်) ===
# '''ဒုက္ခသစ္စ''': ဒဒိုက်မနွံဇေတ်။
# '''သမုဒယသစ္စ''': ဟိုတ်ဒဒိုက်ဂွံကတဵုဒှ် (လောဘ/တဏှာ)။
# '''နိရောဓသစ္စ''': ဒၞာဲဒဒိုက်မအိုတ် (နိဗ္ဗာန်)။
# '''မဂ္ဂသစ္စ''': ဂၠံၚ်တရဴ သွက်ဂွံအာစိုပ် ဒၞာဲဒဒိုက်မအိုတ်။
<ref>{{cite book |last=Rahula |first=Walpola |title=What the Buddha Taught |url=https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught0000wapo |publisher=Grove Press |year=1959}}</ref>
=== မဂ္ဂၚ်ဒ္စာံ ===
မဂ္ဂၚ်ဒ္စာံဝွံ ပါ်ကေတ်လဝ် နကဵု သိက္ခာပိ သာ်ရ:
* '''ပညာ (Wisdom)''': သမ္မာဒိဋ္ဌိ၊ သမ္မာသင်္ကပ္ပ။
* '''သဳလ (Ethical Conduct)''': သမ္မာဝါစာ၊ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ၊ သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ။
* '''သမာဓိ (Concentration)''': သမ္မာဝါယာမ၊ သမ္မာသတိ၊ သမ္မာသမာဓိ။
<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gethin |first=Rupert |title=The Foundations of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe |journal=Oxford University Press |year=1998}}</ref>
== Ministry and Legacy ==
ကြဴနူဂြၚ်ဗိုတ်ဓရ်တုဲ ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ တွံဓရ် ဓမ္မစက္ကပ္ပဝတ္တနသုတ် ကုပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ (၅) ဇကု ပ္ဍဲဂြိုပ်မိဂဒါဝိုန်ရ။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Strong |first=John |title=The Buddha: A Beginner's Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/buddha00john |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2001}}</ref> ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ တွံဓရ်အလုံမွဲအာယုဒ္စံါ (၄၅) ဝှ်တုဲ သ္ပပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် ပ္ဍဲအာယုဒ္စံါ (၈၀) ပ္ဍဲဍုၚ်ကုသိနာဂဵု ရ။ သာသနာကျာ်တြဲဝွံ ပြးဇးအာ အလုံဂၠးတိတုဲ ဒှ်သာသနာဇၞော်အိုတ်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဂၠးတိဝွံရ။
== ဗှ်လ္ၚတ်ကေတ် ==
* [[သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ]]
* [[ဓမ္မစက္ကပ္ပဝတ္တနသုတ်]]
* [[ပိဋကတ်ပိ]]
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]]
== နိဿဲ ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* [https://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight: Readings in Theravada Buddhism]
* [https://www.buddhanet.net BuddhaNet: Buddhist Education and Information]
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[[Category:ဝၚ်အိန္ဒိယ]]
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[[Category:မၞိဟ်မမံက်ဂတဝ် ပ္ဍဲဘဳသဳ ၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ]]
[[Category:ဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
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{{Infobox academic discipline
| name = ပစ္စက္ခ (Perception)
| image = Eye_iris.jpg
| caption = မတ် မဒှ်ဣန္ဒြဳအဓိက သွက်ပစ္စက္ခပရမာဏ
| field = [[ယုတ္တိဗေဒဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] / [[ပရမာဏ]]
| objects = ပညာမညာတ်ကေတ် တိုက်ရိုက်၊ သစ္စ၊ ဣန္ဒြဳ
| subdivisions = ဣန္ဒြဳပစ္စက္ခ၊ မာနသပစ္စက္ခ၊ ယောဂိပစ္စက္ခ
}}
== Lead section ==
'''ပစ္စက္ခ''' (သက္ကတ: ''Pratyakṣa''; ပါဠိ: ''Paccakkha'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်နဲကဲမကလိဂွံ ပညာမဍာံစၟတ် နကဵုပွမညာတ်ကေတ် တိုက်ရိုက် (Direct Perception) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[ယုတ္တိဗေဒဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] ကေုာံ [[ပရမာဏ]]၊ ပစ္စက္ခဝွံ ဒှ်ပရမာဏ ပထမအိုတ် ကေုာံ အဓိကအိုတ် သွက်ဂွံတီကေတ် သဘာဝဍာံ (Reality) မနွံဒၟံၚ် ဂတမုက်ရ။ ပစ္စက္ခဝွံ ဒှ်ပညာမဟွံနှေါကေတ် ကဵုပွမချပ်ဗ္စာ (Non-conceptual) တုဲ ဍေံမညာတ်ကေတ် အရာဝတ္ထု အတိုၚ်သဘာဝဍာံ ဍေံမနွံဂှ်ရ။
== Main sections ==
=== ဂကူပစ္စက္ခဂမၠိုၚ် (Types of Perception) ===
ပ္ဍဲဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ အ္စာဒိၚ်နာဂ (Dignāga) သောၚ်ကလးလဝ် ပစ္စက္ခ နွံ (၄) သာ်:
# '''ဣန္ဒြဳပစ္စက္ခ (Indriya-pratyakṣa)''': ပညာမကလိဂွံ နူကဵုဣန္ဒြဳ ၅ (မတ်၊ ကတောဝ်၊ မုဟ်၊ လတာ်၊ ဇကု)။
# '''မာနသပစ္စက္ခ (Mānasa-pratyakṣa)''': ပညာမကလိဂွံ နူကဵုစိုတ် မညာတ်ကေတ် အာရုံ။
# '''သံဝေဒနပစ္စက္ခ (Sva-saṃvedana)''': ပွမတီကေတ် စိုတ်ဓာတ် ကေုာံ ဝေဒနာ ဇကုတိုက်ရိုက်။
# '''ယောဂိပစ္စက္ခ (Yogi-pratyakṣa)''': ပညာမညာတ်ကေတ် သဘာဝဍာံ နကဵုဣဒ္ဓိ ဟွံသေၚ်မ္ဂး သမာဓိမသၠုၚ်။
=== လက်သဏ္ဍာန် ပစ္စက္ခမဍာံစၟတ် ===
သွက်ဂွံဒှ် ပစ္စက္ခမဗိုန်ဗတ် (Valid Perception)၊ ဍေံဒးနွံကဵု လက်သဏ္ဍာန် ၂ သာ်:
* '''ကပ်ပနာပေါေတ် (Kalpanāpoḍha)''': ဒးဟွံမွဲကဵု ပွမချပ်ဗ္စာ ဟွံသေၚ်မ္ဂး ပွမခၞံဗဒှ် နကဵုအရေဝ်ဘာသာ။
* '''အဘြာန်တ (Abhrānta)''': ဒးဒှ်အရာမဟွံဗၠေတ် (Non-illusory) ညံၚ်ရဴမညာတ် မတ်ဗၠေတ်တုဲ ညာတ်စက္ကရတအ်ဂှ် ဟွံဒှ်ပစ္စက္ခရ။
=== တၚ်ရန်တၟအ် ===
ပစ္စက္ခဝွံ အသုံးပြုလဝ် သွက်ဂွံ:
* တီကေတ် သဘာဝတၟေၚ် (Svalakṣaṇa) အရာဝတ္ထုမွဲမွဲ။
* ဒှ်သ္ဇိုၚ် သွက်ဂွံဆက်ကၠောန် [[အနုမာန်]] (Inference)။
* ပၟဝ်ဓရ် ဝိပဿနာ ညံၚ်ဂွံညာတ်ကေတ် အနိစ္စ၊ ဒုက္ခ၊ အနတ္တ တိုက်ရိုက်။
== See also ==
* [[ပရမာဏ]]
* [[ယုတ္တိဗေဒဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
* [[အနုမာန်]]
* [[ဒိၚ်နာဂ]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
<ref>{{cite book |last=Dignaga |title=Pramāṇa-samuccaya |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Stcherbatsky |first=Fyodor |title=Buddhist Logic |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhistlogic000ifths |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1962}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Matilal |first=Bimal Krishna |title=Perception: An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1986}}</ref>
== External links ==
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-india/ Perception in Indian Philosophy - Stanford Encyclopedia]
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/pratyaksha Pratyaksha - Britannica]
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[[Category:ပရမာဏ]]
[[Category:ယုတ္တိဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဘာသာမန်]]
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{{Infobox academic discipline
| name = ဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Buddhist Philosophy)
| image = Dharma Wheel.svg
| caption = ဓမ္မစက် သင်္ကေတဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ
| field = [[ဒဿန]] / [[သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ]]
| objects = သစ္စ၊ အနိစ္စ၊ ဒုက္ခ၊ အနတ္တ၊ နိဗ္ဗာန်
| subdivisions = ထေရဝါဒ၊ မဟာယာန၊ ဝိညာဏဝါဒ၊ မဒ္ဓိမက
}}
== Lead section ==
'''ဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Buddhist Philosophy'') ဝွံ ဒှ်သၞောတ်ဒဿန မစတမ်ကၠုၚ်နူ တၚ်ဝေတ်ဗ္တောန် [[ကျာ်တြဲဂေါတမ]] [cite: 4, 32] တုဲ ဇၞော်မောဝ်ကၠုၚ် နကဵုနဲကဲမချပ်ဗ္စာ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် [cite: 52] ကေုာံ ဝိပဿနာ [cite: 52] ရ။ ဒဿနဏအ်ဝွံ လ္ၚတ်ကေတ် သဘာဝအရာခပ်သီု မနွံဒၟံၚ်ဍာံစၟတ် [cite: 53] ကေုာံ ဂၠံၚ်တရဴ သွက်ဂွံသၠးပွးနူဒဒိုက် (နိဗ္ဗာန်) ရ။ [cite: 52] ဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာဝွံ နွံကဵုကဏ္ဍအဓိကဂမၠိုၚ် မပ္တံကဵု သန္နိပ္ပါဒ်ဒဿန (Epistemology)၊ ဝိညာဏဒဿန (Metaphysics) ကေုာံ သဳလဒဿန (Ethics) ရ။ [cite: 7, 51]
== Main sections ==
=== သ္ဇိုၚ်ဒဿန (Core Philosophical Concepts) ===
ဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ဒုၚ်သ္ဇိုၚ်ကဵု တၚ်နက်သမ္ဗန် အဓိကဂမၠိုၚ်: [cite: 52]
* '''လက္ခဏာပိ (Three Marks of Existence)''': အနိစ္စ (ဟွံဗိုန်)၊ ဒုက္ခ (ဒဒိုက်)၊ ကေုာံ အနတ္တ (ဟွံမွဲကဵုအတ္တ)။ [cite: 52]
* '''သစ္စပန် (Four Noble Truths)''': ဒဒိုက်၊ ဟိုတ်ဒဒိုက်၊ ဒၞာဲဒဒိုက်မအိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဂၠံၚ်တရဴမအာစိုပ် ဒၞာဲဒဒိုက်မအိုတ်။ [cite: 52]
* '''ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ် (Dependent Origination)''': အရာခပ်သီု ကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံၚ် နကဵုဟိုတ် ကေုာံ ဖိုလ် မဆက်စပ်ဒၟံၚ် ရေၚ်သကအ်။ [cite: 53]
=== ယုတ္တိဗေဒ ကေုာံ ပရမာဏ ===
ပ္ဍဲကဏ္ဍ [[ယုတ္တိဗေဒဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]၊ [cite: 32] အ္စာဒဿနဂမၠိုၚ် မပ္တံကဵု အ္စာဒိၚ်နာဂ (Dignāga) ကေုာံ အ္စာဓမ္မကဳရ်တိ (Dharmakīrti) တအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်လဝ် နဲကဲ [[ပရမာဏ]] (Pramāṇa) [cite: 36] သွက်ဂွံပါ်ကေတ် ပညာမဍာံစၟတ် နူကဵု ပညာမဗၠေတ်ရ။ [cite: 53]
=== ဂကောံဒဿနဂမၠိုၚ် (Schools of Buddhist Philosophy) ===
* '''ထေရဝါဒ (Theravada)''': ဒုၚ်သ္ဇိုၚ်ကဵု ပိဋကတ်ပိ ကေုာံ ဝိဘဇ္ဇဝါဒ (ပွမပါ်ပဲါဟိုတ်ဖိုလ်)။ [cite: 32]
* '''မဒ္ဓိမက (Madhyamaka)''': ဇၞော်မောဝ်လဝ် နကဵုအ္စာနာဂါရ်ဇုန (Nagarjuna) မတွံကဵု ပရူ သုညတ (Sunyata)။ [cite: 53]
* '''ယောဂါစာရ/ဝိညာဏဝါဒ (Yogacara)''': ပတှ်ေကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ အရာခပ်သီု ကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံၚ် ပ္ဍဲစိုတ် (Mind-only) ဟေၚ်။ [cite: 53]
== See also ==
* [[ဒဿန]]
* [[ယုတ္တိဗေဒဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
* [[ပရမာဏ]]
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
<ref>{{cite book |last=Kalupahana |first=David |title=A History of Buddhist Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbuddhis0000kalu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1992}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Peter |title=An Introduction to Buddhism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite book |last=Rahula |first=Walpola |title=What the Buddha Taught |url=https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught0000wapo |publisher=Grove Press |year=1959}}</ref>
== External links ==
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buddhist-philosophy/ Buddhist Philosophy - Stanford Encyclopedia]{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://iep.utm.edu/buddha/ Buddha - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
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[[Category:ဒဿန]]
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[[Category:ယုတ္တိဗေဒဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဘာသာမန်]]
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{{Infobox academic discipline
| name = နာဂါရ်ဇုန (Nāgārjuna)
| image = Nagarjuna.jpg
| caption = ရုပ်ပဋိမာ အ္စာနာဂါရ်ဇုန (ၜိုတ် ၁၅၀–၂၅၀ အေဒီ)
| field = [[ဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] / [[မဟာယာန]]
| objects = သုညတ၊ မဒ္ဓိမက၊ သစ္စၜါ (Two Truths)
| subdivisions = မဒ္ဓိမကဝါဒ
}}
== Lead section ==
'''နာဂါရ်ဇုန''' (သက္ကတ: ''Nāgārjuna''; ၜိုတ် ၁၅၀–၂၅၀ အေဒီ) ဝွံ ဒှ်အ္စာဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ အာဇာနဲမွဲဇကုတုဲ ညးမဒှ်တမ်မူလ ဂကောံဒဿန '''မဒ္ဓိမက''' (Madhyamaka - ဂၠံၚ်တရဴဒေါဝ်) ရ။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Westerhoff |first=Jan |title=Nāgārjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009}}</ref> ညးဝွံ ဒှ်ပူဂဵုမပြာကတ်အိုတ်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲဝၚ်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာမဟာယာနတုဲ ဂကူမန်တအ်လေဝ် ယိုက်အရှေဝ်ဒၟံၚ် ညံၚ်ရဴ "ကျာ်တြဲဒုတိယ" (Second Buddha) မွဲဇကုကီုရ။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Kalupahana |first=David |title=Nagarjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1986}}</ref> တၚ်တွံဓရ်အဓိကညးဂှ် ဒှ်ပရူ '''သုညတ''' (Shunyata - မဟွံမွဲကဵုသ္ဇိုၚ်တမ်မူလ) ရ။
== Main sections ==
=== သ္ဇိုၚ်ဒဿန မဒ္ဓိမက (The Philosophy of Madhyamaka) ===
နာဂါရ်ဇုန ဇၞော်မောဝ်လဝ် နဲကဲမချပ်ဗ္စာ မဟွံကတဵုဒှ်အစွံၜါ (အစွံမနွံ ကေုာံ အစွံမဟွံမွဲ):
* '''သုညတ (Voidness/Emptiness)''': အရာခပ်သီု ဟွံမွဲကဵုသဘာဝတမ်မူလ (Sabhava) ဇကုအလဵုအလဵုရ။ အရာခပ်သီု ကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံၚ် နကဵုဟိုတ် ကေုာံ ဖိုလ် မဆက်စပ်ဒၟံၚ် (Dependent Origination) ဟေၚ်။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Garfield |first=Jay L. |title=The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995}}</ref>
* '''သစ္စၜါ (Two Truths)''': ညးပါ်ထ္ၜးကဵု -
# '''သမ္မုတိသစ္စ (Conventional Truth)''': သစ္စမတုပ်စိုပ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ (ဥပမာ- မၞး၊ အဲ၊ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု)။
# '''ပရမတ္ထသစ္စ (Ultimate Truth)''': သစ္စမဍာံစၟတ် (ဒဒှ်ရ အရာခပ်သီု ဒှ်သုညတ)။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Newland |first=Guy |title=Two Truths |url=https://archive.org/details/twotruthsinmadhy0000newl |publisher=Snow Lion Publications |year=1992}}</ref>
=== လိက်ပတ်မပြာကတ်ဂမၠိုၚ် (Major Works) ===
* '''မူလမဒ္ဓိမကကာရိကာ (Mūlamadhyamakakārikā)''': လိက်သ္ဇိုၚ်ဒဿနဂၠံၚ်တရဴဒေါဝ်။
* '''ဝိဂြဟဝျာဝရ်တနဳ (Vigrahavyāvartanī)''': လိက်သွက်ဂွံဝါဒပြိုၚ်ပ္ကာန် ကေုာံ သောၚ်ကလးယုတ္တိဗေဒ။
* '''ရတနာဝလိ (Ratnāvalī)''': လိက်ဝေတ်ဗ္တောန် သၟိၚ်တအ် ကေုာံ ပရူဒ္ဂေတ်သဳလ။
=== အရာမဆက်စပ် ကဵုဝၚ်သာသနာ ===
နာဂါရ်ဇုနဝွံ လုကဴဝၚ်သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ၊ ညးဒှ်ညးမပလီုကၠေံ တၚ်ပတှ်ေမစွဲစပ် (Dogmatism) တုဲ ထ္ၜးကဵုနဲကဲ ဝိပဿနာမညာတ်ကေတ် သဘာဝဍာံရ။ ဒဿနညးဝွံ ပြးဇးအာ အလုံအာရှဗၟံက်၊ တိဗက် ကေုာံ ဒေသမန်ဗၟာတအ်ရ။
== See also ==
* [[သုညတ]]
* [[ဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
* [[မဟာယာန]]
* [[အ္စာဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာတၞဟ်တၞဟ်]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nagarjuna/ Nagarjuna - Stanford Encyclopedia]
* [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nagarjuna Nagarjuna - Britannica]
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[[Category:အ္စာဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာတၞဟ်တၞဟ်]]
[[Category:ဒဿနဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:မဟာယာန]]
[[Category:ဘာသာမန်]]
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{{Infobox royalty
| name = ဝၚ်စကြဳ (Chakri Dynasty)
| native_name = ราชวงศ์จักรี
| image = Emblem of the House of Chakri.svg
| caption = သင်္ကေတ ဝၚ်စကြဳ (စက် ကေုာံ သ္ဇၚ်)
| country = [[ဍုၚ်သေံ]]
| founded = ၆ ဧပြဳ ၁၇၈၂
| founder = [[သၟိၚ်ဗုဒ္ဓယောဒ်ဖာစုဠာလောက]] (ရာမ ၁)
| current_head = [[သၟိၚ်ဝဇိရာလံၚ်ကန်]] (ရာမ ၁၀)
| residence = နန်းတော် (Grand Palace)၊ ဘၚ်္ကံ
| website = [https://www.royaloffice.th www.royaloffice.th]
}}
== Lead section ==
'''ဝၚ်စကြဳ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Chakri Dynasty''; သေံ: ราชวงศ์จักรี) ဝွံ ဒှ်ဝၚ်သၟိၚ်အုပ်ဓုပ် [[ဍုၚ်သေံ]] လၟုဟ်တုဲ စတမ်ကၠုၚ်နူသၞာံ ၁၇၈၂ လက်ထက်သၟိၚ်ရာမ ၁ ရ။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Wyatt |first=David K. |title=Thailand: A Short History |url=https://archive.org/details/thailandshorthis00unse |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003}}</ref> သင်္ကေတဝၚ်စကြဳဂှ် ဒှ်ရုပ် "စက်" (Chakra) ကေုာံ "သ္ဇၚ်" (Trisula) မဒှ်လွဟ်ကျာ်ဝိသၞုဟ်ရ။ ဝၚ်စကြဳဝွံ နွံကဵုသၟိၚ် (၁၀) ဇကုတုဲ ခေတ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ကော်စ ခေတ်ရတနကောသိန္ဒ (Rattanakosin Period) ရ။
== Kings of the Chakri Dynasty (သၟိၚ်ဝၚ်စကြဳဂမၠိုၚ်) ==
ဝၚ်စကြဳ နွံကဵုသၟိၚ် ၁၀ ဇကု (ကော်စ ရာမ ၁ - ၁၀):
# '''ရာမ ၁''' (၁၇၈၂–၁၈၀၉): ပတန်ဍုၚ်ဘၚ်္ကံ။
# '''ရာမ ၂''' (၁၈၀၉–၁၈၂၄): ဇၞော်မောဝ်လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ သုခုမပညာ။
# '''ရာမ ၃''' (၁၈၂၄–၁၈၅၁): ဇၞော်မောဝ်ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ သာသနာ။
# '''ရာမ ၄''' (သၟိၚ်မၚ်ကုဋ်; ၁၈၅၁–၁၈၆၈): စတမ်ပြုပြေၚ်ဍုၚ် နကဵုပညာသိပ္ပံ။
# '''ရာမ ၅''' ([[သၟိၚ်စူဠာလံၚ်ကန် (ရာမ ၅)|သၟိၚ်စူဠာလံၚ်ကန်]]; ၁၈၆၈–၁၉၁၀): ပလီုဍိက် ကေုာံ ပတန်တက္ကသိုလ်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (MCU)။
# '''ရာမ ၆''' (၁၉၁၀–၁၉၂၅): ဇၞော်မောဝ်ပရေၚ်ကောန်ဂကူ။
# '''ရာမ ၇''' (၁၉၂၅–၁၉၃၅): ပြံၚ်လှာဲသၞောတ်အုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵုသၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (၁၉၃၂)။
# '''ရာမ ၈''' (၁၉၃၅–၁၉၄၆): သၟိၚ်အာနန္ဒမဟိဍန်။
# '''ရာမ ၉''' (သၟိၚ်ဘူမိဗလ်အဒုလျာဒေတ်; ၁၉၄၆–၂၀၁၆): အုပ်ဓုပ်ဍုၚ်လုကဴ ၇၀ သၞာံ။
# '''ရာမ ၁၀''' ([[သၟိၚ်ဝဇိရာလံၚ်ကန်]]; ၂၀၁၆–လၟုဟ်): သၟိၚ်လၟုဟ်။
== Role in Buddhism (ကဏ္ဍပ္ဍဲသာသနာ) ==
ဝၚ်စကြဳဝွံ ဒှ်ညးမယိုက်ဒိုက် သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ ဗွဲမနက်သမ္ဗန်ရ။ သၟိၚ်ရာမ ၁ ပတန်လဝ် သၞောဝ်သံဃာ ကေုာံ တက်ပတိတ်လိက်ပိဋကတ်ပိ။ သၟိၚ်ရာမ ၄ ကေုာံ ရာမ ၅ ဇၞော်မောဝ်ပရေၚ်ပညာသံဃာတုဲ ပတန်လဝ် တက္ကသိုလ်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာဂမၠိုၚ်ရ။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Ishii |first=Yoneo |title=Sangha, State, and Society: Thai Buddhism in History |url=https://archive.org/details/sanghastatesocie0000ishi |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1986}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[ဝၚ်ဍုၚ်သေံ]]
* [[သၟိၚ်စူဠာလံၚ်ကန် (ရာမ ၅)]]
* [[သၟိၚ်ဍုၚ်သေံဂမၠိုၚ်]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:ဝၚ်စကြဳ}}
[[Category:ဝၚ်စကြဳ]]
[[Category:သၟိၚ်ဍုၚ်သေံဂမၠိုၚ်]]
[[Category:ဝၚ်ဍုၚ်သေံ]]
[[Category:ဘာသာမန်]]
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{{Infobox academic discipline
| name = ပရေၚ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်စကြဳ
| image = Chakri_Maha_Prasat_Hall.jpg
| caption = နန်စကြဳမဟာပြာသာဒ် (Chakri Maha Prasat Hall) သင်္ကေတပရေၚ်ဇၞော်မောဝ်
| field = [[ဝၚ်ဍုၚ်သေံ]] / [[ဝၚ်စကြဳ]]
| objects = ပရေၚ်ပညာ၊ ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ သာသနာ၊ နဲကဲခေတ်တၟိ
| subdivisions = ခေတ်ပြုပြေၚ် (ရာမ ၄-၅)၊ ခေတ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (ရာမ ၉)
}}
== Lead section ==
'''ပရေၚ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်စကြဳ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Development in the Chakri Dynasty'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်စုဒေပ်ပရူပွမပြုပြေၚ် ကေုာံ ပွမဇၞော်မောဝ်ဍုၚ်သေံ လုကဴအာယုဒ္စံါဝၚ် ဝၚ်စကြဳ (စတမ်နူသၞာံ ၁၇၈၂) ရ။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Wyatt |first=David K. |title=Thailand: A Short History |url=https://archive.org/details/thailandshorthis00unse |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003}}</ref> ပရေၚ်ဇၞော်မောဝ်ဏအ်ဝွံ စတမ်နူပွမပတန်ဍုၚ်ဘၚ်္ကံ ညံၚ်ဂွံဒှ်ဗဟဵုအုပ်ဓုပ်၊ ပွမပလီုဍိက်၊ ပွမပတန်သၞောတ်ပညာခေတ်တၟိ ကေုာံ ပွမထိၚ်ဒဝ်သာသနာဗုဒ္ဓ ညံၚ်ဂွံဗိုန်ဗတ်ရ။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Baker |first=Chris |title=A History of Thailand |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofthailan00bake |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005}}</ref>
== Main Eras of Development (ခေတ်ဇၞော်မောဝ်ဂမၠိုၚ်) ==
=== ခေတ်ပတန်ဍုၚ် (ရာမ ၁ - ၃) ===
* '''ပရေၚ်အုပ်ဓုပ်''': ပတန်ဍုၚ်ဘၚ်္ကံ (Rattanakosin) ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ်သၞောဝ် "သၞောဝ်ပိစပ်" (Three Seals Code)။
* '''သာသနာ''': သံဂါယနာလိက်ပိဋကတ်ပိ ကေုာံ ပတန်ဘာကျာ်ဂမၠိုၚ် (ဥပမာ- ဘာဖဝ်)။
* '''ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ်''': စတမ်ဆက်ဆံကဵု ဂကူကြုက် ကေုာံ ဂကူပလိုတ်တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး။
=== ခေတ်ပြုပြေၚ် (ရာမ ၄ - ၅) ===
ခေတ်ဏအ် ဒှ်ခေတ်အဓိက သွက်ပရေၚ်ဇၞော်မောဝ်:
* '''နဲကဲခေတ်တၟိ''': သၟိၚ်ရာမ ၄ စတမ်စုတ်ပညာသိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ။
* '''ပွမပလီုဍိက်''': [[သၟိၚ်စူဠာလံၚ်ကန် (ရာမ ၅)]] ပလီုကၠေံဘဝဍိက် ညံၚ်ကောန်ဍုၚ်ဂွံနွံကဵု သၠးပွး။
* '''ပရေၚ်ပညာ''': ပတန်ဘာဗ္တောန်လိက် သၞောတ်ဂၠးကဝ် ကေုာံ တက္ကသိုလ်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (MCU & MBU)။ <ref>{{cite book |last=Ishii |first=Yoneo |title=Sangha, State, and Society |url=https://archive.org/details/sanghastatesocie0000ishi |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1986}}</ref>
* '''ပရေၚ်ဆက်သွယ်ရေး''': စတမ်ကၠောန်ဂၠံၚ်ကွဳပၟတ်၊ ပရေၚ်စက်အာဲ ကေုာံ တိုက်လိက်။
=== ခေတ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (ရာမ ၉ - ၁၀) ===
* '''Sufficiency Economy''': သၟိၚ်ရာမ ၉ တွံဗဒှ်နဲကဲ "ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ်ရုမ်ဂပ်" သွက်ညးဒိုက်ဂမၠိုၚ်။
* '''ပရေၚ်နဲကဲ (Technology)''': ဇၞော်မောဝ်ပရေၚ်နဲကဲ ကွန်ပျူတာ၊ အေန်တာနက် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်စက်မှုနာနာ ပ္ဍဲဍုၚ်သေံ။
== Impact on Religion (ဖိုလ်ပ္ဍဲသာသနာ) ==
ပရေၚ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်စကြဳဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ်ကဵု သၞောဝ်သံဃာမဗိုန်ဗတ်၊ ပညာသံဃာမသၠုၚ်တိုန် ကေုာံ ပွမပတန် [[တက္ကသိုလ်မဟာစူဠာလံၚ်ကန်ရာဇဝိဒျာယ]] (MCU) မဒှ်ဗဟဵုဗ္တောန်ပညာဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ သၞောတ်ဂၠးကဝ်ရ။
== See also ==
* [[ဝၚ်စကြဳ]]
* [[သၟိၚ်စူဠာလံၚ်ကန် (ရာမ ၅)]]
* [[တက္ကသိုလ်မဟာစူဠာလံၚ်ကန်ရာဇဝိဒျာယ]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:ပရေၚ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်စကြဳ}}
[[Category:ပရေၚ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်စကြဳ]]
[[Category:ဝၚ်စကြဳ]]
[[Category:ဝၚ်ဍုၚ်သေံ]]
[[Category:ဘာသာမန်]]
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{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = ကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံ အမေရိကာန်
| common_name = အမေရိကာန်
| native_name = United States of America
| image_flag = Flag of the United States.svg
| image_coat = Great Seal of the United States (obverse).svg
| symbol_type = တဆိပ်ကြာဍုင်
| image_map = United States (orthographic projection).svg
| map_caption = ဒတန် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံ အမေရိကာန် (အသာ်ၚေက်)
| capital = [[ဝါယှေန်တာန် ဒဳသဳ]] (Washington, D.C.)
| largest_city = [[ဍုင်နျူယံက်]] (New York City)
| official_languages = ဟွံမွဲ (ပ္ဍဲအဆံင်ကၟိန်ဍုင်) <br> [[ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက်]] (သုင်စောဲဂၠိုင်အိုတ်)
| government_type = သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံ (Federal presidential constitutional republic)
| leader_title1 = သမ္မတ
| leader_title2 = ဒုတိယ သမ္မတ
| legislature = ကၠတ်ထဝ် ကောန်ဂရေတ် (Congress)
| area_km2 = ၉,၈၃၃,၅၂၀
| population_estimate = ၃၃၄,၉၁၄,၈၉၅ (စၟတ်သမ္တီ ၂၀၂၃)
| currency = ဒဝ်လာ အမေရိကာန် (USD)
| time_zone = နာနာသာ် (UTC−4 စဵုကဵု −12, +10, +11)
| calling_code = +1
}}
'''ကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံ အမေရိကာန်''' ({{lang-en|United States of America}}, ကော်ဂၠေအ် '''USA''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''အမေရိကာန်''') ဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင်မနွံ ပ္ဍဲတိုက်အမေရိကသၟဝ်ကျာတုဲ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု တွဵုရး (၅၀) ရး၊ ခရိုင်ဖက်ဒရယ် (၁) ခရိုင်၊ တကအ်ဇၞော် (၅) တကအ် ကေုာံ ဒေသတၞဟ်တၞဟ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ နကဵုသြိုင်အနာံတိမ္ဂး နွံ ၃.၈ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် စတုရံတိုင် (၉.၈ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် စတုရံကဳလဝ်မဳတာ) တုဲ ဒှ်ဍုင်ဇၞော်အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ပိ ပ္ဍဲဂၠးကဝ်ရ။ နကဵုလၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်မ္ဂး နွံ ၃၃၄ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ်ပြင်တုဲ ဒှ်ဍုင်လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ပိ ပ္ဍဲဂၠးကဝ်ကီုရ။ ဍုင်ဇၞော်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဍုင် [[ဝါယှေန်တာန် ဒဳသဳ]] (Washington, D.C.) တုဲ၊ ဍုင်မၞိဟ်မမံင်ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ကေုာံ နွံကဵုအဝဵုသြဇာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်ဇၞော်အိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် [[ဍုင်နျူယံက်]] (New York City) ရ။
== ဝင် (History) ==
ဒေသကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် လၟုဟ်ဝွံ ကိုပ်ကၠာတေအ် ဂကူတမ်မူလ အမေရိကာန် (Native Americans) တအ် ပဒတဴကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု သၞာံမဂၠိုင်ကဵုလ္ၚီရ။ ပ္ဍဲကၞောတ် ၁၅ ဗွဝ်ကၠံဂှ် ဂကူဥရောပတအ် စကၠုင်စိုပ်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ ၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံဂှ် ဂကူအင်္ဂလိက်တအ် စဒက်ပတန်ကၠုင် ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ (Colonies) ဂမၠိုင်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ကေုာံ လိက်လလောင်တြး:''' ဟိုတ်နူပရေင်တဵုဗက် အခေါင်အရာ ကေုာံ အခေါန်အခေါက်တုဲ ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ အင်္ဂလိက် (၁၃) ရးတအ် ပကောံကလောံတုဲ တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကုအင်္ဂလာန်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၇၇၆ ဂိတုဂျူလာင် ၄ ဂှ် လလောင်တြး ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး (Declaration of Independence) တုဲ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံ အမေရိကာန် ရ။
* '''ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုင် (Civil War):''' ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၆၁ စဵုကဵု ၁၈၆၅ ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူပြသၞာ သၞောတ်ဍိက် (Slavery) ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရာတွဵုရးတအ်တုဲ ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုင် ကတဵုဒှ်လဝ်ရ။ အိုတ်ကၞောတ် တွဵုရးသၟဝ်ကျာတအ် ဇၞးအာတုဲ သၞောတ်ဍိက်ဂှ်လေဝ် ပလီုပလာ်ထောအ် အလုံမွဲဍုင်ရ။
* '''၂၀ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ကေုာံ အဝဵုသြဇာဂၠးကဝ်:''' ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးကဝ် ဒုတိယ ကေုာံ ပၞာန်လၜိုဟ် (Cold War) တုဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်ဝွံ ဒှ်ကၠုင် ဍုင်မဟာအဝဵု (Superpower) အလုံဂၠးကဝ် မွဲရ။
== ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Geography and Climate) ==
ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်ဝွံ နွံဒၟံင် အကြာ မှာသၟိတ်အာတ်လာန်တေတ် (Atlantic Ocean) လပါ်ဗမံက် ကေုာံ မှာသၟိတ်ပါသဳဖိတ် (Pacific Ocean) လပါ်ပလိုတ်ရ။ လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာဂှ် ပယျဵုဆက်ဒၟံင် ကုဍုင်[[ကာနေဒါ]] တုဲ၊ လပါ်သမၠုင်ကျာဂှ် ဆက်ဒၟံင် ကုဍုင်[[မက်သဳကဝ်]] ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူသြိုင်အနာံတိ ဇၞော်လှဲလးလောန်တုဲ ရာသဳဥတု ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝတအ်ဂှ်လေဝ် နွံနာနာသာ်ရ။ လပါ်ဗမံက်ဂှ် ဒှ်ရာသဳဥတု တမ်သၞာံမံက်၊ လပါ်ဒေသလဒေါဝ်ဂှ် ဒှ်တိဗလးဇၞော် (Great Plains) တုဲ၊ လပါ်ပလိုတ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဒဵုဇၞော်ဂမၠိုင် ကေုာံ ဒေသကန္တာရဂမၠိုင်ရ။
== အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Government and Politics) ==
အမေရိကာန်ဝွံ ဒ္ဂေတ်လဝ် သၞောတ်သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံ (Federal Republic) မဒုင်သဇိုင် ကုသၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် (Constitution) မချူလဝ် နူသၞာံ ၁၇၈၇ တေအ်ရ။ အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ်ဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် ပိ ကဏ္ဍရ-
# '''အဝဵုစၟိန်ပြမာန် (Executive Branch):''' သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင် ဒှ်က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်။
# '''အဝဵုကၠတ်ထဝ် (Legislative Branch):''' ကၠတ်ထဝ် ကောန်ဂရေတ် (Congress) မပါ်လဝ် ကၠတ်ထဝ်အထက် (Senate) ကေုာံ ကၠတ်ထဝ်အောက် (House of Representatives)။
# '''အဝဵုစဳရေင် (Judicial Branch):''' ရုင်ဗစာ သၠုင်အိုတ် (Supreme Court) ကေုာံ ရုင်ဗစာဖက်ဒရယ်ဂမၠိုင်။
သၞောတ်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်ဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒုင်သဇိုင် ကုဗော်ဇၞော်ၜါ မတွံဂး ဗော်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေတ် (Democratic Party) ကေုာံ ဗော်ရဳပပ်ဗလဳကေန် (Republican Party) ရ။
== ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economy) ==
အမေရိကာန်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင်မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးကဝ် နကဵုလၟိဟ် GDP နွံၜိုတ် ၂၇ တြဳလဳယာန် ဒဝ်လာ (စၟတ်သမ္တီ ၂၀၂၃) ရ။ ဒှ်ဍုင်မသၠုင်ပတိုန် ကမၠောန်နဲကဲပညာ (Technology)၊ ကမၠောန်သြန် (Finance)၊ ကေုာံ ကမၠောန်ပရးပရိုင် ယေန်သၞာင် (Entertainment) ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။ ဒဝ်လာ အမေရိကာန် ဂှ် ဒှ်သြန်အဓိက သွက်ပရေင်ဗၞိက်ဂၠးကဝ်ရ။
== လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Demographics and Culture) ==
အမေရိကာန်ဝွံ ဒှ် "ဍုင်မၞိဟ်ပြံင်လုပ်" (Nation of immigrants) မွဲတုဲ နွံကဵု ဂကူ၊ ဘာသာ၊ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် မနာနာသာ်ရ။
* '''ဘာသာစကာ:''' ၜိုန်ရ ဟွံမွဲကဵု ဘာသာစကာ ရုံးသုံး (Official language) ပ္ဍဲအဆံင်ကၟိန်ဍုင်ကီုလေဝ်၊ [[ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက်]] ဂှ် သုင်စောဲဂၠိုင်အိုတ်တုဲ၊ [[ဘာသာသပိန်]] ဂှ် ဒှ်ဘာသာ မရနုက်ကဵု ၜါ ရ။
* '''ယေန်သၞာင်:''' ယေန်သၞာင်အမေရိကာန် ဥပမာ- ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဟဝ်လဳဝုတ် (Hollywood)၊ ဒွက်ပေါပ် (Pop music)၊ ကေုာံ အခိုက်စၞစ (Fast food) တအ်ဂှ် ဓလီုလဝ် လတူဂၠးကဝ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဝါယှေန်တာန် ဒဳသဳ]]
* [[ဍုင်နျူယံက်]]
* [[ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုင် အမေရိကာန်]]
* [[သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံ အမေရိကာန်]]
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
* {{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/ |title=United States Census Bureau |publisher=U.S. Government}}
* {{cite book |last=Zinn |first=Howard |title=A People's History of the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof00zinn_2 |year=2003 |publisher=Harper Perennial Modern Classics}}
[[Category:ကၟိန်ဍုင်ပံင်ကောံ အမေရိကာန်]]
[[Category:ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ တိုက်အမေရိကသၟဝ်ကျာ]]
[[Category:သမ္မတ ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်]]
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{| class="infobox vcard" style="width: 22em; text-align: left; font-size: 90%; background-color: #fcfcfc; border: 1px solid #ccc; padding: 5px; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;"
|+ colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 1.2em; font-weight: bold; background-color: #e0e0e0; padding: 7px; border-radius: 3px;" | ပါဒ်မာသဳရဳ ဒဳ သဳလဗာ<br><span style="font-size:0.75em;">Padmasiri de Silva</span>
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: #f0f0f0; padding: 3px;" | ပရူပရာ အဓိက
|-
! ၜံင်
| ဍုင်သဳရိလင်္ကာ
|-
! ကမၠောန်
| အစာပါမောက္ခ၊ တၠပညာ ဒဿနိက
|-
! ပရေင်ပညာ
| ပါရဂူ (Ph.D.) - တက္ကသိုလ် ဟာဝါအဳ (University of Hawaii)
|-
! ဌာနကမၠောန်
| တက္ကသိုလ် ပေရာဒေနဳယျာ၊ တက္ကသိုလ် မဝ်နာတ်
|-
! ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် အဓိက
| စိုတ်ပညာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ ဒဿနိက ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ၊ ပရေင်ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ်
|}
'''ပါဒ်မာသဳရဳ ဒဳ သဳလဗာ''' ({{lang-en|Padmasiri de Silva}}) ဝွံ ဒှ်တၠပညာ ဒဿနိက ကေုာံ အစာသုတေသန ဂကူသဳရိလင်္ကာ မပြာကတ်တၟေင် ပ္ဍဲလပါ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် စိုတ်ပညာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Buddhist Psychology) ကေုာံ ဒဿနိက ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ (Environmental Philosophy) ရ။ ညးဝွံ ဒှ်ပူဂိုလ် မဖျေံလဝ် သဇိုင် တင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် သုတေသန မဆက်စၠောအ်လဝ် အကြာ လညာတ်ဒဿနိက ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ လညာတ်စိုတ်ပညာ ရးပလိုတ် (ဗွဲတၟေင် လညာတ် သဳဂမောန် ဖရုက် - Sigmund Freud) ရ။
== ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ==
ပါဒ်မာသဳရဳ ဒဳ သဳလဗာ ကလိဂွံလဝ် တဆိပ်ကြာ သဇိုင်ပညာ နူကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် သဳလောန် (University of Ceylon) ကေုာံ ဆက်လ္ၚတ်လဝ် ပရေင်ပညာ ကလိဂွံ တဆိပ်ကြာ မဟာဝိဇ္ဇာ (M.A.) ကဵု ပါရဂူ (Ph.D.) မဆေင်ကဵု ဒဿနိက နူကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် ဟာဝါအဳ (University of Hawaii) ရ။
ညးယိုက်ဂၠေင်လဝ် တာလျိုင် နဒဒှ် အစာပါမောက္ခ ကေုာံ ဌာနက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ပ္ဍဲဌာနဒဿနိက ကေုာံ စိုတ်ပညာ ပ္ဍဲတက္ကသိုလ် ပေရာဒေနဳယျာ (University of Peradeniya) ဍုင်သဳရိလင်္ကာ ရ။ ကြဴနူဂှ် ညးအာယိုက်ဂၠေင်လဝ် တာလျိုင် နဒဒှ် တၠပညာသုတေသန ပ္ဍဲတက္ကသိုလ် ကောန်ဂကူ သေင်ကာပူ (National University of Singapore - NUS) ကေုာံ တက္ကသိုလ် မဝ်နာတ် (Monash University) ပ္ဍဲဍုင်သြသတြေလျာရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=Padmasiri de Silva Profile |url=https://www.buddhistinquiry.org/article/padmasiri-de-silva/ |website=Barre Center for Buddhist Studies |access-date=2026 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
== ပရေင်သုတေသန ကေုာံ လိက်ကၞပ်ဂမၠိုင် ==
ပရေင်လ္ၚတ်ညး အဓိကဂှ် စွံအာရီု လတူ ပွမသ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အခိုက်အလိုက် စိုတ်မၞိဟ် နကဵု လညာတ်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာတုဲ၊ စကာလဝ် နဲကဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အရည်အသွေး (Qualitative analysis) သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ပရူဒဒှ် လောဘ၊ ဒေါသ ကေုာံ မောဟ ပ္ဍဲဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ လဒက်ပ္တန် အဖွဲ့အစည်းဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ ညးလ္ၚတ်လဝ် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မွဲ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝကီုရ။
လိက်ကၞပ်ညးမချူလဝ် ယၟုပြာကတ်အိုတ်ဂမၠိုင်ဂှ်-
* ''An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology'' (နိဒါန် စိုတ်ပညာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ) - လိက်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်လိက်ပြာကတ်အိုတ် မစကာဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် လိက်ဗွဟ်သဇိုင် ပ္ဍဲတက္ကသိုလ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။
* ''Buddhist and Freudian Psychology'' (စိုတ်ပညာ ဖရုက် ကေုာံ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ) - ပွမသ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် လညာတ်စိုတ်ပညာ ၜါသာ်။
* ''Environmental Philosophy and Ethics in Buddhism'' (ဒဿနိက ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် ပ္ဍဲဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ)။
* ''Emotions and the Psychology of Religion'' (စိုတ်ဟွံညိင်ဝတ် ကေုာံ စိုတ်ပညာ ပရေင်ဘာသာ)။<ref>{{cite book|last=de Silva|first=Padmasiri|title=An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontobu0003desi|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2000|edition=3rd}}</ref>
== အခန်ကဏ္ဍ ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ပညာ ==
လညာတ် သုတေသန ပါဒ်မာသဳရဳ ဒဳ သဳလဗာ ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော်လောန် သွက်တၠပညာ ခေတ်တၟိတအ် မလ္ၚတ်ဒၟံင် ပရူ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်-ယေန်သၞာင်နာနာ (Multicultural studies) ကေုာံ သဇိုင်ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ်ပရေင်ပညာဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ညးထ္ၜးကဵု သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ ဒဿနိက ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာဂှ် ဟွံသေင်ဆ ပရေင်ဘာသာမွဲဓဝ်၊ ဍေဟ်ဒှ် သၞောတ်စိုတ်ပညာ မနွံကဵု သဇိုင် သိပ္ပံ မာန်ကီုရ။
== နိဿဲ ==
<references />
{{DEFAULTSORT:de Silva, Padmasiri}}
[[ကဏ္ဍ:အစာသုတေသနဂမၠိုင်]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:တၠပညာ ဒဿနိကဂမၠိုင်]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:အစာပါမောက္ခဂမၠိုင်]]
[[ကဏ္ဍ:ပူဂိုလ် နူ သဳရိလင်္ကာ]]
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{{Short description|အင်္ဂဇတ် လပါ်မ္ၚး အဓိက ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ်ဗဳဇမသုက် ညးတြုံ}}
{{Infobox anatomy
| name = အင်္ဂဇတ် ညးတြုံ
| native_name = Human penis
| image = [[File:Penis diagram.png|250px|ဗီုပြင် လဒက်ပ္တန် အင်္ဂဇတ် ညးတြုံ]]
| caption = ဗီုပြင် လဒက်ပ္တန် လပါ်အပ္ဍဲ ကေုာံ လပါ်မ္ၚး အင်္ဂဇတ် ညးတြုံ
| system = [[သၞောတ် အင်္ဂလိင် ညးတြုံ]] ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဍာ်ဆီ
| major_organs = သၞောတ်ပၠောပ်ဆီ (Urethra), ဖျုန်သၞောတ်ဆီ (Corpus cavernosum)
| functioning = ပွမဗလး ဍာ်ဆီ၊ ပွမဆက်ဆောံလိင်၊ ကေုာံ ပွမဗလး ဍာ်သုက်
}}
'''အင်္ဂဇတ် ညးတြုံ''' ({{lang-en|Human penis}}) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မလေပ် ကော်စ '''လိင်တြုံ''' ဝွံ ဍေံဒှ် အင်္ဂလပါ်မ္ၚး အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[သၞောတ် အင်္ဂလိင် ညးတြုံ|သၞောတ် ဗဳဇမသုက် ညးတြုံ]] (Male reproductive system) ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဍာ်ဆီ (Urinary system) ရ။ တာလျိုင် အဓိက အင်္ဂဇတ် ဏအ် ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ဗလးပ္တိတ် ဍာ်ဆီ (Urine) နူကဵု ခန္ဓကာယ ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ ယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင် ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ကေုာံ ပွမဗလး ပ္တိတ် ဍာ်သုက် (Semen) သွက် ပရေင် ဆက်ကောန်ဗြောဝ် ရ။
== ၁။ လဒက်ပ္တန် ကေုာံ အစိတ်အပိုင်း (Structure and Anatomy) ==
အင်္ဂဇတ် ညးတြုံ ဝွံ ဍေံ ဟွံမွဲ ကု ဇုတ် တုဲ၊ ဍေံ ဒက်ပ္တန် လဝ် နကဵု ဖျုန် တိရှူး သၞောတ်ဆီ (Spongy erectile tissue) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ လဒက်ပ္တန် ဍေံ ဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် ၃ ဒကုတ် အဓိက-
# '''ရိုဟ် (Root/Radix):''' ဍေံဒှ် ဒကုတ် မဆက်စပ် လဝ် ကု ဇုတ်ထိုင်ဆီ (Pelvic bone) ကေုာံ ဖျုန်သြိုဟ် လပါ်သၟဝ် အပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓကာယ၊ မညာတ် ကေတ် နကဵု မတ် ဟွံမာန် ရ။
# '''ကိုယ်ထည် (Body/Shaft):''' ဍေံဒှ် ဒကုတ် လဒေါဝ် မဂၠိင် အိုတ် တုဲ၊ ဍေံ ဒက်ပ္တန် လဝ် နကဵု ဖျုန်သၞောတ်ဆီ ၃ တၞဟ် (Corpus cavernosum ၜါ ကေုာံ Corpus spongiosum မွဲ) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အဒေါဝ် ဍေံ ဂှ် နွံ ကု "ပၠောပ်ဆီ" (Urethra) မဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ သွက် ဍာ်ဆီ ကဵု ဍာ်သုက် ဂွံ ဇွောဝ် တိတ် ရ။
# '''က္ဍိုပ် အင်္ဂဇတ် (Glans penis):''' ဍေံဒှ် ဒကုတ် လပါ် ကၞောတ် မၞုံ ဗီုပြင် ညံင်ရဴ ခၟာဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပၞဟ် ရ။ ဒၞာဲဏအ် ဂှ် ဍေံ နွံ ကု ကတေင် အာရီု (Nerve endings) မဂၠိုင် အိုတ် တုဲ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မဒုင်စသိုင် ပြဟ် အိုတ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ကၞောတ် က္ဍိုပ် ဂှ် နွံ ကု ပါင်ပၠောပ်ဆီ (Urethral meatus) ရ။
# '''စၞာံဂြောပ် (Foreskin / Prepuce):''' ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် က္တဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ် မ္ဂး က္ဍိုပ် အင်္ဂဇတ် ဂှ် ဍေံ ဒး ဒုင် ဂြောပ် ကာကွယ် လဝ် နကဵု စၞာံ မဖဍိုဟ် ချဳဓရာင် ဂွံ မွဲ ထပ် ရ။ (ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိုက်ကၞာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဘာသာ လ္ၚဵု တအ် မ္ဂး စၞာံဂြောပ် ဏအ် ဂှ် ညးတအ် ကုတ် ပတိတ် ထောအ် ရ)။
== ၂။ တာလျိုင် ကေုာံ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် (Functions and Physiology) ==
အင်္ဂဇတ် ညးတြုံ ဝွံ ယိုက်ဂၠေင် လဝ် တာလျိုင် ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ အဓိက ၃ သာ်-
* '''ပွမဗလး ဍာ်ဆီ (Urination):''' ဍေံဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပ္တိတ် ဍာ်ဆီ နူကဵု ထိုင်ဆီ ဇရေင် လပါ်မ္ၚး ခန္ဓကာယ။
* '''ပွမကြံင်မ္ၚုဟ် (Erection):''' ကာလ မကလိဂွံ ပရေင် ဓရိုဟ် အာရီု လိင် (Sexual arousal) မ္ဂး၊ သၞောတ် အာရီု တအ် ကဵု အမိင် တုဲ ဆီ တအ် ဇွောဝ် လုပ် ပေင် အာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဖျုန်သၞောတ်ဆီ (Corpora cavernosa) ရ။ ဆီ တအ် လုပ် ပေင် တုဲ ကတေင်ဆီ မဇွောဝ် တိတ် တအ် ဂှ် ဒး ဒုင် ဍဵု ကၟာတ် လဝ် တုဲ အင်္ဂဇတ် ဂှ် ဇၞော် တိုန် ကေုာံ ကြံင်မ္ၚုဟ် ကၠုင် ရ။
* '''ပွမဗလး ဍာ်သုက် (Ejaculation):''' အခိင် ကာလ အာစိုပ် ကဆံင် သာယျာ အိုတ် (Orgasm) မ္ဂး၊ ဒြဟတ် ဖျုန် တအ် ဇြောတ် ကၠး တုဲ ဍေံ ပန့် ဗလး ပ္တိတ် ဍာ်သုက် (မၞုံ ကု မသုက် သွက်ဂွံ ဆက်ကောန်ဗြောဝ်) နူကဵု ပၠောပ်ဆီ ဇရေင် လပါ်မ္ၚး ရ။
== ၃။ ပရေင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် (Development) ==
ပရေင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် အင်္ဂဇတ် ဝွံ ဍေံ က္တဵုဒှ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိင် ကောန်တြုဟ် တအ် စိုပ် '''အဝဲဗၠာဲ (Puberty)''' (ဗွဲဓမ္မတာ အကြာ အာယုက် ၁၁ ကဵု ၁၄ သၞာံ) ရ။
* ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဓါတ် ဟဝ်မုန် တေတ်သတဝ်သတဳရဝ် (Testosterone) မပတိတ် နူ မစိင် ဇၞော် တိုန် တုဲ၊ အင်္ဂဇတ် ကေုာံ ထိုင်မစိင် တအ် ဂှ် ဍေံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပြဟ် တိုန် ရ။
* ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဏအ် သော် အင်္ဂဇတ် (Pubic hair) တအ် စ တိုန် ကၠုင် တုဲ၊ ခန္ဓကာယ လေဝ် စ ပတိတ် ဍာ်သုက် မာန် ကၠုင် ရ။
== ၄။ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ အခိုက်ကၞာ (Health and Cultural Aspects) ==
=== ပရေင် သ္အးဇ္ၚး ကေုာံ ပွမကုတ်စၞာံ ===
* '''ပွမကုတ်စၞာံဂြောပ် (Circumcision):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဘာသာ အေတ်သလာမ်၊ ဂျူး ကေုာံ ရးနိဂီု လ္ၚဵု တအ် မ္ဂး ညးတအ် နွံ အခိုက် မကုတ် ပတိတ် စၞာံဂြောပ် အင်္ဂဇတ် နူ ဘဝ ကောန်ၚာ် ဍောတ်တ် ရ။ နကဵု လပါ် ပရေင် ထတ်ယုက် မ္ဂး ဍေံ ရီုဗင် ကဵု ညံင် ပရေင် သ္အးဇ္ၚး ဂွံ လောဲသွာ တုဲ၊ ဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် ပရေင် အန္တရာဲ ယဲ မဆက်စၠောအ် နူ လိင် လ္ၚဵု တအ် မာန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင် သ္အးဇ္ၚး:''' သွက် မၞိဟ် မဟွံဂွံ ကုတ် လဝ် စၞာံဂြောပ် တအ် မ္ဂး၊ ဒး တွာ် ဖျေဟ် စၞာံဂြောပ် တုဲ ဒး ကြာတ် ကြဴ ကဵု ဍာ် သ္အးသ္အး ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် သၟဝ် က္ဍိုပ် အင်္ဂဇတ် တွဵု ညံင် စၟယဲ ကေုာံ အခေါက် (Smegma) ဟွံဂွံ ကောံ ရ။
=== ယဲ ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ===
* '''ယဲ ဟွံကြံင်မ္ၚုဟ် (Erectile Dysfunction - ED):''' ဍေံဒှ် အကာဲအရာ မဟွံမာန် ပတိတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟွံမာန် ထိင်ဒဝ် ပရေင် ကြံင်မ္ၚုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ဆက်ဆောံလိင် ရ။ ဍေံ က္တဵုဒှ် မာန် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ယဲ ကတေင်ဆီ၊ ယဲ ဆီဍာတ်၊ ယဲ စိုတ်စၞာဲ (Stress) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟိုတ်နူ အာယုက် ဇၞော် ရ။
* '''ယဲ မဆက်စၠောအ် နူလိင် (STIs):''' မပ္တံကဵု ယဲ ဂြန် (Gonorrhea)၊ ယဲ သဳဖလိတ် (Syphilis)၊ ကေုာံ စၟယဲ HPV တအ် ဝွံ ဍေံ လေပ် က္တဵုဒှ် သရ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍာ်တိတ် နူကဵု အင်္ဂဇတ် မာန် ရ။
* '''ကေန်သာ အင်္ဂဇတ် (Penile Cancer):''' ဍေံဒှ် ယဲ ကေန်သာ မက္တဵုဒှ် အောန် လောန် တုဲ၊ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် က္တဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် စၞာံ က္ဍိုပ် အင်္ဂဇတ် ရ။
== မုက်လိက် မဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင် ==
* [[သၞောတ် အင်္ဂလိင် ညးတြုံ]] (Male reproductive system)
* [[မစိင်]] (Testicles)
* [[အင်္ဂဇတ် ညးဗြဴ]] (Female reproductive system)
* [[ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် လိင်]] (Sexual health)
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist}}
* {{cite book |last1=Marieb |first1=Elaine N. |title=Human Anatomy & Physiology |date=2018 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0134580999}}
* {{cite book |last1=Standring |first1=Susan |title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse_h3w0 |date=2015 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0702052309}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Penis}}
[[Category:အင်္ဂဇတ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ခန္ဓဗေဒ ညးတြုံ]]
[[Category:သၞောတ် ခန္ဓကာယ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် လိင်]]
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အေန်ဇြာင်
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{{Short description|ဓါတ်ပရဝ်တေန် မကဵုပရဟ် လၟေင်ဓာတုဗေဒ ပ္ဍဲခန္ဓကာယ ကေုာံ သဲလ်}}
{{Infobox concept
| name = အေန်ဇြာင်
| native_name = Enzyme
| image = [[File:Hexokinase fold.png|250px|ဗီုပြင် 3D လဒက်ပ္တန် အေန်ဇြာင် Hexokinase]]
| caption = ဗီုပြင် 3D လဒက်ပ္တန် အေန်ဇြာင် ဟေက်ဇြဝ်ကိုင်နေတ် (Hexokinase) မဒှ် အေန်ဇြာင် မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင် ဖအိုတ် ဓါတ်သဂြာ
| field = [[ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ]]၊ [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]]
| related_concepts = [[ပရဝ်တေန်]] (Protein), ဓါတ်ကဵုပရဟ် (Catalyst), ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ (Metabolism)
| composition = [[အမဳနဝ် အေတ်သေတ်]] (Amino acids)
| function = ဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် ဒြဟတ် ကေုာံ ကဵု ပရဟ် လၟေင် ဓာတုဗေဒ (Biological catalyst)
}}
'''အေန်ဇြာင်''' ({{lang-en|Enzyme}}) ဝွံ ဍေံဒှ် ဓါတ် ဇဳဝမဝ်လဳကျူ မဒက်ပ္တန် လဝ် နကဵု [[ပရဝ်တေန်]] ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တုဲ၊ ဍေံ ယိုက်ဂၠေင် လဝ် တာလျိုင် နဒဒှ် '''ဓါတ်ကဵုပရဟ် (Biological catalyst)''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု လမျီု သတ္တဝါ၊ တၞံဆု ကေုာံ စၟယဲ တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ。 တာလျိုင် အဓိက အေန်ဇြာင် ဂှ် ဍေံ ဖန် ညံင် လၟေင် ဓာတုဗေဒ (Chemical reactions) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခန္ဓကာယ ကေုာံ သဲလ် တအ် ဂွံ က္တဵုဒှ် ပြဟ် တိုန် ဂၠိုင် ကု မွဲ ပြကောဋိကဋ် ဆ ရ။
ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမွဲ ကု အေန်ဇြာင် မ္ဂး၊ လၟေင် ဓာတုဗေဒ မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင် ဟေက် ဍာ်စၞ (Digestion) ကေုာံ ပရေင် ပတိတ် ဒြဟတ် ပ္ဍဲ သဲလ် တအ် ဂှ် ဍေံ က္တဵုဒှ် သဇိုင် လောန် တုဲ လမျီု သတ္တဝါ တအ် ဂျိုင် တန်တဴ ဟွံမာန် ရ။ အေန်ဇြာင် ဇၟာပ်ပ် မ ဂှ် ဍေံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ကဵု ဓါတ် သဇိုင် (Substrate) ဍာံဍာံ မွဲ သာ် ဓဝ် ဟေင် ရ။
== ၁။ သဘဴဓရ် ကေုာံ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် (Mechanism of Action) ==
အေန်ဇြာင် တအ် ဍေံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် နကဵု ပွမဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် '''"ဒြဟတ် အသိင် မဒး စကာ" (Activation energy)''' သွက် လၟေင် ဓာတုဗေဒ မွဲ ဂွံ စ က္တဵုဒှ် ရ။
* '''ဒၞာဲ ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် (Active Site):''' ပ္ဍဲ လတူ အေန်ဇြာင် ဇၟာပ်ပ် မ ဂှ် နွံ ကု ဒၞာဲ ဍောတ်တ် မွဲ မကော်စ Active site ရ။ ဒၞာဲ ဏအ် ဂှ် ဍေံ နွံ ဗီုပြင် မကိတ်ညဳ ဍာံဍာံ ကု ဓါတ် သဇိုင် (Substrate) ဍေံ ရ။
* '''သဘဴဓရ် ကောတ် ကဵု သောတ် (Lock and Key Model):''' အေန်ဇြာင် ကဵု ဓါတ်သဇိုင် ဍေံ ဂှ် တုပ် ညံင်ရဴ ကောတ် ကဵု သောတ် ကီု ရ။ ဓါတ်သဇိုင် (သောတ်) ဂှ် ဍေံ လုပ် ဗာန် ပ္ဍဲ Active site (ကောတ်) အေန်ဇြာင် ဍာံဍာံ မှ လၟေင် ဓာတုဗေဒ က္တဵုဒှ် မာန် ရ။
* ကြဴနူ ဍေံ ပံင်နှဴ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ထကး ပလီု ထောအ် ဓါတ်သဇိုင် ဂှ် တုဲ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေံ ဗလး ပ္တိတ် ဓါတ် သွဟ် (Products) ရ။ တုဲမ္ဂး အေန်ဇြာင် ဂှ် ဍေံ ဟွံလီုလာ် အာ တုဲ ကလေင် စကာ ထပ် ဂွံ လၟိုန် ရ။
== ၂။ ဟိုတ် မဖန်ကဵု သြဇာ လတူ အေန်ဇြာင် (Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity) ==
အေန်ဇြာင် တအ် ဂှ် ဍေံ ဒှ် ပရဝ်တေန် တုဲ ဍေံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဂွံ ခိုဟ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အကာဲအရာ ပွဳပွူ ဍာံဍာံ မွဲ သၟး ရ-
# '''ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ (Temperature):''' အေန်ဇြာင် ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓကာယ ပိုဲ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ခိုဟ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဓါတ် ဂမ္တဴ ၜိုတ် 37°C (ဓါတ် ဂမ္တဴ ခန္ဓ) ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကတဴ လောန် အာ (ဥပမာ - လတူ 40°C) မ္ဂး လဒက်ပ္တန် ပရဝ်တေန် အေန်ဇြာင် ဂှ် လီုလာ် အာ (Denaturation) တုဲ ဍေံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဟွံမာန် ရ။
# '''ကဆံင် အေတ်သေတ် (pH Level):''' အေန်ဇြာင် ဇၟာပ်ပ် မ နွံ ကု ကဆံင် pH မဒးစိုတ် ဍေံ တၞဟ်ခြာ ရ။ ဥပမာ - အေန်ဇြာင် Pepsin မဟေက် ဖျုန် ပ္ဍဲ ထိုင်ဗုင် ဂှ် ဍေံ ဒးစိုတ် ဓါတ် အေတ်သေတ် ထတ်ထတ် (pH 2) တုဲ၊ အေန်ဇြာင် Trypsin ပ္ဍဲ ကြုတ် ဍောတ် ဂှ် ဍေံ ဒးစိုတ် ဓါတ် အယ်လ်ကာလိုင်း (pH 8) ရ။
# '''ဓါတ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု (Inhibitors):''' ဓါတ် လ္ၚဵု တအ် မပ္တံကဵု ဓါတ်ဂျိ ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဍေံ အာ ဗာန် ကၟာတ် ထောအ် Active site အေန်ဇြာင် တုဲ ဖန် ညံင် အေန်ဇြာင် ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဟွံဂွံ ရ။
== ၃။ တာလျိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓကာယ (Biological Roles) ==
အေန်ဇြာင် တအ် ယိုက်ဂၠေင် လဝ် တာလျိုင် ကြပ် သီုဖအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ လၟေင် လမျီု-
* '''သၞောတ် ဟေက် ဍာ်စၞ (Digestive System):''' အေန်ဇြာင် တအ် ထကး ပလီု ကဵု စၞစ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ဓါတ် အဟာရ ဍောတ်တ် သွက် သဲလ် ဂွံ ဇြောတ် ကေတ် မာန် ရ။
* '''Amylase (အမဳလေတ်):''' နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဍာ်ပါင် တုဲ ဍေံ ထကး ပလီု ကဵု ဓါတ် ကစီ (Starch/Carbohydrates) ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် သဂြာ။
* '''Protease (ပရဝ်တဳယေတ်):''' နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ထိုင်ဗုင် ကဵု ကြုတ် တုဲ ဍေံ ထကး ပလီု ကဵု ဓါတ် ပရဝ်တေန် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် အမဳနဝ် အေတ်သေတ်။
* '''Lipase (လဳပေတ်):''' နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ကြုတ် တုဲ ဍေံ ထကး ပလီု ကဵု ဓါတ် ကၠေင် (Fats)။
* '''ပရေင် ပတိတ် ဒြဟတ် သဲလ် (Cellular Metabolism):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု သဲလ် မ္ဂး၊ အေန်ဇြာင် တအ် ရီုဗင် ပံင်နှဴ ဓါတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် ကေုာံ သဂြာ သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် ဒြဟတ် ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) ရ။
* '''ပရေင် ကပ်ပဳ ဒီအေန်အေ (DNA Replication):''' အခိင် သဲလ် ပါ် တၞဟ် (Cell division) မ္ဂး၊ အေန်ဇြာင် '''DNA polymerase''' ဂှ် ဍေံ ဗှ် ကေတ် ကိုန်ဂစိုတ် DNA တြေံ တုဲ ကပ်ပဳ ကၠောန် ပတိတ် DNA တၟိ ဍိုက်က်ပေင်င် ရ။
== ၄။ ပရေင်စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ (Industrial and Medical Applications) ==
ပါဲနူ ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓကာယ တုဲ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် စကာ အေန်ဇြာင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဝ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ-
* '''ပ္ဍဲ သပ္ပျာ ကေုာံ ဍာ်ကြာတ် (Detergents):''' အေန်ဇြာင် ဂကူ Protease ကဵု Lipase တအ် ညးတအ် ထပ် စုတ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍာ်ကြာတ် ကပေါတ် သွက်ဂွံ ထကး ပလီု ထောအ် ဍာ်ကၠိ ခၟောန်၊ ဍာ်ဆီ ကေုာံ ကၠေင် နူကဵု ယာတ် ရ။
* '''ကမၠောန် စၞစ (Food Industry):''' သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ကဝ်ဖဳ၊ သ္ပဝ် (Cheese) ကေုာံ ပွမဖန် ညံင် ဖျုန် ဂွံ ဍိုန် အာ (Meat tenderizers) ဂှ် ဒး စကာ အေန်ဇြာင် ရ။ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် အရက် ကေုာံ ဗဳယာ (Brewing) လေဝ် ဒး စကာ အေန်ဇြာင် နူ တမ်က္ၜူ (Yeast) ရ။
* '''ပညာ ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင် စၟဳစၟတ် (Medicine):''' ဂဥုဲ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဂှ် ဍေံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် နကဵု ပွမကၟာတ်လဒဵု (Inhibiting) အေန်ဇြာင် ပ္ဍဲ စၟယဲ ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ ညံင် စၟ ဂွံ ချိုတ် အာ ရ (ဥပမာ - ဂဥုဲ ပေန်နဳသဳလေန်)။ သွက်ဂွံ စၟဳစၟတ် ယဲ ဆီဍာတ် (Blood sugar test) လေဝ် ညးတအ် စကာ အေန်ဇြာင် Glucose oxidase ရ။
== မုက်လိက် မဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင် ==
* [[ပရဝ်တေန်]] (Protein)
* [[ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ]] (Biochemistry)
* [[သဲလ်]] (Cell)
* [[ဒဳအေန်အေ]] (DNA)
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist}}
* {{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=Jeremy M. |last2=Tymoczko |first2=John L. |last3=Stryer |first3=Lubert |title=Biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/biochemistry0000berg |edition=7th |year=2012 |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-1429229364}}
* {{cite book |last1=Reece |first1=Jane B. |last2=Urry |first2=Lisa A. |last3=Cain |first3=Michael L. |last4=Wasserman |first4=Steven A. |last5=Minorsky |first5=Peter V. |last6=Jackson |first6=Robert B. |title=Campbell Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781269866828_2 |edition=10th |year=2014 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0321775658}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Enzyme}}
[[Category:အေန်ဇြာင်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရဝ်တေန်]]
[[Category:ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဇဳဝဗေဒ]]
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ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ
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{{Short description|ကဏ္ဍသိပ္ပံ မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ လၟေင် ဓာတုဗေဒ အပ္ဍဲ လမျီု သတ္တဝါ ကေုာံ သေဲလ်}}
{{Infobox academic field
| name = ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ
| native_name = Biochemistry / Biological chemistry
| image = [[File:Metabolic pathways.svg|250px|ဗီုပြင် ဇာတ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ]]
| caption = ဗီုပြင် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဓာတုဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ (Metabolic pathways) မက္တဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် အပ္ဍဲ သေဲလ် မွဲ
| core_concepts = [[ပရဝ်တေန်]] (Proteins), ကာဗဝ်ဟုက်ဒရိတ် (Carbohydrates), လဳပေတ် (Lipids), [[ဒီအေန်အေ]] (DNA)
| subfields = ပညာ အေန်ဇြာင် (Enzymology), ဇဳဝဗေဒ လဒက်ပ္တန်, ပညာ ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ (Metabolism)
| related_fields = [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]], [[ဓာတုဗေဒ]], [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ သေဲလ်]], ဇဳဝဗေဒ မဝ်လဳကျူ
}}
'''ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ''' ({{lang-en|Biochemistry}}) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တြေံ မလေပ် ကော်စ '''ဓာတုဗေဒ ဇဳဝ''' ({{lang-en|Biological chemistry}}) ဝွံ ဍေံဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ သိပ္ပံ မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဓာတုဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဓါတ် မဝ်လဳကျူ မနွံ အပ္ဍဲ ကေုာံ မဆက်စပ် ကု လမျီု သတ္တဝါ တအ် ရ။ ပညာ ဏအ် ဂှ် ဍေံ ဒှ် ဒဒန် မဆက်စၠောအ် လဝ် အကြာ ပညာ [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] ကဵု ပညာ [[ဓာတုဗေဒ]] ရ။
ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ ဝွံ ဍေံ စွံ သတိ လ္ၚတ် လတူ ကဆံင် မဝ်လဳကျူ ကေုာံ ကဆံင် [[သေဲလ်]] (Cell) မဒှ် ရ။ ဍေံ လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု ဓါတ် ပရဝ်တေန်၊ လဳပေတ် (ကၠေင်) ကေုာံ အင်္ဂဇတ် အပ္ဍဲ သေဲလ် တအ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ညးသကအ် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လမျီု၊ ပတိတ် ဒြဟတ် ကေုာံ တဝ်စၞေဟ် ယဲဘဲ တအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တၟိ ဏအ် မ္ဂး ပညာ ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ ဂှ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပညာ ဂဥုဲ၊ စၞအဟာရ ကေုာံ ပရေင် တဵုလွဳ ရ။
== ၁။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပွမဖန်ဗဒှ် (History) ==
ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် မ္ဂး မၞိဟ် တအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဓါတ် ဩဂဲနေတ် (Organic compounds) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ လမျီု သတ္တဝါ တအ် ဂှ် ဍေံ ဒး နွံ ကု "ဒြဟတ် လမျီု" (Vital force) တၟေင် မွဲ တုဲ၊ ပိုဲ ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ဍေံ ပ္ဍဲ ရုင်စက် (Laboratory) ဟွံဂွံ ပုဟ် ရ။
* ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၂၈ ဂှ် တၠပညာ ဓာတုဗေဒ ဂျာမနဳ '''Friedrich Wöhler''' ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ဓါတ် ယူရဳယျာ (Urea - ဓါတ် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဍာ်ပသ) နူကဵု ဓါတ် သဘာဝ ဂွံ အံင်ဇၞး အာ တုဲ၊ လညာတ် တြေံ ဂှ် လီုလာ် အာ ရ။
* ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၉၇ ဂှ် '''Eduard Buchner''' ဓမံက် ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ ဍာ် ဓါတ် နူကဵု တမ်က္ၜူ (Yeast extract) မဟွံမွဲ ကု သေဲလ် ဂျိုင်ဂျိုင် တအ် လေဝ် မာန် ကၠောန် ပတိတ် အရက် မာန် ဒၟံင် ရ (ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပွမဂၠာဲ ဆဵု ညာတ် [[အေန်ဇြာင်]] ရ)။
* ယၟု ဝေါဟာရ "Biochemistry" ဏအ် ဂှ် တၠပညာ ဓာတုဗေဒ '''Carl Neuberg''' စကာ လဝ် အတိုင် သၞောဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၀၃ ရ။
== ၂။ ဇဳဝမဝ်လဳကျူ အဓိက ၄ သာ် (The 4 Main Biomolecules) ==
ပညာ ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ လ္ၚတ် လဒက်ပ္တန် မဝ်လဳကျူ ဇၞော် (Macromolecules) ၄ သာ် အဓိက မဒက်ပ္တန် လဝ် လမျီု-
=== က။ ကာဗဝ်ဟုက်ဒရိတ် (Carbohydrates) ===
* ဍေံ ဒှ် ဓါတ် သဂြာ ကေုာံ ဓါတ် ကစီ မဒက်ပ္တန် လဝ် နကဵု ဓါတ် ကာဗောန်၊ ဟုက်ဒရဝ်ဂျေန် ကဵု အံက်သဳဂျေန် ရ။
* '''တာလျိုင်:''' ဒှ် တမ်ရိုဟ် ဒြဟတ် အဓိက သွက် သေဲလ် (ဥပမာ - Glucose) ကေုာံ ကဵု လဒက်ပ္တန် ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ကု တၞံဆု (ဥပမာ - Cellulose)။
=== ခ။ လဳပေတ် (Lipids) ===
* ဍေံ ဒှ် ဓါတ် ကၠေင် ကေုာံ ကၠေင် ကောတ် (Oils and Fats) မဟွံလေင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍာ် ရ။
* '''တာလျိုင်:''' စွံ သမ္တီ ဓါတ် ဒြဟတ် သွက် အခိင် လအ် (Long-term energy storage)၊ ကေုာံ ဍေံ ဂှ် ရ ဒှ် ဍိုတ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပ္တန် စၞာံ သေဲလ် (Cell membranes) ကေုာံ ဟဝ်မုန် လ္ၚဵု တအ် ရ။
=== ဂ။ ပရဝ်တေန် (Proteins) ===
* ဍေံ ဒှ် မဝ်လဳကျူ ဇၞော် မဒက်ပ္တန် လဝ် နကဵု ဇုက် [[အမဳနဝ် အေတ်သေတ်]] (Amino acids) ရ။
* '''တာလျိုင်:''' ဍေံ ယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် ကြပ် သီုဖအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ သေဲလ် ရ။ ဍေံ ကၠောန် ပတိတ် [[အေန်ဇြာင်]] (Enzymes) သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု ပရဟ် လၟေင် ဓာတုဗေဒ၊ ပလံင် ဓါတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် (ဟဳမဝ်ဂလဝ်ဗိန်) ကေုာံ ကာကွယ် ခန္ဓကာယ နကဵု လက်နက် အေန်တဳဗဝ်ဒဳ ရ။
=== ဃ။ ဓါတ် နျူကလဳအေတ် (Nucleic Acids) ===
* ဍေံ ဒှ် မဝ်လဳကျူ မဒက်ပ္တန် လဝ် နကဵု နျူကလဳအဝ်တိုက် (Nucleotides) ရ။ ဂကူ အဓိက ၜါ ဂှ် ဒှ် [[ဒီအေန်အေ]] (DNA) ကဵု အာရ်အေန်အေ (RNA) ရ။
* '''တာလျိုင်:''' စွံ သမ္တီ ကေုာံ ပလံင် ဗစိုပ် ကိုန်ဂစိုတ် ဓါတ်ဗဳဇ (Genetic information) သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် ပရဝ်တေန် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် လမျီု သတ္တဝါ။
== ၃။ ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ (Metabolism) ==
ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ ဝွံ ဍေံ ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဓာတုဗေဒ သီုဖအိုတ် မက္တဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် အပ္ဍဲ သေဲလ် မွဲ သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် ဂျိုင် တန်တဴ ရ။ ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ ပါ် လဝ် ဍေံ ၜါ ကဏ္ဍ-
* '''ပွမထကးပလီု (Catabolism):''' လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မထကး ပလီု မဝ်လဳကျူ ဇၞော် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် မဝ်လဳကျူ ဍောတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် ဓါတ် ဒြဟတ် (ATP) ရ။ (ဥပမာ - ပရေင် ဟေက် သဂြာ / Glycolysis)။
* '''ပွမဒက်ပ္တန် (Anabolism):''' လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မစကာ ဓါတ် ဒြဟတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပံင်ကောံ မဝ်လဳကျူ ဍောတ်တ် တုဲ ဒက်ပ္တန် မဝ်လဳကျူ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် သွက် ခန္ဓကာယ ရ။ (ဥပမာ - ပွမကၠောန် ပတိတ် ပရဝ်တေန် ကေုာံ ဒီအေန်အေ တၟိ)။
== ၄။ ပရေင်စကာ ကေုာံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် (Applications and Importance) ==
ပညာ ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ ဝွံ နွံ ပၟိက် လောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ်-
# '''ပညာ ဂဥုဲ (Medicine):''' ရီုဗင် စၟဳစၟတ် ဟိုတ် မက္တဵုဒှ် ယဲ (ဥပမာ - ယဲ ဆီဍာတ် ဂှ် က္တဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဓါတ် အေန်သူလေန် လီုလာ်)၊ ကေုာံ ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ဂဥုဲ တၟိတၟိ ညံင် ဂွံ အာ ပိတ် ကၟာတ် အေန်ဇြာင် စၟယဲ တအ် ရ။
# '''စၞအဟာရ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Nutrition):''' လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု ခန္ဓကာယ စကာ ဗဳတာမေန် (Vitamins) ကေုာံ ဓါတ် သတ္တု တအ် တုဲ၊ ရီုဗင် ကာကွယ် ယဲ မက္တဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဓါတ် အဟာရ အောန် ရ (ဥပမာ - ယဲ သကဗဳ / Scurvy ဟိုတ်နူ ဗဳတာမေန် သဳ အောန်)။
# '''ပရေင် တဵုလွဳ (Agriculture):''' ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ ရီုဗင် ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ဓါတ် ဝဲ (Fertilizers) မစောန်သကီု၊ ဂဥုဲ ဂစိုတ် စၟ မဟွံကဵု အန္တရာဲ ကု မၞိဟ်၊ ကေုာံ ပွမဖန်ဗဒှ် တၞံဆု ဓါတ်ဗဳဇ နဲပညာ (GMOs) သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သြောအ် မဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။
== မုက်လိက် မဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင် ==
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
* [[ဓာတုဗေဒ]] (Chemistry)
* [[သေဲလ်]] (Cell)
* [[အေန်ဇြာင်]] (Enzyme)
* [[ဒဳအေန်အေ]] (DNA)
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=David L. |last2=Cox |first2=Michael M. |title=Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry |edition=7th |year=2017 |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-1464126116}}
* {{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=Jeremy M. |last2=Tymoczko |first2=John L. |last3=Stryer |first3=Lubert |title=Biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/biochemistry0000berg |edition=7th |year=2012 |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-1429229364}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Biochemistry}}
[[Category:ဇဳဝဓာတုဗေဒ|*]]
[[Category:ဇဳဝဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဓာတုဗေဒ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ]]
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[[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|300px|ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ မနွံကဵု တၞံဆု၊ ဍာ်၊ တၟံ ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာဂြိုပ် မၞုံပ္ဍဲ ဍုၚ်သြသတေလျာ၊ မထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ အရာမၞုံကဵုလမျီု ကေုာံ အရာဟွံမဲကဵုလမျီုဂမၠိုင်ရ။]]
'''ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ''' ({{lang-en|Natural environment}}) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမၞုံကဵုလမျီု ကေုာံ အရာဟွံမဲကဵုလမျီု သီုဖအိုတ် မကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံင် နကဵုအလဵုသဘာဝ ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[ဂၠးတိ]] ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲဒေသမွဲမွဲရ။ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဍေံဟွံလုပ်လၟိဟ် ကုအရာ မၞိဟ်တအ် မဖန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အရာမကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် မၞိဟ် (artificial) တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=D. L. |title=Meanings of Environmental Terms |year=2021 |publisher=Journal of Environmental Quality |volume=26 |pages=581–589}}</ref> ဝေါဟာရဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မလေပ်စကာ သွက်ဂွံ လဴဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး ဂၠးတိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကဏ္ဍလ္ၚဵု ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝဝွံ လဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု အဓိက သၞောတ်ၜါသာ်ရ- သၞောတ်အလုံ (Complete ecological units) မပ္တံကဵု ဂြိုပ်၊ တိ၊ ဍာ်၊ လေယျာကျာ မချဳဒရိုင် နဒဒှ် သၞောတ်သဘာဝ မဟွံမဲကဵု ပရေင်လုပ်ပထုဲ နူမၞိဟ်၊ ကေုာံ သယံဇာတ သဘာဝ သာမည (Universal natural resources) မပ္တံကဵု ကျာ၊ ဍာ်၊ ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ်ဓါတ် ပရေင်ရူပဗေဒဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=The Natural Environment |url=https://www.unep.org |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) |access-date=2023-10-12}}</ref>
ပွဳပွူသဘာဝဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာဒၟံင် နူကဵု [[ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်]] (Built environment) ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသမၞိဟ်မဖန်ဗဒှ် ညံင်ရဴ ဍုင် ကေုာံ ဒေသတဵုလွဳတအ်ဂှ် ပွဳပွူသဘာဝတအ် ဒးဒုင်ပြံင်လှာဲလဝ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ် သွက်ပွဳပွူမၞိဟ်ရ။ ဂၠးတိပိုဲဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဂြိုဟ်တၟေင်မွဲ မနွံကဵု လှိုင့်ဍာ်၊ လှိုင့်ကျာ ကေုာံ လှိုင့်ဇဳဝ မပံင်စပ် ကတဵုဗဒှ်လဝ် ပွဳပွူမထံက်ပင်ကဵု လမျီုရ။
__TOC__
== ၁။ သၞောတ် လဒက်ပတန် ဂၠးတိ (Earth System and Composition) ==
[[File:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ဗီုရုပ် ဂၠးတိ မတက်လဝ် နူကဵု က္ၜင်အာကာသ Apollo 17 မထ္ၜးကဵု တွဵုဒၞာကျာ ကေုာံ တွဵုဒၞာဍာ်။]]
ဂၠးတိဝွံ ဒှ်သၞောတ်လဒက်ပတန် မဇၞော်လှဲလး ကေုာံ မၞုံကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စၠောအ် ထုဲထံင်ဒၟံင် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။ သိပ္ပံဂၠးတိ (Earth science) ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် လဒက်ပတန် ဂၠးတိ နကဵု တွဵုဒၞာ (Spheres) အဓိက ပန်သာ် သွက်ဂွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လောဲသွာရ။ တွဵုဒၞာတအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက်စၠောအ်ရေင်သ္ကအ်တုဲ ပကဵုညံင် ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ဂွံတန်တဴမာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Skinner |first=Brian J. |title=The Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology |url=https://archive.org/details/dynamicearthintr0000skin_s8f3 |year=2020 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0471152286}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ တွဵုဒၞာအဓိက ပန်သာ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ
|-
! စၟတ် !! ယၟု တွဵုဒၞာ (Sphere) !! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ (Description) !! ဥပမာ (Examples)
|-
| ၁ || '''တွဵုဒၞာတိ (Lithosphere)''' || ဒှ်သြော်တိ ကေုာံ ကထိုက်တိ မၞုံမ္ၚးအိုတ်ရ။ ဍေံဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု တၟံ၊ တိ ကေုာံ ဓါတ်သတ္တုဂမၠိုင်။ ဍေံဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် လမျီုတအ် ဂွံတန်တဴလ္တူတိ။ || ဒဵု၊ ခလံက်၊ တိဗ္ၚ၊ တၟံဂမၠိုင်
|-
| ၂ || '''တွဵုဒၞာဍာ် (Hydrosphere)''' || ဒှ်ဒြပ်ဍာ် သီုဖအိုတ် မၞုံလ္တူဂၠးတိ၊ မပ္တံကဵု ဍာ်ၜဳ၊ ဍာ်ကြုင်၊ ဍာ်ကၟာ ကေုာံ ဍာ်သၟဝ်တိတအ် ပါဝင်ရ။ || ၜဳမှာသၟိတ်၊ ဍာ်ကလောအ်၊ ဍာ်ကြုင်
|-
| ၃ || '''တွဵုဒၞာကျာ (Atmosphere)''' || ဒှ်ကထိုက် ဓါတ်ကျာ မပူရေတ်လဝ် ဂၠးတိရ။ ဍေံမင်မွဲကဵု လမျီုတအ် နူကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ မပကဵုအန္တရာဲ ကေုာံ ထိင်ဒဝ်ကဵု ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ။ || ဓါတ်အံက်သဳဂျေန်၊ ဓါတ်နိုက်ထရဝ်ဂျေန်၊ မတ်ဗြဲ
|-
| ၄ || '''တွဵုဒၞာဇဳဝ (Biosphere)''' || ဒှ်ဒၞာဲ ဒတန် လမျီုတအ် မတန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တွဵုဒၞာတိ၊ တွဵုဒၞာဍာ် ကေုာံ တွဵုဒၞာကျာတအ်ရ။ || သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန်၊ တၞံဆု၊ မၞိဟ်၊ စၟစၟောန်
|}
တွဵုဒၞာတအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဍေံဟွံတန်တဴ အလဵုအလဵုဍေံသက်သက်ရ။ သၞောတ်ဂေဟ သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် လ္တူ ပရေင်ဆက်စၠောအ် အကြာ တွဵုဒၞာပန်သာ်ဏအ်ရ။ သာဓကမ္ဂး၊ ဍာ် (Hydrosphere) ဂှ် ဇတ်တိုန်တုဲ ဒှ်အာ မတ်ဗြဲ ပ္ဍဲ (Atmosphere)၊ တုဲမ္ဂး ဂူစှ်ေကၠုင် လ္တူ (Lithosphere) သွက်ဂွံ ကဵုဖဵု ကုသတ်မၞုံကဵုလမျီု (Biosphere) ရ။
== ၂။ သၞောတ်ဂေဟ ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူဇဳဝ (Ecosystems and Biosphere) ==
[[သၞောတ်ဂေဟ]] (Ecosystem) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ဂကောံ ဇဳဝမၞုံကဵုလမျီု (မပ္တံကဵု တၞံဆု၊ သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန်၊ ကေုာံ စၟစၟောန်) မပံင်ကောံ မံင်တန်တဴ ကေုာံ ဆက်စၠောအ်ရေင်သ္ကအ် သီုကဵု ပွဳပွူမဟွံမဲကဵုလမျီု ညံင်ရဴ ကျာ၊ ဍာ်၊ ကေုာံ တိ တအ်ရ။ သၞောတ်ဂေဟဝွံ မာန်နွံ ဇမၞော်နာနာသာ်၊ စတမ်နူကဵု ကၟာဍာ်ဍောတ်တ်မွဲ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် ဂြိုပ်ဇၞော် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ၜဳမှာသၟိတ်ဇၞော်တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Odum |first=E. P. |title=Fundamentals of Ecology |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofec0000odum_y8v5 |year=2019 |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0534420666}}</ref>
သၞောတ်ဂေဟတအ်ဝွံ ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် နကဵု ပရေင်ဇွောဝ် ဒြဟတ် (Energy flow) ကေုာံ လၟေင်ဂေတ် ဓါတ်စၞ (Nutrient cycling) ရ။ ဒြဟတ်ဂမၠိုင်ဝွံ လုပ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ်ဂေဟ နူကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲတုဲ၊ တၞံဆုတအ် စကာ နဲကဲ [[ပွမဖန်ဗဒှ်စၞ နကဵုလျးတ္ၚဲ]] (Photosynthesis) သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ လျးတ္ၚဲ ညံင်ဂွံဒှ် ဒြဟတ်ဓါတ်ရ။ တုဲမ္ဂး ဒြဟတ်တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်စၠောအ်အာ ဇရေင် သတ်မစချောဲ၊ တုဲမ္ဂး သတ်မစဖျုန် အတိုင် လၟေင်ဇၟန်စၞ (Food web) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ်ဂေဟမွဲမွဲ၊ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် သတ်ဇဳဝတအ် နွံကဵု တာလျိုင် (Niche) အလဵုဇကု ဍေံတအ်ရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKJoXcgINEI သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဒက်ပတန် သၞောတ်ဂေဟ (YouTube Link)]
== ၃။ ဇလဗေဒ ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ဍာ် (Hydrology and Water Resources) ==
[[File:Water cycle.png|thumb|300px|လၟေင်ဂေတ်ဍာ် (Water cycle) မထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဇတ်တိုန်၊ ပရေင်ဂူစှ်ေ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇွောဝ်စှ်ေ။]]
ဂၠးတိဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကော်ခဴစ "ဂြိုဟ်သာ်သွာ" (Blue Planet) ရ၊ ဟိုတ်မ္ဂး ဍာ်ဂောပ်ဂြောပ်လဝ် ၜိုတ် ၇၁% နူကဵု ဇမၞော်အလုံဂၠးတိရ။ ဇလဗေဒ (Hydrology) ဝွံ ဒှ်ပညာ မလ္ၚတ်ပရေင် ပြးချာဲ၊ ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ကေုာံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ဍာ် ပ္ဍဲလ္တူဂၠးတိရ။
* '''ဍာ်ဖ္ဍုင် (Saltwater):''' ၜိုတ် ၉၇% နူကဵု ဍာ်အလုံဂၠးတိဂှ် ဒှ်ဍာ်ဖ္ဍုင် မၞုံပ္ဍဲ ၜဳမှာသၟိတ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ၜဳမှာသၟိတ်တအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ရာသဳဥတုဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ဒှ်ဒတန် ဇဳဝစုံလင် မဂၠိုင်အိုတ်ရ။
* '''ဍာ်ပလိုင် (Freshwater):''' ဍာ်မသှ်ေဒၟံင် ၃% ဂှ် ဒှ်ဍာ်ပလိုင် (ဍာ်သွတ်) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရသာ်ဂှ်ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍာ်ပလိုင် ၜိုတ် ၆၈% ဂှ် ကလောအ်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒဵုဍာ်ကလောအ် (Glaciers) တုဲ ၃၀% ဂှ် ဒှ်ဍာ်သၟဝ်တိ (Groundwater) ရ။ ဍာ်မၞုံလ္တူတိ ညံင်ရဴ ဍာ်ကြုင် ကေုာံ ဍာ်ကၟာတအ်ဂှ် နွံဆ ၜိုတ် ၁% ဓဝ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |author=Gleick, P. H. |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources |year=2022 |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-and-earth |publisher=USGS}}</ref>
လၟေင်ဂေတ်ဍာ် (Water cycle) ဝွံ ဒှ်လၟေင်ကမၠောန် သဘာဝ မဆက်တန်တဴ မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ဍာ်ဇတ်တိုန် (Evaporation)၊ ပရေင်ကောံကလောအ် (Condensation)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗြဲဂူစှ်ေ (Precipitation) တအ်ရ။
== ၄။ လေယျာကျာ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Atmosphere and Climate) ==
လေယျာကျာ (Atmosphere) ဂၠးတိဝွံ ဒှ်ကထိုက် ဓါတ်ကျာဂမၠိုင် မပူရေတ်လဝ် ဂၠးတိ နကဵု ဒြဟတ်ဓရောတ် (Gravity) ရ။ ဍေံဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ကထိုက်နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု တရဝ်ပဝ်သဖဳယျာ (Troposphere), သထရက်တဝ်သဖဳယျာ (Stratosphere), မေတ်သဝ်သဖဳယျာ (Mesosphere), သာမဝ်သဖဳယျာ (Thermosphere), ကေုာံ အိတ်က်ဇဝ်သဖဳယျာ (Exosphere) ရ။
'''လဒက်ပတန် လေယျာကျာ:'''
# [[နိုက်ထရဝ်ဂျေန်]] (Nitrogen) - ၇၈%
# [[အံက်သဳဂျေန်]] (Oxygen) - ၂၁%
# အာဂွန် (Argon) - ၀.၉%
# ကာဗောန်ဒိုင်အံက်သိုက် (Carbon dioxide) - ၀.၀၄%
လေယျာကျာဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲလမျီု၊ ဍေံသိုပ်ကေတ် လျး ခရိုင်ခေတ် (Ultraviolet radiation) နူတ္ၚဲ နကဵု ကထိုက်အဝ်ဇြောန် (Ozone layer) ကေုာံ ထိင်ဒဝ်ကဵု ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ နကဵု ဖဵုသွဟ် သ္ၚိဒ္ၚောဝ် (Greenhouse effect) ရ။ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်အကာဲအရာ သမၠိုင်အခိင် မဆေင်ကဵု ကျာ၊ ဂမ္တဴ ကေုာံ ဗြဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသမွဲမွဲရ။ ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate change) ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ပြသၞာ သဘာဝ မဇၞော်အိုတ်မွဲရ။<ref>{{cite book |author=IPCC |title=Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis |url=https://archive.org/details/climatechange2020000vari |year=2021 |publisher=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |isbn=978-92-9169-158-6}}</ref>
== ၅။ လဒက်ပတန်တိ ကေုာံ ဓါတ်ခတဵုတိ (Geological and Soil Framework) ==
[[Geology|ဘူမိဗေဒ]] (Geology) ဝွံ လ္ၚတ်ကေတ် ဒြပ်ရုပ်၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ကေုာံ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။ တွဵုဒၞာတိ (Lithosphere) ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ကထိုက် တၟံတြာပ် (Tectonic plates) မချဳဒရိုင်ဒၟံင် လ္တူ ကထိုက်တိ မတူဍိုန်ဒၟံင် (Asthenosphere) ရ။ ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ကထိုက်တၟံတြာပ်တအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဗဒှ်ကဵု ဒဵု၊ ခတိုဟ်ဒဵုပၟတ် (Volcanoes) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တိချဳ (Earthquakes) ရ။
တိ (Soil) ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမနွံလ္တူအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲတွဵုဒၞာတိတုဲ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဓါတ်သတ္တု၊ ဓါတ်အော်ဂဲနေတ် (Organic matter)၊ ကျာ ကေုာံ ဍာ်ရ။ ပရေင်ခတဵုတိ (Soil formation) ဝွံ ကေတ်အခိင် သၞာံ ဗွဲမလံလာ်တုဲ၊ တိခိုဟ်တအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက် တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဂေဟ ဂၠးတိရ။
== ၆။ သဘာဝဂြိုပ် ကေုာံ ဇဳဝစုံလၚ် (Wilderness and Biodiversity) ==
[[File:Forest on Barro Colorado.png|thumb|250px|ဂြိုပ်ဗြဲ (Rainforest) မၞုံကဵု ဂကူဇဳဝ မနာနာသာ်၊ မဒှ် တမ်ရိုဟ် သွက် ဇဳဝစုံလင်။]]
သဘာဝဂြိုပ် (Wilderness) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ဒေသ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ မဟွံဒးဒုင် ပထုဲလဝ် နကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။ ဒေသတအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ မင်မွဲလဝ် ကဆံင်သဘာဝ မသ္အးဇ္ၚးတုဲ ဒှ်ဒၞာဲ ဒတန်အဓိက သွက် သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန် ကေုာံ တၞံဆု အရိုင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။
[[ဇဳဝစုံလၚ်]] (Biodiversity) ဝွံ ပံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် သွက် ပရေင်နာနာသာ် သတ်မၞုံကဵုလမျီု ပ္ဍဲလ္တူဂၠးတိ၊ မပ္တံကဵု ဂကူနာနာ (Species diversity)၊ ဗဳဇနာနာ (Genetic diversity) ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဂေဟနာနာ (Ecosystem diversity) ရ။ ဇဳဝစုံလင်ဝွံ ကဵုဖဵု သွက် ပရေင်တန်တဴခိုင်ကၠိုက် သၞောတ်ဂေဟရ။ သၞောတ်ဂေဟ မၞုံကဵု ဇဳဝစုံလင် မသၠုင်မ္ဂး မာန်ဒုင်ဒဝ် ကုပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ကေုာံ အန္တရာဲဂမၠိုင် ခိုဟ်နူကဵု သၞောတ်ဂေဟ မၞုံကဵု ဇဳဝအောန်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Biodiversity? |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/what-is-biodiversity |publisher=World Wildlife Fund |access-date=2023-10-15}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဘာယာမ် ကေုာံ ဒေသပွဳပွူတၟေင် (Biomes and Ecoregions) ==
ဘာယာမ် (Biomes) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဒေသသၞောတ်ဂေဟ ဗွဲမဇၞော် မၞုံကဵု တၞံဆု ကေုာံ သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန် မတုပ်ရေင်သ္ကအ် မကိတ်ညဳ ကုရာသဳဥတု ဒေသဂှ်ရ။ ဘာယာမ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ ပါဝင်ကဵု-
* '''ဂြိုပ်ဗြဲ (Tropical Rainforests):''' မၞုံကဵု ဗြဲဂူဂၠိုင်၊ ဂမ္တဴသၠုင်၊ ကေုာံ ဇဳဝစုံလင် မဂၠိုင်အိုတ်။
* '''ဂြိုပ်သၠကသိုဟ် (Deciduous Forests):''' မၞုံကဵု ဥတုပန်သာ် မကၠးဖ္ဍး။
* '''ဝါချောဲ (Savannas and Grasslands):''' မၞုံကဵု ချောဲဂၠိုင် ကေုာံ တၞံဆုအောန်၊ မဒှ်ဒၞာဲ သတ်စချောဲတအ် မံင်ဂၠိုင်။
* '''ကန္တာရ (Deserts):''' မၞုံကဵု ဗြဲဂူအောန် ဗွဲမလောန်၊ ဥတုကတဴ ကေုာံ သတ်မဒုင်ဒဝ်ဂမ္တဴမာန် ဟေင် မံင်တန်တဴမာန်။
* '''တုန္ဒရာ (Tundra):''' ဒေသဂံက်လောန် မၞုံကဵု တိကလောအ်လၟိုန် (Permafrost) ကေုာံ တၞံဆုဍောတ်တ်ဟေင် တိုန်မာန်။
ဘာယာမ်တအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ရာသဳဥတု ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တန်တဴ သၞောတ်သဘာဝရ။
== ၈။ ပြသၞာ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝဂမၠိုၚ် (Environmental Challenges and Issues) ==
[[File:Air pollution.jpg|thumb|250px|ပွမကၠိခတောန် လေယျာကျာ ဟိုတ်နူ ရုင်စက်ဂမၠိုင် မဒှ်ပြသၞာ သဘာဝ အဓိကမွဲ။]]
ပ္ဍဲခေတ်ကာလ လၟုဟ်၊ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ဒးဒုင်ဇီုကပိုက် ကေုာံ ဆဵုဂဗဒၟံင် ပြသၞာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟိုတ်နူ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မၞိဟ်တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |author=Smith, R. |title=Environmental Issues and Solutions |year=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198811234}}</ref> ပြသၞာ အဓိကဂမၠိုင်ဂှ် ပါဝင်ကဵု-
# '''ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate Change):''' ပရေင်ဂၠးတိကတဴ (Global warming) မကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပွမစံင် ကၠေင်ဍာ်တိ (Fossil fuels) ကေုာံ ပွမတက်ပလီုဂြိုပ်ဆု။ အရာဏအ် ပကဵုညံင် ဍာ်ကလောအ် ဂွံလာဲ ကေုာံ ဍာ်ၜဳ ဂွံသၠုင်တိုန်။
# '''ပွမကၠိခတောန် (Pollution):''' ပရေင်ကၠိခတောန် လေယျာကျာ၊ ဍာ် ကေုာံ တိ ဟိုတ်နူ ဓါတ်ဂျိ နူရုင်စက်၊ ပလပ်သတေတ် (Plastic) ကေုာံ ဓါတ်ဝါတ် တဵုလွဳဂမၠိုင်။
# '''ပွမတက်ပလီုဂြိုပ် (Deforestation):''' ပွမကုတ်ဗိုတ် တၞံဆု သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံတိဗ္ၚ ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲသိုင်သ္ၚိတအ်ဂှ် ပလီုပလာ်ကဵု ဒတန် သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန် ကေုာံ ဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် ပရေင်သိုပ် ဓါတ်ကာဗောန်ဒိုင်အံက်သိုက်။
# '''ပွမအိုတ်သြိုဟ် ဂကူဇဳဝ (Loss of Biodiversity):''' ဟိုတ်နူ ဒတန်ဒးဒုင်ပလီုတုဲ၊ ဂကူသတ် ကေုာံ တၞံဆု ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ မအိုတ်သြိုဟ်ကၠေအ်အာ (Extinction) ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေၚ်မၚ်မွဲ ကေုာံ ဒတန်ခိုၚ်ကၠိုက် (Conservation and Sustainability) ==
ပရေင်မင်မွဲ သဘာဝ (Environmental conservation) ဝွံ ဒှ်လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မမင်မွဲ၊ စဵုဒၞာ ကေုာံ လွဳပရာ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံ လီုလာ်အာရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိကဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ ဇဳဝစုံလင် ကေုာံ ညံင်သယံဇာတ ဂွံသှ်ေတန်တဴ သွက် အဆက်မၞိဟ် အနာဂတ်ရ။
'''ဒတန်ခိုင်ကၠိုက် (Sustainability):''' ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ပွမစကာ သယံဇာတ သဘာဝ နကဵု နဲကဲ မဟွံပလီုပလာ်ကဵု အစောမ်သတ္တိ သဘာဝ မမာန်ကလေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ်တၟိရ။ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (UN) ဝွံ ပတိတ်လဝ် တင်ရန်တၟအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဒတန်ခိုင်ကၠိုက် (Sustainable Development Goals - SDGs) သွက်ဂွံ ပသောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |publisher=United Nations |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မင်မွဲဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ပွမဒက်ပတန် ဂြိုပ်မင်မွဲ (Protected areas)၊ ပွမကလေင်စကာ (Recycling)၊ ကေုာံ ပွမစကာ ဒြဟတ်ဓါတ် မမာန်ကလေင်ကလိဂွံ (Renewable energy ညံင်ရဴ ဒြဟတ်တ္ၚဲ ကေုာံ ကျာ) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်အရာ မကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ。
== ၁၀။ လွပ်မၞိဟ် လ္တူသဘာဝ (Human Interaction and Impact) ==
မၞိဟ်တအ်ဝွံ နူကဵု သမယကိုပ်ကၠာတေံ ဆက်စၠောအ် ကေုာံ ဗဒဗ္ဒါဲဒၟံင် လ္တူ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ သွက်ဂွံ ဂျိုင်လမျီု၊ မပ္တံကဵု စၞစ၊ ဍာ် ကေုာံ ဇွောအ်မတအ်ရ။ ၜိုန်ရသာ်ဂှ်ကီုလေဝ်၊ စတမ်နူ ပၠန်ဂတး ရုင်စက် (Industrial Revolution) တုဲ၊ ပရေင်ဇီုကပိုက် မၞိဟ် လ္တူသဘာဝဂှ် ဇၞော်တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။
အစာသိပ္ပံတအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် ခေတ်ကာလလၟုဟ် နဒဒှ် '''ခေတ်အေန်သရဝ်ပဝ်သိန် (Anthropocene)'''၊ မဒှ်အခိင် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မၞိဟ်တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဒြဟတ်ဓရိုဟ် အဓိက မပြံင်လှာဲဒၟံင် အကာဲအရာ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဂေဟရ။<ref>{{cite book |author=Crutzen, P. J. |title=Geology of Mankind: The Anthropocene |year=2002 |publisher=Nature |volume=415 |pages=23}}</ref> ပွမစၟတ်သမ္တီ လွပ်ဂေဟမၞိဟ် (Ecological footprint) ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ မၞိဟ်တအ် စကာဒၟံင် သယံဇာတ လောန်ကာဲ နူကဵု ဂၠးတိ မမာန်ကလေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ်ကဵုမာန်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ပွမပြံင်လှာဲ နဲကဲမံင်စံင် ညံင်ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကုသဘာဝ (Eco-friendly living) ဝွံ ဒှ်တာလျိုင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲလ္တူဂၠးတိဏအ်ရ။
== နိဿဲ ==
<references>
<ref name="Johnson">{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=D. L. |title=Meanings of Environmental Terms |year=2021 |publisher=Journal of Environmental Quality |volume=26 |pages=581–589}}</ref>
<ref name="UNEP">{{cite web |title=The Natural Environment |url=https://www.unep.org |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) |access-date=2023-10-12}}</ref>
<ref name="Skinner">{{cite book |last=Skinner |first=Brian J. |title=The Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology |url=https://archive.org/details/dynamicearthintr0000skin_s8f3 |year=2020 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0471152286}}</ref>
<ref name="Odum">{{cite book |last=Odum |first=E. P. |title=Fundamentals of Ecology |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofec0000odum_y8v5 |year=2019 |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0534420666}}</ref>
<ref name="USGS">{{cite web |author=Gleick, P. H. |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources |year=2022 |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-and-earth |publisher=USGS}}</ref>
<ref name="IPCC">{{cite book |author=IPCC |title=Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis |url=https://archive.org/details/climatechange2020000vari |year=2021 |publisher=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |isbn=978-92-9169-158-6}}</ref>
<ref name="WWF">{{cite web |title=What is Biodiversity? |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/what-is-biodiversity |publisher=World Wildlife Fund |access-date=2023-10-15}}</ref>
<ref name="Smith">{{cite book |author=Smith, R. |title=Environmental Issues and Solutions |year=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198811234}}</ref>
<ref name="SDG">{{cite web |title=Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals |publisher=United Nations |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
<ref name="Crutzen">{{cite book |author=Crutzen, P. J. |title=Geology of Mankind: The Anthropocene |year=2002 |publisher=Nature |volume=415 |pages=23}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ
| title = ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံဂၠးတိ
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = တွဵုဒၞာဂၠးတိ (Earth Spheres)
| list1 =
* [[တွဵုဒၞာကျာ]] (Atmosphere)
* [[တွဵုဒၞာတိ]] (Lithosphere)
* [[တွဵုဒၞာဍာ်]] (Hydrosphere)
* [[တွဵုဒၞာဇဳဝ]] (Biosphere)
| group2 = သၞောတ်ဂေဟ (Ecology)
| list2 =
* [[သၞောတ်ဂေဟ]]
* [[ဇဳဝစုံလၚ်]]
* [[ဘာယာမ်]]
| group3 = ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မွဲ
| list3 =
* [[ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု]]
* [[ပွမကၠိခတောန်]]
* [[ပရေင်မင်မွဲ သဘာဝ]]
}}
[[Category:ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ သဘာဝ]]
[[Category:ဂၠးတိ]]
[[Category:သၞောတ်ဂေဟ]]
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[[File:New York City skyline.jpg|thumb|300px|ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဍုင်နျူယံက် (New York City) မထ္ၜးကဵု ဌာန်ဒတန် ၊ ဂၠံင်ဍာန် ကေုာံ သဇိုင်ဌာန်ဒတန် မၞိဟ်တအ် မသိုင်ခၞံလဝ်ရ။]]
'''ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်''' ({{lang-en|Built environment}}) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ပွဳပွူအကာဲအရာ မၞုံကဵု ဒြပ်ရုပ် မဒးဒုင်ဖန်ဗဒှ်၊ သိုင်ခၞံ ကေုာံ ပြံင်လှာဲလဝ် နကဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် သွက်ဂွံ မံင်စံင်၊ ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ ပစိုတ်မိပ်မြဟ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Moffatt |first=S. |title=Sustainable Built Environment |year=2001 |publisher=Earthscan |pages=15-20}}</ref> ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဍေံပံင်ကောံလဝ် အရာအလုံအိုတ်သီု စတမ်နူကဵု သ္ၚိဌာန်၊ ရုင်၊ ဘာ၊ ရုင်ဂဥုဲ၊ ဂၠံင်ဍာန်၊ ဒဒန်၊ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် ပရေင်စမၠံက်ဍာ် ကေုာံ ကၠအ်ပ္ကဴ ဍုင် (parks) တအ်ရ။ ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာဒၟံင် နူကဵု [[ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ]] (Natural environment) ဗွဲမလောန်တုဲ၊ ဍေံဒှ် ဒၞာဲဒတန် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲရ။
ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်ဝွံ ဍေံဇီုကပိုက် လ္တူ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဂေဟ သဘာဝ ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ် ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လ္တူ ဒတန်ခိုင်ကၠိုက် (Sustainability) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဍုင် (Urban planning) တအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Gehl |first=J. |title=Cities for People |url=https://archive.org/details/citiesforpeople0000gehl |year=2010 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=978-1597265737}}</ref>
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်" ဝွံ စကာကၠုင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ်နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု ဗိသုကာ၊ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဍုင်၊ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ဘူမိဗေဒ ဍုင် (Urban geography) ရ။ ဍေံဒှ် ဒၞာဲဒတန် မၞိဟ်တအ် မသိုင်ခၞံလဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ဂျိုင်လမျီု ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်ရ။ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဗွဲမသၠဲလးမ္ဂး ဍေံသီုပါလုပ်ကဵု သၞောတ်သဇိုင်ဌာန်ဒတန် (Infrastructure) မပ္တံကဵု သၞောတ်ဍာ်၊ သၞောတ်ပၟတ်လလဳ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဆက်စၠောအ်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ဍေံဟွံသေင် ဆဌာန်ဒတန် မွဲဓဝ်၊ ဍေံဒှ် ပရေင်ဆက်စၠောအ် အကြာ မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲဒတန်တအ်ဂှ်ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Evolution) ==
ဝင် ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်ဝွံ စတမ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု အခိင် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် စကၠောန် ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ (Agricultural Revolution) ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ၜိုတ် ၁၀,၀၀၀ သၞာံ အတိက်တေံရ။
* '''ခေတ်တမၠာ:''' မၞိဟ်တအ် စသိုင်ခၞံ ကွာန်ဍောတ်တ် နကဵု တိ၊ ဆု ကေုာံ တၟံ သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ဘဲသဘာဝ ကေုာံ တိရစ္ဆာန်ရ။
* '''ခေတ်အေန်ပါယာ:''' ဍုင်ဇၞော်ဂမၠိုင် ညံင်ရဴ ရဝ်မ (Rome) ကေုာံ မေသောပိုတေမဳယျာ (Mesopotamia) တအ် စဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ်ဍာ်၊ ဒဒန် ကေုာံ ဂၠံင်ဍာန် မစနစ်တကျရ။
* '''ပၠန်ဂတး ရုင်စက် (Industrial Revolution):''' ပ္ဍဲ ၁၈ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ရုင်စက် ကေုာံ ကွတ်စက်တအ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင်တုဲ မၞိဟ်တအ် ပြံင်လုပ်မံင် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဇၞော်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ အရာဏအ် ကတဵုဗဒှ်ကဵု ဍုင်ဇၞော် မၞုံကဵု မၞိဟ်က္ဍိုပ်ပေင် (Urbanization) ရ။
* '''ခေတ်လၟုဟ်:''' ဍုင်ဇၞော်တအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ပသဲ၊ ဒ္ၚောဝ် ကေုာံ ကောန်ကရေတ်တုဲ ဒှ်အာ ပွဳပွူ မသၠုင် ကေုာံ လှဲလး ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Glaeser |first=E. |title=Triumph of the City: How Our Greatest Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier |url=https://archive.org/details/triumphofcityhow00edwa |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Press}}</ref>
== ၃။ အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ လဒက်ပတန်ဂမၠိုၚ် (Components of the Built Environment) ==
ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင်ရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ လဒက်ပတန် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! စၟတ် !! ကဏ္ဍ (Category) !! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Description) !! ဥပမာ (Examples)
|-
| ၁ || '''ဌာန်ဒတန် (Buildings)''' || ဒၞာဲဒတန် သွက် မၞိဟ်တအ် မံင်စံင်၊ ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ ဗတောန်ပညာရ။ || သ္ၚိ၊ ရုင်စက်၊ ဘာ၊ ရုင်ဂဥုဲ၊ ကွဳစက်
|-
| ၂ || '''သဇိုင်ဌာန်ဒတန် (Infrastructure)''' || သၞောတ်လဒက်ပတန် မထံက်ပင်ကဵု ဍုင် ကေုာံ ကွာန်။ || ဂၠံင်ဍာန်၊ ဒဒန်၊ က္ၜင်ကျာကွင်း၊ ရထားသၞောတ်
|-
| ၃ || '''သၞောတ်ထံက်ပင် (Utilities)''' || သၞောတ် မပလံင်ဗစိုပ် ပၟိက်အာသံ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဂျိုင်လမျီု။ || ဍာ်၊ ပၟတ်လလဳ၊ အေန်တာနက်၊ သၞောတ်ပတိတ်ကၠိခတောန်
|-
| ၄ || '''ဒၞာဲသၠး (Public Spaces)''' || ဒၞာဲ မၞိဟ်ဂမၠိုင် လုပ်စိုပ် စကာမာန် မဟွံမဲကဵု ကၟာတ်လဒဵု။ || ကၠအ်ပ္ကဴ ဍုင်၊ ပလာဇာ၊ ဒၞာဲဝေင်၊ ဒၞာဲကျာ်
|}
== ၄။ ပရေၚ်ဆက်စၠောအ် ကုပွဳပွူသဘာဝ (Interaction with the Natural Environment) ==
[[File:Urban sprawl.jpg|thumb|250px|ပရေင်လှဲလးဍုင် (Urban sprawl) မဇီုကပိုက် လ္တူတိဗ္ၚ ကေုာံ သဘာဝဂြိုပ်။]]
ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝဝွံ ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ရေင်သ္ကအ် လၟိုန်ရ။ ဍုင်ဇၞော်ဂမၠိုင်ဝွံ စကာ သယံဇာတ သဘာဝ မပ္တံကဵု ဍာ်၊ တၟံ ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ်ဓါတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။
* '''တကအ် ဂမ္တဴ ဍုင် (Urban Heat Island):''' ဌာန်ဒတန် ကေုာံ ဂၠံင်ဍာန် ကောန်ကရေတ်တအ်ဝွံ သိုပ်ကေတ် ဂမ္တဴတ္ၚဲတုဲ ပကဵုညံင် ဍုင်ဂှ် ကတဴနူကဵု ကွာန်မ္ၚးဍုင်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ကၠိခတောန် (Pollution):''' ရုင်စက် ကေုာံ ကွဳစက်တအ် ပတိတ် ဓါတ်ကာဗောန်ဒိုင်အံက်သိုက် မကတဵုဗဒှ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate change) ရ။
* '''လွပ်ဂေဟ (Ecological Footprint):''' ဍုင်ဇၞော်တအ်ဝွံ နွံပၟိက် တိ ကေုာံ သယံဇာတ နူမ္ၚးဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Newman |first=P. |title=Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence |url=https://archive.org/details/sustainabilityci0000newm |year=1999 |publisher=Island Press}}</ref>
== ၅။ ပရေၚ်ထတ်ယုက် မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ (Public Health and Built Environment) ==
ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်ဝွံ ဇီုကပိုက် လ္တူ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် သီုစိုတ် သီုကာယရ။
* '''ပွမကွာ်မာန် (Walkability):''' ဍုင်မၞုံကဵု ဂၠံင်ကွာ်ခိုဟ် ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲဍိုက်ကွဳလိုန် ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်တအ်ဝွံ ဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် ယဲကၠေင်ဍိုက် (Obesity) ကေုာံ ယဲဂြိုဟ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Handy |first=S. |title=How the Built Environment Affects Physical Activity: Views from Urban Planning |year=2002 |publisher=American Journal of Preventive Medicine}}</ref>
* '''ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ကျာ (Air Quality):''' ဂၠံင်ဍာန် မယိုက်ဍိုက်ကွဳစက်ဂၠိုင်တအ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ယဲယီုဝါတ် (Asthma) ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် စိုတ် (Mental Health):''' ပွမနွံကဵု ကၠအ်ပ္ကဴ (Green spaces) ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဝွံ ပဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် ဓဝ်စိုတ်ဍောင်ၜိုတ် (Stress) ကေုာံ ပခိုဟ်ပတိုန် ပရေင်မိပ်မြဟ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=R. J. |title=The Impact of the Built Environment on Health: An Emerging Field |year=2003 |publisher=American Journal of Public Health}}</ref>
== ၆။ ပရေၚ်ဖန်ဇန် ဍုၚ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်သိုၚ်ခၞံ (Urban Planning and Architecture) ==
[[ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဍုင်]] (Urban planning) ဝွံ ဒှ်လၟေင်ကမၠောန် စၞောန်ထ္ၜး ဗီုလဵု ဂွံစကာ တိ၊ ဗီုလဵု ဂွံသိုင် ဌာန်ဒတန် ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု ဂွံပလံင်ဗစိုပ် သၞောတ်ထံက်ပင်တအ်ရ။
* '''ပွမပါ်ဇြောန် (Zoning):''' ဒှ်ပွမပါ်ခြာ ဒၞာဲသ္ၚိဌာန်၊ ဒၞာဲကူသာန်သွံရာန် ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲရုင်စက် ညံင်ဟွံဂွံ ထုဲထံင် ရေင်သ္ကအ်ရ။
* '''ဗိသုကာ (Architecture):''' ပရေင်သိုင်ခၞံ ဌာန်ဒတန် တအ်ဝွံ ဒးကိတ်ညဳ ကုယေန်သၞာင်၊ ရာသဳဥတု ကေုာံ ပၟိက်အာသံ မၞိဟ်မံင်တအ်ရ။
== ၇။ သဇိုၚ်ဌာန်ဒတန် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ပလံၚ်ဗစိုပ် (Infrastructure and Transportation) ==
သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် (Transportation) ဝွံ ဒှ်ဆီဇေဝ် ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်ရ။ ဍုင်မၞုံကဵု သၞောတ် ကွဳစက်ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Public transit) ခိုဟ်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်တအ် ဟွံဒးဗဒဗ္ဒါဲ လ္တူ ကွဳစက်ပူဂိုလ် ဗွဲမလောန်တုဲ ဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် ပရေင်ကၠိခတောန်မာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Ewing |first=R. |title=Measuring Sprawl and Its Impact |year=2003 |publisher=Smart Growth America}}</ref> ဂၠံင်ဍာန်၊ တရဴရထား၊ ကေုာံ ဂၠံင်ကွာ်တအ်ဝွံ ဒးဒုင်သိုင်ခၞံလဝ် ညံင်ဂွံ ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ကုညးအလုံအိုတ်သီုရ။
== ၈။ ဒတန်ခိုၚ်ကၠိုက် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်သိုၚ်ခၞံ သာ်ၚေက် (Sustainability and Green Building) ==
[[File:Green building.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ဌာန်ဒတန် သာ်ၚေက် မစကာလဝ် ဓါတ်တ္ၚဲ ကေုာံ တၞံဆု လ္တူက္ဍိုပ်သ္ၚိ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် သဘာဝ။]]
ဟိုတ်နူ ပြသၞာ ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတုတုဲ၊ ပရေင်သိုင်ခၞံ ဌာန်ဒတန် သာ်ၚေက် (Green building) ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော်ကၠုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Barton |first=H. |title=Sustainable Communities: The Potential for Eco-Neighbourhoods |year=2000 |publisher=Earthscan}}</ref>
* '''ပွမစောမ်ဒြဟတ် (Energy Efficiency):''' စကာ လျးတ္ၚဲ၊ ပၟတ်ကျာ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ထိင်ဂမ္တဴ မအောန်ကဵု ဒြဟတ်ဓါတ်။
* '''လက်မှတ် LEED:''' ဒှ်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဌာန်ဒတန် မကိတ်ညဳ ကုသဘာဝ ကေုာံ မၞုံကဵု ဒတန်ခိုင်ကၠိုက်ရ။
* '''က္ဍိုပ်သ္ၚိ သာ်ၚေက် (Green Roofs):''' ပွမတဵုလွဳ တၞံဆု လ္တူက္ဍိုပ်သ္ၚိ သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် ဂမ္တဴ ကေုာံ ဍာ်ဗြဲ မဇွောဝ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Beatley |first=T. |title=Green Urbanism: Learning From European Cities |url=https://archive.org/details/greenurbanismlea00beat |year=2000 |publisher=Island Press}}</ref>
== ၉။ ဒြဟတ်ဓရိုဟ် ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Economic and Social Impacts) ==
ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်ဝွံ ဍေံဖန်ဗဒှ်ကဵု ၚုဟ်မး ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ သၞောတ်လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ်တၟိ (Gentrification):''' ကွာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အုံတြေံတအ်ဂှ် ပလေဝ်ပလေတ်တၟိတုဲ ၚုဟ်မး သ္ၚိဌာန် သၠုင်တိုန်ရ။ အရာဏအ် ပကဵုညံင် ညးမံင်တြေံတအ် ဒးဒုင်ပြံင်တိတ်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ (Social Cohesion):''' ဒၞာဲသၠး ကေုာံ ကၠအ်ပ္ကဴတအ်ဝွံ ကဵုအခေါင် ကုမၞိဟ်နာနာသာ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဆဵုဂဗ ကေုာံ ပံင်ကောံ ရေင်သ္ကအ်ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကေုာံ ဍုၚ်သမာတ် (Future and Smart Cities) ==
အနာဂတ် ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင်လ္တူ ကွတ်ပညာ ကေုာံ ဒတန်ခိုင်ကၠိုက်ရ။ [[ဍုင်သမာတ် (Smart City)]] တအ်ဝွံ စကာ အေန်တာနက် အရာအလုံအိုတ်သီု (IoT - Internet of Things) သွက်ဂွံ ပကောံတင်နင် ကေုာံ အုပ်ဓုပ် သၞောတ်ဍုင် ညံင်ဂွံ စောမ်သတ္တိ နွံရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Townsend |first=A. M. |title=Smart Cities: Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia |url=https://archive.org/details/smartcitiesbigda0000town |year=2013 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company}}</ref> သၞောတ်ပၟတ်ဂၠံင် မကၠေတ်ကေတ်စိုတ်၊ ကွဳစက် အလဵုအလဵုဒဳ (Autonomous vehicles) ကေုာံ သၞောတ်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကၠိခတောန်တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ ဍုင်သမာတ်ရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRVXvH-Eto8 လ္ၚတ် ဍုင်သမာတ် အနာဂတ် (YouTube Link)]
== နိဿဲ ==
<references>
<ref name="Moffatt">{{cite book |last=Moffatt |first=S. |title=Sustainable Built Environment |year=2001 |publisher=Earthscan |pages=15-20}}</ref>
<ref name="Gehl">{{cite book |last=Gehl |first=J. |title=Cities for People |url=https://archive.org/details/citiesforpeople0000gehl |year=2010 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=978-1597265737}}</ref>
<ref name="Glaeser">{{cite book |last=Glaeser |first=E. |title=Triumph of the City: How Our Greatest Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier |url=https://archive.org/details/triumphofcityhow00edwa |year=2011 |publisher=Penguin Press}}</ref>
<ref name="Newman">{{cite book |last=Newman |first=P. |title=Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence |year=1999 |publisher=Island Press}}</ref>
<ref name="Handy">{{cite book |last=Handy |first=S. |title=How the Built Environment Affects Physical Activity: Views from Urban Planning |year=2002 |publisher=American Journal of Preventive Medicine}}</ref>
<ref name="Jackson">{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=R. J. |title=The Impact of the Built Environment on Health: An Emerging Field |year=2003 |publisher=American Journal of Public Health}}</ref>
<ref name="Ewing">{{cite book |last=Ewing |first=R. |title=Measuring Sprawl and Its Impact |year=2003 |publisher=Smart Growth America}}</ref>
<ref name="Barton">{{cite book |last=Barton |first=H. |title=Sustainable Communities: The Potential for Eco-Neighbourhoods |year=2000 |publisher=Earthscan}}</ref>
<ref name="Beatley">{{cite book |last=Beatley |first=T. |title=Green Urbanism: Learning From European Cities |url=https://archive.org/details/greenurbanismlea00beat |year=2000 |publisher=Island Press}}</ref>
<ref name="Townsend">{{cite book |last=Townsend |first=A. M. |title=Smart Cities: Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia |url=https://archive.org/details/smartcitiesbigda0000town |year=2013 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = ပွဳပွူ
| title = ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = လဒက်ပတန် မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ် (Built Environment)
| list1 =
* [[ဗိသုကာ]] (Architecture)
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဍုင်]] (Urban Planning)
* [[သဇိုင်ဌာန်ဒတန် ]] (Infrastructure)
* [[ဍုင်သမာတ် (Smart City)]]
| group2 = ပရေင်ဆက်စၠောအ် သဘာဝ (Natural Interaction)
| list2 =
* [[ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ]]
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* [[ပရေင်သိုင်ခၞံ သာ်ၚေက်]]
* [[လွပ်ဂေဟ]]
| group3 = ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန်]]
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ်တၟိ (Gentrification)]]
* [[ဒၞာဲသၠး ညးဍုင်ကွာန်]]
}}
[[Category:ပွဳပွူ မၞိဟ်ဖန်ဗဒှ်]]
[[Category:ဗိသုကာ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဍုင်]]
[[Category:သဇိုင်ဌာန်ဒတန် ]]
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{{Infobox economics
| name = ကပေါတ် (Goods)
| image = [[File:Supermarket_produce_aisle.jpg|250px|ဗီုရုပ် ကပေါတ်စၞစဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဖျာစူပါမာကေတ်မွဲ]]
| caption = ကပေါတ်စကာ (Consumer goods) မသွံရာန်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု စျေး
| field = [[Microeconomics|လညာတ်ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် သာမည]]
| related_topics = [[သေဝါ (Services)]], [[ကပေါတ်ညးဍုင်ကွာန်]], [[ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ်]], [[စျေး]]
| key_concepts = ပွမဗပေင်ပၟိက် (Utility), ၚုဟ်မး (Value), ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် (Consumption)
}}
'''ကပေါတ်''' ({{lang-en|Goods}}) ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် [[ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]] (Economics) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ဒြပ်ရုပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အရာမွဲမွဲ မမာန်ဗပေင်ကဵု ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်တုဲ မကဵုဖဵု သွက်ဂွံ လွဳပရာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ထံက်ပင် ပရေင်ဂျိုင်လမျီု ကေုာံ ပရေင်သာယာဘဝ (utility) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Mankiw |first=N. Gregory |title=Principles of Economics |year=2014 |publisher=Cengage Learning |edition=7th |isbn=978-1285165875}}</ref> ကပေါတ်တအ်ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာဒၟံင် နူကဵု "သေဝါ" (Services) ရ၊ ဟိုတ်မ္ဂး ကပေါတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမၞုံကဵု ဒြပ်ရုပ် (tangible) မမာန်ရပ်စပ်၊ ညာတ်ကေတ် ကေုာံ ဂိုင်သိပ်လဝ်မာန်တုဲ သေဝါဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမဟွံမဲကဵု ဒြပ်ရုပ် (intangible) ညံင်ရဴ ကမၠောန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ရီုဗင်တအ်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ်စျေး (Market system) ဂှ်၊ ကပေါတ်တအ်ဝွံ ဒးဒုင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ်၊ တုဲမ္ဂး ဒးဒုင်သွံရာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ နကဵု [[သြန်]] ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကပေါတ်တၞဟ်တအ်ရ။ ပွမစၟတ်သမ္တီ ၚုဟ်မး ကပေါတ်မွဲဝွံ တန်တဴဒၟံင် လ္တူ ပရေင်ရာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်သွံ (Supply and Demand) ပ္ဍဲကဵု စျေးရ။
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Introduction and Economic Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ကပေါတ်" (Goods) ဝွံ ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်မ္ဂး ပံက်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဗွဲမလှဲလးရ။ အရာမွဲ မလုပ်လၟိဟ် နဒဒှ် "ကပေါတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်" (Economic good) မ္ဂး ဍေံဒးနွံကဵု လက္ခဏာ မအောန်ဒၟံင် (Scarcity) ရ။ ဟီုမွဲသာ်ပၠန်၊ အရာမၞုံဒၟံင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂၠေင် မဟွံဒးရာန် နကဵုၚုဟ်မး ညံင်ရဴ ကျာပိုဲမယီုဒၟံင်ဂှ် ဍေံဒှ် "ကပေါတ်သၠး" (Free goods) တုဲ ဟွံလုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကပေါတ်ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Samuelson |first=Paul A. |author2=Nordhaus, William D. |title=Economics |url=https://archive.org/details/economics0000samu_c7w7 |year=2009 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education |edition=19th |isbn=978-0073511290}}</ref>
ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economics) ဂှ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်ကေတ် ဗီုလဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်တအ် စကာ သယံဇာတ မအောန်ဒၟံင် (scarce resources) သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် မၞုံကဵု ၚုဟ်မးတုဲ ဗီုလဵု ပါ်ပရအ်ကဵု ညးမစကာတအ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ကပေါတ်ဝွံ ဒှ်တမ်ရိုဟ် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အလုံအိုတ်သီုရ။
== ၂။ ဂကူ ကပေါတ် အဓိကဂမၠိုၚ် (Main Types of Goods) ==
[[File:Container_Ship_at_the_Port_of_Felixstowe_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1022630.jpg|thumb|left|250px|က္ၜင်ပလံင်ကပေါတ် (Container ship) မပလံင်ဗစိုပ်ဒၟံင် ကပေါတ်တမ်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ကပေါတ်စကာ လ္တူဂၠးတိ။]]
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ကပေါတ်တအ်ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဂကူနာနာသာ် မဒုင်သဇိုင် လ္တူ ဗီုလဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် စကာဍေံရ။
* '''ကပေါတ်စကာ (Consumer Goods):''' ဒှ်ကပေါတ် မကၠောန်ပတိတ်လဝ် သွက် ညးမစကာ (consumers) တအ် ဂွံစကာ တိုက်ရိုက် သွက်ဂွံ ဗပေင်ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒဍေံတအ်ရ။ ဥပမာ - ကပေါတ်စၞစ၊ ကပေါတ်ဗွိုက်လတက်၊ ကွဳစက်၊ မဝ်ဗိုင်ဖုန်တအ် ပါဝင်ရ။ ကပေါတ်စကာဏအ်လေဝ် ဆက်ပါ်လဝ်-
** ''ကပေါတ်မတန်လံ (Durable goods):'' မာန်စကာလံလ ညံင်ရဴ သ္ၚိ၊ ကွဳစက်၊ ရုပ်ဒ္ၚောဝ်တဳဗဳ။
** ''ကပေါတ်မဟွံတန်လံ (Non-durable goods):'' မာန်စကာ အိုတ်အာ ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ညံင်ရဴ စၞစ၊ ဍာ်ယာမတအ်ရ။
* '''ကပေါတ်တမ်ဒြပ် (Capital Goods):''' ဒှ်ကပေါတ် မစကာ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကပေါတ်တၞဟ်တအ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သေဝါတအ်ရ။ ဍေံတအ်ဝွံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဓမ္မတာတအ် ဟွံစကာ တိုက်ရိုက်ရ။ ဥပမာ - စက်ယန္တရား ဇၞော်ဇၞော်၊ အဆောက်အအုံ ရုင်စက်၊ ကိရိယာ မကၠောန်ကမၠောန်တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Krugman |first=Paul |author2=Wells, Robin |title=Microeconomics |url=https://archive.org/details/microeconomics0004krug |year=2015 |publisher=Worth Publishers |edition=4th |isbn=978-1464143878}}</ref>
* '''ကပေါတ်လဒေါဝ် (Intermediate Goods):''' ဒှ်ကပေါတ် မစကာ နဒဒှ် တမ်ရိုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ဆက်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကပေါတ်အုပ်နိဂီုတအ်ရ。 ဥပမာ - ပသဲ၊ ဍိုတ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကလာပ်ရုပ် မဝ်ဗိုင်ဖုန်တအ်ရ။
== ၃။ အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ ကပေါတ် (Characteristics of Goods in Economics) ==
ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ပါ်ကဆံင် ကပေါတ်တအ် နကဵု အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ အဓိက ၜါသာ်ရ-
# '''ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် (Rivalry):''' ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ်မွဲ စကာ ကပေါတ်ဂှ်တုဲ၊ အခေါင်မၞိဟ်တၞဟ် မဂွံစကာဍေံ အောန်စှ်ေအာမ္ဂး၊ ကပေါတ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် (Rivalrous) ရ (ဥပမာ- ကွာင်မွဲမ ယဝ်ရအဲစထောအ်မ္ဂး မၞးစဟွံဂွံရ)။
# '''ပွမကၟာတ်လဒဵုအခေါင် (Excludability):''' ယဝ်ရ မာန်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ညးမဟွံကဵုလဝ်ၚုဟ်မးတအ် ညံင်ဟွံဂွံစကာ ကပေါတ်ဂှ်မ္ဂး၊ ဍေံဒှ် ကပေါတ် မမာန်ကၟာတ်လဒဵုအခေါင် (Excludable) ရ。
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%;"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ပရေင်ပါ်ကဆံင် ကပေါတ် အတိုင်လညာတ်ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ostrom |first=Elinor |title=Beyond Markets and States: Polycentric Governance of Complex Economic Systems |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-economic-review_2010-06_100_3/page/641 |journal=American Economic Review |year=2010 |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=641–672}}</ref>
|-
! !! '''မာန်ကၟာတ်လဒဵုအခေါင် (Excludable)''' !! '''ဟွံမာန်ကၟာတ်လဒဵုအခေါင် (Non-excludable)'''
|-
! '''ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် နွံ (Rivalrous)'''
| align="left" | '''ကပေါတ်ပုဂ္ဂလိက (Private Goods)'''<br>ဥပမာ: စၞစ၊ ဗွိုက်လတက်၊ ကွဳစက်
| align="left" | '''သယံဇာတ ဓမ္မတာ (Common-Pool Resources)'''<br>ဥပမာ: ကကၠောဝ် ပ္ဍဲၜဳ၊ ဂြိုပ်ဆုသဘာဝ
|-
! '''ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် ဟွံမဲ (Non-rivalrous)'''
| align="left" | '''ကပေါတ်ကလပ် (Club Goods)'''<br>ဥပမာ: ရုပ်ဒ္ၚောဝ် သာတ်တလိုက်၊ အေန်တာနဲ တိုက်လိက်
| align="left" | '''[[ကပေါတ်ညးဍုင်ကွာန်]] (Public Goods)'''<br>ဥပမာ: ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာဍုင်၊ ပၟတ်သၞာ်ဍာန်
|}
== ၄။ ကပေါတ် ညးဍုၚ်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် ပုဂ္ဂလိက (Public vs. Private Goods) ==
လညာတ် မဆေင်ကဵု '''ကပေါတ်ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Public Goods)''' ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပိုလသဳ အလဵုအသဳရ။ ကပေါတ်ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ညံင်ရဴ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာဍုင် (national defense) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠံင်ဍာန် မဟွံကေတ်ၚုဟ်မးတအ်ဂှ်၊ မၞိဟ်မွဲ စကာလေဝ် အခေါင်မၞိဟ်တၞဟ် ဟွံအောန်စှ်ေအာတုဲ၊ မၞိဟ်ဟွံကဵုအခေါန်တအ်လေဝ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵုဟွံဂွံရ။ အရာဏအ် ကတဵုဗဒှ်ကဵု ပြသၞာ "ညးဍိုက်ကွဳသၠး" (Free-rider problem) မဒှ်အရာ အလဵုအသဳတအ် ဒးကံက်အခေါန် သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် ကပေါတ်တအ်ဏအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=Economics of the Public Sector |url=https://archive.org/details/economicsofpubli0000stig_z7r0 |year=2000 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0393966510}}</ref>
တၞဟ်ခြာနူဂှ်၊ '''ကပေါတ်ပုဂ္ဂလိက (Private Goods)''' ညံင်ရဴ စၞစ ကေုာံ မဝ်ဗိုင်ဖုန်တအ်ဂှ် ပရေင်သွံရာန် ပ္ဍဲစျေး အလဵုအလဵုဍေံ မာန်ထိင်ဒဝ်ကေတ်ရ။
== ၅။ ကပေါတ် သွက်ပရေၚ်ဗၞိက် (Commodities and Trade) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဗၞိက်ဂၠးကဝ် (International trade) ဂှ်၊ ဝေါဟာရ '''Commodity''' မလေပ်စကာ သွက် ကပေါတ်တမ်ရိုဟ် သဘာဝ မပတိတ်လဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂၠေင် မပ္တံကဵု တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ သတ္တုတအ်ရ။ ဥပမာ - ကၠေင်ဍာ်တိ (Crude oil)၊ ထဝ်၊ သ္ၚု၊ ကဝ်ဖဳ တအ် ပါဝင်ရ။
ကပေါတ် (Commodities) တအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု လက္ခဏာ မတုပ်ရေင်သ္ကအ် (fungibility) ၜိုန်ရ ကၠုင်နူ ညးမကၠောန်ပတိတ် တၞဟ်ခြာကီုလေဝ်ရ။ ၚုဟ်မးဍေံတအ်ဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု စျေးဗၞိက်ဂၠးကဝ် (Global commodity markets) ရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YyA2O3lB6M ဗီုလဵု သၞောတ်စျေး ကပေါတ်ဂၠးကဝ် ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် (YouTube - Economics Explained)]
== ၆။ လၟေၚ်ကမၠောန် ပွမပတိတ်ကပေါတ် (Production and Supply Chain) ==
[[File:Automobile_assembly_line.jpg|thumb|right|250px|လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပွမပတိတ် ကွဳစက် ပ္ဍဲရုင်စက် မထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ တမ်ရိုဟ် ညံင်ဂွံဒှ် ကပေါတ်အုပ်နိဂီု။]]
ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် (Production) ဝွံ ဒှ်လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပြံင်လှာဲ သယံဇာတ (inputs) မပ္တံကဵု တိ၊ ကမၠောန်၊ ဒြပ်ရတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဉာဏ်ပညာ ညံင်ဂွံဒှ် ကပေါတ် မမာန်စကာဂွံ (outputs) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Pindyck |first=Robert S. |author2=Rubinfeld, Daniel L. |title=Microeconomics |url=https://archive.org/details/microeconomics0008edpind_x8c2 |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson |edition=8th |isbn=978-0132857123}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲခေတ် လၟုဟ်၊ ကပေါတ်မွဲမွဲ ညံင်ဂွံ စိုပ်တဲ ညးမရာန်ဂှ် ဒးတတ်ၜက်အာ လၟေင်ဇၟန် ပရေင်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် (Supply Chain) မဇၞော်လှဲလးရ။ ဥပမာ - စမတ်ဖုန် (Smartphone) မွဲမ ညံင်ဂွံဒှ်ဂှ်:
# ၜံက်ခါဲ ဓါတ်သတ္တု ပ္ဍဲ အဖရိက။
# ကၠောန် ကလာပ်ရုပ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ထာင်ဝါန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာ။
# ပံင်စပ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ကြုက်။
# ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် သွံရာန် ပ္ဍဲ သြသတေလျာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အမေရိကာန်။
== ၇။ ၚုဟ်မး ကပေါတ် (Value, Price, and Goods) ==
ၚုဟ်မး (Value) ကပေါတ်မွဲဝွံ ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်ဂှ် ဍေံဟွံသေင် တန်တဴဒၟံင် လ္တူ ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေံကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်လမျီု ၜိုတ်လဵုရောဂှ် သၟးသၟးရ။ သာဓကမ္ဂး ယောန် (Paradox of value) မကော်ခဴစ ပြသၞာ "ဍာ် ကေုာံ ဗိုတ်" (Water and Diamond paradox) မၞုံရ။ ဍာ်ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်လမျီု ဗွဲမလောန်ကီုလေဝ် ၚုဟ်တန်ဒၟံင်တုဲ၊ ဗိုတ်ဂှ် ဟွံနွံပၟိက် သွက်လမျီုကီုလေဝ် ၚုဟ်က္ဍင် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။
အရာဏအ်ဂှ် အစာပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်တအ် ပသောင်ကလးလဝ် နကဵု လညာတ် '''ၚုဟ်မး ပယျဵုဒၞက် (Marginal Utility)''' ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ဍာ်ဂှ် နွံဂၠိုင်ဒၟံင်တုဲ ၚုဟ်မး သွက်ဂွံ ထပ်ဂွံ ဍာ်မွဲယူနေတ်ဂှ် အောန်ဒၟံင်ရ။ ဗိုတ်ဂှ် အောန်ဒၟံင် ဗွဲမလောန်တုဲ ၚုဟ်မးဍေံ သၠုင်ဒၟံင်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Marshall |first=Alfred |title=Principles of Economics |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesecono00marsgoog |year=1890 |publisher=Macmillan and Co.}}</ref> ၚုဟ်မး (Price) သြန်မသြန်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမစၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် အကြာ ညးသွံ ကေုာံ ညးရာန် ပ္ဍဲစျေးရ။
== ၈။ ကပေါတ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital Goods) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အေက်ကဝ်နဝ်မဳ ခေတ်လၟုဟ်၊ လညာတ်ကပေါတ်ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲကၠုင် ဇရေင် '''ကပေါတ်ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital Goods)''' ရ။ ကပေါတ်ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ကပေါတ် မဟွံမဲကဵု ဒြပ်ရုပ်၊ မဂိုင်သိပ် ကေုာံ ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် နကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် အေန်တာနဲရ။
* ဥပမာ - သော့ဝဲ (Software)၊ ဂဳတ (Music downloads)၊ e-books၊ ကေုာံ ဗဳဒဳယော ဂိမ်း (Video games) တအ် ပါဝင်ရ။
ကပေါတ်ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်တအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ တၟေင်မွဲဂှ် - ပွမကၠောန်ပတိတ် အလန်ကိုပ်ကၠာ (first copy) ဂှ် ကုန်ကျစရိတ် သၠုင်ဗွဲမလောန်ကီုလေဝ်၊ သွက်ဂွံ ကော်ပဳ ထပ်ပတိတ် (marginal cost of reproduction) ဂှ် ကြပ်ဒှ် သုည ရ။ အရာဏအ် ပြံင်လှာဲထောအ် သၞောတ်စျေး ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အလုံအိုတ်သီုရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Varian |first=Hal R. |author2=Shapiro, Carl |title=Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy |url=https://archive.org/details/informationrules00shap |year=1998 |publisher=Harvard Business Review Press |isbn=978-0875848631}}</ref>
== ၉။ ကပေါတ် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ (Economics of Goods and Environment) ==
ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂၠေင်ဝွံ ပကဵု ဖဵုပရေအ် ကု [[ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ]] ရ။ ပရေင်ကၠိခတောန် (Pollution) မကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ရုင်စက် မကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကပေါတ်တအ်ဂှ်၊ ပ္ဍဲလညာတ်ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်မ္ဂး ကော်ခဴစ '''ဖဵုပရေအ် မ္ၚး (Negative Externalities)''' ရ။
သွက်ဂွံ သှ်ပလး ပြသၞာဏအ်ဂှ်၊ အလဵုအသဳတအ် ဒးဖျေဟ်သၞောတ် ကံက်အခေါန် လ္တူ ပရေင်ကၠိခတောန် (Pigouvian taxes) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒးခၞံသၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မင်မွဲ သဘာဝရ။ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ဂၠးကဝ်ဝွံ ဂစာန်ဒၟံင် သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇရေင် "ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ခဝိုင်း (Circular Economy)" မဒှ် ပရေင်ကလေင်စကာ (recycle) ကပေါတ်တြေံတအ် ညံင်ဟွံဂွံ ဒှ်အလိုက်အမဵုရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Pearce |first=David W. |author2=Turner, R. Kerry |title=Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment |url=https://archive.org/details/economicsofnatur0000pear_w8f3 |year=1990 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0801839870}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ သရုပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် ကပေါတ် (Conclusion and Future of Economic Goods) ==
သရုပ်ကၞောတ်တဲမ္ဂး၊ ကပေါတ် (Goods) ဝွံ ဒှ်သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဘဝကောန်မၞိဟ် လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲရ။ နူကဵု ကပေါတ် သယံဇာတ သဘာဝ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် ကပေါတ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ်ဝွံ၊ ဗီုပြင် ပွမကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စကာ ကပေါတ်တအ်ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲကၠုင်လဝ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲအနာဂတ်ဂှ် ကွတ်ပညာ စက်ခၞံပတိတ် (3D Printing) ကေုာံ ဉာဏ်စက် (Artificial Intelligence) တအ်ဝွံ မာန်ပြံင်လှာဲထောအ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပွမပတိတ်ကပေါတ်တုဲ မာန်ဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် ၚုဟ်မး ကေုာံ ဇမၠိင် လၟေင်ဇၟန် ပရေင်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ်ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ခေတ်ပြံင်လှာဲအာကီုလေဝ်၊ သဘဴဓဝ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်အောန်ဒၟံင် (Scarcity) ကေုာံ ၚုဟ်မး ကပေါတ်တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်တန်တဴအာ လၟိုန်ရ။
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="Mankiw">{{cite book |last=Mankiw |first=N. Gregory |title=Principles of Economics |year=2014 |publisher=Cengage Learning |edition=7th |isbn=978-1285165875}}</ref>
<ref name="Samuelson">{{cite book |last=Samuelson |first=Paul A. |author2=Nordhaus, William D. |title=Economics |url=https://archive.org/details/economics0000samu_c7w7 |year=2009 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education |edition=19th |isbn=978-0073511290}}</ref>
<ref name="Krugman">{{cite book |last=Krugman |first=Paul |author2=Wells, Robin |title=Microeconomics |url=https://archive.org/details/microeconomics0004krug |year=2015 |publisher=Worth Publishers |edition=4th |isbn=978-1464143878}}</ref>
<ref name="Ostrom">{{cite journal |last=Ostrom |first=Elinor |title=Beyond Markets and States: Polycentric Governance of Complex Economic Systems |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-economic-review_2010-06_100_3/page/641 |journal=American Economic Review |year=2010 |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=641–672}}</ref>
<ref name="Stiglitz">{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph E. |title=Economics of the Public Sector |url=https://archive.org/details/economicsofpubli0000stig_z7r0 |year=2000 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0393966510}}</ref>
<ref name="Pindyck">{{cite book |last=Pindyck |first=Robert S. |author2=Rubinfeld, Daniel L. |title=Microeconomics |url=https://archive.org/details/microeconomics0008edpind_x8c2 |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson |edition=8th |isbn=978-0132857123}}</ref>
<ref name="Marshall">{{cite book |last=Marshall |first=Alfred |title=Principles of Economics |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesecono00marsgoog |year=1890 |publisher=Macmillan and Co.}}</ref>
<ref name="Varian">{{cite book |last=Varian |first=Hal R. |author2=Shapiro, Carl |title=Information Rules: A Strategic Guide to the Network Economy |url=https://archive.org/details/informationrules00shap |year=1998 |publisher=Harvard Business Review Press |isbn=978-0875848631}}</ref>
<ref name="Pearce">{{cite book |last=Pearce |first=David W. |author2=Turner, R. Kerry |title=Economics of Natural Resources and the Environment |url=https://archive.org/details/economicsofnatur0000pear_w8f3 |year=1990 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0801839870}}</ref>
<ref name="Smith1776">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Adam |title=The Wealth of Nations |year=1776 |publisher=W. Strahan and T. Cadell}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = ကပေါတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်
| title = လညာတ်ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်: ကပေါတ် ကေုာံ သေဝါ
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = ဂကူ ကပေါတ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[ကပေါတ်စကာ]] (Consumer goods)
* [[ကပေါတ်တမ်ဒြပ်]] (Capital goods)
* [[ကပေါတ်ညးဍုင်ကွာန်]] (Public goods)
* [[ကပေါတ်ပုဂ္ဂလိက]] (Private goods)
| group2 = သဘဴဓဝ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်
| list2 =
* [[ပရေင်ရာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်သွံ]] (Supply and Demand)
* [[ပရေင်အောန်ဒၟံင်]] (Scarcity)
* [[ၚုဟ်မး ပယျဵုဒၞက်]] (Marginal utility)
* [[သေဝါ]] (Services)
| group3 = ပရေင်သွံရာန် ကေုာံ စျေး
| list3 =
* [[စျေး]] (Market)
* [[ပရေင်ဗၞိက်]] (Trade)
* [[သြန်]] (Money)
* [[ကပေါတ်ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်]] (Digital goods)
}}
[[Category:ကပေါတ် (ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်)]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]]
[[Category:ဗၞိက် ကေုာံ စျေး]]
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အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂၠးတိ
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Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260809)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]
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{{Infobox historic site
| name = ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ (World Heritage Site)
| image = [[File:Machu_Picchu,_Peru.jpg|300px|ဗီုရုပ် မာချူ ပဳချူ (Machu Picchu) ပ္ဍဲဍုင် ပေရူ မဒှ် ဒတန်အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ ဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ်မွဲ။]]
| caption = မာချူ ပဳချူ (Machu Picchu)၊ ဒတန်အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ပေရူ။
| location = အလုံဂၠးတိ
| governing_body = [[ယူနေတ်သကဝ်]] (UNESCO)
| criteria = ယေန်သၞာင် (i)–(vi), သဘာဝ (vii)–(x)
| date_established = ၁၉၇၂ (သၞောဝ်ကသုက် အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ)
| website = [https://whc.unesco.org/ whc.unesco.org]
}}
'''ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ''' ({{lang-en|World Heritage Site}}) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ဒၞာဲဒတန်မွဲမွဲ မပ္တံကဵု ဂြိုပ်၊ တၟအ်၊ ကၟာဍာ်၊ ကန္တာရ၊ တိုင်ပ္ကဴ၊ သ္ၚိ၊ ဒေသဍုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကွာန်တြေံဂမၠိုင် မဒးဒုင်ရုဲစှ် ကေုာံ စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံပညာ၊ သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ မကော်ခဴစ [[ယူနေတ်သကဝ်]] (UNESCO) ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/about/ |title=About World Heritage |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2023-10-12}}</ref> တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒတန်တအ်ဏအ်ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အာဲကၟာဲ သဘာဝ မၞုံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး သာမည ဗွဲမသၠုင် (Outstanding Universal Value) သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် အလုံအိုတ်သီုရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Rodney |title=Heritage: Critical Approaches |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415591959}}</ref>
ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိတအ်ဝွံ မင်မွဲလဝ် နကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဂၠးကဝ် မကော်ခဴစ ကသုက် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ (World Heritage Convention) မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၇၂ ရ။ ဒတန်တအ်ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဂကူအဓိက ပိသာ်- ယေန်သၞာင် (Cultural)၊ သဘာဝ (Natural) ကေုာံ ပံင်စပ် (Mixed) ရ။
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Concept) ==
လညာတ် မဆေင်ကဵု အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ (World Heritage) ဝွံ တန်တဴဒၟံင် လ္တူ သဘဴဓဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဒတန်လ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး မဇၞော်လှဲလးတုဲ၊ ဍေံတအ်ဝွံ ဟွံဆေင်စပ် ကု ဍုင်မွဲဍုင်ဓဝ်သၟးရ၊ ဍေံဒှ် ဒြပ်ရတ် သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် အလုံဂၠးတိ သီုဖအိုတ်ရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cleere |first=Henry |title=The concept of 'outstanding universal value' in the World Heritage Convention |journal=Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites |year=1996 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=227-233}}</ref> ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ပွမမင်မွဲ ဒတန်တအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်တာလျိုင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂၠးကဝ် အလုံအိုတ်သီုရ။
== ၂။ ဝၚ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (History and Origins) ==
[[File:Abu Simbel Temple of Ramesses II.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ဘာကျာ် အဘူ သိမ်ဘေဝ် (Abu Simbel) ပ္ဍဲဍုင် အဳဂျေပ်၊ မဒှ် ဟိုတ်တမ် သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် ကသုက်အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ။]]
ဟိုတ်တမ် မကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ကသုက် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၅၄ အခိင် ဍုင်အဳဂျေပ် (Egypt) ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် သိုင်ပတန် ကၟာတ်ဍာ် အာသဝါန် (Aswan High Dam) ရ။ ကၟာတ်ဍာ်ဏအ် မာန်ဗၠိုက်ပလီုထောအ် ဒၞာဲကျာ်တြေံ အဘူ သိမ်ဘေဝ် (Abu Simbel) တုဲ၊ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ကော်ဘိက် ဂၠးကဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ရီုဗင် စဵုဒၞာရ။ ပရေင်ရီုဗင်ဏအ် ကလိဂွံ ဇမၞးတုဲ ဍုင် ၅၀ ပြင်င် ပါလုပ် ထံက်ပင် သြန်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Batra |first=A. |title=Tourism and World Heritage Sites |year=2006 |publisher=Tourism Authority of Thailand}}</ref>
နူကဵု ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞးဏအ်၊ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံပရေင်မင်မွဲ သဘာဝ ဂၠးကဝ် (IUCN) တအ် ပံင်ကောံတုဲ ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် "ကသုက် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်မင်မွဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိ" (Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage) ပ္ဍဲဂိတု နဝ်ဝေမ်ဗာ ၁၆၊ ၁၉၇၂ ရ။
== ၃။ လၟေၚ်ကမၠောန် သွက်ဂွံရုဲစှ် (Nomination Process) ==
ဍုင်မွဲမွဲ မမိက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒတန်ညးတအ် နဒဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိမ္ဂး၊ ဍေံတအ် ဒးတတ်ၜက်အာ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ-
# '''စရင်ဒတန် စမ်ၜတ် (Tentative List):''' ဍုင်မွဲ ဒးပၠောပ် စရင် ဒတန် မၞုံပၟိက် မိက်ဂွံရုဲစှ် သီုဖအိုတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ။
# '''စရင်ရုဲစှ် (Nomination File):''' ရုဲစှ်ကေတ် ဒတန်မွဲ နူစရင်စမ်ၜတ်တုဲ ပၠောပ်စရင် အလုံအစင် ကု ယူနေတ်သကဝ်။
# '''ပရေင်စၟတ်သ္ၚေဝ် (Evaluation):''' ဂကောံမင်မွဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂၠးကဝ် (ICOMOS) ကေုာံ ဂကောံ သဘာဝ (IUCN) တအ် စၟတ်သ္ၚေဝ် ဒတန်ဂှ်ရ။
# '''ကောံဓရီု ကမ္မတဳ (Committee Decision):''' ကမ္မတဳ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ မၞုံကဵု ဍုင်စၞး ၂၁ ဍုင် ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် လက္ကရဴအိုတ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/nominations/ |title=The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=2023-10-14}}</ref>
== ၄။ တၚ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ရုဲစှ်ဂမၠိုၚ် (Selection Criteria) ==
ဒတန်မွဲမွဲ ဂွံဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိမာန်ဂှ် ဍေံဒးဍိုက်ပေင်ကဵု တင်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် အောန်အိုတ် မွဲသာ် နူကဵု ၁၀ သာ် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ်ရ-
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|+ တင်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ယူနေတ်သကဝ် သွက် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/ |title=The Criteria for Selection |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2023-10-15}}</ref>
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ !! စၟတ် !! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Summary)
|-
| rowspan="6" | '''ယေန်သၞာင် (Cultural)'''
| i || ထ္ၜးကဵု အစောမ်စရာဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမပြဲ။
|-
| ii || ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ၚုဟ်မး ကောန်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇမၠိင်အခိင်။
|-
| iii || ဒှ် သက်သဳ တၟေင် သွက် ယေန်သၞာင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မကၠေအ်ကၠက်အာယျ။
|-
| iv || ဒှ် သာဓက ခိုဟ်အိုတ် သွက် လဒက်ပတန်၊ အာခဳတက်ချာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နဲကဲကွတ်ပညာ။
|-
| v || ဒှ် သာဓက ပရေင်မံင်တန်တဴ ကောန်မၞိဟ် အတိုင်အခိုက်တြေံ මကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ။
|-
| vi || ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် တိုက်ရိုက် ကု ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ်၊ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လိက်ပတ် မၞုံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး ဂၠးကဝ်။
|-
| rowspan="4" | '''သဘာဝ (Natural)'''
| vii || နွံကဵု အကာဲအရာ သဘာဝ မကျေဝ်ဂေါဝ် လောန်ကာဲ။
|-
| viii || ဒှ် သာဓက အဓိက မထ္ၜးကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဝင် ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ တိဗေဒ။
|-
| ix || ဒှ် သာဓက အဓိက မထ္ၜးကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဂေဟ။
|-
| x || ဒှ် ဒၞာဲဒတန် မကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်မင်မွဲ ဇဳဝစုံလင် (Biodiversity)။
|}
== ၅။ ဂကူ အာဲကၟာဲဂမၠိုၚ် (Categories of Heritage) ==
# '''အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် (Cultural Heritage):''' မပ္တံကဵု ဒၞာဲဝါင် ဝင်၊ ဘာကျာ်၊ ဍုင်တြေံ၊ လိက်တၟအ်၊ ကေုာံ ရုပ်ပါန်ခဳတအ်ရ။ (ဥပမာ - ဗုကာံ၊ တိုင်ကြုက်မဇၞော်)
# '''အာဲကၟာဲ သဘာဝ (Natural Heritage):''' မပ္တံကဵု ဂြိုပ်၊ ဒဵု၊ ကၟာဍာ် သဘာဝ မဟွံဒးဒုင်ပထုဲလဝ် နူမၞိဟ်ရ။ (ဥပမာ - ဂြိုပ် အမေဇြောန်)
# '''အာဲကၟာဲ ပံင်စပ် (Mixed Heritage):''' ဒၞာဲ မဍိုက်ပေင်ကဵု လက္ခဏာ သဘာဝ ကီု သီုကဵု ယေန်သၞာင်ရ။ (ဥပမာ - မာချူ ပဳချူ)
== ၆။ အာဲကၟာဲ မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ (World Heritage in Danger) ==
[[File:Minaret_of_Jam_2004.jpg|thumb|right|250px|မဳနာရေတ် ဂျာမ် (Minaret of Jam) ပ္ဍဲဍုင် အာဖဂါန်နေတ်သတာန် မလုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ စရင် အာဲကၟာဲ မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ။]]
ယူနေတ်သကဝ် စွံလဝ် စရင် တၟေင်မွဲ မကော်ခဴစ "စရင် အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ" (List of World Heritage in Danger) ရ။ ဒတန်တအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ မလေပ် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ လီုလာ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပၞာန်၊ ဘဲသဘာဝ၊ ပရေင်ကၠိခတောန်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ခုတ်ပလီု ဂြိုပ်တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Leask |first=Anna |author2=Fyall, Alan |title=Managing World Heritage Sites |url=https://archive.org/details/managingworldher0000unse |year=2006 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=978-0750665469}}</ref> ပွမစုတ် ပ္ဍဲစရင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံ ကော်ဘိက် ပရေင်ရီုဗင် နူဂၠးကဝ် သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ဒတန်ဂှ်ရ။
== ၇။ ပရေၚ်ဇီုကပိုက် ကေုာံ ဖဵုသွဟ် (Impact and Benefits) ==
ပွမကလိဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဝွံ ကဵုဖဵုသွဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ် သွက် ဍုင် ကေုာံ ဒေသဂှ်ရ-
* '''ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ (Tourism):''' လၟိဟ် ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ ဂၠးကဝ် ကၠုင်စိုပ် ဂၠိုင်တိုန်တုဲ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဒေသ ဇၞော်မောဝ်တိုန်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်မင်မွဲ (Protection):''' ကလိဂွံ အရီုအဗင် နူဂၠးကဝ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ ကေုာံ ကလေင်ပလေဝ် ဒတန်တအ်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်သမ္တီ (Awareness):''' ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ် ဇြဟတ်မာန် လ္တူ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂကူဇကုရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frey |first=Bruno S. |author2=Pamini, Paolo |title=Making World Heritage Truly Global: The Culture Certificate Scheme |url=https://archive.org/details/oxford-review-of-economic-policy_summer-2009_25_2/page/239 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |year=2009 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=239-252}}</ref>
== ၈။ ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ပါ်ပါဲဂမၠိုၚ် (Challenges and Criticisms) ==
ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု ဖဵုသွဟ် ခိုဟ်ကီုလေဝ်၊ သၞောတ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ပါ်ပါဲ နွံကီုရ-
* '''ပရေင်ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ လောန်ကာဲ (Overtourism):''' ဒတန်လ္ၚဵု ညံင်ရဴ ဍုင် ဝေနေတ် (Venice) ဂှ် ကၟုဲဂၠိုင်လောန်တုဲ ပလီုပလာ်ကဵု ဒတန်တြေံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မံင်တန်တဴ ကောန်ဍုင်တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Di Giovine |first=Michael A. |title=The Heritage-scape: UNESCO, World Heritage, and Tourism |url=https://archive.org/details/heritagescapeune0000digi |year=2009 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0739114346}}</ref>
* '''လညာတ် အဥရဝ်ပ မလွှမ်းမိုး (Eurocentrism):''' စရင် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဝွံ ဒတန် နူကဵု ဍုင် ဥရဝ်ပ ကေုာံ အမေရိကသၟဝ်ကျာ ဂၠိုင်ဒၟံင်တုဲ ဒတန် နူအဖရိက ကေုာံ အာရှ တအ် အောန်ဒၟံင်ရ။
== ၉။ အာဲကၟာဲ ဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ် လ္တူဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ဒေသ (Notable Sites Globally and Locally) ==
လ္တူဂၠးတိဏအ် နွံကဵု ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။
* '''ဂၠးတိ:''' ပဳရမိတ် အဳဂျေပ် (Egypt)، တိုင်ကြုက်မဇၞော် (Great Wall of China)، တာတ်မဟာ (Taj Mahal, India)။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ:''' ဒေသ ယေန်သၞာင် [[ဗုကာံ]] (Bagan)၊ ဍုင်တြေံပျူ ပိဍုင် (Pyu Ancient Cities - ဟန်လင်း၊ ဗိဿနိုး၊ သရေခေတ္တရာ) တအ်ဝွံ လုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲစရင် အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂၠးတိရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LqAwaZl1w2s ဗီုလဵု ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ရုဲစှ် အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ (YouTube)]
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်မၚ်မွဲ နကဵုဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Future and Digital Preservation) ==
ပ္ဍဲအနာဂတ်ဂှ် ပြသၞာ အဓိက သွက် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဂှ် ဒှ် [[ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု]] (Climate Change) ရ။ ဍာ်ၜဳ သၠုင်တိုန် ကေုာံ ဘဲသဘာဝတအ်ဝွံ ပကဵု အန္တရာဲ ကု ဒတန် ဝင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Markham |first=Adam |title=World Heritage and Tourism in a Changing Climate |year=2016 |publisher=UNEP/UNESCO |isbn=978-92-807-3533-8}}</ref>
သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ပြသၞာဏအ်ဂှ်၊ ကွတ်ပညာ တၟိ ညံင်ရဴ နဲကဲ တက်ဗီု 3D Scanning ကေုာံ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် အာခိုက် (Digital Archiving) တအ် စကာကၠုင် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ ဗီုပြင် ဒတန်တအ် နကဵု တင်နင် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် မာန်ရ။ နကဵု နဲကဲဏအ် ၜိုန်ရ ဒတန်ဇေတ်တ် လီုလာ်အာကီုလေဝ်၊ အာဲကၟာဲ မဆေင်ကဵု ဉာဏ်ပညာတအ် ဆက်တန်တဴအာ သွက် ကောန်စဴ အနာဂတ်တအ် မာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cyark.org/ |title=Digital Preservation of Heritage Sites |publisher=CyArk |access-date=2023-10-16}}</ref>
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="unesco_about">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/about/ |title=About World Heritage |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2023-10-12}}</ref>
<ref name="harrison">{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Rodney |title=Heritage: Critical Approaches |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415591959}}</ref>
<ref name="cleere">{{cite journal |last=Cleere |first=Henry |title=The concept of 'outstanding universal value' in the World Heritage Convention |journal=Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites |year=1996 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=227-233}}</ref>
<ref name="batra">{{cite book |last=Batra |first=A. |title=Tourism and World Heritage Sites |year=2006 |publisher=Tourism Authority of Thailand}}</ref>
<ref name="nomination">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/nominations/ |title=The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=2023-10-14}}</ref>
<ref name="criteria">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/ |title=The Criteria for Selection |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2023-10-15}}</ref>
<ref name="leask">{{cite book |last=Leask |first=Anna |author2=Fyall, Alan |title=Managing World Heritage Sites |url=https://archive.org/details/managingworldher0000unse |year=2006 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=978-0750665469}}</ref>
<ref name="frey">{{cite journal |last=Frey |first=Bruno S. |author2=Pamini, Paolo |title=Making World Heritage Truly Global: The Culture Certificate Scheme |url=https://archive.org/details/oxford-review-of-economic-policy_summer-2009_25_2/page/239 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |year=2009 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=239-252}}</ref>
<ref name="digiovine">{{cite book |last=Di Giovine |first=Michael A. |title=The Heritage-scape: UNESCO, World Heritage, and Tourism |url=https://archive.org/details/heritagescapeune0000digi |year=2009 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0739114346}}</ref>
<ref name="markham">{{cite book |last=Markham |first=Adam |title=World Heritage and Tourism in a Changing Climate |year=2016 |publisher=UNEP/UNESCO |isbn=978-92-807-3533-8}}</ref>
<ref name="cyark">{{cite web |url=https://cyark.org/ |title=Digital Preservation of Heritage Sites |publisher=CyArk |access-date=2023-10-16}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ
| title = ယူနေတ်သကဝ် (UNESCO) ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = ဂကူ အာဲကၟာဲဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင်]] (Cultural)
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* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ပံင်စပ်]] (Mixed)
| group2 = ဒေသဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲ အာရှ]]
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| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ တၞဟ်တအ်
| list3 =
* [[ကမ္မတဳ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ]]
* [[စရင် အာဲကၟာဲ မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ]]
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထုဟွံသေင်]] (Intangible Cultural Heritage)
}}
[[Category:ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ]]
[[Category:ယေန်သၞာင်]]
[[Category:ယူနေတ်သကဝ်]]
[[Category:ဝင် ဂၠးတိ]]
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{{Infobox historic site
| name = ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ
| native_name = World Heritage Site
| image = [[File:Machu Picchu, Peru.jpg|300px|မာချူ ပဳချူ၊ ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ သဘာဝ ပ္ဍဲဍုင် ပေရူ]]
| caption = မာချူ ပဳချူ (Machu Picchu)၊ ဒတန်အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ ပံင်စပ် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ပေရူ။
| location = အလုံဂၠးတိ (Global)
| governing_body = [[ယူနေတ်သကဝ်]] (UNESCO)
| type = ယေန်သၞာင်၊ သဘာဝ၊ ပံင်စပ်
| criteria = (i) စဵုကဵု (x)
| date_established = ၁၉၇၂ (ကသုက် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ)
| website = [https://whc.unesco.org/ whc.unesco.org]
}}
'''ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ''' ({{lang-en|World Heritage Site}}) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ဒၞာဲဒတန် (မပ္တံကဵု ဂြိုပ်၊ ဒဵု၊ ကၟာဍာ်၊ ကန္တာရ၊ တိုင်ပ္ကဴ၊ သ္ၚိကေုာံဌာန်ဒတန်၊ ဒေသဍုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကွာန်တြေံ) မဒးဒုင်ရုဲစှ် ကေုာံ စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံပညာ၊ သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မကော်ခဴစ [[ယူနေတ်သကဝ်]] (UNESCO) ရ။<ref>{{cite web |last=UNESCO |title=World Heritage |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/about/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2023-11-01}}</ref>
တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒတန်တအ်ဏအ်ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ ဒတန် ယေန်သၞာင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒတန် သဘာဝ မၞုံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး သာမည ဗွဲမသၠုင် (Outstanding Universal Value) သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် အလုံဂၠးတိ အလုံအိုတ်သီုရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Rodney |title=Heritage: Critical Approaches |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415591959}}</ref> လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မင်မွဲဒတန်တအ်ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လ္တူ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဂၠးကဝ် မကော်ခဴစ ကသုက် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ (World Heritage Convention) မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၇၂ ရ။ ဒတန်တအ်ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဂကူအဓိက ပိသာ်- ယေန်သၞာင် (Cultural)၊ သဘာဝ (Natural) ကေုာံ ပံင်စပ် (Mixed) ရ။
__TOC__
== ၁။ ဝၚ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ကတဵုဒှ် (History and Origins) ==
[[File:Abu Simbel Temple of Ramesses II.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ဘာကျာ် အဘူ သိမ်ဘေဝ် (Abu Simbel) ပ္ဍဲဍုင် အဳဂျေပ်၊ မဒှ် ဟိုတ်တမ် သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် ကသုက်အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ။]]
ဟိုတ်တမ် မကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ကသုက် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၅၄ အခိင် အလဵုအသဳ ဍုင်အဳဂျေပ် (Egypt) ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် သိုင်ပတန် ကၟာတ်ဍာ် အာသဝါန် (Aswan High Dam) ရ။ ကၟာတ်ဍာ်ဏအ် သိုင်ပတန်မ္ဂး ဍာ်မာန်ဗၠိုက်ပလီုထောအ် ဒၞာဲကျာ်တြေံ ကေုာံ တိုင်ပ္ကဴဝင် အဘူ သိမ်ဘေဝ် (Abu Simbel) မၞုံကဵု ၚုဟ်မးဝင် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ရ။ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ကော်ဘိက် ဂၠးကဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ရီုဗင် စဵုဒၞာရ။ ပရေင်ရီုဗင်ဏအ် ကလိဂွံ ဇမၞးတုဲ၊ ဍုင် ၅၀ ပြင်င် ပါလုပ် ထံက်ပင် သြန် သွက်ဂွံ ရုဲပြံင် ဒၞာဲဘာကျာ်တအ်ဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဂွံဗၠးဘဲဍာ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Batra |first=A. |title=Tourism and World Heritage Sites |year=2006 |publisher=Tourism Authority of Thailand}}</ref>
နူကဵု ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞးဏအ်၊ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံပရေင်မင်မွဲ သဘာဝ ဂၠးကဝ် (IUCN) တအ် ပံင်ကောံတုဲ ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် "ကသုက် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်မင်မွဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိ" (Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage) ပ္ဍဲဂိတု နဝ်ဝေမ်ဗာ ၁၆၊ သၞာံ ၁၉၇၂ ရ။ ကသုက်ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵုအခေါင် ကုဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ဇကု နကဵု အရီုအဗင် ဂၠးကဝ်ရ။
== ၂။ ကမ္မတဳ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ (World Heritage Committee) ==
[[ကမ္မတဳ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ]] (World Heritage Committee) ဝွံ ဒှ်ဂကောံ အဓိက မၞုံကဵု အဝဵုအာဏာ သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် လ္တူ ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိတအ်ရ။ ကမ္မတဳဝွံ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဍုင်စၞး (State Parties) လၟိဟ် ၂၁ ဍုင် မဒးဒုင်ရုဲစှ် နကဵု သဘင်ကောံဓရီုဇၞော် (General Assembly) ယူနေတ်သကဝ် သွက် ပွိုင် ၄ သၞာံရ။<ref>{{cite web |last=UNESCO |title=The World Heritage Committee |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/committee/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2023-11-02}}</ref>
ကမ္မတဳဏအ်ဝွံ ဆဵုဂဗ ကောံဓရီု ရိုဟ်ဟ်သၞာံတုဲ၊ ဍေံတအ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လ္တူ စရင်ရုဲစှ် မပၠောပ်လဝ် နူကဵု ဍုင်နာနာ၊ တုဲမ္ဂး ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ယဝ်ရ ဒတန်မွဲမွဲ သ္ဒးလုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲစရင် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဟာ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒးဒုင် ပတိတ်ထောအ် နူစရင်ဟာ ဂှ်ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ၊ ဍေံတအ် သီုဖန်ဇန် သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ (World Heritage Fund) သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် ပရေင်မင်မွဲ ဒတန် မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲတအ်ရ။
== ၃။ လၟေၚ်ကမၠောန် သွက်ဂွံရုဲစှ် (Nomination Process) ==
ဍုင်မွဲမွဲ မမိက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒတန်ညးတအ် နဒဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိမ္ဂး၊ ဍေံတအ် ဒးတတ်ၜက်အာ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ-
# '''စရင်ဒတန် စမ်ၜတ် (Tentative List):''' ဍုင်မွဲ ဒးပၠောပ် စရင် ဒတန် မၞုံပၟိက် မိက်ဂွံရုဲစှ် သီုဖအိုတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ။ ယဝ်ရ ဒတန်မွဲ ဟွံပါလဝ် ပ္ဍဲစရင်ဏအ်မ္ဂး၊ ဍေံဟွံဂွံအခေါင် ပၠောပ်စရင် အလုံအစင် (Nomination) ရ။
# '''စရင်ရုဲစှ် အလုံအစင် (Nomination File):''' ရုဲစှ်ကေတ် ဒတန်မွဲ နူစရင်စမ်ၜတ်တုဲ ပၠောပ်စရင် မၞုံကဵု တင်နင် ဝင်၊ ဗီုဟံက်၊ ကေုာံ အစဳအဇန် မင်မွဲ ဗွဲမချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ကု ယူနေတ်သကဝ်။
# '''ပရေင်စၟတ်သ္ၚေဝ် (Evaluation):''' ဂကောံမင်မွဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂၠးကဝ် (ICOMOS) ကေုာံ ဂကောံ သဘာဝ (IUCN) တအ် စၟတ်သ္ၚေဝ် ဒတန်ဂှ် နကဵု ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် လ္တူတိဇေတ်တ် (on-site evaluation) ရ။
# '''ကောံဓရီု ကမ္မတဳ (Committee Decision):''' ကမ္မတဳ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် လက္ကရဴအိုတ် ယဝ်ရ ဒတန်ဂှ် ဍိုက်ပေင်ကဵု တင်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ဟာဂှ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |last=UNESCO |title=The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/guidelines/ |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=2023-11-03}}</ref>
== ၄။ တၚ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ရုဲစှ်ဂမၠိုၚ် (Selection Criteria) ==
ဒတန်မွဲမွဲ ဂွံဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိမာန်ဂှ် ဍေံဒးဍိုက်ပေင်ကဵု တင်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် အောန်အိုတ် မွဲသာ် နူကဵု ၁၀ သာ် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ်ရ-
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ တင်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ယူနေတ်သကဝ် သွက် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ<ref>{{cite web |last=UNESCO |title=The Criteria for Selection |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2023-11-04}}</ref>
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ !! စၟတ် !! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Summary)
|-
| rowspan="6" | '''ယေန်သၞာင် (Cultural)'''
| i || ထ္ၜးကဵု အစောမ်စရာဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမပြဲ (Masterpiece of human creative genius)။
|-
| ii || ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ၚုဟ်မး ကောန်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇမၠိင်အခိင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒေသယေန်သၞာင်။
|-
| iii || ဒှ် သက်သဳ တၟေင် သွက် ယေန်သၞာင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မကၠေအ်ကၠက်အာယျ။
|-
| iv || ဒှ် သာဓက ခိုဟ်အိုတ် သွက် လဒက်ပတန်၊ အာခဳတက်ချာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နဲကဲကွတ်ပညာ ပ္ဍဲဝင်ကောန်မၞိဟ်။
|-
| v || ဒှ် သာဓက ပရေင်မံင်တန်တဴ ကောန်မၞိဟ် အတိုင်အခိုက်တြေံ၊ ပွမစကာတိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍာ် මကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ။
|-
| vi || ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် တိုက်ရိုက် ကု ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ်၊ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လိက်ပတ် မၞုံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး ဂၠးကဝ်။
|-
| rowspan="4" | '''သဘာဝ (Natural)'''
| vii || နွံကဵု အကာဲအရာ သဘာဝ မကျေဝ်ဂေါဝ် လောန်ကာဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တၟေင်တၟဟ်။
|-
| viii || ဒှ် သာဓက အဓိက မထ္ၜးကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဝင် ဂၠးတိ၊ သၞောတ်တိဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဇွိုတ်တိ (geomorphic features)။
|-
| ix || ဒှ် သာဓက အဓိက မထ္ၜးကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဂေဟ မဆက်တန်တဴဒၟံင်။
|-
| x || ဒှ် ဒၞာဲဒတန် မကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်မင်မွဲ ဇဳဝစုံလင် (Biodiversity) သီုကဵု ဂကူသတ် မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ။
|}
== ၅။ ဂကူ အာဲကၟာဲဂမၠိုၚ် ကေုာံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Types of Heritage) ==
[[File:Taj Mahal (Edited).jpeg|thumb|right|250px|တာတ်မဟာ (Taj Mahal) ပ္ဍဲဍုင် အိန္ဒိယ၊ မဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ်။]]
# '''အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် (Cultural Heritage):''' ဒတန်တအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ လဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု မၞိဟ်တုဲ၊ မပ္တံကဵု ဒၞာဲဝါင် ဝင်၊ ဘာကျာ်၊ ဍုင်တြေံ၊ လိက်တၟအ်၊ ကေုာံ ရုပ်ပါန်ခဳတအ်ရ။ (ဥပမာ - ဒေသယေန်သၞာင် [[ဗုကာံ]] ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ တိုင်ကြုက်မဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ကြုက်)
# '''အာဲကၟာဲ သဘာဝ (Natural Heritage):''' ဒတန်တအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ မကတဵုဒှ် နကဵု အလဵုသဘာဝတုဲ၊ မပ္တံကဵု ဂြိုပ်၊ ဒဵု၊ ကၟာဍာ် သဘာဝ မဟွံဒးဒုင်ပထုဲလဝ် နူမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။ (ဥပမာ - ဂြိုပ် အမေဇြောန်၊ [[ဂြိုဟ်တၟအ်ဇၞော်]] ပ္ဍဲသြသတေလျာ)
# '''အာဲကၟာဲ ပံင်စပ် (Mixed Heritage):''' ဒၞာဲ မဍိုက်ပေင်ကဵု လက္ခဏာ သဘာဝ ကီု သီုကဵု ယေန်သၞာင် ဗွဲမခိုဟ်ရ။ (ဥပမာ - မာချူ ပဳချူ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ပေရူ)
== ၆။ လၟိဟ်ဒတန် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ပါ်ပရအ် လ္တူဂၠးတိ (Statistics and Global Distribution) ==
စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၂၀၂၃ ဂှ်၊ ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံ ၁,၁၉၉ ဒၞာဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် ၁၆၈ ဍုင်ရ။ ဍုင်အဳတလဳ (Italy) ဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိတုဲ၊ ကြဴနူဂှ် ဍုင်ကြုက် (China) ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဂျာမနဳ (Germany) တအ် ပါဝင်ရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LqAwaZl1w2s ဗီုလဵု ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ရုဲစှ် အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ (YouTube)]
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:center;"
|+ လၟိဟ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ နကဵု ဒေသဂမၠိုင် (၂၀၂၃)
|-
! ဒေသ (Region) !! ယေန်သၞာင် (Cultural) !! သဘာဝ (Natural) !! ပံင်စပ် (Mixed) !! သီုဖအိုတ် (Total)
|-
| အာဖရိက (Africa) || 54 || 39 || 5 || '''98'''
|-
| ဍုင်အာရပ် (Arab States) || 82 || 6 || 3 || '''91'''
|-
| အာရှ ကေုာံ ပသဳဖိတ် (Asia and Pacific) || 195 || 70 || 12 || '''277'''
|-
| ဥရဝ်ပ ကေုာံ အမေရိကသၟဝ်ကျာ (Europe & North America) || 476 || 66 || 11 || '''553'''
|-
| လေတ်တေန် အမေရိက ကေုာံ ကာရေဗဳယေန် (Latin America & Caribbean) || 100 || 38 || 8 || '''146'''
|-
| '''သီုဖအိုတ် အလုံဂၠးတိ''' || '''907''' || '''219''' || '''39''' || '''1,199'''
|}
== ၇။ အာဲကၟာဲ မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ (World Heritage in Danger) ==
[[File:Minaret of Jam 2004.jpg|thumb|left|250px|မဳနာရေတ် ဂျာမ် (Minaret of Jam) ပ္ဍဲဍုင် အာဖဂါန်နေတ်သတာန် မလုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ စရင် အာဲကၟာဲ မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ။]]
ယူနေတ်သကဝ် စွံလဝ် စရင် တၟေင်မွဲ မကော်ခဴစ "[[စရင် အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ]]" (List of World Heritage in Danger) ရ။ ဒတန်တအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ မလေပ် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ လီုလာ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပၞာန် (Armed conflict)၊ ဘဲသဘာဝ (Natural disasters)၊ ပရေင်ကၠိခတောန် (Pollution)၊ ပွမရာပ်စမၠောအ် (Poaching)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ခုတ်ပလီု ဂြိုပ် (Deforestation) တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Leask |first=Anna |author2=Fyall, Alan |title=Managing World Heritage Sites |url=https://archive.org/details/managingworldher0000unse |year=2006 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=978-0750665469}}</ref>
ပွမစုတ် ပ္ဍဲစရင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ကဵုဒုဟ် ကုဍုင်ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍေံဒှ် ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံ ကော်ဘိက် ပရေင်ရီုဗင် နူဂၠးကဝ် သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ဒတန်ဂှ်ရ။ ဥပမာ - ဒတန်ဝင် ပ္ဍဲဍုင် သဳရဳယျာ (Syria) ကေုာံ အာဖဂါန်နေတ်သတာန် (Afghanistan) တအ်ဝွံ ပါဝင်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲစရင်ဏအ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုင်ရ။
== ၈။ ဖဵုသွဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ (Benefits and Tourism/Economic Impact) ==
ပွမကလိဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဝွံ ကဵုဖဵုသွဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ် သွက် ဍုင် ကေုာံ ဒေသဂှ်ရ-
* '''ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ (Tourism):''' လၟိဟ် ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ ဂၠးကဝ် ကၠုင်စိုပ် ဂၠိုင်တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန်တုဲ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဒေသ ဇၞော်မောဝ်တိုန်ရ။ အရာဏအ် ကတဵုဗဒှ်ကဵု ကမၠောန် သွက်ကောန်ဒေသတအ်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်မင်မွဲ ကေုာံ သြန်ထံက်ပင် (Protection and Funding):''' ကလိဂွံ အရီုအဗင် နူဂၠးကဝ် ကေုာံ သြန်ထံက်ပင် နူကဵု World Heritage Fund သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ ကေုာံ ကလေင်ပလေဝ် ဒတန်တအ်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ ဂုဏ်စရာဲ (Identity and Pride):''' ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ် ဂုဏ်စရာဲ ဇြဟတ်မာန် လ္တူ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂကူဇကုရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frey |first=Bruno S. |author2=Pamini, Paolo |title=Making World Heritage Truly Global: The Culture Certificate Scheme |url=https://archive.org/details/oxford-review-of-economic-policy_summer-2009_25_2/page/239 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |year=2009 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=239-252}}</ref>
== ၉။ ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ပါ်ပါဲဂမၠိုၚ် (Challenges and Criticisms) ==
ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု ဖဵုသွဟ် ခိုဟ်ကီုလေဝ်၊ သၞောတ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ပါ်ပါဲ နွံကီုရ-
* '''ပရေင်ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ လောန်ကာဲ (Overtourism):''' ဒတန်လ္ၚဵု ညံင်ရဴ ဍုင် ဝေနေတ် (Venice) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မာချူ ပဳချူ ဂှ် ကၟုဲဂၠိုင်လောန်တုဲ ပလီုပလာ်ကဵု ဒတန်တြေံ ကေုာံ ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်မံင်တန်တဴ ကောန်ဍုင်တအ် ဂွံစှ်ေအာရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Di Giovine |first=Michael A. |title=The Heritage-scape: UNESCO, World Heritage, and Tourism |url=https://archive.org/details/heritagescapeune0000digi |year=2009 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0739114346}}</ref>
* '''လညာတ် အဥရဝ်ပ မဓလီုဖဍိုက် (Eurocentrism):''' စရင် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဝွံ ဒတန် နူကဵု ဍုင် ဥရဝ်ပ ကေုာံ အမေရိကသၟဝ်ကျာ ဂၠိုင်ဒၟံင်တုဲ၊ ဒတန် နူအဖရိက ကေုာံ လ္ၚဵု ပ္ဍဲအာရှ တအ် ဂွံဒုင်ရုဲစှ် အောန်ဒၟံင်ရ။ လညာတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒးဒုင်ပါ်ပါဲ ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေံဟွံမဲကဵု ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် ဂၠးကဝ်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate Change):''' ဘဲသဘာဝ မကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ရာသဳဥတု ပြံင်လှာဲ ညံင်ရဴ ဍာ်ၜဳသၠုင်တိုန် ကေုာံ ဗြဲကျာဇၞော်တအ်ဝွံ ပကဵု အန္တရာဲ ကု ဒတန် ဝင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Markham |first=Adam |title=World Heritage and Tourism in a Changing Climate |year=2016 |publisher=UNEP/UNESCO |isbn=978-92-807-3533-8}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်မၚ်မွဲ သဘာဝဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Future and Digital Preservation) ==
ပ္ဍဲအနာဂတ်ဂှ် ပရေင်မင်မွဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဝွံ ဒးပံင်စပ် ကု ကွတ်ပညာ တၟိတအ်ရ။ သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ပြသၞာ ဘဲသဘာဝ ကေုာံ ပၞာန်ဂှ်၊ ကွတ်ပညာ ညံင်ရဴ နဲကဲ တက်ဗီု 3D Scanning လေဇာ (Laser scanning) ကေုာံ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် အာခိုက် (Digital Archiving) တအ် စကာကၠုင် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။
ဂကောံ ညံင်ရဴ CyArk တအ်ဝွံ ဂစာန်ဒၟံင် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ ဗီုပြင် ဒတန်တအ် နကဵု တင်နင် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် မာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |last=CyArk |title=Digital Preservation of Heritage Sites |url=https://cyark.org/ |publisher=CyArk |access-date=2023-11-05}}</ref> နကဵု နဲကဲဏအ် ၜိုန်ရ ဒတန်ဇေတ်တ် လီုလာ်အာကီုလေဝ်၊ အာဲကၟာဲ မဆေင်ကဵု ဉာဏ်ပညာ ကေုာံ ဗီုပြင် အာခဳတက်ချာ တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်တန်တဴအာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒက်ပတန် Virtual Reality (VR) သွက် ကောန်စဴ အနာဂတ်တအ် မာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Addison |first=Alonzo C. |title=Emerging trends in virtual heritage |journal=IEEE Multimedia |year=2000 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=22-25}}</ref> အရာဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဂၠံင်တရဴ တၟိ သွက် ပရေင်မင်မွဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ပ္ဍဲခေတ် ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံရ။
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="unesco_about">{{cite web |last=UNESCO |title=World Heritage |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/about/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2023-11-01}}</ref>
<ref name="harrison">{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Rodney |title=Heritage: Critical Approaches |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415591959}}</ref>
<ref name="batra">{{cite book |last=Batra |first=A. |title=Tourism and World Heritage Sites |year=2006 |publisher=Tourism Authority of Thailand}}</ref>
<ref name="unesco_committee">{{cite web |last=UNESCO |title=The World Heritage Committee |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/committee/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2023-11-02}}</ref>
<ref name="nomination">{{cite web |last=UNESCO |title=The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/guidelines/ |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=2023-11-03}}</ref>
<ref name="criteria">{{cite web |last=UNESCO |title=The Criteria for Selection |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2023-11-04}}</ref>
<ref name="leask">{{cite book |last=Leask |first=Anna |author2=Fyall, Alan |title=Managing World Heritage Sites |url=https://archive.org/details/managingworldher0000unse |year=2006 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=978-0750665469}}</ref>
<ref name="frey">{{cite journal |last=Frey |first=Bruno S. |author2=Pamini, Paolo |title=Making World Heritage Truly Global: The Culture Certificate Scheme |url=https://archive.org/details/oxford-review-of-economic-policy_summer-2009_25_2/page/239 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |year=2009 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=239-252}}</ref>
<ref name="digiovine">{{cite book |last=Di Giovine |first=Michael A. |title=The Heritage-scape: UNESCO, World Heritage, and Tourism |url=https://archive.org/details/heritagescapeune0000digi |year=2009 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0739114346}}</ref>
<ref name="markham">{{cite book |last=Markham |first=Adam |title=World Heritage and Tourism in a Changing Climate |year=2016 |publisher=UNEP/UNESCO |isbn=978-92-807-3533-8}}</ref>
<ref name="cyark">{{cite web |last=CyArk |title=Digital Preservation of Heritage Sites |url=https://cyark.org/ |publisher=CyArk |access-date=2023-11-05}}</ref>
<ref name="addison">{{cite journal |last=Addison |first=Alonzo C. |title=Emerging trends in virtual heritage |journal=IEEE Multimedia |year=2000 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=22-25}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ
| title = ယူနေတ်သကဝ် (UNESCO) ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = ဂကူ အာဲကၟာဲဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင်]] (Cultural)
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ သဘာဝ]] (Natural)
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ပံင်စပ်]] (Mixed)
| group2 = ဒေသဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲ အာရှ]]
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲ အဖရိက]]
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲ ဥရဝ်ပ]]
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိက]]
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ တၞဟ်တအ်
| list3 =
* [[ကမ္မတဳ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ]]
* [[စရင် အာဲကၟာဲ မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ]]
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထုဟွံသေင်]] (Intangible Cultural Heritage)
}}
[[Category:ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ]]
[[Category:ယေန်သၞာင်]]
[[Category:ယူနေတ်သကဝ်]]
[[Category:ဝင် ဂၠးတိ]]
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အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ
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{{Infobox historic site
| name = အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ (World Heritage)
| image = [[File:The Parthenon in Athens.jpg|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ပါသဳနွန် (Parthenon) ပ္ဍဲဍုင် အေသင် မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂၠးတိ ဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ်မွဲ။]]
| caption = ဘာကျာ် ပါသဳနွန် (Parthenon) ပ္ဍဲဍုင် ဂရိတ် မဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ မပြဲပြဲ။
| location = အလုံဂၠးတိ
| governing_body = [[ယူနေတ်သကဝ်]] (UNESCO)
| type = ယေန်သၞာင်, သဘာဝ, ရုပ်ဝတ္ထုဟွံသေင်, လိက်ပတ်
| date_established = ၁၉၇၂ (သၞောဝ်ကသုက် ဒတန်), ၂၀၀၃ (သၞောဝ်ကသုက် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထုဟွံသေင်)
| website = [https://whc.unesco.org/ whc.unesco.org]
}}
'''အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ''' ({{lang-en|World Heritage}}) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ဒြပ်ရတ်၊ ဒၞာဲဒတန်၊ အခိုက်ကၞာ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ကေုာံ သဘာဝဂမၠိုင် မၞုံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး သာမည ဗွဲမသၠုင် သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် အလုံအိုတ်သီု မဒးဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံပညာ၊ သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ မကော်ခဴစ [[ယူနေတ်သကဝ်]] (UNESCO) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Rodney |title=Heritage: Critical Approaches |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415591959}}</ref> ဝေါဟာရ "အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ" ဝွံ ဍေံလှဲလးနူ "ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ" (World Heritage Sites) တုဲ ဍေံပံင်စပ်လဝ် သီုကဵု အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် မဟွံမဲကဵု ဒြပ်ရုပ် (Intangible Cultural Heritage) ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ လိက်ပတ် (Memory of the World) သီုဖအိုတ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/home |title=Intangible Cultural Heritage |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=2023-10-20}}</ref>
တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ၊ စဵုဒၞာ၊ ကေုာံ ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် အာဲကၟာဲ မပြဲပြဲတအ်ဏအ် ဇရေင် အဆက်မၞိဟ် အနာဂတ်တအ် ညံင်ဟွံဂွံ ကၠေအ်ကၠက်အာရ။ လညာတ်ဏအ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် လ္တူ သဘဴဓဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အာဲကၟာဲလ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် ဍေံဟွံဆေင်စပ် ကု ဍုင်မွဲဍုင်ဓဝ်သၟးရ၊ ဍေံဒှ် ဒြပ်ရတ် သွက် ဂၠးတိ သီုဖအိုတ်ရ။
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Concept and Definition) ==
"အာဲကၟာဲ" (Heritage) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ ပိုဲမကလိဂွံလဝ် နူကဵု အတိတ်၊ အရာပိုဲမဂျိုင်တန်တဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲပစ္စုပ္ပန်၊ ကေုာံ အရာပိုဲမဒး ပအပ်ကဵု အဆက်ကောန်စဴ ပ္ဍဲအနာဂတ်ရ။ လညာတ် '''အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ''' ဝွံ ပံက်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် နကဵု ယူနေတ်သကဝ် နဒဒှ် "ဒြပ်ရတ် မၞုံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး မဟွံမာန်ပတောအ်ၜတ်ဂွံ သွက် ပရေင်မံင်တန်တဴ ကောန်မၞိဟ်" ရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cleere |first=Henry |title=The concept of 'outstanding universal value' in the World Heritage Convention |journal=Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites |year=1996 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=227-233}}</ref> ပွမမင်မွဲ အာဲကၟာဲတအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်တာလျိုင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂၠးကဝ် သီုဖအိုတ်၊ ဟွံရုဲ ဂကူ၊ ဘာသာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပယျဵုဍုင်ရ။
== ၂။ ဝၚ် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ကသုက် အဓိကဂမၠိုၚ် (History and Key Conventions) ==
[[File:Aswan High Dam.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ကၟာတ်ဍာ် အာသဝါန် မဒှ် ဟိုတ်တမ် မကတဵုဗဒှ် ပရေင်ရီုဗင် စဵုဒၞာ အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ အလန်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်။]]
ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးကဝ်ဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ကြဴနူ [[ပၞာန်ဂၠးကဝ် ဒုတိယ]]၊ အခိင် ဒၞာဲဝင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မဒးဒုင် ပလီုပလာ်လဝ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၅၉ ဂှ်၊ ကၟာတ်ဍာ် အာသဝါန် (Aswan High Dam) ပ္ဍဲအဳဂျေပ် မာန်ဗၠိုက်ပလီုထောအ် ဒၞာဲကျာ်တြေံ အဘူ သိမ်ဘေဝ်တုဲ၊ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် စကၠောန် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ရီုဗင် ကလေင်ပြံင်ဒၞာဲ ဒတန်ဂှ် နကဵု အရီုအဗင် နူ ၅၀ ဍုင်ပြင်င်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Batra |first=A. |title=Tourism and World Heritage Sites |year=2006 |publisher=Tourism Authority of Thailand}}</ref>
နူကဵု ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞးဏအ်၊ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် သၞောဝ်ကသုက် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်-
# '''သၞာံ ၁၉၇၂:''' ကသုက် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်မင်မွဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိ (World Heritage Convention).
# '''သၞာံ ၁၉၉၂:''' အစဳအဇန် အာဲကၟာဲ လိက်ပတ် (Memory of the World Programme).
# '''သၞာံ ၂၀၀၃:''' ကသုက် သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထုဟွံသေင် (Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage).<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Laurajane |title=Uses of Heritage |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415318310}}</ref>
== ၃။ ဂကူ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဂမၠိုၚ် (Categories of World Heritage) ==
အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက ၄ သာ်ရ-
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ ပရေင်ပါ်ကဆံင် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ (Categories of World Heritage)
|-
! ဂကူ အာဲကၟာဲ (Category) !! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Description) !! ဥပမာ (Examples)
|-
| '''၁။ ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် (Tangible Cultural Heritage)''' || အရာမၞုံကဵု ဒြပ်ရုပ် မပ္တံကဵု ဘာကျာ်၊ ဍုင်တြေံ၊ တိုင်ပ္ကဴ၊ လိက်တၟအ်။ || [[ဗုကာံ]]၊ တိုင်ကြုက်မဇၞော်၊ [[မာချူ ပဳချူ]]
|-
| '''၂။ ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ သဘာဝ (Natural Heritage)''' || ဒၞာဲသဘာဝ မပ္တံကဵု ဂြိုပ်၊ ကၟာဍာ်၊ သၞောတ်ဂေဟ မဟွံဒးဒုင်ပထုဲလဝ်။ || ဂြိုပ် အမေဇြောန်၊ [[The Great Barrier Reef]]
|-
| '''၃။ အာဲကၟာဲ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထုဟွံသေင် (Intangible Cultural Heritage)''' || အခိုက်ကၞာ၊ သဘင်၊ လှေ်ဒယှ်ေ၊ ကွတ်တဲ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လညာတ်။ || ယဝ်ဂ (Yoga)၊ သဘင်သင်္ကြန်၊ ကွတ်ပါန်ခဳ
|-
| '''၄။ အာဲကၟာဲ လိက်ပတ် (Memory of the World)''' || လိက်စၟတ်သမ္တီဝင်، လိက်သၠရိုတ်၊ ပရိုင်၊ ကေုာံ တင်နင် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်။ || လိက်သၠရိုတ် မဂၞန်၊ ဒိုင်ယာရဳ အာန်ဖရက် (Anne Frank)
|}
== ၄။ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာၚ် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထုဟွံသေၚ် (Intangible Cultural Heritage) ==
[[File:Angkor_Wat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထုဟွံသေင်ဝွံ သီုမင်မွဲ အခိုက်ကၞာ လှေ်ဒယှ်ေ ကေုာံ သဘင် မဆက်စပ် ကု ဒတန်ဝင်တအ်ရ။]]
လညာတ် "အာဲကၟာဲ" ဂှ် ဗွဲကိုပ်ကၠာ စွံအာရီု လ္တူ အရာမၞုံကဵု ဒြပ်ရုပ် (သ္ၚိ၊ တၟအ်) သၟးရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၃ ဂှ်၊ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် စၟတ်သမ္တီကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ ယေန်သၞာင် ဇေတ်တ်ဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်ရ။ **အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထုဟွံသေင်** (ICH) ဝွံ ပါဝင်ကဵု-
* ပရေင်ဟီုတွဟ် ကေုာံ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ (Oral traditions and language).
* သဘင် ကေုာံ လှေ်ဒယှ်ေ (Performing arts).
* အခိုက်ကၞာ ပရေင်ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ သဘင်ကျာ် (Social practices, rituals and festive events).
* လညာတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စကာ သဘာဝ (Knowledge concerning nature).
* ကွတ်တဲ အခိုက်တြေံ (Traditional craftsmanship).<ref>{{cite book |last=Aikawa-Faure |first=Noriko |title=The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage |year=2009 |publisher=Intangible Heritage |isbn=978-0415473965}}</ref>
ပွမမင်မွဲ အာဲကၟာဲဏအ်ဝွံ ဒးပံင်ကောံ ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် သီုကဵု ညးဒေသတအ် တိုက်ရိုက်ရ။
== ၅။ လၟေၚ်ကမၠောန် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ ကမ္မတဳ (Designation and Committees) ==
သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒတန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အခိုက်ကၞာမွဲမွဲ နဒဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဂှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဍေံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။
# '''စရင်စမ်ၜတ် (Tentative List):''' အလဵုအသဳ ဍုင်တအ် ဒးပၠောပ် စရင်။
# '''ပရေင်စၟတ်သ္ၚေဝ် (Evaluation):''' ဂကောံ ပညာသျှင် မပ္တံကဵု ICOMOS (သွက် ယေန်သၞာင်) ကေုာံ IUCN (သွက် သဘာဝ) တအ် စၟတ်သ္ၚေဝ်ရ။
# '''ကမ္မတဳ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ (World Heritage Committee):''' ကမ္မတဳ မၞုံကဵု ဍုင်စၞး ၂၁ ဍုင်ဝွံ ကောံဓရီု ဇၟာပ်သၞာံတုဲ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် လက္ကရဴအိုတ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/nominations/ |title=The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=2023-10-14}}</ref>
== ၆။ ပရေၚ်မၚ်မွဲ ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ (Conservation and Protection) ==
ပွမစၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဂှ် ဒှ်ဆ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ကၠာအိုတ်ရ။ တာလျိုင် အဓိကဂှ် ဒှ် ပွမမင်မွဲ (Conservation) ရ။ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် '''ရန်ပုံငွေ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ''' (World Heritage Fund) သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် သြန် သွက် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ကလေင်ပလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ ဘဲအန္တရာဲ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကဵုပညာ ကု ဍုင် မၞုံပၟိက် အရီုအဗင်တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Leask |first=Anna |author2=Fyall, Alan |title=Managing World Heritage Sites |url=https://archive.org/details/managingworldher0000unse |year=2006 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=978-0750665469}}</ref>
== ၇။ ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ အန္တရာဲဂမၠိုၚ် (Threats and Challenges) ==
အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒးဆဵုဂဗဒၟံင် ဘဲအန္တရာဲ မမာန်ပလီုပလာ် ဍေံတအ် လၟိုန်ရ-
* '''ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate Change):''' ဍာ်ၜဳ သၠုင်တိုန် (ဥပမာ- ဝေနေတ် Venice) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တိကှ်ေ (Desertification)။
* '''ပၞာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံညိင်ဝတ် (Armed Conflict):''' ဒတန်ဝင် ပ္ဍဲ သဳရဳယျာ (Syria)၊ အာဖဂါန်နေတ်သတာန် (Afghanistan)၊ ကေုာံ ယူကရေိန် (Ukraine) တအ် ဒးဒုင် ပလီုပလာ်လဝ်။
* '''ပရေင်ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ လောန်ကာဲ (Overtourism):''' မၞိဟ်အာဝေင် ဂၠိုင်လောန်တုဲ ပကဵု ဖဵုပရေအ် ကု ဒတန်တြေံ ကေုာံ ညးဒေသတအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Di Giovine |first=Michael A. |title=The Heritage-scape: UNESCO, World Heritage, and Tourism |url=https://archive.org/details/heritagescapeune0000digi |year=2009 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0739114346}}</ref>
ဒတန် မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ သၠုင်အိုတ်တအ်ဂှ် ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ပၠောပ်စုတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ '''စရင် အာဲကၟာဲ မဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာဲ''' (List of World Heritage in Danger) ရ။
== ၈။ ဖဵုသွဟ် လ္တူ ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Economic and Social Impacts) ==
ပွမကလိဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိဝွံ ကဵုဖဵုသွဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ် သွက် ဒေသဂှ်ရ-
* '''ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economic Boost):''' လၟိဟ် ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ ဂၠးကဝ် (Tourism) ဇၞော်မောဝ်တိုန်တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ်ကဵု ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ သြန်လုပ် သွက် ညးဒေသတအ်ရ။ အရာဏအ် ကော်ခဴစ "UNESCO Effect" ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Social Identity):''' ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ် ဇြဟတ်မာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆာန်ဂကူ လ္တူ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဇကုရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frey |first=Bruno S. |author2=Pamini, Paolo |title=Making World Heritage Truly Global: The Culture Certificate Scheme |url=https://archive.org/details/oxford-review-of-economic-policy_summer-2009_25_2/page/239 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |year=2009 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=239-252}}</ref>
== ၉။ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာၚ် မန်/အာရှအဂၞဲ (World Heritage in Southeast Asia and Mon Culture) ==
ဒေသ အာရှအဂၞဲဝွံ နွံကဵု အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ မဇၞော်လှဲလး ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ညံင်ရဴ အန်ကောရ်ဝတ် (Angkor Wat) ပ္ဍဲကမ္ဗောဒဳယျာ ကေုာံ ဗေရဝ်ဗူဒူ (Borobudur) ပ္ဍဲအေန်ဒဝ်နဳယျာ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဗၟာဂှ် နွံကဵု ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်တြေံပျူ (Pyu Ancient Cities) ကေုာံ ဒေသယေန်သၞာင် [[ဗုကာံ]] (Bagan) ရ။ သွက် ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ ဝင် ဂကူမန်ပိုဲလေဝ်၊ အာဲကၟာဲ ညံင်ရဴ [[ဍုင်သဓီု]] ကေုာံ အခိုက်ကၞာ လိက်ပတ်မန်တအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး မထေက်ကဵု ဒးဒုင် မင်မွဲ ကေုာံ ပတိုန်စရင် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲအနာဂတ်မာန်ရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LqAwaZl1w2s ယူနေတ်သကဝ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မွဲ အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ (YouTube)]
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် အာခိုက် (The Future and Digital Archiving) ==
ပ္ဍဲခေတ် လၟုဟ်ဝွံ၊ ကွတ်ပညာ တၟိ ပြံင်လှာဲကၠုင် ဗီုပြင် ပိုဲမမင်မွဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိရ။ ကွတ်ပညာ ညံင်ရဴ တက်ဗီု 3D Scanning، ဒရုန်း (Drones) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် ဗီုရုပ် (Virtual Reality - VR) တအ် စကာကၠုင် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ ဒတန်တအ် နကဵု တင်နင် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်ရ။
ဂကောံ ညံင်ရဴ [[CyArk]] တအ်ဝွံ ဂစာန် တက်ကေတ် ဗီုပြင် 3D သွက် ဒတန်ဝင် လ္တူဂၠးတိ သီုဖအိုတ် (သီုကဵု ပ္ဍဲဗုကာံ) ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cyark.org/ |title=Digital Preservation of Heritage Sites |publisher=CyArk |access-date=2023-10-16}}</ref> နကဵု နဲကဲ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် အာခိုက် (Digital Archiving) ဏအ်၊ ၜိုန်ရ ဒတန်ဇေတ်တ် ဒးဒုင် လီုလာ်အာ ဟိုတ်နူ ဘဲသဘာဝ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပၞာန်ကီုလေဝ်၊ အာဲကၟာဲ မဆေင်ကဵု ဉာဏ်ပညာတအ် ဆက်တန်တဴအာ သွက် အဆက်ကောန်စဴ အနာဂတ်တအ် လၟိုန်မာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Fiona |author2=Kenderdine, Sarah |title=Theorizing Digital Cultural Heritage |url=https://archive.org/details/theorizingdigita0000unse |year=2007 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0262033534}}</ref>
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="harrison">{{cite book |last=Harrison |first=Rodney |title=Heritage: Critical Approaches |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415591959}}</ref>
<ref name="unesco_ich">{{cite web |url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/home |title=Intangible Cultural Heritage |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=2023-10-20}}</ref>
<ref name="cleere">{{cite journal |last=Cleere |first=Henry |title=The concept of 'outstanding universal value' in the World Heritage Convention |journal=Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites |year=1996 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=227-233}}</ref>
<ref name="batra">{{cite book |last=Batra |first=A. |title=Tourism and World Heritage Sites |year=2006 |publisher=Tourism Authority of Thailand}}</ref>
<ref name="smith">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Laurajane |title=Uses of Heritage |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415318310}}</ref>
<ref name="aikawa">{{cite book |last=Aikawa-Faure |first=Noriko |title=The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage |year=2009 |publisher=Intangible Heritage |isbn=978-0415473965}}</ref>
<ref name="nomination">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/nominations/ |title=The Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=2023-10-14}}</ref>
<ref name="leask">{{cite book |last=Leask |first=Anna |author2=Fyall, Alan |title=Managing World Heritage Sites |url=https://archive.org/details/managingworldher0000unse |year=2006 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=978-0750665469}}</ref>
<ref name="digiovine">{{cite book |last=Di Giovine |first=Michael A. |title=The Heritage-scape: UNESCO, World Heritage, and Tourism |url=https://archive.org/details/heritagescapeune0000digi |year=2009 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0739114346}}</ref>
<ref name="frey">{{cite journal |last=Frey |first=Bruno S. |author2=Pamini, Paolo |title=Making World Heritage Truly Global: The Culture Certificate Scheme |url=https://archive.org/details/oxford-review-of-economic-policy_summer-2009_25_2/page/239 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |year=2009 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=239-252}}</ref>
<ref name="cyark">{{cite web |url=https://cyark.org/ |title=Digital Preservation of Heritage Sites |publisher=CyArk |access-date=2023-10-16}}</ref>
<ref name="cameron">{{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Fiona |author2=Kenderdine, Sarah |title=Theorizing Digital Cultural Heritage |url=https://archive.org/details/theorizingdigita0000unse |year=2007 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0262033534}}</ref>
</references>
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ခွဳပူ
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Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260809)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]
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{{Infobox artifact
| name = ခွဳပူ (Quipu / Khipu)
| image = [[File:Inca_Quipu.jpg|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ခွဳပူ မဒှ် ကိရိယာ စၟတ်သမ္တီတင်နင် နကဵု ဇုက်ခ္ဍိ ပ္ဍဲခေတ် အေန်ကာ။]]
| caption = ခွဳပူ (Quipu) မၞုံကဵု ဇုက်အဓိက ကေုာံ ဇုက်ကွက်ဂမၠိုင် မထ္ၜးပျးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲပြတိုက် လာရ်ကဝ် (Larco Museum) ဍုင်လဳမာ။
| type = ကိရိယာ စၟတ်သမ္တီ တင်နင် (Recording device)
| culture = ယေန်သၞာင် အာန်ဒဳ (Andean cultures), [[အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာ]]
| material = တောဝ် (Cotton) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တသော် လာမာ ကေုာံ အာလ်ပါကာ
| purpose = စၟတ်သမ္တီ စရင်မၞိဟ်၊ အခေါန်၊ လိက်ဝင် ကေုာံ ကာလ
| current_location = ပြတိုက်ဂမၠိုင် အလုံဂၠးတိ (သှ်ေၜိုတ် ၁၀၀၀ တၞး)
}}
'''ခွဳပူ''' ({{lang-en|Quipu}} ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး {{lang-qu|Khipu}}) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်ကိရိယာ သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ တင်နင် (recording devices) မကၠောန်လဝ် နကဵု ဇုက်မခ္ဍိလဝ် (knotted strings) မစကာလဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ယေန်သၞာင် ဒေသအာန်ဒဳ (Andean South America) တၟေင်တၟဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာ]] (Inca Empire) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Urton |first=Gary |title=Signs of the Inka Khipu: Binary Coding in the Andean Knotted-String Records |year=2003 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0292785403}}</ref> ညးအေန်ကာတအ်ဝွံ ဟွံမဲကဵု သၞောတ်မလိက် သွက်ဂွံချူ (written language) ညံင်ရဴ ဂကူတၞဟ်တအ်ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေံတအ် စကာ ခွဳပူ နဒဒှ် သၞောတ် ၃-ဒဳ (3D system) သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ စရင်မၞိဟ်၊ လၟိဟ်သြန်အခေါန်၊ ပရူပရာ ဝင် ကေုာံ လၟေင်ကာလ ဗွဲမစိုပ်တရဴရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Ascher |first=Marcia |author2=Ascher, Robert |title=Code of the Quipu: A Study in Media, Mathematics, and Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0472063251 |year=1981 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0472063255}}</ref>
ခွဳပူ မွဲတၞးဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု "ဇုက်အဓိက" (Primary cord) မွဲတၞုင်တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲဇုက်အဓိကဂှ် ကွက်စုတ်လဝ် "ဇုက်ကွက်" (Pendant cords) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ တင်နင်တအ်ဂှ် ပၞုက်သိုပ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗီုပြင် ခ္ဍိ (knot types)၊ ဒၞာဲမခ္ဍိလဝ် (knot position)၊ အရံင် ဇုက် (colors) ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် ဇုက်တအ်ရ။
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိရုတ္တိ ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Etymology and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ အင်္ဂလိက် "Quipu" (ခွဳပူ) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ ဝေါဟာရ ဘာသာ ကေချူအာ (Quechua) ''khipu'' မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ခ္ဍိ" (knot) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ပွမခ္ဍိ" (to knot) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Salomon |first=Frank |title=The Cord Keepers: Khipus and Cultural Life in a Peruvian Village |url=https://archive.org/details/cordkeeperskhipu0000salo |year=2004 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0822333906}}</ref> ဘာသာကေချူအာဂှ် ဒှ်ဘာသာစကား သဘာဝ မစကာလဝ် ပ္ဍဲအေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာရ။
ပ္ဍဲလညာတ် အာခဳအဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ (Archaeology)၊ ခွဳပူ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ကိရိယာ စၟတ်သမ္တီ မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဇုက်တောဝ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇုက်တသော် မၞုံကဵု ခ္ဍိနာနာသာ်၊ မစကာ သွက်ဂွံ ဂိုင်သိပ် တင်နင် ဂၞန်သင်္ချာ (numerical data) ကေုာံ တင်နင် လိက်ပတ် (narrative/logographic data) ရ။ ညးမမင်မွဲ ကေုာံ ညးမဗှ် ခွဳပူ တအ်ဂှ် ကော်ခဴစ ''ခွဳပူကာမာယံက်'' ([[Quipucamayoc]]) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ညးမမင်မွဲ ခ္ဍိ" ရ။
== ၂။ ဝၚ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ကတဵုဒှ် (History and Origin) ==
[[File:Caral_Quipu.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ခွဳပူ ခေတ်တြေံအိုတ် မဂၠာဲဆဵုကေတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်တြေံ ကာရဝ် (Caral) မၞုံအာယုက် ၜိုတ် ၄,၅၀၀ သၞာံ။]]
ၜိုန်ရ ခွဳပူဂှ် ဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ်လဝ် ဟိုတ်နူ အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာ (၁၄၀၀ - ၁၅၃၂ ခရေတ်) ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်စကာ ဇုက်ခ္ဍိဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲဒေသ အာန်ဒဳ ကိုပ်ကၠာနူ အေန်ကာ ဗွဲမလံလာ်ရ။ အစာသုတေသန အာခဳအဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳတအ် ဂၠာဲဆဵုကေတ် ခွဳပူ မတြေံအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်တြေံ ကာရဝ် (Caral-Supe civilization) မၞုံပ္ဍဲ ကမ်းရိုးတန်း ပေရူတုဲ၊ ဍေံတအ် နွံအာယုက် ၜိုတ် ၂,၅၀၀ သၞာံ ကိုပ်ကၠာခရေတ် (BC) ရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shady |first=Ruth |title=Caral-Supe: La civilización más antigua de América |journal=Investigaciones Sociales |year=2006 |volume=10 |issue=17 |pages=45-66}}</ref>
အေန်ပါယာ ညံင်ရဴ [[ဝါရဳ]] (Wari Empire) (၆၀၀ - ၁၀၀၀ ခရေတ်) လေဝ် စကာလဝ် ခွဳပူ ကီုရ။ ဆဂး၊ ပ္ဍဲခေတ် အေန်ကာဂှ်ဟေင် သၞောတ်ခွဳပူဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ်တိုန် စိုပ်ကဆံင် သၠုင်အိုတ် ကေုာံ ဒှ်ကၠုင် သၞောတ်စၟတ်သမ္တီ အလဵုအသဳ အလုံမွဲ အေန်ပါယာရ။ သၟိင်အေန်ကာတအ် စကာ ခွဳပူ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် မနွံ ဇမ္ၚောဲ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ သ္ၚောဲသ္ၚောဲတအ်ရ။
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ကပေါတ်ဂမၠိုၚ် (Structure and Materials) ==
လဒက်ပတန် ခွဳပူ မွဲတၞးဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နွံကဵု သၞောတ် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ်ရ-
# '''ဇုက်အဓိက (Primary Cord):''' ဒှ်ဇုက် ဇမ္ၚောဲ မၞုံတၞုင်တီု မဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ကွက် ဇုက်တၞဟ်တအ်ရ။
# '''ဇုက်ကွက် (Pendant Cords):''' ဒှ်ဇုက် မကွက်လဝ် နူကဵု ဇုက်အဓိကရ။ ခွဳပူမွဲမွဲ မာန်နွံ ဇုက်ကွက် နူ ၃ တၞုင် စဵုကဵု ၂,၀၀၀ တၞုင် ပြင်င်ရ။
# '''ဇုက်လက္ကရဴ (Subsidiary Cords):''' ဒှ်ဇုက် မဆက်ကွက်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲလ္တူ ဇုက်ကွက်တအ်ပၠန်ရ။ ဍေံထ္ၜးကဵု တင်နင် မဆက်စပ် (sub-categories) ရ။
# '''ဇုက်လ္တူ (Top Cords):''' ဇုက် မကွက်လဝ် လ္ပာ်လ္တူ ဇုက်အဓိကတုဲ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ထ္ၜးကဵု လၟိဟ် ပံင်သီုဖအိုတ် (sum totals) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Locke |first=L. Leland |title=The Ancient Quipu or Peruvian Knot Record |year=1923 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History}}</ref>
'''ကပေါတ် (Materials):''' ခွဳပူ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကၠောန်လဝ် နကဵု တောဝ် (Cotton) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တသော် သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန် မပ္တံကဵု လာမာ (Llama) ကေုာံ အာလ်ပါကာ (Alpaca) ရ။ တောဝ်ဂှ် ဍိုန်ဍောတ်တုဲ စကာဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲဒေသ ကမ်းရိုးတန်းတုဲ၊ တသော်သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန်ဂှ် စကာဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲဒေသ ဒဵုရ။
== ၄။ သၞောတ် ဂၞန်သၚ်္ချာ ကေုာံ ဇုက်ခ္ဍိ (Mathematical System and Knots) ==
ခွဳပူဝွံ စကာလဝ် '''သၞောတ်စှ် (Base-10 Decimal System)''' သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လၟိဟ် ဂၞန်သင်္ချာရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ascher |first=Marcia |title=Mathematical Ideas of the Incas |journal=Native American Mathematics |year=1986 |pages=261-289}}</ref> ဒၞာဲ မခ္ဍိလဝ် ပ္ဍဲဇုက်ဂှ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ကဆံင် ဂၞန်ရ (သၟဝ်အိုတ် = ၁၊ လ္တူတိုန်အာ = ၁၀၊ ၁၀၀၊ ၁၀၀၀)။
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:80%;"
|+ ဂကူ ခ္ဍိ (Types of Knots) ပ္ဍဲ ခွဳပူ ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
|-
! ဂကူ ခ္ဍိ (Knot Type) !! ဗီုပြင် (Description) !! ၚုဟ်မး သင်္ချာ (Numerical Value) !! ဒၞာဲမစွံ (Position)
|-
| '''ခ္ဍိ ထပှ်-ဗီု (Figure-Eight Knot)''' || ဒှ်ခ္ဍိ မတုပ်ကဵု ဂၞန် ၈ || လၟိဟ် '''၁''' ဓဝ် || သၟဝ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဇုက်
|-
| '''ခ္ဍိ ဂၠိင် (Long Knot)''' || ဒှ်ခ္ဍိ မပူရေတ်လဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် || လၟိဟ် '''၂ နူ ၉''' (အတိုင်လၟိဟ် မပူရေတ်လဝ်) || သၟဝ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဇုက်
|-
| '''ခ္ဍိ မွဲ (Single Knot)''' || ဒှ်ခ္ဍိ ဓမ္မတာ မွဲမ || လၟိဟ် '''၁၀, ၁၀၀, ၁၀၀၀, ကေုာံ လ္တူဂှ်''' || ဒၞာဲလ္တူ (တန်တဴလ္တူ ဒၞာဲမခ္ဍိ)
|}
ယဝ်ရ ဇုက်မွဲ ဟွံမဲကဵု ခ္ဍိမ္ဂး၊ ဍေံထ္ၜးကဵု ၚုဟ်မး "သုည" (Zero) ရ။ သၞောတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵုအခေါင် ကု အေန်ကာတအ် ညံင်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဂၞန်သင်္ချာ မဇၞော်မောဝ် စဵုကဵု မသုန် ကိုဋ် ပြင်င်မာန်ရ။
== ၅။ အရံၚ် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Colors and Meanings) ==
[[File:Quipu_details.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ဗီုရုပ် မထ္ၜးကဵု အရံင် နာနာသာ် မစကာလဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇုက်ခွဳပူ။]]
အရံင် မစကာလဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇုက်ခွဳပူတအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဗွဲမလှဲလးရ။ ခွဳပူလ္ၚဵု နွံဆ မွဲအရံင်တုဲ လ္ၚဵုဂှ် နွံကဵု အရံင် ၂ တောဲ ၃ တောဲရ။ ၜိုန်ရ သုတေသနတအ် ဟွံမာန် ပသောင်ကလး အဓိပ္ပါယ် အရံင် သီုဖအိုတ်ဏီကီုလေဝ်၊ အတိုင် လိက်ဝင် သပိန်တအ်မ္ဂး-<ref>{{cite book |last=Radicati di Primeglio |first=Carlos |title=Estudios sobre los Quipus |year=2006 |publisher=Fondo Editorial UNMSM}}</ref>
* '''သာ်ဗု (White):''' မလေပ် စၞောန်ထ္ၜးကဵု သြန် (Silver) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်။
* '''သာ်မိတ် (Yellow):''' မလေပ် စၞောန်ထ္ၜးကဵု ထဝ် (Gold)။
* '''သာ်ဗ္ကေတ် (Red):''' မလေပ် စၞောန်ထ္ၜးကဵု ပၞာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကောန်ပၞာန် (Warriors)။
* '''သာ်လမ္စံက် (Black):''' မလေပ် စၞောန်ထ္ၜးကဵု အခိင် (Time) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရူပရာ မတုဲကၠုင်လဝ်။
* '''သာ်တ္ၚေက် (Green):''' မလေပ် စၞောန်ထ္ၜးကဵု တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ သြောအ်ဂျာင်။
ယဝ်ရ ဇုက်မွဲ ထပက်လဝ် အရံင်ၜါ (Barber-pole style) မ္ဂး၊ ဍေံထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ပရူပရာ ၜါသာ်ရ။
== ၆။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာ (Uses in the Inca Empire) ==
အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာဝွံ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် သၞောတ်အုပ်ဓုပ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက်တုဲ၊ ခွဳပူဝွံ ဒှ် ကြုတ်ဇုတ် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်ဂှ်ရ။ တာလျိုင် အဓိက သွက် ခွဳပူ ပါဝင်ကဵု-
# '''စရင်မၞိဟ် (Census):''' သၟိင်တအ် စကာ ခွဳပူ သွက်ဂွံ ကံက်စရင် လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်၊ ကောန်ၚာ်၊ ညးဗြဴ ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်ဗျု ပ္ဍဲဇၟာပ်ပ် ကွာန်ရ။
# '''အခေါန် ကေုာံ သယံဇာတ (Taxes and Resources):''' စၟတ်သမ္တီ လၟိဟ် ကပေါတ် မကံက်လဝ် အခေါန် (ဥပမာ- တောဝ်၊ သြောအ်) ကေုာံ လၟိဟ် ကပေါတ် မၞုံပ္ဍဲ ရုံဂိုင်သိပ် အလဵုအသဳ (Qullqa) တအ်ရ။
# '''လၟေင်ကာလ ကေုာံ ကြက္ကဒိန် (Calendrical and Astronomical info):''' ခွဳပူလ္ၚဵုတအ် နွံကဵု ဇုက်ကွက် ၇၃၀ တၞုင် မစၞောန်ထ္ၜးကဵု တ္ၚဲဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပွိုင် ၜါသၞာံရ။
# '''ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရူပရာ (History and Narrative):''' လိက်ဝင်တြေံတအ် ဟီုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ခွဳပူလ္ၚဵု မာန်စၟတ်သမ္တီ လိက်ဝင် သၟိင်တၠတအ်၊ ဆဂး ဍေံတအ် ဒးဒုင် ပသောင်ကလး နူကဵု ပါင် ညးမဗှ် ခွဳပူ (Quipucamayoc) တအ် ပံင်စပ် ကေုာံ ဇုက်တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=D'Altroy |first=Terence N. |title=The Incas |url=https://archive.org/details/incas0000dalt_n0v6 |year=2014 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1444331158}}</ref>
== ၇။ ပရေၚ်လီုလာ် သၟဝ်တဲ သပိန် (Destruction by the Spanish Empire) ==
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၃၂ အခိင် ပၞာန်သပိန် မလုပ်သီကေတ် အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာဂှ်၊ ကိုပ်ကၠာတေံ သပိန်တအ် စကာလဝ် ခွဳပူ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ပရေင်ကံက်အခေါန် ပ္ဍဲဒေသဂှ်ရ။ သၟာခွဳပူတအ် ဒးလုပ်ဟီုထ္ၜး ပ္ဍဲရုင်ဗစာ သပိန်တအ်ရ။
ဆဂး ဗွဲကြဴ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၈၃၊ ပ္ဍဲကောံဓရီု ကံင်သဳ သာသနာ လဳမာ မရနုက်ကဵု ပိ (Third Council of Lima) ဂှ်၊ ဘာကျာ် ကာတ္တလေတ် ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ခွဳပူတအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ကိရိယာ သွက်ဂွံ ရှ်ေသှ်ေ မိစ္ဆာဒိဋ္ဌိ ကေုာံ ဒှ် အရာပၞုက်သိုပ် ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတးရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Brokaw |first=Galen |title=A History of the Khipu |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521197793}}</ref> ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ခွဳပူ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂၠေင် ဒးဒုင် စံင်ပလီုထောအ်တုဲ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး သှ်ေၜိုတ် ၁,၀၀၀ တၞး ပြင်င်ဓဝ်ရ ပ္ဍဲအလုံဂၠးတိ။
== ၈။ ပရေၚ်ဂၠာဲဆဵုတၟိ ကေုာံ သုတေသန (Rediscovery and Modern Research) ==
သုတေသန ခေတ်လၟုဟ် မဆေင်ကဵု ခွဳပူဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၂၃ အခိင် L. Leland Locke ပသောင်ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ ခွဳပူတအ်ဝွံ စကာလဝ် သၞောတ်စှ် (base-10 numerical system) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၈၀ ဂမၠိုင်၊ အစာသုတေသန Marcia Ascher ကေုာံ Robert Ascher တအ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် သင်္ချာ ခွဳပူ ဗွဲမလှဲလးရ။
လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး၊ [[ဂေရဳ အာတန်]] (Gary Urton) ကေုာံ Carrie Brezine နူကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် ဟားဗတ် (Harvard University) တအ် ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် "Harvard Khipu Database" မဒှ် သၞောတ်တင်နင် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် မဂိုင်သိပ်လဝ် တင်နင် ခွဳပူ သီုဖအိုတ် မဂၠာဲဆဵုလဝ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://khipukamayuq.fas.harvard.edu/ |title=Khipu Database Project |publisher=Harvard University |access-date=2023-10-14 |accessdate=2026-06-14 |archivedate=2019-10-03 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003024139/http://khipukamayuq.fas.harvard.edu/ }}</ref> ညးတအ် ထံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ခွဳပူလ္ၚဵုတအ်ဝွံ ဟွံဒှ် ဆ ဂၞန်သင်္ချာ သၟးရ၊ ဍေံမာန်ဒှ် သၞောတ်မလိက် (Logographic script) ၃-ဒဳ မွဲရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AmZ9_Z-R0x0 သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဗီုလဵု ခွဳပူ ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် (YouTube Video - PBS Eons)]
== ၉။ ဒတန်ထ္ၜးပျး ကေုာံ ပြတိုက်ဂမၠိုၚ် (Museums and Collections) ==
[[File:Quipu_at_Museo_Machu_Picchu.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ခွဳပူ မထ္ၜးပျးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲပြတိုက် မာချူ ပဳချူ ဍုင်ကူသကဝ်။]]
လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ခွဳပူ မသှ်ေဒၟံင် ၜိုတ် ၁,၀၀၀ တၞးတအ်ဝွံ ထ္ၜးပျးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲပြတိုက် အလုံဂၠးတိရ။ ဒၞာဲမၞုံဂၠိုင်အိုတ်တအ်ဂှ်-
* '''Ethnologisches Museum (Berlin, ဂျာမနဳ):''' နွံကဵု ခွဳပူ ၜိုတ် ၃၀၀ တၞး မဒှ် ကလောအ်ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဥရဝ်ပ။
* '''Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia del Perú (Lima, ပေရူ):''' ထ္ၜးပျးလဝ် ခွဳပူ ဝင်အဓိက ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။
* '''Radicati Collection (Lima, ပေရူ):''' ဂိုင်သိပ်လဝ် ခွဳပူ တၟေင်တၟဟ်ဂမၠိုင်។
* '''American Museum of Natural History (New York, အမေရိကာန်):''' ဒၞာဲ L. Leland Locke မလ္ၚတ်လဝ် ခွဳပူ အလန်ကိုပ်ကၠာ။
== ၁၀။ သရုပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် သုတေသန (Conclusion and Future Research) ==
ခွဳပူ (Quipu) ဝွံ ဒှ် သာဓက အစောမ်စရာဲ ဉာဏ်ပညာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် မတၟေင်တၟဟ်အိုတ်မွဲရ။ ဍေံထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ သၞောတ်စၟတ်သမ္တီ လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ဂၞန်သင်္ချာဂှ် ဟွံဒးဒုင်သဇိုင် လ္တူ မလိက် မချူလ္တူ စက္ခော ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တၟအ် လၟိုန်ကာလရ—ဍေံမာန်ဒှ်ကၠုင် နကဵု ဗီုပြင် လဒက်ပတန် ၃-ဒဳ (3D physical objects) ညံင်ရဴ ဇုက်ခ္ဍိကီုရ။
သွက် အနာဂတ် သုတေသနဂှ်၊ အစာပညာတအ် ဆက်ဂစာန်ဒၟံင် သွက်ဂွံ ပသောင်ကလး "ခွဳပူ လိက်ပတ်" (Narrative khipus) မဒှ် ခွဳပူ မပၞုက်သိုပ်လဝ် လိက်ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရူပရာ ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ မာန်ပသောင်ကလးမာန်မ္ဂး၊ ပိုဲတအ် ဂွံအခေါင် မိင်ကေတ် ရမ္သာင် ဝင် ဂကူအေန်ကာ နူကဵု အလဵုဇကု ညးတအ် တိုက်ရိုက် မာန်ရ။
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="Urton2003">{{cite book |last=Urton |first=Gary |title=Signs of the Inka Khipu: Binary Coding in the Andean Knotted-String Records |year=2003 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0292785403}}</ref>
<ref name="Ascher1981">{{cite book |last=Ascher |first=Marcia |author2=Ascher, Robert |title=Code of the Quipu: A Study in Media, Mathematics, and Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0472063251 |year=1981 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0472063255}}</ref>
<ref name="Salomon2004">{{cite book |last=Salomon |first=Frank |title=The Cord Keepers: Khipus and Cultural Life in a Peruvian Village |url=https://archive.org/details/cordkeeperskhipu0000salo |year=2004 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0822333906}}</ref>
<ref name="Shady2006">{{cite journal |last=Shady |first=Ruth |title=Caral-Supe: La civilización más antigua de América |journal=Investigaciones Sociales |year=2006 |volume=10 |issue=17 |pages=45-66}}</ref>
<ref name="Locke1923">{{cite book |last=Locke |first=L. Leland |title=The Ancient Quipu or Peruvian Knot Record |year=1923 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History}}</ref>
<ref name="Ascher1986">{{cite journal |last=Ascher |first=Marcia |title=Mathematical Ideas of the Incas |journal=Native American Mathematics |year=1986 |pages=261-289}}</ref>
<ref name="Radicati2006">{{cite book |last=Radicati di Primeglio |first=Carlos |title=Estudios sobre los Quipus |year=2006 |publisher=Fondo Editorial UNMSM}}</ref>
<ref name="DAltroy2014">{{cite book |last=D'Altroy |first=Terence N. |title=The Incas |url=https://archive.org/details/incas0000dalt_n0v6 |year=2014 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1444331158}}</ref>
<ref name="Brokaw2010">{{cite book |last=Brokaw |first=Galen |title=A History of the Khipu |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521197793}}</ref>
<ref name="HarvardKhipu">{{cite web |url=https://khipukamayuq.fas.harvard.edu/ |title=Khipu Database Project |publisher=Harvard University |access-date=2023-10-14 |accessdate=2026-06-14 |archivedate=2019-10-03 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003024139/http://khipukamayuq.fas.harvard.edu/ }}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာ
| title = ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ [[အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာ]]
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = သၞောတ်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ ဆက်စၠောအ်
| list1 =
* [[ခွဳပူ]] (Quipu)
* [[ခွဳပူကာမာယံက်]] (Quipucamayoc)
* [[ချာသကဳ]] (Chasqui - တမန်လလောင်)
| group2 = ဒၞာဲဒတန် အဓိက
| list2 =
* [[မာချူ ပဳချူ]]
* [[ကူသကဝ်]]
* [[သာတ်သေဟွာမာန်]] (Sacsayhuamán)
* [[ဂၠံင်တရဴ အေန်ကာ]] (Inca Trail)
| group3 = ဝင် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်
| list3 =
* [[သၟိင် ပါချာကူတဳ]] (Pachacuti)
* [[ပၞာန်သပိန် လုပ်သီ အေန်ကာ]]
* [[ယေန်သၞာင် အာန်ဒဳ]]
}}
[[Category:ခွဳပူ]]
[[Category:အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာ]]
[[Category:ဝင် အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာ]]
[[Category:ကိရိယာ သင်္ချာ]]
[[Category:သၞောတ်စၟတ်သမ္တီ]]
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ပေရူ
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{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = သမ္မတ ဍုင်ပေရူ<br/>(Republic of Peru)
| native_name = {{native name|es|República del Perú}}<br/>{{native name|qu|Piruw Ripuwlika}}<br/>{{native name|ay|Piruw Suyu}}
| common_name = ပေရူ (Peru)
| image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Peru.svg
| national_motto = "Firm and Happy for the Union"
| national_anthem = "Himno Nacional del Perú"
| image_map = Peru in its region.svg
| map_caption = ဒၞာဲဒတန် ဍုင်ပေရူ (သာ်တ္ၚေက်) ပ္ဍဲကဵု အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာ
| capital = [[လဳမာ]] (Lima)
| coordinates = {{Coord|12|2|S|77|1|W|type:city}}
| largest_city = လဳမာ
| official_languages = သပိန်, ကေချူအာ, အာဲမာရာ ကေုာံ အရေဝ်ဒေသတၞဟ်တအ်
| ethnic_groups = ၆၀.၂% မေသတဳဇြဝ် (Mestizo), ၂၅.၈% အမေရိကန်-အေန်ဒဳယျာန်, ၅.၉% သာ်ဗု, ၃.၆% အဖရိကန်, ၀.၁% အာရှ
| religion = ၇၆% ကာတ္တလေတ်, ၁၄% အဳဗာန်ဂျေလဳကာန်
| demonym = ပေရူဗဳယျာန် (Peruvian)
| government_type = သမ္မတ သၞောတ်မွဲမ (Unitary presidential republic)
| leader_title1 = သမ္မတ
| leader_name1 = [[ဒဳနာ ဗဝ်လွာတေ]] (Dina Boluarte)
| leader_title2 = ဝန်ဇၞော်
| leader_name2 = [[အာလ်ဗေရ်တဝ် အဝ်တာရဝ်လာ]] (Alberto Otárola)
| legislature = ကောန်ဂရေတ် ပေရူ (Congress of the Republic)
| area_km2 = ၁,၂၈၅,၂၁၆
| area_rank = မရနုက်ကဵု ၁၉
| population_estimate = ၃၄,၃၅၂,၇၁၉ (၂၀၂၃)
| population_density_km2 = ၂၅
| GDP_PPP = $ ၅၅၆ ဗဳလဳယျောန် (၂၀၂၃)
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $ ၁၅,၅၄၅
| currency = [[သြန် သဝ်]] (Sol) (PEN)
| time_zone = PET (UTC−5)
| calling_code = +51
}}
'''ပေရူ''' ({{lang-en|Peru}}; {{lang-es|Perú}}; {{lang-qu|Piruw}}; {{lang-ay|Piruw}}) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ယၟုအလုံအစင် '''သမ္မတ ဍုင်ပေရူ''' (Republic of Peru) ဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင်မွဲ မနွံပ္ဍဲ လ္ပာ်ပလိုတ် ပလိုတ် [[အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာ]] (South America) ရ။ ဍုင်ဝွံ ပယျဵုဆက်ဒၟံင် ကုဍုင် [[အဳကွေဒေါဝ်]] (Ecuador) ကေုာံ [[ကဝ်လောမ်ဗဳယျာ]] (Colombia) လ္ပာ်သၟဝ်ကျာ၊ ဍုင် [[ဗြာဇြဳ]] (Brazil) လ္ပာ်ဗမံက်၊ ဍုင် [[ဗဝ်လဳဗဳယျာ]] (Bolivia) လ္ပာ်အဂၞဲ၊ ဍုင် [[ချဳလဳ]] (Chile) လ္ပာ်သၠုင်ကျာ တုဲ လ္ပာ်ပလိုတ်ဂှ် စိုပ်ဒၟံင် ၜဳမှာသၟိတ် [[ပါသဳဖေတ်]] (Pacific Ocean) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Hudson |first=Rex A. |title=Peru: A Country Study |year=1993 |publisher=Library of Congress |isbn=978-0844407788}}</ref>
ပေရူဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု ပရေင်ဇဳဝစုံလင် (megadiverse) ဗွဲမဇၞော်လှဲလးတုဲ၊ ပထဝဳဍုင် ပါ်လဝ် ပိဒေသ အဓိက- ဒေသကမ်းရိုးတန်း (Costa) မကှ်ကြဳ၊ ဒေသက္ဍိုပ်ဒဵု [[အာန်ဒဳ]] (Andes) မသၠုင်လောန်၊ ကေုာံ ဒေသဂြိုပ်ဗြဲ [[အမေဇြောန်]] (Amazon basin) တအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင်မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင်ပေရူဝွံ ဒှ်ဒတန် ဂကောံယေန်သၞာင် တြေံအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲအမေရိက ညံင်ရဴ ယေန်သၞာင် နာတ်သကာ (Nazca) ကေုာံ [[အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာ]] (Inca Empire) မဒှ် အေန်ပါယာ မဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ကိုလံဗတ် (Pre-Columbian era) ရ။
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိရုတ္တိ (Etymology) ==
ယၟု "ပေရူ" (Peru) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ ဝေါဟာရ "Birú" (ဘဳရူ) မဒှ်ယၟု သၟိင်တၠဒေသမွဲ ညးမအုပ်ဓုပ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၜိုတ် သၞာံ ၁၅၂၀ ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပ္ၚံက်ဝဳ သာန်မဳဂေဝ် (Gulf of San Miguel) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲဍုင် [[ပါနာမာ]] (Panama) လၟုဟ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Porras Barrenechea |first=Raúl |title=El nombre del Perú |year=1968 |publisher=Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva}}</ref> ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ညးမဂၠာဲတမ္ၚာ သပိန် (Spanish explorers) တအ် စိုပ်အာ လ္ပာ်သၠုင်ကျာဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေတ် ဒေသတအ်ဂှ် နကဵုယၟု "ပေရူ" ရ။ ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်သပိန် သီကေတ် အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၃၂ တုဲ၊ သၟိင်သပိန် ကဵုလဝ်ယၟု အလုံမွဲ ဒေသဂှ် နဒဒှ် "အုပ်ဓုပ်သၟဝ်သပိန် ပေရူ" (Viceroyalty of Peru) ရ။
== ၂။ ဝၚ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ကတဵုဒှ် (History) ==
[[File:Machu Picchu, Peru.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[မာချူ ပဳချူ]] (Machu Picchu) ဍုင်တြေံ အေန်ကာ မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အာဲကၟာဲ ဝင် ဍုင်ပေရူ။]]
ဝင် ဍုင်ပေရူဝွံ လှဲလး ဗွဲမလောန်တုဲ မာန်ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ခေတ်နာနာသာ်ရ-
'''ခေတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ အေန်ကာ (Pre-Inca Cultures):'''
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပေရူဂှ် နွံကဵု ဂကောံယေန်သၞာင် တြေံအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိက မကော်ခဴစ ကာရဝ်-သုပေ (Caral-Supe civilization) မကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ၃,၂၀၀ သၞာံ ကိုပ်ကၠာခရေတ် (BC) ရ။ လက္ကရဴဂှ် ယေန်သၞာင် ညံင်ရဴ ချာဗေန် (Chavín)၊ မဝ်ချေ (Moche) ကေုာံ နာတ်သကာ (Nazca) တအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်လဝ် ကွတ်အာခဳတက်ချာ ကေုာံ ကွတ်တဲ နာနာသာ်ရ။
'''အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာ (The Inca Empire):'''
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၁၅ ဗွဝ်ကၠံဂှ်၊ အေန်ကာတအ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ဒြဟတ်အဝဵု ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲအမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာရ။ ဍုင်ဇၞော်ညးတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဍုင် [[ကူသကဝ်]] (Cusco) တုဲ ညးတအ် သိုင်ပတန်လဝ် ဍုင်ဒယှ် ညံင်ရဴ [[မာချူ ပဳချူ]] ရ။ အေန်ပါယာဝွံ ပံင်ကောံလဝ် ဒေသ အာန်ဒဳ ဗွဲမလှဲလးကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေံဒးဒုင် လီုလာ်အာ နကဵု ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုင် ကေုာံ ယဲကပ် (Smallpox) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=D'Altroy |first=Terence N. |title=The Incas |url=https://archive.org/details/incas0000dalt_n0v6 |year=2014 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1444331158}}</ref>
'''ခေတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် သပိန် (Spanish Conquest):'''
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၃၂ ဂှ်၊ [[ဖရန်စစ္စကို ပဳဇာရဝ်]] (Francisco Pizarro) ကေုာံ ကောန်ပၞာန်သပိန်တအ် လုပ်သီကေတ် အေန်ပါယာ အေန်ကာရ။ သပိန်တအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် လဳမာ (Lima) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၃၅ တုဲ၊ ပေရူဝွံ ဒှ်ကၠုင် တမ်ရိုဟ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (တၟအ်သြန်) မဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက် အေန်ပါယာ သပိန်ရ။
'''ဗၠးၜး ကေုာံ ခေတ်သမ္မတ (Independence and Republic):'''
ပေရူ လလောင်တြး ဗၠးၜး နူသပိန် ပ္ဍဲ ဂျူလာင် ၂၈၊ ၁၈၂၁ နကဵု ပရေင်အာက္ဍိုပ် [[ဟဝ်သေ ဒေ သာန် မာတဳန်]] (José de San Martín) ရ။ ဆဂး၊ ပၞာန်ဗၠးၜးဂှ် အာစိုပ်ဒတုဲ အလုံအစင် ပ္ဍဲ ပၞာန် အာယာကူချဝ် (Battle of Ayacucho) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၂၄ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၂၀ ဗွဝ်ကၠံဂှ် ပေရူ ဒးဆဵုဂဗကဵု ပရေင်ရုသံင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတး (Shining Path) ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Klarén |first=Peter Flindell |title=Peru: Society and Nationhood in the Andes |url=https://archive.org/details/perusocietynatio0000klar |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195069280}}</ref>
== ၃။ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Geography and Climate) ==
[[File:Huascaran_mountain.jpg|thumb|right|200px|က္ဍိုပ်ဒဵု ဟွာသကာရာန် (Huascarán) မဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်ဒဵု မသၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ပေရူ မၞုံသမၠုင် ၆,၇၆၈ မဳတာ။]]
ဍုင်ပေရူဝွံ နွံဇမၞော် ဧရိယာ ၁,၂၈၅,၂၁၆ စတုရံ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (၄၉၆,၂၂၅ စတုရံ တိုင်) တုဲ ဍေံဒှ် ဍုင်မဇၞော်အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ၂၀ ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။ ပထဝဳဍုင် ပါ်လဝ် ပိဒေသ-
# '''La Costa (ကမ်းရိုးတန်း):''' ဒှ်ဒေသ ဇိုင်ၜဳ မကှ်ကြဳ ကေုာံ နွံကဵု ကန္တာရ။ လဳမာ (Lima) ဍုင်ဇၞော်ဂှ် နွံပ္ဍဲဒေသဏအ်ရ။
# '''La Sierra (က္ဍိုပ်ဒဵု):''' ဒှ်ဒေသ က္ဍိုပ်ဒဵု အာန်ဒဳ (Andes) မသၠုင်လောန်။ က္ဍိုပ်ဒဵု [[ဟွာသကာရာန်]] (Huascarán) ဝွံ နွံသမၠုင် ၆,၇၆၈ မဳတာ (၂၂,၂၀၅ ပေ) တုဲ ဒှ်ဒၞာဲသၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲပေရူရ။
# '''La Selva (ဂြိုပ်ဗြဲ):''' ဒှ်ဒေသ ဂြိုပ် အမေဇြောန် မၞုံကဵု ဇဳဝစုံလင် မဂၠိုင်အိုတ်တုဲ ဍေံဂြောပ်လဝ် ၜိုတ် ၆၀% နူကဵု ဧရိယာ ဍုင်ပေရူရ။
ရာသဳဥတု ပေရူဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာလောန် ဟိုတ်နူ သမၠုင်ဒဵု ကေုာံ ပရေင်လပှ်ဍာ် ၜဳပါသဳဖေတ် ညံင်ရဴ [[အေလ် နဳညဝ်]] (El Niño) ရ။
== ၄။ ဇဳဝစုံလၚ် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ (Biodiversity and Environment) ==
ပေရူဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု ပရေင်ဇဳဝစုံလင် မဂၠိုင်အိုတ်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ (Megadiverse country) ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ပထဝဳ နာနာသာ်တုဲ၊ ပေရူ နွံကဵု ဂကူသတ် ကေုာံ တၞံဆု ဟွံအောန်ရ။
* '''သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန်:''' ဂကူ တသော်တောဝ် ညံင်ရဴ လာမာ (Llama)၊ အာလ်ပါကာ (Alpaca)၊ ဝဳကူညာ (Vicuña) တအ် နွံပ္ဍဲ ဒေသဒဵုရ။ ပ္ဍဲဂြိုပ် အမေဇြောန်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဂျာဂွါ (Jaguar)၊ ဂစေံ မာကဝ် (Macaw) ကေုာံ ကၠဵုဍာ် ပေရူ (Giant otter) တအ်ရ။
* '''တၞံဆု:''' ဂကူ အဝ်ခေတ် (Orchids) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကေုာံ တၞံဆု သီန်ချဝ်နာ (Cinchona tree - တမ်မူလ ဂဥုဲ ကွဳနိုင် သွက်ယဲ ဇွဟ်ဖျေဟ်) ဂှ် ဒှ်တၞံဆု သင်္ကေတ ဍုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Brack Egg |first=Antonio |title=Perú: País Megadiverso |year=2000 |publisher=Editorial Bruño}}</ref>
== ၅။ အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ဍုၚ်ကွာန် (Government and Politics) ==
ပေရူဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင် သမ္မတ သၞောတ်မွဲမ (Unitary presidential republic) ရ။ သၞောတ်အုပ်ဓုပ် ပါ်လဝ် ပိ ကဏ္ဍ-
# '''အဝဵု အုပ်ဓုပ် (Executive):''' သမ္မတ ဒှ်က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် ကေုာံ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် အလဵုအသဳရ။ သမ္မတ မာန်အုပ်ဓုပ် ပွိုင် ၅ သၞာံ (ဆဂး ဟွံကဵုအခေါင် ဆက်တိုန် အဆက်အဆက်)။
# '''အဝဵု ဥပဒေ (Legislative):''' ကောန်ဂရေတ် ပေရူ (Congress of the Republic) ဝွံ ဒှ် လဒက်ပတန် မွဲစၠတ်ထဝ် (Unicameral) မၞုံကဵု အမာတ် ၁၃၀ တၠရ။
# '''အဝဵု တုလာကာန် (Judiciary):''' ရုင်ဗစာ ကဆံင်သၠုင်အိုတ် (Supreme Court) ဝွံ အုပ်ဓုပ်ကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေရ။
ဍုင်ပေရူဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဒေသ (Regions) ၂၅ ဒေသ ကေုာံ ခရိုင် လဳမာ (Lima Province) ရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="width:80%; text-align:center;"
|+ ဒေသ အဓိကဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ပေရူ
|-
! ဒေသ (Region) !! ဍုင်ဇၞော် (Capital) !! တင်စၟတ် (Note)
|-
| လဳမာ (Lima) || လဳမာ || ဍုင်ဇၞော် မၞိဟ်မံင်ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ကေုာံ ဗဟဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်။
|-
| ကူသကဝ် (Cusco) || ကူသကဝ် || ဒတန် ဝင် အေန်ကာ ကေုာံ မာချူ ပဳချူ။
|-
| အာရဳကဳပါ (Arequipa) || အာရဳကဳပါ || ဍုင်ဇၞော် မရနုက်ကဵု ၜါ၊ မၞုံကဵု ခတိုဟ်ဒဵုပၟတ်။
|-
| လဝ်ရဳတဝ် (Loreto) || အဳကဳတဝ် (Iquitos) || ဒေသ ဂြိုပ် အမေဇြောန် မဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲပေရူ။
|}
== ၆။ ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economy) ==
[[File:Mina_Chuquicamata.jpg|thumb|right|200px|ကမၠောန် ၜံက်ခါဲ သတ္တုဝွံ ဒှ်ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ပေရူ။ (ဥပမာ- တိုက်ခါဲ ဗရိုတ်)]]
ပေရူဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်ဒၟံင် (Emerging economy) မွဲတုဲ၊ ဍေံဒှ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မဇၞော်အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ၅ ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာရ။ သြန်စက္ခော မစကာဂှ် ဒှ် '''သဝ်''' ([[Sol (currency)|Sol]]) ရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=Peru - Economy |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/peru/overview |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
* '''ပရေင် ၜံက်ခါဲ သတ္တု (Mining):''' ပေရူဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင် မပတိတ် ဗရိုတ် (Copper)၊ ထဝ် (Gold)၊ သြန် (Silver) ကေုာံ ဇြေန် (Zinc) အဓိက ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။
* '''ပရေင် တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ တမ္ၚာ (Agriculture & Fishing):''' ပေရူ ပတိတ် ကဝ်ဖဳ၊ သတ်မင်ဂုတ်၊ ကေုာံ က သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကၠေင်က (fishmeal) အဓိက လ္တူဂၠးတိရ။
* '''ပရေင် ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ (Tourism):''' ဒှ်ကဏ္ဍ မပတိတ်ကဵု သြန်လုပ် အဓိကမွဲ သွက်ဍုင်ရ။
== ၇။ လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဂကူနာနာ (Demographics) ==
အတိုင် စရင်မၞိဟ် ၂၀၂၃ မ္ဂး၊ ပေရူ နွံလၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် ၃၄ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ်ရ။ ဍုင်ပေရူဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု ဂကူနာနာ (Multiethnic) မပံင်စပ်လဝ်ရ။
* '''ဂကူဂမၠိုင်:''' မေသတဳဇြဝ် (Mestizo - မပံင်စပ် အကြာ အမေရိကန်-အေန်ဒဳယျာန် ကေုာံ ဥရဝ်ပ) ၆၀%၊ အမေရိကန်-အေန်ဒဳယျာန် (Amerindian ညံင်ရဴ Quechua, Aymara) ၂၆%၊ သာ်ဗု ဥရဝ်ပ ၆%၊ အဖရိကန် ကေုာံ အာရှ (တၟေင်တၟဟ် ဂကူကြုက် ကေုာံ ဂျပေန်) တအ် နွံရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico |url=https://www.inei.gob.pe |publisher=INEI |year=2017}}</ref>
* '''ဘာသာစကား:''' [[ဘာသာ သပိန်]] (Spanish) ဒှ်အရေဝ် အလဵုအသဳ အဓိကရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ် ဘာသာ ကေချူအာ (Quechua) ကေုာံ အာဲမာရာ (Aymara) တအ်လေဝ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နဒဒှ် ဘာသာစကား အလဵုအသဳ ပ္ဍဲဒေသ ညးတအ်ရ။
* '''ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ:''' ဘာသာ ကာတ္တလေတ် (Roman Catholic) ဒှ် ဘာသာ အဓိကတုဲ၊ ဘာသာ အဳဗာန်ဂျေလဳကာန် (Evangelical) တအ်လေဝ် ဂၠိုင်တိုန်ဒၟံင်ရ။
== ၈။ ယေန်သၞာၚ် (Culture) ==
[[File:Ceviche_de_corvina.JPG|thumb|left|200px|သဳဗဳချေ (Ceviche) မဒှ် စၞစ သင်္ကေတ ဍုင်ပေရူ။]]
ယေန်သၞာင် ပေရူဝွံ ဒှ်အရာ မပံင်စပ် အကြာ ယေန်သၞာင် ဟိသပန်နေတ် (Hispanic) မကၠုင်နူ သပိန် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် သဘာဝ တမ်မူလ (Andean & Amazonian) ရ။
* '''စၞစ (Cuisine):''' စၞစ ပေရူဝွံ ဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ်လဝ် အလုံဂၠးတိရ။ '''သဳဗဳချေ''' ([[Ceviche]]) မဒှ် ကစိင် ဍုန်လဝ် နကဵု ဍာ်သတ်မိတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်စၞစ သင်္ကေတ ဍုင်ရ။ Lomo Saltado ကေုာံ ယာမဖျုန် (Guinea pig / Cuy) လေဝ် ဒယှ်ရ။
* '''ဂဳတ ကေုာံ လှ်ေ (Music and Dance):''' ဂဳတ အာန်ဒဳ မစကာ ခရာ (panpipes) ဂှ် ဒယှ်ရ။ လှ်ေ မာရဳနေရာ (Marinera) ဒှ် လှ်ေ သင်္ကေတ ဍုင်ရ။
* '''လိက်ပတ် (Literature):''' အစာချူလိက် ဒယှ် [[မာရဳယဝ် ဗာဂါသ် လျဝ်သာ]] (Mario Vargas Llosa) ဝွံ ကလိဂွံလဝ် လာပ်နဝ်ဗေဝ် လိက်ပတ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၀ ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Vargas Llosa |first=Mario |title=The Time of the Hero |year=1963 |publisher=Seix Barral}}</ref>
== ၉။ ပရေၚ်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ထတ်ယုက် (Education and Health) ==
ပရေင်ပညာ ပ္ဍဲပေရူဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ကဵုလဝ် အခေါင် ဗတောန် သၠးၚုဟ် သွက် ဘာသဇိုင် ကေုာံ ဘာတန်လဒေါဝ်ရ။ တက္ကသိုလ် သာန် မာကဝ် (National University of San Marcos) မခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၅၁ ဂှ် ဒှ် တက္ကသိုလ် တြေံအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိက သီုဖအိုတ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos |url=https://unmsm.edu.pe |publisher=UNMSM |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref> လၟိဟ် ညးမလေပ်လိက် (Literacy rate) နွံၜိုတ် ၉၄% ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်ဂှ်၊ ဍုင်ပေရူ နွံကဵု သၞောတ် လွဳပရာ ထတ်ယုက် အလဵုအသဳ (MINSA) ကေုာံ သၞောတ် အာမခံ (EsSalud) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ပခိုဟ်ပတိုန်ဒၟံင်ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်စိုပ်တဲ လွဳပရာ ပ္ဍဲဒေသ ဂြိုပ် ကေုာံ ဒဵုတအ်ဂှ် အောန်ဒၟံင်ဏီရ။
== ၁၀။ ပရေၚ်ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲဂၠးတိ (Tourism and World Heritage Sites) ==
ပေရူဝွံ ဒှ်ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု ဒတန် ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာရ။ ဍုင်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဒတန် [[အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ]] ယူနေတ်သကဝ် (UNESCO World Heritage Sites) ၁၃ ဒၞာဲရ။
* '''[[မာချူ ပဳချူ]] (Machu Picchu):''' ဍုင်တြေံ အေန်ကာ မဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ်အိုတ် ကေုာံ ဒှ် အရာအမ်သဝ် ဂၠးတိ တၟိ မွဲရ။
* '''[[နာတ်သကာ လာင်]] (Nazca Lines):''' ရုပ်ပါန်ခဳ လ္တူတိ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲကန္တာရ နာတ်သကာ၊ မာန်ညာတ်ကေတ် နူကဵု အကာသ ဟေင်ရ။
* '''ကူသကဝ် ကေုာံ ဂၠံင်တရဴ အေန်ကာ (Cusco & Inca Trail):''' ဒတန် ဝင် အေန်ကာ မသှ်ေဒၟံင်။
* '''ကၟာဍာ် တဳတဳကာကာ (Lake Titicaca):''' ကၟာဍာ် မၞုံသမၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ မာန်ဖိုင်က္ၜင်ဂွံ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R3L0t97T8kE လ္ၚတ် ဍုင်ပေရူ ကေုာံ ဒေသ အာန်ဒဳ (YouTube Documentary)]
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="Hudson">{{cite book |last=Hudson |first=Rex A. |title=Peru: A Country Study |year=1993 |publisher=Library of Congress |isbn=978-0844407788}}</ref>
<ref name="Porras">{{cite book |last=Porras Barrenechea |first=Raúl |title=El nombre del Perú |year=1968 |publisher=Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva}}</ref>
<ref name="DAltroy">{{cite book |last=D'Altroy |first=Terence N. |title=The Incas |url=https://archive.org/details/incas0000dalt_n0v6 |year=2014 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1444331158}}</ref>
<ref name="Klaren">{{cite book |last=Klarén |first=Peter Flindell |title=Peru: Society and Nationhood in the Andes |url=https://archive.org/details/perusocietynatio0000klar |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195069280}}</ref>
<ref name="Brack">{{cite book |last=Brack Egg |first=Antonio |title=Perú: País Megadiverso |year=2000 |publisher=Editorial Bruño}}</ref>
<ref name="WB_Economy">{{cite web |title=Peru - Economy |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/peru/overview |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
<ref name="INEI">{{cite web |title=Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico |url=https://www.inei.gob.pe |publisher=INEI |year=2017}}</ref>
<ref name="Vargas">{{cite book |last=Vargas Llosa |first=Mario |title=The Time of the Hero |year=1963 |publisher=Seix Barral}}</ref>
<ref name="SanMarcos">{{cite web |title=Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos |url=https://unmsm.edu.pe |publisher=UNMSM |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite web |title=Peru - UNESCO World Heritage Centre |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/pe |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာ
| title = ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ [[အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာ]]
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = ဍုင် အလဵုအသဳ
| list1 =
* [[အာဂျေန်တဳနာ]]
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| group2 = ဒေသ ပိုင်ပြဳ
| list2 =
* [[ပြင်သေတ် ဂူယာနာ]]
* [[တကအ် ဖေါ့ကလာန်]]
}}
[[Category:ပေရူ]]
[[Category:ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာ]]
[[Category:ဍုင်သမ္မတဂမၠိုင်]]
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{{Infobox body of water
| name = မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်<br/>(Pacific Ocean)
| image = Pacific Ocean - en.png
| caption = လပံက် ဗီုတိ မထ္ၜးကဵု မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်
| coordinate_regions = အာရှ, အဝ်သတြေလျာ, အမေရိကသၟဝ်ကျာ, အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာ, အာန္တာတိကာ
| coordinates = {{Coord|0|N|160|W|type:waterbody_scale:100000000|display=inline}}
| type = [[မှာသၟိတ်]] (Ocean)
| ocean = မှာသၟိတ် ဂၠးကဝ်
| rivers = [[ကြုင် ယာန်သဳ]] (Yangtze), [[ကြုင် ဟေင်ဟဝ်]] (Yellow), [[ကြုင် မဲခေါင်]] (Mekong), [[ကြုင် ကဝ်လဝ်ရာဒဝ်]] (Colorado)
| area = ၁၆၅,၂၅၀,၀၀၀ စတုရံ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ
| max-depth = ၁၀,၉၂၈ မဳတာ (မာရဳယာနာ ထရေန်)
| average-depth = ၄,၂၈၀ မဳတာ
| water_volume = ၇၁၀,၀၀၀,၀၀၀ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ ပိကၠင် (cubic km)
| islands = ၂၅,၀၀၀ ပြင်င်
}}
'''မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်''' ({{lang-en|Pacific Ocean}}) ဝွံ ဒှ်မှာသၟိတ် မဇၞော်အိုတ် ကေုာံ ဇြိုဟ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လ္တူဂၠးတိပိုဲဏအ်ရ။ ဍေံဂြောပ်လဝ် ၜိုတ် ၄၆% နူကဵု ဧရိယာ ဍာ် အလုံဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ၜိုတ် ၃၂% နူကဵု ဧရိယာ ဂၠးတိ သီုဖအိုတ်ရ—မဒှ် ဇမၞော် မဇၞော်နူ ဧရိယာ တိက္ကသဳ သီုဖအိုတ် ပံင်ကောံလဝ်ဏီရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Earle |first=Sylvia A. |title=Ocean: An Illustrated Atlas |year=2008 |publisher=National Geographic |isbn=978-1426203190}}</ref> မှာသၟိတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ပယျဵုဆက်ဒၟံင် ကုမှာသၟိတ် အာတ္တဳတ် (Arctic Ocean) လ္ပာ်သၟဝ်ကျာ၊ မှာသၟိတ် သၠုင်ကျာ (Southern Ocean) လ္ပာ်သၠုင်ကျာ၊ တိုက်အာရှ ကေုာံ အဝ်သတြေလျာ လ္ပာ်ပလိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ တိုက်အမေရိကသၟဝ်ကျာ ကေုာံ အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာ လ္ပာ်ဗမံက်ရ။
လဒေါဝ် ဗလးတိ (Equator) ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် မှာသၟိတ်ဏအ် နကဵု ၜါကရေက်— ပါသဳဖေတ် သၟဝ်ကျာ (North Pacific Ocean) ကေုာံ ပါသဳဖေတ် သၠုင်ကျာ (South Pacific Ocean) ရ။ ဒၞာဲ မဇြိုဟ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ မကော်ခဴစ ဒေသဇြိုဟ် ချာလေန်ဂျာ (Challenger Deep) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[မာရဳယာနာ ထရေန်]] (Mariana Trench) ဝွံလေဝ် နွံပ္ဍဲကဵု မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ဏအ်ကီုရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-floor-features |title=Ocean Floor Features |publisher=NOAA |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိရုတ္တိ ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Etymology and Definition) ==
ယၟု "ပါသဳဖေတ်" (Pacific) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ ဝေါဟာရ လေတ်တေန် "Mare Pacificum" မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "မှာသၟိတ် ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်" (peaceful sea) ရ။ ယၟုဏအ်ဝွံ သၟာတမ္ၚာ ကေုာံ အစာဂၠာဲတရဴ ဂကူပဝ်တူဂြဳ (Portuguese) မၞုံယၟု [[ဖာဒဳနာန် မာဂျေလာန်]] (Ferdinand Magellan) ဒှ်ညး မခုတ်ကဵုလဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၂၁ ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Ian |title=Magellan and the First Circumnavigation of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/magellanfirstcir0000came |year=1974 |publisher=Saturday Review Press |isbn=978-0841502574}}</ref> ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ညးမတတ်ၜက်ကၠုင် နူကဵု တရဴ မစိုတ်ဟွံတန် ကေုာံ လပှ်ကျာထတ် မနွံ လ္ပာ်သၠုင်ကျာ အမေရိက (Strait of Magellan) တုဲ လုပ်စိုပ်ကၠုင် မှာသၟိတ်ဏအ်ဂှ်၊ ညးညာတ်ကေတ် လပှ်ဍာ် ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်တုဲ ခုတ်လဝ် ယၟုဏအ်ရ။
ၜိုန်ရ ယၟုဍေံ "ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်" ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍာံဍာံမ္ဂး မှာသၟိတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဒတန် မၞုံကဵု ပရေင်တိချဳ၊ ခတိုဟ်ဒဵုပၟတ် ကေုာံ လဗိုတ်ကျာ (Typhoons) မသကာတ်မြဟ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။
== ၂။ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ပယျဵုဒၞက်ဂမၠိုၚ် (Geography and Borders) ==
[[File:Pacific_Ocean_laea_relief_location_map.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ဗီုရုပ် မထ္ၜးကဵု ဇမၞော် ဧရိယာ မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ် မဆက်စၠောအ်လဝ် တိုက်ဂမၠိုင်။]]
မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဧရိယာ ၁၆၅.၂ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် စတုရံ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာရ။ ဇမၠိင် နူသၟဝ်ကျာ စဵုကဵု သၠုင်ကျာဂှ် နွံၜိုတ် ၁၅,၅၀၀ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ တုဲ၊ ဇမၠိင် အနာံ နူဗမံက် စဵုကဵု ပလိုတ်ဂှ် နွံၜိုတ် ၁၉,၈၀၀ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ ရ။
မှာသၟိတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကု ၜဳ (Seas) ဍောတ်တ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု-
* ၜဳကြုက်သၠုင်ကျာ (South China Sea)
* ၜဳဂျပေန် (Sea of Japan)
* ၜဳဗေရဳန် (Bering Sea)
* ၜဳတသ်သမာန် (Tasman Sea)
ပယျဵု လ္ပာ်ပလိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်တိုက် အာရှ ကေုာံ အဝ်သတြေလျာ တုဲ၊ ပယျဵု လ္ပာ်ဗမံက်ဂှ် ဒှ်တိုက် အမေရိက သၟဝ်ကျာ ကေုာံ သၠုင်ကျာရ။ သွက်ဂွံ တတ်ၜက် အကြာ မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ် ကေုာံ အာတ်လာန်တေတ် (Atlantic Ocean) လောဲသွာဂှ်၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် ၜံက်ခါဲလဝ် [[လပတ်(ဗရံင်ဍာ်) ပါနာမာ]] (Panama Canal) ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒေါဝ် အမေရိက ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |title=The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/pathbetweenseasc0000mccu |year=1977 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0671244095}}</ref>
== ၃။ ဒတန်တိ ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်တိချဳ (Geology and the Ring of Fire) ==
[[File:Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg|thumb|right|250px|စက်ပၟတ် ပါသဳဖေတ် (Ring of Fire) မဒှ်ဒၞာဲ မကတဵုဒှ် တိချဳ ကေုာံ ဒဵုပၟတ် မဂၠိုင်အိုတ်။]]
မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဒၞာဲ မကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက် လ္ၚတ် ပရေင်တိချဳ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဂၠးတိ (Plate Tectonics) ရ။ ကရေက်တိ ပါသဳဖေတ် (Pacific Plate) ဝွံ ဒှ် ကရေက်တိ မဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိတုဲ၊ ဍေံချဳဒရိုင် ကေုာံ တက်ဇီုဒၟံင် ကု ကရေက်တိ တၞဟ်တအ် လၟိုန်ကာလရ။
ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်တက်ဇီု ကရေက်တိတအ်ဏအ်တုဲ၊ ဇိုင်မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ဝွံ ဒးဒုင်ကော်ခဴစ '''စက်ပၟတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်''' ([[Ring of Fire]]) ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ring-fire |title=Ring of Fire |publisher=National Geographic Society |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
* '''တိချဳ (Earthquakes):''' ၜိုတ် ၉၀% နူကဵု ပရေင်တိချဳ အလုံဂၠးတိဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ စက်ပၟတ် ဏအ်ရ။
* '''ဒဵုပၟတ် (Volcanoes):''' ၇၅% နူကဵု ဒဵုပၟတ် မချဳဒရိုင်ဒၟံင် (Active volcanoes) လ္တူဂၠးတိဂှ် နွံပ္ဍဲ ဒေသဏအ်ရ။
ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ၊ မှာသၟိတ်ဏအ် နွံကဵု ဒေသဇြိုဟ် (Trenches) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ [[မာရဳယာနာ ထရေန်]] (Mariana Trench) မနွံ ဇမ္ၚောဲ ဇြိုဟ် စဵုကဵု ၁၀,၉၂၈ မဳတာ (၃၅,၈၅၃ ပေ) ဝွံ ဒှ်ဒၞာဲ မဇြိုဟ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။
== ၄။ ဍာ် လပှ် ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Oceanography and Climate) ==
မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ဝွံ ထိင်ဒဝ်လဝ် ရာသဳဥတု အလုံဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။ ဇမၠိုဟ် အလုံမွဲ မှာသၟိတ်ဂှ် ၜိုတ် ၄,၂၈၀ မဳတာ ရ။
* '''လပှ်ဍာ် (Ocean Currents):''' လပှ်ဍာ် ပ္ဍဲ ပါသဳဖေတ် သၟဝ်ကျာဝွံ ဂေတ် လ္ပာ် လ္တုံနာဍဳ (clockwise) တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲ ပါသဳဖေတ် သၠုင်ကျာဂှ် ဂေတ် လ္ပာ် စှ်ေနာဍဳ (counter-clockwise) ရ။ လပှ်ဍာ်တအ်ဏအ် ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ကေုာံ စၞစ သွက် သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန် ဍာ်တအ်ရ။
* '''အေလ် နဳညဝ် ကေုာံ လာ နဳညာ ([[El Niño]] and La Niña):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု အဓိက မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ရ။ အေလ် နဳညဝ် ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဍာ်မှာသၟိတ် ဂွံကတဴတိုန်တုဲ၊ ပကဵု ညံင် ဗြဲဂွံဂူ အောန် ပ္ဍဲ အာရှ ကေုာံ ဗြဲဂွံဂူ ဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကသၠုင်ကျာရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Philander |first=S. George |title=El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation |url=https://archive.org/details/elninolaninasout0000phil |year=1990 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0125532358}}</ref>
== ၅။ ဝၚ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်လ္ၚတ်ဂၠာဲ (History and Exploration) ==
ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဂကူဥရဝ်ပ ဟွံစိုပ်ဏီ ဗွဲမလံလာ်၊ ဂကူ [[အဝ်သထရဝ်နဳယှာန်]] (Austronesian peoples) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်မၞိဟ် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် မလ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ အာစိုပ် တကအ်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲၜိုတ် ၃၀၀၀ သၞာံ ကိုပ်ကၠာခရေတ်၊ ညးတအ် စကွာ်တရဴ နူကဵု တာဲဝါန် တုဲ ပြးဇးအာ စိုပ် [[ဖဳလဳပိန်]]၊ အေန်ဒဝ်နဳရှာ၊ ကေုာံ တကအ် ပဝ်လဳနဳယှာ (Polynesia) တအ်ရ။ ညးတအ် စကာ ကွတ်ပညာ တရဴဍာ် သၞံင် (Celestial navigation) ဗွဲမစိုပ်တရဴရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Finney |first=Ben |title=Voyage of Rediscovery: A Cultural Odyssey through Polynesia |url=https://archive.org/details/voyageofrediscov0000finn |year=1994 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520080020}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၁၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ညးဂၠာဲတရဴ သပိန် ቫသ်ကဝ် နူညေတ် ဒေ ဗာလ်ဗဝ်အာ (Vasco Núñez de Balboa) ဒှ် ဥရဝ်ပ ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် မညာတ်ကေတ် မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ် နူကဵု ဍုင်ပါနာမာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၁၃ ရ။ ဗွဲကြဴ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၁၈ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ကာပ်တိန် ဂျိမ်းစ် ကွတ် ([[James Cook]]) နူ ဗြိတိန် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ပထဝဳ ပါသဳဖေတ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ကေုာံ ဓဇက်လဝ် ဗီုတိ (Maps) ဗွဲမချိုတ်ပၠောတ်ရ。
== ၆။ ဇဳဝစုံလၚ် ကေုာံ ဂေဟသၞောတ် (Biodiversity and Marine Life) ==
မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ဝွံ ဒှ်သ္ၚိ သွက် သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန် ကေုာံ တၞံဆု ဍာ် ဂကူနာနာသာ် မဟွံမာန် ရိုဟ်လၟိဟ်ရ။
* '''ကလောအ်သန္တာ (Coral Reefs):''' [[Great Barrier Reef|ကလောအ်သန္တာ မဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ]] (Great Barrier Reef) ဝွံ နွံပ္ဍဲ ဇိုင် ပြင်ၜဳ အဝ်သတြေလျာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပါသဳဖေတ် ရ။ ဍေံဒှ် ဒတန် မကဵု သ္ၚိဒၟံင် သွက် က ကေုာံ သတ်ဍာ် ပြကောဋိကိုဋ်ရ။
* '''သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန်ဇၞော်:''' ပါသဳဖေတ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲဒတန် မၞုံကဵု ကဝေင် (Whales) ညံင်ရဴ Blue whale ကေုာံ Humpback whale တအ်ရ။
* '''က ကေုာံ စၞစ:''' ဂကူ ကထူနာ (Tuna) ကေုာံ ကသာမောန် (Salmon) တအ် နွံဗွဲမဂၠိုင်တုဲ၊ ဒှ်တမ်ရိုဟ် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် တမ္ၚာ ဂၠးကဝ်ရ။<ref>{{cite report |author=FAO |title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020 |year=2020 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization}}</ref>
== ၇။ တကအ်ဂမၠိုၚ် ကေုာံ ဒေသ အဝ်ရှေနဳယျာ (Islands and Oceania) ==
[[File:Bora_Bora_French_Polynesia.jpg|thumb|right|200px|တကအ် ဗဝ်ရာ ဗဝ်ရာ (Bora Bora) ပ္ဍဲ ပြင်သေတ် ပဝ်လဳနဳယှာ၊ မဒှ် တကအ် သင်္ကေတ ယေန်သၞာင် ပါသဳဖေတ်။]]
မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ် နွံကဵု တကအ် ၜိုတ် ၂၅,၀၀၀ ပြင်င် မဒှ် လၟိဟ် မဂၠိုင်နူကဵု လၟိဟ် တကအ် မှာသၟိတ် တၞဟ်သီုဖအိုတ် ပံင်ကောံလဝ်ဏီရ။ တကအ်တအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ပံင်ကောံလဝ် နဒဒှ် ဒေသ ဇၞော်မွဲ မကော်ခဴစ '''[[အဝ်ရှေနဳယျာ]]''' (Oceania) ရ။ အဝ်ရှေနဳယျာဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် ပိ ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက-
# '''မာဲခရဝ်နဳယှာ (Micronesia):''' နွံ လ္ပာ်သၟဝ်ကျာ လဒေါဝ်ဗလးတိ (ဥပမာ- ဂူအာမ်၊ ဍုင်မာရှယ်)။
# '''မေလာနဳယှာ (Melanesia):''' နွံ လ္ပာ်ပလိုတ် (ဥပမာ- ဖြဳဂျဳ၊ ပါပူဝါ နယူးဂီနီ)။
# '''ပဝ်လဳနဳယှာ (Polynesia):''' နွံ လ္ပာ်ဗမံက် မဒှ် တြိဂံ (Triangle) ဇၞော် (ဥပမာ- ဟာဝါအဳ၊ နယူးဇဳလာန်၊ သာမဝ်အာ)။<ref>{{cite book |last=Howe |first=K. R. |title=Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors |url=https://archive.org/details/vakamoanavoyages0000unse |year=2006 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0824832131}}</ref>
တကအ်တအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခတိုဟ်ဒဵုပၟတ် လေဝ်နွံ၊ နူကဵု ကလောအ်သန္တာ လေဝ်နွံရ။
== ၈။ ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ဗၞိက် (Economy, Shipping, and Fishing) ==
မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးကဝ်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဗၞိက် လ္တူဍာ်:''' ဒေသ အာရှ-ပါသဳဖေတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒေသ မကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ မှာသၟိတ်ဏအ် ဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် ကပေါတ် (Shipping lanes) မဇၞော်အိုတ် ကေုာံ ကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ်ရ။
* '''တမ္ၚာ:''' ၜိုတ် ၆၀% နူကဵု လၟိဟ် က မရပ်ဂွံ အလုံဂၠးတိဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ရ။
* '''သယံဇာတ သၟဝ်ဍာ်:''' ဓါတ်သတ္တု ညံင်ရဴ Polymetallic nodules မၞုံကဵု ဓါတ် Manganese ကေုာံ Cobalt တအ်ဂှ် နွံဒၟံင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ကရေက်တိ သၟဝ်မှာသၟိတ်ရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:60%;"
|+ ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဍာ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ပါသဳဖေတ်
|-
! ယၟု ဂၠံင်တရဴ !! ပရေင်ဆက်စၠောအ်
|-
| [[လပတ်(ဗရံင်ဍာ်) ပါနာမာ]] (Panama Canal) || ဆက်စၠောအ် ပါသဳဖေတ် ကေုာံ အာတ်လာန်တေတ်
|-
| ရေလက်ကြား မလက္ကာ (Strait of Malacca) || ဆက်စၠောအ် ပါသဳဖေတ် ကေုာံ မှာသၟိတ် အေန္ဒိယ
|-
| ရေလက်ကြား မာဂျေလာန် (Strait of Magellan) || ဆက်စၠောအ် လ္ပာ်သၠုင်ကျာ အမေရိက
|}
== ၉။ ပြသၞာ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ကၠိခတောန် (Environmental Issues) ==
မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ဝွံ ဒးဆဵုဂဗဒၟံင် ပြသၞာ သဘာဝ ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။
* '''ကလောအ်ထၟိက် ပါသဳဖေတ် ဇၞော် ([[Great Pacific Garbage Patch]]):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲမကောံဒၟံင် ထၟိက် ပလာသတေတ် မဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ မနွံ အကြာ ဟာဝါအဳ ကေုာံ ကာလဳဖဝ်နဳယျာ ရ။ ဍေံပကဵု အန္တရာဲ ကု သတ်တိရစ္ဆာန် ဍာ်တအ် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lebreton |first=L. |title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic |journal=Scientific Reports |year=2018 |volume=8 |issue=4666 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-22939-w}}</ref>
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate Change):''' ဟိုတ်နူ ဂၠးတိ ကတဴတိုန်တုဲ၊ ဍာ်မှာသၟိတ် သၠုင်တိုန်ကၠုင်ဒၟံင်ရ။ အရာဏအ် ပကဵု အန္တရာဲ ညံင် တကအ်ဍောတ်တ်တအ် ညံင်ရဴ [[တူဗာလူ]] (Tuvalu) ကေုာံ [[ခဳရဳဗာတဳ]] (Kiribati) တအ် ဂွံဗၠိုက်အာ ပ္ဍဲဍာ်ရ။
* '''ကလောအ်သန္တာ ဗုအာ (Coral Bleaching):''' ဟိုတ်နူ ဍာ်ကတဴတိုန်၊ ကလောအ်သန္တာတအ် စှ်ေအာ အရံင်တုဲ ချိုတ်အာဒၟံင်ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်မၚ်မွဲ (Future and Conservation) ==
သွက်အနာဂတ် မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်ဂှ်၊ ဂၠးကဝ်ဝွံ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်ဒၟံင် ပရေင်မင်မွဲ သဘာဝ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ ဍုင်နာနာတအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် '''ဒေသ မင်မွဲ သဘာဝ ဍာ်''' (Marine Protected Areas - MPAs) သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ဇဳဝစုံလင်ရ။ ဥပမာ - ဒေသမင်မွဲ မာရဳယာနာ (Marianas Trench Marine National Monument) ကေုာံ ဒေသ Papahānaumokuākea ပ္ဍဲ ဟာဝါအဳ ရ။
ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ၊ ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ကေုာံ ပညဳပညပ် မဆေင်ကဵု '''နဲကဲခါဲသတ္တု သၟဝ်ၜဳ''' (Deep sea mining) တအ်လေဝ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်ဒၟံင်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ဟွံစှ်ေသၞောတ်မ္ဂး၊ ဍေံမာန်ပလီုပလာ်ကဵု ဂေဟသၞောတ် သၟဝ်ၜဳ ဇြိုဟ်တအ် မာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/deep-sea-mining |title=Deep-sea mining |publisher=IUCN |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1b3yTzQ_v9M ပရူပရာ မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ် (YouTube - National Geographic)]
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="Earle">{{cite book |last=Earle |first=Sylvia A. |title=Ocean: An Illustrated Atlas |year=2008 |publisher=National Geographic |isbn=978-1426203190}}</ref>
<ref name="NOAA">{{cite web |url=https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-floor-features |title=Ocean Floor Features |publisher=NOAA |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
<ref name="Cameron">{{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Ian |title=Magellan and the First Circumnavigation of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/magellanfirstcir0000came |year=1974 |publisher=Saturday Review Press |isbn=978-0841502574}}</ref>
<ref name="McCullough">{{cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |title=The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/pathbetweenseasc0000mccu |year=1977 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0671244095}}</ref>
<ref name="RingOfFire">{{cite web |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ring-fire |title=Ring of Fire |publisher=National Geographic Society |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
<ref name="Philander">{{cite book |last=Philander |first=S. George |title=El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation |url=https://archive.org/details/elninolaninasout0000phil |year=1990 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0125532358}}</ref>
<ref name="Finney">{{cite book |last=Finney |first=Ben |title=Voyage of Rediscovery: A Cultural Odyssey through Polynesia |url=https://archive.org/details/voyageofrediscov0000finn |year=1994 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520080020}}</ref>
<ref name="FAO">{{cite report |author=FAO |title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020 |year=2020 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization}}</ref>
<ref name="Howe">{{cite book |last=Howe |first=K. R. |title=Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors |url=https://archive.org/details/vakamoanavoyages0000unse |year=2006 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0824832131}}</ref>
<ref name="Lebreton">{{cite journal |last=Lebreton |first=L. |title=Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic |journal=Scientific Reports |year=2018 |volume=8 |issue=4666 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-22939-w}}</ref>
<ref name="IUCN">{{cite web |url=https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/deep-sea-mining |title=Deep-sea mining |publisher=IUCN |access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = မှာသၟိတ် ဂၠးကဝ်
| title = မှာသၟိတ်ဂမၠိုင် လ္တူ [[ဂၠးတိ]]
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = မှာသၟိတ် မသုန်
| list1 =
* [[မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်]]
* [[မှာသၟိတ် အာတ်လာန်တေတ်]]
* [[မှာသၟိတ် အေန္ဒိယ]]
* [[မှာသၟိတ် သၠုင်ကျာ]] (Southern)
* [[မှာသၟိတ် အာတ္တဳတ်]] (Arctic)
| group2 = ဒေသ ပထဝဳ ဆက်စပ်
| list2 =
* [[အဝ်ရှေနဳယျာ]]
* [[စက်ပၟတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်]] (Ring of Fire)
* [[မာရဳယာနာ ထရေန်]]
* [[လပတ်(ဗရံင်ဍာ်) ပါနာမာ]]
}}
[[Category:မှာသၟိတ် ပါသဳဖေတ်]]
[[Category:မှာသၟိတ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပထဝဳ ဂၠးတိ]]
[[Category:အဝ်ရှေနဳယျာ]]
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ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်
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{{Infobox political system
| name = ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်<br/>(Monarchy / Kingdom)
| image = [[File:Monarchies.svg|300px|ဂၠးတိ မထ္ၜးလဝ် ဍုင် မဆက်စကာဒၟံင် သၞောတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ်။ သာ်ဗ္ကေတ်: သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင်၊ သာ်ခဍောင်: သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်။]]
| caption = မြေပုံ ဍုင်မဆက်စကာဒၟံင် သၞောတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ်။
| classification = သၞောတ်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်
| origins = ခေတ်တမၠာတေံ (Ancient times)
| key_elements = ဨကရာဇ် မွဲတၠ (King/Queen/Emperor) အုပ်ဓုပ် လုကဴ မွဲဘဝ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စဵုကဵု စွံဝှ်။
| variations = [[သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင်]] (Absolute), [[သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်]] (Constitutional), [[သၞောတ်ရုဲစှ် ဨကရာဇ်]] (Elective)
| examples = [[ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန်|ဗြိတိန်]]၊ [[သေံ]]၊ [[ဂျပေန်]]၊ [[သဴဒဳ အာရေဗဳယျာ]]
}}
'''ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်''' ({{lang-en|Monarchy}}) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်မွဲသာ် မၞုံကဵု ပုဂ္ဂိုလ် မွဲတၠ—မကော်ခဴစ ဨကရာဇ် (Monarch)—မဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် (Head of State) စဵုကဵု လအိတ်လမျီု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စဵုကဵု ညးစွံဝှ် (Abdication) နူကဵု ကဆံင်အဝဵုရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Finer |first=Samuel E. |title=The History of Government from the Earliest Times |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgovernm0002fine |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198229045}}</ref> ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ အဝဵုအာဏာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်ဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် လ္တူ ဨကရာဇ် မွဲတၠဓဝ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဨကရာဇ် ပါဝင်ကောံသၟဟ် ကု ပါလဳမာန်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ '''အတိက်တေံ'''၊ သၞောတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဝွံ ဒှ်သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် မပြးဇး ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။ ဆဂး စနူ ခေတ် ကရောတ်ဗဗဵု (Revolutions) ကေုာံ ပၞာန်ဂၠးကဝ် ပထမ တုဲ၊ သၞောတ်ဏအ် ဒးဒုင် ပြံင်လှာဲအာ နကဵု သၞောတ် သမ္မတ (Republic) ကေုာံ ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ လၟုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် မသှ်ေဒၟံင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် (Constitutional Monarchy) တုဲ ဨကရာဇ်တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဆ သင်္ကေတ ကောန်ဂကူ သၟးရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Bogdanor |first=Vernon |title=The Monarchy and the Constitution |url=https://archive.org/details/monarchyconstitu0000bogd |year=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0198293347}}</ref>
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိရုတ္တိ ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Etymology and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ အင်္ဂလိက် "Monarchy" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ဂရိတ် (Greek) မဟိမု "monarkhía" (μοναρχία) မဒှ် မလိက် မပံင်စပ်လဝ် အကြာ "monos" (မွဲတၠ) ကေုာံ "arkhein" (ပွမအုပ်ဓုပ်) ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဍေံဇေတ်တ်ဂှ် "ပွမအုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵု မၞိဟ်မွဲတၠဓဝ်" ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Spellman |first=W.M. |title=Monarchies 1000-2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/monarchies1000200000spel |year=2001 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1861890870}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မန် မ္ဂး "ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်" ဝွံ ပံင်စပ်လဝ် "ကၟိန်ဍုင်" (Country/Kingdom) ကေုာံ "ဨကရာဇ်" (Monarch/King) ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ "ဨကရာဇ်" ဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ ပါဠိ ကေုာံ သံသကြိုတ် "ဨကရာဇ" (Ekarāja) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဨက (မွဲ) ကေုာံ ရာဇ (သၟိင်/ညးမအုပ်ဓုပ်) ရ။ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဗွဲအလုံမ္ဂး၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု ဨကရာဇ် (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၞကျာ်ဨကရာဇ်) မဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် မွဲတၠရ။
== ၂။ ဝၚ် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ (History and Origins) ==
[[File:Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ဨကရာဇ် လူဝဳ မရနုက်ကဵု ၁၄ (Louis XIV) ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ်၊ မဒှ် ဥပမာ သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင် ပ္ဍဲခေတ် အတိက်တေံ။]]
သၞောတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞောတ် မတြေံအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ '''အတိက်တေံ'''၊ သၞောတ်ဏအ် စကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံတမ်မူလ (Tribal chiefdoms) ကေုာံ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ညးမက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ်တအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် အဳဂျေပ် တြေံ (Ancient Egypt) ကေုာံ မေသဝ်ပဝ်တေးမီးယား (Mesopotamia)၊ ဨကရာဇ်တအ်ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နဒဒှ် ကောန်ကျာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်ကျာ်မစုတ်လဝ် အဝဵုရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Bendix |first=Reinhard |title=Kings or People: Power and the Mandate to Rule |url=https://archive.org/details/kingsorpeoplepow0000bend_y6m0 |year=1978 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520040908}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လဒေါဝ် (Middle Ages) ဥရဝ်ပ၊ သၞောတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဝွံ တန်တဴ လ္တူ သၞောတ် ဖျူဒယ် (Feudal system) တုဲ ဨကရာဇ်တအ် ပါ်ပရအ် တိဍာ် ကု မှူးမတ် (Nobles) တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ ပၞာန်ရ။ ဗွဲကြဴ ပ္ဍဲခေတ် ၁၆ ကေုာံ ၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ဨကရာဇ်တအ် သီကေတ် အဝဵု ပံင်ကောံ (Centralization) တုဲ ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင် (Absolute Monarchy) ညံင်ရဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ပြင်သေတ် သၟဝ် ဨကရာဇ် လူဝဳ မရနုက်ကဵု ၁၄ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အာရှ ကေုာံ ရးဗမံက် မ္ဂး၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် တအ် ညံင်ရဴ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင် မန်-ခမာ၊ ကေုာံ အိန္ဒိယ တအ်လေဝ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်ကၠုင် နကဵု သၞောတ် အဝဵုအာဏာ မခိုင်ကၠိုက်ရ။
== ၃။ ဂကူ သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ်ဂမၠိုၚ် (Types of Monarchies) ==
သၞောတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် ဂကူနာနာသာ် မတန်တဴ လ္တူ ကဆံင် အဝဵုအာဏာ မနွံ ဇရေင် ဨကရာဇ် ရ-
* '''[[သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင်]] (Absolute Monarchy):''' ဨကရာဇ် မွဲတၠဓဝ် မၞုံကဵု အဝဵုပေင်ပေင် လ္တူ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်။ ဍုင် ညံင်ရဴ သဴဒဳ အာရေဗဳယျာ (Saudi Arabia)၊ သွာဇဳလာန် (Eswatini)၊ ကေုာံ အဝ်မာန် (Oman) တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်စကာဒၟံင် သၞောတ်ဏအ်ရ။
* '''[[သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်]] (Constitutional Monarchy):''' ဨကရာဇ်ဝွံ ဒးဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် အတိုင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် (Constitution) တုဲ၊ အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍာံဇေတ်ဂှ် နွံ ဇရေင် ပါလဳမာန် ကေုာံ သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် ရ။ ဨကရာဇ် ဒှ်ဆ သင်္ကေတ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် သၟးရ (ဥပမာ - ဗြိတိန်၊ ဂျပေန်၊ သေံ၊ ဒိန်မက်)။<ref>{{cite book |last=Meyers |first=Peter |title=Evolution of the Monarchy |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>
* '''[[သၞောတ်ရုဲစှ် ဨကရာဇ်]] (Elective Monarchy):''' ဨကရာဇ်ဂှ် ဟွံဆက်အာဲကၟာဲ နကဵု ဆီဇာတ်၊ ဆဂး ဒးဒုင် ရုဲစှ် နကဵု ဂကောံ မၞိဟ်ဇၞော် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကံင်သဳ ရ။ (ဥပမာ - မလေရှာ - Yang di-Pertuan Agong ကေုာံ ဍုင် ဗာတဳကာန် - ရုဲစှ် သၟိင်ပုပ်)။
== ၄။ လက္ခဏာ ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ဆက်အာဲကၟာဲ (Characteristics and Succession) ==
လက္ခဏာ မကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ဆက်အာဲကၟာဲ (Succession) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ ပရေင်ဆက်အာဲကၟာဲဝွံ တန်တဴ လ္တူ ဆီဇာတ် (Hereditary succession) ရ။
* '''ဆက်အာဲကၟာဲ ကောန်တြုံဇၞော်အိုတ် (Agnatic Primogeniture):''' အခေါင် မဒှ် ဨကရာဇ် ဂှ် ကဵု ကု ကောန်တြုံ မဇၞော်အိုတ် ဟေင်ရ။ ယဝ်ကောန်တြုံ ဟွံမဲမှ ကဵု ကု ကောန်ဗြဴ။ (လညာတ်ဏအ် စကာလဝ် ပ္ဍဲ အတိက်တေံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်)။
* '''ဆက်အာဲကၟာဲ ဇၞော်အိုတ် (Absolute Primogeniture):''' ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ်၊ ဍုင် ဥရဝ်ပ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ညံင်ရဴ သွဳဒေန်၊ နဝ်ဝေ၊ ကေုာံ ဗြိတိန် တအ်ဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲထောအ် သၞောဝ်တုဲ၊ ကောန် မသၠးဂၠံဂဝ် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် (တြုံ ဒှ်ဒှ် ဗြဴ ဒှ်ဒှ်) ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ အခေါင် ဒှ် ဨကရာဇ် ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Neil |first=Patrick H. |title=Essentials of Comparative Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofcomp0003onei |year=2010 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0393933991}}</ref>
== ၅။ အခေါၚ်အာဏာကျာ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ဘာသာ (Divine Right and Religion) ==
[[File:Coronation_of_Nicholas_II.jpg|thumb|right|250px|သဘင်စဝ်အဘိသိက် ဨကရာဇ် (Coronation) ပ္ဍဲ ရုရှ၊ မထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ပရေင်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ အဝဵုအာဏာ ဨကရာဇ်။]]
ပ္ဍဲ '''အတိက်တေံ'''၊ သၞောတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ကု ပရေင်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ ရ။ သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ ဨကရာဇ်ဂှ် ထေက်ကြိုက် ကဵု အုပ်ဓုပ်ဂှ်၊ လညာတ် [[အခေါင်အာဏာကျာ်]] (Divine right of kings) မံက်ဂတဝ်ကၠုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Frazer |first=James George |title=The Golden Bough: A Study in Comparative Religion |year=1922 |publisher=Macmillan}}</ref>
* '''ဥရဝ်ပ:''' လညာတ်မ္ဂး ဨကရာဇ်ဂှ် ကျာ် မရုဲစှ်လဝ်တုဲ၊ ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ဒစးဒုင် ကု ဨကရာဇ် ဟွံဂွံ။
* '''ကြုက်:''' လညာတ် "အခေါင် နူအကာသ" (Mandate of Heaven) - ဨကရာဇ်မွဲ ဂွံအုပ်ဓုပ်ဂှ် တန်တဴ လ္တူ ဓဝ်စၟတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်တန်တဴ ဍုင်ကွာန်။ ယဝ် ဨကရာဇ် ဟွံခိုဟ်မ္ဂး အခေါင်အကာသ လီုအာတုဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ပၠန်ဂတး ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန် ရ။
* '''အာရှ အဂၞဲ:''' လညာတ် "ဒေဝရာဇ" (Devaraja) - ဨကရာဇ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ကောန်ကျာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကျာ်သၟိင် (God-king) မစှ်ေကၠုင် အုပ်ဓုပ် လောကကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ။
== ၆။ သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ပြံၚ်လှာဲ ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern Transformations) ==
ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကၞောတ် ၁၈ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ကရောတ်ဗဗဵု ပြင်သေတ် (French Revolution) ပကဵု ညံင် သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင် ပ္ဍဲဥရဝ်ပ ဂွံချဳဇီုအာ ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။ ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် အာတ်မိက်ကၠုင် အခေါင်အရာ၊ ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ၊ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ရ。<ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gordon |title=The Radicalism of the American Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/radical_woo_1992_00_6040 |year=1992 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-0679736882}}</ref>
ပၞာန်ဂၠးကဝ် ပထမ (World War I) ဝွံ ဒှ် ဟိုတ် အဓိက မပလီုပလာ်ထောအ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် အေန်ပါယာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။ ကၟိန်ဍုင် ရုရှ (Russian Empire)၊ ဂျာမနဳ (German Empire)၊ အဝ်သတြဳယျာ-ဟာင်ဂေရဳ (Austro-Hungarian) ကေုာံ အဝ်တဝ်မာန် (Ottoman Empire) တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးဒုင် လီုလာ်အာတုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲအာ နဒဒှ် ဍုင်သမ္မတ ရ။ ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးကဝ် ဒုတိယ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သၠးပွး နူ ခေတ်ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ တုဲ၊ ဍုင်ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရုဲစှ် ဒက်ပတန် သၞောတ် သမ္မတ တုဲ၊ သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ်ဝွံ အောန်စှ်ေအာ ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။
== ၇။ ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်ဨကရာဇ် မဆက်သှ်ေဒၟံၚ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ် (Current Monarchies) ==
လၟုဟ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ်၊ နွံ ဍုင် အတိုင် သၞောတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ၄၃ ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="width:80%; text-align:center;"
|+ ဥပမာ ဍုင် မဆက်စကာဒၟံင် သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ်
|-
! ဍုင် (Country) !! တိုက် (Continent) !! ဂကူ သၞောတ် (Type) !! က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် လၟုဟ် (Current Monarch)
|-
| [[ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန်|ဗြိတိန်]] (UK) || ဥရဝ်ပ || သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် || ဨကရာဇ် ချားလ် တတိယ (Charles III)
|-
| [[ဂျပေန်]] (Japan) || အာရှ || သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် || ဨကရာဇ် နာရူဟဳတဝ် (Naruhito)
|-
| [[သေံ]] (Thailand) || အာရှ အဂၞဲ || သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် || ဨကရာဇ် မဟာ ဝါဂျဳရာလံင်ကောန် (Rama X)
|-
| [[သဴဒဳ အာရေဗဳယျာ]] (Saudi Arabia) || လဒေါဝ်ဗမံက် || အဝဵုပေင်ပေင် || ဨကရာဇ် သာလ်မာန် (Salman)
|-
| [[သပိန်]] (Spain) || ဥရဝ်ပ || သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် || ဨကရာဇ် ဖလဳပေ တြဆဌမ (Felipe VI)
|-
| [[မလေရှာ]] (Malaysia) || အာရှ အဂၞဲ || သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် (ရုဲစှ်) || ယန် ဒဳ-ပါတွာန် အာဂံင် (Yang di-Pertuan Agong)
|}
== ၈။ ကဏ္ဍ ဨကရာဇ်တအ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ် (Role of Monarchs Today) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ဂှ်၊ ကဏ္ဍ ဨကရာဇ်တအ်ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲအာ နူကဵု ညးမအုပ်ဓုပ် တိုက်ရိုက် ဂှ် ဒှ်အာ ညးမဒှ် သင်္ကေတ (Figurehead) ရ။
* '''သင်္ကေတ ကောံသၟဟ် ကောန်ဂကူ (Symbol of Unity):''' ဨကရာဇ်ဝွံ ဒှ် မၞိဟ်မပံင်ကောံ ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ်တုဲ ဟွံပါဝင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗော်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မွဲမွဲရ။
* '''တာလျိုင် ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင် (Cultural Duties):''' ဨကရာဇ်တအ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် သဘင် အခိုက်ကၞာ၊ ပအပ် တဆိပ်ကြာ ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပရေင်ပရဟိတ ရ။
* '''တာလျိုင် ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ ဍုင်သ္အာင် (Diplomacy):''' ဨကရာဇ်တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင်တုဲ မလေပ် တိတ်တရဴ အာဝေင် ဍုင်သ္အာင် သွက်ဂွံ သၠုင်ပတိုန် ပရေင်မိတ်သဟာဲ အကြာ ဍုင်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Kostiner |first=Joseph |title=Middle East Monarchies: The Challenge of Modernity |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=978-1555878629}}</ref>
== ၉။ ဖဵုခိုဟ် ကေုာံ အခက်အခုဲဂမၠိုၚ် (Advantages and Disadvantages) ==
သၞောတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု တင်ခိုဟ် ကေုာံ တင်ဟွံခိုဟ် နာနာသာ်ရ။
'''ဖဵုခိုဟ် (Advantages):'''
* '''ပရေင်ညိင်ဝတ် ကေုာံ ဆက်စပ် (Stability and Continuity):''' ဨကရာဇ်တအ် မံင် ပ္ဍဲကဆံင် အဝဵု လုကဴ အာယုက်မွဲတုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂွံညိင်ဝတ်ရ။
* '''ဟွံပါ်ပါဲ ဗော်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Non-partisan):''' ဨကရာဇ်တအ် ဟွံဒး ပြိုင်ပကာန် သွက် မာဲ တုဲ၊ မာန်ဒှ်ကၠုင် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် သွက် ကောန်ဍုင် သီုဖအိုတ် မာန်ရ။
'''အခက်အခုဲ (Disadvantages):'''
* '''ဟွံမဲကဵု ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် (Lack of Democratic Choice):''' ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ဟွံကလိဂွံ အခေါင် ရုဲစှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် ညးတအ် နကဵု ဆန္ဒမာဲ။
* '''သြန်စရိတ် သၠုင် (High Cost):''' ပရေင်မင်မွဲ နန် ကေုာံ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ဨကရာဇ် ဂှ် ဒးစကာ သြန်အခေါန် ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy |url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismsocial0000jose_t8x4 |year=1942 |publisher=Harper & Brothers}}</ref>
* '''အန္တရာဲ သၞောတ်အဝဵုပေင် (Risk of Tyranny):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင် မ္ဂး၊ ယဝ်ရ ဨကရာဇ် ဟွံခိုဟ်မ္ဂး ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ဒးဒုင် ဍဵုဍိုက် ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သရုပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future) ==
သရုပ်မ္ဂး၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞောတ်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် မတြေံအိုတ် မကေင်ဒှ်လဝ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲကဵု '''အတိက်တေံ''' ရ။ ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ်၊ သၞောတ်ဏအ် ဒးဒုင် ပြံင်လှာဲ ကေုာံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကဵု သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ညံင်ဂွံ ဆက်သှ်ေတန်တဴမာန်ရ။
အနာဂတ် သွက် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဂှ် တန်တဴ လ္တူ ဒဒှ်ရ ဨကရာဇ်တအ် မာန်ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ဟွံမာန် ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ဨကရာဇ်တအ် ဆက်တန်တဴ နဒဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ပရေင်ကောံသၟဟ် ကေုာံ ဟွံလုပ် နှဴရဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မ္ဂး၊ သၞောတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက်တန်တဴအာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးကဝ်ပိုဲဏအ် လုကဴ အခိင်ဗွဲမလံ ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန် ရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1b3yTzQ_v9M ပရူပရာ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ် (YouTube)]
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="Finer">{{cite book |last=Finer |first=Samuel E. |title=The History of Government from the Earliest Times |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgovernm0002fine |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198229045}}</ref>
<ref name="Bogdanor">{{cite book |last=Bogdanor |first=Vernon |title=The Monarchy and the Constitution |url=https://archive.org/details/monarchyconstitu0000bogd |year=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0198293347}}</ref>
<ref name="Spellman">{{cite book |last=Spellman |first=W.M. |title=Monarchies 1000-2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/monarchies1000200000spel |year=2001 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1861890870}}</ref>
<ref name="Bendix">{{cite book |last=Bendix |first=Reinhard |title=Kings or People: Power and the Mandate to Rule |url=https://archive.org/details/kingsorpeoplepow0000bend_y6m0 |year=1978 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520040908}}</ref>
<ref name="Meyers">{{cite book |last=Meyers |first=Peter |title=Evolution of the Monarchy |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>
<ref name="ONeil">{{cite book |last=O'Neil |first=Patrick H. |title=Essentials of Comparative Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofcomp0003onei |year=2010 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0393933991}}</ref>
<ref name="Frazer">{{cite book |last=Frazer |first=James George |title=The Golden Bough: A Study in Comparative Religion |year=1922 |publisher=Macmillan}}</ref>
<ref name="Wood">{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gordon |title=The Radicalism of the American Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/radical_woo_1992_00_6040 |year=1992 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-0679736882}}</ref>
<ref name="Kostiner">{{cite book |last=Kostiner |first=Joseph |title=Middle East Monarchies: The Challenge of Modernity |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |isbn=978-1555878629}}</ref>
<ref name="Schumpeter">{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy |url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismsocial0000jose_t8x4 |year=1942 |publisher=Harper & Brothers}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်
| title = သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် (Monarchies)
| list1 =
* [[ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်]]
* [[သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင်]]
* [[သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်]]
* [[သၞောတ်ရုဲစှ် ဨကရာဇ်]]
| group2 = သၞောတ် သမ္မတ ကေုာံ ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ
| list2 =
* [[သမ္မတ ဍုင်]] (Republic)
* [[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy)
* [[သၞောတ်ပါလဳမာန်]] (Parliamentary system)
* [[သၞောတ်သမ္မတ မအုပ်ဓုပ်]] (Presidential system)
| group3 = သၞောတ် အဝဵုပေင် တၞဟ်
| list3 =
* [[သၞောတ်တၠအဝဵု]] (Dictatorship)
* [[သၞောတ်အဝ်လဳဂါခဳ]] (Oligarchy)
* [[သၞောတ်ကောန်မျူနေတ်]] (Communism)
}}
[[Category:ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်]]
[[Category:သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
[[Category:ဨကရာဇ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
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သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်
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{{Infobox political system
| name = သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်<br/>(Constitutional Monarchy)
| image = [[File:Monarchies.svg|300px|ဂၠးတိ မထ္ၜးလဝ် ဍုင် မဆက်စကာဒၟံင် သၞောတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်။ သာ်ခဍောင်ဂှ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဍုင် မစကာ သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ရ။]]
| caption = ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် မစကာ သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် (သာ်ခဍောင်)
| classification = သၞောတ်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်
| origins = [[ဥရဝ်ပ]] (ဗွဲတၟေင် [[ဗြိတိန်]]) ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လဒေါဝ် ကေုာံ ခေတ်တၟိ
| key_elements = ဨကရာဇ် ဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင်၊ ဆဂး အဝဵုအာဏာ တန်တဴ သၟဝ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်။
| variations = သၞောတ် သင်္ကေတ (Ceremonial), သၞောတ် နွံကဵု အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ် (Executive)
| examples = [[ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန်|ဗြိတိန်]]၊ [[ဂျပေန်]]၊ [[သေံ]]၊ [[သပိန်]]၊ [[ဒိန်မက်]]
}}
'''သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်''' ({{lang-en|Constitutional Monarchy}}) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်မွဲသာ် မၞုံကဵု ဨကရာဇ် မွဲတၠ (Monarch) နဒဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် (Head of State) ဆဂး အဝဵုအာဏာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်ညးဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵုလဝ် သၟဝ် '''သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်''' (Constitution) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Bogdanor |first=Vernon |title=The Monarchy and the Constitution |url=https://archive.org/details/monarchyconstitu0000bogd |year=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0198293347}}</ref> သၞောတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင် (Absolute Monarchy) မဒှ် သၞောတ် မၞုံကဵု ဨကရာဇ် မအုပ်ဓုပ် လ္တူသၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ သီုဟွံမဲကဵု ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵုရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ခေတ်လၟုဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ်၊ ဨကရာဇ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဆ သင်္ကေတ ကောံသၟဟ် ကောန်ဂကူ ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်မယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် ပရေင်အခိုက်ကၞာ (Ceremonial duties) သၟးတုဲ၊ အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍာံဇေတ် (Executive power) ဂှ် နွံ ဇရေင် သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် (Prime Minister) ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ မကလိဂွံလဝ် မာဲရုဲစှ် နူညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ သၞောတ်ဏအ် ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပရေင်ရုဲမာဲမ္ဂး၊ ဍေံဂှ် လုပ်ဒှ်ကၠုင် သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မၞုံကဵု ဨကရာဇ် နဒဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် (Crowned Republic / Democratic Monarchy) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Lijphart |first=Arend |title=Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries |url=https://archive.org/details/patternsofdemocr0000lijp |year=1999 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300078930}}</ref>
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== ၁။ နိရုတ္တိ ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Etymology and Definition) ==
နကဵု [[အရေဝ်ဘာသာ]] အင်္ဂလိက် မ္ဂး၊ ဝေါဟာရ "Constitutional" ဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် အရာမဆက်စပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် အတိုင် "Constitution" (သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်) တုဲ "Monarchy" ဂှ် ဒှ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မန် မ္ဂး ပိုဲစကာ "သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်" သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဨကရာဇ်ဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် သၟဝ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (The Monarch is under the Law) ရ။ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် သၞောတ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဍုင်မၞုံကဵု ဨကရာဇ် ဆဂး ဨကရာဇ်ဂှ် ဟွံမဲကဵု အဝဵု သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် တိုက်ရိုက်၊ ညးဒး ကလင် လညာတ် နူကဵု ပါလဳမာန် ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝၚ် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ ပ္ဍဲ အတိက်တေံ (History and Origins in the Past) ==
[[File:Magna_Carta_(British_Library_Cotton_MS_Augustus_II.106).jpg|thumb|left|250px|လိက် ကသုက် မာဂ်နာ ကာတာ (Magna Carta) မချူလဝ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၂၁၅ မဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အဝဵု ဨကရာဇ် အလန်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်။]]
ပ္ဍဲ [[အတိက်တေံ]]၊ ဨကရာဇ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိဝွံ အုပ်ဓုပ်လဝ် နကဵု သၞောတ် အဝဵုပေင်ပေင် (Absolute power) ရ။ ဆဂး၊ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အင်္ဂလာန် (England) ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၂၁၅၊ မှူးမတ် ညးဇၞော်တအ် ဒစးဒုင် ကု ဨကရာဇ် ဂျောန် (King John) တုဲ အာတ်မိက် ညံင်ဂွံ ထ္ပက်စၟတ်တဲ လိက်ကသုက် '''မာဂ်နာ ကာတာ (Magna Carta)''' ရ။ လိက်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လိက်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် မစၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဨကရာဇ်လေဝ် ဒးဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် အတိုင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကီုရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Vile |first=M. J. C. |title=Constitutionalism and the Separation of Powers |url=https://archive.org/details/constitutionalis0000vile_c8k4 |year=1998 |publisher=Liberty Fund |isbn=978-0865971752}}</ref>
ဗွဲကြဴ ပ္ဍဲ ၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ကြဴနူ ပေါဲဗတိုက် အပ္ဍဲဍုင် အင်္ဂလာန် (English Civil War) ကေုာံ ကရောတ်ဗဗဵု ဂၠောရဳယပ်သ် (Glorious Revolution) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၆၈၈ တုဲ၊ ပါလဳမာန် ပတိတ်လဝ် လိက်စၟတ်သမ္တီ အခေါင်အရာ (Bill of Rights 1689) ရ။ လိက်ဏအ်ဝွံ ပဒတန်လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဨကရာဇ် ဟွံမဲကဵု အဝဵု သွက်ဂွံ ကံက်အခေါန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ခၞံသၞောဝ် သီုဟွံမဲကဵု တင်တုပ်စိုတ် နူ ပါလဳမာန် ရ။ လညာတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် သဇိုင် သွက် သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လၟုဟ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Locke |first=John |title=Two Treatises of Government |year=1689 |publisher=Awnsham Churchill}}</ref>
== ၃။ ဂကူ သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Types of Constitutional Monarchies) ==
သၞောတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ လ္ၚတ်ရံင် လ္တူ အဝဵု ဨကရာဇ်တုဲ ပါ်လဝ် ၜါဂကူ အဓိက နွံရ-
# '''သၞောတ် သင်္ကေတ (Ceremonial / Parliamentary Monarchy):''' ဨကရာဇ်ဝွံ ဟွံမဲကဵု အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ် တိုက်ရိုက်တုဲ ဒှ်ဆ သင်္ကေတ သၟးရ။ အဝဵုအာဏာ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံ ဇရေင် ပါလဳမာန် ကေုာံ သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် ရ။ (ဥပမာ- ဗြိတိန်၊ ဂျပေန်၊ သပိန်၊ သွဳဒေန်)။
# '''သၞောတ် နွံကဵု အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ် (Executive Constitutional Monarchy):''' ဨကရာဇ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်တုဲ ပါဝင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ဍုင်ကွာန် တိုက်ရိုက်ရ။ (ဥပမာ- ဘူတာန်၊ ကူဝိတ်၊ ဗာရိန်း၊ မဝ်ရဝ်ကဝ်)။<ref>{{cite book |last=Finer |first=Samuel E. |title=The History of Government from the Earliest Times |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgovernm0002fine |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198229045}}</ref>
== ၄။ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုၚ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ပါ်ပရအ် အဝဵု (Constitution and Separation of Powers) ==
သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် (Constitution) ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞောဝ် မသၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဍုင် မစကာ သၞောတ်ဏအ်ရ။ သၞောဝ်ဝွံ မလေပ် ချူစၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် တာလျိုင် ဨကရာဇ်၊ ပါလဳမာန်၊ ကေုာံ ရုင်ဗစာ တအ် ဗွဲမကၠးဖ္ဍးရ။
အတိုင် လညာတ် အစာဖဳလဝ်သဝ်ဖဳ မောန်တက်သကယူ (Montesquieu) မ္ဂး၊ အဝဵုဍုင် ဒးပါ်လဝ် ပိ ကဏ္ဍရ-
* '''အဝဵု ခၞံသၞောဝ် (Legislative):''' ပါလဳမာန် (ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် ရုဲစှ်) ဒှ်ညး မခၞံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ။
* '''အဝဵု အုပ်ဓုပ် (Executive):''' သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ ဒှ်ညး မအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် (ၜိုန်ရ နကဵုယၟုမ္ဂး ဨကရာဇ် ဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်ကီုလေဝ်)။
* '''အဝဵု သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် (Judicial):''' ရုင်ဗစာ မတန်တဴကေတ်တ် (Independent courts) ဒှ်ညး မဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် အတိုင် သၞောဝ်။<ref>{{cite book |last=Montesquieu |first=Charles |title=The Spirit of the Laws |year=1748}}</ref>
== ၅။ ကဏ္ဍ ကေုာံ တာလျိုၚ် ဨကရာဇ် (Roles and Duties of the Monarch) ==
[[File:King_Charles_III_2023.jpg|thumb|right|200px|ဨကရာဇ် ချားလ် တတိယ (King Charles III) မဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန် ကေုာံ ဍုင် ဓနသဟာယ (Commonwealth) မစကာ သၞောတ်ဏအ်။]]
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ်ဏအ်၊ ဨကရာဇ်ဝွံ ဆက်ယိုက်ဂၠေင်ဒၟံင် တာလျိုင် မကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ညံင်ရဴ-
* '''တာလျိုင် ပရေင်အခိုက်ကၞာ (State functions):''' ပံက် သဘင် ပါလဳမာန်၊ တိတ်တရဴ ဍုင်သ္အာင် နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ်စၞး ဍုင်၊ ကေုာံ ပအပ် တဆိပ်ကြာ ကု ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် ညးမကၠောန်လဝ် ခိုဟ်။
* '''ပရေင်ထ္ပက်စၟတ်တဲ လ္တူသၞောဝ် (Royal Assent):''' သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မအံင်ဇၞး နူပါလဳမာန်တအ်ဂှ် ဨကရာဇ် ဒးထ္ပက်စၟတ်တဲ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံဒှ် သၞောဝ် အလဵုအစင်ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ်၊ ဨကရာဇ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟွံတးပါဲ လိက်ဏအ်ရ။
* '''လညာတ် အစာ ဝင် ဝေါလ်တာ ဗာဂေဟဝ် (Walter Bagehot):''' ညးဟီုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဨကရာဇ် နွံကဵု အခေါင် ပိသာ် လ္တူ အလဵုအသဳ - (၁) အခေါင် မကဵု ကသပ်၊ (၂) အခေါင် မကဵု ဇြဟတ်စိုတ်၊ (၃) အခေါင် မကဵု သတိ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဨကရာဇ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန် မၞိဟ်မကဵုကသပ် သွက် သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Bagehot |first=Walter |title=The English Constitution |url=https://archive.org/details/englishconstitu05bagegoog |year=1867 |publisher=Chapman and Hall}}</ref>
== ၆။ သၞောတ်ပါလဳမာန် ကေုာံ သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် (Parliamentary System and Prime Minister) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် မစကာ သၞောတ်ဏအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု သၞောတ်ပါလဳမာန် (Parliamentary System) ရ။ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် စုတ်မာဲ ရုဲစှ် အမာတ် သွက် ပါလဳမာန် ရ။ ဗော်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မကလိဂွံ မာဲဂၠိုင်အိုတ် (Majority) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဗော်မပံင်ကောံလဝ်တအ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ အခေါင် ဒက်ပတန် အလဵုအသဳရ။
က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဗော်ဂှ် လုပ်ဒှ်ကၠုင် **သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော်** (Prime Minister) တုဲ ယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် "က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် အလဵုအသဳ" (Head of Government) ရ။ သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော်ဏအ်ဟေင် ဒှ် မၞိဟ်မၞုံကဵု အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ် တိုက်ရိုက်တုဲ၊ ဨကရာဇ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဆ မၞိဟ်မပဒတန် ကဵုယၟု သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် သၟးရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Neil |first=Patrick H. |title=Essentials of Comparative Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofcomp0003onei |year=2010 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0393933991}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဥပမာ ဍုၚ်မစကာ သၞောတ်ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်လၟုဟ် (Examples of Modern Countries) ==
ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ လၟုဟ် ဆက်စကာဒၟံင် သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="width:80%; text-align:center;"
|+ ဍုင် မစကာ သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဍုင် !! က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် (ဨကရာဇ်) !! က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် အလဵုအသဳ !! လက္ခဏာ တၟေင်
|-
| '''[[ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန်|ဗြိတိန်]]''' || ဨကရာဇ် / ဂၞကျာ် || သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် || ဟွံမဲကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် မချူလဝ် နကဵု လိက်မွဲအုပ် (Uncodified constitution)။ ဨကရာဇ် ဒှ် က္ဍိုပ် ဘာသာခရေတ် အင်္ဂလဳကာန်။
|-
| '''[[ဂျပေန်]]''' || ဨကရာဇ် (Emperor) || သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် || အတိုင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၇၊ ဨကရာဇ် ဒှ်ဆ "သင်္ကေတ သွက် ဍုင်" သၟးတုဲ ဟွံမဲကဵု အဝဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်။
|-
| '''[[သေံ]]''' || ဨကရာဇ် || သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် || ဨကရာဇ် နွံကဵု ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ ရှ်ေသှ်ေရဴဂဴ ဗွဲမသၠုင် နူကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ နွံကဵု သၞောဝ် စဵုဒၞာ ဨကရာဇ် (Lèse-majesté)။<ref>{{cite book |last=Harding |first=Andrew |title=The Constitution of Thailand: A Contextual Analysis |year=2011 |publisher=Hart Publishing |isbn=978-1841139739}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[မလေရှာ]]''' || ယန် ဒဳ-ပါတွာန် အာဂံင် || သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် || ဒှ် သၞောတ်ရုဲစှ် ဨကရာဇ်။ သၟိင်စော် (Sultan) ၉ တၠ ရုဲစှ် ဨကရာဇ် မွဲတၠ သွက် ၅ သၞာံ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Trindade |first=F. A. |title=The Constitution of Malaysia |year=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
|-
| '''[[သပိန်]]''' || ဨကရာဇ် || သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် || ကလေင်ဒက်ပတန် သၞောတ်ဏအ် ကြဴနူ တၠအဝဵု ဖရန်သဳသကဝ် ဖရန်ကဝ် စုတိ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၇၅ ရ။
|}
== ၈။ လညာတ် လ္တူ ပရေၚ်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ကေုာံ အခေါၚ်အရာ (Democracy and Rights Perspectives) ==
သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာမပံင်စပ် အကြာ အခိုက်ကၞာ တြေံ (Hereditary rule) ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။
လ္ပာ် လညာတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မ္ဂး၊ ၜိုန်ရ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်ဍုင်ဂှ် ဟွံဒးဒုင် ရုဲစှ် နကဵု မာဲကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍာံဇေတ်ဂှ် တန်တဴ လ္တူ အလဵုအသဳ မကလိဂွံ မာဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဍုင် ညံင်ရဴ သွဳဒေန်၊ နဝ်ဝေ ကေုာံ ဒိန်မက် တအ်ဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု ဨကရာဇ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေံတအ် ပါဝင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု စရင် ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ကဆံင်သၠုင်အိုတ် ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ခိုဟ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ လၟိုန်ရ။
== ၉။ ဖဵုခိုဟ် ကေုာံ အခက်အခုဲဂမၠိုၚ် (Advantages and Disadvantages) ==
'''ဖဵုခိုဟ် (Advantages):'''
* '''ပရေင်ညိင်ဝတ် (Stability):''' ဨကရာဇ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ကောံသၟဟ် မဟွံပါ်ပါဲ ဗော်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် ဍုင် ဂွံညိင်ဝတ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ပြသၞာ ဍုင်ကွာန် ကတဵုဒှ်။
* '''ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဝင် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Continuity):''' ဨကရာဇ်ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု ဝင် ဍုင် မဂၠိုင်ကဵု ကၠံသၞာံ တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ဂွံနွံကဵု စိုတ်ဓါတ် ဆာန်ဂကူ ရ။
'''အခက်အခုဲ (Disadvantages):'''
* '''ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု လညာတ် တုပ်သၟဟ် (Inequality):''' မၞိဟ်မွဲတၠ ကလိဂွံ အခေါင် ဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် ဟိုတ်နူ ဂကူဆီဇာတ် (Birthright) ဓဝ်ဂှ် ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု လညာတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။
* '''စရိတ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Taxpayer Cost):''' သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ဨကရာဇ်၊ နန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာဂှ် ဒးစကာ သြန်အခေါန် နူ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။
== ၁၀။ သရုပ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ပြံၚ်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future) ==
သရုပ်မ္ဂး၊ သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မအံင်ဇၞးအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဝင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ မာန်ပကဵု ညံင် သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် တြေံ ပ္ဍဲ [[အတိက်တေံ]] ဂွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ခေတ်တၟိ မာန်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ သၞောတ်ဏအ် မာန်ဆက်တန်တဴအာ နကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ နာနာ ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန် ရ။ ဥပမာ- ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ဨကရာဇ် တအ် မလေပ် ဖအောန်ဖျေဟ် လၟိဟ် ကောန်ဇာတ် မကလိဂွံ သြန်ပရဲ နူဍုင် (Slimmed-down monarchy) ကေုာံ ညံင်ဂွံ ကြပ်ညောန် ကု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠိုင်တိုန်ရ။ ဍုင်လ္ၚဵု ညံင်ရဴ အဝ်သတြေးလျာ ကေုာံ ကနေဒါ တအ်လေဝ် မလေပ် ကၠောန် သဘင် ဆန္ဒမာဲ သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ နဒဒှ် ဍုင် သမ္မတ ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန် ကီုရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1b3yTzQ_v9M သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ဟီုဂှ် မုရော? (YouTube - Politics Explained)]
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="Bogdanor">{{cite book |last=Bogdanor |first=Vernon |title=The Monarchy and the Constitution |url=https://archive.org/details/monarchyconstitu0000bogd |year=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0198293347}}</ref>
<ref name="Lijphart">{{cite book |last=Lijphart |first=Arend |title=Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries |url=https://archive.org/details/patternsofdemocr0000lijp |year=1999 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300078930}}</ref>
<ref name="Vile">{{cite book |last=Vile |first=M. J. C. |title=Constitutionalism and the Separation of Powers |url=https://archive.org/details/constitutionalis0000vile_c8k4 |year=1998 |publisher=Liberty Fund |isbn=978-0865971752}}</ref>
<ref name="Locke">{{cite book |last=Locke |first=John |title=Two Treatises of Government |year=1689 |publisher=Awnsham Churchill}}</ref>
<ref name="Finer">{{cite book |last=Finer |first=Samuel E. |title=The History of Government from the Earliest Times |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgovernm0002fine |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198229045}}</ref>
<ref name="Montesquieu">{{cite book |last=Montesquieu |first=Charles |title=The Spirit of the Laws |year=1748}}</ref>
<ref name="Bagehot">{{cite book |last=Bagehot |first=Walter |title=The English Constitution |url=https://archive.org/details/englishconstitu05bagegoog |year=1867 |publisher=Chapman and Hall}}</ref>
<ref name="ONeil">{{cite book |last=O'Neil |first=Patrick H. |title=Essentials of Comparative Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofcomp0003onei |year=2010 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0393933991}}</ref>
<ref name="Harding">{{cite book |last=Harding |first=Andrew |title=The Constitution of Thailand: A Contextual Analysis |year=2011 |publisher=Hart Publishing |isbn=978-1841139739}}</ref>
<ref name="Trindade">{{cite book |last=Trindade |first=F. A. |title=The Constitution of Malaysia |year=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်
| title = သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် (Monarchies)
| list1 =
* [[ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်]]
* [[သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင်]]
* [[သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်]]
* [[သၞောတ်ရုဲစှ် ဨကရာဇ်]]
| group2 = သၞောတ် သမ္မတ ကေုာံ ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ
| list2 =
* [[သမ္မတ ဍုင်]] (Republic)
* [[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy)
* [[သၞောတ်ပါလဳမာန်]] (Parliamentary system)
* [[သၞောတ်သမ္မတ မအုပ်ဓုပ်]] (Presidential system)
| group3 = လညာတ် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်
| list3 =
* [[သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်]] (Constitution)
* [[ပရေင်ပါ်ပရအ် အဝဵု]] (Separation of powers)
* [[မာဂ်နာ ကာတာ]] (Magna Carta)
}}
[[Category:သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် သၟဝ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်]]
[[Category:ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်]]
[[Category:သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
[[Category:သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်]]
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အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်
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{{Infobox idea
| name = အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်<br/>(Popular sovereignty)
| image = [[File:Constitution We the People.jpg|300px|မလိက် "ပိုဲညးဍုင်ကွာန်" (We the People) မဒှ် မလိက်စတမ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်။]]
| caption = မလိက် "We the People" ပ္ဍဲ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (၁၇၈၇) မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်။
| creator = အစာဖဳလဝ်သဝ်ဖဳ ညံင်ရဴ ဂျောန် လံက် ကေုာံ ဂျုင် ဂျက် ရူသဝ်
| established = ခေတ် ဉာဏ်ပညာ (Age of Enlightenment) ၁၇-၁၈ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ
| field = ဖဳလဝ်သဝ်ဖဳ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်
| related_ideas = [[ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်]] (Social contract)<br/>[[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy)<br/>[[သမ္မတဍုင်]] (Republic)
| opposed_ideas = [[အခေါင်အာဏာကျာ်]] (Divine right of kings)<br/>[[သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင်]] (Absolute monarchy)<br/>[[သၞောတ်တၠအဝဵု]] (Dictatorship)
}}
'''အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်''' ({{lang-en|Popular sovereignty}} ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Sovereignty of the peoples' rule) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် တေသြရဳ ကေုာံ သဇိုင်သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မွဲသာ် မစၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အဝဵုအာဏာ မအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် (State) ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ (Government) တအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ကေုာံ တန်တဴဒၟံင် လ္တူ ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Consent of the people) တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Edmund S. |title=Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America |url=https://archive.org/details/inventingpeopler0000morg |year=1988 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0393306231}}</ref> အတိုင်လညာတ်ဏအ်မ္ဂး၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် တမ်မူလ အဝဵုအာဏာ ဍာံဇေတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်မွဲတုဲ၊ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အလဵုအသဳတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဆ ညးမကၠောန်ကမၠောန် သွက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Servants of the people) သၟးရ။
ပ္ဍဲ '''အတိက်တေံ'''၊ လညာတ်ဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဒစးဒုင် ကု လညာတ် [[အခေါင်အာဏာကျာ်]] (Divine right of kings) မဟီုလဝ် ဨကရာဇ် ကလိဂွံ အဝဵု နူကျာ် ဂှ်ရ။ လညာတ် အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဉာဏ်ပညာ (Enlightenment) နကဵု လညာတ် [[ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်]] (Social contract) မချူလဝ် နကဵု အစာဖဳလဝ်သဝ်ဖဳ ညံင်ရဴ [[တဝ်မာတ် ဟံဗ်သ်]] (Thomas Hobbes)၊ [[ဂျောန် လံက်]] (John Locke) ကေုာံ [[ဂျုင် ဂျက် ရူသဝ်]] (Jean-Jacques Rousseau) တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuck |first=Richard |title=The Sleeping Sovereign: The Invention of Modern Democracy |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1107130630}}</ref> လညာတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်လဝ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ကရောတ်ဗဗဵု အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ ကရောတ်ဗဗဵု ပြင်သေတ် တုဲ လၟုဟ် ဒှ်ကၠုင် သဇိုင် သွက် ဍုင် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ အလုံဂၠးတိရ။
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== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဝေါဟာရ အဓိက ၜါသာ်ရ။ "အခေါင်အာဏာ" (Sovereignty) ဟီုဂှ် ဒှ် အဝဵု မသၠုင်အိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အဝဵု မဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် လက္ကရဴအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍုင်မွဲရ။ "ညးဍုင်ကွာန်" (Popular) ဟီုဂှ် ဆေင်စပ် ကု ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဂှ်ရ။
ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဗွဲအလုံမ္ဂး၊ အဝဵုအာဏာ ဍာံဇေတ်ဂှ် ဟွံတန်တဴ လ္တူ ဨကရာဇ် မွဲတၠ၊ ဟွံတန်တဴ လ္တူ ဂကောံအမာတ် လ္ၚဵု၊ ဆဂး တန်တဴဒၟံင် လ္တူ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် စကာ အဝဵုဏအ် နကဵု ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် မာဲ (Elections) သွက်ဂွံ ရုဲစှ် ညးစၞး ညးတအ် သွက်ဂွံ အုပ်ဓုပ်ဍုင် လုကဴ အခိင်ကာလ မွဲမွဲရ။ ယဝ်ရ အလဵုအသဳဂှ် ဟွံကၠောန် အတိုင် ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်မ္ဂး၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် နွံ အခေါင် ပလီုထောအ် အလဵုအသဳဂှ်တုဲ ဒက်ပတန် အလဵုအသဳ တၟိ ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန် ရ။
== ၂။ တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ဝၚ် ပ္ဍဲ အတိက်တေံ (Origins and History in the Past) ==
[[File:Roman_Senate_Cicero.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ပရေင်ကောံဓရီု သဳနေတ် ရဝ်မ (Roman Senate)။ လညာတ် "အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်" ဝွံ နွံကၠုင် သဇိုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် ဍုင်သမ္မတ ရဝ်မ တြေံတေအ်ရ။]]
ပ္ဍဲ '''အတိက်တေံ'''၊ သဇိုင် လညာတ် အဝဵု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဝွံ နွံကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ (Ancient Greece) ကေုာံ ဍုင်သမ္မတ ရဝ်မ (Roman Republic) တေအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အေသင် (Athens)၊ ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ပါဝင် တိုက်ရိုက် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ဍုင်ကွာန် (Direct Democracy) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ရဝ်မ မ္ဂး၊ သၞောတ်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ညးတအ် ချူလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အဝဵု ဨကရာဇ် ရဝ်မ (Imperium) ဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ရဝ်မ (Populus Romanus) တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Kelly |first=J. M. |title=A Short History of Western Legal Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofwe0000kell |year=1992 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198762446}}</ref>
ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လဒေါဝ် (Middle Ages) ဂှ် လညာတ်ဏအ် ကၠေအ်အာတုဲ၊ လညာတ် [[အခေါင်အာဏာကျာ်]] (Divine right of kings) လုပ်ကေတ်အာ ဒၞာဲရ။ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် ခေတ် ၁၆ ကေုာံ ၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ တေအ်ဟေင်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ကယျာန်ယျေဝ် အကြာ ဨကရာဇ် ကေုာံ ပါလဳမာန် ပ္ဍဲ ဥရဝ်ပ (တၟေင်တၟဟ် ပ္ဍဲ အင်္ဂလာန်) တုဲ၊ လညာတ် အဝဵု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ကလေင်မံက်ဂတဝ်ကၠုင် ပၠန်ရ။
== ၃။ အစာဖဳလဝ်သဝ်ဖဳ အဓိက ကေုာံ လညာတ်ညးတအ် (Key Philosophers and Their Ideas) ==
လညာတ် အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ခေတ်တၟိ ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ်ကၠုင် နကဵု အစာဖဳလဝ်သဝ်ဖဳ အဓိက ပိတၠ-
# '''တဝ်မာတ် ဟံဗ်သ် (Thomas Hobbes, ၁၅၈၈–၁၆၇၉):''' ပ္ဍဲ လိက်ညး ''Leviathan'' (၁၆၅၁) ဂှ်၊ ဟံဗ်သ် ဟီုလဝ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ဒက်ပတန် အလဵုအသဳ နကဵု "ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်" သွက်ဂွံ တိတ်ဗၠး နူကဵု ဘဝ သဘာဝ မၞုံကဵု ပေါဲဗတိုက်ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ညး ထံက်ဂလာန် သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ညး ပဒတန်လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အဝဵုဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (ဟွံသေင် နူကျာ်) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Hobbes |first=Thomas |title=Leviathan |url=https://archive.org/details/leviathan000hobb |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521567978}}</ref>
# '''ဂျောန် လံက် (John Locke, ၁၆၃၂–၁၇၀၄):''' ပ္ဍဲ ''Two Treatises of Government'' (၁၆၈၉) ဂှ်၊ လံက် ညာတ်ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ဒက်ပတန် အလဵုအသဳ သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ အခေါင်အရာ သဘာဝညးတအ် (လမျီု၊ ပရေင်သၠးပွး၊ ကေုာံ ဒြပ်ရတ်) ရ။ ယဝ် အလဵုအသဳ ဟွံမင်မွဲ အခေါင်တအ်ဏအ်မ္ဂး၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် နွံ အခေါင် ပၠန်ဂတး တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ အလဵုအသဳ မာန်ရ။
# '''ဂျုင် ဂျက် ရူသဝ် (Jean-Jacques Rousseau, ၁၇၁၂–၁၇၇၈):''' ပ္ဍဲ ''The Social Contract'' (၁၇၆၂) ဂှ်၊ ရူသဝ် ချူလဝ် အဝဵုအာဏာ ဍာံဇေတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒြပ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တုဲ ဍေံ ပါ်ကရေက် ဟွံဂွံ ရ။ ညး စကာလဝ် လညာတ် "ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ အလုံမၞိဟ်" (General Will) မဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဍာံဇေတ် ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Rousseau |first=Jean-Jacques |title=The Social Contract |url=https://archive.org/details/socialcontract00rous |year=1968 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0140442014}}</ref>
== ၄။ ပရေၚ်တုပ်စိုတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (The Social Contract Theory) ==
[[File:Rousseau.jpg|thumb|right|200px|ဂျုင် ဂျက် ရူသဝ် (Jean-Jacques Rousseau) ညးမချူလဝ် လိက်အုပ် "The Social Contract" မထံက်ဂလာန် အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲမသကာတ်မြဟ်။]]
အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် တိုက်ရိုက် ကု လညာတ် '''[[ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်]]''' (Social Contract) ရ။ အတိုင် တေသြရဳ ဏအ်မ္ဂး၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် သၠးဂၠံဂဝ် ကၠုင် နကဵု ပရေင်သၠးပွး သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ဆဂး သွက်ဂွံ မံင်တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မၞုံကဵု ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ ကေုာံ ညိင်ဝတ်ဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် ဒးကဵုပအပ် အခေါင်သၠးပွး ညးတအ် ညိည ကု အလဵုအသဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍုင် (State) ရ။
အလဵုအသဳဂှ် ကလိဂွံ အဝဵု သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ဖျေဟ်ဒုဟ် ရ။ ဆဂး အဝဵုဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် အဝဵု မလွဳစလဝ် (Borrowed power) နူ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သၟးရ။ ယဝ်ရ အလဵုအသဳဂှ် ဖံက်ပလီု ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် (ဥပမာ - ကဵု ဒုဟ် ဟွံမဲကဵု ဓဝ်စၟတ်၊ ဍဵုဍိုက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန်) မ္ဂး၊ အဝဵုအာဏာဂှ် ကလေင်စိုပ်အာ ဇရေင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ပၠန်တုဲ၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ဒက်ပတန် သၞောတ်တၟိ ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန် ရ။
== ၅။ ကရောတ်ဗဗဵု အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ အခေါၚ်အာဏာ ညးဍုၚ်ကွာန် (American Revolution) ==
လညာတ် အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဝွံ ဒှ်လဝ် လွဟ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကရောတ်ဗဗဵု အမေရိကာန် (American Revolution, ၁၇၇၆) ရ။
ကောန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် တအ် ဒစးဒုင် ကု ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန် ဂျောတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ပိ (George III) ဟိုတ်နူကဵု "ပွမကံက်အခေါန် သီုဟွံမဲကဵု ညးစၞး" (Taxation without representation) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လိက်လလောင်တြး ပရေင်သၠးပွး အမေရိကာန် (Declaration of Independence) မချူလဝ် နကဵု တဝ်မာတ် ဂျက်ဖာသာန် (Thomas Jefferson) ဂှ် ချူလဝ်ကၠးကၠးမးမး ဒဒှ်ရ "အလဵုအသဳတအ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ အဝဵု ဍာံဇေတ် နူကဵု ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ညးမဒးဒုင်အုပ်ဓုပ် (Consent of the governed) တအ်ရ။"<ref>{{cite book |last=Bailyn |first=Bernard |title=The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_2900674443029 |year=1992 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674443020}}</ref>
ဗွဲကြဴ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၇၈၇၊ ကာလ ညးတအ် ချူ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် အမေရိကာန် တၟိဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် စကာလဝ် မလိက် စတမ် "We the People" (ပိုဲညးဍုင်ကွာန်) မထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် နကဵု အဝဵု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ရ။
== ၆။ ကရောတ်ဗဗဵု ပြၚ်သေတ် ကေုာံ ဇိုၚ်ဂါံ တၟိ (French Revolution) ==
[[File:Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen_in_1789.jpg|thumb|left|250px|လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် (၁၇၈၉) ပ္ဍဲ ပြင်သေတ် မပဒတန်လဝ် အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်။]]
ပ္ဍဲ ပြင်သေတ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ လညာတ်ဏအ် ပလီုပလာ်ထောအ် သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၇၈၉ တေအ်ရ။ ကောန်ဍုင် ပြင်သေတ်တအ် ပၠန်ဂတး တုဲ လလောင်တြးလဝ် "လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန်" (Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ပိုဒ် ၃ ဍေံဂှ် ချူလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "တမ်မူလ အခေါင်အာဏာ သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောန်ဂကူ (The Nation) မွဲဓဝ်ဟေင်ရ။ ပုဂ္ဂိုလ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ လဵုမွဲလေဝ် ဟွံမဲကဵု အခေါင် စကာ အဝဵု မဟွံကၠုင် နူကဵု ကောန်ဂကူ တိုက်ရိုက် ဂှ်ရ။"<ref>{{cite book |last=Hunt |first=Lynn |title=The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution00hunt |year=1996 |publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's |isbn=978-0312108021}}</ref> အရာဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဇိုင်ဂါံ တၟိ မွဲ သွက် ဥရဝ်ပ မပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု အဝဵုဨကရာဇ် ကၠုင်စိုပ် အဝဵုညးဍုင်ကွာန် ရ။
== ၇။ ပရေၚ်တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ လညာတ် အဝဵုအာဏာဂမၠိုၚ် (Comparisons of Sovereignty) ==
လညာတ် အဝဵုအာဏာ ဍုင်ကွာန် နွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ နာနာသာ်ရ။ သ္ၚိအင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အဓိက ပိသာ်-
{| class="wikitable" style="width:90%; text-align:center;"
|+ ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ လညာတ် အဝဵုအာဏာဂမၠိုင်
|-
! လညာတ် (Concept) !! တမ်မူလ အဝဵု (Source of Power) !! လက္ခဏာ အဓိက (Key Characteristics) !! ဥပမာ ဍုင် (Examples)
|-
| '''[[အခေါင်အာဏာကျာ်]] (Divine Right)''' || ကျာ်ထာဝရ || ဨကရာဇ် နွံ အဝဵုပေင်၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဒစးဒုင် ဟွံဂွံ။ || ပြင်သေတ် (ခေတ် လူဝဳ ၁၄)
|-
| '''[[သၞောတ်ပါလဳမာန် အဝဵုပေင်]] (Parliamentary Sovereignty)''' || ပါလဳမာန် (လွှတ်တော်) || ပါလဳမာန် မာန်ခၞံ သၞောဝ် လဵုမွဲမွဲ၊ ရုင်ဗစာ မာန်ပလီု သၞောဝ် ပါလဳမာန် ဟွံမာန်။ || [[ဗြိတိန်]] (UK)
|-
| '''အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Popular Sovereignty)''' || ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် || အလဵုအသဳ ကလိဂွံ အဝဵု နူ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်။ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ဒှ် အဝဵုသၠုင်အိုတ်။ || [[ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]]၊ [[ပြင်သေတ်]]၊ [[အိန္ဒိယ]]
|}
== ၈။ အခေါၚ်အာဏာ ညးဍုၚ်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုၚ် ခေတ်တၟိ (Popular Sovereignty in Modern Constitutions) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လၟုဟ်၊ ဍုင် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပၠောပ်လဝ် လညာတ် အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပိုဒ်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် သွက် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ညးတအ်ရ။ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် စကာ အဝဵုညးတအ် နကဵု နဲကဲ နာနာသာ်-
* '''ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် မာဲ (Elections):''' ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ရုဲစှ် ညးစၞး (Members of Parliament/President) သွက်ဂွံ အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်။
* '''ဆန္ဒမာဲ အလုံညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Referendums):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကိစ္စ မဇၞော်ကဵု ဒြဟတ်တအ်ဂှ် (ဥပမာ- ပြံင်လှာဲ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်) အလဵုအသဳ သၟာန် ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တိုက်ရိုက်။<ref>{{cite book |last=Qvortrup |first=Matt |title=Demystifying Direct Democracy |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199672625}}</ref>
* '''ပရေင်ပါဝင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Civic Participation):''' ပွမပါဝင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ အခေါင်အရာ၊ ပွမထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ၊ ကေုာံ ပွမချူလိက် အာတ်မိက် ကု အလဵုအသဳ။
== ၉။ အခက်အခုဲ ကေုာံ တၚ်ပါ်ပါဲဂမၠိုၚ် (Challenges and Criticisms) ==
ၜိုန်ရ လညာတ်ဏအ် ခိုဟ်ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လွပ် ဍာံဇေတ်မ္ဂး ဒးဆဵုဂဗဒၟံင် ပြသၞာ နာနာသာ်ရ-
* '''အဝဵုပေင် လ္ပာ်မၞိဟ်ဂၠိုင် (Tyranny of the Majority):''' ယဝ်ရ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် မၞိဟ်လ္ပာ်ဂၠိုင် စကာ အဝဵုညးတအ် သွက်ဂွံ ဍဵုဍိုက် မၞိဟ်လ္ပာ်အောန် (Minorities) မ္ဂး၊ အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဂှ် ဒှ်အန္တရာဲ မာန်ရ။ (ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဍုင်တအ် ဒးနွံကဵု သၞောဝ် အခေါင်အရာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် မပြေင်စွံလဝ်)။<ref>{{cite book |last=Mill |first=John Stuart |title=On Liberty |year=1859 |publisher=John W. Parker and Son}}</ref>
* '''ပရေင်လှေံလှန် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Populism):''' က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် လ္ၚဵုတအ် စကာ မအရေဝ် "အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်" တုဲ လှေံလှန် စိုတ်ဓါတ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ အဝဵု ကေုာံ ပလီု သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ။
* '''ပရေင်ဟွံပါဝင် (Voter Apathy):''' ယဝ်ရ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် ဟွံစုတ်မာဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟွံစွံအာရီု ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မ္ဂး၊ အဝဵု ဍာံဇေတ်ဂှ် ဒတုံစှ်ေအာ ပ္ဍဲ တဲ ဂကောံသြန်ဇၞော် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ အမာတ် အောန်အောန် တအ် ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သရုပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future) ==
သရုပ်မ္ဂး၊ အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် တမ်ရိုဟ် သွက် ပရေင်သၠးပွး ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။ လညာတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ပလီုပလာ်လဝ် အဝဵုဨကရာဇ် မသကာတ်မြဟ် ပ္ဍဲ '''အတိက်တေံ''' တုဲ၊ ပအပ်ပြာပ်လဝ် အဝဵု ကု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်ဏအ်၊ နကဵု အသိင် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ နယ်ပညာ (Technology) ကေုာံ အေန်တာနေတ်၊ လညာတ် အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဝွံ မာန်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗီုပြင် ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန် ရ။ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ် မာန်ပါဝင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်ဆာတ် ဍုင် တိုက်ရိုက် ဂၠိုင်နူ ကိုပ်ကၠာ (E-democracy) မာန်ရ။ ၜိုန်ဂှ်ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်မင်မွဲ အဝဵုဏအ် ညံင်ဟွံဂွံ ဒးဒုင် လှေံလှန် နကဵု ပရိုင်ပလီု (Fake news) ဂှ် ဒှ် တာလျိုင် ဇၟာပ်ပ် ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် ရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qXVXkntfVz4 အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဟီုဂှ် မုရော? (YouTube - Civics Education)]
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="Morgan">{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Edmund S. |title=Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America |url=https://archive.org/details/inventingpeopler0000morg |year=1988 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0393306231}}</ref>
<ref name="Tuck">{{cite book |last=Tuck |first=Richard |title=The Sleeping Sovereign: The Invention of Modern Democracy |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1107130630}}</ref>
<ref name="Kelly">{{cite book |last=Kelly |first=J. M. |title=A Short History of Western Legal Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/nlsiu.340.1.kel-2.40697 |year=1992 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198762446}}</ref>
<ref name="Hobbes">{{cite book |last=Hobbes |first=Thomas |title=Leviathan |url=https://archive.org/details/leviathan000hobb |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521567978}}</ref>
<ref name="Rousseau">{{cite book |last=Rousseau |first=Jean-Jacques |title=The Social Contract |url=https://archive.org/details/socialcontract00rous |year=1968 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0140442014}}</ref>
<ref name="Bailyn">{{cite book |last=Bailyn |first=Bernard |title=The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_2900674443029 |year=1992 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674443020}}</ref>
<ref name="Hunt">{{cite book |last=Hunt |first=Lynn |title=The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution00hunt |year=1996 |publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's |isbn=978-0312108021}}</ref>
<ref name="Qvortrup">{{cite book |last=Qvortrup |first=Matt |title=Demystifying Direct Democracy |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199672625}}</ref>
<ref name="Mill">{{cite book |last=Mill |first=John Stuart |title=On Liberty |year=1859 |publisher=John W. Parker and Son}}</ref>
<ref name="Locke">{{cite book |last=Locke |first=John |title=Two Treatises of Government |url=https://archive.org/details/twotreatisesofgo00john |year=1988 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521357302}}</ref>
</references>
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| title = လညာတ် ဖဳလဝ်သဝ်ဖဳ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ အဝဵုအာဏာ
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = လညာတ် ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern)
| list1 =
* [[အခေါင်အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်]] (Popular sovereignty)
* [[ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်]] (Social contract)
* [[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy)
* [[သမ္မတဍုင်]] (Republic)
* [[အခေါင်အရာ သဘာဝ]] (Natural rights)
| group2 = လညာတ် အတိက် ကေုာံ ဨကရာဇ်
| list2 =
* [[အခေါင်အာဏာကျာ်]] (Divine right of kings)
* [[သၞောတ်ဨကရာဇ် အဝဵုပေင်]] (Absolute monarchy)
* [[အခေါင်နူအကာသ]] (Mandate of Heaven)
| group3 = အစာဖဳလဝ်သဝ်ဖဳ အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဂျောန် လံက်]] (John Locke)
* [[တဝ်မာတ် ဟံဗ်သ်]] (Thomas Hobbes)
* [[ဂျုင် ဂျက် ရူသဝ်]] (Jean-Jacques Rousseau)
* [[ချာလ်သ် လုဝဳ မောန်တက်သကဳယူ]] (Montesquieu)
}}
[[Category:ဖဳလဝ်သဝ်ဖဳ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
[[Category:ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]]
[[Category:အခေါင်အရာ ကောန်မၞိဟ်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
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အာက်သလာန်
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{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = သမ္မတ ဍုင် အာက်သလာန်
| native_name = Ísland
| common_name = အာက်သလာန် (Iceland)
| image_flag = Flag of Iceland.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Iceland.svg
| image_map = Iceland in its region.svg
| capital = [[ရေဂျာဗေက်]] (Reykjavík)
| largest_city = [[ရေဂျာဗေက်]]
| official_languages = ဘာသာ အာက်သလာန် (Icelandic)
| ethnic_groups = ၈၆% အာက်သလာန်၊ ၁၄% ညးကၠုင်စိုပ်တၟိ
| religion = ၇၂% ခရေတ်ယာန် လလူတာ (Lutheran)
| demonym = အာက်သလာန်ဒါ (Icelander)
| government_type = သၞောတ် သမ္မတ ပါလဳမာန် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ
| leader_title1 = သမ္မတ
| leader_name1 = ဂူနဳ ထဝ်လာသဳယျာတ်သန် (Guðni Th. Jóhannesson)
| leader_title2 = သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော်
| leader_name2 = ကာတ်ထရိန် ယျာကံက်သဒဝ်တိရ် (Katrín Jakobsdóttir)
| legislature = [[အာလ်တိင်]] (Althing)
| establishment_event1 = လဒက်ပတန် အာက်သလာန်
| establishment_date1 = ၈၇၄ AD
| establishment_event2 = သၠးပွး နူ ဒိန်မက်
| establishment_date2 = ၁၇ ဂျောန် ၁၉၄၄
| area_km2 = ၁၀၃,၀၀၀
| population_estimate = ၃၇၆,၂၄၈ (၂၀၂၂)
| currency = ခရဝ်နာ အာက်သလာန် (ISK)
| time_zone = GMT (UTC+0)
| calling_code = +354
| cctld = .is
}}
'''အာက်သလာန်''' ({{lang-en|Iceland}}) ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင်တကအ် ဥရဝ်ပ သၟဝ်ကျာ မၞုံပ္ဍဲ ၜဳမှာသၟိတ် အာတ်လာန်တေတ် သၟဝ်ကျာ (North Atlantic Ocean) ရ။ ဍုင်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင်မၞုံကဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ် အောန်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥရဝ်ပ တုဲ၊ ရေဂျာဗေက် (Reykjavík) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ ဍုင်မၞုံကဵု မၞိဟ်ဂၠိုင်အိုတ်ရ။ ဍုင်အာက်သလာန်ဝွံ ဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ်ဒၟံင် နကဵု ရုပ်သာ် သဘာဝ မတၟေင်တၟဟ် ညံင်ရဴ က္ဍိုပ်ဒဵုပၟတ်၊ ဍာ်ကလောအ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော်၊ ကေုာံ ကွာ်ဍာ်ဂမ္တဴ (Geysers) တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Karlsson |first=G. |title=Iceland's 1100 Years: History of a Marginal Society |year=2000 |publisher=Hurst & Company |isbn=978-1850654209}}</ref>
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Overview) ==
အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင်မွဲ မနွံ လ္တူ ပရေင်တိချဳ မကတိုင်ကၟဟ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိဏအ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေံနွံ လ္တူ လဒေါဝ်-အာတ်လာန်တေတ် (Mid-Atlantic Ridge) တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်ဏအ် က္ဍိုပ်ဒဵုပၟတ် မဂျိုင်ဒၟံင် နွံဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ အလုံမွဲ ဍုင်ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု တၟအ်လာဗာ (Lava) ကေုာံ ဍာ်ကလောအ် (Glaciers) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ နွံပ္ဍဲ ဒေသသၟဝ်ကျာ ဗွဲမလောန်ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဍာ်ဂမ္တဴ ဂေါက်သထရိမ် (Gulf Stream) တုဲ ရာသဳဥတု အာက်သလာန် ဂှ် ၜိုတ်ဒးရးဒၟံင် သွက်ဂွံ မံင်တန်တဴရ။
== ၂။ ဝၚ် အတိက်တေံ (History in the Past) ==
[[File:Ingolfr_Arnarson_statue.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ရုပ်ပဋိမာရုပ် အေန်ဂဝ်ဖာ အာနာသန် (Ingólfr Arnarson) မဒှ် မၞိဟ်မလုပ်ကၠုင် တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ အာက်သလာန် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်။]]
ပ္ဍဲ '''အတိက်တေံ'''၊ အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ ဒှ်လဝ် တကအ် မဟွံမဲကဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ။ အတိုင် လိက်ဝင် (Landnámabók) မ္ဂး၊ မၞိဟ်မလုပ်ကၠုင် တန်တဴ ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ကောန်ဍုင် [[နဝ်ဝေ]] မၞုံယၟု အေန်ဂဝ်ဖာ အာနာသန် (Ingólfr Arnarson) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၈၇၄ AD ရ။ ကြဴနူဂှ် ကောန်ဂကူ နံတ် (Norse) ကေုာံ ခေတ် (Celtic) တအ် ပြံင်လုပ်ကၠုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ。<ref>{{cite book |last=Gunnarsson |first=G. |title=Iceland's Settlement and History |year=2000 |publisher=University of Iceland Press |isbn=978-9979544256}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၉၃၀ ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ပါလဳမာန် မၞုံယၟု '''[[အာလ်တိင်]] (Althing)''' မဒှ် ပါလဳမာန် မတြေံအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ မဆက်စကာဒၟံင် စဵုကဵုလၟုဟ်ရ။ လုကဴ အခိင် ဗွဲမလံ အာက်သလာန် ဒးဒုင် အုပ်ဓုပ် သၟဝ် ဍုင်နဝ်ဝေ ကေုာံ [[ဒိန်မက်]] ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲစၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၁၇ ဂျောန် ၁၉၄၄ ဂှ်၊ အာက်သလာန် လလောင်တြး သၠးပွး နူကဵု ဒိန်မက် တုဲ ဒက်ပတန် နဒဒှ် ကၟိန်ဍုင် သမ္မတ ရ။
== ၃။ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Geography and Climate) ==
အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ နွံ ဇမၞော် တိဍာ် ၁၀၃,၀၀၀ စတုရံ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ တုဲ၊ ဒှ် ဍုင်တကအ် မဇၞော်အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ၁၈ ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိရ။ လ္ပာ် ၆၀% နူကဵု တိဍာ်ဂှ် ဒှ် တိဗွိုက်လ္ၚု (Tundra) ကေုာံ တၟအ်လာဗာ (Lava fields) ရ။ တိဍာ် မမာန် တဵုလွဳ ဂှ် နွံဆ ၁.၅% ဓဝ်ရ။
* '''က္ဍိုပ်ဒဵုပၟတ်:''' က္ဍိုပ်ဒဵုပၟတ် ဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ် ညံင်ရဴ ဟေက်လာ (Hekla) ကေုာံ [[အေယာဖျာလာယဝ်ကူ]] (Eyjafjallajökull) တအ် နွံဒၟံင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၀ ဂှ် အေယာဖျာလာယဝ်ကူ ခတိုဟ်တုဲ ပရေင်ကျာ ဥရဝ်ပ သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဝ်ရ。<ref>{{cite book |last=Thorarinsson |first=S. |title=The Eruption of Hekla |year=1967 |publisher=Visindafelag Islendinga}}</ref>
* '''ရာသဳဥတု:''' ဟိုတ်နူ ဂေါက်သထရိမ် (Gulf Stream) တုဲ ဍေံဟွံဂံက် လောန်ကာဲရ။ ဥတုကညင် မ္ဂး ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ နွံ ၜိုတ် ၁၀°C - ၁၅°C တုဲ ဥတုဂံက်မ္ဂး နွံ ၜိုတ် 0°C ရ။
== ၄။ ပရေၚ်ဍုၚ်ကွာန် ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ (Politics and Government) ==
[[File:Althingi_Reykjavik.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ရုင် အာလ်တိင် (Althing) မဒှ် ပါလဳမာန် ဍုင်အာက်သလာန် ပ္ဍဲ ရေဂျာဗေက်။]]
အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင်သမ္မတ မၞုံကဵု သၞောတ် ပါလဳမာန် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ရ။ သမ္မတ ဂှ် ဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု တာလျိုင် သင်္ကေတ (Ceremonial head of state) တုဲ၊ အဝဵု အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍာံဇေတ်ဂှ် နွံ ဇရေင် သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ ဂကောံဝန်ဇၞော် တအ်ရ။
ပါလဳမာန် အာလ်တိင် ဂှ် နွံကဵု အမာတ် ၆၃ တၠ မဒးဒုင် ရုဲစှ် ဇၟာပ်ပ် ၄ သၞာံ မွဲအလန် ရ။ အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ လုပ်ပါဝင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံ နေတဝ် (NATO) ကီုလေဝ်၊ ညးတအ် ဟွံမဲကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန် (Military) ရ။ ဆဂး နွံကဵု ဒပ်မင်ၜဳ (Coast Guard) မွဲသာ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Hálfdanarson |first=G. |title=Historical Dictionary of Iceland |year=2001 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0810839223}}</ref>
== ၅။ ပရေၚ်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ကဆံၚ်လှဲသြန်ပြာဲရာဲ (Economy and Inflation) ==
အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အတိက်တေံ၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ညးတအ် တန်တဴ လ္တူ ပရေင်တမ္ၚာ (Fishing) ဗွဲမဇၞော်ရ။ ဆဂး လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်လဝ် ပရေင်ကၟုဲတမ္ၚာ (Tourism)၊ ပရေင်ခုတ်သတ္တု အာလျူမဳနဳယျာမ် (Aluminum smelting) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထ္ၜုတ် ဒြဟတ်သဘာဝ (Geothermal energy) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၀၈ ဂှ်၊ အာက်သလာန် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ ပြသၞာ ဘဏ် လီုလာ် (Financial crisis) ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵု ဒြဟတ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ်၊ ၚုဟ်မး သြန် ခရဝ်နာ ညးတအ် စှ်ေအာ ဗွဲမဇၞော်တုဲ၊ **ကဆံင်လှဲသြန်ပြာဲရာဲ** (Inflation rate) လေဝ် သၠုင်တိုန်အာ စဵုကဵု ၁၈ က္ဍိုပ်ကၠံ (18%) ပြင်င်ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Asgeirsson |first=J. |title=The Icelandic Economy and the 2008 Crisis |year=2009 |publisher=Iceland University Press}}</ref> ဆဂး၊ ညးတအ် မာန်ကလေင် ဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ညးတအ် ဗွဲမပြဟ် မာန်ကၠုင်လဝ်ရ။
== ၆။ မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂမၠိုၚ် (Demographics and Society) ==
လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ နွံ ၜိုတ် ၃၈၀,၀၀၀ တၠ (သၞာံ ၂၀၂၃) တုဲ ဒှ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မညိင်ဝတ် ကေုာံ သၠးပွး လောန်ရ။ ကောန်ဍုင် အာက်သလာန် တအ်ဝွံ ကလိဂွံ ကဆံင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် (Human Development Index) သၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ ဇၟာပ်ပ်သၞာံရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70%; text-align:center;"
|+ လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် အာက်သလာန် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံနာနာ
|-
! သၞာံ !! လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် !! တင်စၟတ်
|-
| ၁၉၀၀ || ၇၈,၄၇၀ || တန်တဴ လ္တူ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ တမ္ၚာ
|-
| ၁၉၅၀ || ၁၄၃,၉၃၇ || ကြဴနူ သၠးပွး ကေုာံ စဇၞော်မောဝ်
|-
| ၂၀၀၀ || ၂၈၃,၃၆၁ || ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးကဝ်
|-
| ၂၀၂၂ || ၃၇၆,၂၄၈ || ကောန်ဍုင်သ္အာင် လုပ်ဂၠိုင်ကၠုင်
|}
== ၇။ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ (Language) ==
[[File:Icelandic_manuscript.jpg|thumb|right|200px|ပြကိုဟ်ခေတ်တြေံ အာက်သလာန် မချူလဝ် နကဵု ဘာသာ အာက်သလာန်။]]
**အရေဝ်ဘာသာ** အဓိက ကေုာံ ရုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဝွံ ဒှ် **ဘာသာ အာက်သလာန် (Icelandic)** ရ။ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ပါဝင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံ ဘာသာ ဂျာမာန်နေတ် သၟဝ်ကျာ (North Germanic) တုဲ ဍေံ ကြပ်ညောန် ကု ဘာသာ နံတ် တြေံ (Old Norse) အိုတ်ရ။
ဟိုတ်နူ ဍုင်ညးတအ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တကအ် မသ္ၚောဲခြာတုဲ၊ **အရေဝ်ဘာသာ** ညးတအ်ဂှ် ဟွံဒးဒုင် ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု ဘာသာ သ္အာင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ ကောန်ဍုင် အာက်သလာန် ခေတ်လၟုဟ် တအ် မာန်ဗှ် လိက်ဝင် ပြကိုဟ် (Sagas) မချူလဝ် နူကဵု ၈၀၀ သၞာံ မတုဲကၠုင်တေအ် ဂွံလောဲလောဲသွာသွာဏီရ။ ညးတအ် နွံကဵု ပရေင်မင်မွဲ ဝေါဟာရ ညးတအ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်တုဲ၊ စၞး မကေတ် ဝေါဟာရ အင်္ဂလိက် သွက် ကပေါတ်တၟိတၟိတအ်ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ တၟိ နကဵု သဇိုင် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် လိက်အာက်သလာန် သၟးရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Kress |first=H. |title=Icelandic Sagas and Cultural Heritage |year=1993 |publisher=University of Iceland}}</ref>
== ၈။ ယေန်သၞာၚ် (Culture) ==
ယေန်သၞာင် အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ တန်တဴ လ္တူ ဝင် နံတ် (Norse) ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ရ။
* '''ပြကိုဟ်ဝင် (Sagas):''' လိက်ပတ် မဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ်အိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် Sagas of Icelanders မချူလဝ် ပရူ ဝင် သ္ၚိကၟိန်၊ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ကေုာံ လညာတ် ခေတ်တမၠာ တအ်ရ။
* '''အနုသုခုမ ကေုာံ ဒွက်:''' အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ ပတိတ်လဝ် သၟာဒွက် မဒယှ် အလုံဂၠးကဝ် ညံင်ရဴ ဒဗျံက် (Björk) ကေုာံ ဂကောံ Sigur Rós တအ်ရ။
* '''စၞအာဟာရ:''' စၞအခိုက်ကၞာ ညးတအ်ဝွံ ကၠောန်လဝ် နူကဵု က ကေုာံ သဵု ရ။ စၞ မဒယှ် ကေုာံ ဂွဵုအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် "ဟာကာတ်" (Hákarl) မဒှ် ဖျုန်ကမ္မကရက် (Shark) မကၠောန်စွံလဝ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဖျိုဟ် ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေၚ်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ထတ်ယုက် (Education and Health) ==
ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ပ္ဍဲ အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် မကဵုလဝ် အခိင် ကေုာံ သြန်ဗွဝ် နူ အလဵုအသဳ သီုဖအိုတ် (Universal and Free) ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပညာ:''' ကောန်ၚာ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးတိုန်ဘာ မူလ ကေုာံ လဒေါဝ် သက်ကုၚုဟ်မးရ။ တက္ကသိုလ် အလဵုအသဳ တအ်လေဝ် ဟွံကံက် ငုဟ်မး တန်ဗတောန် ရ (ဆ နွံ ငုဟ်မး စၟတ်သမ္တီ ညိည သၟး)။
* '''ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်:''' အာက်သလာန် နွံကဵု သၞောတ် လွဳလွတ် ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် မခိုဟ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိတုဲ၊ အာယုက် မံင်တန်တဴ (Life expectancy) ညးတအ် နွံ ၜိုတ် ၈၃ သၞာံ၊ မဒှ် ကဆံင် သၠုင်အိုတ် မွဲကီုရ。<ref>{{cite book |last=OECD |title=Economic Surveys: Iceland 2021 |year=2021 |publisher=OECD Publishing}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်မၚ်မွဲ သဘာဝ (Future and Environmental Conservation) ==
[[File:Geothermal_power_plant_Iceland.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ရုင် စက် ပ္တိတ် ဒြဟတ်လလဳ နူကဵု ဍာ်ဂမ္တဴ သဘာဝ (Geothermal Power) ပ္ဍဲ အာက်သလာန်။]]
အာက်သလာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် မစကာ ဒြဟတ် သဘာဝ (Renewable energy) ၁၀၀% အလုံမွဲဍုင်ရ။ ဒြဟတ် လလဳ ကေုာံ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ဍုင် သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ ဒြဟတ်ဍာ် (Hydro power) ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် ဍာ်ဂမ္တဴ သဘာဝ (Geothermal power) ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Neij |first=L. |title=Renewable Energy in Iceland |year=2017 |publisher=Energy Policy Journal}}</ref>
ဆဂး၊ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်ဏအ် ဍုင်အာက်သလာန် ဒးဆဵုဂဗဒၟံင် ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု ဂၠးကဝ် (Climate change) ဗွဲမဇၞော်ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ရာသဳဥတု ကတဴကၠုင်တုဲ၊ ဍာ်ကလောအ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲဍုင် ညံင်ရဴ [[ဗာတ်နာယဝ်ကူ]] (Vatnajökull) တအ်ဝွံ အိုတ်ကၠေအ် လီုလာ်အာ **ဒှ်ကၠုင်မာန်** ရ။ အာက်သလာန် ဂစာန်ဖန်ဇန်ဒၟံင် သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် မဟွံပတိတ် ကာဗောန် (Carbon neutral) ဗွဲမပြဟ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မွဲ သဘာဝ ညးတအ်ရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vzO74f8_ZKE ပရူပရာ အာက်သလာန် - Iceland 4K (YouTube)]
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="Karlsson">{{cite book |last=Karlsson |first=G. |title=Iceland's 1100 Years: History of a Marginal Society |year=2000 |publisher=Hurst & Company |isbn=978-1850654209}}</ref>
<ref name="Gunnarsson">{{cite book |last=Gunnarsson |first=G. |title=Iceland's Settlement and History |year=2000 |publisher=University of Iceland Press |isbn=978-9979544256}}</ref>
<ref name="Thorarinsson">{{cite book |last=Thorarinsson |first=S. |title=The Eruption of Hekla |year=1967 |publisher=Visindafelag Islendinga}}</ref>
<ref name="Halfdanarson">{{cite book |last=Hálfdanarson |first=G. |title=Historical Dictionary of Iceland |year=2001 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0810839223}}</ref>
<ref name="Asgeirsson">{{cite book |last=Asgeirsson |first=J. |title=The Icelandic Economy and the 2008 Crisis |year=2009 |publisher=Iceland University Press}}</ref>
<ref name="Kress">{{cite book |last=Kress |first=H. |title=Icelandic Sagas and Cultural Heritage |year=1993 |publisher=University of Iceland}}</ref>
<ref name="OECD">{{cite book |last=OECD |title=Economic Surveys: Iceland 2021 |year=2021 |publisher=OECD Publishing}}</ref>
<ref name="Neij">{{cite book |last=Neij |first=L. |title=Renewable Energy in Iceland |year=2017 |publisher=Energy Policy Journal}}</ref>
<ref name="Magnusson">{{cite book |last=Magnusson |first=S. A. |title=Northern Sphinx: Iceland and the Icelanders from the Settlement to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/northernsphinxic0000unse |year=1977 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0773503254}}</ref>
<ref name="Johannesson">{{cite book |last=Jóhannesson |first=G. T. |title=The History of Iceland |year=2013 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0313376207}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = အာက်သလာန် ကေုာံ ဍုင် ဥရဝ်ပ
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| group1 = ဍုင် နဝ်ဒေတ် (Nordic Countries)
| list1 =
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| group2 = ဍုင်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ ဒေသ အာက်သလာန်
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* [[ရေဂျာဗေက်]] (Reykjavík)
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}}
[[Category:အာက်သလာန်]]
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{{Infobox year|year=1865|millennium=မရနုက်ကဵု ၂ လ္ၚီသၞာံ|century=၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ|decade=၁၈၆၀ တအ်|preceded_by=[[၁၈၆၄]]|followed_by=[[၁၈၆၆]]|image=Lee Surrenders to Grant at Appomattox.jpg|caption=သကိုပ်ပၞာန် ရဝ်ဘတ် အဳ. လဳ ဒုၚ်ကျပၞာန် ဇရေၚ် ယူလဳသေတ် အေတ်သ်. ဂရန် (Ulysses S. Grant) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပေါဲဗတိုက် Appomattox Court House ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၆၅။}}
သၞာံ '''၁၈၆၅''' (MDCCCLXV) ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞာံဓမ္မတာ မစတမ်နူ တ္ၚဲအဒိုက် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကြက္ကဒိန် ဂရဳဂေါဝ်ရဳယာန် (Gregorian calendar) ကေုာံ ဒှ် သၞာံ မရနုက်ကဵု ၈၆၅ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒုတိယ လ္ၚီသၞာံ၊ သၞာံ မရနုက်ကဵု ၆၅ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ကေုာံ သၞာံ မရနုက်ကဵု ၆ ပ္ဍဲကဵု စှ်သၞာံ ၁၈၆၀ တအ် ရ။
သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞာံ အဓိက မၞုံကဵု ပရေၚ်ပြံၚ်လှာဲ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝၚ်အတိက် ဂၠးကဝ်၊ ဗွဲတၟေၚ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်အမေရိကာန် ရ။ သၞာံဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞာံ ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုၚ် အမေရိကာန် အုပ်နိဂီုတုဲ၊ ပွမပလီုထောအ် သၞောတ်ဍိက် ကေုာံ ပွမဂစိုတ် သမ္မတ အေဗရာဟာမ် လေန်ကောန် တအ် ကတဵုဒှ်လဝ်ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် တအ်လေဝ် ပရေၚ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် အလုံမွဲ ဂၠးကဝ် ရ။<ref>{{cite book|last=McPherson|first=James M.|title=Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era|url=https://archive.org/details/battlecryoffreed00mcph|year=1988|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195038637}}</ref>
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ အခိၚ်ကာလ (Introduction and Historical Context) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိၚ် သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ဏအ်ဂှ်၊ ရးဥရဝ်ပ ဝွံ မံၚ်ဒၟံၚ် သၟဝ် ခေတ် ပရေၚ်ကမၠောန် စက်ယန္တရား (Industrial Revolution) မဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန်ဒၟံၚ် အသိၚ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ရ။ ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန် ဝွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဗိတဝ်ရိယျာ (Victorian era) တုဲ အဝဵုအာဏာ အေန်ပါယာ ညးတအ် ပြးဇးအာ အလုံမွဲ ဂၠးတိရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လ္ပာ် ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်အမေရိကာန် မ္ဂး၊ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞာံ မစၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် "ပရေၚ်ကလေၚ်လဒက်ပတန်" (Reconstruction Era) ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုၚ် အုပ်နိဂီုအာရ။ ဍုၚ်တအ် ဒးကလေၚ်ပံၚ်ကောံ ရေၚ်သကအ်တုဲ ပရေၚ်သၠးပွး သွက် ကောန်အာဖရိက-အမေရိကာန် တအ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုၚ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060158514|year=1988|publisher=Harper & Row|isbn=978-0060158514}}</ref>
== ၂။ ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုၚ် အမေရိကာန် အုပ်နိဂီု (End of the American Civil War) ==
[[ဝှာင်:Appomattox_Court_House_National_Historical_Park_McLean_House.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|သ္ၚိ McLean ပ္ဍဲကဵု Appomattox Court House မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ သကိုပ်ပၞာန် လဳ ထပက်စၟတ်တဲ ဒုၚ်ကျပၞာန်။]]
လုကဴ ပွိုၚ် ၄ သၞာံ ပြၚ်ၚ် မဆောမ်လေၚ်လဝ် လမျီု ကောန်ဍုၚ် အမေရိကာန် ဂၠိုၚ်ကဵု ကိုဋ်ဂှ်၊ ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုၚ် အမေရိကာန် ဝွံ အုပ်နိဂီုအာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတုဨပြဳ ၉၊ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅၊ သကိုပ်ပၞာန် ဒပ် ကောန်ဖေတ်ဒရိတ် (Confederate) မၞုံယၟု '''ရဝ်ဘတ် အဳ. လဳ''' (Robert E. Lee) ဒုၚ်ကျပၞာန် ဇရေၚ် သကိုပ်ပၞာန် ဒပ် ယူနဳယောန် (Union) မၞုံယၟု '''ယူလဳသေတ် အေတ်သ်. ဂရန်''' (Ulysses S. Grant) ပ္ဍဲကဵု Appomattox Court House ပ္ဍဲ တွဵုရး ဗာဂျဳနဳယျာ ရ။<ref>{{cite book|last=Foote|first=Shelby|title=The Civil War: A Narrative, Vol. 3: Red River to Appomattox|year=1974|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0394749136}}</ref>
ပရေၚ်ဒုၚ်ကျ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အဓိက မထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ ဒပ်လ္ပာ်သၠုၚ်ကျာ တအ် စှ်ေကျအာတုဲ ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်အမေရိကာန် ဂွံကလေၚ် ပံၚ်ကောံ သၟဟ်သၟန် အာ မွဲစွံပၠန်ရ။ ကြဴနူဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတုမေ ၁၀၊ ညးမဒှ် သမ္မတ ကောန်ဖေတ်ဒရိတ် မၞုံယၟု ဂျက်ဖါသာန် ဒေးဗေတ် (Jefferson Davis) ဒးဒုၚ် ရပ် ပ္ဍဲ တွဵုရး ဂျဝ်ဂျဳယျာ တုဲ ပၞာန်ဂှ် အုပ်နိဂီုအာ ပေၚ်ပေၚ် ရ။
== ၃။ ပွမဂစိုတ် သမ္မတ အေဗရာဟာမ် လေန်ကောန် (Assassination of Abraham Lincoln) ==
[[ဝှာင်:Abraham_Lincoln_November_1863.jpg|left|thumb|247x247px|သမ္မတ အေဗရာဟာမ် လေန်ကောန် (Abraham Lincoln) ညးမဒးဒုၚ် ဂစိုတ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၆၅။]]
ၜိုန်ရ ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုၚ် အုပ်နိဂီုအာတုဲ ဍုၚ်မံၚ် မိပ်မြဟ်ဒၟံၚ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေၚ်ဟောံဇြ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိတုဨပြဳ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ဨပြဳ ၁၄၊ ၁၈၆၅၊ သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်အမေရိကာန် '''အေဗရာဟာမ် လေန်ကောန်''' (Abraham Lincoln) ဒးဒုၚ် ပန်ဂစိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရုံဇာတ် ဖေါတ် (Ford's Theatre) ပ္ဍဲ ဝါရှေန်တာန် ဒဳသဳ ရ။<ref>{{cite book|last=Swanson|first=James L.|title=Manhunt: The 12-Day Chase for Lincoln's Killer|year=2006|publisher=William Morrow|isbn=978-0060518493}}</ref>
ညးမပန်ဂစိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် အစာဇာတ် မၞုံယၟု '''ဂျောန် ဝဳကေသ် ဗုတ်''' (John Wilkes Booth) မဒှ် ညးမထံက်ဂလာန် လ္ပာ် ကောန်ဖေတ်ဒရိတ် မွဲရ။ လေန်ကောန် စုတိအာ ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲယးတေံ (ဨပြဳ ၁၅) တုဲ၊ ညးဝွံ ဒှ်အာ သမ္မတ အမေရိကာန် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် မဒးဒုၚ် ဂစိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိၚ်မကေတ်ဒၟံၚ် တာလျိုၚ် ရ။ ကြဴနူ လေန်ကောန် စုတိတုဲ၊ ဒု-သမ္မတ အေန်ဒရူး ဂျောန်သေန် (Andrew Johnson) တိုန်ဒှ် သမ္မတ မရနုက်ကဵု ၁၇ ရ။
== ၄။ ပွမပလီု သၞောတ်ဍိက် ကေုာံ ဂျောန်တိန် (Abolition of Slavery and Juneteenth) ==
သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞာံ မစၟတ်သမ္တီ တ္ၚဲ အုပ်နိဂီု သၞောတ်ဍိက် (Slavery) ပ္ဍဲ ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်အမေရိကာန် ရ။
* '''ဂျောန်တိန် (Juneteenth):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဂျောန် ၁၉၊ ၁၈၆၅၊ သကိုပ်ပၞာန် ဂဝ်ဒန် ဂရန်ဂျာ (Gordon Granger) လလောၚ်တြး အမိၚ် မရနုက်ကဵု (၃) ပ္ဍဲ ဂါလ်ဗေတ်သတာန်၊ တွဵုရး တက်ဆက်သ် (Texas) တုဲ လလောၚ်တြး ကဵု သၠးပွး ကု ဍိက် ကောန်အာဖရိက-အမေရိကာန် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ တ္ၚဲဏအ်ဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နဒဒှ် တ္ၚဲ "ဂျောန်တိန်" တုဲ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ဒှ် တ္ၚဲကၟာတ်ရုၚ် ဖက်ဒရယ် ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကာန် ရ。<ref>{{cite book|last=Gordon-Reed|first=Annette|title=On Juneteenth|url=https://archive.org/details/onjuneteenth0000gord|year=2021|publisher=Liveright|isbn=978-1631498831}}</ref>
* '''ပလေဝ်ဒါန် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မရနုက်ကဵု ၁၃ (13th Amendment):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတုဒဳဇြေမ်ဗါ ၆၊ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅၊ ပွမပလေဝ်ဒါန် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုၚ် အမေရိကာန် မရနုက်ကဵု (၁၃) ဂှ် ဒးဒုၚ် ပဒတန်တုဲ၊ သၞောတ်ဍိက် ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ်အာ အရာ ဟွံလုပ်ကဵု သၞောဝ် ပ္ဍဲ အလုံမွဲ ကၟိန်ဍုၚ် ရ။
== ၅။ ပရေၚ်ပြံၚ်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲ ရးဥရဝ်ပ (Developments in Europe) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရးဥရဝ်ပ လေဝ် သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ဝွံ နွံကဵု ပရေၚ်ကတဵုဒှ် အဓိက နာနာသာ်ရ-
* '''ဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံ သာလ်ဗေရှေန် အာမဳ (Salvation Army):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဂျူလာၚ် ၂၊ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅၊ ဝဳလဳယျာမ် ဗုတ် (William Booth) ကေုာံ ကေသသရေန် ဗုတ် (Catherine Booth) တအ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ဂကောံ "ခရေတ်ယာန် မယိုက်ဂၠေၚ် တာလျိုၚ်" မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုၚ်လာန်ဒါန်၊ ကြဴနူဂှ် ဒှ်အာ ယၟု သာလ်ဗေရှေန် အာမဳ မဒှ် ဂကောံရီုဗၚ် မၞိဟ်ဒိုက်ဂတ် တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite book|last=Hattersley|first=Roy|title=Blood and Fire: William and Catherine Booth and their Salvation Army|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodfirewilliam00hatt_0|year=1999|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0385408221}}</ref>
* '''ဍုၚ်ဗေလ်ဂျဳယျာမ်:''' ပ္ဍဲ ဒဳဇြေမ်ဗါ ၁၀၊ ဨကရာဇ် လဳအဝ်ပဝ် မရနုက်ကဵု ၁ (Leopold I) မဒှ် ဨကရာဇ် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် သွက် ဍုၚ်ဗေလ်ဂျဳယျာမ် စုတိအာတုဲ၊ ကောန်ညး လဳအဝ်ပဝ် မရနုက်ကဵု ၂ (Leopold II) တိုန်နန် ရ။
* '''ပရေၚ်ဆက်သွယ်:''' ပ္ဍဲ မေ ၁၇၊ ဂကောံ သမဂ္ဂ တေလဳဂရပ် အလုံဂၠးကဝ် (International Telegraph Union - လၟုဟ် ITU) ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုၚ်ပဴရေတ်၊ ဍုၚ်ပြၚ်သေတ် ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေၚ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပ္ဍဲ အာရှ ကေုာံ ဂၠးတိတၞဟ် (Developments in Asia and the Rest of the World) ==
[[ဝှာင်:Bombardment_of_Shimonoseki.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|ပေါဲဗတိုက် ရှဳမဝ်နဝ်သေကဳ (Bombardment of Shimonoseki) ပ္ဍဲ ဂျပေန်၊ ၁၈၆၄-၁၈၆၅။]]
* '''ဍုၚ်ဂျပေန်:''' သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ဝွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဘာကူမာတ်သု (Bakumatsu period) මဒှ် အခိၚ် အုပ်နိဂီု ခေတ် ဨဒဝ် (Edo) ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဒြဟတ် ဓရိုတ် နူ ဍုၚ်ပလိုတ်တအ်တုဲ၊ ဂျပေန် ဒးပံက် သၞေဟ်က္ၜၚ် သွက်ဂွံ သ္ပ ဗၞိက် ကု ဍုၚ်မ္ၚး ရ။
* '''ဍုၚ်အိန္ဒိယ:''' သၞောဝ် ဆက်သွယ်ရေၚ် တေလဳဂရပ် အကြာ ဍုၚ်အိန္ဒိယ (သၟဝ် ဗြိတိန်) ကေုာံ ဥရဝ်ပ ဂှ် ပံက်လဝ် ကဵု ပရေၚ်ဆက်သွယ် မပြဟ်ပြေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုၚ် ရ။
* '''အာဖရိက:''' သၞာံဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အခိၚ် ဍုၚ်ဥရဝ်ပ တအ် စစွံအာရီု လ္တူ ဒေသ အာဖရိက သွက်ဂွံ သီကေတ် တိဍာ် နဒဒှ် ဍုၚ်ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ တအ်ရ။
== ၇။ ပရေၚ်ကွတ်သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ နယ်ပညာ (Science and Technology) ==
ပ္ဍဲ လ္ပာ် ကွတ်သိပ္ပံ (Science) မ္ဂး၊ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞာံ မၞုံကဵု ပရေၚ်ဆဵုဂဗ မဇၞော်မောဝ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ-
* '''ဗဳဇဗေဒ (Genetics):''' ခမဳ လ္ပာ် သာသနာ ကာတ်သလေတ် မၞုံယၟု '''ဂရေဂဝ် မေန်ဒေဝ်''' (Gregor Mendel) ထ္ၜးပျး ပတိုန် လိက်စံၚ် လ္ၚတ် သုတေသန ညး မဆေၚ်ကဵု "ပွမကၠောအ်ဗဳဇ ပ္ဍဲ တၞံလေၚ်" (Experiments on Plant Hybridization) ရ။ ပရေၚ်လ္ၚတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုၚ် သွက် ဘာသာ ဗဳဇဗေဒ ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။<ref>{{cite book|last=Henig|first=Robin Marantz|title=The Monk in the Garden: The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel|url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost0000heni|year=2000|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|isbn=978-0395977651}}</ref>
* '''ပရေၚ်ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ လွဳလွတ်:''' အစာသဝ် ပြၚ်သေတ် လူဝဳ ပါသချာ (Louis Pasteur) ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် နယ်လမ်း ပွမဂစိုတ် စၟယဲ ပ္ဍဲ ယိုဟ် ကေုာံ ဍာ်တှ် မကော်ခဴစ "Pasteurization" ရ။ တုပ်ပ်ကဵု အခိၚ်ဏအ်ကီု၊ အစာသဝ် ဗြိတိန် ဂျဝ်သေပ် လေတ်သတာ (Joseph Lister) စကာ ဓါတ် ကာဗဝ်လေတ် (Carbolic acid) သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ စၟယဲ ပ္ဍဲအခိၚ် ပတိတ် ကရေက် ဂဥုဲ (Antiseptic surgery) ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ရ。<ref>{{cite book|last=Fitzharris|first=Lindsey|title=The Butchering Art: Joseph Lister's Quest to Transform the Grisly World of Victorian Medicine|url=https://archive.org/details/butcheringart0000fitz|year=2017|publisher=Scientific American / Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-0374117290}}</ref>
== ၈။ လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ အနုသုခုမ (Literature and Arts) ==
[[ဝှာင်:Alice_par_John_Tenniel_02.png|left|thumb|306x306px|ဗီုရုပ် အဲလေတ် နူကဵု လိက်ကၞပ် "အဲလေတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုၚ်အံသဝ်" မပတိတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ၁၈၆၅။]]
သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ဝွံ ပတိတ်လဝ် လိက်ကၞပ် ဝတ္ထု မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးကဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုၚ် ရ-
* '''အဲလေတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုၚ်အံသဝ် (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland):''' ချူလဝ် နကဵု လူးဝေတ် ခါရဝ် (Lewis Carroll) (ယၟုဍာံ Charles Dodgson) ဂှ် ပတိတ်တြးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတုနဝ်ဗေမ်ဗါ ၂၆၊ ၁၈၆၅ ရ။ ဝတ္ထုဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဝတ္ထု ကောန်ၚာ် မဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် လိက်ပတ် ရ။<ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll|first=Lewis|title=Alice's Adventures in Wonderland|year=1865|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=}}</ref>
* '''နူ ဂၠးတိ စိုပ် ဂိတု (From the Earth to the Moon):''' ချူလဝ် နကဵု ဂျူလာ ဗါန် (Jules Verne) မဒှ် လိက် ဝတ္ထု သိပ္ပံ-စိတ်ကူးယဉ် (Science fiction) မွဲ။
* '''ရာဇာဝတ် ကေုာံ ဒုဟ်ဒဏ် (Crime and Punishment):''' အစာချူလိက် ရုရှ ဖဳယဝ်ဒဝ် ဒဝ်သတဝ်ယေပ်သကဳ (Fyodor Dostoevsky) စချူလဝ် ဝတ္ထုဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ရ (ၜိုန်ရ ပတိတ် ပ္ဍဲ ၁၈၆၆ ကီုလေဝ်)။
== ၉။ ပရေၚ်မကတဵုဒှ် အဓိကဂမၠိုၚ် (Key Events Chronology) ==
ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် သ္ၚိအၚ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေၚ်ကတဵုဒှ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ရ-
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ပရေၚ်မကတဵုဒှ် သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ (၁၈၆၅ လၟေၚ်အခိၚ်)
!စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ (Date)
!ပရူပရာ (Event)
!ဍုၚ်/ဒေသ (Location)
|-
|'''ဨပြဳ ၉'''
|သကိုပ်ပၞာန် လဳ ဒုၚ်ကျပၞာန်။ ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုၚ် အုပ်နိဂီု။
|ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်အမေရိကာန်
|-
|'''ဨပြဳ ၁၄-၁၅'''
|သမ္မတ အေဗရာဟာမ် လေန်ကောန် ဒးဒုၚ် ပန်ဂစိုတ် တုဲ စုတိ။
|ဝါရှေန်တာန် ဒဳသဳ
|-
|'''မေ ၁၇'''
|ဂကောံ သမဂ္ဂ တေလဳဂရပ် အလုံဂၠးကဝ် (ITU) ဒက်ပတန်။
|ဍုၚ်ပဴရေတ်
|-
|'''ဂျောန် ၁၉'''
|တ္ၚဲ ဂျောန်တိန် (Juneteenth)၊ လလောၚ်တြး သၠးပွး ဍိက်။
|တက်ဆက်သ်
|-
|'''ဂျူလာၚ် ၂'''
|ဝဳလဳယျာမ် ဗုတ် ဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံ သာလ်ဗေရှေန် အာမဳ။
|ဍုၚ်လာန်ဒါန်
|-
|'''နဝ်ဗေမ်ဗါ ၂၆'''
|လိက်ကၞပ် ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' ပတိတ်တြး။
|ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန်
|-
|'''ဒဳဇြေမ်ဗါ ၆'''
|သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မရနုက်ကဵု ၁၃ (13th Amendment) ပဒတန်၊ ပလီု သၞောတ်ဍိက်။
|ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်အမေရိကာန်
|}
== ၁၀။ မၞိဟ်မဒှ် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်မစုတိ (Births and Deaths) ==
'''မၞိဟ်မဒှ် (Births):'''
* '''ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၂၈:''' လာလာ လာတ်ပါတ် ရာဲ (Lala Lajpat Rai)၊ ညးမလုပ်ပေါဲဗတိုက် သၠးပွး ဍုၚ်အိန္ဒိယ။ (စုတိ ၁၉၂၈)
* '''မေ ၂၅:''' ပဳတာ သဳမာန် (Pieter Zeeman)၊ တၠပညာ ရူပဗေဒ ဍုၚ်ဒါတ် မကလိဂွံ လာပ်နဝ်ဘေလ်။ (စုတိ ၁၉၄၃)
* '''ဂျောန် ၁၃:''' ဝဳလဳယျာမ် ဗာတ်လာ ယေတ် (W. B. Yeats)၊ အစာကဗျ ကောန်ဍုၚ် အာဲယျာလာန် ကေုာံ ညးမကလိဂွံ လာပ်နဝ်ဘေလ် လိက်ပတ်။ (စုတိ ၁၉၃၉)<ref>{{cite book|last=Foster|first=R. F.|title=W. B. Yeats: A Life, Vol. 1: The Apprentice Mage|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0192880857}}</ref>
* '''နဝ်ဗေမ်ဗါ ၂:''' ဝါရ်ရန် ဂျဳ ဟာဒေန် (Warren G. Harding)၊ သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်အမေရိကာန် မရနုက်ကဵု ၂၉။ (စုတိ ၁၉၂၃)
* '''ဒဳဇြေမ်ဗါ ၈:''' ဂျန် သဳဗေလဳယပ် (Jean Sibelius)၊ အစာဂဳတ သွက် ဍုၚ်ဖေန်လာန်။ (စုတိ ၁၉၅၇)
'''မၞိဟ်မစုတိ (Deaths):'''
* '''ဨပြဳ ၁၅:''' အေဗရာဟာမ် လေန်ကောန် (Abraham Lincoln)၊ သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်အမေရိကာန် မရနုက်ကဵု ၁၆။ (ဒှ် ၁၈၀၉)<ref>{{cite book|last=Donald|first=David Herbert|title=Lincoln|url=https://archive.org/details/lincoln00davi|year=1995|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-0684808468}}</ref>
* '''ဨပြဳ ၂၆:''' ဂျောန် ဝဳကေသ် ဗုတ် (John Wilkes Booth)၊ ညးမဂစိုတ် သမ္မတ လေန်ကောန်။ (ဒှ် ၁၈၃၈)
* '''အံက်တဝ်ဗါ ၁၈:''' ဇြေန်ရဳ ပါမာသတန် (Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston)၊ သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် ကၟိန်ဍုၚ်ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန်။ (ဒှ် ၁၇၈၄)
* '''ဒဳဇြေမ်ဗါ ၁၀:''' ဨကရာဇ် လဳအဝ်ပဝ် မရနုက်ကဵု ၁ (King Leopold I of Belgium)၊ ဨကရာဇ် ဍုၚ်ဗေလ်ဂျဳယျာမ် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်။ (ဒှ် ၁၇၉၀)
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1865AmericanCivilWar ဝင် ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုၚ် အမေရိကာန် (YouTube)]
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references><ref name="McPherson">{{cite book|last=McPherson|first=James M.|title=Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era|url=https://archive.org/details/battlecryoffreed0000jame|year=1988|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195038637}}</ref> <ref name="Foner">{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060158514|year=1988|publisher=Harper & Row|isbn=978-0060158514}}</ref> <ref name="Foote">{{cite book|last=Foote|first=Shelby|title=The Civil War: A Narrative, Vol. 3: Red River to Appomattox|year=1974|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0394749136}}</ref> <ref name="Swanson">{{cite book|last=Swanson|first=James L.|title=Manhunt: The 12-Day Chase for Lincoln's Killer|year=2006|publisher=William Morrow|isbn=978-0060518493}}</ref> <ref name="Gordon-Reed">{{cite book|last=Gordon-Reed|first=Annette|title=On Juneteenth|url=https://archive.org/details/onjuneteenth0000gord|year=2021|publisher=Liveright|isbn=978-1631498831}}</ref> <ref name="Hattersley">{{cite book|last=Hattersley|first=Roy|title=Blood and Fire: William and Catherine Booth and their Salvation Army|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodfirewilliam00hatt_0|year=1999|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0385408221}}</ref> <ref name="Henig">{{cite book|last=Henig|first=Robin Marantz|title=The Monk in the Garden: The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel|url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost0000heni|year=2000|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|isbn=978-0395977651}}</ref> <ref name="Fitzharris">{{cite book|last=Fitzharris|first=Lindsey|title=The Butchering Art: Joseph Lister's Quest to Transform the Grisly World of Victorian Medicine|url=https://archive.org/details/butcheringart0000fitz|year=2017|publisher=Scientific American / Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=978-0374117290}}</ref> <ref name="Carroll">{{cite book|last=Carroll|first=Lewis|title=Alice's Adventures in Wonderland|year=1865|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=}}</ref> <ref name="Donald">{{cite book|last=Donald|first=David Herbert|title=Lincoln|url=https://archive.org/details/lincoln00davi|year=1995|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-0684808468}}</ref> <ref name="Foster">{{cite book|last=Foster|first=R. F.|title=W. B. Yeats: A Life, Vol. 1: The Apprentice Mage|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0192880857}}</ref></references>
{{Navbox|name=၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ|title=သၞာံဂမၠိုၚ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု စှ်သၞာံ ၁၈၆၀ တအ် (1860s)|listclass=hlist|group1=သၞာံဂမၠိုၚ်|list1=* [[၁၈၆၀]]
* [[၁၈၆၁]]
* [[၁၈၆၂]]
* [[၁၈၆၃]]
* [[၁၈၆၄]]
* [[၁၈၆၅]]
* [[၁၈၆၆]]
* [[၁၈၆၇]]
* [[၁၈၆၈]]
* [[၁၈၆၉]]|group2=ခေတ် ကေုာံ ဝင်|list2=* [[၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ]]
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* [[ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုၚ် အမေရိကာန်]]}}
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{{Infobox plant
| name = သတ် (Areca nut)
| image = Areca catechu - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-015.jpg
| image_caption = ဗီုရုပ် တၞံသတ်၊ တၞး၊ သတ်၊ ကေုာံ မသတ် နူ ပြကိုဟ် Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen
| taxonomy = [[Plantae]]
| clades1 = [[Tracheophytes]]
| clades2 = [[Angiosperms]]
| clades3 = [[Monocots]]
| clades4 = [[Commelinids]]
| order = [[Arecales]]
| family = [[Arecaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Areca]]''
| species = '''''A. catechu'''''
| binomial = ''Areca catechu''
| binomial_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
'''သတ်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''သတ်ကၟတ်''' ({{lang-en|Areca nut}} ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး {{lang-en|Betel nut}}) ဝွံ ဒှ် မသတ် နူကဵု တၞံသတ် (Areca catechu) မလုပ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဇာတ် တၞံတာ (Arecaceae) မွဲရ။ ၜိုန်ရ နကဵု အင်္ဂလိက် ကော်ခဴစ "betel nut" ကီုလေဝ်၊ သတ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် မသတ် နူ တၞံသတ် တုဲ၊ အခိင်စမ္ဂး ကေတ် တၞးဇဗၠု (Betel leaf) တုဲ ကဝိုင်စုတ် သတ်၊ ထောတ်၊ ကေုာံ စံင် (ထံင်ပရူ) တုဲ စအိုတ်ရ။ ပွမစဇဗၠု (Chewing betel quid) ဝွံ ဒှ် အခိုက်ကၞာ မပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ အာရှအဂၞဲ၊ အာရှသၠုင်ကျာ၊ သမုဒ္ဒရာ ပါသဳဖေတ် ကေုာံ ဒေသ မာဒါဂါသကာ တအ်ရ။ မၞိဟ် စကာ သတ် ၜိုတ် ၆၀၀ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် ပြင်င် ပ္ဍဲ အလုံမွဲ ဂၠးတိဏအ် ရ။
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
သတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ကပေါတ်စၞ မၞုံကဵု ဓါတ် မပကဵု ညံင်စိုတ်ဂွံမြဟ် (Stimulant) မွဲရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သတ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဓါတ် အာရဳကဝ်လိန် (Arecoline) မဒှ် ဓါတ်အလ်ကာလောတ် (Alkaloid) မကဵု ဖဵု ညံင်ရဴ ဓါတ် နဳကဝ်တိန် (Nicotine) ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် အာရီု ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ်ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ မၞိဟ်မစဇဗၠု တအ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်စိုတ်မြဟ်၊ ဒြဟတ်တိုန် ကေုာံ ဟွံဒွိင်စမုက် ရ။
ၜိုန်ရ ဍေံ ကဵု ဖဵု စိုတ်မြဟ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ သတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဟိုတ် အဓိက မပကဵု ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် ယဲကေန်သာ ပါင် (Oral cancer) ရ။ ဂကောံ သုတေသန ကေန်သာ ဂၠးကဝ် (IARC) ကေုာံ ဂကောံ ထတ်ယုက် ဂၠးကဝ် (WHO) တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် သတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ကပေါတ် မကဵု အန္တရာယ် ကေန်သာ ကဆံင် ၁ (Group 1 Carcinogen) ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ နှဴ ကု စံင် (Tobacco) ဏီရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Garg |first=A. |year=2014 |title=A review of the systemic adverse effects of areca nut or betel nut |journal=Indian Journal of Medical and Paediatric Oncology |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=3-9 |doi=10.4103/0971-5851.133706}}</ref>
== ၂။ ရုက္ခဗေဒ ကေုာံ လက္ခဏာ ဇဳဝဗေဒ (Botany and Physical Characteristics) ==
[[File:Sliced areca nut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|မသတ် မကရေက်လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ စဇဗၠု။]]
တၞံသတ် (Areca catechu) ဝွံ ဒှ် တၞံ မတပ်၊ သၠုင်၊ ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ ကု ကၞာင် တုဲ၊ သၠုင် ဍေံ မာန်စိုပ် စဵုကဵု ၂၀-၃၀ မဳတာ ရ။ တၞး ဍေံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ကၞောတ်တၞံ တုဲ နွံ ဗီုပြင် ညံင်ရဴ တၞးတာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တၞးဒုန် မဂၠိင် ၜိုတ် ၁.၅ စဵုကဵု ၂ မဳတာ ရ။
* '''ပ္ကဴ (Inflorescence):''' ပ္ကဴသတ် ဝွံ တိတ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု သမောဝ် တဝ်တၞး တုဲ နွံကဵု ပ္ကဴ ၝောအ် ကေုာံ ပ္ကဴ ကၟက် ပ္ဍဲ မွဲဇဝ် ဓဝ်ရ။ ပ္ကဴ ကၟက် တအ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ကၞောတ် ကေုာံ ပ္ကဴ ၝောအ် တအ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ တမ် ရ။
* '''သတ် (Fruit):''' သတ် ဍေံဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကောန်ၚာ်မ္ဂး နွံ အသာ် သၚေက် တုဲ ကာလ ဍုဟ်မ္ဂး ပြံင်လှာဲအာ အသာ် လိမ္မဴ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အသာ် ဗကေတ် ရ။ သတ် ဍေံဂှ် နွံ ဗီုပြင် ခၟာဲစာင် တုဲ ဇမၞော် နွံ ၜိုတ် ၄-၅ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ရ။
* '''မသတ် (Seed):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဗွိုက် သတ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ခၞံက် မသတီု ကေုာံ ပ္ဍဲဂှ် မသတ် (Areca nut) မွဲ နွံရ။ မသတ် ဏအ်ရ ဒှ် အရာ မၞိဟ်တအ် မကရေက်တုဲ စဇဗၠု ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Staples |first=G.W. |last2=Bevacqua |first2=R.F. |year=2006 |title=Areca catechu (betel nut palm) |publisher=Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry}}</ref>
== ၃။ ဝင်အတိက် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ (History and Origins) ==
ပွမစဇဗၠု ဝွံ ဒှ် အခိုက်ကၞာ မနွံကၠုင် သၞာံ ဗွဲမလံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် မၞိဟ်တအ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ တမ်မူလ ဇေတ်တ် တၞံသတ် ဂှ် ဟွံတီ ကၠးကၠး ကီုလေဝ်၊ တၠပညာ ရုက္ခဗေဒ တအ် ပတှ်ေကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေံ စကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဍုင်ဖဳလိပ်ပေန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အေန်ဒဝ်နဳရှာ (ဒေသ ၜဳ မာလေ) ရ။
တင်သက်သဳ ဝင် စပ်ကဵု ပွမစဇဗၠု ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ဂှ် ဆဵုဂဗ ပ္ဍဲကဵု '''ထီု ဂိုဟ် (Spirit Cave)''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ သၟဝ်ကျာ မၞုံ အာယုက် ၜိုတ် ၇၀၀၀ စဵုကဵု ၅၀၀၀ သၞာံ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခရေတ် (BCE) တေအ် ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ်တုဲ တင်သက်သဳ ပရူ မသတ် ဂှ် သီုဆဵုဂဗ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ ဒြဟတ်ကြုက် ကေုာံ ဒေသ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ခေတ်တြေံ ရ။ ပရေင် သွံရာန်ဗၞိက် လ္တူ ၜဳ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် မန်၊ ခမာ၊ ကေုာံ သြဳဝိဇယ (Srivijaya) တအ်ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ပွမစဇဗၠု ဂွံပြးဇးအာ အလုံမွဲ ဒေသ အာရှအဂၞဲ ကေုာံ အာရှသၠုင်ကျာ ရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zumbroich |first=Thomas J. |year=2008 |title=The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond |journal=Electronic Journal of Indian Medicine |volume=1 |pages=63-116}}</ref>
== ၄။ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ ဌာန်ဒတန် (Cultivation and Habitat) ==
တၞံသတ် ဝွံ ဒးစိုတ် ဒေသ ရာသဳဥတု ဂမ္တဴ (Tropical climate) မၞုံကဵု ဗြဲဂၠိုင် ကေုာံ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ သၠုင် ရ။ ဍေံ ဟွံဒးစိုတ် ရာသဳ ဂံက် ကေုာံ တိ မဟွံမဲ ကု ဍာ်ရ။
* '''တိ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု:''' ဍေံ ဒးစိုတ် တိ သုက် (Loamy soil) မၞုံကဵု ပရေင် ဇွောဝ်ဍာ် ခိုဟ် ကေုာံ ဒေသ မကလိဂွံ ဍာ်ဗြဲ ၜိုတ် ၁၅၀၀ စဵုကဵု ၅၀၀၀ မဳလဳမဳတာ ဇၟာပ်သၞာံ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ:''' တၞံသတ် ဝွံ တဵုလွဳ နကဵု မ ဍေံရ။ ကြဴနူ တဵုလဝ် ပွိုင် ၅ စဵုကဵု ၇ သၞာံ မ္ဂး ဍေံ စကဵု သတ် တုဲ ဆက်ကဵု သတ် လုကဴ ၃၀ စဵုကဵု ၄၀ သၞာံ မာန်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပတိတ်:''' ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မပတိတ် သတ် ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးကဝ် တုဲ၊ ဗွဲကြဴဂှ် ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ ဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ ဍုင်အေန်ဒဝ်နဳရှာ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဗေၚ်ဂလာဒေသ် တအ် ပါဝင် ရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="width:70%; text-align:center;"
|+ သ္ၚိအၚ် - ဍုင်မပတိတ် သတ် ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ၅ ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးကဝ် (သၞာံ ၂၀၂၀)
|-
! လၟေင် !! ဍုင် (Country) !! ပရေင်ပတိတ် (တန်) (Production in Tonnes)
|-
| ၁ || [[အိန္ဒိယ]] (India) || ၇၃၀,၀၀၀
|-
| ၂ || [[ကြုက်]] (China) || ၁၂၅,၀၀၀
|-
| ၃ || [[ဗၟာ]] (Myanmar) || ၁၁၀,၀၀၀
|-
| ၄ || [[အေန်ဒဝ်နဳရှာ]] (Indonesia) || ၇၀,၀၀၀
|-
| ၅ || [[ဗေၚ်ဂလာဒေသ်]] (Bangladesh) || ၃၅,၀၀၀
|}
<small>တင်နိဿဲ နူ: ဂကောံ စၞစ ကေုာံ တဵုလွဳ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (FAO) <ref>{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref></small>
== ၅။ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အခိုက်ကၞာစဇဗၠု (Cultural Significance) ==
[[File:Betel nut chewers in Myanmar.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ကၟာတ် ပရေင်သွံရာန် ဇဗၠု ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ။]]
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ယေန်သၞာင် ဂကူမန်၊ ဂကူဗၟာ၊ ဂကူအိန္ဒိယ ကေုာံ ဂကူနာနာ ပ္ဍဲ အာရှမ္ဂး၊ သတ် ကေုာံ ဇဗၠု ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မဟွံမာန် ပါ်ခြာ နူကဵု ဘဝ ကေုာံ ဘာသာ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ ကေုာံ တၠုင်လဴ (Hospitality):''' ပ္ဍဲ အခိုက်ကၞာ မန် သၞာံဗွဲမလံ ကာလ ကၟုဲ ကၠုင်စိုပ် သ္ၚိမ္ဂး၊ အရာ ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် မဒးတၠုင်လဴ ဂှ် ဒှ် ထိုင်ဇဗၠု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ခရိုက်ဇဗၠု (Betel box) မၞုံကဵု သတ် ကေုာံ ဇဗၠု ရ။
* '''သဘင်မင်္ဂလာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဘာသာ (Ceremonies):''' ပ္ဍဲ သဘင်မင်္ဂလာ ဂကူမန် ကေုာံ ပရေင် ကလအ်မိမ မ္ဂး၊ ဇဗၠု သတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ကပေါတ် မဒးပါ ဟွံပါ ဟွံတုဲ (Essential offering) ရ။ ကာလ အာသၟာန်စ ကောန်ဝုတ် ညးတၞဟ် မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ဏာ "ဇဗၠု သၟာန်စ" ကေုာံ သတ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ပရေင် ဆက်မိတ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်လျိုင်ပတှ်ေ ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ:''' ပ္ဍဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဟိန္ဒူ မ္ဂး၊ သတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ လေပ် ပရေင် ၝောအ်ကၟက် ကေုာံ စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင် ပူဇဴ ကျာ် ပူဇဴ ဒေဝတဴ တအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Rooney |first=Dawn F. |year=1993 |title=Betel Chewing Traditions in South-East Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/betelchewingtrad00roon |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-588620-4}}</ref>
== ၆။ ဓါတ်တြပ်စိင် ကေုာံ ပါဝင်ဂမၠိုင် (Chemical Composition) ==
မသတ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဓါတ်တြပ်စိင် (Chemical compounds) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မကဵု အန္တရာယ် ကေုာံ ဇီုကပိုက် လ္တူ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ။ ဓါတ် အဓိက တအ်ဂှ်-
# '''Alkaloids (အလ်ကာလောတ်):''' ဓါတ် အဓိက မပကဵု ညံင်စိုတ်ဂွံမြဟ် ကေုာံ စောဲလာမ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဓါတ် '''အာရဳကဝ်လိန်''' (Arecoline) ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ် သီုနွံကဵု ဓါတ် arecaidine, guvacine, ကေုာံ guvacoline တအ်ရ။
# '''Polyphenols (တေန်နေန် - Tannins):''' မသတ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဓါတ် တေန်နေန် (Tannins) ကေုာံ Gallic acid မသၠုင် ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ ဍေံရ ဒှ် ဟိုတ် မပကဵု ညံင် ဍာ်ပါင် ကေုာံ ၚေက် ဂွံ အသာ် ဗကေတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အသာ် လမ္စံက် ကာလ စဇဗၠု ရ။
# '''ဓါတ်ကၠေင် ကေုာံ ကာဘိုဟိုက်ဒရိတ် (Fats and Carbohydrates):''' သတ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဓါတ်ကၠေင် ၜိုတ် ၁၅% ကေုာံ ကာဘိုဟိုက်ဒရိတ် သွက် ဒြဟတ် ရ။
ကာလ မၞိဟ်တအ် စ ဇဗၠု နှဴ ကု ထောတ် (Slaked lime - calcium hydroxide) မ္ဂး၊ ထောတ် ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဓါတ် Alkaloids ပ္ဍဲ သတ် ဂွံ တိတ်ကၠုင် လောဲသွာ တုဲ လုပ်စိုပ် ဆီ ဗွဲမပြဟ် ရ။ ဆဂး ထောတ် ဂှ် သီု ပလီု ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Cells) ပ္ဍဲ ပါင်တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် ကေန်သာ လောဲသွာ ကီုရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lord |first=G. A. |year=2002 |title=Chemical and analytical aspects of areca nut |journal=Addiction Biology |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=51-58 |doi=10.1080/13556210120091428}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဖဵုလ္ပာ်ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ အန္တရာယ်ယဲ (Health Effects and Risks) ==
ပွမစဇဗၠု သတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် အန္တရာယ် ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဇၞော်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ အာရှ ရ။
* '''ယဲကေန်သာ ပါင် (Oral Cancer):''' တၠပညာ ဂဥုဲတအ် သ္ပဒတန် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပွမစ သတ် ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် ယဲ ကေန်သာ ပါင် (Oral squamous cell carcinoma) ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵု ဒြဟတ် ရ။ ဓါတ် Arecoline နူ သတ် ကေုာံ ထောတ် နှဴအာ မ္ဂး ဒှ် ဓါတ် ကေန်သာ ရ။ ယဝ်ရ သီု စုတ် စံင် (Tobacco) မ္ဂး အန္တရာယ် ဍေံ ကဆံင် သၠုင်တိုန် ၃ ဆ မာန်ရ။
* '''ယဲ ပါင် ကေုာံ ကအ် (Oral Submucous Fibrosis - OSMF):''' ယဲဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ယဲ မပကဵု ညံင် ဖျုန် ပ္ဍဲ ပါင် ဂွံ တေင် ကေုာံ ကြံင်မ္ၚိုဟ် အာ တုဲ ဗွဲကြဴ ပံက်ပါင် ဟွံဂွံ ရ။ ယဲဏအ်ဝွံ ဟိုတ်နူ စသတ် ဂၠိုင် လုကဴ အခိင်လံ ဂှ်ရ။
* '''ပရေင် စောဲလာမ် (Addiction):''' ဓါတ် Arecoline ဂှ် ဒှ် ဓါတ် မပကဵု ညံင် မၞိဟ်ဂွံ စောဲလာမ် (Addiction) ညံင်ရဴ စောဲ စံင် ကေုာံ အရက် ကီုရ။
* '''ဖဵု ခိုဟ် အခိင်ဂၠေအ် (Short-term effects):''' မၞိဟ်စတအ် ကလိဂွံ စိုတ်မြဟ်၊ ဒြဟတ်တိုန်၊ သၟူပါင် မောဝ် (အခိင်ဂၠေအ်) ကေုာံ ကၠင်ကၟောဝ် စှ်ေ ရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gupta |first=P. C. |last2=Warnakulasuriya |first2=S. |year=2002 |title=Global epidemiology of areca nut usage |journal=Addiction Biology |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=77-83 |doi=10.1080/13556210020091437}}</ref>
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xh_X2z_ZqGg ပရူ အန္တရာယ် ပွမစဇဗၠု သတ် ကေုာံ ယဲကေန်သာ ပါင် (YouTube - English)]
== ၈။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်သွံရာန်ဂၠးကဝ် (Economy and Trade) ==
ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ သွံရာန် သတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မဇၞော်မောဝ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အိန္ဒိယ၊ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကေုာံ ဍုင်တၞဟ်ဟ် ပ္ဍဲ အာရှ ရ။
* '''လမျီု ကောန်သၟာဗ္ၚ:''' ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ ကောန်သၟာဗ္ၚ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် ပြင်င် တန်တဴဒၟံင် လ္တူ သြန်လုပ် နူကဵု ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ တၞံသတ် ရ။ သတ် ဝွံ လှုဲလုပ် ခိုဟ် နူကဵု ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ သြောအ် ကေုာံ တၞံတၞဟ်ဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ လ္ၚဵုရ။
* '''ပရေင်သွံရာန် (Trade):''' သတ် စဲ ကေုာံ သတ်ဍိုန် တအ်ဂှ် ပလံင်ပတိတ် ဇရေင် ဍုင် မၞုံကဵု ကောန်ဍုင် အာရှ မပြံင်မံင် တအ် (ဥပမာ - ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဗြိတိန် ကေုာံ ဍုင် ဒေသ လဒေါဝ်ဗမံက်) ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ:''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ ဇဗၠု သတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မလှဲလး မွဲတုဲ ဆေင်သွံဇဗၠု နွံ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ကွာန် ကေုာံ ဂၠံင်ဍာန် ဍုင်ဇၞော် ရ။
== ၉။ ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ (Legal Status and Bans) ==
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု အန္တရာယ် ယဲကေန်သာ ပါင် ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စပတိတ်ကၠုင် ဥပဒေ သွက်ဂွံ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ထိင်ဒဝ် ပရေင်စကာ သတ် ရ။
* '''တိုင်ဝါန် (Taiwan):''' အလဵုအသဳ တိုင်ဝါန် သ္ပလဝ် ပရေင်တွဟ်သြိုင် (Campaign) "ကလေင်ကေတ် တိ နူ တၞံသတ်" သွက်ဂွံ ယှအ်ဖျေဟ် ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ တၞံသတ် ကေုာံ ကဵု သြန်ရီုဗင် ကု သၟာဗ္ၚ သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်တဵု တၞံတၞဟ် ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ် သီု ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပရေင်ထ္ၜး ကြော်ငြာ "ဝုတ်သွံသတ်" (Betel nut beauties) ပ္ဍဲ ဇိုင်ဂၠံင် တအ်ရ။
* '''အဝ်သတေလျာ ကေုာံ အမေရိကာန်:''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အဝ်သတေလျာ၊ ပွမစုတ်ပၠုပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သွံရာန် ဓါတ် Arecoline (သတ်) ဂှ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လဝ် နကဵု သၞောဝ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် မ္ဂး ၜိုန်ရ သွံရာန် ဂွံ ကီုလေဝ်၊ အလဵုအသဳ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ညံင်ဟွံဂွံ သွံ ကု ကောန်ၚာ် သၟဝ် အာယုက် ရ။
* '''ဒေသ လဒေါဝ်ဗမံက်:''' ဍုင် ဥပမာ - UAE တအ်ဂှ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လဝ် ပွမစုတ်ပၠုပ် ကေုာံ စဇဗၠု ပ္ဍဲ သလာတ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲမသကာတ်မြဟ် ရ ဟိုတ်နူ ဍာ်ပါင် ဇဗၠု မကၠိခတှ် လ္တူ ဂၠံင်ဍာန် ရ။<ref>{{cite news |title=Betel nut: The deadly, addictive chew hitting the UK |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-31921207 |work=BBC News |date=2015-03-23 |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ ပရေင်သုတေသန ကေုာံ လွပ်တၞဟ်ဟ် (Research & Alternative Uses) ==
ၜိုန်ရ သတ် နွံကဵု အန္တရာယ် ယဲကေန်သာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်သုတေသန ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ဂၠာဲသ္ၚေဝ်ဒၟံင် လွပ် တၞဟ်ဟ် မဆေင်ကဵု ဂဥုဲ (Pharmacological uses) သွက် ဓါတ် Arecoline ရ။
* '''ဂဥုဲ တြေံ ကေုာံ သွက် တိရစ္ဆာန်:''' ပ္ဍဲ ဂဥုဲ အာယုဗေဒ (Ayurveda) ခေတ်တြေံ ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ ကြုက် မ္ဂး၊ သတ် ဝွံ စကာ သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ် စၟဂၞဴ (Deworming) ကေုာံ သောင် သၞောတ် စၞလာဲ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်လွဳ တိရစ္ဆာန် မ္ဂး Arecoline hydrobromide ဂှ် စကာလဝ် နဒဒှ် ဂဥုဲ ဖျေဟ် စၟဂၞဴ သွက် ကၠဵု ကေုာံ ချေဟ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်သုတေသန ယဲ Alzheimer:''' ဟိုတ်နူ ဓါတ် Arecoline ဂှ် ဍေံ ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် တုဲ၊ တၠပညာ သုတေသန တအ် လ္ၚတ်ဒၟံင် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဂဥုဲ လွဳ ယဲ ဝိုတ်ဝုဲ (Alzheimer's disease) နူကဵု ဓါတ်ဏအ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဟိုတ်နူ အန္တရာယ် ကေန်သာ ဍေံ နွံတုဲ ပရေင်ဏအ် ဟွံစိုပ် ကဆံင် လွဳ မၞိဟ် ဏီရ။
* '''အရောင် အသာ် (Dyeing):''' တေန်နေန် (Tannin) မဂွံ နူ သတ် ဝွံ စကာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင် ဖျောန် အသာ် ယာတ် ကေုာံ ကၠောန် မှင် အသာ် ဗကေတ် ကေုာံ လမ္စံက် မာန်ရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Peng |first=W. |last2=Liu |first2=Y. J. |last3=Wu |first3=N. |year=2015 |title=Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae): A review of its traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=164 |pages=340-356 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2015.02.010}}</ref>
== နိဿဲ (References) ==
<references>
<ref name="Garg2014">{{cite journal |last=Garg |first=A. |year=2014 |title=A review of the systemic adverse effects of areca nut or betel nut |journal=Indian Journal of Medical and Paediatric Oncology |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=3-9 |doi=10.4103/0971-5851.133706}}</ref>
<ref name="Staples2006">{{cite book |last=Staples |first=G.W. |last2=Bevacqua |first2=R.F. |year=2006 |title=Areca catechu (betel nut palm) |publisher=Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry}}</ref>
<ref name="Zumbroich2008">{{cite journal |last=Zumbroich |first=Thomas J. |year=2008 |title=The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond |journal=Electronic Journal of Indian Medicine |volume=1 |pages=63-116}}</ref>
<ref name="FAOSTAT">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
<ref name="Rooney1993">{{cite book |last=Rooney |first=Dawn F. |year=1993 |title=Betel Chewing Traditions in South-East Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/betelchewingtrad00roon |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-588620-4}}</ref>
<ref name="Lord2002">{{cite journal |last=Lord |first=G. A. |year=2002 |title=Chemical and analytical aspects of areca nut |journal=Addiction Biology |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=51-58 |doi=10.1080/13556210120091428}}</ref>
<ref name="Gupta2002">{{cite journal |last=Gupta |first=P. C. |last2=Warnakulasuriya |first2=S. |year=2002 |title=Global epidemiology of areca nut usage |journal=Addiction Biology |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=77-83 |doi=10.1080/13556210020091437}}</ref>
<ref name="BBCNews2015">{{cite news |title=Betel nut: The deadly, addictive chew hitting the UK |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-31921207 |work=BBC News |date=2015-03-23 |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
<ref name="Peng2015">{{cite journal |last=Peng |first=W. |last2=Liu |first2=Y. J. |last3=Wu |first3=N. |year=2015 |title=Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae): A review of its traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=164 |pages=340-356 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2015.02.010}}</ref>
<ref name="IARC2004">{{cite book |author=IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans |year=2004 |title=Betel-quid and Areca-nut Chewing and Some Areca-nut-derived Nitrosamines |url=https://archive.org/details/betelquidarecanu0085iarc |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |isbn=978-9283212850}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = သတ် ကေုာံ ဇဗၠု
| title = သတ် ကေုာံ ဇဗၠု (Areca nut and Betel)
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = သဘာဝ ကေုာံ ရုက္ခဗေဒ
| list1 =
* [[တၞံသတ်]] (Areca catechu)
* [[ဇဗၠု]] (Betel leaf)
* [[Arecaceae]] (ဇာတ် တၞံတာ)
* [[ထောတ်]] (Slaked lime)
| group2 = ဓါတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်
| list2 =
* [[အာရဳကဝ်လိန်]] (Arecoline)
* [[ယဲကေန်သာ ပါင်]] (Oral cancer)
* [[Oral submucous fibrosis]]
* [[ဓါတ်တေန်နေန်]] (Tannin)
| group3 = ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ သွံရာန်
| list3 =
* [[ပွမစဇဗၠု]] (Betel chewing)
* [[ထိုင်ဇဗၠု]] (Betel box)
* [[ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် တဵုလွဳ]]
}}
[[Category:တၞံသတ်]]
[[Category:ကပေါတ်စၞ]]
[[Category:ယေန်သၞာင် အာရှ]]
[[Category:ကပေါတ် မကဵုအန္တရာယ် ယဲကေန်သာ]]
[[Category:ရုက္ခဗေဒ]]
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ဝင်ရးတၞင်သဳ
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Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260809)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]
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{{Infobox historical region
| name = ဝင်ရးတၞင်သဳ
| native_name = History of Tanintharyi Region
| image = Location of Tanintharyi Region in Myanmar.svg
| image_size = 250px
| alt = ဗီုရုပ် ဗွဲအပြောမ် ရးတၞင်သဳ ပ္ဍဲဍုင်ဗၟာ
| caption = ဒၞာဲဒတန် ရးတၞင်သဳ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်ဗၟာ လၟုဟ်
| continent = အာရှ
| region = [[အာရှအဂၞဴ]] (Southeast Asia)
| modern_location = {{unbulleted list|[[ဍုင်ဗၟာ]] (Myanmar)|[[ဍုင်သေံ]] (Thailand - historically)}}
| era = ခေတ်တမၠာ စဵုကဵု ခေတ်လၟုဟ်
| capital = {{unbulleted list|[[ဍုင်မတ်မလီု]] (Mawlamyine - ၁၈၂၆ - ၁၉၇၄)|[[ဍုင်ထဝါဲ]] (Dawei - ၁၉၇၄ - လၟုဟ်)}}
| common_languages = [[ဘာသာဗၟာ]], [[ဘာသာထဝါဲ]], [[ဘာသာဗိက်]], [[ဘာသာမန်]], [[ဘာသာကရေင်]], [[ဘာသာသေံ]]
| religion = [[ဘာသာဗုဒ္ဓ]], [[ဘာသာခရေတ်]], [[ဘာသာအေတ်သလာမ်]], [[ဘာသာဟိန္ဒူ]]
}}
'''ဝင်ရးတၞင်သဳ''' ({{lang-en|History of Tanintharyi Region}}, {{lang-my|တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး သမိုင်း}}) ဝွံ ဒှ်ဝင် မလ္ၚတ်ပရူ ဒေသကရေက် သၠုင်ကျာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[ဍုင်ဗၟာ]] လၟုဟ်ရ။ ရးတၞင်သဳ (ကိုပ်ကၠာတေံ ကော်ခဴစ တၞင်သြဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Tenasserim) ဝွံ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု မၞုံပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲဒတန် မဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကုၜဳအာန်ဒါမာန် (Andaman Sea) ကေုာံ ဒဵုတၞင်သဳ (Tenasserim Hills) မဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကု[[ဍုင်သေံ]] (Thailand) တုဲ၊ ဍေံဝွံ ဒှ်လဝ် ဒေသ ဗဟဵုပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပၞာန် အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အာရှအគ្នေယျ လၟေင်င် ခေတ်အဆက်ဆက် ရ။ ဝင်ဒေသဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကြပ်ကြပ် ကု ဝင် ဂကူမန်၊ ဂကူဗၟာ၊ ဂကူသေံ၊ ကေုာံ ဝင်ပရေင်ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ အင်္ဂလိက် ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Baker |first=Chris |title=A History of Thailand |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofthailan00bake |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521016476}}</ref>
__TOC__
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Overview) ==
[[File:Mergui_Archipelago_1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|တကအ်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[တကအ်မြိတ်]] (Mergui Archipelago) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ သဘာဝ ပ္ဍဲရးတၞင်သဳ။]]
ရးတၞင်သဳ ဝွံ ဒှ်ဒေသ ဍာ်တယောဝ် မဂၠိင်တုဲ က္ဍန်ဒၟံင် မွဲ မၞုံပ္ဍဲ တွဵုရး သၠုင်ကျာ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ရ။ ဒေသဏအ်ဝွံ စတမ်နူ ပယျဵု [[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]] (Mon State) ပ္ဍဲလ္ပာ်သၟဝ်ကျာ တုဲ၊ ဆက်အာ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် ပယျဵု ဍုင်သေံ ကေုာံ ကအ်သံင် (Kawthaung) မဒှ် တမ်ရိုဟ် ပယျဵု ဒေသ ကရာက် (Kra Isthmus) ပ္ဍဲလ္ပာ်သၠုင်ကျာ ရ။
ဝင် ရးတၞင်သဳ ဝွံ ဒှ်ဝင် မပေင်တဴ နကဵု ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပကာန်၊ ပရေင်ဗတိုက်ပၞာန်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာတေံ ဒေသဏအ်ဝွံ ပါဝင်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု က္ဍိုင်ဗတာင် ဍုင်မန် သဓီု (Thaton Kingdom) ကေုာံ ဟံသာဝတဳ (Hanthawaddy)၊ ကြဴနူဂှ် စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်တဲ ဍုင်သေံ အယုဒ္ဓယ (Ayutthaya)၊ တုဲပၠန် စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်တဲ ဨကရာဇ်ဗၟာ တောင်ငူ (Toungoo) ကေုာံ ကုန်းဘောင် (Konbaung) တအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင် အင်္ဂလိက် တအ် သီကေတ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ ပထမအလန် ဂှ်လေဝ် ရးတၞင်သဳ ဝွံ ဒှ်ဒေသ ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် မဒးဒုင် အုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵု အင်္ဂလိက် ကေုာံ [[ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ]] အင်္ဂလိက် ရ။<ref>{{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Victor |title=Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830 |url=https://archive.org/details/strangeparallels0000lieb |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521804967}}</ref>
ရးတၞင်သဳ လၟုဟ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ခရိုင် အဓိက ၄ ခရိုင် မတွဟ်ဂး ခရိုင်ထဝါဲ (Dawei District)၊ ခရိုင်မြိတ် (Myeik District)၊ ခရိုင်ဗုတ်ပြင် (Bokepyin District) ကေုာံ ခရိုင်ကအ်သံင် (Kawthoung District) တအ်ရ။
== ၂။ ယၟု ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ (Etymology and Origin of Names) ==
ယၟုမ္ဂး "တၞင်သဳ" (Tanintharyi) ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု ယၟု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ နာနာ မပြံင်လှာဲကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု ဝင် အဆက်ဆက် ရ။
* '''ဘာသာမလေ (Malay):''' ဂကူမလေ တအ် ကော်ခဴစ ဒေသဏအ် နကဵု ယၟု ''တာနာ သာရဳ'' (Tanah Sari) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "တိဍာ် မရာင်ဆာဲ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''တာနာ သဳရဳ'' (Tanah Sirih) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "တိဍာ် ဇဗၠု" ရ။
* '''ဘာသာသေံ (Thai):''' ဂကူသေံ တအ် ကော်ခဴစ ဒေသဏအ် ''တာနာဝ် သဳ'' (Tanao Si - ตะนาวศรี) မကၠုင်နူ ရမ္သာင် မလေ ဂှ်ရ။
* '''ဘာသာမန် (Mon):''' ဂကူမန်တအ် ကော်ခဴစ ''ဏင်ကသဳ'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''တနင်သြဳ'' ရ။
* '''ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက် (English):''' ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ၊ အင်္ဂလိက် တအ် ကော်ခဴစ ''တီနက်သရဳမ်'' (Tenasserim) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၈၉ ဂှ် အလဵုအသဳ ပၞာန်ဗၟာ (SLORC) တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲထောအ် ယၟု အင်္ဂလိက် နူ Tenasserim ဏာကဵု Tanintharyi နကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မလုပ်သၞောဝ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် လိက်ဝင် ဍုင်သအာင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဆက်စကာဒၟံင် ယၟု Tenasserim ဏီရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=Tanintharyi Region |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanintharyi_Region |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
== ၃။ ဝင်ခေတ်တမၠာ ကေုာံ ပထမအဝဲ (Ancient History and Early Period) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လ္ၚီသၞာံ ပထမ (First millennium) ဂှ်၊ ဒေသ ကရေက်သၠုင်ကျာ သွက် ရးတၞင်သဳ ဝွံ ပါဝင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် တမၠာ မၞုံယၟု ''တာက္ကဝ်လာ'' (Takkola) ရ။ ယၟု တာက္ကဝ်လာ ဝွံ ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒေသပထဝဳ ဂရိတ် ပတဝ်လမဳ (Ptolemy) ကေုာံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်ကျာ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ညံင်ရဴ မဟာနိဒ္ဒေသ (Mahāniddesa) ကေုာံ မိလိန္ဒပဉှာ (Milinda Panha) တအ်ရ။ ဒေသဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဒၞာဲ ဒေါဝ်ဂၠံင် ပရေင်ဗၞိက် အကြာ အိန္ဒိယ ကေုာံ ကြုက် ရ။<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gerini |first=G.E. |title=Historical Retrospect of Junkceylon Island |journal=Journal of the Siam Society |year=1905}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ကရေက်သၟဝ်ကျာ သွက် ရးတၞင်သဳ (ပ္ဍဲအခိင်လၟုဟ် မဒှ် ဒေသ တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်) ဂှ် ပါဝင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်မန် '''သဓီု''' (Thaton Kingdom) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၀၅၇ ဂှ်၊ ဨကရာဇ်ဗၟာ အနဝ်ရထာ (Anawrahta) နူကဵု ဍုင်ဗုကာံ (Pagan Empire) ကၠုင်ဗတိုက် သီကေတ် ဍုင်သဓီု တုဲ ကရေက် ပြင်ၜဳ ရးတၞင်သဳ သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်အဝဵု ဗုကာံ ရ။
ကြဴနူ ဍုင်ဗုကာံ လီုလာ်အာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၂၈၇ ဟိုတ်နူ ပၞာန်မောန်ဂေါဝ် (Mongol invasions) တုဲ၊ ဒေသ တၞင်သဳ ဝွံ စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်အဝဵု ဍုင်သေံ သုခေါထာဲ (Sukhothai Kingdom) ကေုာံ ကြဴနူဂှ် စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ် အယုဒ္ဓယ (Ayutthaya Kingdom) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဂှ် ပယျဵု သၟဝ်ကျာအိုတ် သွက် ဍုင်သေံ ဂှ် စိုပ်အာ ကြပ် ၜဳသလောန် (Salween River) ပ္ဍဲ မတ်မလီု ရ။
== ၄။ ခေတ်ပၞာန် အကြာ သေံ ကေုာံ ဗၟာ (Era of Siamese-Burmese Wars) ==
[[File:Phra_Naresuan.jpg|thumb|left|200px|ဨကရာဇ်သေံ နရဲသိုန် (King Naresuan) ညးမသီကေတ်လဝ် ရးတၞင်သဳ နူကဵု ဗၟာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၉၂။]]
ရးတၞင်သဳ ဝွံ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု မဒှ် သၞေဟ်က္ၜင် ပရေင်ဗၞိက် အဓိက မွဲတုဲ၊ အကြာ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၆ ကေုာံ ၁၉ ဂှ် ဒှ်လဝ် ဒၞာဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် (Battleground) အဓိက အကြာ ဍုင်သေံ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ရ။
* '''ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၆ (16th Century):''' ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၆၄ ဂှ် ဨကရာဇ်ဗၟာ ဘုရင့်နောင် (Bayinnaung) နူ တောင်ငူ (Toungoo Dynasty) သီကေတ် ဍုင်သေံ သီုဖအိုတ် တုဲ ရးတၞင်သဳ စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်တဲ ဗၟာ ရ။ ဆဂး ကြဴနူ သေံ ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်သၠးပွး ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၈၇ ဂှ်၊ ဨကရာဇ်သေံ နရဲသိုန် (King Naresuan) ကလေင်သီကေတ် ဒေသ တၞင်သဳ ကရေက်သၠုင်ကျာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၉၂ ကေုာံ အလုံမွဲ ဒေသ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၅၉၉ ရ။<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Wisetsiri |first=W. |title=The Ayutthaya Kingdom Trading Relationship with Mergui – Tenasserim from 1590 – 1767 |publisher=Srinakharinwirot University |year=2016}}</ref>
* '''ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၇ (17th Century):''' ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၆၁၄ ဂှ် ဨကရာဇ်ဗၟာ အနောက်ဖက်လွန် (Anaukpetlun) ကလေင်သီကေတ် ဒေသသၟဝ်ကျာ စဵုကဵု ထဝါဲ (Dawei) ဆဂး သီကေတ် တၞင်သဳ လ္ပာ်သၠုင်ကျာ ဟွံမာန်ရ။ မြိတ် (Mergui) ဝွံ ဆက်တန်တဴဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် သၞေဟ်က္ၜင် သေံ သွက်ဂွံ ဆက်ဆောံ ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ကု ဂကူယူရဝ်ပ တအ်ရ။
* '''ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၈ (18th Century):''' အခိင် ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုင် ဗၟာ (၁၇၄၀-၁၇၅၇) မန်တအ် ကလေင်ဒက်ပတန် ဟံသာဝတဳ တၟိ ဂှ် သေံတအ် ကၠတ်လုပ် သီကေတ် ဒေသသၠုင်ကျာ မုဟ်တၟအ် (Mottama) ရ။ ကြဴနူ အလောင်းဘုရား (Alaungpaya) ဇၞးအာ ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲဍုင် တုဲ ညး ကလေင်သီကေတ် ဒေသစဵုကဵု ထဝါဲ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၇၆၀ ရ။ ကောန်ညး ဆင်ဖြူရှင် (Hsinbyushin) သီကေတ် အလုံမွဲ ဍာ်တယောဝ် တၞင်သဳ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၇၆၅ တုဲ တၞင်သဳ စိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်တဲ ဗၟာ အလုံမွဲ ရ။
* '''ပၞာန် ၁၇၉၂-၁၇၉၄ (1792-1794 War):''' ဨကရာဇ်သေံ ရာမ ၁ (Rama I) မိက်ဂွံ ကလေင်ကေတ် တၞင်သဳ တုဲ လုပ်ဗတိုက် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၇၉၂။ ဆဂး ပၞာန်ဗၟာ သၟဝ် ပၠဒပ် ကောန်သၟိင် သတိုးမင်းစော (Thado Minsaw) ကလေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် တုဲ သေံတအ် ဒးဆုတ်ကလေင်အာ ရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=Burmese–Siamese War (1792–1794) |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese%E2%80%93Siamese_War_(1792%E2%80%931794) |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
== ၅။ ခေတ် အင်္ဂလိက် ကေုာံ ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ (British Colonial Era) ==
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၂၄ ဂှ် ပၞာန် အင်္ဂလိက်-ဗၟာ ပထမ (First Anglo-Burmese War) စကတဵုဒှ်ရ။ အင်္ဂလိက် တအ် သီကေတ် ဍုင်မြိတ် (Mergui) တုဲ ဍေံဒှ်အာ ဍုင်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ မစိုပ်အာ သၟဝ်အဝဵု အင်္ဂလိက် ရ။ ပၞာန် အုပ်နိဂီုအာ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၂၆ နကဵု လိက်ကသုက် ရန္တပို (Treaty of Yandabo) တုဲ ဨကရာဇ်ဗၟာ ဒးပအပ်ကဵု ဒေသ ရခိုင် (Arakan) ကေုာံ ရးတၞင်သဳ ဇရေင် အင်္ဂလိက် ရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=British rule in Burma |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
အင်္ဂလိက် တအ် သ္ပလဝ် ဍုင်မတ်မလီု (Mawlamyine/Moulmein) နဒဒှ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် သွက် ခရိုင်တၞင်သဳ တုဲ ဍေံဒှ်လဝ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် သွက် ဍုင်ဗၟာ သၟဝ်အင်္ဂလိက် (British Burma) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၂၆ ကေုာံ ၁၈၆၈ ဂှ် အင်္ဂလိက် ကေုာံ သေံ ထပက်စၟတ်တဲ ပရေင်ပိုင်ခြာ ပယျဵု အကြာ ရးတၞင်သဳ ကေုာံ ဍုင်သေံ ရ။
ကြဴနူ ပၞာန် အင်္ဂလိက်-ဗၟာ ဒုတိယ (၁၈၅၂) အင်္ဂလိက် တအ် သီဂွံ ဍုင်ဗၟာ သၟဝ် သီုဖအိုတ် တုဲ၊ ပြံင်ဏာ ဍုင်ဇၞော် ဇရေင် ဍုင်လ္ဂုင် (Rangoon) ရ။ ဆဂး ရးတၞင်သဳ ဝွံ ဆက်ဒှ်ဒၟံင် ဒေသ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ရဝ်ဘာ (Rubber plantations)၊ ပရေင်ခါင် ဓါတ်သတ္တု (Tin mining) ကေုာံ သၞေဟ်က္ၜင် သွက်ဂွံ ပလံင်ကပေါတ် ရ။
== ၆။ ဒုတိယ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ဂျပေန် (World War II and Japanese Occupation) ==
[[File:DeathRailway02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ဂၠံင်ကွဳစက်ပၟတ် ချိုတ် (Death Railway) မပံက်လဝ် နကဵု ပၞာန်ဂျပေန် ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ဒုတိယ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အကြာ သေံ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဗၟာ။]]
ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ဒုတိယ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ (World War II)၊ ပၞာန် ဂျပေန် တအ် လုပ်သီကေတ် ရးတၞင်သဳ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၁ တုဲ အုပ်ဓုပ်လဝ် စဵုကဵုစိုပ် ၁၉၄၅ ရ။
ဒေသဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်လဝ် ဒၞာဲ မဒယှ်တမ္ညဝ် မပရေအ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ပၞာန် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ကမၠောန် သြိုင်ခၞံ "ဂၠံင်ကွဳစက်ပၟတ် ချိုတ်" (Death Railway) ကေုာံ "ဂၠံင်မြိတ်" (Mergui Road) ရ။ ဂၠံင်မြိတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂၠံင် မဆက်စပ် အကြာ ပရာချတ်ခဳရဳခါန် (Prachuap Khiri Khan) ပ္ဍဲသေံ ကေုာံ ဍုင်မြိတ် ပ္ဍဲဗၟာ ရ။ ဂျပေန်တအ် စကာ ကောန်ပၞာန် မဒးဒုင်ရပ်လဝ် (POWs) ကေုာံ ကောန်ကမၠောန် အာရှ (Romusha) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ သြိုင်ခၞံ ဂၠံင်တအ်ဏအ် နကဵု သၞောတ် ကမၠောန် ဍိက် (Slave labor) တုဲ မၞိဟ် ဂၠိုင်ကဵု လ္ၚီ ဒးချိုတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒဵုတၞင်သဳ ရ။
== ၇။ ကြဴနူ သၠးပွး ကေုာံ အပြံင်အလှာဲ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် (Post-Independence and Administrative Changes) ==
ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၄၈ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်သၠးပွး နူ အင်္ဂလိက် တုဲ၊ ဗီုပြင် ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ရးတၞင်သဳ ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ပြံင်လှာဲလဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် အလန် ရ-
* '''သၞာံ ၁၉၄၈:''' ဒေသ အပ္ဍဲ ရးတၞင်သဳ လ္ပာ် ဨသာန် တအ်ဂှ် ပါ်ပတိတ်တုဲ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် [[တွဵုရးကရေင်]] (Karen State - လၟုဟ် Kayin State) တၟိ ရ။
* '''သၞာံ ၁၉၇၄:''' ပ္ဍဲ လက်ထက် သကိုပ်ဗိုလ် နေဝင်း (Ne Win) ဍုင်ဗၟာ ဒက်ပတန် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် တၟိ တုဲ၊ ကရေက်သၟဝ်ကျာ သွက် ရးတၞင်သဳ မပ္တံကဵု မတ်မလီု၊ သဓီု တအ်ဂှ် ပါ်ပတိတ် တုဲ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် '''တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်''' (Mon State) တၟိ ရ။
* ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဍုင်မတ်မလီု ဂှ် ပါလုပ်အာ ပ္ဍဲ တွဵုရးဍုင်မန် တုဲ၊ ဍုင်ဇၞော် သွက် ရးတၞင်သဳ မသှ်ေဒၟံင်ဂှ် ပြံင်ဏာ ဇရေင် '''ဍုင်ထဝါဲ''' (Dawei) စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ဂကူ ကေုာံ ဘာသာ (Culture, Demographics and Religion) ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:15px; width:250px;"
|+ ဇၟန်လၟိဟ် ဘာသာ ပ္ဍဲ ရးတၞင်သဳ
|-
! ဘာသာ !! တၟေင်က္ဍိုပ်ကၠံ
|-
| ဘာသာဗုဒ္ဓ || ၈၇.၅%
|-
| ဘာသာခရေတ် || ၇.၂%
|-
| ဘာသာအေတ်သလာမ် || ၅.၁%
|-
| ဘာသာဟိန္ဒူ || ၀.၂%
|}
ရးတၞင်သဳ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒေသ မၞုံကဵု ဂကူနာနာ၊ ဘာသာနာနာ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် မတၞဟ်ခြာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ ဂကူဗၟာ (Bamar) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကူ မၞုံလၟိဟ် ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဒေသဏအ် တုဲ ညးတအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကူ '''ထဝါဲ''' (Dawei) ကေုာံ ဂကူ '''မြိတ်''' (Myeik/Beik) မဟီု အရေဝ် သကုတ်ဗၟာ မတၞဟ်ခြာ ရ။
ဂကူကရေင် (Karen) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကူ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲဒေသဏအ်တုဲ ညးတအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ ဒဵု ကေုာံ ဂြိုပ် တအ်ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ် ဂကူမန် (Mon)၊ ဂကူသေံ (Thai) ကေုာံ ဂကူမလေ (Malay) တအ် လေဝ် နွံဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲဒေသ လ္ပာ်သၠုင်ကျာ ရ။
ဂကူ မတၟေင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရးတၞင်သဳ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကူ '''မဝ်ကေန်''' (Moken) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကူ ချလုံ (Sea Gypsies) တအ်ရ။ ညးတအ်ဝွံ မံင်တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲလ္တူ ဍာ်ၜဳ ကေုာံ က္ၜင် အလုံမွဲ ဘဝ ညးတအ် တုဲ ဂၠာဲစ စၞၜဳ နကဵု နဲကဲ တမၠာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တကအ်မြိတ် (Mergui Archipelago) တအ်ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ သဘာဝ (Geography, Economy and Natural Resources) ==
[[File:Great_Tenasserim_River_map.png|thumb|left|200px|ဗီုသ္ၚိအင် ၜဳတၞင်သဳ (Great Tenasserim River) မဇွောဝ်စှ်ေ ပ္ဍဲ ရးတၞင်သဳ။]]
ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ရးတၞင်သဳ ဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် လ္တူ သယံဇာတ သဘာဝ မပ္တံကဵု တိဍာ်၊ ဓါတ်သတ္တု ကေုာံ ကပေါတ်ၜဳ တအ်ရ။
* '''ဒဵုတၞင်သဳ (Tenasserim Hills):''' ဒှ် ရေင်ဒဵု မဂၠိင် ၜိုတ် ၁၇၀၀ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ မပါ်ခြာလဝ် ပယျဵု အကြာ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကေုာံ ဍုင်သေံ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲဒဵုဏအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု တိရစ္ဆာန် ဂြိုပ် မပ္တံကဵု စိင်၊ ကၠ၊ ကေုာံ စိုင် တအ်ရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=Tenasserim Hills |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenasserim_Hills |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
* '''ၜဳတၞင်သဳ (Great Tenasserim River):''' ဒှ် ၜဳ အဓိက မွဲ မဇွောဝ်စှ်ေ နူကဵု ဒဵုတၞင်သဳ တုဲ လုပ်စိုပ် ၜဳအာန်ဒါမာန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်မြိတ် ရ။ ၜဳဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တရဴ ဍာ် ရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=Great Tenasserim River |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Tenasserim_River |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
* '''တကအ်မြိတ် (Mergui Archipelago):''' နွံကဵု တကအ် ဍောတ်ဇၞော် ၜိုတ် ၈၀၀ ပြင်င် တုဲ ဍေံဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မၞုံကဵု သဘာဝ ၜဳ မခိုဟ်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲဏအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ကမၠောန် လွဳလွတ် ပုလဲ (Pearl farming)၊ တမၠာဲ (Tin)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ဗက်ၚာ် (Fishing) ရ။<ref>{{cite web |title=Mergui Archipelago |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergui_Archipelago |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
* '''ဓါတ်သတ္တု:''' ဒေသဏအ်ဝွံ ဂၠိုင်တဴ နကဵု တမၠာဲ (Tin)၊ တာန်သတေန် (Tungsten) ကေုာံ ပသဲ (Iron ore) တအ်ရ။
== ၁၀။ သရုပ် ကေုာံ တင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Outlook) ==
ရးတၞင်သဳ ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဝင် မဇၞော်မောဝ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ် မဂၠိုင်ကဵု အလန် ရ။ နူကဵု ခေတ် ဍုင်သဓီု မန်၊ ခေတ် အယုဒ္ဓယ သေံ၊ ခေတ် တောင်ငူ ဗၟာ၊ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် ခေတ် ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ အင်္ဂလိက် တအ်ဂှ် ဒေသဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်လဝ် ဗဟဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပၞာန် လၟေင်င် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အနာဂတ် ဂတဏအ်၊ ရးတၞင်သဳ ဝွံ နွံကဵု အခေါင်အရာ သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် လ္ပာ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ဇိုင်တရဴ (Tourism industry) ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ သဘာဝ ၜဳ မအးဇ္ၚး ပ္ဍဲ တကအ်မြိတ် တအ်ဂှ် ဓရောတ်ကော်ဒၟံင် ညးလ္ၚတ်တရဴ နူကဵု ဂၠးကဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ ဆဂး ပြသၞာ မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ပၞာန် အပ္ဍဲဍုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပလီုပလာ် သဘာဝ (Environmental degradation) တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် အခက်အခုဲ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ရးတၞင်သဳ မွဲရ။
* **ဗဳဒဳယော သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်:** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1d_FzFqY71w ပရူပရာ တကအ်မြိတ် ကေုာံ ရးတၞင်သဳ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ (YouTube)]
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် (References) ==
<references>
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<ref name="Lieberman2003">{{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Victor |title=Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830 |url=https://archive.org/details/strangeparallels0000lieb |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521804967}}</ref>
<ref name="Gerini1905">{{cite journal |last=Gerini |first=G.E. |title=Historical Retrospect of Junkceylon Island |journal=Journal of the Siam Society |year=1905}}</ref>
<ref name="Wisetsiri2016">{{cite thesis |last=Wisetsiri |first=W. |title=The Ayutthaya Kingdom Trading Relationship with Mergui – Tenasserim from 1590 – 1767 |publisher=Srinakharinwirot University |year=2016}}</ref>
<ref name="WikiTanintharyi">{{cite web |title=Tanintharyi Region |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanintharyi_Region |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
<ref name="WikiTenasserimHills">{{cite web |title=Tenasserim Hills |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenasserim_Hills |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
<ref name="Wiki1792War">{{cite web |title=Burmese–Siamese War (1792–1794) |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmese%E2%80%93Siamese_War_(1792%E2%80%931794) |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
<ref name="WikiMergui">{{cite web |title=Mergui Archipelago |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergui_Archipelago |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
<ref name="WikiBritishBurma">{{cite web |title=British rule in Burma |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
<ref name="WikiRiver">{{cite web |title=Great Tenasserim River |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Tenasserim_River |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-01}}</ref>
</references>
{{Navbox
| name = ဝင်ရးတၞင်သဳ
| title = ရးတၞင်သဳ ကေုာံ ဝင် (Tanintharyi Region and History)
| listclass = hlist
| group1 = ဒေသ ကေုာံ ဍုင် အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ဍုင်ထဝါဲ]] (Dawei)
* [[ဍုင်မြိတ်]] (Myeik)
* [[ဍုင်ကအ်သံင်]] (Kawthaung)
* [[တကအ်မြိတ်]] (Mergui Archipelago)
* [[ဒဵုတၞင်သဳ]] (Tenasserim Hills)
| group2 = ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ်
| list2 =
* [[ခေတ်အယုဒ္ဓယ]] (Ayutthaya Kingdom)
* [[ပၞာန်သေံဗၟာ ၁၇၉၂-၁၇၉၄]] (1792-94 War)
* [[လိက်ကသုက် ရန္တပို]] (Treaty of Yandabo)
* [[ဂၠံင်ကွဳစက်ပၟတ် ချိုတ်]] (Death Railway)
| group3 = ပရူပရာ ဆက်စပ်
| list3 =
* [[ဂကူထဝါဲ]] (Dawei people)
* [[ဂကူမဝ်ကေန်]] (Moken)
* [[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]] (Mon State)
* [[ဍုင်သေံ]] (Thailand)
}}
[[Category:ဝင် ဍုင်ဗၟာ]]
[[Category:ရးတၞင်သဳ]]
[[Category:အာရှအဂၞဴ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ပၞာန် သေံ ကေုာံ ဗၟာ]]
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နေပ်ကျောန်
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'''နေပ်ကျောန်''' (အင်္ဂလိက်: [[w:Neptune|Neptune]]) ဂှ် ဒှ် [[ဂြိုဟ်]] မရနုက်ကဵု ဒစာံ နူကဵု တ္ၚဲတုဲ ဒှ်ဂြိုဟ် မနွံသ္ၚောဲအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[သၞောတ်တ္ၚဲ]] (Solar System) ပိုယ်ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဂှ် နကဵု ဇမၞော်ဗွိုက်အလုံမ္ဂး ဒှ်ဂြိုဟ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ပန် တုဲ၊ နကဵု လျိုင်မ္ဂး ဒှ်ဂြိုဟ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ပိ ရ။ နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဂြိုဟ် "Ice giant" (ထၟာဲဍာ်ကလောအ် ဇၞော်) မွဲတုဲ၊ လျိုင်ဍေဟ်ဂှ် ဇၞော်နူ တိပိုယ် ၁၇ ဆ ရ။ လိက်ပရေင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်လိက်ပရေင် ကဆံင် A မဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် ပရူဂြိုဟ်နေပ်ကျောန် ဗွဲမချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ရ။
{| class="infobox" style="width:26em; text-align:left; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float:right;"
|+ style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold;" | နေပ်ကျောန် (Neptune)
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Neptune_Full.jpg|250px|ဗီုရုပ် နေပ်ကျောန် မတက်လဝ် နကဵု က္ၜင် Voyager 2]]<br/>''ဗီုရုပ် နေပ်ကျောန် မတက်ကေတ်လဝ် နကဵု က္ၜင်အာကာသ Voyager 2 ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၈၉''
|-
! ယၟု
| နေပ်ကျောန် (Neptune)
|-
! သင်္ကေတ
| ♆
|-
! ဂကူ
| ဂြိုဟ် (Ice giant)
|-
! ဗွိုက်အလုံ (Diameter)
| 49,244 km
|-
! လျိုင် (Mass)
| 1.024 × 10²⁶ kg (17.15 ဆ ညိတိ)
|-
! အခိင် ဂေတ်တ္ၚဲ (Orbital period)
| 164.8 သၞာံ (တိ)
|-
! လမၠိုင်ဂြိုဟ်ရံင်
| ၁၆ မ (Triton ဇၞော်အိုတ်)
|-
! ရာသဳဥတု (Atmosphere)
| ဟုက်ဒရဝ်ဂျေန်၊ ဟဳလဳယောမ်၊ မဳတိန်
|}
== ၁။ နိဒါန် (Introduction) ==
နေပ်ကျောန် ဂှ် ဒှ်ဂြိုဟ် မနွံလက္ကရဴအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ်တ္ၚဲ မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဓါတ်ကျာ ကေုာံ ဍာ်ကလောအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ ဂြိုဟ်ဏအ်ဂှ် နွံသ္ၚောဲနူ တ္ၚဲ ဗၞတ် ၄.၅ ဗဳလဳယာန် ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ တုဲ ဟွံမာန်ညာတ်ကေတ် နကဵု မတ်လမ္တာင်ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု အရံင် သ္ၚေက်-သွာ် (Blue) မဆာဲဒၟံင် သ္ပဟိုတ်နူ ဓါတ်မဳတိန် (Methane) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲလ္တူကျာဍေဟ်ရ။ ဂြိုဟ်နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဂြိုဟ် မဂၠာဲဆဵုလဝ် နကဵု ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ သင်္ချာ ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်၊ ဟွံသေင် နကဵု ပရေင်ညာတ်ကေတ် နကဵု မှန်သ္ၚောဲ (Telescope) အလန်ကိုပ်ကၠာရ။ ဍေဟ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု သၞောတ်ဗကေတ် (Rings) မဍိုန်လျ ကေုာံ ဂြိုဟ်ရံင် ၁၆ မ ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Neptune Fact Sheet |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/neptunefact.html |publisher=NASA |access-date=2026-06-22}}</ref>။
== ၂။ ဝင် ပရေင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု (History of Discovery) ==
ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်ဂှ် အစာနက္ခတ် ဂါလဳလဳယဝ် ([[Galileo Galilei]]) ညာတ်လဝ် နေပ်ကျောန် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၆၁၂ ဍေဟ်တေအ်ရ၊ ဆဂး ညးထေင်ကေတ် ဍေဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞံင် မွဲမ ရ။ ပရေင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု ဇေတ်တ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ ရ။ အစာသင်္ချာ ပြင်သေတ် [[w:Urbain Le Verrier|Urbain Le Verrier]] ကေုာံ အစာသင်္ချာ အင်္ဂလိက် [[w:John Couch Adams|John Couch Adams]] တအ်ဂှ် လ္ၚတ်ရံင် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဂၠံင်တရဴ ယူရေးနပ်သ် (Uranus) တုဲ ညးတအ် တွက်ကေတ် နကဵုသင်္ချာ ဒဒှ်ရ သ္ဒးနွံ ဂြိုဟ်ဇၞော်မွဲပၠန် လက္ကရဴ ယူရေးနပ်သ် မအုပ်ဓရိုဟ်ဒၟံင် နကဵု ဓါတ်ဓရောတ် (Gravity) ရ။ နကဵု တင်တွက် Le Verrier ဂှ် အစာနက္ခတ် ဂျာမနဳ Johann Gottfried Galle စကာ မှန်သ္ၚောဲတုဲ ဂၠာဲဆဵုကေတ် ဂြိုဟ်နေပ်ကျောန် ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၂၃ သေပ်တေမ်ဗါ သၞာံ ၁၈၄၆ ရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Galle |first=J. G. |year=1846 |title=Account of the discovery of the planet of Le Verrier at Berlin |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=7 |pages=153}}</ref>။
== ၃။ ယၟု ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ (Name and Symbol) ==
ကြဴနူ မဂၠာဲဆဵုလဝ်တုဲ၊ ယၟု သွက်ဂြိုဟ်တၟိဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ပရေင်သဳကၠဳ ပ္ဍဲအကြာ ဂကောံအစာသိပ္ပံတအ်ရ။ Le Verrier မိက်ဂွံ ကဵုယၟု ညး လ္တူဂြိုဟ်ဏအ်ကီုလေဝ် ဟွံအံင်ဇၞးရ။ ဗွဲကြဴ ညးတအ် ရုဲစှ်ကေတ် ယၟုကျာ်ဟိန္ဒူ/ရောမ မဆေင်ကဵု ၜဳမှာသមុဒ္ဒရာ မနွံယၟု "နေပ်ကျောန်" (Neptune) ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဍေဟ်ဂှ် အရံင်ဂြိုဟ်ဏအ် သ္ၚေက်သွာ်ဒၟံင် ညံင်ရဴ အရံင်ဍာ်ၜဳရ။ သင်္ကေတ နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ သွက် နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် ဒှ် ♆ မဒှ် ဗီုပြင် လွဟ်ဗၞုဟ်ပိက္ဍိုပ် (Trident) မဒှ် လွဟ်ကျာ်နေပ်ကျောန် ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Moore |first=P. |year=2000 |title=The Data Book of Astronomy |url=https://archive.org/details/databookofastron0000moor |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-7503-0620-1}}</ref>။
== ၄။ ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဂေတ် ကေုာံ ပွမဂေတ် (Orbit and Rotation) ==
နေပ်ကျောန် ဂေတ်ပွဳတ္ၚဲ မွဲဗ္ဂေတ်အိုတ်မ္ဂး ကေတ်အခိင် ၁၆၄.၈ သၞာံ (သၞာံတိပိုယ်) ရ။ နူကဵု မစဂၠာဲဆဵု ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၈၄၆ တေအ်တုဲ၊ နေပ်ကျောန် ကလေင်စိုပ် ဒၞာဲတြေံမွဲဝါပၠန် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၁၁ တေအ်ရ။ ဂြိုဟ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဂေတ်ပွဳ ဇကုဍေဟ် (Rotation) ပြဟ်ကွေဟ်ကွေဟ်တုဲ မွဲတ္ၚဲ နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် နွံဆ ၁၆ နာဍဳ ၆ မိနေတ် ဓဝ်ရ။ နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် ခ္ဍာတ်ဒၟံင် (Axial tilt) ၂၈.၃၂ ဒဳဂရဳ တုဲ ဍေဟ် တုပ်ညံင်ရဴ တိ ကဵု အၚာ ကီုတုဲ နွံကဵု ရာသဳဥတု ပြံင်လှာဲ (Seasons) ကီုရ။ ဆဂး ဟိုတ်နူ သၞာံဍေဟ်ဂၠိင်တုဲ မွဲမွဲဥတုမ္ဂး ကေတ်အခိင် ၄၀ သၞာံပြင်ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Neptune: In Depth |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/neptune/in-depth/ |publisher=NASA Solar System Exploration |access-date=2026-06-22}}</ref>။
== ၅။ လဒက်ပတန် အပ္ဍဲ (Internal Structure) ==
နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် လဒက်ပတန်ဍေဟ် တုပ်ကဵု ယူရေးနပ်သ် ရ။ လျိုင်ဍေဟ် ၈၀% ပြင်ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဍာ်၊ အမဝ်နဳယျာ (Ammonia) ကေုာံ မဳတိန် (Methane) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲဗီုပြင် ဍာ်ကလောအ် ကေုာံ ဍာ်ဂမ္တဴရ။ ဍေဟ်တအ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဂြောပ်ဗ္ဒန်လဝ် ဗဟဵု (Core) မနွံကဵု တၟအ် ကေုာံ ပသဲရ။ ဗဟဵု နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် လျိုင်ဍေဟ် ဇၞော်နူတိပိုယ် ၁.၂ ဆ ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ဓရိုဟ် (Pressure) အပ္ဍဲဇၞော်လောန်တုဲ အစာသိပ္ပံတအ် ထေင်ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဓါတ်ကာဗောန်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အာ ဗိုတ် (Diamond) တုဲ စှ်ေဒၟံင် ဗြဲဗိုတ် (Diamond rain) ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒက်ပတန် အပ္ဍဲဂြိုဟ်ဏအ်ရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kraus |first=D. |display-authors=etal |year=2017 |title=Formation of diamonds in laser-compressed hydrocarbons at planetary interior conditions |journal=Nature Astronomy |volume=1 |issue=9 |pages=606–611 |doi=10.1038/s41550-017-0219-9}}</ref>။
== ၆။ ရာသဳဥတု ကေုာံ ကျာ (Atmosphere and Climate) ==
လ္တူကျာ နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဟုက်ဒရဝ်ဂျေန် (Hydrogen) ၈၀%၊ ဟဳလဳယောမ် (Helium) ၁၉% ကေုာံ မဳတိန် ညိညရ။ ဓါတ်မဳတိန်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဇြိုတ်ကေတ် အရံင်ဗကေတ် နူတ္ၚဲတုဲ ကလေင်ပတိတ် အရံင်သ္ၚေက်-သွာ် (Blue) ရ။ နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဂြိုဟ် ကျာထတ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ်တ္ၚဲရ။ ကျာမဗိုက် ပ္ဍဲနေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် လဟိန်ဍေဟ် စိုပ်အာ စဵုကဵု ၂,၁၀၀ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ ပ္ဍဲမွဲနာဍဳ (Supersonic winds) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၈၉ က္ၜင် Voyager 2 ညာတ်ဆဵုလဝ် ကတိုင်လမ္စံက်ဇၞော် (Great Dark Spot) မဒှ် မုန်တိုင်းဇၞော် မတုပ်ကဵု ကတိုင်ဗကေတ်ဇၞော် ဂျူပဳတာ ကီုရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Suomi |first=V. E. |display-authors=etal |year=1991 |title=High Winds of Neptune: A possible mechanism |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1991-02-22_251_4996/page/n88 |journal=Science |volume=251 |issue=4996 |pages=929–932 |doi=10.1126/science.251.4996.929}}</ref>။
== ၇။ သၞောတ် ဗကေတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Planetary Rings) ==
နေပ်ကျောန် လေဝ် နွံကဵု ဗကေတ် (Rings) ကီုရ၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ်တအ်ဂှ် လမ္စံက်တုဲ ဟွံပြာကတ် ဗီုကဵု ဗကေတ် သ္ၚိသဝ် (Saturn) ရ။ ဗကေတ် နေပ်ကျောန်တအ်ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဓါတ်ခယျာ (Dust) ကေုာံ ဍာ်ကလောအ် မနွံကဵု ကာဗောန် (Carbon-based compounds) ရ။ ဗကေတ် အဓိက ၅ သာ် နွံတုဲ ခုတ်လဝ်ယၟု ညးမဂၠာဲဆဵုလဝ် ဂြိုဟ်ဏအ် - Galle, Le Verrier, Lassell, Arago, ကေုာံ Adams တအ်ရ။ ဗကေတ် Adams ဂှ် နွံကဵု တင်တၟေင်မွဲ ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဒက်ကလောအ်ဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် တ္ၚ (Arcs) မကော်စ Courage, Liberté, Egalité, ကေုာံ Fraternité ရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Porco |first=C. C. |display-authors=etal |year=1989 |title=Neptune's Rings, Arcs and Inner Satellites |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1989-12-15_246_4936/page/1422 |journal=Science |volume=246 |issue=4936 |pages=1422–1431 |doi=10.1126/science.246.4936.1422}}</ref>။
== ၈။ ဂြိုဟ်ရံင်ဂမၠိုင် (Moons / Satellites) ==
နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် စဵုကဵုလၟုဟ် ဂၠာဲဆဵုလဝ် ဂြိုဟ်ရံင် ၁၆ မ ရ။ ဂြိုဟ်ရံင် ဇၞော်အိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် [[w:Triton (moon)|ထရိုက်တောန် (Triton)]] မဂၠာဲဆဵုလဝ် နကဵု William Lassell ကြဴနူ ဂၠာဲဆဵု နေပ်ကျောန် တုဲ ၁၇ တ္ၚဲရ။ ထရိုက်တောန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂြိုဟ်ရံင် တၟေင်မွဲ မုဟိုတ်ရောဟီုမ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ဂေတ်ဒၟံင် ပြံက်က္ဍိုပ် (Retrograde orbit) မစၞောန်ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ် ကၠုင်နူ ခါင်ပါဗေလ် (Kuiper belt) တုဲ ဒးဒုင် ထံက်ရပ်လဝ် နကဵု ဓါတ်ဓရောတ် နေပ်ကျောန်ရ။ ထရိုက်တောန် ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဍာ်ပလိုင်ဂမ္တဴ နိုက်ထရဝ်ဂျေန် (Nitrogen geysers) မပတိတ်ဒၟံင် ကျာ ကေုာံ ခယျာ လ္တူတိဍာ်ဍေဟ်ရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=B. A. |display-authors=etal |year=1989 |title=Voyager 2 at Neptune: Imaging Science Results |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1989-12-15_246_4936/page/1422 |journal=Science |volume=246 |issue=4936 |pages=1422–1449 |doi=10.1126/science.246.4936.1422}}</ref>။ ဂြိုဟ်ရံင် တၞဟ်တအ် ဗီုကဵု Proteus ကေုာံ Nereid တအ်ဂှ် ဍောတ်လောန်ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သုတေသန (Exploration / Space Missions) ==
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N_H1AOhB26g ပရူ ဂြိုဟ်နေပ်ကျောန် နူကဵု ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် နာသာ ပ္ဍဲ YouTube]
စဵုကဵု အခိင်လၟုဟ် က္ၜင်အာကာသ မွဲမဓဝ်ဟေင် မစိုပ်လဝ် ဇရေင် နေပ်ကျောန်ဂှ် ဒှ် က္ၜင် [[w:Voyager 2|ဗွိုင်ယေဂျာ ၂ (Voyager 2)]] မလွှတ်လဝ် နကဵု နာသာ (NASA) ရ။ က္ၜင်ဏအ် ဖြာတ်အာ နေပ်ကျောန် ပ္ဍဲစၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၂၅ အဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၉၈၉ တုဲ ပတိတ်ကဵုလဝ် တင်ဂရင်ဗတီ သီုကဵု ဗီုရုပ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဂၠာဲဆဵုလဝ် ကတိုင်လမ္စံက်ဇၞော် (Great Dark Spot)၊ ဂြိုဟ်ရံင် တၟိ ၆ မ၊ ကေုာံ တက်ကေတ် ဗီုရုပ် ဗကေတ်နေပ်ကျောန် ဗွဲမကၠးဖ္ဍးရ။ က္ၜင်ဏအ် သီုလ္ၚတ်လဝ် ရာသဳဥတု ထရိုက်တောန် ကီုရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Voyager 2: Neptune |url=https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/science/neptune/ |publisher=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory |access-date=2026-06-22}}</ref>။
== ၁၀။ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် နူတိ ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Earth-based Observation and Future) ==
ကြဴနူ Voyager 2 တုဲ လ္ၚတ် နေပ်ကျောန် နကဵု မှန်သ္ၚောဲ လ္တူတိ ကေုာံ မှန်သ္ၚောဲအာကာသ ဟာပ်ဗေလ် (Hubble Space Telescope) တအ်ဟေင်ရ။ ဟာပ်ဗေလ် ညာတ်ဆဵုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ကတိုင်လမ္စံက်ဇၞော်ဂှ် ကၠေအ်အာတုဲ ကတဵုဒှ် မုန်တိုင်း တၟိဂမၠိုင်ရ။ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး မှန်သ္ၚောဲ ဂျိမ်းဝေပ် (James Webb Space Telescope) လေဝ် တက်လဝ် ဗီုရုပ် နေပ်ကျောန် မထ္ၜးကဵု ဗကေတ်ဍေဟ် ဗွဲမကၠးဖ္ဍး နကဵု လျးအေန်ဖရာရက် (Infrared) ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=New Webb Image Captures Clearest View of Neptune's Rings in Decades |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/new-webb-image-captures-clearest-view-of-neptune-s-rings-in-decades |publisher=NASA |date=September 21, 2022 |access-date=2026-06-22}}</ref>။ သွက် အနာဂတ်ဂှ် ဂကောံ နာသာ ကေုာံ အေဂျေန်သဳ အာကာသ ဥရဝ်ပ တအ် ပတိုန်လဝ် ကသပ် သွက်ဂွံ လွှတ် က္ၜင်အာကာသ မလုပ်ဂေတ် ပွဳပွူ နေပ်ကျောန် (Orbiter) သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ဂြိုဟ်ဏအ် ကေုာံ ထရိုက်တောန် ဗွဲမချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞာံ ၂၀၃၀ တအ်ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် (References) ==
<references />
{{Navbox
|name = သၞောတ်တ္ၚဲ
|title = [[သၞောတ်တ္ၚဲ]] (Solar System)
|listclass = hlist
|list1 =
* [[တ္ၚဲ]]
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဟူ (ဂြိုဟ်)|ဗုဒ္ဓဟူ]]
* [[သိုက် (ဂြိုဟ်)|သိုက်]]
* [[တိ]]
* [[အၚာ (ဂြိုဟ်)|အၚာ]]
* [[ဗြဴဗတိ (ဂြိုဟ်)|ဗြဴဗတိ]]
* [[သ္ၚိသဝ် (ဂြိုဟ်)|သ္ၚိသဝ်]]
* [[ယူရေးနပ်သ် (ဂြိုဟ်)|ယူရေးနပ်သ်]]
* [[နေပ်ကျောန် (ဂြိုဟ်)|နေပ်ကျောန်]]
|list2 =
* '''ဂြိုဟ်ဍောတ်ဂမၠိုင်:''' [[သဳရဳသ်]]
* [[ပလူတဝ်]]
* [[ဟောဝ်မဳယာ]]
* [[မာကဳမာကဳ]]
* [[အဲရဳသ်]]
}}
[[Category:ဂြိုဟ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:သၞောတ်တ္ၚဲ]]
[[Category:နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ]]
[[Category:နေပ်ကျောန်]]
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'''ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ''' (အင်္ဂလိက်: [[w:Academic publishing|Academic publishing]]) ဟီုဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မကၠောန်ပ္တိတ် လလောင်တြးကဵု လိက်သုတေသန၊ ဂျာနေဝ် ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ပြကိုဟ်၊ ကေုာံ လိက်အုပ် သိပ္ပံ ဂမၠိုင် ညံင်ဂွံ စိုပ်အာ ဇရေင် ဂကောံတၠပညာ ကေုာံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်တအ်ရ။ လၟေင်ကမၠောန်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဇုတ်စၞိန် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် [[သိပ္ပံ သုတေသန]] ရ။ မုဟိုတ်ရောဟီုမ္ဂး သုတေသနမွဲ ကၠောန်တုဲကီုလေဝ်၊ ယဝ်ရ ဟွံပ္တိတ် လလောင်တြး လ္တူစင် ဂျာနေဝ်မ္ဂး သုတေသနဂှ် ဟွံဍိုက်ပေင်ဏီရ။ လိက်ပရေင်ဏအ်ဂှ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်လဝ် ပရူ ဝင်၊ လၟေင်ကမၠောန်၊ သၞောတ် Open Access ကေုာံ ပြသၞာဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ်လၟုဟ် ဗွဲမချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ရ။
{| class="infobox" style="width:28em; text-align:left; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float:right;"
|+ style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold;" | ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ (Academic Publishing)
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Peer review diagram.png|250px|လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပ္တိတ်လိက်]]<br/>''လၟေင်ကမၠောန် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ မဒးတတ်ကၠောအ် သၞောတ် Peer Review''
|-
! တမ်မူလ
| သၞာံ ၁၆၆၅ (ဥရဝ်ပ)
|-
! အဓိက တင်ရန်တၟအ်
| ပွမစၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ လလောင်တြး တင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု သုတေသန
|-
! ဂကူ လိက် အဓိက
| [[ဂျာနေဝ် သိပ္ပံ]]၊ လိက်အုပ် ပညာ၊ လိက်ကောန်ဖရက်
|-
! ကုမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်အိုတ်ဂမၠိုင်
| Elsevier, Springer Nature, Wiley, Taylor & Francis
|-
! လၟေင်ကမၠောန် အဓိက
| [[ပရေင်စၟဳစၟတ် မတုပ်သၟဟ် (Peer review)]]
|-
! စံညိင် ၜတ်ကၞာတ်
| Impact Factor, h-index, [[Altmetrics]]
|}
== ၁။ နိဒါန် (Introduction) ==
ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ ဂှ် ဒှ် တြင် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ပါ်ပရအ် ဗဟုသုတ တၟိတၟိ လ္တူဂၠးတိဏအ်ရ။ အစာသုတေသန၊ ကွးဘာ ပါရဂူ (Ph.D. students)၊ ကေုာံ တၠပညာတအ်ဂှ် ကၠောန်သုတေသနတုဲမ္ဂး၊ တင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု ဍေဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ညံင်ဂွံ တပ်တး ကေုာံ နွံကဵု ဍာ်ဒကေဝ်မာန် သ္ဒးပ္တိတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂျာနေဝ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လိက်အုပ် ပရေင်ပညာ ရ။ ပရေင်ဏအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မတឹងဂြတ်တုဲ ဒးကေတ် အခိင် ဗွဲမလအ်ရ။ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော်မွဲ မနွံကဵု င္ၚုဟ်မး ဘဳလဳယာန် ဒဝ်လာ ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=J. B. |year=2005 |title=Books in the Digital Age: The Transformation of Academic and Higher Education Publishing in Britain and the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/booksindigitalag0000thom |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-0745634784}}</ref>။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Evolution) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ ဂှ် စတမ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၇ ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ဂျာနေဝ် သိပ္ပံ ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ဗီုကဵု ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'' ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲဍုင်လာန်ဒါန် ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာတေအ် လိက်တအ်ဂှ် ပ္တိတ် နကဵု ဂကောံတၠပညာ (Learned societies) တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ပါ်ပရအ် လညာတ် ဇကုကဵုဇကု သၟးရ။ ဆဂး ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ ဒုတိယ တုဲ သြန်ထံက်ပင် သုတေသန ဂၠိုင်ကၠုင်တုဲ၊ ကုမ္ပဏဳ ပုဂ္ဂလိက ဇၞော်ဇၞော်တအ် လုပ်ကၠောန်ကၠုင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်ဏအ်တုဲ၊ ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ ဂှ် ဒှ်အာ ကမၠောန် ပရဝ်ဖက်ရှေန်နယ် ဇၞော်မွဲရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fyfe |first=A. |display-authors=etal |year=2017 |title=Untangling Academic Publishing: A history of the relationship between commercial interests, academic prestige and the circulation of research |journal=Zenodo |doi=10.5281/zenodo.546100}}</ref>။
== ၃။ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ပ္တိတ်လိက် (The Publishing Process) ==
လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပ္တိတ် လိက်သုတေသနမွဲဂှ် ဒးတတ်ကၠောအ် ကဆံင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ-
၁။ '''ချူလိက် (Writing):''' ညးချူလိက် ပြင်ဆင် လိက်မူကြမ်း (Manuscript)။
၂။ '''ပတိုန်လိက် (Submission):''' ပတိုန် ဇရေင် ဂျာနေဝ် မကိတ်ညဳ။
၃။ '''အယ်ဒဳတာ စၟဳစၟတ် (Editorial Screening):''' အယ်ဒဳတာ ရံင် ဒဒှ်ရ လိက်ဂှ် ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ဂျာနေဝ် ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ။
၄။ '''Peer Review:''' ပလံင်ဏာ ဇရေင် ညးစၟဳစၟတ် (Reviewers) ၂-၃ တၠ။
၅။ '''ကလေင်ပလေဝ် (Revision):''' ညးချူလိက် ပလေဝ်ပလေတ် အတိုင် တင်ပါ်ပါဲ။
၆။ '''ဒုင်တဲ ကေုာံ ပ္တိတ် (Acceptance & Publication):''' လိက်ဂှ် စိုပ်အာ ကဆံင် ဖျေဟ်ဒၞာဲ (Typesetting)၊ စၟတ်သမ္တီ [[DOI]] တုဲ ပ္တိတ်လလောင်တြးရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Albert |first=T. |year=2007 |title=Winning the Publications Game: The Smart Way to Write Your Paper and Get It Published |publisher=Radcliffe Publishing |isbn=978-1846192210}}</ref>။
== ၄။ ပရေင်စၟဳစၟတ် မတုပ်သၟဟ် (The Peer Review System) ==
ပရေင်စၟဳစၟတ် မတုပ်သၟဟ် ([[ပရေင်စၟဳစၟတ် မတုပ်သၟဟ် (Peer review)|Peer review]]) ဂှ် ဒှ် ကောန်သော် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ ရ။ သၞောတ်ဏအ် ရီုဗင်ကဵု ညံင်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ဒေတာ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် သုတေသနဂှ် တပ်တး ဍာံပြ ရ။
* '''Single-blind:''' ညးစၟဳစၟတ် တီ ယၟု ညးချူ (ဆဂး ညးချူ ဟွံတီ)။
* '''Double-blind:''' သီုၜါလပါ် ဟွံတီ ယၟု ရေင်သကအ် (စဵုဒၞာ ပရေင်အဂတိ)။
* '''Open review:''' ယၟု သီုၜါလပါ် ပံက်လဒိုဟ်လဝ်ရ။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် အခေါင်ဗၠးဝး (Open Access Publishing) ==
အခိုက်တြေံမ္ဂး ညးဗှ်လိက်တအ် သ္ဒးကဵု သြန် သွက်ဂွံ ဗှ် လိက်ဂျာနေဝ် (Paywall) ရ။ ဆဂး လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ပရေင် '''Open Access (OA)''' ဂှ် ပြာကတ်ကၠုင်ရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ ပတောအ်ၜတ် ဂကူ Open Access (OA) ဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ OA
! ပွံက် အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! ညးလဵု ဒးကဵုသြန်ရော?
|-
| '''Gold OA''' || လိက်ဂှ် ပ္တိတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂျာနေဝ် တုဲ ပံက်လဒိုဟ်လဝ် ဗွဲမဗၠးၜး လၟိုန်။ || ညးချူလိက် (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဘာ) ဒးကဵု သြန် APC (Article Processing Charge)။
|-
| '''Green OA''' || ညးချူလိက် ကေတ် မူကြမ်း (Post-print) တုဲ ပတိုန်စွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝေပ်သာက် တက္ကသိုလ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Repository ဗၠးၜး။ || ဟွံဒးကဵုသြန် (ဆဂး ဒးမင် အခိင် Embargo ကၠာ)။
|-
| '''Diamond/Platinum OA''' || လိက်ဂှ် ပံက်လဒိုဟ်လဝ် ဗွဲမဗၠးၜးတုဲ၊ သီု ဟွံဒးကဵုသြန် APC ။ || ဂကောံတၠပညာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တက္ကသိုလ် ထံက်ပင်လဝ် သြန်။
|}
<ref>{{cite book |last=Suber |first=P. |year=2012 |title=Open Access |url=https://archive.org/details/9780262517638OpenAccess |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0262517638}}</ref>
== ၆။ မဝ်ဒယ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ကုမ္ပဏဳ ပ္တိတ်လိက် (Business Models and Publishers) ==
ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ ဂှ် နွံကဵု မဝ်ဒယ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မတၟေင်လောန်ရ။ အလဵုအသဳ ထံက်ပင်သြန် သွက် သုတေသန၊ အစာသုတေသနတအ် ချူလိက် ကေုာံ စၟဳစၟတ်ကဵု သက္ကုသြန်တာလျိုင်၊ ဆဂး ကုမ္ပဏဳ ပ္တိတ်လိက်တအ် ကေတ် အခေါင်ပိုင်ပြဳတုဲ ကလေင်သွံ ကု တက္ကသိုလ်တအ် နကဵု င္ၚုဟ်မး မသၠုင်လောန်ရ။ "Big 5" (Elsevier, Springer Nature, Wiley, Taylor & Francis, ကေုာံ Sage) တအ်ဂှ် ထိင်ဒဝ်လဝ် အလုံမွဲ ဗွိုက်ဖျာတုဲ နွံကဵု ပရဲ (Profit margins) သၠုင်နူကဵု ကုမ္ပဏဳ Google ကဵု Apple ဏီရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Larivière |first=V. |display-authors=etal |year=2015 |title=The Oligopoly of Academic Publishers in the Digital Era |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=e0127502 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0127502}}</ref>။
== ၇။ ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ ဂျာနေဝ် ပလီုပလာ် (Challenges and Predatory Publishing) ==
ပြသၞာ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲကဵု လောကဏအ်ဂှ် -
* '''[[w:Publish or perish|Publish or perish]]:''' ဒးပ္တိတ်လိက် ဂၠိုင်ဂၠိုင် ဟေင် ဂွံတိုန် ကဆံင် ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ်၊ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် လိက် စှ်ေကၠုင်ရ။
* '''[[w:Predatory publishing|Predatory Journals]]:''' ဂျာနေဝ် ပလီုပလာ် တအ်ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဟွံကၠောန် Peer review ဇေတ်ဇေတ်၊ ညးတအ် မိက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သြန် APC နူကဵု ညးချူလိက် ဟေင်ရ။
* '''Reproducibility Crisis:''' လိက်သုတေသန ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ကလေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဗက် မ္ဂး သွဟ် ဟွံတုပ် ကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံင်ရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Beall |first=J. |year=2012 |title=Predatory publishers are corrupting open access |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2012-09-13_489_7415/page/179 |journal=Nature |volume=489 |issue=7415 |pages=179 |doi=10.1038/489179a}}</ref>။
== ၈။ အခေါင်ပိုင်ပြဳ ကေုာံ လာင်ဇြေန် (Copyright and Licensing) ==
ပ္ဍဲအခိုက်တြေံမ္ဂး ညးချူလိက်တအ် သ္ဒးထပက်စၟတ်တဲ ပအပ်ပြာပ် အခေါင်ပိုင်ပြဳ (Copyright transfer agreement) ဇရေင် ကုမ္ပဏဳ ပ္တိတ်လိက် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးချူလိက် အလဵုဇကုလေဝ် ကလေင်စကာ လိက်ဇကု ပ္ဍဲ ဝေပ်သာက်တၞဟ် ဟွံဂွံ ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲခေတ် Open Access လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် စကာ လာင်ဇြေန် '''Creative Commons (CC)''' ဗီုကဵု CC-BY ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ကဵုအခေါင် ကုညးချူလိက် မင်မွဲလဝ် အခေါင်ပိုင်ပြဳတုဲ ညးလဵုမွဲဟွံဟီု ကလေင်စကာ ကေုာံ ပါ်ပရအ် လိက်ဂှ် မာန်ရ (ယဝ်ရ ကဵု တင်နိဿဲ မဍာံပြမ္ဂး)<ref>{{cite web |title=About The Licenses |url=https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ |publisher=Creative Commons |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၉။ စံညိင် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ကေုာံ ဒေတာ (Metrics and Bibliometrics) ==
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L5rVH1KGBCY ပရူ Impact Factor ကေုာံ စံညိင် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ပ္ဍဲ YouTube]
သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ကေုာံ အကျိုးသက်ရောက်မှု လိက်ပရေင်တအ်ဂှ် စကာ နဲကဲ Bibliometrics ရ-
* '''Impact Factor (IF):''' ၜတ်ကၞာတ် လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ်နိဿဲလဝ် ဂျာနေဝ် မွဲမွဲ။
* '''h-index:''' ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် အစာသုတေသန မွဲတၠ (ဥပမာ h-index 10 မ္ဂး၊ လိက်ညး ၁၀ ပိုဒ်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် နိဿဲလဝ် အောန်အိုတ် ၁၀ ဝါ)။
* '''Altmetrics:''' စံညိင် တၟိ မၜတ်ကၞာတ် လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ်ပါ်ပရအ် ပ္ဍဲ Social media, ပရိုင် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်ဒံင်လုက်လဝ် လိက်ဂှ်ရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Priem |first=J. |display-authors=etal |year=2010 |title=Altmetrics: A manifesto |url=http://altmetrics.org/manifesto/ |access-date=2026-06-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421202555/http://altmetrics.org/manifesto/ |date=2016-04-21 }}</ref>။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ (Future and Transformations) ==
အနာဂတ် ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ ဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲဒၟံင် ဗွဲမမောတ်ရ။ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ပရေင်စကာ '''[[လိက်ကိုပ်ကၠာပ္တိတ် (Preprint)]]''' ဗီုကဵု arXiv ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး bioRxiv ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် အခိုက်အလိုက် ဓမ္မတာ မွဲရ။ တုဲပၠန် ကွတ်ပညာ တၠပညာနိမိတ် (AI) လေဝ် ရီုဗင်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲအရာ ပွမချူလိက်၊ စၟဳစၟတ် လိက် ကေုာံ ဂၠာဲ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒေတာပတောအ် တအ်ရ။ သၞောတ်ဝ် '''Open Science''' မအာတ်မိက် ညံင်ဂွံ ပါ်ပရအ် ဒေတာ (Open data) ကေုာံ ကိုဒ် (Open code) သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ကၠုင် ဂၠံင်တရဴ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်ပညာ မဟွံမဲ ကုအဂတိ ကေုာံ ယှုက်ယှောအ်ဟွံမဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လောက သိပ္ပံ ရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tennant |first=J. P. |display-authors=etal |year=2016 |title=The academic, economic and societal impacts of Open Access: an evidence-based review |journal=F1000Research |volume=5 |pages=632 |doi=10.12688/f1000research.8460.3}}</ref>။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် (References) ==
<references />
{{Navbox
|name = သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ သုတေသန
|title = [[သိပ္ပံ သုတေသန]] ကေုာံ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပ္တိတ်လိက်ပညာ
|listclass = hlist
|list1 =
* '''လၟေင်ကမၠောန် သုတေသန:''' [[သၞောတ်ဝ် သိပ္ပံ]]
* [[ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ်]]
* [[ဒေတာ]]
* [[စရင်အင်]]
|list2 =
* '''ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ:''' [[ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ]]
* [[ဂျာနေဝ် သိပ္ပံ]]
* [[ပရေင်စၟဳစၟတ် မတုပ်သၟဟ် (Peer review)]]
* [[လိက်ကိုပ်ကၠာပ္တိတ် (Preprint)]]
* [[Open Access]]
|list3 =
* '''ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် ကေုာံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ:''' [[ပရေင်ကၠတ်ချူ (Plagiarism)]]
* [[Conflict of interest]]
* [[Bibcode]]
* [[DOI]]
}}
[[Category:ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် လိက်ပညာ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ သုတေသန]]
[[Category:ပညာ]]
[[Category:ဂျာနေဝ် သိပ္ပံ]]
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အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ
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'''အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ''' (အင်္ဂလိက်: [[w:Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]]; ဘာသာအာဲရဳသ်: Tuaisceart Éireann; ဘာသာအာလ်သတာသကတ်: Norlin Airlann) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒေသ / ရး) မွဲ မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ]] (United Kingdom) ရ။ ဍုင်ဏအ်ဂှ် နွံလပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ-ဗမံက် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တကအ် အာဲယျာလာန် (Island of Ireland) တုဲ ပ္ဍဲလပါ်သၠုင်ကျာ ကေုာံ ပလိုတ်ဂှ် ပယျဵုဆက်ဒၟံင် ကု [[သမ္မတ ဍုင်အာဲယျာလာန်]] (Republic of Ireland) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၂၀၂၁ ဂှ် လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ နွံ ၁.၉ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် တုဲ ဍေဟ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ၜိုတ် ၃% ရက္ခိုင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် အလုံ ယူကေ သီုဖအိုတ်ရ။ ဍုင်ဇၞော်အိုတ် ကေုာံ မြုင်ဇၞော်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် [[ဗေလ်ဖာတ်]] (Belfast) ရ။ အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၁ ကြဴနူကဵု ပရေင်ပါ်ကရေက် ဍုင်အာဲယျာလာန် (Partition of Ireland) ရ။ ဍုင်ဏအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဝင် ပရေင်ကလိုက်ကမဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ဘာသာ မဇြိုဟ်နက်တုဲ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ညးတအ် အုပ်ဓုပ်ဒၟံင် နကဵု သၞောတ်ဝ် ပရေင်ပါ်ပရအ် အဝဵု (Power-sharing) အကြာ ဂကောံနာနာရ။
{| class="infobox" style="width:28em; text-align:left; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float:right;"
|+ style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold;" | အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ (Northern Ireland)
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom (+BO).svg|250px|ဒၞာဲအာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ]]<br/>''ဒၞာဲအာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ ကေုာံ ဥရဝ်ပ''
|-
! ဍုင်ဇၞော်
| [[ဗေလ်ဖာတ်]] (Belfast)
|-
! အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ရုင်
| ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက်၊ ဘာသာအာဲရဳသ် (Irish)၊ အာလ်သတာ သကတ် (Ulster Scots)
|-
! ဂကူ / စၟတ်သမ္တီ
| ဗြိတိန်၊ အာဲရဳသ်၊ အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ
|-
! သၟိင်တၠ (Monarch)
| [[w:Charles III|ချာလ် တတိယ]] (Charles III)
|-
! ဝန်ဇၞော်
| မဳရှဲ အဝ်နဳလ် (Michelle O'Neill)
|-
! ဒု-ဝန်ဇၞော်
| အေမ္မာ လိတ်တေလ်-ပေင်ဂေလဳ (Emma Little-Pengelly)
|-
! ပါလဳမာန်
| အသေမ်ဗလဳ အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ (Northern Ireland Assembly)
|-
! ဇမၞော်သမၠဲ
| ၁၄,၁၃၀ စတုရံ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (၅,၄၅၆ စတုရံတိုင်)
|-
! လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် (၂၀၂၁)
| ၁,၉၀၃,၁၀၀ <ref>{{cite web |title=Census 2021 main statistics for Northern Ireland |url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/statistics/census/2021-census |publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>
|-
! သြန်စကာ
| ပံင်သတာလင် (Pound sterling - GBP)
|}
== ၁။ နိဒါန် (Introduction) ==
အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒေသ မနွံကဵု ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Identity) ကေုာံ ဝင် မသၠုက်နှဴလောန်ရ။ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်လ္ၚဵု မဒှ် ကောန်ဂကူ ပရဝ်တေတ်သတာန် (Protestants) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဇကု နဒဒှ် "ဗြိတိန်" (British) တုဲ မိက်ဂွံ ဆက်ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ ရ (ညးတအ်ဂှ် Unionists ဂး)။ ညးလ္ၚဵု မဒှ် ကောန်ဂကူ ကာတ္တလေတ် (Catholics) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဇကု နဒဒှ် "အာဲရဳသ်" (Irish) တုဲ မိက်ဂွံ ပံင်ကောံ ကု သမ္မတ ဍုင်အာဲယျာလာန် ရ (ညးတအ်ဂှ် Nationalists ဂး)။ ဟိုတ်နူ လညာတ် တၞဟ်ခြာဏအ်တုဲ၊ ဍုင်ဏအ် သ္ဒးတတ်ကၠောအ်လဝ် ခေတ်ပရေင်ကလိုက်ကမဵု မဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ် မကော်စ "The Troubles" လုကဴ ပွိုင် ၃၀ သၞာံ ပြင်ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=McKittrick |first=D. |last2=McVea |first2=D. |year=2001 |title=Making Sense of the Troubles |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0141003054}}</ref>။
== ၂။ ဝင် (History) ==
ဝင် အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ် စတမ် ပြာကတ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၂၁ ကာလ အလဵုအသဳ ဗြိတိန် ခၞံဗဒှ် သၞောဝ် "Government of Ireland Act 1920" ရ။ သၞောဝ်ဏအ် ပါ်ကရေက်ထောအ် တကအ် အာဲယျာလာန် ၜါကရေက်ရ- အာဲယျာလာန်သၠုင်ကျာ (မကလိဂွံ ဍုင်ဗၠးၜး ဗွဲကြဴ) ကေုာံ အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ (မဆက်တန်တဴ သၟဝ် ယူကေ)။
* '''The Troubles (၁၉၆၀ တအ် - ၁၉၉၈):''' ပ္ဍဲကၞောတ် သၞာံ ၁၉၆၀ တအ်ဂှ် ပရေင်ကလိုက်ကမဵု ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် လွပ်လွဟ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် အကြာ ဂကောံ Unionists ကဵု Nationalists ရ။ ဒပ်ပၞာန် ယူကေ၊ ဂကောံသပုန် ဗီုကဵု IRA (Irish Republican Army) ကေုာံ ဂကောံသပုန် လပါ် Unionist တအ် ပွန်ပန် ရေင်သကအ်တုဲ မၞိဟ် ၃,၅၀၀ ပြင် ဒးချိုတ်အာရ။
* '''Good Friday Agreement (၁၉၉၈):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၈ ဂိတုဨပြဳ ဂှ် ညးတအ် ထပက်စၟတ်တဲ တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် သိုက် သောကြာ (Good Friday Agreement) တုဲ ပရေင်ပွန်ပန်တအ်ဂှ် အိုတ်အာတုဲ၊ ဒက်ပတန်ကၠုင် အလဵုအသဳ ပါ်ပရအ်အဝဵု ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Coogan |first=T. P. |year=2002 |title=The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal 1966-1996 and the Search for Peace |url=https://archive.org/details/troublesirelands0000coog |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0312294182}}</ref>။
== ၃။ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ဥတု (Geography and Climate) ==
အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဇမၞော်သမၠဲ ၁၄,၁၃၀ စတုရံ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာရ။ လဒေါဝ် ဍုင်ဂှ် နွံ ကၟာဍာ် မဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ မကော်စ '''ကၟာဍာ် နေတ် (Lough Neagh)''' မနွံ ဇမၞော် ၃၉၁ စတုရံ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာရ။
ဒၞာဲသဘာဝ မပြာကတ်အိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် '''Giant's Causeway''' (ဂၠံင် ကလော်ဇၞော်) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇိုင်ၜဳ သၟဝ်ကျာရ။ ဍေဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ် တၟအ်တိုင် (Basalt columns) ၜိုတ် ၄၀,၀၀၀ တိုင် မကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် ဟိုတ်နူ ခတိုဟ် ဒဵုပၟတ် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်တမၠာတေအ်တုဲ၊ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် (UNESCO) စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နဒဒှ် ဒတန် အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးကဝ် မွဲရ။
ဥတုဂှ် ဒှ် ဥတု ၜဳသမုဒ္ဒရာ (Temperate maritime climate) တုဲ ၜိုတ်မံင် အလုံသၞာံ၊ ဗြဲဂူဂၠိုင်တုဲ မတ်ဗြဲ ဂၠိုင်ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Giant's Causeway |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/369/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၄။ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ (Politics and Government) ==
အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒေသ မကလိဂွံ အဝဵုအုပ်ဓုပ်ဇကုအလဵုဇကု (Devolution) ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ ရ။ ပါလဳမာန် ဒေသဂှ် ကော်စ '''အသေမ်ဗလဳ အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ (Northern Ireland Assembly)''' မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ရုင် စတဝ်မောန် (Stormont) ဍုင်ဗေလ်ဖာတ် ရ။
* '''Power-sharing (သၞောတ် ပါ်ပရအ် အဝဵု):''' သၞောတ်အလဵုအသဳဏအ်ဂှ် တၟေင်လောန်ရ။ ညံင်ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ဂွံတန်တဴမာန်၊ ဗော်ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် လပါ် Unionist ဇၞော်အိုတ် (ဥပမာ DUP) ကေုာံ ဗော် လပါ် Nationalist ဇၞော်အိုတ် (ဥပမာ Sinn Féin) သ္ဒးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် ပံင်ကောံရေင်သကအ် ဍာံဍာံရ။ ယဝ်ရ ဗော်မွဲ ပါ်တိတ်အာမ္ဂး၊ အလဵုအသဳဂှ် လီုလာ်အာတုဲ ဒးကလေင်ရုဲမာဲ တၟိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လာန်ဒါန် ဒးကလေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် (Direct rule) ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Northern Ireland Assembly - How it works |url=https://www.niassembly.gov.uk/about-the-assembly/how-the-assembly-works/ |publisher=Northern Ireland Assembly |access-date=2026-06-23 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economy) ==
ပ္ဍဲအခိင် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ ကေုာံ လပါ်စ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ တေအ်၊ ဗေလ်ဖာတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒတန် ရုင်စက် မဇၞော်မောဝ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ ရ။ ရုင်ကၠောန်က္ၜင် Harland and Wolff မဒှ် ဒၞာဲမကၠောန်လဝ် က္ၜင် တာဲတေန်နေတ် (RMS Titanic) ဂှ် ပြာကတ်လောန်ရ။ ပါဲနူဂှ် ပရေင်ကၠောန် တောမ်ဇုက် ကေုာံ လိက်ချာ (Linen) တအ်လေဝ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်လဝ်ရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ ကဏ္ဍ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ လၟုဟ်
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် အဓိက
! ဇမၞော်မောဝ် လၟုဟ်
|-
| '''ကဏ္ဍ သေဝါ (Services)''' || ပရေင်သြန်၊ အိုင်ထဳ (IT)၊ ရုင်အလဵုအသဳ။ || ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပါလုပ် ၜိုတ် ၇၀% သြန်လုပ်ဍုင်။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် (Manufacturing)''' || ကွတ်စက် အာကာသ (Aerospace) ဗီုကဵု Bombardier/Spirit AeroSystems၊ ကေုာံ စက်ယန်။ || သီုကၠောန်ပတိတ်ဒၟံင်ဖိုဟ် ဆဂး လၟိဟ် ကောန်ကမၠောန် အောန်စှ်ေ။
|-
| '''ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ (Agriculture)''' || လွဳ သဵု၊ ဂၠဴ၊ မပတိတ် ကွာတ်၊ ကေုာံ တဵုလွဳ အာလူး။ || ဒေသမ္ၚးဍုင်တအ်ဂှ် တဵုလွဳ ဂၠိုင်လောန်ရ။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ကဝါ် (Tourism)''' || ပြင်ၜဳ သၟဝ်ကျာ၊ တိုက်ထ္ၜး Titanic Belfast၊ ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲရိုက်လဝ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် Game of Thrones။ || ပရေင်ကဝါ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်ကၠုင် ဗွဲမလောန် ကြဴနူ ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ကတဵုဒှ်။
|}
<ref>{{cite web |title=Economic Overview of Northern Ireland |url=https://www.economy-ni.gov.uk/ |publisher=Department for the Economy NI |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>
== ၆။ မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ မံင်စံင် (Demographics) ==
လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၁ ဂှ် နွံ ၁.၉ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် ရ။ ဍုင်ဗေလ်ဖာတ် (Belfast) ဂှ် နွံ လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် ၃၄၀,၀၀၀ တုဲ ယဝ်ရ ပံင်သီု ကွာန်ပွဳပွူမ္ဂး နွံ ၜိုတ် ၆၇၀,၀၀၀ ပြင်ရ။ ဒုတိယ ဍုင်ဇၞော်အိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် [[w:Derry|ဒေရဳ]] (Derry / Londonderry) ရ။ အာယုက် မၞိဟ်လဒေါဝ် (Median age) ဂှ် နွံ ၜိုတ် ၃၉ သၞာံ တုဲ၊ ဒှ် ဒေသ မၞိဟ်သၟတ် ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ မွဲရ။ ပရေင်ပညာဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် ခိုဟ်မံင်တုဲ Queen's University Belfast ကေုာံ Ulster University တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် တက္ကသိုလ် မပြာကတ်ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Demographics of Northern Ireland |url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/ |publisher=NISRA |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၇။ ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Religion and Identity) ==
ပရေင်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကောန်ဂကူ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော်လောန်ရ။
* '''ဘာသာ:''' အတိုင် စရင် လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် ၂၀၂၁ မ္ဂး၊ အလန်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဝင် ဍုင်၊ လၟိဟ် ညးမလျိုင်ပတှ်ေ '''ကာတ္တလေတ် (Catholic - ၄၂.၃%)''' ဂှ် ဂၠိုင်နူကဵု '''ပရဝ်တေတ်သတာန် (Protestant - ၃၇.၃%)''' ရ။ မၞိဟ် မဟွံလျိုင်ပတှ်ေ ဘာသာမွဲမွဲလေဝ် နွံ ၁၇.၄% ရ။
* '''ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (National Identity):''' မၞိဟ်တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဇကု ဗွဲမနာနာ-
* ဗြိတိန် (British): ၃၁.၈%
* အာဲရဳသ် (Irish): ၂၉.၁%
* အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ (Northern Irish): ၁၉.၈% (မၞိဟ် မစၟတ်သမ္တီ ၜါလပါ်လေဝ် နွံရ)<ref>{{cite news |title=Northern Ireland census: Catholics outnumber Protestants for first time |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-62985392 |newspaper=BBC News |date=2022-09-22 |access-date=2026-06-23 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>။
== ၈။ အရေဝ်ဘာသာဂမၠိုင် (Languages) ==
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jm_jQ60wXwQ ပရူ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ အခိုက်အရေဝ် အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ ပ္ဍဲ YouTube]
အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မစကာ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ်ဂှ် ဒှ် '''ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက်''' ရ။ ဆဂး ရမ္သာင်ဟီု (Accent) ညးတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ရမ္သာင် သကတ်-အာဲရဳသ် (Hiberno-English) တုဲ တၞဟ်ခြာ နူ အင်္ဂလာန် ရ။
ပါဲနူဂှ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ရေက်သလိုင် (Minority languages) ၜါ နွံရ-
* '''ဘာသာအာဲရဳသ် (Irish / Gaeilge):''' အရေဝ်ဘာသာ သေလ်တေတ် တြေံ မွဲ။ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ Nationalist တအ် စွံအာရီု ကလေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်ဒၟံင် တုဲ နွံ မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် ၁၂% ညာတ် ကေုာံ ဟီု ဂွံ ညိညရ။
* '''အာလ်သတာ သကတ် (Ulster Scots / Ullans):''' အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မတုပ် ကု သကတ်လာန်၊ မဟီုစ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ မၞိဟ် ပရဝ်တေတ်သတာန် တအ် ပြံင်လုပ်မံင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၇ တေအ်ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Languages in Northern Ireland |url=https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/articles/languages-northern-ireland |publisher=NI Direct |access-date=2026-06-23 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>။
== ၉။ ယေန်သၞာင် (Culture and Arts) ==
အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ် ကလိဂွံလဝ် ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး ပ္ဍဲကဵု လောက ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အနုသုခုမ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ-
* '''လိက်ပတ်:''' အစာကဗျ Seamus Heaney ဂှ် ကလိဂွံလဝ် လာပ် နဝ်ဗဴ (Nobel Prize) ပ္ဍဲသၞာံ ၁၉၉၅ ရ။ အစာချူလိက် C. S. Lewis (ညးမချူ ဒဏ္ဍာရဳ Narnia) ဂှ်လေဝ် ကတဵုဒှ်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဗေလ်ဖာတ် ရ။
* '''ဒွက် ကေုာံ ဂဳတ:''' သၟာဒွက် ဒယှ် ဗီုကဵု Van Morrison ကေုာံ ဂကောံဒွက် Snow Patrol တအ်ဂှ် ပြာကတ်လောန်ရ။
* '''ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် (Film & TV):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံလက္ကရဴဏအ်၊ ဍုင်ဏအ် ဒှ်ကၠုင် ဒၞာဲ ရိုက်ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးကဝ်ရ။ ဇာတ်လမ်းဒယှ် '''Game of Thrones''' ဂှ် ရိုက်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သတူဒဳယဝ် ဗေလ်ဖာတ် ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲသဘာဝ နာနာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဏအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Game of Thrones Filming Locations |url=https://discovernorthernireland.com/things-to-do/attractions/game-of-thrones/ |publisher=Discover Northern Ireland |access-date=2026-06-23 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>။
== ၁၀။ ပရေင်ဝေင်ပြိုင် (Sports) ==
ပရေင်ဝေင်ပြိုင် ပ္ဍဲ အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ် တၟေင်လောန် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဍုင်ရ။
* '''ဝေင်ပြိုင် မပါ်လဝ် ဍုင်:''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဝေင်ပြိုင် ဇိုင် (Association football) ကေုာံ သဘင်ပြိုင်ပကာန် ဓနသဟာယ (Commonwealth Games) မ္ဂး အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဒက်လဝ် ဂကောံ ကောန်ဂကူ ညးကဵုညး ရ။
* '''ဝေင်ပြိုင် မပံင်လဝ် အလုံတကအ် (All-Ireland):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဝေင်ပြိုင် ရက်ဗဳ (Rugby Union)၊ ဟံက်ကဳ (Hockey) ကေုာံ ကစားနည်း ဂေးလစ် (Gaelic games ဗီုကဵု Gaelic football ကဵု Hurling) မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ပံင်ကောံ ကု သမ္မတ ဍုင်အာဲယျာလာန် တုဲ ပြိုင်ပကာန် နဒဒှ် မွဲဂကောံ ဓဝ် အလုံ တကအ် အာဲယျာလာန် (Ireland team) ရ။ ကွးဝေင် ဂေါက် (Golf) ဒယှ် ဗီုကဵု Rory McIlroy လေဝ် ဒှ် ကောန်ဍုင်ဏအ် ကီုရ<ref>{{cite news |title=Sport and Identity in Northern Ireland |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z3xvcj6/revision/1 |newspaper=BBC Bitesize |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် (References) ==
<references />
{{Navbox
|name = ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ
|title = ဍုင် ကေုာံ ဒေသ ပ္ဍဲ [[ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ]] (United Kingdom)
|listclass = hlist
|list1 =
* '''ဍုင်အဓိက (Countries):''' [[အင်္ဂလာန်]] (England)
* [[သကတ်လာန်]] (Scotland)
* [[ဝေလ်]] (Wales)
* [[အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ]] (Northern Ireland)
|list2 =
* '''ဍုင်ဇၞော်:''' [[လာန်ဒါန်]]
* [[အေဒင်ဗာရာ]]
* [[ကာဒိဖ်]]
* [[ဗေလ်ဖာတ်]]
|list3 =
* '''ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်:''' [[The Troubles]]
* [[Good Friday Agreement]]
* [[Sinn Féin]]
* [[DUP]]
}}
[[Category:အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ]]
[[Category:ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ]]
[[Category:ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဥရဝ်ပ]]
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'''ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု ယၟုပေင်င် '''ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ ဂရိတ်ဗြိတိန် ကေုာံ အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ''' (အင်္ဂလိက်: [[w:United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]) ဂှ် မၞိဟ်တအ် ကော်စ ဗွဲခမၞောန် '''ယူကေ''' (UK) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ဗြိတိန်''' (Britain) ရ။ ဍုင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင်အာစောံ (Sovereign state) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ-ပလိုတ် ဥရဝ်ပတုဲ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဍုင်ပန်ဍုင် မတွဟ်ဂး [[အင်္ဂလာန်]] (England)၊ [[သကတ်လာန်]] (Scotland)၊ [[ဝေလ်]] (Wales) ကေုာံ [[အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ]] (Northern Ireland) ရ။ ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ အဝဵုသြဇာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိမွဲတုဲ၊ ဒှ် ကောန်ဂကောံ တမ်မူလ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (UN)၊ ကောန်ဂကောံ လၟိုန် ကံင်သဳဂီုကၠီု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (UNSC)၊ ဂျဳ-၇ (G7)၊ ဂျဳ-၂၀ (G20) ကေုာံ နေတဝ် (NATO) ရ။
{| class="infobox" style="width:28em; text-align:left; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float:right;"
|+ style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold;" | ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ<br/>(United Kingdom)
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; background:none;"
|-
| [[File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|150px|အလာံ ယူကေ]]<br/>''[[အလာံ ယူကေ|အလာံ]]''
| [[File:Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom.svg|110px|တဆိပ် ဍုင် ယူကေ]]<br/>''[[တဆိပ် ယူကေ|တဆိပ် ဍုင်]]''
|}
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | '''က္ဍိုပ်လိက်:''' "''Dieu et mon droit''" (ကျာ်ထာဝရ ကေုာံ အခေါင်အဲ)
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Europe-UK (orthographic projection).svg|250px|ဒၞာဲဍုင် ယူကေ]]<br/>''ဒၞာဲဍုင် ယူကေ ပ္ဍဲ ဥရဝ်ပ''
|-
! ဍုင်ဇၞော်
| [[လာန်ဒါန်]] (London)
|-
! အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ရုင်
| [[ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက်]]
|-
! ဂကူ / စၟတ်သမ္တီ
| ဗြိတိန် (British)
|-
! သၞောတ် အလဵုအသဳ
| သၞောတ်ပါလဳမာန် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ်
|-
! သၟိင်တၠ (Monarch)
| [[w:Charles III|ချားလ် တတိယ]] (Charles III)
|-
! ဝန်ဇၞော် (PM)
| ကာရ် သတာမာ (Keir Starmer)
|-
! ပါလဳမာန်
| ပါလဳမာန် ယူကေ (Parliament of the United Kingdom)
|-
! ဇမၞော်သမၠဲ
| ၂၄၄,၃၇၆ စတုရံ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (၉၄,၃၅၄ စတုရံတိုင်)
|-
! လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် (၂၀၂၂)
| ၆၇,၅၉၆,၂၈၁ <ref>{{cite web |title=UK Population estimate 2022 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>
|-
! သြန်စကာ
| ပံင်သတာလင် (Pound sterling - GBP)
|-
! လေပ်တိုင် ဍုင် (ccTLD)
| .uk
|}
== ၁။ နိဒါန် (Introduction) ==
ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ ဟီုဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မပံင်ကောံလဝ် ဒေသ မနွံကဵု ဝင် ကေုာံ အခိုက်ကၞာ တၞဟ်ခြာ ပန် ဍုင်ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဂှ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ တကအ် ဂရိတ်ဗြိတိန် (Great Britain) ကေုာံ လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ-ဗမံက် ဍုင်အာဲယျာလာန် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ ကေုာံ ၂၀ တေအ်၊ ဍုင်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင်အေန်ပါယာ မဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် (British Empire) မအုပ်ဓုပ်လဝ် တိဍာ် ၜိုတ် မွဲပန်ဂအုံ လ္တူဂၠးတိဏအ်ရ။ လၟုဟ် ၜိုန်ရ အေန်ပါယာ လီုလာ်အာကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍုင်ယူကေ ဂှ် ဆက်လက် တန်တဴဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် ဍုင် မနွံကဵု အဝဵုသြဇာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ဇၞော်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးကဝ်ဏီရ။ ဍုင်ဇၞော် လာန်ဒါန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဗဟဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်သြန် ဇၞော်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥရဝ်ပ ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Black |first=J. |year=2004 |title=A New History of England |publisher=Sutton Publishing |isbn=978-0750928405}}</ref>။
== ၂။ ဝင် (History) ==
ဝင် ယူကေ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဝင် ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ (Acts of Union) မကတဵုဒှ်လဝ် လုကဴ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ-
* '''၁၇၀၇ (ဂရိတ် ဗြိတိန်):''' ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန် (သီု ဍုင်ဝေလ် မပါလုပ်ဒၟံင်တုဲတုဲ) ကေုာံ ဍုင်သကတ်လာန် တအ် ပံင်ကောံတုဲ ဒက်ပတန် ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ် ဂရိတ်ဗြိတိန် (Kingdom of Great Britain)။
* '''၁၈၀၁ (ယူကေ):''' ဍုင်အာဲယျာလာန် ပံင်ကောံ လုပ်ကၠုင်တုဲ ဒက်ပတန် "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland"။
* '''၁၉၂၂ (အာဲယျာလာန် ပါ်တိတ်):''' ကြဴနူ ပၞာန် ဗၠးၜး အာဲယျာလာန် တုဲ၊ သမ္မတ ဍုင်အာဲယျာလာန် ဂှ် ပါ်တိတ်အာတုဲ၊ ဒေသ အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ တအ်ဟေင် သှ်ေၜက်တုဲ ပံင်ကောံလဝ် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ ပထမ ကေုာံ ဒုတိယ ဂှ် ယူကေ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံမဟာမိတ် (Allies) တုဲ ဇၞးပၞာန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍုင် လီုလာ်အာ ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၀ ဂှ် ဍုင်ယူကေ တိတ် နူကဵု ဂကောံဥရဝ်ပ (EU) နကဵု ပရေင်အစီအစောန် မကော်စ "Brexit" (ဗရေက်သေတ်) ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Kearney |first=H. |year=2006 |title=The British Isles: A History of Four Nations |url=https://archive.org/details/britishisleshist0000kear_z8p0_2nded |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521846004}}</ref>။
== ၃။ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ဥတု (Geography and Climate) ==
ဍုင်ယူကေ နွံကဵု ဇမၞော်သမၠဲ ၂၄၄,၃၇၆ စတုရံ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ် တကအ် ဇၞော် မခြာဒၟံင် ကဵု ဥရဝ်ပ နကဵု ပြင်ၜဳ အင်္ဂလိက် (English Channel) ကေုာံ ၜဳသၟဝ်ကျာ (North Sea) ရ။
* '''အင်္ဂလာန်:''' တိဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒှ် တိဗလး ကေုာံ ဒဵုသဝ်သဝ်။ ၜဳတေမ်း (River Thames) ဂှ် ပြာကတ်။
* '''သကတ်လာန်:''' လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဒှ် ဒေသဒဵုသၠုင် (Highlands)။ ဒဵု ဗေန် နဳဗိသ် (Ben Nevis) မနွံ သမၠုင် ၁,၃၄၅ မဳတာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒဵု သၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ။
* '''ဝေလ်:''' တိဍာ် လပါ်ဂၠိုင် ဒှ် ဒေသဒဵု၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် ဒဵု သၞဝ်ဒဝ်နဳယျာ။
* '''အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ:''' နွံကဵု ကၟာဍာ် နေတ် (Lough Neagh) မဒှ် ကၟာဍာ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ။
ဥတု ယူကေ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဥတု ၜဳသမုဒ္ဒရာ (Temperate maritime climate) တုဲ၊ ဗြဲဂူဂၠိုင်၊ မုဟ်ကျာ ၜိုတ်ဒၟံင် အလုံမွဲသၞာံ ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Geography of the UK |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/uk-climate |publisher=Met Office |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၄။ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ (Politics and Government) ==
ယူကေ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မအုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵု သၞောတ် ပါလဳမာန် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် (Constitutional monarchy) ရ။
* '''သၟိင်တၠ (Monarch):''' သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် လၟုဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဨကရာဇ် ချားလ် တတိယ။ ညးဂှ် ဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သ္ကိုပ်ဍုင် မနွံကဵု အဝဵု သင်္ကေတ သၟးရ (Ceremonial head of state)။
* '''ပါလဳမာန် ယူကေ (UK Parliament):''' နွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လာန်ဒါန် (Westminster) တုဲ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု စၠတ်ထဝ် သၟဝ် (House of Commons) ကေုာံ စၠတ်ထဝ် လ္တူ (House of Lords) ရ။ ဝန်ဇၞော် (Prime Minister) ဂှ် က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် အလဵုအသဳ ရ။
'''ပရေင်ပါ်ပရအ် အဝဵု (Devolution):'''
စတမ်နူ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၉ ဂှ် သကတ်လာန်၊ ဝေလ် ကေုာံ အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ တအ် နွံကဵု ပါလဳမာန် ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ ဒေသ အလဵုဇကု သွက်ဂွံ အုပ်ဓုပ် ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စလောအ်ကွိင်ကွိုက် ဇကုရ<ref>{{cite web |title=How the UK Parliament works |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/ |publisher=UK Parliament |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economy) ==
ဍုင်ယူကေ ဂှ် နွံကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မဇၞော်အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု (၆) ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိဏအ် ရ။ လဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အဓိက ဂှ် ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ သေဝါ (Services sector) မပါလုပ် ၜိုတ် ၈၂% ဂျဳဒဳပဳ (GDP) ရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ ကဏ္ဍ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် အဓိက
! ဒတန် အဓိက
|-
| '''ပရေင်သြန် ကေုာံ ဗာန် (Financial Services)''' || ဗာန်၊ အာမခံ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လွဳလွတ် သြန်။ (လာန်ဒါန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဗဟဵု သြန် ဂၠးကဝ်)။ || လာန်ဒါန်၊ အေဒင်ဗာရာ၊ လိဒ် (Leeds)
|-
| '''ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် (Manufacturing)''' || ကွဳစက်၊ က္ၜင်ကျာ (Aerospace)၊ ဂဥုဲ (Pharmaceuticals)။ || မေန်ချက်သတာ (Manchester)၊ မေဒ်လာန် (Midlands)
|-
| '''ပရေင်အိုင်ထဳ ကေုာံ နဲကဲ (Tech & IT)''' || ကွတ်ပညာ တၠပညာနိမိတ် (AI)၊ ဂိမ်း (Gaming)၊ Fintech။ || လာန်ဒါန်၊ ကေမ်ဗရိတ် (Cambridge)
|-
| '''ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ သယံဇာတ''' || ခါဲ ဍာ်ကၠေင်၊ ဂေတ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ မစကာ ကွတ်ပညာသၠုင်။ || ၜဳသၟဝ်ကျာ၊ သကတ်လာန်၊ ဝေလ်
|}
<ref>{{cite book |last=Crafts |first=N. |year=2018 |title=Forging Ahead, Falling Behind and Fighting Back: British Economic Growth from the Industrial Revolution to the Financial Crisis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1108428385}}</ref>
== ၆။ မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ မံင်စံင် (Demographics) ==
အတိုင် စရင် ၂၀၂၂ မ္ဂး၊ လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် အလုံ ယူကေ ဂှ် နွံ ၜိုတ် ၆၇.၅ ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် ရ။ လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် (၈၄%) ဂှ် မံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန် ရ။
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:center;"
|+ ပရေင်ပါ်ပရအ် လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် အလုံ ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ (၂၀၂၁/၂၀၂၂)
|-
! ဍုင် (Country)
! လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်
! တင်က္ဍိုပ်ကၠံ (%)
! ဍုင်ဇၞော်အိုတ်
|-
| '''အင်္ဂလာန် (England)''' || ၅၇,၃၀၀,၀၀၀ || ၈၄.၃% || လာန်ဒါန် (London)
|-
| '''သကတ်လာန် (Scotland)''' || ၅,၄၈၀,၀၀၀ || ၈.၁% || ဂလာတ်သဂဝ် (Glasgow)
|-
| '''ဝေလ် (Wales)''' || ၃,၁၀၀,၀၀၀ || ၄.၆% || ကာဒိဖ် (Cardiff)
|-
| '''အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ (N. Ireland)''' || ၁,၉၀၀,၀၀၀ || ၂.၈% || ဗေလ်ဖာတ် (Belfast)
|}
ဟိုတ်နူ ဝင် အေန်ပါယာ ဗြိတိန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လုပ်မံင် (Immigration) တုဲ ယူကေ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မနွံကဵု ဂကူ ကေုာံ အခိုက်ကၞာ နာနာ (Multicultural society) မွဲရ<ref>{{cite web |title=Population of the UK |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/ |publisher=ONS |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၇။ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဘာသာ (Languages and Religion) ==
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fj-E_I8L1y4 ပရူ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ရမ္သာင်ဟီု ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ (YouTube)]
* '''အရေဝ်ဘာသာ:''' [[ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက်]] (English) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ အဓိက မၞိဟ်ဟီုဂၠိုင်အိုတ် (၉၈%) ရ။ ဆဂး ယူကေ ဂှ် သီုနွံကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ရေက်သလိုင် သေလ်တေတ် (Celtic languages) မတွဟ်ဂး '''ဘာသာဝေလ် (Welsh)'''၊ ဘာသာအာဲရဳသ် (Irish)၊ ကေုာံ ဘာသာဂေလစ် သကတ်လာန် (Scottish Gaelic) ရ။ ဘာသာဝေလ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု ကဆံင်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မတုပ် ကု အင်္ဂလိက် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဝေလ် ရ။
* '''ဘာသာ (Religion):''' ကိုပ်ကၠာတေအ် ယူကေ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် ခရေတ်ယာန် (ဗွဲတၟေင် Church of England ကေုာံ Church of Scotland) ရ။ ဆဂး လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး လၟိဟ် ညးမဟွံလျိုင်ပတှ်ေ ဘာသာမွဲမွဲ (Irreligion) ဂှ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်ကၠုင် ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ၊ ဘာသာ အေဿလာမ်၊ ဟိန္ဒူ၊ ကေုာံ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တအ်လေဝ် နွံကၠုင် ဒြဟတ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ရ<ref>{{cite news |title=Census 2021: Less than half of England and Wales population are Christian |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-63792408 |newspaper=BBC News |date=2022-11-29 |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Education and Healthcare) ==
ဍုင်ယူကေ ဂှ် နွံကဵု လက်သန် ကေုာံ အစာံညိင် ပရေင်ပညာ မသၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးကဝ်ရ။ တက္ကသိုလ် ဗီုကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် အံက်သဖို့ (University of Oxford)၊ တက္ကသိုလ် ကေမ်ဗရိတ် (University of Cambridge)၊ အေန်ပဳရဳယျယ် ကဝ်လေက် လာန်ဒါန် (Imperial College London) ကေုာံ UCL တအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု စရင် တက္ကသိုလ် ခိုဟ်အိုတ် စှ် လ္တူဂၠးတိ လၟိုန်ရ။
ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ဂှ် အလဵုအသဳ ထံက်ပင်လဝ် နကဵု သၞောတ်ဝ် '''NHS (National Health Service)''' တုဲ၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်လွဳလွတ် သက္ကုင္ၚုဟ်တန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရုံဂဥုဲ အလဵုအသဳရ<ref>{{cite web |title=World University Rankings 2025 |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings |publisher=Times Higher Education |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၉။ ယေန်သၞာင် (Culture, Literature and Media) ==
ယေန်သၞာင် ယူကေ ဂှ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကေုာံ ကဵုလဝ် သြဇာ လ္တူ ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဇၞော်ရ။
* '''လိက်ပတ်:''' အစာချူလိက် ဗီုကဵု ဝဳလဳယျာမ် ရှိတ်သပီးယား (William Shakespeare)၊ ချားလ် ဒစ်ကင်း (Charles Dickens)၊ ဂျေ အာ အာ တဝ်ကိန် (J. R. R. Tolkien) ကေုာံ ဂျေ ကေ ရဝ်လင် (J. K. Rowling - ညးမချူ Harry Potter) တအ်ဂှ် ပြာကတ် လုံဂၠးကဝ်ရ။
* '''ဂဳတ:''' ဂကောံဒွက် ဗီုကဵု The Beatles, Queen, The Rolling Stones ကေုာံ သၟာဒွက် ဗီုကဵု Adele, Ed Sheeran တအ်ဂှ် ဂွံလဝ် လာပ် ဂၠးကဝ် မဂၠိုင်ကဵုအလန်ရ။
* '''ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် (Cinema & TV):''' ယူကေ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲမကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဇာတ်လမ်းဒယှ် ဗီုကဵု James Bond 007 ကေုာံ Doctor Who ရ။ ဌာနပရိုင် BBC ဂှ် ဒှ် ဌာနပရိုင် တြေံအိုတ် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိဏအ်ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Higgins |first=M. |year=2010 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Modern British Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_x2y7 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521683463}}</ref>။
== ၁၀။ ပရေင်ဝေင်ပြိုင် (Sports) ==
ပရေင်ဝေင်ပြိုင် မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ဝေင်ပြိုင်ဇိုင် (Football)၊ ရက်ဗဳ (Rugby)၊ ခရစ်ကက် (Cricket)၊ တင်းနစ် (Tennis) ကေုာံ ဂေါက် (Golf) တအ်ဂှ် ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် အစာံ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဝ် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ယူကေ ရ။
* '''ဝေင်ပြိုင်ဇိုင်:''' လိဂ် အင်္ဂလာန် မကော်စ '''Premier League (ပရဳမဳယျာ လိဂ်)''' ဂှ် ဒှ် လိဂ် ဝေင်ပြိုင်ဇိုင် မၞိဟ်ဗဵုဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲဂၠးကဝ်ရ။
* '''ပြိုင်ပကာန် ဒယှ်ဂမၠိုင်:''' သဘင်ပြိုင် တင်းနစ် ဝင်္ဘယ်ဒန် (Wimbledon Championships)၊ သဘင်ပြိုင် ချေဟ် (Royal Ascot) ကေုာံ သဘင်ပြိုင် ကွဳစက် ဖော်မြူလာ-၁ (British Grand Prix) တအ်ဂှ် ညးလောကတအ် စွံအာရီု ဗွဲမလောန်ရ<ref>{{cite web |title=History of British Sports |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/British-Sports/ |publisher=Historic UK |access-date=2026-06-23 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် (References) ==
<references />
{{Navbox
|name = ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ
|title = [[ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ]] (United Kingdom)
|listclass = hlist
|list1 =
* '''ဍုင်အဓိက (Countries):''' [[အင်္ဂလာန်]]
* [[သကတ်လာန်]]
* [[ဝေလ်]]
* [[အာဲယျာလာန်သၟဝ်ကျာ]]
|list2 =
* '''ဍုင်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ မြုင်:''' [[လာန်ဒါန်]]
* [[အေဒင်ဗာရာ]]
* [[ကာဒိဖ်]]
* [[ဗေလ်ဖာတ်]]
* [[မေန်ချက်သတာ]]
* [[ဗာမေန်ဟာမ်]]
|list3 =
* '''သင်္ကေတ ကောန်ဂကူ:''' [[အလာံ ယူကေ]]
* [[တဆိပ် ယူကေ]]
* [[God Save the King]]
* [[ချားလ် တတိယ]]
|list4 =
* '''ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်:''' [[ပါလဳမာန် ယူကေ]]
* [[ပံင်သတာလင်]]
* [[Brexit]]
* [[National Health Service]]
}}
[[Category:ဍုင်ဨကရာဇ်ပံင်ကောံ]]
[[Category:ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဥရဝ်ပ]]
[[Category:ဂျဳ-၇]]
[[Category:နေတဝ်]]
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'''သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် နယူတာန်''' (အင်္ဂလိက်: [[w:Newton's laws of motion|Newton's laws of motion]]) ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောဝ် သဇိုင် ပိ သာ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရူပဗေဒ ခေတ်တြေံ (Classical mechanics) မစၞောန်ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် (Motion) အရာဝတ္ထု မွဲ ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် (Forces) မသက်ရောက် လ္တူ ဍေဟ်တအ်ရ။ သၞောဝ်တအ်ဏအ်ဂှ် တၠပညာ ရူပဗေဒ ကေုာံ သင်္ချာ ယၟုပြာကတ် [[w:Isaac Newton|အာက်သေတ် နယူတာန်]] (Isaac Newton) ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၆၈၇ တုဲ ပ္တိတ်လလောင်တြးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်အုပ် ညး မနွံယၟု ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' ရ။ သၞောဝ် ပိ သာ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဇုတ်စၞိန် သွက် ကွတ်အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ၊ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဂၠးအာကာသ၊ ကေုာံ ကွတ်စက်ယန် သီုဖအိုတ် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ်ရ။
{| class="infobox" style="width:28em; text-align:left; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float:right;"
|+ style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold;" | သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် နယူတာန်
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Newtons_laws_of_motion.svg|300px|သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် နယူတာန် ပိ သာ်]]<br/>''ဗီုရုပ် စၞောန်ထ္ၜး သၞောဝ် နယူတာန် ပိ သာ်''
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက
| [[ရူပဗေဒ]] (Physics)၊ [[မက်ကေန်နေတ်]] (Mechanics)
|-
! ညးမခၞံဗဒှ်
| [[w:Isaac Newton|သာ အာက်သေတ် နယူတာန်]] (Sir Isaac Newton)
|-
! လိက်အုပ် တမ်မူလ
| ''[[w:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'' (၁၆၈၇)
|-
! သၞောဝ် ပထမ
| သၞောဝ် အဳနာယှာ (Law of Inertia)
|-
! သၞောဝ် ဒုတိယ
| ဒြဟတ် ကဵု ပရေင်ပြဟ် ($\mathbf{F} = m\mathbf{a}$)
|-
! သၞောဝ် တတိယ
| ပရေင်ကၠောန် ကဵု ပရေင်ကလေင် (Action and Reaction)
|-
! ဘာသာရပ် ဆက်စပ်
| [[သင်္ချာ]]၊ [[အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ]]၊ [[ဗေဒင်ဂြိုဟ်]]
|}
== ၁။ နိဒါန် (Introduction) ==
သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် နယူတာန် ဂှ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လ္ၚတ်ရံင် ဗီုလဵု အရာဝတ္ထု (Objects) တအ် ချဳဒရာင် ကာလ ဒြဟတ် မွဲမွဲ သက်ရောက် လ္တူ ဍေဟ်တအ်ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခေတ် နယူတာန် တေအ်၊ မၞိဟ်တအ် (ဗီုကဵု အာရဳသ်တဝ်တယ်) ထေင်လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အရာဝတ္ထု သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမဲ ကု ဒြဟတ် ဓရိုဟ်မ္ဂး သ္ဒးဒေါအ်ဇူအာ အလဵုအလဵုဍေဟ်ရ။ ဆဂး နယူတာန် ဂှ် (နကဵု လညာတ် ဂလဳလဳယဝ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ) ပသောင်ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် မတန်ကြန်ဒၟံင်ဂှ်လေဝ် ဒှ် သဘာဝ ဓမ္မတာ မွဲကီုရ။
သၞောဝ်ဏအ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု လဒက်ပတန် သင်္ချာ မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်တုဲ ဍေဟ် ကဵု ဖိုလ်ခိုဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲအရာ မတွက်ရံင် ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် ဂြိုဟ်တအ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် အရာဝတ္ထု ပ္ဍဲ လ္တူ ဂၠးတိဏအ် ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Thornton |first=S. T. |last2=Marion |first2=J. B. |year=2004 |title=Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9788131505953 |publisher=Brooks/Cole |isbn=978-0534408961 |edition=5th}}</ref>။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Evolution) ==
သၞောဝ် နယူတာန် တအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် တၠပညာ ကိုပ်ကၠာတအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။
* '''ဂလဳလဳယဝ် (Galileo Galilei):''' ပ္ဍဲ လပါ်စ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၇ ဂှ်၊ ဂလဳလဳယဝ် စမ်ၜတ် လ္ၚတ်ရံင် ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် ကောန်မတၟအ် လ္တူ ဌာန်တိ ညောန်ညောန်တုဲ ဖျေဟ်လဝ် လညာတ် "အဳနာယှာ" (Inertia) ရ။ ညးဟီုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အရာဝတ္ထုမွဲ ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမဲ ကု ဒြဟတ် ပွတ်တိုက် (Friction) မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ဆက်ချဳဒရာင် အာဒၟံင် လၟိုန်ရ။
* '''ဒေးကာတ် (René Descartes):''' ပသောင်ထ္ၜးလဝ် သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် ရ။
* '''နယူတာန် (Isaac Newton):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၆၈၇၊ နယူတာန် ပကောံပကေဝ် လညာတ်တအ်ဏအ် သီုဖအိုတ်တုဲ သီုကဵု ထပ်စုတ် သၞောဝ် ဓါတ်ဂတာ် (Law of Universal Gravitation) တုဲ ပ္တိတ်လလောင်တြး ပ္ဍဲ လိက်အုပ် ''Principia'' ရ။ လိက်အုပ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် လိက်အုပ် မပြာကတ် ကေုာံ ကဵု သြဇာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် သိပ္ပံ ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=I. B. |year=1995 |title=The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520088177}}</ref>။
== ၃။ သၞောဝ် ပထမ နယူတာန်: အဳနာယှာ (First Law: Law of Inertia) ==
'''သၞောဝ် ပထမ''' ဟီုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ - "အရာဝတ္ထုမွဲ ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမဲ ကု ဒြဟတ်မ္ၚး (Net external force) မသက်ရောက် လ္တူဍေဟ် မ္ဂး၊ အရာဝတ္ထု မဒေါအ်ဇူဒၟံင်ဂှ် ဆက်ဒေါအ်ဇူဒၟံင်တုဲ၊ အရာဝတ္ထု မချဳဒရာင်ဒၟံင် နကဵု အသိင် မတန်ကြန် (Constant velocity) ဂှ် ဆက်ချဳဒရာင် အာဒၟံင် အတိုင်ဂှ်ရ။"
သၞောဝ်ဏအ်ဂှ် မၞိဟ်တအ် ကော်စ '''သၞောဝ် အဳနာယှာ (Law of Inertia)''' ရ။ အဳနာယှာ ဟီုဂှ် ဒှ် လက်သန် သဘာဝ မဟွံမိက် ပြံင်လှာဲ ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် ဇကုရ။
* ယဝ်ရ $\sum \mathbf{F} = 0$ မ္ဂး $\frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} = 0$ ရ။
ဥပမာ - ကာလ ကွဳစက် မွဲ ခရိတ် (Brake) ထောအ် မွဲတဲဓဝ်မ္ဂး၊ မၞိဟ် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ကွဳစက်ဂှ် လပါ်ဂတ သ္ဒးဒြေပ်အာ ဟိုတ်နူ အဳနာယှာ ဇကု မဆက်အာဒၟံင် လပါ်ဂတ ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဇုက်စဵုဒၞာ (Seatbelt) ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော်ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Feynman |first=R. P. |last2=Leighton |first2=R. B. |last3=Sands |first3=M. |year=2011 |title=The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. 1: Mainly Mechanics, Radiation, and Heat |url=https://archive.org/details/apu.530.076.fey.33525 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0465024148}}</ref>။
== ၄။ သၞောဝ် ဒုတိယ နယူတာန်: ဒြဟတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြဟ် (Second Law: Force and Acceleration) ==
'''သၞောဝ် ဒုတိယ''' ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောဝ် မကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ် ကေုာံ စကာဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ သင်္ချာရ။ သၞောဝ်ဏအ် ဟီုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ - "ပရေင်ပြဟ် (Acceleration) အရာဝတ္ထုမွဲဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် ကု ဒြဟတ်မ္ၚး (Net force) မသက်ရောက် လ္တူ ဍေဟ် ဗွဲမတိုက်ရိုက် တုဲ၊ ဒြပ်/လျိုင် (Mass) ဍေဟ်ဂှ် တန်တဴဒၟံင် နကဵု အချိုးဂတး (Inversely proportional) ရ။"
နကဵု ရူပဗေဒ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ချူ နကဵု ပုံသေနည်း:
$$ \mathbf{F} = m\mathbf{a} $$
ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲဏအ် $\mathbf{F}$ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် (Force - ၜတ်ကၞာတ် နကဵု နယူတာန် N)၊ $m$ ဂှ် ဒှ် လျိုင်/ဒြပ် (Mass - ၜတ်ကၞာတ် နကဵု ကဳလဝ်ဂရာမ် kg) ကေုာံ $\mathbf{a}$ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ပြဟ် (Acceleration - ၜတ်ကၞာတ် နကဵု $m/s^2$) ရ။
နယူတာန် ကိုပ်ကၠာတေအ် ချူလဝ် သၞောဝ်ဏအ် နကဵု ဒြဟတ်အသိင် (Momentum, $\mathbf{p} = m\mathbf{v}$) မ္ဂး -
$$ \mathbf{F} = \frac{d\mathbf{p}}{dt} $$
ဏအ်ဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဒြဟတ် ဟီုဂှ် ဒှ် နှေန် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒြဟတ်အသိင် ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Halliday |first=D. |last2=Resnick |first2=R. |last3=Walker |first3=J. |year=2013 |title=Fundamentals of Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofph0000davi_s9n5 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1118230718 |edition=10th}}</ref>။
== ၅။ သၞောဝ် တတိယ နယူတာန်: ပရေင်ကၠောန် ကဵု ပရေင်ကလေင် (Third Law: Action and Reaction) ==
'''သၞောဝ် တတိယ''' ဂှ် ပြာကတ်လောန်ရ - "ဇၟာပ် ပရေင်ကၠောန် (Action) သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ပရေင်ကလေင်ကၠောန် (Reaction) မနွံ ဗၞတ်ဗ္ၜတ် တုပ်သၟဟ် တုဲ လပါ်ဂတး (Opposite direction) လၟိုန်ရ။"
ယဝ်ရ အရာဝတ္ထု A ဓရိုဟ် အရာဝတ္ထု B နကဵု ဒြဟတ် $\mathbf{F}_{AB}$ မ္ဂး၊ အရာဝတ္ထု B လေဝ် ကလေင် ဓရိုဟ် အရာဝတ္ထု A နကဵု ဒြဟတ် $\mathbf{F}_{BA}$ မတုပ်သၟဟ် တုဲ လပါ်ဂတး ရ:
$$ \mathbf{F}_{AB} = -\mathbf{F}_{BA} $$
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kKKM8Y-u7ds ပရူ သၞောဝ် တတိယ နယူတာန် ပ္ဍဲ YouTube]
ဥပမာ -
* ကာလ ၜိင်ဍာ် ပိုယ် ဓရိုဟ် ဍာ် အာ လပါ်လက္ကရဴ (Action)၊ ဍာ် ဂှ် ကလေင် ဓရိုဟ် ပိုယ် ညံင်ဂွံ အာ လပါ်ဂတ (Reaction) ရ။
* ရဝ်ကေတ် (Rocket) မတိုန်အာ အာကာသ ဂှ် ဍေဟ် ပ္တိတ် ကျာဂမ္တဴ လပါ်သၟဝ် တုဲ၊ ကျာဂှ် ကလေင် ဓရိုဟ် ရဝ်ကေတ် ညံင်ဂွံ တိုန်အာ လပါ်လ္တူ ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Young |first=H. D. |last2=Freedman |first2=R. A. |year=2019 |title=University Physics with Modern Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/universityphysic0000hugh_l9n5 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0135159552 |edition=15th}}</ref>။
== ၆။ ဒြဟတ်အသိင် ကေုာံ ပွမထိင်ဒဝ် (Momentum and Conservation) ==
သၞောဝ် တတိယ နယူတာန် ဂှ် ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ကု သၞောဝ် ပွမထိင်ဒဝ် ဒြဟတ်အသိင် (Conservation of Momentum) ရ。 ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမဲ ကု ဒြဟတ် မ္ၚးမ္ဂး၊ ဒြဟတ်အသိင် သီုဖအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ်ဝ် (System) မွဲဂှ် တန်ကြန်ဒၟံင် လၟိုန်ရ။
ဥပမာ - ကာလ ကွဳစက် ၜါ ဒးတေက် ရေင်သကအ် (Collision) မ္ဂး၊ ဒြဟတ်အသိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဒးတေက် ဏီ ကေုာံ ကြဴနူ ဒးတေက်တုဲ ဂှ် ဗၞတ်ဗ္ၜတ် သီုဖအိုတ် တုပ်ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။ လညာတ်ဏအ်ဂှ် စကာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် မပ္တံကဵု ပြသၞာ တေက်ဇီု ကေုာံ ပရေင်ခတိုဟ် ဂမၠိုင်ရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Goldstein |first=H. |last2=Poole |first2=C. |last3=Safko |first3=J. |year=2001 |title=Classical Mechanics |url=https://archive.org/details/classicalmechani0000herb |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=978-0201657029 |edition=3rd}}</ref>။
== ၇။ ပရေင်စကာ ပ္ဍဲ လောကဓမ္မတာ (Applications in Real World) ==
သၞောဝ် နယူတာန် တအ်ဂှ် စကာဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇၟာပ်ဒၞာဲ ပ္ဍဲ လောကပိုယ် လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲရ -
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ ပရေင်စကာ သၞောဝ် နယူတာန် ပ္ဍဲ လောက
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! ပရေင်စကာ ကေုာံ ဥပမာ
|-
| '''ကွတ်အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ (Engineering)''' || ပရေင်ဒက်ပတန် တဒါ၊ သ္ၚိ၊ ကေုာံ စက်ယန် ဂမၠိုင် သ္ဒး တွက်ရံင် ဒြဟတ် နကဵု သၞောဝ် ဒုတိယ ($\sum F = 0$ သွက် ဒတန်တန်ကြန် Statics)။
|-
| '''ပရေင်အာကာသ (Space Exploration)''' || တွက်ရံင် ဂၠံင်တရဴ (Orbit) ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ၊ ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် မဒးစကာ သွက် ရဝ်ကေတ် ဂွံတိုန်အာ အာကာသ။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဝေင်ပြိုင် (Sports)''' || ကာလ ဓရိုဟ် မကဝ်ဗဝ်၊ တွက်ရံင် အသိင် ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် မဒးစကာ။ သၞောဝ် တတိယ ဂှ် ပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝေင် ဍာ်၊ ဝေင် ဒြေပ်။
|-
| '''ကွတ်ယန် ကွဳစက် (Automotive)''' || ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ဇုက်စဵုဒၞာ ကေုာံ အိတ်ကျာ (Airbags) ညံင်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ အန္တရာယ် နူကဵု သၞောဝ် ပထမ (အဳနာယှာ)။
|}
== ၈။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု ဓါတ်ဂတာ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပွတ်တိုက် (Gravity and Friction) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးတိဏအ်မ္ဂး သၞောဝ် နယူတာန် ဂှ် လ္ၚတ်မ္ဂး သ္ဒးစွံသတိ လ္တူ ဒြဟတ် ဓမ္မတာ ၜါ သာ် လၟိုန်ရ -
* '''ဓါတ်ဂတာ် (Gravity - $F_g$):''' ဇၟာပ် အရာဝတ္ထု သီုဖအိုတ် လ္တူ ဂၠးတိဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ဓဇက် လပါ် သၟဝ် နကဵု ဒြဟတ် ဓါတ်ဂတာ် ($W = mg$ ၊ ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲဏအ် $g \approx 9.8 m/s^2$) ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပွတ်တိုက် (Friction - $f$):''' ကာလ အရာဝတ္ထု ၜါ လုက်စုက် ရေင်သကအ်မ္ဂး၊ ဒြဟတ် ပွတ်တိုက် ကတဵုဒှ်တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် တးပါဲ (Oppose) ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် လၟိုန်ရ။ ဥပမာ ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ပွတ်တိုက်တုဲ ကွဳစက် တအ် ဒေါအ်အာ မာန်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမဲ ပွတ်တိုက်မ္ဂး၊ အတိုင် သၞောဝ် ပထမ၊ ဍေဟ် ဆက်အာဒၟံင် လၟိုန်ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Tipler |first=P. A. |last2=Mosca |first2=G. |year=2007 |title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers |url=https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0001paul |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-1429201247 |edition=6th}}</ref>။
== ၉။ တင်ဍိုန်လျ ကေုာံ သဳအဝ်ရဳ ရဳလေတဳဗဳတဳ (Limitations and Relativity) ==
ၜိုန်ရ သၞောဝ် နယူတာန် ဂှ် ကိတ်ညဳ ကု လောကပိုယ် ဇၟာပ်တ္ၚဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အကာဲအရာ လ္ၚဵုမ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ဍိုန်လျအာ (ဗၠေတ်ယောင်ယာ) ရ -
# '''အသိင် မပြဟ်လောန် (High speeds):''' ကာလ အရာဝတ္ထုမွဲ ချဳဒရာင် နကဵု အသိင် မညောန်ကဵု အသိင်လျး ($c \approx 3 \times 10^8 m/s$) မ္ဂး၊ သၞောဝ် နယူတာန် စကာ ဟွံဂွံရ။ ဒးစကာ '''သဳအဝ်ရဳ ရဳလေတဳဗဳတဳ''' (Special Relativity) နူ အာလ်ဘတ် အာင်သတာင် (Albert Einstein) ရ။
# '''အရာဝတ္ထု ဍောတ်လောန် (Atomic scale):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင် အက်တမ် (Atoms) ကေုာံ အေလက်ထရွန် တအ်မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် သၞောဝ် '''ကွာန်တာမ် မက်ကေန်နေတ်''' (Quantum mechanics) တုဲ သၞောဝ် နယူတာန် စကာ ဟွံဂွံ ကီုရ။
ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် သွက် အရာဝတ္ထု ဓမ္မတာ (Macroscopic) တအ်ဂှ် သၞောဝ် နယူတာန် ဂှ် ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ဒၟံင် တုဲတုဲရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Einstein |first=A. |year=1916 |title=Relativity: The Special and the General Theory |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |isbn=978-1512130386}}</ref>။
== ၁၀။ တင်က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် ရူပဗေဒ (Conclusion and Future of Physics) ==
သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် နယူတာန် ပိ သာ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ထဝ်မတ် သိပ္ပံ မခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် လုကဴ ပွိုင် ၃၀၀ သၞာံ ပြင်ရ။ စတမ်နူ ပရေင်ဒက်ပတန် စက်ယန် ဓမ္မတာ စဵုကဵုစိုပ် ပရေင်ပလံင် ရဝ်ကေတ် အာ ဂြိုဟ်တၞဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် ကု သၞောဝ်တအ်ဏအ် သီုဖအိုတ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရူပဗေဒ မ္ဂး ၜိုန်ရ သဳအဝ်ရဳ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗီုကဵု ကွာန်တာမ် ကေုာံ ရဳလေတဳဗဳတဳ တအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်ကၠုင်ကီုလေဝ်၊ လညာတ် သဇိုင် နယူတာန် တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်လက် တန်တဴဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပညာ ရူပဗေဒ ကေုာံ ကွတ်အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ သီုဖအိုတ် လၟိုန်ကာလ ရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rovelli |first=C. |year=2015 |title=Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look |journal=Journal of the American Philosophical Association |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=23–40 |doi=10.1017/apa.2014.11}}</ref>။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် (References) ==
<references />
{{Navbox
|name = ရူပဗေဒ
|title = [[ရူပဗေဒ]] ကေုာံ သၞောဝ် နယူတာန်
|listclass = hlist
|list1 =
* '''သၞောဝ် အဓိက:''' [[သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် နယူတာန်]]
* [[သၞောဝ် ဓါတ်ဂတာ် နယူတာန်]]
* [[အာက်သေတ် နယူတာန်]]
* [[Principia Mathematica]]
|list2 =
* '''ဗၞတ်ဗ္ၜတ် သဇိုင်:''' [[ဒြဟတ် (Force)]]
* [[ဒြပ် (Mass)]]
* [[ပရေင်ပြဟ် (Acceleration)]]
* [[အသိင် (Velocity)]]
* [[အဳနာယှာ (Inertia)]]
|list3 =
* '''လညာတ် ဆက်စပ်:''' [[ဒြဟတ်အသိင် (Momentum)]]
* [[ပရေင်ပွတ်တိုက် (Friction)]]
* [[ဓါတ်ဂတာ် (Gravity)]]
* [[Classical mechanics]]
|list4 =
* '''သဳအဝ်ရဳ ခေတ်တၟိ:''' [[သဳအဝ်ရဳ ရဳလေတဳဗဳတဳ]]
* [[ကွာန်တာမ် မက်ကေန်နေတ်]]
}}
[[Category:သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရာင် နယူတာန်]]
[[Category:ရူပဗေဒ ခေတ်တြေံ]]
[[Category:ဒြဟတ်]]
[[Category:ရူပဗေဒ]]
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အဳနာယှာ
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'''အဳနာယှာ''' (အင်္ဂလိက်: [[w:Inertia|Inertia]]) ဟီုဂှ် ဒှ် သတ္တိ သဘာဝ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒြပ်ဝတ္ထု (Matter) သီုဖအိုတ် မဒုင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မဟွံမိက်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ဇကုရ။ ယဝ်ရ ဝတ္ထုမွဲ မတန်ကြန်ဒၟံင်မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် မိက်ဂွံ ဆက်တန်ကြန်ဒၟံင်တုဲ၊ ယဝ်ရ ဝတ္ထုမွဲ မချဳဒရိုင်ဒၟံင် နကဵု လဟဵု မတန်ကြန် (Constant velocity) မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် မိက်ဂွံ ဆက်ချဳဒရိုင်ဒၟံင် အတိုင်ဂှ်ရ။ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲအာမာန် ဆ ကာလ မနွံကဵု ဒြဟတ်ကြိယာ ဗွဲမ္ၚး (External net force) ကၠုင် ဓလီုပ္ဍိုက် လ္တူဍေဟ် ဟေင်ရ။ သဘဴဓဝ် အဳနာယှာ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဇုတ်စၞိန် အဓိက သွက် '''သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ပထမ''' (Newton's First Law of Motion) မခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် နကဵု အစာသိပ္ပံ [[w:Isaac Newton|အာက်သေတ် နယူတန်]] (Isaac Newton) ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၇ တေအ်ရ။ အဳနာယှာ ဂှ် ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ဗွဲမတပ်တး ကု ဒြပ် (Mass) ဝတ္ထုဂှ်တုဲ၊ ဝတ္ထု ဒြပ် ဇၞော်မ္ဂး အဳနာယှာ ဍေဟ် သၠုင်ရ။
{| class="infobox" style="width:28em; text-align:left; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float:right;"
|+ style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold;" | အဳနာယှာ (Inertia)
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Newton's cradle animation book 2.gif|250px|Newton's Cradle]]<br/>''ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ကေုာံ ပွမတန်ကြန် မဒှ် သတ္တိ အဳနာယှာ ကေုာံ အသိင် ပ္ဍဲ ဝတ္ထုဂမၠိုင်''
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ ဘာသာရပ်
| [[မက်ကေန်နေတ် ကလာတ်သေတ်]] (Classical mechanics)
|-
! ပွံက် အဓိက
| ပွမဒုင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ လဟဵု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင်
|-
! ညးမစၟတ်သမ္တီ ကိုပ်ကၠာ
| [[w:Galileo Galilei|ဂါလဳလဳယဝ်]] (Galileo Galilei) (စတမ် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၇)
|-
! သၞောဝ် ဆက်စပ်
| သၞောဝ် ပထမ နယူတန်
|-
! ဗၞတ်ၜတ် သဇိုင်
| ဒြပ် (Mass) မၜတ် နကဵု ကဳလဝ်ဂရာမ် (kg)
|-
! ဂကူ အဳနာယှာ
| အဳနာယှာ တန်ကြန်, အဳနာယှာ ချဳဒရိုင်, အဳနာယှာ ဂၠံင်တရဴ
|-
! ပရေင်စကာ ပ္ဍဲ လောက
| ခါတ်ဇုက်ဂီုကၠီု (Seatbelts), လဒက်ပတန် က္ၜင်အာကာသ
|}
== ၁။ နိဒါန် (Introduction) ==
အဳနာယှာ ဂှ် ဒှ် မအရေဝ် မစတမ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု အရေဝ် လာတ္တေန် ''"iners"'' မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "မလဇုဲလဇ ဟွံချဳဒရိုင်" (Idle or lazy) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လောက [[ရူပဗေဒ]] မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ် သတ္တိ အဓိက မွဲ မပသောင်ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ မုဟိုတ် သတ်ဝတ္ထုတအ် ဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် အတိုင် သဘာဝ ဍေဟ်တအ်ရော ဂှ်ရ။ ဥပမာ - ကာလ ကွဳစက်မွဲ မဒြေပ်ဒၟံင် ပြဟ်ပြဟ်တုဲ ရပ်ဗရိတ် (Brake) မွဲတဲဓဝ်မ္ဂး၊ မၞိဟ် မဍိုက်ပါကၠုင်တအ်ဂှ် လပါ်ဂတ က္ဍိုပ် စှ်ေအာရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ခန္ဓကာယ မၞိဟ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု သတ္တိ အဳနာယှာ မမိက်ဂွံ ဆက်ချဳဒရိုင်အာ လပါ်ဂတ အတိုင် လဟဵု ကွဳစက် ကိုပ်ကၠာတေအ်ရ။ သဘဴဓဝ်ဏအ်ရ ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် လဒက်ပတန် စက်ယန် ဂီုကၠီု သီုဖအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လောကပိုယ် လၟုဟ်<ref>{{cite book |last=Feynman |first=R. P. |last2=Leighton |first2=R. B. |last3=Sands |first3=M. |year=1963 |title=The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. 1 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=978-0201021165 |pages=9-1}}</ref>။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Evolution) ==
လညာတ် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲကၠုင်လဝ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵုဒြဟတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် သိပ္ပံရ။
* '''လညာတ် အာရဳသ်တဝ်တယ် (Aristotle):''' ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဂရိတ်တြေံ၊ အာရဳသ်တဝ်တယ် ညာတ်ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဝတ္ထုမွဲ ညံင်ဂွံ ဆက်ချဳဒရိုင်ဒၟံင်ဂှ် သ္ဒးနွံ ဒြဟတ် (Force) ဓဇက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဓရိုဟ်ဒၟံင် ဍေဟ် လၟိုန်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ဒြဟတ် ဟွံမဲမ္ဂး ဝတ္ထုဂှ် ဒေါအ်အာရောင် ညး ထေင်ကေတ်လဝ်ရ။ (လညာတ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဗၠေတ်ယောင်ယာဒၟံင်ရ၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ညး ဟွံလ္ၚတ်လဝ် ကြိယာ ပွတ်တိုက် Friction)။
* '''ဂါလဳလဳယဝ် ကေုာံ အဳနာယှာ (Galileo):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၇၊ ဂါလဳလဳယဝ် လ္ၚတ်စမ်ၜတ် နကဵု ယာန်မစှ်ေ (Inclined planes) တုဲ ဂၠာဲဆဵုကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ယဝ်ရ ပရေင်ပွတ်တိုက် ဟွံမဲမ္ဂး၊ မကလောအ် မဂစာဲစှ်ေကၠုင် နူ ယာန်မွဲဂှ် ဍေဟ် ဆက်အာဒၟံင် ဟွံဒေါအ်ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် တင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု သတ္တိ "အဳနာယှာ" ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်ရ။
* '''နယူတန် (Isaac Newton):''' နယူတန် ကေတ် လညာတ် ဂါလဳလဳယဝ် တုဲ၊ ခၞံဗဒှ် ဖျေဟ်သၞောတ်ဝ် နဒဒှ် "သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ပထမ" ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်အုပ် ညး မနွံယၟု ''Principia Mathematica'' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၆၈၇ ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Newton |first=I. |year=1999 |title=The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/principiamathema0000newt |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520088177 |translator=I. Bernard Cohen}}</ref>။
== ၃။ သၞောဝ် ပထမ နယူတန် (Newton's First Law of Motion) ==
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5piR71Q-nF0 ပရူ သၞောဝ် ပထမ နယူတန် ကေုာံ အဳနာယှာ (YouTube)]
သၞောဝ် ပထမ နယူတန် မလေပ်ကော်စ "သၞောဝ် အဳနာယှာ" (Law of Inertia) ဂှ် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜးလဝ် အတိုင်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ်ရ-
> "ဇၟာပ် ဝတ္ထု သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမဲ ကု ဒြဟတ်ဗွဲမ္ၚး (Net external force) ကၠုင် ဓလီုပ္ဍိုက် လ္တူဍေဟ်မ္ဂး၊ ဝတ္ထု မတန်ကြန်ဒၟံင်ဂှ် ဆက်တန်ကြန်ဒၟံင်တုဲ၊ ဝတ္ထု မချဳဒရိုင်ဒၟံင် နကဵု လဟဵု တန်ကြန် ဂှ် ဆက်ချဳဒရိုင်ဒၟံင် အတိုင် ဂၠံင်တရဴ တပ်တပ် ဂှ်ရ။"
သၞောဝ်ဏအ် စၞောန်ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ ဒြဟတ် (Force) ဟီုဂှ် ဟွံသေင် အရာ မမင်မွဲ ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် (Motion)၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အရာ မကတဵုဗဒှ် "ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ" (Acceleration) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ရ။ ယဝ် $\Sigma F = 0$ မ္ဂး $\Delta v = 0$ ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Halliday |first=D. |last2=Resnick |first2=R. |last3=Walker |first3=J. |year=2013 |title=Fundamentals of Physics |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1118230718 |edition=10th}}</ref>။
== ၄။ ဒြပ် ကေုာံ အဳနာယှာ (Mass as a Measure of Inertia) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရူပဗေဒ၊ ဗၞတ်ဗ္ၜတ် သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ် သတ္တိ အဳနာယှာ ဝတ္ထုမွဲဂှ် ဒှ် '''ဒြပ် (Mass)''' ရ။
* ဒြပ် ဇၞော်မ္ဂး အဳနာယှာ သၠုင်ရ။ ဝတ္ထုဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ဍေဟ် ဝါတ်လောန်ရ။ (ဥပမာ - ပွမဓရိုဟ် ကွဳစက် ဇၞော်မွဲ ညံင်ဂွံ ချဳဂှ် ဝါတ်နူ ဓရိုဟ် ကွဳလိုတ် မွဲ)။
* ဒြပ် အောန်မ္ဂး အဳနာယှာ အောန်ရ။
ဒြပ် မစၞောန်ထ္ၜး ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောဝ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ညးကော်စ '''Inertial mass''' ($m$) ရ။ အတိုင် သၞောဝ် ဒုတိယ နယူတန် ($F = ma$) မ္ဂး၊ အဳနာယှာ ဒြပ် ($m = F/a$) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဗၞတ်ဗ္ၜတ် ပွမဒုင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု လၟေင်အသိင် (Acceleration) ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Tipler |first=P. A. |last2=Mosca |first2=G. |year=2007 |title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers |url=https://archive.org/details/physicsforscient0001paul |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-1429201247 |edition=6th}}</ref>။
== ၅။ ဂကူ အဳနာယှာ ဂမၠိုင် (Types of Inertia) ==
အဳနာယှာ ဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ပိ သာ် အဓိက -
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ ပတောအ်ၜတ် ဂကူ အဳနာယှာ ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ လောက
|-
! ဂကူ အဳနာယှာ
! ပွံက် အဓိက
! အစာံ (Examples) ပ္ဍဲ လောက
|-
| '''အဳနာယှာ တန်ကြန် (Inertia of Rest)''' || ပွမဒုင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု ဘဝ မတန်ကြန်ဒၟံင် သွက်ဂွံ စချဳဒရိုင်။ || ကာလ ကွဳစက် စတိတ် ကတိုင်မွဲတဲဓဝ် မ္ဂး ညးဍိုက်ကွဳစက်တအ် လပါ်လက္ကရဴ လောတ်အာ။ (ဟိုတ်နူ ခန္ဓကာယ မိက်ဂွံ တန်ကြန်ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲတြေံ)။
|-
| '''အဳနာယှာ ချဳဒရိုင် (Inertia of Motion)''' || ပွမဒုင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု ဘဝ မချဳဒရိုင်ဒၟံင် သွက်ဂွံ ဒေါအ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သဝ်စှ်ေ။ || အခိင် တက်ဇိုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒြေပ်မံင် ပြဟ်ပြဟ်တုဲ ဂိတုက် ဇိုင်မ္ဂး က္ဍိုပ် လပါ်ဂတ သၠောတ်စှ်ေအာ။
|-
| '''အဳနာယှာ ဂၠံင်တရဴ (Inertia of Direction)''' || ပွမဒုင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဂၠံင်တရဴ ချဳဒရိုင် ဇကု။ || ကာလ ကွဳစက် တ္ၚံက် ကွိုင် (Curve) ပြဟ်ပြဟ်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ်တအ် ဂတးအာ လပါ်မ္ၚး။ (ဟိုတ်နူ ခန္ဓကာယ မိက်ဂွံ အာ ဂၠံင်တပ်တပ်)။
|}
== ၆။ မဝ်မေန် အဳနာယှာ (Moment of Inertia) ==
ပါဲနူကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် တပ်တပ် (Linear motion) တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ဂေတ် (Rotational motion) လေဝ် နွံကဵု သတ္တိ အဳနာယှာ ကီုရ။ ဍေဟ်ဂှ် ညးကော်စ '''မဝ်မေန် အဳနာယှာ (Moment of Inertia - $I$)''' ရ။
ဍေဟ် ဟွံတန်တဴ လ္တူ ဒြပ် ဝတ္ထု မွဲဓဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် တန်တဴ လ္တူ "ဗီုလဵု ဒြပ် တအ်ဂှ် ပါ်ပရအ်လဝ် (Distribution of mass)" ဇမ္ၚောဲ နူကဵု ဝင်ရဝ်ဂေတ် (Axis of rotation) ရ။
* ဖော်မြူလာ သဇိုင်: $I = mr^2$ (သွက် ဒြပ် $m$ မနွံ ဇမ္ၚောဲ $r$ နူ ဝင်ရဝ်)။
* ယဝ်ရ ဒြပ် နွံ ဇမ္ၚောဲ နူ ဝင်ရဝ် ဂၠိုင်မ္ဂး၊ $I$ ဇၞော်တုဲ ဂေတ် ဝါတ်ရ။ (ဥပမာ - ညးလှ်ေ Ice skater ကာလ ညးတအ် ပၠးတဲမ္ဂး ဂေတ် သဝ်စှ်ေ၊ ကာလ ကုပ်တဲမ္ဂး ဂေတ် ပြဟ်တိုန် ဟိုတ်နူ $I$ သဝ်စှ်ေ) <ref>{{cite book |last=Young |first=H. D. |last2=Freedman |first2=R. A. |year=2015 |title=University Physics with Modern Physics |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0321973610 |edition=14th}}</ref>။
== ၇။ အဳနာယှာ ပ္ဍဲ လောကဓမ္မတာ ကေုာံ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ (Applications in Real World) ==
သဘဴဓဝ် အဳနာယှာ ဂှ် စကာဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု နဲကဲ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မံင်စံင် လၟေင်တ္ၚဲ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ-
* '''ခါတ်ဇုက် ဂီုကၠီု (Seatbelts):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကွဳစက်မ္ဂး၊ ခါတ်ဇုက် ဂှ် ဖန်လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု ဒြဟတ်မ္ၚး ဓလီုပ္ဍိုက် လ္တူ ခန္ဓကာယ ပိုယ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဒေါအ်အာ မွဲစွံ ကု ကွဳစက်၊ တၞဟ်န ညံင်ဟွံဂွံ ဒးဒုင် အန္တရာယ် ဟိုတ်နူ အဳနာယှာ ရ။
* '''ပွမခါက် တၞံဆု:''' ကာလ ပိုယ် ခါက် တၞံဆု ညံင် သတ် ဂွံ ပြဟ်စှ်ေဂှ်၊ တၞံဆု ဂှ် ချဳဒရိုင်အာ၊ ဆဂး သတ်ဆု ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ အဳနာယှာ တန်ကြန် တုဲ ဍေဟ် သှ်ေၜက် ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲတြေံတုဲ ပြဟ်စှ်ေကၠုင်ရ။
* '''က္ၜင်အာကာသ:''' ပ္ဍဲ လဟင်အာကာသ (Space) မဟွံမဲ ကု ကျာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပွတ်တိုက် မ္ဂး၊ က္ၜင်အာကာသ မွဲ ကာလ စအာစိုပ် လဟဵု မနွံပၟိက်တုဲ၊ ပၟတ်စက် ပၠိုတ်ထောအ်လေဝ် ဍေဟ် ဆက်အာဒၟံင် အတိုင်ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူ အဳနာယှာ ရောင်<ref>{{cite web |title=Newton's First Law and Spacecraft |url=https://www.nasa.gov/ |publisher=NASA |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== ၈။ သၞောတ်ဝ် ရေဖရေန် အဳနာယှာ ကေုာံ ဟွံသေင် (Inertial and Non-inertial Frames) ==
သၞောဝ် နယူတန် တအ်ဂှ် ဍာံပြ ဆ ပ္ဍဲကဵု '''သၞောတ်ဝ် ရေဖရေန် အဳနာယှာ (Inertial reference frames)''' သၟးရ။
* '''Inertial frame:''' ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မဟွံမဲ ကု လၟေင်အသိင် (No acceleration)။ ဥပမာ - ဍုင်တိ ပိုယ် မတန်ကြန်ဒၟံင် (ၜိုတ်ပတောအ်ၜတ်) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး က္ၜင်ကျာ မပဝ်ဒၟံင် နကဵု လဟဵု တန်ကြန်။
* '''Non-inertial frame:''' ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မနွံကဵု လၟေင်အသိင်။ ဥပမာ - ကွဳစက် မတ္ၚံက်ဒၟံင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဓရိုဟ်ဒၟံင် ပြဟ်ပြဟ်။ ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲဏအ်မ္ဂး ပိုယ် ဒးဒုင်စသိုင် ဒြဟတ် ပတောအ် (Fictitious forces) ဗီုကဵု ဒြဟတ် သေန်ထရဳဖျူဂယ် (Centrifugal force) မပသောင်ထ္ၜး ဟိုတ်နူကဵု အဳနာယှာ ခန္ဓကာယ ပိုယ် မဟွံမိက် တ္ၚံက်ဗက် ကွဳစက်ဂှ်ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=J. R. |year=2005 |title=Classical Mechanics |url=https://archive.org/details/classicalmechani0000tayl |publisher=University Science Books |isbn=978-1891389221 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/classicalmechani0000tayl/page/327 327]-330}}</ref>။
== ၉။ အဳနာယှာ ကေုာံ သီအဝ်ရဳ ရေလေတိဗိတဳ (Inertia and Relativity) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ရူပဗေဒ ခေတ်တၟိ၊ အာာင်သတာင် (Albert Einstein) ကလေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် သဘဴဓဝ် အဳနာယှာ နကဵု '''သီအဝ်ရဳ ရေလေတိဗိတဳ သာမည (General Relativity)''' ရ။
* '''Equivalence Principle (သဘဴဓဝ် တုပ်သၟဟ်):''' အာာင်သတာင် စၞောန်ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ Inertial mass (ဒြပ် မဒုင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် လၟေင်အသိင်) ကေုာံ Gravitational mass (ဒြပ် မကတဵုဗဒှ် ဓရောတ်ဓါတ်ဂၠံက်) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မတုပ်သၟဟ် အလုံအစောံ ရ။
* '''Mach's Principle:''' သဘဴဓဝ် မာတ် (Mach) ဟီုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အဳနာယှာ ဝတ္ထုမွဲဂှ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဓရောတ်ဓါတ်ဂၠံက် နူကဵု ဝတ္ထု သီုဖအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု စက္ကဝါ ဏအ်ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ သီအဝ်ရဳဏအ် ဟွံဍိုက်ပေင် အလုံအစောံ ကီုလေဝ် ဍေဟ် ကဵုလဝ် လညာတ် သွက် အာာင်သတာင် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Einstein |first=A. |year=1920 |title=Relativity: The Special and General Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/relativityspecia0000albe_a0k5 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |isbn=978-1517441112}}</ref>။
== ၁၀။ တင်က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
အဳနာယှာ (Inertia) ဂှ် ၜိုန်ရ ဒှ် သဘဴဓဝ် မလောဲသွာ ကေုာံ ညာတ်ဆဵုဒၟံင် လၟေင်တ္ၚဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဓဝ်သမ္ဘာဝ မဇြိုဟ်နက်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ လောကရူပဗေဒ ရ။ နူကဵု ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဂါလဳလဳယဝ် စဵုကဵုစိုပ် ရေလေတိဗိတဳ အာာင်သတာင် ဂှ် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် ကၠိုဟ်ခိုဟ်ကၠုင် သတ္တိဏအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလးရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်မ္ဂး ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် မဆေင်ကဵု ဒြပ် ပၞုက် (Dark Matter) ကေုာံ Higgs boson (မဝ်လဳကျူ မကဵု ဒြပ် ကု ဝတ္ထုဂမၠိုင်) တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်လ္ၚတ်ဒၟံင် တမ်မူလ သဘာဝ ဒြပ် ကေုာံ အဳနာယှာ ဇေတ်ဇေတ် ပ္ဍဲ ကဆံင် ကွမ်တမ် ဏီရောင်<ref>{{cite news |title=The Higgs Boson and the Origin of Mass |url=https://home.cern/science/physics/higgs-boson |publisher=CERN |access-date=2026-06-23}}</ref>။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် (References) ==
<references />
{{Navbox
|name = ရူပဗေဒ
|title = [[ရူပဗေဒ]] ကေုာံ မက်ကေန်နေတ် ကလာတ်သေတ်
|listclass = hlist
|list1 =
* '''သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် နယူတန်:''' [[သၞောဝ် ပထမ နယူတန်|သၞောဝ် ပထမ (အဳနာယှာ)]]
* [[သၞောဝ် ဒုတိယ နယူတန်|သၞောဝ် ဒုတိယ (F=ma)]]
* [[သၞောဝ် တတိယ နယူတန်|သၞောဝ် တတိယ (Action/Reaction)]]
|list2 =
* '''သဘဴဓဝ် အဓိက:''' [[အဳနာယှာ]]
* [[ဒြပ် (Mass)]]
* [[ဒြဟတ်ကြိယာ (Force)]]
* [[Momentum|အသိင် (Momentum)]]
|list3 =
* '''ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ဂမၠိုင်:''' [[Velocity|လဟဵု (Velocity)]]
* [[Acceleration|လၟေင်အသိင် (Acceleration)]]
* [[Moment of inertia|မဝ်မေန် အဳနာယှာ]]
* [[Centrifugal force|ဒြဟတ် သေန်ထရဳဖျူဂယ်]]
|list4 =
* '''တၠပညာ ဂမၠိုင်:''' [[အာက်သေတ် နယူတန်]]
* [[ဂါလဳလဳယဝ်]]
* [[အာာင်သတာင်]]
* [[Ernst Mach|အာန်သ် မာတ်]]
}}
[[Category:အဳနာယှာ]]
[[Category:မက်ကေန်နေတ် ကလာတ်သေတ်]]
[[Category:ရူပဗေဒ]]
[[Category:သၞောဝ် နယူတန်]]
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'''ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ်''' (အင်္ဂလိက်: [[w:Cognitive science|Cognitive science]]) ဂှ် ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ မလ္ၚတ်ပရူ စိုတ် (Mind)၊ လညာတ်ကသပ် ကေုာံ ဉာဏ်ပညာ (Intelligence) နကဵု လညာတ် ပံင်စပ် ဘာသာရပ်နာနာ (Interdisciplinary) ရ။ ဘာသာရပ်ဏအ်ဂှ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လ္ၚတ်ရံင် ဗီုလဵု စိုတ် ကၠောန်ကမၠောန်၊ ဗီုလဵု တင်ဂရင်ဗတီ (Information) တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲအာ ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု လညာတ်ကသပ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ်၊ တိရစ္ဆာန် ကေုာံ စက်ယန် တၠပညာနိမိတ် တအ်ရ။ ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ် ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဘာသာရပ် အဓိက တြဴ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး [[စိတ္တဗေဒ]]၊ [[တၠပညာနိမိတ်]]၊ [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]၊ [[သၞောတ်ဝ် အာရီု]] (Neuroscience)၊ [[ဘာသာဗေဒ]] ကေုာံ [[မနုဿဗေဒ]] ရ။
{| class="infobox" style="width:28em; text-align:left; font-size:90%; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float:right;"
|+ style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold;" | ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ်<br/>(Cognitive Science)
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Cognitive Science Hexagram.svg|250px|သင်္ကေတ ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ်]]<br/>''သင်္ကေတ တြဴလပါ် (Hexagram) မစၞောန်ထ္ၜး ဘာသာရပ် အဓိက တြဴ သာ် မပံင်စပ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ်''
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက
| [[သိပ္ပံ]] ပံင်စပ် ဘာသာရပ်နာနာ
|-
! မလ္ၚတ် အဓိက
| စိုတ်၊ ဉာဏ်ပညာ၊ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် တင်ဂရင်ဗတီ၊ ပရေင်စၞောန်ထ္ၜး စိုတ်
|-
! ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် အဓိက
| George Miller, Noam Chomsky, Allen Newell, Herbert Simon
|-
! ဘာသာရပ် ပါလုပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| [[စိတ္တဗေဒ]]၊ [[တၠပညာနိမိတ်]]၊ [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]၊ [[သၞောတ်ဝ် အာရီု]]၊ [[ဘာသာဗေဒ]]၊ [[မနုဿဗေဒ]]
|-
! သဘဴဓဝ် အဓိက
| တင်ဂရင်ဗတီ (Information processing), သၞောတ်ဝ် ကောန်ပျူတာ
|-
! ပရေင်စကာ
| ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကွတ်စက်၊ AI၊ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် စိုတ်
|}
== ၁။ ပွံက် ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အလုံ (Definition and Overview) ==
ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သိပ္ပံ မဆေင်ကဵု လညာတ်၊ ပွမတီ၊ ကေုာံ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် စိုတ် ရ။ လညာတ်ကသပ် (Cognition) ဟီုဂှ် ပေါံဂလိုင်လဝ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ပွမစွံသတိ (Attention)၊ ပွမတီညာတ် (Perception)၊ ပွမသမ္တီ (Memory)၊ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ (Language)၊ ပွမဗတောန် (Learning)၊ ကေုာံ ပွမသှ် ပြသၞာ (Problem-solving) တအ်ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Thagard |first=P. |year=2005 |title=Mind: Introduction to Cognitive Science |url=https://archive.org/details/mindintroduction0000thag_w0p1 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0262201544}}</ref>။
အဓိက သဘဴဓဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် မဟီုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "စိုတ်" ဂှ် ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် တုပ်သၟဟ် ကု "စက်ကောန်ပျူတာ" မွဲရ။ ဍေဟ် ဒုင်ကေတ် တင်ဂရင်ဗတီ နူကဵု ပွဳပွူမ္ၚး (Input)၊ တော်ရံင် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် (Processing) အပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ်၊ တုဲ ပတိတ်ကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သွဟ် (Output) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ လညာတ်ဏအ် ပြံင်လှာဲကၠုင်လဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပွမလ္ၚတ် စိုတ် နဒဒှ် သၞောတ်ဝ် တော်ဂၞန် (Computational system) ဂှ် သှ်ေၜက်ဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် တိုင်ခိုင်အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ်ဏီရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-sVnqkI6jE ပရူ ဝင် Cognitive Science ပ္ဍဲ YouTube]
ဝင် ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ် ဂှ် စတမ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်ကလိုက်ကမဵု လညာတ်ကသပ် (Cognitive Revolution) ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် သၞာံ ၁၉၅၀ တအ်ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ နူဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လောက စိတ္တဗေဒ မ္ဂး၊ လညာတ် ဝါဒ ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် (Behaviorism) မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် နကဵု B. F. Skinner တအ် ဓလီုလဝ်ရ။ ဝါဒဏအ် ညာတ်ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပိုယ် လ္ၚတ်ဂွံ ဆ ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် မညာတ်ကေတ် နကဵု မတ် သၟးရ၊ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် အပ္ဍဲ စိုတ် ဂှ် လ္ၚတ် ဟွံမာန် (Black box) ညးတအ် ထေင်လဝ်ရ။
ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၆ သဘင်သဳကၠဳ Dartmouth ကေုာံ MIT ဂှ် အစာသိပ္ပံဂမၠိုင် ဗီုကဵု George Miller (ညးမလ္ၚတ် ပရူ မှတ်ဉာဏ်)၊ Noam Chomsky (ညးမတးပါဲ လညာတ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ Behaviorism)၊ ကေုာံ Allen Newell ကဵု Herbert Simon (ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် AI ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ်) တအ် ပံင်ကောံတုဲ၊ စၞောန်ထ္ၜးကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် အပ္ဍဲ စိုတ် ဂှ် ပိုယ် လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် နကဵု သိပ္ပံ မာန်ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Miller |first=G. A. |year=2003 |title=The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=141-144}}</ref>။ နူကဵု အခိင်ဂှ်တုဲ ဘာသာရပ်ဏအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်ကၠုင် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ်ရ။
== ၃။ ဒဒှ်လက္ကရဴ ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ (Background and Origins) ==
[[File:Blausen 0102 Brain Motor&Sensory (cropped).png|thumb|250px|ဒၞာဲ က္ဍဟ် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဒရိုင် ကေုာံ အာရီု မဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် သၞောတ်ဝ် အာရီု]]
တမ်မူလ သွက် ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ် ဂှ် ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကွတ်ပညာ စက်ကောန်ပျူတာ ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ ဒုတိယ ရ။ လညာတ် Cybernetics မလ္ၚတ်ပရူ သၞောတ်ဝ် ထိင်ဒဝ် (Control systems) ပ္ဍဲကဵု စက် ကေုာံ သတ်ဂျိုင်လမျီုတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက မွဲရ။
အစာသင်္ချာ Alan Turing မခၞံဗဒှ် စက်တူရင် (Turing machine) ကေုာံ John von Neumann တအ် စၞောန်ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ စက်မွဲဂှ် တော်ဂၞန် ကေုာံ ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် ညံင်ရဴ စိုတ် မၞိဟ် မာန်ရ။ လညာတ်ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် အစာစိတ္တဗေဒ တအ် ဂွံစ လ္ၚတ် စိုတ် မၞိဟ် နဒဒှ် သၞောတ်ဝ် မဂိုင်သိပ် ကေုာံ ပြံင်လှာဲ တင်ဂရင်ဗတီ (Information Processing System) မွဲရ။ တုဲပၠန် သီအဝ်ရဳ တင်ဂရင်ဗတီ (Information Theory) မခၞံလဝ် နကဵု Claude Shannon လေဝ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒဒှ်လက္ကရဴ ဘာသာရပ်ဏအ် ကီုရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Boden |first=M. A. |year=2006 |title=Mind as Machine: A History of Cognitive Science |url=https://archive.org/details/mindasmachinehis0002bode |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199241446}}</ref>။
== ၄။ သဘဴဓဝ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Major Concepts and Principles) ==
ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် ကု သဘဴဓဝ် အဓိက နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု-
* '''ပရေင်စၞောန်ထ္ၜး စိုတ် (Mental Representation):''' စိုတ်ပိုယ်ဂှ် ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် ဗီုရုပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သင်္ကေတ အပ္ဍဲ (Internal symbols) သွက်ဂွံ စၞောန်ထ္ၜး အရာနာနာ ပ္ဍဲ လောကမ္ၚးရ။ ဥပမာ ပိုယ် ကၟာတ်မတ်တုဲ ကလေင်ညာတ် ဗီုရုပ် သ္ၚိ ပိုယ်မာန်ဂှ် ဒှ် Mental representation ရ။
* '''ပွမတော်ဂၞန် (Computation):''' လၟေင်ကမၠောန် လညာတ်ကသပ် ဂှ် တုပ်သၟဟ် ကု ပွမတော်ဂၞန် လ္တူ သင်္ကေတ တအ်ဂှ် အတိုင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Algorithms) မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်မွဲရ။
* '''လညာတ်ကသပ် မဆက်စပ် ကု ခန္ဓ (Embodied Cognition):''' ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လၟုဟ် အစာသိပ္ပံတအ် ထပ်ညာတ်ကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ လညာတ်ကသပ် ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် မွဲဓဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဆက်စပ်ဒၟံင် ကု ခန္ဓကာယ အလုံမွဲ ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူမ္ၚး မချဳဒရိုင်ဒၟံင်တအ်ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Varela |first=F. J. |last2=Thompson |first2=E. |last3=Rosch |first3=E. |year=1991 |title=The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience |url=https://archive.org/details/embodiedmindcogn0000vare |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0262720212}}</ref>။
* '''နျူရယ် နေတ်ဝပ် (Neural Networks / Connectionism):''' လညာတ် မလ္ၚတ် စိုတ် အတိုင် လဒက်ပတန် သေလ်အာရီု ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ်၊ မနွံကဵု အဆက်အစပ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မကၠောန်ကမၠောန် မွဲစွံ (Parallel processing) ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Rumelhart |first=D. E. |last2=McClelland |first2=J. L. |year=1986 |title=Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition |url=https://archive.org/details/paralleldistribu00rume |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0262680530}}</ref>။
== ၅။ ပွမပါ်ကရေက် ကေုာံ ကဏ္ဍဂမၠိုင် (Classification and Branches) ==
ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ် ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု ဘာသာရပ် ၆ သာ် အဓိက ရ-
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ ဘာသာရပ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ်
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ ဘာသာရပ် (Discipline)
! ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် အဓိက (Focus Area)
! ဥပမာ သုတေသန (Research Example)
|-
| '''[[စိတ္တဗေဒ]]''' (Psychology) || လ္ၚတ် ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် ကေုာံ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် စိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ကောန်မၞိဟ်။ || ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ပွမသမ္တီ (Memory) ကေုာံ ပွမစွံသတိ။
|-
| '''[[တၠပညာနိမိတ်]]''' (Artificial Intelligence) || ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် စက်ယန် ကေုာံ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် မနွံကဵု ဉာဏ်ပညာ။ || Machine Learning, ပွမကၠိုဟ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ဓမ္မတာ (NLP)။
|-
| '''[[သၞောတ်ဝ် အာရီု]]''' (Neuroscience) || လ္ၚတ် လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ကမၠောန် က္ဍဟ် နကဵု ဇဳဝဗေဒ။ || လ္ၚတ် ရုပ်က္ဍဟ် (fMRI) အခိင် မၞိဟ်တအ် ကၠောန်ကမၠောန်။
|-
| '''[[ဘာသာဗေဒ]]''' (Linguistics) || လ္ၚတ် လဒက်ပတန် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု က္ဍဟ် သမ္တီ အရေဝ်။ || သဒ္ဒါ သာမည (Universal Grammar) Noam Chomsky။
|-
| '''[[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]''' (Philosophy) || သၟာန် ဂလာန်သၟာန် သဇိုင် မဆေင်ကဵု သဘာဝ စိုတ် ကဵု လမျီု။ || ပြသၞာ စိုတ်-ခန္ဓ (Mind-body problem)။
|-
| '''[[မနုဿဗေဒ]]''' (Anthropology) || လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ ထိင်ဒဝ် လညာတ်ကသပ်။ || လ္ၚတ် လညာတ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ပ္ဍဲ ဂကူ တၞဟ်ခြာ။
|}
== ၆။ နဲကဲဂမၠိုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စကာ (Methods and Applications) ==
အစာသုတေသန လညာတ်ကသပ် တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ စမ်ၜတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် စိုတ်ရ။
* '''ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် (Behavioral Experiments):''' ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အခိင် ကလေင်ပလန် (Reaction time) ကေုာံ လၟိဟ် ဗၠေတ်ယောင်ယာ အခိင် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် ကၠောန် တာလျိုင် မွဲမွဲ။
* '''ပွမရိုက်ရုပ် က္ဍဟ် (Brain Imaging):''' စကာ စက် ဗီုကဵု fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) ကေုာံ EEG သွက်ဂွံ ညာတ်ကေတ် ဒၞာဲက္ဍဟ် လဵု မချဳဒရိုင်ဒၟံင် အခိင် ပိုယ် တော်ဂၞန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟီုအရေဝ်။
* '''မဝ်ဒယ် တော်ဂၞန် (Computational Modeling):''' ချူ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ သွက်ဂွံ ပတောအ်ၜတ် ဗီုလဵု က္ဍဟ်ပိုယ် ဗတောန်ပညာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သမ္တီ အရာနာနာရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Marr |first=D. |year=1982 |title=Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information |url=https://archive.org/details/visioncomputatio00davi |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-0262514620}}</ref>။
ပရေင်စကာ ဘာသာရပ်ဏအ်ဂှ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် သၞောတ်ဝ် AI၊ ပရေင်ပညာ (ဗီုလဵု ကွးဘာတအ် ဗတောန် ခိုဟ်အိုတ်)၊ ကေုာံ HCI (Human-Computer Interaction - ပွမဆက်စပ် အကြာ မၞိဟ် ကဵု စက်) ဂမၠိုင်ရ။
== ၇။ တင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Important Discoveries and Contributions) ==
[[File:Artificial intelligence & AI & Machine Learning - 30212411048.jpg|thumb|250px|ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် တၠပညာနိမိတ် (AI) မဒှ် သွဟ် အဓိက မွဲ နူ ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ်]]
ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ် ဂှ် ကလိဂွံလဝ် တင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု မပြံင်လှာဲလဝ် ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ-
* '''သၞောတ်ဝ် သမ္တီ ၜါသာ် (Dual-store memory model):''' ဂၠာဲဆဵု ဒဒှ်ရ မှတ်ဉာဏ် ပိုယ် ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု မှတ်ဉာဏ် အခိင်ဂၠေအ် (Short-term memory - မသမ္တီမာန် ၜိုတ် ၇ တင်) ကေုာံ မှတ်ဉာဏ် အခိင်ဂၠိင် (Long-term memory)။
* '''သဒ္ဒါ သာမည (Universal Grammar):''' Noam Chomsky စၞောန်ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ ကောန်ၚာ် သီုဖအိုတ် သၠးဂၠံဂဝ် ကၠုင် သီုကဵု အစောံသတ္တိ သဘာဝ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် သၞောဝ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ရ<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chomsky |first=N. |year=1959 |title=A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior |journal=Language |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=26-58}}</ref>။
* '''ဒပ်စက် နျူရယ် (Artificial Neural Networks):''' လညာတ် မကၠောန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် အတိုင် လဒက်ပတန် က္ဍဟ် မၞိဟ်၊ မဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် Deep Learning ကေုာံ AI လၟုဟ် ဗီုကဵု ChatGPT တအ်ရ။
== ၈။ သြဇာ လ္တူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Influence on Society, Education, and Culture) ==
ဘာသာရပ်ဏအ် ကဵုလဝ် သြဇာ လ္တူ ပရေင်ပညာ ဗွဲမဇၞော်ရ။ နူကဵု တင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု မဆေင်ကဵု ပွမဗတောန် (Learning sciences) ဂှ်၊ အစာဘာတအ် ပြံင်လှာဲကၠုင် နဲကဲ ဗတောန်လိက် ညံင်ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ဗီုလဵု က္ဍဟ် ကွးဘာတအ် ကၠောန်ကမၠောန်ရ။ ဥပမာ - ပွမပါ်ကရေက် တင်ဂရင်ဗတီ နဒဒှ် ကရေက်ဍောတ်တ် (Chunking) သွက်ဂွံ လောဲသွာ ပ္ဍဲ ပွမသမ္တီရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လောက ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ နဲကဲ စက် (Technology) မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ခၞံဗဒှ်လာ ကိရိယာ မဆေင်ကဵု User Interface (UI) ညံင်ဂွံ လောဲသွာ သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ် စကာမာန်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ညးတအ် ကၠိုဟ်ခိုဟ် ဗီုလဵု မတ် ကဵု စိုတ် ပိုယ် ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် အခိင် ရံင် သကရင် (Screen) ရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Newell |first=A. |year=1990 |title=Unified Theories of Cognition |url=https://archive.org/details/unifiedtheorieso0000alle |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674921016}}</ref>။
== ၉။ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ခေတ်တၟိ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သုတေသန လၟုဟ် (Modern Development and Current Research) ==
လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ် ဂှ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်ဒၟံင် လပါ် ကဏ္ဍ တၟိတၟိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။
* '''Deep Learning ကေုာံ AI:''' ပွမစကာ ဒပ်စက် နျူရယ် မဇၞော် (Large Neural Networks) သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် စက် မတီညာတ် ရုပ်၊ ကၠိုဟ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ သှ် ပြသၞာ ဝါတ်ဝါတ် မာန်ရ။
* '''Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI):''' ပရေင်သုတေသန မဆက်စပ် က္ဍဟ် မၞိဟ် ကု စက်ကောန်ပျူတာ တပ်တပ်၊ သွက်ဂွံ ရီုဗင် ညးမက္ဍိုက်အာတအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ချဳဒရိုင် စက် နကဵု လညာတ်ကသပ် သၟးရ။
* '''Predictive Processing:''' သီအဝ်ရဳ တၟိ မဟီုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ က္ဍဟ် ပိုယ်ဂှ် ဒှ် "စက် မတော်ရံင် အနာဂတ် (Prediction machine)" မွဲတုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် တော်ရံင်လဝ် အရာမကတဵုဒှ်မာန် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ဒုင်ကေတ် အာရီု နူ မတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကတောဝ် ဏီရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=A. |year=1997 |title=Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0262531560}}</ref>။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာဂမၠိုင် (Future Perspectives and Challenges) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဘာသာရပ်ဏအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ်လောန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပြသၞာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် သှ်ေၜက်ဒၟံင် ဏီရ။
* '''ပြသၞာ ဇၞော် မဆေင်ကဵု ဝိညာဏ် (The Hard Problem of Consciousness):''' ၜိုန်ရ ပိုယ် တီ ဒဒှ်ရ က္ဍဟ် ကၠောန်ကမၠောန် ဗီုလဵု ကီုလေဝ်၊ "မုဟိုတ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် တအ်ဏအ် ကတဵုဗဒှ်ကဵု 'ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင်' ကေုာံ 'ဝိညာဏ်' (Subjective experience) ရော" ဂှ် အစာသိပ္ပံတအ် သှ် ဟွံမာန် ဏီရ<ref>{{cite book |last=Simon |first=H. A. |year=1996 |title=The Sciences of the Artificial |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencesofartifi0000simo |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0262691918 |edition=3rd}}</ref>။
* '''AGI (Artificial General Intelligence):''' ပွမခၞံဗဒှ် AI မနွံကဵု ဉာဏ်ပညာ မတုပ်သၟဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၠုင်နူ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဇၟာပ် ကဏ္ဍ သီုဖအိုတ်ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် တင်ရန်တၟအ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ကေုာံ အန္တရာယ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက် အနာဂတ် ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ် ရ။
== See also ==
* [[စိတ္တဗေဒ]]
* [[တၠပညာနိမိတ်]]
* [[သၞောတ်ဝ် အာရီု]]
* [[ဘာသာဗေဒ]]
* [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* Bechtel, W., & Graham, G. (Eds.). (1998). ''A Companion to Cognitive Science''. Blackwell.
* Bermúdez, J. L. (2014). ''Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Science of the Mind'' (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
* Friedenberg, J., & Silverman, G. (2015). ''Cognitive Science: An Introduction to the Study of Mind'' (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
== External links ==
* [https://cognitivesciencesociety.org/ Cognitive Science Society] - ဂကောံ ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ် အလုံဂၠးကဝ်။
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Cognitive Science] - သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လညာတ်ကသပ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿနိကဗေဒ။
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-sVnqkI6jE MIT OpenCourseWare: Introduction to Cognitive Science] - ဗဳဒဳယဝ် ပရေင်ပညာ နူ တက္ကသိုလ် MIT။
{{Navbox
|name = Cognitive Science
|title = [[ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ်]] (Cognitive Science)
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* '''ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက:''' [[စိတ္တဗေဒ]]
* [[တၠပညာနိမိတ်]]
* [[သၞောတ်ဝ် အာရီု]]
* [[ဘာသာဗေဒ]]
* [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]
* [[မနုဿဗေဒ]]
|list2 =
* '''သဘဴဓဝ်ဂမၠိုင်:''' [[လညာတ်ကသပ်]]
* [[ဝိညာဏ်]]
* [[မှတ်ဉာဏ်]]
* [[လၟေင်ကမၠောန် တင်ဂရင်ဗတီ]]
* [[ပရေင်စၞောန်ထ္ၜး စိုတ်]]
}}
[[Category:ပညာ သိပ္ပံ လညာတ်ကသပ်]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ]]
[[Category:စိတ္တဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]
[[Category:တၠပညာနိမိတ်]]
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'''ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Strategic negotiation'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မနွံကဵု တင်ရန်တၟအ် ဗွဲမချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပြသၞာ၊ ကလိဂွံ တင်တုပ်စိုတ် ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်မံင်စိုပ် အကြာ မၞိဟ်ၜါလပါ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠိုင်နူဂှ် နကဵု မစကာ နဲကဲ ဗျူဟာ (Strategy) ကေုာံ ပညာ (Tactics) ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်ဝွံ ဒှ်အရာကိစ္စဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ အကြာဍုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် အလုံအိုတ်သီုရ။ ဟွံတုပ်ကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် ဓမ္မတာ၊ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာဂှ် စွံအာရီု လတူ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ အခိင်လအ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သီုၜါလပါ် (win-win situation) ကိုပ်ကၠာရ။<ref name="fisher_ury">{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=Roger |last2=Ury |first2=William |title=Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In |url=https://archive.org/details/nlsiu.340.028.fis-239876 |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0143118756 |edition=3rd}}</ref>
[[File:Businessmen_shaking_hands_(2).jpg|thumb|right|300px|ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် ကေုာံ တင်တုပ်စိုတ် ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မဒှ်အရာ ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန်]]
လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာဝွံ နွံပၟိက်ဒၟံင် သမ္တီ၊ ဉာဏ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Psychology) ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵု ဒြဟတ်ရ။ ညးမပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်တအ် ဒးတီလဝ် နဲကဲ BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement) ကေုာံ ZOPA (Zone of Possible Agreement) သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ပရေင်ကျသြောမ် ဇကုရ။<ref name="lewicki">{{cite book |last=Lewicki |first=Roy J. |title=Negotiation |date=2020 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-1260043648 |edition=8th}}</ref>
== နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ==
ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်အနုသုခုမ ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံ မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်ပညဳပညပ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဂွံ ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် အကြာ ဂကောံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပူဂိုလ် မနွံကဵု ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ ဟွံတုပ် ရေင်သကအ်ရ။ အဓိက တင်ရန်တၟအ်ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ တုဲ ညံင်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ၚုဟ်မး (value creation) သွက် ညးမပါလုပ် အလုံအိုတ်သီုရ။ ဗျူဟာ (Strategy) ဟီုဂှ် ဒှ်လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မဖျေဟ်လဝ် အစဳအဇန် ကိုပ်ကၠာ သွက်ဂွံ စိုပ် တင်ရန်တၟအ် ဇကုရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သဇိုင်လညာတ် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်ဂှ် ပါလုပ်ကဵု သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အကာဲအရာ၊ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဒြဟတ် ဒစးဒုင် (counterpart's strength)၊ ကေုာံ ရုဲစှ် နဲကဲ မဒးရးရ။ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် မခိုဟ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် (competition) မွဲ၊ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ပံင်တဲ (collaboration) သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ သွဟ် မခိုဟ်အိုတ် သွက် သီုၜါလပါ်ရ။ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ကမ္မဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော်တအ် စကာ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာ သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပရေင်ကူသာန်သွံရာန် ကေုာံ မင်မဲ ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်ရ။
== ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်ဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ်တမၠာ ကာလ မၞိဟ်တအ် စကၠောန် ပရေင်ကူသာန်သွံရာန် ရေင်သကအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် အဳဂျေပ် (Egypt) ကေုာံ ဍုင်ကြိတ် (Greece) တမၠာတေအ် သၟိင်တၠတအ် စကာ နဲကဲ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် သွက်ဂွံ ပတန် ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ကေုာံ ပါ်ပရအ် တိဍာ်ရ။ ဆဂး လညာတ် "ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာ" (Strategic Negotiation) ဗွဲမချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ဂှ် စပြာကတ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒေါဝ် ၂၀ ဗွဝ်ကၠံရ။
ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အလန်ဒုတိယ တုဲ၊ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် အကြာ ဍုင် ကေုာံ ဍုင် (Diplomacy) ဂှ် ဒှ်ကၠုင် ကိစ္စ ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ပၞာန် နျူကလဳယျာရ။ တက္ကသိုလ် ဟာဗာတ် (Harvard University) ပံက်လဝ် ဂကောံ သုတေသန ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် (Harvard Negotiation Project) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၇၉ တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ်ကၠုင် လညာတ် "Principled Negotiation" မစွံအာရီု လတူ ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ (Interests) ဟွံသေင် လတူ တင်ဒစးဒုင် (Positions) ရ။ နူကဵု အခိင်ဂှ်တုဲ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲကၠုင် နူကဵု နဲကဲ ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် ဇရေင် နဲကဲ ပံင်တဲ ကေုာံ ပညဳပညပ် ရ။<ref name="sebenius">{{cite journal |last=Sebenius |first=James K. |title=Negotiation Analysis: A Characterization and Review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_management-science_1992-01_38_1/page/18 |journal=Management Science |date=1992 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=18–38}}</ref>
== သဇိုင်လညာတ် တေသြရဳဂမၠိုင် ==
သဇိုင်လညာတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာ နွံနာနာသာ် မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement):''' နဲကဲ ခိုဟ်အိုတ် ယဝ်ရ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် လီုလာ်အာမ္ဂး ဇကု မဒးဖန်။ ယဝ်ရ BATNA ဇကု ခိုဟ်မ္ဂး၊ ဒြဟတ် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် (Bargaining power) ဇကုလေဝ် သၠုင်ရ။
* '''ZOPA (Zone of Possible Agreement):''' ဒၞာဲ မဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် မာန်။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဗွိုက် အကြာ ၚုဟ်မး အောန်အိုတ် ညးသွံ မဒုင်တဲမာန် ကေုာံ ၚုဟ်မး ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ညးရာန် မကဵုမာန် ရ။
* '''Distributive vs. Integrative:''' နဲကဲပါ်ပရအ် (Distributive/Win-Lose) ဂှ် မၞိဟ်မွဲ ဂွံဂၠိုင် မၞိဟ်မွဲ ဂွံအောန်။ နဲကဲပံင်ကောံ (Integrative/Win-Win) ဂှ် ဂစာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ၚုဟ်မး သွက် သီုၜါလပါ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဂွံ ဖဵု ခိုဟ်အိုတ်ရ။
[[File:Negotiation_ZOPA_diagram.svg|thumb|left|400px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပွိုက် ZOPA (Zone of Possible Agreement) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မကတဵုဒှ် ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ်မာန်]]
တေသြရဳ ဂမၠိုင်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်သဇိုင် သွက် ညးမချပ်ဂၞန်တအ် ဂွံ ဖျေဟ် အစဳအဇန် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ စိုပ် ခုင် ဓရီုကျာ ဏီရ။ ညးမစကာ တေသြရဳတအ်ဏအ် လေပ်မ္ဂး ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကလိဂွံ အောင်ဇၞး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်ရ။
== လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် ==
လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ကဆံင် (၄) ကဆံင် အဓိကရ -
၁။ '''ပရေင်ပြင်ဆင် (Preparation):''' ဒှ်ကဆံင် ကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဆံင်ဏအ် ဒးလ္ၚတ် တင်ဂၞင် (Data gathering)၊ ဒးဖျေဟ် BATNA ကေုာံ ZOPA၊ တုဲပၠန် ဒးသ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လပါ်ညးတၞဟ်ကီုရ။
၂။ '''ပရေင်သၠာဲဂတး လညာတ် (Information Exchange):''' ကာလ စိုပ် ခုင် ဓရီုကျာမ္ဂး မၞိဟ်ၜါလပါ် ဒးသၠာဲဂတး လညာတ် ကေုာံ ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ ရေင်သကအ်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဆံင်ဏအ် ပရေင်ကလင် နကဵု စိုတ်လုပ်စ (Active listening) ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။
၃။ '''ပရေင်ပညဳပညပ် ကေုာံ ချပ်ဂၞန် (Bargaining):''' ဒှ်ကဆံင် မကဵုကေတ် (give-and-take) ရ။ ညးၜါလပါ် ဂစာန် ပညဳပညပ် ညံင်ဂွံ စိုပ် ဗွိုက် ZOPA ရ။ နဲကဲ ဗျူဟာ နာနာသာ် ဒးစကာ ပ္ဍဲကဆံင်ဏအ်ရ။
၄။ '''ပရေင်ကၟာတ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် (Closing and Commitment):''' ကာလ စိုပ် တင်တုပ်စိုတ် တုဲမ္ဂး ဒးချူဖျေဟ် လိက်ကသုက် (Contract) ကေုာံ ဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် သွက်ဂွံ ရေင်တၠုင် ကမၠောန် ဆက်အာရ။
== ဗျူဟာ ကေုာံ နဲကဲဂမၠိုင် ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာဂှ် နွံကဵု နဲကဲ ကေုာံ ဗျူဟာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ရ။ နဲကဲလ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် စကာ သွက်ဂွံ ပံင်တဲ တုဲ နဲကဲလ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် စကာ သွက်ဂွံ ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန်ရ။
{| class="wikitable"
|+ ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ကေုာံ နဲကဲ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် အဓိက (၂) သာ်
|-
! အင်္ဂလက္သဏ်
! [[Wikipedia:Red_link|နဲကဲပါ်ပရအ် (Distributive Bargaining)]]
! [[Wikipedia:Red_link|နဲကဲပံင်ကောံ (Integrative Bargaining)]]
|-
| '''တင်ရန်တၟအ် (Goal)''' || ဂွံ အလုံအိုတ်သီု မွဲလပါ် (Win-Lose) || ဖန်ဗဒှ် ၚုဟ်မး သွက်သီုၜါလပါ် (Win-Win)
|-
| '''စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Motivation)''' || အတ္တ / ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် (Competitive) || ပရေင်ပံင်တဲ (Collaborative)
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ (Relationship)''' || အခိင်ဂၠေအ် (Short-term) || အခိင်လအ် (Long-term)
|-
| '''သဘဴဓဝ် (Focus)''' || တင်ဒစးဒုင် (Positions) || ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ (Interests)
|}
နဲကဲ အဓိက မစကာဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ပါလုပ်ကဵု '''Anchoring''' (ပရေင်ဖျေဟ် ၚုဟ်မး အလန်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ဓလီု လညာတ် ညးတၞဟ်)၊ '''Framing''' (ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပြသၞာ နကဵု ဗီုပြင် မတၞဟ်ခြာ)၊ ကေုာံ '''Logrolling''' (ပရေင်သၠာဲဂတး အရာ မနွံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး အောန် သွက် ဇကု ဆဂး နွံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး ဇၞော် သွက် ညးတၞဟ်) ရ။<ref name="malhotra">{{cite book |last=Malhotra |first=Deepak |title=Negotiation Genius |url=https://archive.org/details/negotia_mal_2008_00_3813 |date=2008 |publisher=Bantam Books |isbn=978-0553384116}}</ref>
== အလုံအလန် ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Psychological Factors) ==
ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Psychology) ဝွံ ဒှ်သဇိုင် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်ရ။ ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် မသ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် နကဵု ယုတ္တိ (Logic) တွဵုရ၊ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ဒြဟတ်စိုတ် ကေုာံ လညာတ်မှာ (Cognitive biases) ဂမၠိုင်ရ။
လညာတ်မှာ မပ္တံကဵု '''Confirmation Bias''' (ပရေင်ဂၠာဲ တင်ဂၞင် မထံက်ဂလာန် လညာတ် ဇကုဟေင်) ကေုာံ '''Loss Aversion''' (ပရေင်ဖေက် ကျသြောမ် ဂၠိုင်နူ ပရေင်မိက်ဂွံ အောင်ဇၞး) တအ်ဂှ် ပလီုကဵု ပရေင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် မာန်ရ။ ညးမချပ်ဂၞန် မစိုန်သကီုတအ်ဂှ် တီလဝ် လညာတ်မှာ တအ်ဏအ် တုဲ ဖန်ဇန် စဵုဒၞာ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံ ဒးဒုင် ပလီုစိုတ် ရ။ ပါ်နူဂှ်ပၠန် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် စိုတ် ညးတၞဟ် (Empathy) ဂှ်လေဝ် ဒှ်လွဟ် ကိစ္စဇၞော်မွဲ သွက်ဂွံ ပတန် ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ (Trust) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်ရ။
== ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ အကြာ ယေန်သၞာင်နာနာ (Cross-Cultural Negotiations) ==
ကာလ ချပ်ဂၞန် ကဵု မၞိဟ် နူကဵု ဍုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ယေန်သၞာင် တၞဟ်ခြာမ္ဂး ပရေင်တီကၠိုဟ် ယေန်သၞာင် (Cultural intelligence) ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ လေပ်ဟွံမဲ ဟွံတုဲ ရ။ ယေန်သၞာင် မွဲကဵုမွဲ နွံကဵု ဗီုပြင် ဆက်ဆောံ ဟွံတုပ် ရေင်သကအ်ရ။
ဥပမာ - ပ္ဍဲယေန်သၞာင် ရးပလိုတ် (ဗီုကဵု ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်) ဂှ် မၞိဟ်တအ် ဒးစိုတ် ဆက်ဆောံ တပ်တပ် (Direct communication) တုဲ စွံအာရီု လတူ လိက်ကသုက် (Contract) ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲယေန်သၞာင် ရးဗမံက် (ဗီုကဵု ဍုင်ဂျပေန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍုင်ကြုက်) ဂှ် မၞိဟ်တအ် စွံအာရီု လတူ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ ကေုာံ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ (Guanxi) ကိုပ်ကၠာ နူ ဟွံဂွံ ဖျေဟ် လိက်ကသုက် ဏီရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ယေန်သၞာင် (Multicultural Studies) ဂှ် ထံက်ပင်ကဵု ညံင်ဂွံ အောင်ဇၞး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် ဂၠးကဝ် ဗွဲမလောန်ရ။<ref name="meyer">{{cite book |last=Meyer |first=Erin |title=The Culture Map: Breaking Through the Invisible Boundaries of Global Business |url=https://archive.org/details/culturemapbreaki0000meye |date=2014 |publisher=PublicAffairs |isbn=978-1610392501}}</ref>
== ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွိုက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Business) ဂှ် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ်ဒၟံင် လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲရ။ စပ်ကဵု ပရေင်ရာန် ကပေါတ်၊ ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ကမ္မဏဳ (Mergers and Acquisitions)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဖျေဟ် လၟိဟ်သြန်ဂိတု ကောန်ကမၠောန် တအ်ဂှ် နွံပၟိက်ဒၟံင် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာ အလုံအိုတ်သီုရ။ ကမ္မဏဳ မလေပ် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်တအ်ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ သြန်ပရဲ ဂၠိုင်တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ကဵု ညးစကာကပေါတ် (Customers) တအ် မာန်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွိုက် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Politics) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ ဍုင်သအာင် (Diplomacy) ဂှ် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် လောန်ရ သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ပၞာန် ကေုာံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ ဂၠးကဝ်ရ။ ဂကောံကုလသမဂ္ဂ (UN) ကေုာံ ဂကောံ အာသဳယာန် (ASEAN) တအ်ဝွံ စကာ နဲကဲ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ပညဳပညပ် အကြာ ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်ဂှ် ညးမချပ်ဂၞန်တအ် ဒးဖန်ဇန် ညံင်ဂွံ ညဳသၟဟ် ကဵု ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဇကု ကေုာံ ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ ဍုင်မ္ၚး သီုၜါလပါ်ရ။
== ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် (Challenges and Conflict Management) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် ဇၟာပ်အလန်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် မအာစိုပ် တင်တုပ်စိုတ် တွဵုရ။ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ပြသၞာ (Conflicts) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်စိုတ် ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵု ဒြဟတ် မာန်ရ။ ပြသၞာတအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ်ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စၠောအ် ဟွံခိုဟ် (Miscommunication)၊ ဒြဟတ်စိုတ် ထတ်လောန် (High emotions)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တင်ရန်တၟအ် ဟွံတုပ် ရေင်သကအ် အလုံအိုတ်သီုရ။
သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာတအ်ဏအ်ဂှ် နွံပၟိက်ဒၟံင် နဲကဲ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် ပြသၞာ (Conflict Management) ရ။ ညးမချပ်ဂၞန်တအ် ဒးစကာ နဲကဲ မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ခေဲါ ဒၞာဲ ဓရီုကျာ (Taking a break)၊ ပရေင်ပါ်ပရအ် ပြသၞာ ဇၞော် ဇရေင် ပြသၞာ ဍောတ်ဍောတ် (Fractionation)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကော် ညးလဒေါဝ် (Mediator) သွက်ဂွံ ကူညီ ပညဳပညပ် ရ။ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် ပြသၞာ မခိုဟ်ဂှ် ပလီုထောအ် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် ဟွံသေင်တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ပံက်ကဵု ဂၠံင်တၟိ သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် မာန်ရ။
== အနာဂတ် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် (The Future of Strategic Negotiation) ==
အနာဂတ် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ တိုန်ကၠုင် နကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် နဲကဲပညာ (Technology) ကေုာံ အာဲထဳ (Artificial Intelligence - AI) ရ။ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် လတူ အန်လာင် (Online dispute resolution) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗဳဒဳယဝ် (Video conferencing) တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ကၠုင် အရာ ဓမ္မတာ မွဲရ။
AI ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ကောန်ပျူတာတအ်ဝွံ ကူညီ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်ကဵု တင်ဂၞင် (Data analytics) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် ညးမချပ်ဂၞန်တအ် ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဂွံဒးရးရ။ ဆဂး ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ်၊ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ ကောန်မၞိဟ်တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံမာန် ပလီုထောအ် နကဵု စက်ယန္တရား ဏီရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ညးမချပ်ဂၞန် ပ္ဍဲအနာဂတ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒးစိုန်သကီု သီုလပါ် နဲကဲပညာ သီုလပါ် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Soft skills) တအ် သီုၜါလပါ် ရောင် မဒှ်ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Conflict management]] (ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် ပြသၞာ)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Game theory]] (သဇိုင်လညာတ် ဂိမ်း)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Cross-cultural communication]] (ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ အကြာ ယေန်သၞာင်နာနာ)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Mediation]] (ပရေင်ပညဳပညပ်)
{{Navbox
| name = Negotiation
| title = ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင်လညာတ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|BATNA]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ZOPA]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|နဲကဲပါ်ပရအ် (Distributive)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|နဲကဲပံင်ကောံ (Integrative)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု ဗျူဟာ (Strategic Negotiation)]]
| group2 = လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ ပညာ
| list2 =
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် ပြသၞာ (Conflict Resolution)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|သဇိုင်လညာတ် ဂိမ်း (Game Theory)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပရေင်ပညဳပညပ် (Mediation)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ (Communication)]]
}}
[[Category:ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်]]
[[Category:ဗျူဟာ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ]]
[[Category:နဲကဲပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]]
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'''ဂန်''' ကေုာံ ဝေါဟာရတၞဟ် မဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု '''ဂန္ထ'''၊ '''ဂန္ထဝင်'''၊ '''ဂဏ'''၊ ကေုာံ '''ဂန''' တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ်ဂကောံဝေါဟာရ မလွဳစကာလဝ် နူကဵု ဘာသာပါဠိ ကေုာံ သက္ကတ မနွံကဵု လွပ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ပ္ဍဲကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာမန်၊ လိက်ပတ်မန်၊ သာသနာ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာဗေဒ မန် (Mon Linguistics) ဂှ် ဝေါဟာရတအ်ဏအ် ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု ရမ္သာင် ကြပ်ညောန် ရေင်သကအ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ ဗီုပြင် လွပ် ဍေဟ်တအ်ဂှ် တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ ရေင်သကအ် ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵု ဒြဟတ် ရ။ "ဂန္ထ" ဂှ် ဆေင်စပ်ကဵု လိက်ပတ် ပြကိုဟ်၊ "ဂဏ" ဂှ် ဆေင်စပ်ကဵု ဂကောံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂိုဏ်၊ တုဲ "ဂန်" ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒှ် ပရေင်ဖ္ဍန် မလိက် (Abbreviation) ပ္ဍဲ အရေဝ်ဟီု ဓမ္မတာ ရ။<ref name="shorto1971">{{cite book |last=Shorto |first=H. L. |title=A Dictionary of the Mon Inscriptions from the Sixth to the Sixteenth Centuries |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmoni0000shor |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1971 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmoni0000shor/page/88 88]-90}}</ref>
[[File:Pali_Manuscript_from_Myanmar.jpg|thumb|right|350px|လိက်သၠရိုတ် ပါဠိ-မန် တြေံ မထ္ၜးကဵု သက်သဳ လဒက်ပတန် "ဂန္ထ" (ပြကိုဟ်) ကေုာံ ဝင်ယေန်သၞာင် လိက်ပတ်။]]
နကဵု လညာတ် သုတေသန ယေန်သၞာင် ဗဟု (Multicultural Studies) ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Sociology) မ္ဂး၊ လွပ် ဝေါဟာရတအ်ဏအ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Institutional isomorphism) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင်ဂကူမန်၊ မဒှ် အရာ မန်တအ် လွဳစကာ ပညာ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဝ် နူ အိန္ဒိယ သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် သၞောတ်သာသနာ၊ လိက်ပတ်၊ ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ ညးတအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင်ဏအ်ဝွံ ပါ်ပါဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဘာသာဗေဒ၊ ဝင်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ရ။
== နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ဝေါဟာရ မဆေင်ကဵု "ဂန်" တအ်ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အဓိက ၜါသာ် နူကဵု ဘာသာပါဠိ ကေုာံ သက္ကတ ရ -
# '''Gantha (ဂန္ထ):''' ကၠုင်နူ ရိုဟ်ကၞက် 'Ganth' (To tie, to bind - ဒက်၊ ကန်) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင်တမၠာ လိက်သၠရိုတ် တအ်ဂှ် ညးတအ် စကာ ဇုက် သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပံင်ကောံ လိက်တအ်ဂှ်ရ "ဂန္ထ" ဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "လိက်အုပ်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ပြကိုဟ်" (Book, Text, Composition) ရ။
# '''Gaṇa (ဂဏ / ဂန):''' ကၠုင်နူ ပါဠိ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ဂကောံ၊ ဗလး၊ ဂိုဏ်" (Flock, Multitude, Chapter of monks) ရ။
အရေဝ်မန်ဝွံ လွဳစကာလဝ် မလိက် ၜါဏအ် နူကဵု ခေတ် သုဝဏ္ဏဘုမ္မိ (Dvaravati period) တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ စကာကၠုင်လဝ် နကဵု လဒက်ပတန် အက္ခရ်မန် ရ။ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး သွက်ဂွံ ဟီု လောဲသွာ ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဖ္ဍန်ထောအ် တုဲ ဟီု "ဂန်" သၟး လေဝ် နွံရ။<ref name="jenny2015">{{cite book |last=Jenny |first=M. |title=The Mon Language |publisher=Brill |year=2015 |pages=215-218}}</ref>
== ဂန္ထ (Gantha) - လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ပြကိုဟ် ==
'''ဂန္ထ''' (Gantha) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ မဆေင်စပ် ကဵု လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ပြကိုဟ် ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်ပတ် မန်မ္ဂး "ဂန္ထ" ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မနွံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး သၠုင်အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ဓရ် ကျာ်တြဲ ရ။
* '''ဂန္ထဓူရ (Gantha-dhura):''' ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ပတိတ် ဒြဟတ် လပါ် လိက်ပတ် ပရိယတ်။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သာသနာ မ္ဂး ညးပါ်လဝ် ဂန္ထဓူရ (တာလျိုင် လ္ၚတ် လိက်) ကေုာံ ဝိပဿနာဓူရ (တာလျိုင် ပၟဝ်ဓရ်) ရ။
* '''ဂန္ထကာရက (Ganthakaraka):''' ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ညးမခၞံ ပြကိုဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အစာကဝိ မချူ လိက်ပတ် ရ။
မန်တအ် စွံၚုဟ်မး လတူ "ဂန္ထ" ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ၊ လိက်ပတ် တြေံဂမၠိုင်ဂှ် ညးတအ် မင်မဲလဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘာလကျာ် (Monasteries) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဗဟဵု သွက် ပရေင်ပညာ ဒေသ ရ။
== ဂန္ထဝင် (Ganthawin) - လိက်ပတ် တမၠာ မပြာကတ် ==
'''ဂန္ထဝင်''' (Classic / Classical Literature) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု "ဂန္ထ" (ပြကိုဟ်) ကေုာံ "ဝင်" (Vaṃsa - အဆက်အဆေန် / ဝင်) ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် လိက်ပတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပြကိုဟ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက်၊ မပြာကတ် တုဲ မဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် အဆက်အဆေန် ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ်ဝွံ တုပ်သၟဟ် ကဵု ဝေါဟာရ "Classic" ပ္ဍဲ အင်္ဂလိက် ကီုရ။
[[File:Bagan_Ananda_Temple_Mon_Plaque.jpg|thumb|left|250px|တိအုတ် မနွံကဵု လိက်မန်တြေံ မဒှ် သက်သဳ ဂန္ထဝင် လိက်ပတ်မန်။]]
လိက်လင်္ကာမန် တြေံ မပ္တံကဵု လိက်မိမင်ဂၠန်၊ လိက်သၟိင်အသး၊ ကေုာံ ပြကိုဟ် လောကသိဒ္ဓိ တအ်ဂှ် ညးစၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နဒဒှ် "လိက်ပတ် ဂန္ထဝင် မန်" ရ။ လိက်ပတ် ဂန္ထဝင် တအ်ဝွံ ထိင်ဒဝ်လဝ် သၞောတ်ဝ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ၊ အခိုက်ကၞာ၊ ကေုာံ ဒဿန ဂကောံမၞိဟ်မန် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။ ပ္ဍဲခေတ် လၟုဟ် ပရေင်ကလေင် ပတိတ် လိက် "ဂန္ထဝင်" တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ယေန်သၞာင် မန် ရ။
== ဂဏ (Gaṇa) - လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ သာသနာ ==
'''ဂဏ''' (Gaṇa) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ မဆေင်စပ် ကဵု ဂကောံ၊ ဗလး၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂိုဏ် ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ်ဝွံ စကာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒက်ပတန် သာသနာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။
* '''သင်္ဃဂဏ (Sangha Gana):''' ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဂကောံ ခမဳသင် ဂမၠိုင်။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သာသနာ မန် မ္ဂး ညးပါ်လဝ် ဂကောံဂိုဏ် နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ဂိုဏ်ရာမညနိကာယ]] (Ramanya Nikaya Gana) ကေုာံ မဟာနိကာယ တအ်ရ။
* '''ဂဏပါမောက္ခ (Gana-pamokkha):''' ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ညးမဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဂကောံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကျာ်ဇၞော် အုပ်ဓလပ် ဂိုဏ် ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Sociology) မ္ဂး လွပ် "ဂဏ" ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞောတ် နဲကဲ သွက်ဂွံ အုပ်ဓလပ် ဒြဟတ် မၞိဟ် (Social organization) မွဲရ။ ဍေဟ် ကဵု လဒက်ပတန် မနွံကဵု ကဆံင် (Hierarchical structure) သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ဓဝ်သၟဟ်ညဳ ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ်ဝိနယ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ ရ။<ref name="gombrich2006">{{cite book |last=Gombrich |first=R. F. |title=Theravada Buddhism: A Social History |url=https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis0000gomb |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |pages=132}}</ref>
== ဂန (Gana) - သင်္ချာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ==
'''ဂန''' ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု ရမ္သာင် တုပ် ကဵု "ဂဏ" ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်မန် လ္ၚဵုတအ်ဂှ် စကာ ဍေဟ် နဒဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်ရိုဟ်လၟိဟ် (Counting) ကေုာံ သင်္ချာ (Mathematics / Astrology) ရ။
* '''ဂၞန် (Ganan):''' မလိက် မပြံင်လှာဲ ကၠုင် နူ "ဂန" ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ "ဂၞန်" (Number / Calculation) ရ။
* ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗေဒင် ကေုာံ နက္ခတ် မန် ဂှ် "ဂန" ဝွံ ဆေင်စပ် ကဵု ပရေင်ရိုဟ်လၟိဟ် အခိင် ကေုာံ ဂြဟ် တအ်ရ။
လွပ် ဏအ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပညာ သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ သင်္ချာ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တမၠာ တေအ်ရ။ တၠပညာမန် တအ် စကာ ဂၞန် သွက်ဂွံ ခၞံဗဒှ် ပြက္ခဒိန် (Calendar) ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အကာဲအရာ ရာသဳဥတု ရ။
== လဒက်ပတန် သၞောတ်အက္ခရ် ကေုာံ ရမ္သာင်မန် ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ဘာသာဗေဒ မန် ဂှ် မလိက် "ဂ" ဝွံ ဒှ် ဗျည် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ ရမ္သာင်ဇြိုင် (Second Register / Breathy Voice) ရ။
* '''ဂန္ထ:''' /gɛ̀n-tʰa/ (ဂေန်-ထ) -> ပ္ဍဲ အရေဝ်ဟီု မ္ဂး ဖ္ဍန် ထောအ် တုဲ ဟီု /gɛ̀n/ (ဂေန်/ဂန်) သၟး ရ။
* '''ဂဏ / ဂန:''' /gɛ̀-na/ (ဂေ-န) -> ပ္ဍဲ အရေဝ်ဟီု မ္ဂး ဖ္ဍန် ဟီု /gɛ̀n/ (ဂေန်) ကီု ရ။
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဖ္ဍန် ရမ္သာင် (Phonological reduction) ဏအ်ရ၊ ပ္ဍဲ အရေဝ်ဟီု ဓမ္မတာ မ္ဂး ဝေါဟာရ "ဂန္ထ" ကေုာံ "ဂဏ" ၜါဏအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ ရမ္သာင် "ဂန်" တုပ်တုပ် ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ လိက်ပတ် မ္ဂး ဒးချူ အတိုင် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် သဒ္ဒါ ပါဠိ ချိုတ်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ရ။ အရာဏအ် ထ္ၜးကဵု သၞောတ်ဝ် လိက်မန် (Mon Orthography) မနွံကဵု ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် သၠုင် ရ။<ref name="bauer1982">{{cite book |last=Bauer |first=C. |title=Morphology and Syntax of Spoken Mon |publisher=University of London |year=1982 |pages=165}}</ref>
=== တင်ပတုပ်ရံင် ဝေါဟာရ မဆေင်ကဵု "ဂန်" ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ တင်ပတုပ်ရံင် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဝေါဟာရဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဝေါဟာရ မန်
! ရိုဟ်ကၞက် ပါဠိ
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် အဓိက
! ကဏ္ဍ မစကာဂၠိုင်
|-
| '''ဂန္ထ'''
| Gantha (ဒက်၊ ကနှ်)
| ပြကိုဟ်၊ လိက်အုပ်
| လိက်ပတ်၊ သာသနာ
|-
| '''ဂန္ထဝင်'''
| Gantha + Vaṃsa
| လိက်ပတ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက်၊ Classic
| အနုသုခုမ၊ လိက်ပတ်
|-
| '''ဂဏ'''
| Gaṇa (ဗလး၊ ဂကောံ)
| ဂကောံ၊ ဂိုဏ်
| ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ်၊ သာသနာ
|-
| '''ဂန (ဂၞန်)'''
| Gana (ရိုဟ်လၟိဟ်)
| သင်္ချာ၊ နက္ခတ်
| ဗေဒင်၊ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ
|}
== လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ လိက်ရာဇာဝင် ကေုာံ ဓမ္မသတ် ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက် ဝင် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မန် တြေံ မပ္တံကဵု လိက် ဓမ္မသတ် ဖရိုအ် (Wareru Dhammasattha) ကေုာံ ဥပ္ပန္နသုဓမ္မဝတဳရာဇာဝံသကထာ ဂှ် ဝေါဟာရ "ဂဏ" ကေုာံ "ဂန္ထ" ဂှ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
ဥပမာ -
* '''ပ္ဍဲ ဓမ္မသတ်:''' သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် ဂကောံ မ္ဂး ညးစကာ ဝေါဟာရ "ဂဏ" သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဂကောံ ညးကွာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ သၟာကမၠောန် ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ ရာဇာဝင်:''' တၠညး ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အစာကဝိ တအ် ချူ "ဂန္ထ" တၟိ သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဝင် ဍုင် ကေုာံ သာသနာ ရ။
လွပ် တအ်ဏအ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ မန်တအ် စကာလဝ် ပါဠိ နဒဒှ် ဘာသာ သၠုင် (Prestige language) သွက် လိက်ပတ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ရာဇာဝင် ရ။
== သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ယေန်သၞာင် ဗဟု ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Multicultural and Sociocultural Analysis) ==
[[File:Group_of_Mon_Monks.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ဂကောံ ခမဳသင် မန် မဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု "ဂဏ" မဒှ် သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓလပ် သာသနာ မပြာကတ်။]]
နကဵု နဲကဲ သုတေသန Qualitative research methodology မ္ဂး၊ လွပ် ဝေါဟာရ "ဂန္ထ" ကေုာံ "ဂဏ" ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်မန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဥပမာ ခိုဟ်အိုတ် သွက် လညာတ် Institutional Isomorphism (ပရေင်ညဳသၟဟ် လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံ) ရ။
မန်တအ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ လွဳစကာ မလိက် သၟး ရ၊ ညးတအ် လွဳစကာ ကေတ် သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓလပ် (Organizational structures) နူ အိန္ဒိယ ရ။ "ဂဏ" (ဂိုဏ်) ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် မထိင်ဒဝ် ဂကောံ ခမဳသင် တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ တန်ကြန် သၟဝ် သၞောဝ် ဥပဒေ မွဲရ။ "ဂန္ထ" (ပြကိုဟ်) ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် မထိင်ဒဝ် လညာတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာ ရ။ ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ယေန်သၞာင် နာနာ (Multiculturalism) အကြာ မန် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အေန်ဒဝ်-အာရဳယာန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မန် ညံင်ဂွံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ကေုာံ နွံကဵု လဒက်ပတန် အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ သာသနာ မခိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ အာရှအဂၞဲ ရ။<ref name="south2003">{{cite book |last=South |first=A. |title=Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma |url=https://archive.org/details/monnationalismci0000sout |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/monnationalismci0000sout/page/105 105]-108}}</ref>
== အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်သုတေသန ဘာသာဗေဒ ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် လၟုဟ်၊ ဝေါဟာရ မပ္တံကဵု "ဂန္ထဝင်" ဂှ် ဆက်တုဲ ပြာကတ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ကဏ္ဍ လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာ ရ။ သွက် ဂွံ ဆက် မင်မဲ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မန် ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်သုတေသန ဘာသာဗေဒ (Linguistic Research) ကေုာံ ပရေင် ဒက်ပတန် ကောန်ပျူတာ သၞောတ်ဝ် လိက်မန် (Mon NLP and Corpora) ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
တက္ကသိုလ် ကေုာံ ဌာန သုတေသန ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု RILCA, Mahidol University တအ်ဂှ် လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဒၟံင် ဝေါဟာရ ပါဠိ-မန် တအ်ဏအ် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဝင် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မန် ရ။ လိက် "ဂန္ထ" တြေံ တအ်ဂှ် ညးတအ် ပၠောပ်ဒၟံင် သၞောတ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digitization) သွက် အနာဂတ် မာန်ရ။ ယဝ်ရ မန်တအ် ဆက် မင်မဲ လိက်ပတ် "ဂန္ထဝင်" ဇကု မ္ဂး၊ ဝင် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ညးတအ် တန်ကြန် အာ လၟိုန် ကာလ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Pali literature in Southeast Asia]] (လိက်ပတ် ပါဠိ ပ္ဍဲ အာရှအဂၞဲ)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Mon classical literature]] (လိက်ပတ် ဂန္ထဝင် မန်)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Buddhist monastic organization]] (လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံသာသနာ)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Dhammasattha]] (လိက်ဓမ္မသတ်)
{{Navbox
| name = Mon Lexicography and Literature
| title = ဝေါဟာရဗေဒ ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် မန် (Mon Lexicography and Literature)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဝေါဟာရ လွဳစကာ အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ဂန္ထ|ဂန္ထ (Gantha - Text)]]
* [[ဂန္ထဝင်|ဂန္ထဝင် (Ganthawin - Classic)]]
* [[ဂဏ|ဂဏ (Gaṇa - Group)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ဨကန္တ (Ekanta - Certainty)]]
| group2 = လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ပြကိုဟ်
| list2 =
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|လိက်သၠရိုတ် (Palm-leaf manuscripts)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ဓမ္မသတ် ဖရိုအ် (Wareru Dhammasattha)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|လိက်လင်္ကာ (Poetry)]]
| group3 = လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်
| list3 =
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ရာမညနိကာယ (Ramanya Nikaya)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ဂိုဏ်သာသနာ (Monastic sects)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ဂၞန်ဗေဒင် (Astrology/Counting)]]
}}
[[Category:အရေဝ်ဘာသာမန်]]
[[Category:ဝေါဟာရ ပါဠိ-မန်]]
[[Category:လိက်ပတ်မန်]]
[[Category:လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်]]
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ပွမပတၟောအ်
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'''ပွမပတၟောအ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Multiplication'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် သဇိုင် အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[ပညာဂၞန်]] (Arithmetic) ကေုာံ [[သင်္ချာ]] (Mathematics) မဒှ်အရာ မဆက်စပ်လဝ် ကု [[ပွမပံင်]] (Addition) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ကဵုအလန် ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် သာမညမ္ဂး ပွမပတၟောအ် ဂၞန်ၜါ (ဥပမာ - 3 ကေုာံ 4) ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ လၟိဟ် 3 အတိုင် လၟိဟ် 4 အလန် (3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပံင်ကောံ လၟိဟ် 4 အတိုင် လၟိဟ် 3 အလန် (4 + 4 + 4 = 12) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် သင်္ချာမ္ဂး ပွမပတၟောအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မစၞောန်ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်၊ ပရေင်ဆ (Scaling)၊ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် ဗီုပြင် စတုရန်း ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒကုတ်ဇမၠိင် (Rectangular arrays) ဂမၠိုင်ရ။<ref name="boyer1991">{{cite book|last=Boyer|first=Carl B.|title=A History of Mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=1991|isbn=978-0-471-54397-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/15 15]-20}}</ref> ဝေါဟာရ "ပွမပတၟောအ်" ဏအ်ဝွံ စကာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဝလၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ဇမၠိင်ဇမၠေအ်၊ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ အခိင် ကေုာံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍသိပ္ပံ နာနာသာ်ရ။
[[ဝှာင်:Multiplication_4x5.svg|right|thumb|300x300px|ပွမပတၟောအ် 4 ကေုာံ 5 ဂှ် ထ္ၜးလဝ် နကဵု ဗီုပြင် ခဍမ် 4 ပၞောန် ကေုာံ 5 တိုင် မပံင်ကောံ အိုတ်သီု 20 ခဍမ်။ (4 × 5 = 20)]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ပွမပတၟောအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မဖန်ဗဒှ် ဖဵုလၟိဟ် တၟိ မွဲ နူကဵု ဂၞန် ၜါမ ရ။ ဂၞန် မဒးဒုင် ပတၟောအ် ဂှ် ကော်စ '''ဂၞန်ဒးဒုင်ပတၟောအ်''' (Multiplicand) တုဲ၊ ဂၞန် မပတၟောအ် ကုဍေဟ် ဂှ် ကော်စ '''ဂၞန်ပတၟောအ်''' (Multiplier) ရ။ ဖဵုလၟိဟ် မကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပွမပတၟောအ် ဂှ် ကော်စ '''ဖဵုပတၟောအ်''' (Product) ရ။
ဥပမာ - ပ္ဍဲကဵု 5 × 3 = 15 ဂှ်
* 5 ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂၞန်ဒးဒုင်ပတၟောအ်
* 3 ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂၞန်ပတၟောအ်
* 15 ဂှ် ဒှ် ဖဵုပတၟောအ် ရ။
နကဵု သဘာဝမ္ဂး ဂၞန်ၜါဏအ်ဝွံ ဖလှာဲ ဒၞာဲ ရေင်သကအ် ဂွံဒၟံင် တုဲ ညးကော်စ အိုတ်သီု ၜါမ ဂှ် နဒဒှ် '''အရာမဆက်စပ်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ဖက်တာ''' (Factors) ရ။ ပွမပတၟောအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပံင်ကောံ မတုပ်သၟဟ် (Repeated addition) ရ။<ref name="devlin2000">{{cite book|last=Devlin|first=Keith|title=The Language of Mathematics: Making the Invisible Visible|publisher=W. H. Freeman|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7167-3967-4|pages=45-48}}</ref>
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင် ပွမပတၟောအ် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဝင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် အလုံဂၠးတိ နူကဵု ခေတ်တမၠာ တေအ်ရ။
* '''ခေတ် အဳဂျေပ် (Ancient Egypt):''' အဳဂျေပ် တမၠာ တအ် စကာလဝ် နဲကဲ ပွမပတၟောအ် နကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် သ္ၚာဲဆ (Doubling) ရ။ ညးတအ် ဟွံဒး စကာ သ္ၚိအင်ပွမပတၟောအ် တုဲ ညးတအ် စကာ ပွမပံင် လၟိဟ် ၜါဆ အဆက်ဆက် သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ ဖဵုပတၟောအ် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ဗာဗဳလောန် (Babylonians):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၜိုတ် ဘဳစဳ 2000 တေအ် ဂှ် ဗာဗဳလောန် တအ် ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် သၞောတ်ဂၞန် မဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ 60 (Sexagesimal system) တုဲ ညးတအ် ခၞံလဝ် သ္ၚိအင်ပွမပတၟောအ် လတူ တိအုတ် ဂမၠိုင် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် အိန္ဒိယ (Ancient India):''' တၠပညာ သင်္ချာ အိန္ဒိယ တအ် မပ္တံကဵု ဗြဟ္မဂုတ္တ (Brahmagupta) ကေုာံ အာယျာဘတ္တ (Aryabhata) တအ် စကာလဝ် သၞောတ်ဂၞန် သုည ကေုာံ ဒသမ (Base-10 system) မဒှ် သၞောတ် မပိုယ် စကာဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လၟုဟ် ရ။ ညးတအ် ခၞံဗဒှ်လဝ် နဲကဲ Grid method မကော်စ သ္ၚိအင် ပွမပတၟောအ် ရ။<ref name="ifrah2000">{{cite book|last=Ifrah|first=Georges|title=The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer|url=https://archive.org/details/universalhistory0000ifra_y2b9|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2000|isbn=978-0-471-39340-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/universalhistory0000ifra_y2b9/page/120 120]-125}}</ref>
== ၃။ သင်္ကေတ ကေုာံ ဝေါဟာရဂမၠိုင် (Notation and Terminology) ==
[[ဝှာင်:Dot_operator.svg|left|thumb|100x100px|သင်္ကေတ တိက် (Dot) မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ သင်္ချာ သၠုင် သွက် ပွမပတၟောအ်]]
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် သင်္ချာ ဂှ် ပွမပတၟောအ် ဝွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နကဵု သင်္ကေတ နာနာ သာ် ရ -
# '''သင်္ကေတ ကြက်ခြေခတ် (×):''' ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဗတောန် ပညာဂၞန် သဇိုင် ရ။ ဥပမာ - 4 × 5 = 20 ရ။ အစာသင်္ချာ အင်္ဂလိက် ဝဳလဳယမ် အံက်ထရက် (William Oughtred) စကာလဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ 1631 ရ။<ref name="mazur2014">{{cite book|last=Mazur|first=Joseph|title=Enlightening Symbols: A Short History of Mathematical Notation and Its Hidden Powers|url=https://archive.org/details/enlighteningsymb0000mazu|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-691-15463-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/enlighteningsymb0000mazu/page/145 145]-147}}</ref>
# '''သင်္ကေတ တိက် (·):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု သင်္ချာ ကဆံင်သၠုင် ကေုာံ အာလ်ဂျဳဗရာ ဂှ် သင်္ကေတ (×) ဏအ်ဝွံ ထုဲသၠေဟ် အာ ကဵု မအက္ခရ် အင်္ဂလိက် (x) မာန် တုဲ ညးတအ် စကာ သင်္ကေတ တိက် လဒေါဝ် ရ။ ဥပမာ - 4 · 5 = 20 ရ။
# '''သင်္ကေတ အက္ခရ် ကြပ် (Adjacency):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု အာလ်ဂျဳဗရာ မ္ဂး ယဝ်ရ ဂၞန် ကေုာံ မအက္ခရ် ဆက်ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် သမ္တီလဝ် နဒဒှ် ပွမပတၟောအ် ရ။ ဥပမာ - 5x ဂှ် ဒှ် 5 × x ရ။
== ၄။ သဘာဝ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဂမၠိုင် (Properties and Laws) ==
ပွမပတၟောအ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု သဘာဝ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ် သဇိုင် (Properties) ဗွဲမခိုင်ကၠိုက် ရ။ သၞောဝ် တအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵုလဝ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ချပ်ဂၞန် သင်္ချာ ကဆံင်သၠုင် ရ။
* '''သၞောဝ် ဖလှာဲဒၞာဲ (Commutative Property):''' ပရေင်ဖလှာဲ ဒၞာဲ ဂၞန် ၜါမ ဂှ် ဟွံပလီုကဵု ဖဵုပတၟောအ် ရ။
$$a \times b = b \times a$$
* '''သၞောဝ် ပံင်ကောံ (Associative Property):''' ပရေင်ပါ် က္ဍိုပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပံင်ကောံ အတိုင်လဵု မွဲလေဝ် ဖဵုပတၟောအ် ဂှ် တုပ်ဒၟံင် လၟိုန် ရ။
$$(a \times b) \times c = a \times (b \times c)$$
* '''သၞောဝ် တြး (Distributive Property):''' ပွမပတၟောအ် ဂှ် တြးပၠောပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပွမပံင် မာန် ရ။
$$a \times (b + c) = (a \times b) + (a \times c)$$
* '''အရာမသက်သဳ ပွမပတၟောအ် (Identity Element):''' ဂၞန်လဵုမွဲ ဟွံဟီု ပတၟောအ် ကု 1 မ္ဂး ကလိဂွံ ဂၞန်တမ် ဂှ်ပၠန် ရ။
$$a \times 1 = a$$
* '''သဘာဝ သုည (Zero Property):''' ဂၞန်လဵုမွဲ ဟွံဟီု ပတၟောအ် ကု 0 မ္ဂး ဖဵုပတၟောအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် 0 လၟိုန် ရ။
$$a \times 0 = 0$$
== ၅။ သ္ၚိအင်ပွမပတၟောအ် (Multiplication Table) ==
သ္ၚိအင်ပွမပတၟောအ် (Multiplication table) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သ္ၚိအင် (Times table) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာသဇိုင် မဒးလ္ၚတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာဗတောန်လိက် အလုံဂၠးတိ ရ။ သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လောဲသွာ တုဲ ညးတအ် ခၞံလဝ် သ္ၚိအင် (၁) နူ (၁၀) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး (၁၂) ရ။
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== ၆။ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ နဲကဲဂမၠိုင် (Algorithms and Methods) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ချပ်ဂၞန် လၟိဟ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ်ဂှ် ပညာဂၞန် နွံကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် (Algorithms) မဂၠိုင်ကဵုသာ် ရ -
* '''ပွမပတၟောအ် ဇမၠိင် (Long Multiplication):''' ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် နဲကဲ သဇိုင် မဗတောန်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာ သွက်ဂွံ ပတၟောအ် ဂၞန် မနွံကဵု ဒၞာဲ (Digits) ဂၠိုင်င် ရ။ နဲကဲဏအ်ဝွံ ဒးပတၟောအ် ဂၞန် မွဲဒၞာဲ တုဲ မွဲဒၞာဲ တုဲမ္ဂး ဒးပံင်ကောံ ဖဵုလၟိဟ် အလုံအိုတ်သီု ရ။
* '''နဲကဲ သ္ၚိအင်ကွက် (Grid Method):''' ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် နဲကဲ မပါ်ကရေက် ဂၞန် ဇၞော် နကဵု ဒၞာဲ 10, 100 ဒှ်တမ် တုဲ ချပ်ဂၞန် နကဵု သ္ၚိအင် ရ။ (ဥပမာ - 34 × 12 ဂှ် ပါ် နဒဒှ် 30 + 4 ကေုာံ 10 + 2)။
* '''နဲကဲ လဲတိသ် (Lattice Multiplication):''' ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် နဲကဲ မကၠုင်နူ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ တုဲ ပြးဇး အာ ဍုင်အာရပ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် စကာ သ္ၚိအင်ကွက် မနွံကဵု ဓရီုက္ဍင် (Diagonals) သွက်ဂွံ ပါ်ကရေက် ဒၞာဲ လၟိဟ် ရ။
== ၇။ ပွမပတၟောအ် ဂၞန်ဒကုတ် ကေုာံ ဂၞန်ဒသမ (Multiplication of Fractions and Decimals) ==
ပွမပတၟောအ် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ သွက် ဂၞန်အလုံ (Integers) သၟး ရ၊ ဍေဟ် စကာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၞန်ဒကုတ် (Fractions) ကေုာံ ဂၞန်ဒသမ (Decimals) ကီု ရ။
* '''ဂၞန်ဒကုတ်:''' ကာလ ပတၟောအ် ဂၞန်ဒကုတ် မ္ဂး ဂၞန်လတူ (Numerator) ပတၟောအ် ကု ဂၞန်လတူ၊ ဂၞန်သၟဝ် (Denominator) ပတၟောအ် ကု ဂၞန်သၟဝ် ရ။
$$ \frac{a}{b} \times \frac{c}{d} = \frac{a \times c}{b \times d} $$
* '''ဂၞန်ဒသမ:''' သွက် ဂၞန်ဒသမ တအ်ဂှ် ချပ်ဂၞန် နဒဒှ် ဂၞန်အလုံ တုဲမ္ဂး ကလေင် ရိုဟ် လၟိဟ် ဒၞာဲ ဒသမ တုဲ စုတ် တိက် ဒသမ ကလေင် ရ။ ဥပမာ - 0.5 × 0.2 = 0.10 ร။<ref name="kline1990">{{cite book|last=Kline|first=Morris|title=Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times|url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicalthou0002morr|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-19-506135-2|pages=250-252}}</ref>
== ၈။ ပွမပတၟောအ် ပ္ဍဲ အာလ်ဂျဳဗရာ (Multiplication in Algebra) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[အာလ်ဂျဳဗရာ]] (Algebra) ဂှ် ပွမပတၟောအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် (Equations) ကေုာံ မအက္ခရ် မပြံင်လှာဲ (Variables) ဂမၠိုင် ရ။
ပွမပတၟောအ် ပ္ဍဲ အာလ်ဂျဳဗရာ ဂှ် စကာ သၞောဝ် တြး (Distributive Law) ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။ ဥပမာ သွက် ပဝ်လဳနဝ်မဳယလ် (Polynomials) မ္ဂး - $$(x + a)(x + b) = x^2 + bx + ax + ab$$
လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဏအ်ဝွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နကဵု လညာတ် FOIL (First, Outer, Inner, Last) သွက်ဂွံ ညံင်ဟွံဂွံ ဝိုတ် အခိင် ပတၟောအ် ဂၞန် ပ္ဍဲ ကွင်း ၜါ ရ။
== ၉။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဝလၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံ (Applications in Daily Life and Science) ==
[[ဝှာင်:Rectangular_area.svg|right|thumb|200x200px|ပွမပတၟောအ် ဇမၠိင် ကေုာံ ဇမ္မၠိင် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ဗွိုက်လဒက် (Area)]]
ပွမပတၟောအ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု လွပ် မဟွံမာန် ရိုဟ်လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဝ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economics):''' သွက်ဂွံ ချပ်ဂၞန် ၚုဟ်မး ကပေါတ် (ဥပမာ - ကပေါတ် 5 မ၊ ၚုဟ်မွဲ 10 ဒကေဝ် = 5 × 10 = 50 ဒကေဝ်)။
* '''ဂျဳသြမေထြဳ (Geometry):''' သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ဗွိုက်လဒက် (Area) နကဵု ပွမပတၟောအ် ဇမၠိင် ကေုာံ အနာံ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠာဲ ထုထည် (Volume) နကဵု ပွမပတၟောအ် ဇမၠိင်၊ အနာံ၊ ကေုာံ သမၠုင်။
* '''ရူပဗေဒ (Physics):''' သၞောဝ် ရူပဗေဒ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ဒြဟတ် (Force = mass × acceleration) တအ်ဂှ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ပွမပတၟောအ် ဖအိုတ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ ပွမပတၟောအ် ကဆံင်သၠုင် ကေုာံ မေထြေတ် (Advanced Multiplication and Matrices) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သင်္ချာ ကဆံင်သၠုင် (Higher Mathematics) မ္ဂး ပွမပတၟောအ် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ဂၞန် သၟးရ၊ ဍေဟ် ဆက်စပ် ကု လဒက်ပတန် မပ္တံကဵု မေထြေတ် (Matrices)၊ ဗေတ်တာ (Vectors) ကေုာံ ဂၞန်ကောမ်ပလက် (Complex numbers) ရ။
* '''ပွမပတၟောအ် မေထြေတ် (Matrix Multiplication):''' ပွမပတၟောအ် မေထြေတ် ၜါ ဂှ် ဟွံတုပ် ကု သၞောဝ် ဖလှာဲဒၞာဲ ရ။ နကဵု သာမညမ္ဂး $A \times B$ ဂှ် ဟွံတုပ် ကု $B \times A$ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မေထြေတ် ရ။
* '''ပွမပတၟောအ် ဗေတ်တာ (Vector Multiplication):''' နွံကဵု ဗီုပြင် ၜါသာ် မကော်စ Dot product (မကဵု ဖဵုလၟိဟ် ဂၞန်) ကေုာံ Cross product (မကဵု ဖဵုလၟိဟ် ဗေတ်တာ တၟိ မွဲ) ရ။
ပညာဂၞန် ကေုာံ ပွမပတၟောအ် တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကွတ်ပညာ တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု ကောန်ပျူတာ ကေုာံ ဉာဏ်လုပ်စက် (Artificial Intelligence) အလုံအိုတ်သီု ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် (References) ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ:Red link|Arithmetic]] (ပညာဂၞန်)
* [[ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ:Red link|Division (mathematics)]] (ပွမပါ်)
* [[ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ:Red link|Multiplication algorithm]] (လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပွမပတၟောအ်)
* [[ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ:Red link|Peano axioms]] (သၞောဝ်သဇိုင် ပဳယာနဝ်)
{{Navbox|name=Elementary arithmetic|title=လၟေင်ကမၠောန် သင်္ချာ သဇိုင် (Elementary Arithmetic Operations)|listclass=hlist|state=autocollapse|group1=လၟေင်ကမၠောန် အဓိက|list1=* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပွမပံင် (Addition)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပွမနုက် (Subtraction)]]
* [[ပွမပတၟောအ်]] (Multiplication)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပွမပါ် (Division)]]|group2=လၟေင်ကမၠောန် တၞဟ်|list2=* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပွမစွံအစောမ် (Exponentiation)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပွမဂၠာဲရိုဟ် (Root extraction)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|လော်ဂါရစ်သမ် (Logarithm)]]|group3=ဝေါဟာရ ဆက်စပ်|list3=* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ဂၞန်ဒကုတ် (Fraction)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ဂၞန်ဒသမ (Decimal)]]
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|သ္ၚိအင် ပွမပတၟောအ် (Multiplication table)]]}}
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'''အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Algorithm'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[သင်္ချာ]] (Mathematics) ကေုာံ [[သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Computer science) မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မနွံကဵု စၞောန်ပညုင် (Instructions) မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်၊ မနွံကဵု အပိုတ်အခြာ (Finite sequence) သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ မွဲမွဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန်ဗစိုပ် ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် (Computation) မွဲရ။ အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် "မအုတ်သဇိုင်" သွက် ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ (Computer programs) သီုဖအိုတ် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ကေတ် တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဇန် တင်ဂၞင် (Data processing)၊ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် (Calculation)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် နကဵု အလဵုအလဵု (Automated reasoning) ရ။ <ref name="cormen">{{cite book |last=Cormen |first=Thomas H. |author2=Leiserson, Charles E. |author3=Rivest, Ronald L. |author4=Stein, Clifford |title=Introduction to Algorithms |edition=3rd |publisher=MIT Press |year=2009 |pages=5-8}}</ref>
အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မွဲဝွံ တုပ်သၟဟ် ကဵု လိက်စၞောန် ဍုန်သွ (Recipe) မွဲ ကီုရ။ ယဝ်ရ ပိုယ် နွံကဵု ကပေါတ်စၞ (Input) တုဲ၊ ပိုယ် ဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် အတိုင် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် (Algorithm) တအ် ဇၟာပ်ပ် ကဆံင် မ္ဂး၊ လက္ကရဴအိုတ် ပိုယ် ကလိဂွံ သွဟ် (Output) မဍာံပြ ရ။
[[File:Euclid_flowchart_1.png|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး သ္ၚိအင် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် (Flowchart) သွက် ယူကလိတ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳသမ် (Euclid's algorithm) မဒှ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ [[ဂၞန်ပါ်မဇၞော်အိုတ်]] (Greatest Common Divisor - GCD)။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
နကဵု သၞောတ်ဝ် ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် မ္ဂး၊ အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မဟွံသၠေဟ်ပၟာ (Unambiguous) မွဲ မမာန် ကေတ် တင်ဂၞင် လုပ် (Input) နူကဵု ကဆံင် သုည ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠိုင်နူဂှ် တုဲ၊ ဖန်ဇန် အတိုင် သၞောတ်ဝ် မကဵုလဝ် တုဲပၠန် ပတိတ်ကဵု တင်ဂၞင် တိတ် (Output) ပ္ဍဲကဵု လၟိဟ် ကဆံင် မနွံကဵု အပိုတ်အခြာ (Finite number of steps) ရ။
အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မွဲ ခိုဟ် ဟွံခိုဟ် ဂှ် ညးတအ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် လတူ -
* '''ပရေင်ဍာံပြ (Correctness):''' ဍေဟ် ကဵု သွဟ် မဍာံပြ တွဵု ဟာ?
* '''ပရေင်ခိုဟ်သန် (Efficiency):''' ဍေဟ် ကေတ် အခိင် (Time) ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ (Space/Memory) အောန်အိုတ် ဟာ?
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ရိုဟ်ကၞက် ဝေါဟာရ (History and Etymology) ==
ဝေါဟာရ အင်္ဂလိက် "Algorithm" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ ယၟု အစာသင်္ချာ ပါရှန် (Persian) မနွံယၟု ''Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi'' (အာလ်-ခဝါရစ်ဇမဳ) ရ။ ညးဝွံ ဂျိုင်တဴလဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ၜိုတ် အေဒဳ ၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ တုဲ၊ ညးချူလဝ် ပြကိုဟ် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် ဂၞန်ဟိန္ဒူ-အာရပ် (Hindu-Arabic numerals) ရ။ ယၟုညးဂှ် ကာလ ပြံင်လှာဲ စိုပ် အရေဝ်လေတ်တေန် (Latin) မ္ဂး ဒှ်အာ ''Algoritmi'' ရ။ <ref name="knuth">{{cite book |last=Knuth |first=Donald E. |title=The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms |edition=3rd |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=1997 |pages=1-4}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ခေတ်တၟိ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု [[မလိက်မန်]] (Ada Lovelace) ညးမချူလဝ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် သွက် စက် Analytical Engine ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၄၂ ရ။ လက္ကရဴဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆ ဂှ်၊ [[အလန် တူရိန်]] (Alan Turing) ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် လညာတ် [[စက် တူရိန်]] (Turing machine) မဒှ် သဇိုင် သဳအိုရဳ သွက် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ကေုာံ ကောန်ပျူတာ အလုံအိုတ်သီု ရ။
== ၃။ အင်္ဂလက္သဏ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မခိုဟ်မွဲ (Characteristics of a Good Algorithm) ==
အတိုင် လညာတ် အစာသင်္ချာ Donald Knuth မ္ဂး၊ အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မွဲ သ္ဒးနွံ ကဵု အင်္ဂလက္သဏ် အဓိက ၅ သာ် ရ -
# '''ပရေင်အပိုတ်အခြာ (Finiteness):''' အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဂှ် ဒးအိုတ် အာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင် လၟိဟ် မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် မွဲ။ ဍေဟ် ဟွံမာန် အာ ဒၟံင် ထာဝရ (Infinite loop)။
# '''ပရေင်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် (Definiteness):''' ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ကဆံင် ဂှ် ဒးပသောင်လဝ် ဗွဲမကၠးဖ္ဍး။ ဟွံကဵု အခေါင် ထေင်မှာ (No ambiguity)။
# '''တင်ဂၞင်လုပ် (Input):''' ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု တင်ဂၞင် သုည ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠိုင်နူဂှ် မကဵုလဝ် နူ ကိုပ်ကၠာ စ ကမၠောန်။
# '''တင်ဂၞင်တိတ် (Output):''' ဍေဟ် ဒးပတိတ် ကဵု သွဟ် အောန်အိုတ် မွဲ မဆက်စပ် ကု တင်ဂၞင်လုပ်။
# '''ပရေင်ဂွံဖဵု (Effectiveness):''' ဇၟာပ် ကဆံင် ဂှ် ဒးဒှ် အရာ မကၠောန်ဂွံ (Feasible) နကဵု ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် သဇိုင်။
== ၄။ ပရေင်ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် (Representation and Design) ==
အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မွဲဝွံ မာန် ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး နကဵု ဗီုပြင် နာနာ သာ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ချူ နကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် (Programming languages) မပ္တံကဵု Python ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး C++ ဏီ ရ။
* '''အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ဓမ္မတာ (Natural Language):''' ပသောင်ကလး နကဵု အရေဝ် မၞိဟ် ဓမ္မတာ (ဥပမာ - ဘာသာအင်္ဂလိက်၊ ဘာသာမန်)။
* '''ကုဒ်ပလီု (Pseudocode):''' ဒှ် ဗီုပြင် မချူလဝ် မတုပ် ကဵု ကုဒ် ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ကီု ဆဂး ဟွံဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက် သၞောတ်ဝ် ဂရမ်မာ (Syntax) ကောန်ပျူတာ တေင်င်မာတ်တ်။ ဍေဟ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ လညာတ် ယုတ္တိ (Logic) သၟး။
* '''သ္ၚိအင် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် (Flowcharts):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး နကဵု ဗီုရုပ် သင်္ကေတ။ စကာ ခတှ်ေ (Boxes)၊ စက်ဝိုင် (Circles) ကေုာံ တ္ၚ (Arrows) သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး လၟေင် တရဴ တင်ဂၞင်။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပါ်ကဏ္ဍ အတိုင် လွပ် (Classification by Implementation) ==
အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် တအ်ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် နကဵု နဲကဲ လွပ် (Implementation) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မာန် ရ -
* '''Recursion (ပရေင်ကော်ဇကုဇကု) vs Iteration (ပရေင်ကလေင်ဂေတ်):'''
* *Recursive* အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဝွံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ နကဵု ပရေင်ကော် ဇကုဍေဟ် (Calls itself) ကလေင်င် ဂၠိုင်ကဵု ဝါ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် တိုင်ပ္ကဴ သဇိုင် (Base case) ရ။
* *Iterative* အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဝွံ စကာ သၞောတ် လူပ (Loops - ဥပမာ `for`, `while`) သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မွဲ။
* '''Serial (မွဲတုဲမွဲ) vs Parallel (မွဲစွံ):'''
* *Serial* ဂှ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဇၟာပ် ကဆံင် မွဲတုဲမွဲ။
* *Parallel* ဂှ် ပါ်ကရေက် ပြသၞာ တုဲ ကၠောန် မွဲစွံ (Simultaneously) လတူ ပရဝ်သေတ်သာ (Processors) နာနာ သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ အခိင် ပြဟ်။ <ref name="sedgewick">{{cite book |last=Sedgewick |first=Robert |author2=Wayne, Kevin |title=Algorithms |edition=4th |publisher=Addison-Wesley Professional |year=2011 |pages=12-15}}</ref>
== ၆။ ပရေင်ပါ်ကဏ္ဍ အတိုင် သဇိုင်လညာတ် (Classification by Design Paradigm) ==
သဇိုင်လညာတ် (Paradigm) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် နဲကဲ ဗီုပြင် မချပ် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မွဲ ရ။ သဇိုင်လညာတ် အဓိက တအ်ဂှ် -
# '''Divide and Conquer (ပါ်ကရေက် ကေုာံ သီကေတ်):''' ပါ်ကရေက် ပြသၞာ ဇၞော် မွဲ ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် ပြသၞာ ဍောတ်တ် (Subproblems) တုဲ သောင်ကလး ဍေဟ်တအ် ဇၟာပ်ပ် မွဲ။ လက္ကရဴအိုတ် ပံင်ကောံ သွဟ် တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဂွံ သွဟ် ဇၞော်။ (ဥပမာ - Merge Sort)။
# '''Greedy Algorithm (အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဟာမ်မက်):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇၟာပ် ကဆံင် ဂှ်၊ ရုဲစှ် ကေတ် လပါ် မခိုဟ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင်ဂှ် (Local optimum) နကဵု ပရေင်សံင်သမာန် ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ် သ္ဂောအ် စိုပ် သွဟ် မခိုဟ်အိုတ် အလုံ (Global optimum) ရ။
# '''Dynamic Programming (ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် အပြံင်အလှာဲ):''' တုပ် ကဵု Divide and Conquer ကီု၊ ဆဂး သွဟ် ပြသၞာ ဍောတ်တ် တအ်ဂှ် ဍေဟ် သီသိပ် (Store/Memoization) လဝ် သွက် ဟွံဂွံ ဒးတွက် ကလေင်င် ရ။
# '''Backtracking (ကလေင်ဆုတ် ဂၠာဲ):''' သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ နကဵု ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ သီုဖအိုတ်။ ယဝ်ရ ဂၠံင်မွဲ လုတ် အာ မ္ဂး၊ ဆုတ် ကလေင် တုဲ စမ် ဂၠံင် တၟိ (ဥပမာ - ဂၠာဲ သွဟ် ဝင်္ကပါ)။
== ၇။ ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် (Algorithm Analysis and Complexity) ==
ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ် ခိုဟ် ဟွံခိုဟ် ရ။ ပိုယ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဍေဟ် နကဵု သင်္ကေတ မကော်စ "[[မလိက်မန်]] (Big O notation)" မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ထ္ၜးကဵု ဗီုလဵု အခိင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒၞာဲ မဇၞော်တိုန် ကာလ တင်ဂၞင်လုပ် (Input size, $n$) ဇၞော်တိုန် ရ။ <ref name="kleinberg">{{cite book |last=Kleinberg |first=Jon |author2=Tardos, Éva |title=Algorithm Design |url=https://archive.org/details/algorithmdesign0000klei |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/algorithmdesign0000klei/page/35 35]-40}}</ref>
* '''Time Complexity (ဗလိုင် အခိင်):''' လၟိဟ် ကမၠောန် (Operations) အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မွဲ မဒးကၠောန်။
* '''Space Complexity (ဗလိုင် ဒၞာဲ):''' လၟိဟ် ဒၞာဲ မေမ်မဝ်ရဳ (Memory) ကောန်ပျူတာ အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မွဲ မဒးစကာ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ထ္ၜး ကဆံင် ဗလိုင် Big O Notation နူ ပြဟ်အိုတ် စိုပ် ဇြိုင်အိုတ်
|-
! သင်္ကေတ Big O
! ယၟု (Name)
! ပရေင်ပသောင်ကလး
! ဥပမာ လွပ်
|-
| $\mathcal{O}(1)$
| Constant (လၟိုန်)
| အခိင် ကေတ် တုပ်တုပ် တွဵု၊ ၜိုန်ရ တင်ဂၞင် ဇၞော် မူစိ ကီုလေဝ်။
| ကေတ် တင်ဂၞင် နူ Array (ဥပမာ `arr[0]`)။
|-
| $\mathcal{O}(\log n)$
| Logarithmic (လဝ်ဂရစ်သမ်)
| အခိင် ဇၞော်တိုန် အောန်အိုတ်။ ဇၟာပ် ကဆံင် ဂှ် ပါ်ကရေက် ဒေတာ ကဝက် တွဵု။
| Binary Search (ဂၠာဲ နကဵု ပရေင်ပါ်ကဝက်)။
|-
| $\mathcal{O}(n)$
| Linear (တပ်တပ်)
| အခိင် ဇၞော်တိုန် တုပ် ကဵု လၟိဟ် ဒေတာ တေင်င်မာတ်တ်။
| လ္ၚတ် ဇၟာပ် တင်ဂၞင် ပ္ဍဲ စရင် မွဲ။
|-
| $\mathcal{O}(n \log n)$
| Linearithmic
| အခိင် ဇၞော်တိုန် ဒြဟတ် ပြဟ်နူ $n$ ဆဂး ခိုဟ်နူ $n^2$။
| Merge Sort, Quick Sort (ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် မပြဟ်)။
|-
| $\mathcal{O}(n^2)$
| Quadratic (ကွာဒရက်တစ်)
| အခိင် ဇၞော်တိုန် နကဵု ဆ ၜါ (Squared)။ လေပ်ကဵု ဇြိုင် ကာလ ဒေတာ ဂၠိုင်။
| Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort။
|-
| $\mathcal{O}(2^n)$
| Exponential
| အခိင် ဇၞော်တိုန် နကဵု ဒြဟတ်စောမ်။ ဟွံခိုဟ် လးလး သွက် ဒေတာ ဇၞော်။
| ပြသၞာ တန်တဴ နကဵု Recursion (ဥပမာ Fibonacci)။
|}
== ၈။ ဂကူ အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ကိစ္စဇၞော်ဂမၠိုင် (Important Types of Algorithms) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သိပ္ပံကောန်ပျူတာ ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဂကူ အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် သဇိုင် ဂမၠိုင် မစကာ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ -
=== ၈.၁။ အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ရုဲစှ် လၟေင် (Sorting Algorithms) ===
ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ် လၟေင် (ဥပမာ နူ ဍောတ် အာ ဇၞော်) သွက် စရင် တင်ဂၞင် မွဲ ရ။
* '''Bubble Sort:''' ကေတ် အခိင် $\mathcal{O}(n^2)$ တုဲ ဇြိုင် လောန်။ ဍေဟ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် တင်ဂၞင် ၜါမ မကြပ် ရေင်သကအ် တုဲ ပြံင် ဒၞာဲ ဍေဟ်တအ်။
* '''Merge Sort:''' စကာ လညာတ် Divide and Conquer တုဲ ကေတ် အခိင် $\mathcal{O}(n \log n)$ ရ။ ဒှ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မခိုဟ် ကေုာံ တန်ကြန် (Stable) မွဲရ။
=== ၈.၂။ အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဂၠာဲ (Searching Algorithms) ===
* '''Linear Search:''' ဂၠာဲ ဇၟာပ် တင်ဂၞင် မွဲတုဲမွဲ။ ကေတ် အခိင် $\mathcal{O}(n)$။
* '''Binary Search:''' စကာ သွက် စရင် မဖျေဟ်လဝ် လၟေင် တုဲတုဲ သၟး။ ဍေဟ် ပါ်ကရေက် လဒေါဝ် တွဵု တုဲ ကေတ် အခိင် ဆ $\mathcal{O}(\log n)$ သၟးရ။
=== ၈.၃။ အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဂရပ် (Graph Algorithms) ===
ဂရပ် (Graphs) တအ်ဝွံ စကာ သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ကွန်ရက် (ဥပမာ - Facebook friends, Google Maps) ရ။
* '''Dijkstra's Algorithm:''' သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ဂၠံင် တရဴ မဂၠေအ်အိုတ် (Shortest path) နူကဵု ဒၞာဲ မွဲ စိုပ် ဒၞာဲ မွဲ ရ။
* '''PageRank:''' အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် နကဵု Google သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကဆံင် ဝပ်သာက် (Webpages) ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဂၠာဲ (Search engine) ရ။
== ၉။ ပြသၞာ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် (Legal and Ethical Issues) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် လၟုဟ် မစကာ ဒၟံင် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် လတူ ကမၠောန် ကိစ္စဇၞော် မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် မၞိဟ်လုပ်ကမၠောန်၊ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒုဟ် ဒဏ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်လွဳ ယဲ တအ်ဂှ်၊ ပြသၞာ မဆေင်ကဵု ဒ္ဂေတ်လၟေတ် (Ethics) ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
* '''Algorithmic Bias (အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မနွံကဵု လညာတ် လပါ်ယောန်):''' ယဝ်ရ တင်ဂၞင် (Data) မစကာ သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် (Train) အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု လညာတ် အစွဲ (Bias) လတူ ဂကူ၊ ဘာသာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကဆံင်မၞိဟ် မ္ဂး၊ သွဟ် မပတိတ် ကဵု ဂှ် လေဝ် နွံကဵု ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက် (Discrimination) ကီုရ။
* '''Transparency (ပရေင်ကၠးဖ္ဍး):''' အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ [[မလိက်မန်]] (Machine learning) ဂှ် တုပ် သၟဟ် ကဵု "ခတှ်ေ လမ္စံက်" (Black box) ကီုရ၊ ဟိုတ်မ္ဂးဂှ် မၞိဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် တအ် တေအ် လေဝ် ဟွံမာန် ပသောင်ကလး ဗီုလဵု ကောန်ပျူတာ ဂှ် ကေတ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဂှ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ဥာဏ်ပညာ ကောန်ပျူတာ (Future and Artificial Intelligence) ==
အနာဂတ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် [[မလိက်မန်]] (Artificial Intelligence - AI) ကေုာံ [[ကွမ်တမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Quantum Computing) ရ။ <ref name="turing">{{cite journal |last=Turing |first=Alan M. |title=Computing Machinery and Intelligence |journal=Mind |volume=59 |issue=236 |pages=433-460 |year=1950 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် AI ဂှ်၊ ပိုယ် ဆဵု ကၠုင် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် မာန် ဗတောန် ကေတ်တ် (Machine Learning algorithms) မပ္တံကဵု Deep Learning မဒှ် အရာ မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် AI မပ္တံကဵု ChatGPT ကေုာံ Midjourney တအ် ရ။ လပါ် ကွမ်တမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ ဂှ် လေဝ်၊ နွံကဵု ကွမ်တမ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် (Quantum algorithms) ဥပမာ Shor's algorithm မဒှ် အရာ မမာန် ပါ်ကရေက် [[ဂၞန်သဇိုင်]] ဗွဲမပြဟ် တုဲ မာန် ပလီုပလာ် သၞောတ် [[ခရိပ်တဝ်ဂရပ်ဖဳ]] (Cryptography) ခေတ်လၟုဟ် အလုံအိုတ်သီု ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သိပ္ပံကောန်ပျူတာ မဆေင်ကဵု တဳအဝ်ရဳ]] (Theoretical computer science)
* [[လဒက်ပတန် တင်ဂၞင်]] (Data structures)
* [[စက် တူရိန်]] (Turing machine)
* [[မလိက်မန်]] (Big O notation)
{{Navbox
| name = Computer Science
| title = သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ (Computer Science)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင် သဳအိုရဳ
| list1 =
* [[သိပ္ပံကောန်ပျူတာ မဆေင်ကဵု တဳအဝ်ရဳ]] (Theoretical computer science)
* [[မလိက်မန်]] (Complexity theory)
* [[မလိက်မန်]] (Automata theory)
* [[မလိက်မန်]] (Information theory)
| group2 = အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ် ကေုာံ ဒေတာ
| list2 =
* [[အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ်]] (Algorithm)
* [[လဒက်ပတန် တင်ဂၞင်]] (Data structure)
* [[စက် တူရိန်]] (Turing machine)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[မလိက်မန်]] (Artificial intelligence)
* [[ခရိပ်တဝ်ဂရပ်ဖဳ]] (Cryptography)
* [[ကွမ်တမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Quantum computing)
* [[မလိက်မန်]] (Graph theory)
}}
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ]]
[[Category:သင်္ချာ]]
[[Category:အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳထမ်]]
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ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု
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'''ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Simulation game'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကူ (Genre) [[ပေါဲဝေင် ဗဳဒဳယော]] (Video game) မွဲ မဖန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ပတုပ်ဗီု အကာဲအရာ၊ လၟေင်ကမၠောန်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် နူကဵု ဘဝဍာံပြ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဘဝမကတဵုဒှ်မာန် တအ် ရ။ ပေါဲဝေင် ဂကူဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဖန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် သွက် ပရေင်မိပ်မြဟ် (Entertainment) သက်သက်၊ ဍေဟ်တအ်ဂှ် စကာ သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ပညာ၊ သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ်၊ ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ကွတ်ပညာ တအ် ကီုရ။<ref name="adams">{{cite book |last=Adams |first=E. |title=Fundamentals of Game Design |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofga0000adam_i7m9 |edition=2nd |publisher=New Riders |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofga0000adam_i7m9/page/411 411]-413}}</ref>
ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု တအ်ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ်ဝ် (Rules) မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် မတုပ် ကဵု သဘာဝ ဍာံပြ တုဲ ကဵု အခေါင် ကု သၟာပေါဲဝေင် (Players) တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ်၊ ဖန်ဇန်၊ ကေုာံ ရုဲစှ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးတိ အပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဝေင် ဂှ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဂကူနာနာ၊ ပရေင်စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ပညာ ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် ဍေဟ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:OpenTTD_1.1.3.png|thumb|right|350px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပေါဲဝေင် [[အဝ်ပေန် တဳတဳဒဳ]] (OpenTTD) မဒှ် ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် မွဲ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု" ဂှ် ဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ သမၠဲ မကောံစွံ လဝ် ပေါဲဝေင် မဂၠိုင် ကဵု ဂကူ ရ။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပေါဲဝေင် ဂကူဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု တင်ရန်တၟအ် (Goal) မဒးဇၞး ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မဒးကျ (Win/Loss condition) မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ရ။ စၞးဂှ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ကဵု အခေါင် ကု သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဖန်ဇန် လဒက်ပတန် အရာမွဲမွဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ညံင်ဂွံ ဒုင်စသိုင် အကာဲအရာ မွဲမွဲ နကဵု အခေါင်ဗၠးၜး (Sandbox mode) ရ။
အစာသုတေသန ပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ပါ်လဝ် လဒက်ပတန် အဓိက သွက် ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ၃ သာ် ရ-
# '''သၞောတ် သဘာဝ (Realism):''' သၞောတ်ဝ် အပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ဒးတုပ် ကဵု သၞောတ်ဝ် ရူပဗေဒ (Physics) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝဍာံပြ။
# '''ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် (Control):''' သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် နွံကဵု အခေါင် ထိင်ဒဝ် (Micro-management) လတူ တင်ဂၞင် သၟတ် ဍောတ်တ် ဂမၠိုင်။
# '''ပရေင်ဂၠံက်လ္ၚတ် (Exploration):''' သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် မာန် စမ်ၜတ် လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ (Theory) တၟိတၟိ တုဲ မာန် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဖဵုသွဟ် ဍေဟ်။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင် ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ဝွံ စကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ် ကောန်ပျူတာ သဇိုင် (Mainframe computers) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၀ တအ် တေအ် ရ。ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ်ဂှ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ် ဆ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် (Programs) မဖန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ စမ်ၜတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပၞာန် သၟး ရ။<ref name="wolf">{{cite book |last=Wolf |first=M. J. P. |title=The Medium of the Video Game |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2001 |pages=113-116}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၉ ဂှ် အစာဖန်ဗဒှ် ပေါဲဝေင် ဝေလ် ရိုက် (Will Wright) ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် ပေါဲဝေင် [[သဳမ်သဳတဳ]] (SimCity) မဒှ် ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု လဒက်ပတန် ဍုင် မွဲရ။ ပေါဲဝေင်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဝင် ပေါဲဝေင် ဗဳဒဳယော တုဲ၊ မၞိဟ်တအ် စကၠိုဟ် ကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ ပေါဲဝေင် မဟွံမဲ ကဵု တင်ရန်တၟအ် ဒးဇၞး လေဝ် ကဵု ပရေင်မိပ်မြဟ် ဗွဲမလောန် မာန် ရ။ နူဂှ် ဆက်တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၀၀ တအ် ဂှ် ပေါဲဝေင် [[သဳမ်ဂမၠိုင်]] (The Sims) တိတ်ကၠုင် တုဲ ဒှ်အာ ပေါဲဝေင် မသွံခိုဟ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ကောန်ပျူတာ ရ။
== ၃။ ဂကူ ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ဂမၠိုင် (Types and Subgenres of Simulation Games) ==
ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု တအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဂကူ သၟတ် (Subgenres) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု အဓိက ဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ သၟတ် (Subgenre)
! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ လက္ခဏာ
! ဥပမာ ပေါဲဝေင် ပြာကတ်
|-
| '''CMS (လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ်)'''
| သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ဒးလဒက်ပတန်၊ မင်မဲ၊ ကေုာံ အုပ်ဓလပ် ဍုင်၊ ကမ္ပဏဳ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကၠအ်တိရစ္ဆာန်။
| SimCity, RollerCoaster Tycoon, Planet Zoo
|-
| '''Life Simulation (ပတုပ်ဗီု ဘဝ)'''
| ထိင်ဒဝ် ဘဝ ပူဂိုလ် မွဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ သတ္တဝါ ဂမၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဂျိုင်တဴ ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ်။
| The Sims, Animal Crossing, Spore
|-
| '''Vehicle Simulation (ပတုပ်ဗီု ကွဳစက်)'''
| ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ဒဳ ကွဳစက်၊ က္ၜင်ကျာ၊ က္ၜင်ဍာ် တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ တုပ် ကဵု သဘာဝ ဍာံပြ။
| Microsoft Flight Simulator, Euro Truck Simulator 2
|-
| '''Sports Management (ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် ကယျိုင်ကယျဝ်)'''
| အုပ်ဓလပ် ဂကောံ ဝေင်ဇိုင်၊ ရုဲစှ် ကောန်ဝေင်၊ ကေုာံ ဖန်ဇန် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကလပ် (Club)။
| Football Manager, Out of the Park Baseball
|}
== ၄။ ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် (Construction and Management Simulation) ==
[[ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ်]] (Construction and management simulation - CMS) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပေါဲဝေင် မကဵု အခေါင် ကု သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် သွက်ဂွံ သြိုင်ခၞံ ဍုင် ကွာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မွဲ ရ။<ref name="rollings">{{cite book |last=Rollings |first=A. |author2=Adams, E. |title=Andrew Rollings and Ernest Adams on Game Design |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewrollingser0000roll_s4t7 |publisher=New Riders |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/andrewrollingser0000roll_s4t7/page/577 577]-580}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပေါဲဝေင် ဂကူဏအ်၊ သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ဒးချပ် ညံင်ရဴ သၟိင်ဍုင် (Mayor) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ညးက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ကမ္ပဏဳ (CEO) ရ။ ညးတအ် ဒးဖန်ဇန် သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ (Budget)၊ ဒးစွံ သတိ လတူ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မိပ်သၠံင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန်၊ တုဲပၠန် ဒးဒစးဒုင် ကဵု ဘဲသဘာဝ (Natural disasters) မပ္တံကဵု တိချဳ ကေုာံ ကျာဗြဲ တအ် ရ။ ပေါဲဝေင် ဥပမာ ခိုဟ်အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် [[သဳတဳ သကုဲလာင်]] (Cities: Skylines) မဒှ် ပေါဲဝေင် မစကာ သၞောတ်ဝ် ယာန်တရဴ (Traffic systems) မဍာံပြ ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
== ၅။ ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ဘဝ ကေုာံ မၞိဟ် (Life Simulation Games) ==
[[ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ဘဝ]] (Life simulation games) ဝွံ ဒှ် ပေါဲဝေင် မအာရီုစွံ လတူ ဘဝ ပူဂိုလ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သတ္တဝါ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ ရ။ ပေါဲဝေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် အာ နကဵု လညာတ် ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''Virtual Pets (သတ္တဝါ မွေးမြူရေး ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်):''' ဥပမာ ဗီုကဵု တာမာဂေါ့ချဳ (Tamagotchi) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နင်တေန်ဒံက် (Nintendogs) မဒှ် အရာ သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ဒးဗ္စ၊ ဒးကြာတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဒးမင်မဲ တိရစ္ဆာန် ဍောတ်တ် တအ် ရ။
* '''Social Simulation (ပတုပ်ဗီု ပရေင်မၞိဟ်):''' ဥပမာ ဗီုကဵု [[သဳမ်ဂမၠိုင်]] (The Sims)။ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဝေင် ဏအ် သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် မၞိဟ် (Sims)၊ သြိုင်သ္ၚိ၊ ကဵု ဍေဟ်တအ် ဂၠာဲ ကမၠောန်၊ ကေုာံ ဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ဆာန် ကဵု သ္ကအ်ရဲ တအ် ရ။ လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Sociology) ဂမၠိုင် ပါလုပ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ လဒက်ပတန် ပေါဲဝေင် ဏအ် ရ။
== ၆။ ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ကွဳစက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်တရဴ (Vehicle and Transport Simulation) ==
[[ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ကွဳစက်]] (Vehicle simulation game) ဂှ် ဒှ် ပေါဲဝေင် မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ညံင်ဂွံ ကဵု ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် မဍာံပြအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မဒဳ ကွဳစက်၊ က္ၜင်ကျာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ယာန်တၞဟ်တအ် ရ။
ပေါဲဝေင် မပ္တံကဵု Microsoft Flight Simulator တအ်ဂှ် စကာ တင်ဂၞင် ဍာံပြ နူကဵု ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ (Satellite data) ကေုာံ ရူပဗေဒ ကျာ (Aerodynamics) မဍိုဟ်ကေက် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ဒးလ္ၚတ် နဲကဲ စက်ခလုတ် အပ္ဍဲ က္ၜင်ကျာ ဍာံဍာံ တအ် ဇၟာပ်ပ် မွဲ ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ပေါဲဝေင် ဗီုကဵု [[ယူရဝ် ထရက် သဳမဳလေတာ]] (Euro Truck Simulator) ဂှ် ကဵု အခေါင် ကု သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ဒဳ ကာ ဒင် အလုံ ဥရောပ တုဲ လ္ၚတ် ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ် ပရေင်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် (Logistics) ရ။
== ၇။ ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ပရေင်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ ဗျူဟာ (Military and Strategic Simulation) ==
[[ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ပၞာန်]] (Military simulation) ဝွံ ဒှ် ပေါဲဝေင် မပတုပ်ဗီု လဝ် ပေါဲဗတိုက် ဍာံပြ တအ် ရ။ ပေါဲဝေင် ဗီုကဵု အာမာ (Arma) လေပ် ကဵု သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ဒုင်စသိုင် အကာဲအရာ ပၞာန် ဍာံပြ မပ္တံကဵု ဗီုလဵု မဒးဖျေဟ် ဗျူဟာ၊ ဗီုလဵု မဒးကေတ် ဆက်စပ် ကဵု ဂကောံ၊ ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု ရူပဗေဒ လွဟ် (Ballistics) ကမၠောန် ကၠောန် ရ။
ပေါဲဝေင် သာ်ဏအ် ဂှ် လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ဒပ်ပၞာန် ဍုင်နာနာ တအ် စကာ နဒဒှ် ကိရိယာ သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် ကွတ် (Training tools) ကု ကောန်ပၞာန် ညးတအ် ဏီရ။
== ၈။ လွပ် ကေုာံ ဖဵု ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပညာ (Applications and Benefits in Education) ==
[[ပေါဲဝေင် သွက် ပညာ]] (Serious games) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပေါဲဝေင် မဖန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် သွက် တင်ရန်တၟအ် ပရေင်ပညာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ရ。<ref name="aldrich">{{cite book |last=Aldrich |first=C. |title=Simulations and the Future of Learning |url=https://archive.org/details/simulationsfutur0000aldr |publisher=Pfeiffer |year=2004 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/simulationsfutur0000aldr/page/45 45]-50}}</ref>
ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု တအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဖဵု သွက် ပရေင်ပညာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်:
* '''လ္ၚတ် နဲကဲ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ:''' ပေါဲဝေင် CMS တအ် ဗတောန် ကဵု ကွးဘာ တအ် ဗီုလဵု ဂွံ အုပ်ဓလပ် အခိင် ကေုာံ သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ။
* '''ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဆေင်ကဵု ဂဥုဲ (Medical Simulations):''' တၠပညာ ဂဥုဲ တအ် စကာ ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု သွက်ဂွံ စမ်ၜတ် ပရေင်ခွဲက် (Surgery) ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ကၠောန် လတူ မၞိဟ် ဍာံပြ။
* '''ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သဘာဝ (Ecological Simulations):''' ပေါဲဝေင် ဗီုကဵု Eco လေပ် ဗတောန် ကဵု ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် ပရူ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ရ။
== ၉။ ကွတ်ပညာ ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် ပေါဲဝေင် (Technology and the Future of Simulation Games) ==
အနာဂတ် သွက် ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ကွတ်ပညာ တၟိတၟိ ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဍာံပြ မဖန်ဗဒှ်လဝ် (Virtual reality - VR):''' ကိရိယာ VR တအ် ပကဵု ညံင် သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် ဂွံစိုပ် အာ အပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ပေါဲဝေင် ဍာံဍာံ (Immersion) ရ။ ပရေင်ဒဳ က္ၜင်ကျာ နကဵု VR ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မတုပ် ကဵု ဘဝ ဍာံပြ အိုတ် ရ။
* '''[[ဥာဏ်ပညာ ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Artificial intelligence - AI):''' AI မဇၞော်မောဝ် တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ဇမၠိင် ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ သတ္တဝါ (NPCs) ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဝေင် ညံင်ဂွံ ချဳဓရာင် ညံင်ရဴ မၞိဟ် ဍာံပြ မာန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် လတူ မာ် (Cloud computing):''' ပကဵု ညံင် သၟာပေါဲဝေင် တအ် မာန် ဝေင် ပေါဲဝေင် မနွံကဵု သ္ၚိအင် (Graphics) ကဆံင်သၠုင် ဂမၠိုင် လတူ စက် ဓမ္မတာ မာန် နကဵု ပရေင် တိုက်ရိုက် (Streaming) ရ။
== ၁၀။ ဇြဟတ် ဓရိုတ် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Impact on Society and Culture) ==
ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု တအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဇြဟတ် ဓရိုတ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ ယေန်သၞာင် ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။ <ref name="bogost">{{cite book |last=Bogost |first=I. |title=Unit Operations: An Approach to Videogame Criticism |url=https://archive.org/details/unitoperationsap0000bogo |publisher=MIT Press |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/unitoperationsap0000bogo/page/98 98]-102}}</ref>
ညးလ္ၚဵု တအ် စကာ ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု နဒဒှ် ဒၞာဲ သွက်ဂွံ ဒြေပ်ဒဴ နူကဵု ပြသၞာ ဘဝ ဍာံပြ (Escapism) ကီုလေဝ်၊ မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တအ် စကာ ဍေဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံ (Community) ရ။ ဂကောံ မၞိဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ပေါဲဝေင် (Modding communities) တအ်ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် အရာ တၟိတၟိ (Mods) မပ္တံကဵု သ္ၚိ၊ ကွဳစက်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၞောတ်ဝ် တၟိတၟိ သွက် ပေါဲဝေင် မပ္တံကဵု The Sims ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Cities: Skylines တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။ အရာဏအ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပေါဲဝေင်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ကိရိယာ သွက် ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် (Creative tool) မွဲ ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ပေါဲဝေင် ဗဳဒဳယော]] (Video game)
* [[ပရေင်ဍာံပြ မဖန်ဗဒှ်လဝ်]] (Virtual reality)
* [[ဥာဏ်ပညာ ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Artificial intelligence)
* [[သဳမ်စဳတဳ]] (SimCity)
{{Navbox
| name = Video Games
| title = ဂကူ ပေါဲဝေင် ဗဳဒဳယော ဂမၠိုင် (Video Game Genres)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ပေါဲဝေင် အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု]] (Simulation)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပေါဲဝေင် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်]] (Action)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပေါဲဝေင် အာရ်ပဳဂျဳ]] (RPG)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပေါဲဝေင် ဗျူဟာ]] (Strategy)
| group2 = ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု သၟတ်
| list2 =
* [[ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓလပ်]] (CMS)
* [[ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ဘဝ]] (Life simulation)
* [[ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ကွဳစက်]] (Vehicle simulation)
* [[ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု ပၞာန်]] (Military simulation)
| group3 = ကွတ်ပညာ ဆက်စပ်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်ဍာံပြ မဖန်ဗဒှ်လဝ်]] (Virtual reality)
* [[ဥာဏ်ပညာ ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Artificial intelligence)
* [[ပေါဲဝေင် သွက် ပညာ]] (Serious games)
}}
[[Category:ပေါဲဝေင် ဗဳဒဳယော]]
[[Category:ပေါဲဝေင် ပတုပ်ဗီု]]
[[Category:ယေန်သၞာင် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်]]
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အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်
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Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260809)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]
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'''အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Digital identity'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကောံ တင်ဂၞင် (Data) မဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ပူဂိုလ်၊ အရာဝတ္ထု၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံအလဵုအသဳ/ကမ္ပဏဳ မွဲမွဲ မနွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကွန်ရက် ကောန်ပျူတာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အင်တာနက် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တေတ်နဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ လၟုဟ်၊ အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ "မၞိဟ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ညးလဵု ဇေတ်တ် ရော" ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု အခေါင် သွက်ဂွံ လုပ်စကာ သၞောတ် နာနာ (Authentication and Authorization) မပ္တံကဵု ဘာဏ်၊ ဝပ်သာက် အလဵုအသဳ၊ ကေုာံ မဳဒဳယာ မဟာဇန် တအ် ရ။<ref name="windley">{{cite book |last=Windley |first=P. J. |title=Digital Identity |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalidentity0000wind |publisher=O'Reilly Media, Inc. |year=2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/digitalidentity0000wind/page/10 10]-15 |isbn=978-0596008789}}</ref>
အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု လက္ခဏာ ပူဂိုလ် (Attributes) မပ္တံကဵု ယၟု၊ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲဒှ်မၞိဟ်၊ လေပ်စာ (Address) ကေုာံ အရာ မဆက်စပ် ကဵု ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဗီုကဵု လၟိဟ် အာဲပဳ (IP address)၊ စၟတ်သမ္တီ အဳမေဝ် (Email address)၊ ကေုာံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လေင်ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Social security number) တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် နကဵု လညာတ် ကွတ်ပညာ၊ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်၊ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Internet_identity_diagram.svg|thumb|right|350px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜးကဵု လဒက်ပတန် အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ပူဂိုလ် ကဵု ဝပ်သာက် နာနာ ပ္ဍဲ ကွန်ရက် အင်တာနက်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
အသမ္တီ (Identity) မ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဝ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ (Physical world) ညးတအ် စကာ ကာဒ်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (ID card)၊ နိုင်ငံကူးလက်မှတ် (Passport) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စၟတ်သမ္တီ တဆိပ်ကြာ တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ဇကုဂှ် ညးလဵု ရော ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးတိ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital world) ဂှ်၊ မၞိဟ် ၜါ ဟွံမာန် ဆဵု ရုပ်သာ် ရေင်သကအ် တပ်တပ် တုဲ၊ သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ မၞိဟ် ဇေတ်တ် ဂှ် ဒးစကာ "အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်" (Digital identity) ရ။
ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် လဝ် နကဵု ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက ၃ သာ် ရ-
# '''Identifiers (စၟတ်သမ္တီ):''' အရာ မစၟတ်သမ္တီ ပူဂိုလ် မွဲ သက်သက် (ဥပမာ - User ID, Email, ဖုန်းလၟိဟ်)။
# '''Attributes (လက္ခဏာ သဇိုင်):''' တင်ဂၞင် မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး ပူဂိုလ် (ဥပမာ - အာယုက်၊ ဒေသ၊ ကမၠောန်)။
# '''Credentials (သက်သဳ စၟတ်သမ္တီ):''' အရာ မပဒတန် လဝ် နူကဵု ဂကောံ မၞုံကဵု အဝဵု (ဥပမာ - ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ အာယုက် ပေင် ၁၈ သၞာံ)။
အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အင်တာနက် (Digital economy) တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ဓဝ်ယုံကြည် (Trust) အကြာ ညးမစကာ ကေုာံ ညးမကဵု သေဝါ (Service providers) တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Evolution) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ခေတ် အင်တာနက် (Web eras) ဂမၠိုင် ရ-
* '''ခေတ် ဝပ် ၁.၀ (Web 1.0 - Siloed Identity):''' ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် စကတဵုဒှ် အင်တာနက် သၞာံ ၁၉၉၀ တအ်ဂှ်၊ အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဝွံ နွံ ဆ လၟိဟ် အကံက် (Accounts) မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ယၟု (Username) ကေုာံ မလိက်ဓလုက် (Password) သၟး ရ။ ဇၟာပ် ဝပ်သာက် ဂှ် ညးတအ် မင်မဲ တင်ဂၞင် အသမ္တီ နကဵု သၞောတ် ညးကဵုညး တုဲ၊ ညးစကာ တအ် ဒးစၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် မလိက်ဓလုက် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ဝပ် ၂.၀ (Web 2.0 - Federated Identity):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၀၀ တအ် အခိင် မဳဒဳယာ မဟာဇန် (Social media) မပ္တံကဵု Facebook ကဵု Google ပြာကတ် ကၠုင်ဂှ်၊ သၞောတ် "လုပ်စကာ နကဵု အသမ္တီ တၞဟ်" (Federated login / Single Sign-On) ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။ မၞိဟ်တအ် စကာ အကံက် Facebook သွက်ဂွံ လုပ်စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ဝပ်သာက် တၞဟ် တအ် မာန် ရ။ ဆဂး အရာဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ကမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် ဂွံအဝဵု သီကေတ် တင်ဂၞင် (Monopoly over data) ရ။<ref name="cameron">{{cite web |last=Cameron |first=K. |title=The Laws of Identity |url=https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions/msp-n-p/ff998952(v=pandp.10) |publisher=Microsoft |year=2005 |access-date=2024-05-10 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* '''ခေတ် ဝပ် ၃.၀ (Web 3.0 - Self-Sovereign Identity):''' ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ်၊ လညာတ် [[အသမ္တီ မပိုင်ပြဳ ဇကုဂှ်]] (Self-Sovereign Identity - SSI) ပြာကတ် ကၠုင် ဒၟံင် ရ။ နကဵု ကွတ်ပညာ ဗလံက်ချေန် (Blockchain)၊ ပူဂိုလ် တအ် နွံကဵု အခေါင် မင်မဲ ကေုာံ ပိုင်ပြဳ တင်ဂၞင် အသမ္တီ ဇကု ဗွဲမဍာံပြ တုဲ၊ ဟွံဒး တန်တဴ လတူ ကမ္ပဏဳ လဒေါဝ် တအ် ရ။
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ အင်္ဂလက္သဏ်ဂမၠိုင် (Structure and Characteristics) ==
အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် မခိုဟ် မွဲဂှ် ဒးနွံကဵု အင်္ဂလက္သဏ် သဇိုင် ၇ သာ် ရ -
1. '''ပရေင်တန်ကြန် (Persistence):''' အသမ္တီ ဂှ် ဒးတန်တဴ လအ်လ တုဲ ဟွံမာန် ပလီုပလာ် အာ လောဲလောဲ ရ။
2. '''ပရေင်ပြးဇး (Portability):''' မၞိဟ် မပိုင်ပြဳ ဂှ် မာန် ကေတ်ဏာ အသမ္တီ ဇကု သွက်ဂွံ စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ နာနာ မာန် ရ။
3. '''ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ (Security):''' တင်ဂၞင် ပူဂိုလ် တအ်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် နကဵု သၞောတ် ဂီုကၠီု (Encryption) မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ရ။
4. '''ပရေင်ပိုင်ပြဳ (Privacy):''' ညးမပိုင်ပြဳ ဂှ် ဟေင် မာန် ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဒဒှ်ရ တင်ဂၞင် လဵုမွဲ ဒးထ္ၜး ကဵု ညးတၞဟ် ရော။
5. '''ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Verification):''' အသမ္တီ တအ်ဂှ် ဒးမာန် စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Verify) ဒဒှ်ရ ဍာံပြ ဟွံဍာံပြ နူကဵု ဂကောံ မတန်တဴ ဗၠးၜး ရ။
6. '''ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် (Consent):''' တင်ဂၞင် တအ်ဂှ် စကာ ဂွံ ဆ အခိင် ညးမပိုင်ပြဳ တအ် ကဵု အခေါင် တုပ်စိုတ် ဟေင် ရ။
7. '''ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ (Interoperability):''' အသမ္တီ ဂှ် ဒးမာန် စကာ ဂွံ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် နာနာ ကေုာံ ဍုင် နာနာ သာ် ရ။
== ၄။ ဗီုပြင် အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် နာနာ (Types of Digital Identities) ==
[[File:Biometric_passport_symbol.svg|thumb|left|150px|သင်္ကေတ အဳ-ပတ်သပုတ် (Biometric passport) မဒှ် ဥပမာ အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် မပဒတန် နကဵု အလဵုအသဳ။]]
လဒက်ပတန် အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် သၞောတ် အဓိက ၃ သာ် (Identity Models) -
=== ၄.၁။ သၞောတ် ဗဟဵု (Centralized Identity) ===
ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ဏအ်၊ တင်ဂၞင် အသမ္တီ သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ဂိုင်သိပ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သာဗာ (Server) ကမ္ပဏဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ မွဲဓဝ် ရ (ဥပမာ - ဘာဏ်၊ ဝပ်သာက် ကျာ်ဇၞော်)။
* '''ခိုဟ်:''' လောဲသွာ သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဇန်။
* '''ပရေအ်:''' ယဝ်ရ သာဗာ ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ကမၠတ် ဍဵုလုပ် (Hack) မ္ဂး၊ တင်ဂၞင် ပူဂိုလ် သီုဖအိုတ် လီုလာ် ပါတိတ် အာ မာန် ရ (Single point of failure)။
=== ၄.၂။ သၞောတ် ပံင်ကောံ (Federated Identity) ===
ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ဏအ်၊ ဂကောံ နာနာ တအ် ပံင်ကောံ တုဲ ဒုင်တဲ အသမ္တီ ရေင်သကအ် ရ (ဥပမာ - Log in with Google/Facebook)။
* '''ခိုဟ်:''' ညးစကာ တအ် ဟွံဒး ခၞံ အကံက် တၟိ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ။
* '''ပရေအ်:''' ပရေင်ပိုင်ပြဳ (Privacy) အောန်၊ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု Google ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Facebook ဂှ် တီဒၟံင် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးစကာ တအ် လုပ်စကာ ဝပ်သာက် လဵုမွဲ နွံ ရော။
=== ၄.၃။ သၞောတ် ပြးဇး (Decentralized / Self-Sovereign Identity) ===
ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ဏအ်၊ တင်ဂၞင် အသမ္တီ ဂှ် ဂိုင်သိပ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပူဂိုလ် ညးစကာ (ဥပမာ - Digital Wallet ပ္ဍဲ ဖုန်) တုဲ ပဒတန် လဝ် နကဵု ကွတ်ပညာ ဗလံက်ချေန် (Blockchain) ရ။
* '''ခိုဟ်:''' ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု သၠုင်အိုတ်၊ ညးစကာ ပိုင်ပြဳ တင်ဂၞင် ဇကု ပေင်င်။
* '''ပရေအ်:''' ကွတ်ပညာ တၟိ လောန် တုဲ သွက်ဂွံ စကာ အလုံဂၠးတိ ဂှ် နွံပၟိက် အခိင် ဏီ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ပတုပ်ရံင် ဗီုပြင် အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ၃ သာ်
|-
! လက္ခဏာ
! သၞောတ် ဗဟဵု (Centralized)
! သၞောတ် ပံင်ကောံ (Federated)
! သၞောတ် ပြးဇး (Decentralized)
|-
| '''ညးပိုင်ပြဳ တင်ဂၞင်'''
| ကမ္ပဏဳ / အလဵုအသဳ
| ဂကောံ မဳဒဳယာ / ကမ္ပဏဳ
| ပူဂိုလ် ညးစကာ
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု'''
| ဍိုန်လျ (ဗဟဵု မွဲဒၞာဲဓဝ်)
| လဒေါဝ်
| သၠုင်အိုတ် (ဗလံက်ချေန်)
|-
| '''ပရေင်ပိုင်ပြဳ (Privacy)'''
| အောန်
| အောန်
| သၠုင်
|-
| '''ဥပမာ'''
| အကံက် ဘာဏ်၊ အကံက် ရုင်
| Log in with Facebook
| ပိုက်သြန် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital Wallet)
|}
== ၅။ ကွတ်ပညာ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဝ် (Technologies and Systems) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ဂှ် နွံပၟိက် ဒၟံင် ကွတ်ပညာ (Technologies) ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဗာဲအဝ်မေထရစ် (Biometric Authentication):''' ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်စကာ လက္ခဏာ ကာယ ပူဂိုလ် မပ္တံကဵု စၟတ်လပုဟ်တဲ (Fingerprint)၊ စၟတ်သမ္တီ မုက် (Facial recognition) ကေုာံ မတ် (Iris scan) သွက်ဂွံ ပဒတန် အသမ္တီ ရ။ ဥပမာ - သၞောတ် FaceID ပ္ဍဲ ဖုန် iPhone ရ။
* '''သၞောတ် ပဳကေအာဲ (Public Key Infrastructure - PKI):''' ဂှ် ဒှ် ကွတ်ပညာ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် လက္ချာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital signatures) တုဲ ဍေဟ် စဵုဒၞာ ညံင် တင်ဂၞင် ဟွံဂွံ ဒးဒုင် ပလေဝ် ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ကွန်ရက် ရ။<ref name="nist">{{cite report |last=Grassi |first=P. A. |author2=Garcia, M. E. |author3=Fenton, J. L. |title=Digital Identity Guidelines |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) |year=2017 |url=https://pages.nist.gov/800-63-3/}}</ref>
* '''ဗလံက်ချေန် (Blockchain & DLT):''' ဂှ် ဒှ် သ္ၚိအင် လၟိဟ် (Distributed Ledger) မဟွံမာန် ပလီုပလာ် ကေုာံ မပြးဇး လဝ် အလုံ ကွန်ရက် ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ကဵု အထံက်အပင် သွက် သၞောတ် [[အသမ္တီ ပြးဇး]] (Decentralized Identifiers - DIDs) တုဲ မၞိဟ်တအ် ဟွံဒး တန်တဴ လတူ အလဵုအသဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကမ္ပဏဳ ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုင်ပြဳ (Security and Privacy) ==
အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု အန္တရာယ် ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု (Security risks) ဗွဲမဇၞော် မာန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ကမၠတ် အသမ္တီ (Identity Theft):''' ကမၠတ် တအ် ကၠတ်ကေတ် တင်ဂၞင် ပူဂိုလ် (ဥပမာ - မလိက်ဓလုက်၊ စၟတ် လေင်ပရေင်မၞိဟ်) တုဲ၊ လုပ်စကာ နဒဒှ် ပူဂိုလ် ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠတ် သြန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လှေအ်လှန် အရာ တၞဟ် တအ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပြးဇး တင်ဂၞင် (Data Breaches):''' ယဝ်ရ သာဗာ ကမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် ဒးဒုင် ဍဵုလုပ် (Hacked) မ္ဂး၊ တင်ဂၞင် မၞိဟ် မဂၠိုင်ကဵု ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် တအ် ပါတိတ် အာ မာန် ရ (ဥပမာ - ပရေင် Yahoo ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Equifax Data Breach)။
သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ပြသၞာ တအ်ဏအ်၊ တၠပညာ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် လညာတ် "သက်သဳ ဟွံမဲ တင်တီလ္ၚတ်" ([[သက်သဳ ဇဳရဝ်-နဝ်လေတ်]] - Zero-Knowledge Proofs - ZKP) ရ။ ZKP ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် နဲကဲ သင်္ချာ မကဵု အခေါင် ပူဂိုလ် မွဲ ထ္ၜး သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ ညး နွံကဵု တင်ဂၞင် ဍာံပြ (ဥပမာ - အာယုက် ပေင် ၁၈)၊ ဆဂး ဟွံဒး ထ္ၜး ကဵု အာယုက် ဇေတ်တ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စၟတ်တ္ၚဲဒှ်မၞိဟ် ဍာံဍာံ ရ။ အရာဏအ်ဝွံ မင်မဲ ကဵု ပရေင်ပိုင်ပြဳ (Privacy) ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကဵု ဒြဟတ် ရ။
== ၇။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ (Applications in Economy and Government) ==
[[File:Aadhaar_Logo.svg|thumb|right|150px|သင်္ကေတ အာဒါ (Aadhaar) မဒှ် သၞောတ် အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ။]]
အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဂှ် လၟုဟ် ဒှ် အရာ မကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက် သၞောတ် အလဵုအသဳ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (e-Government) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အလုံဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''သၞောတ် ကောန်ဍုင် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဍုင်အက်သတဝ်နဳယျာ (Estonia e-Residency):''' ဍုင် အက်သတဝ်နဳယျာ (Estonia) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မပြာကတ် အိုတ် လပါ် အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ရ။ ကောန်ဍုင် ညးတအ် ၉၉% ဂှ် နွံကဵု e-ID တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် မာန် သွဟ် မာဲ၊ ကဵု အခေါန်၊ ကေုာံ တုဲဒှ် ကမၠောန် အလဵုအသဳ သီုဖအိုတ် နူကဵု အင်တာနက် ရ။
* '''သၞောတ် အာဒါ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ (India Aadhaar):''' ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် အသမ္တီ ဗာဲအဝ်မေထရစ် (Biometric ID system) မဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ မၞိဟ် မွဲပြကောဋိကိုဋ် ပြင်င် တအ် စကာ အာဒါ သွက်ဂွံ ပံက် အကံက် ဘာဏ်၊ ကေုာံ ကလိဂွံ အထံက်အပင် အလဵုအသဳ ရ။ <ref name="wef">{{cite report |title=Advancing Digital Agency: The Power of Data Intermediaries |publisher=World Economic Forum |year=2022 |url=https://www.weforum.org/reports/advancing-digital-agency-the-power-of-data-intermediaries}}</ref>
* '''ပရေင် ဘာဏ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Financial Services - KYC):''' ဘာဏ် တအ် စကာ အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် သွက် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် "တီလ္ၚတ် ကောန်စၟိန် ဇကု" ([[တီလ္ၚတ် ကောန်စၟိန်]] - Know Your Customer - KYC) ညံင်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ပရေင်ကြာန် သြန် (Money laundering) ရ။
== ၈။ အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Human Rights and Social Implications) ==
အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဖဵုခိုဟ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ယဝ်ရ သၞောတ် ဍေဟ် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု စဵုဒၞာ ဓဝ်ယာယဳ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် အန္တရာယ် လတူ အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် မာန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဖယ်ဉ် ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ အသမ္တီ (Statelessness and Marginalization):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် လ္ၚဵု တအ်၊ ယဝ်ရ ဂကူ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် တအ် (ဥပမာ - ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓလပ် သၟဝ် ပၞာန်) ဟွံကလိဂွံ အခေါင် လုပ်စရင် အသမ္တီ အလဵုအသဳ မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ဒးဒုင် ဖယ်ဉ် ထောအ် (Digitally excluded) နူကဵု သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ရ။ အရာဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ပြသၞာ "ကလော် သၞောတ်ရုင်" (Administrative ghosts) မဟွံမဲ ရုပ်သာ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် အလဵုအသဳ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်စၟဳစၟတ် မင်ရံင် (Surveillance State):''' ယဝ်ရ အလဵုအသဳ တအ် စကာ အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်ရံင် အခိုက်အလိုက် ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် တ္ၚဲ မ္ဂး (ဥပမာ - သၞောတ် Credit ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ကြုက်)၊ ဍေဟ် ပကဵု ညံင် အခေါင် ဗၠးၜး (Freedom) ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဂွံ လီုလာ် အာ ရ။
== ၉။ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် (Legal Frameworks and Regulations) ==
သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ပရေင်ပိုင်ပြဳ (Privacy) ပူဂိုလ် ဂှ်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင် ကေုာံ ဒေသ နာနာ ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ခိုင်င်ကၠိုက်က် ရ -
* '''သၞောဝ် GDPR ဥရောပ (General Data Protection Regulation):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၈ ဂှ်၊ သမဂ္ဂ ဥရောပ (EU) စပတိတ် သၞောဝ် [[သၞောဝ် ဂျဳဒဳပဳအာ]] (GDPR) မဒှ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မစဵုဒၞာ တင်ဂၞင် ပူဂိုလ် ခိုင်ကၠိုက်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ သၞောဝ် ဏအ် ကဵု အခေါင် ကု ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် အာတ် တင်ဂၞင် ဇကု၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အာတ် ကဵု ပလီုထောအ် တင်ဂၞင် တအ် (Right to be forgotten) ရ။<ref name="gdpr">{{cite web |title=General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) |url=https://gdpr-info.eu/ |publisher=European Union |year=2018 |access-date=2024-05-10}}</ref>
* '''သၞောတ် eIDAS (Electronic Identification, Authentication and Trust Services):''' ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဥရောပ မွဲပၠန် သွက်ဂွံ ပဒတန် ဒဒှ်ရ အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ကေုာံ လက္ချာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် နူကဵု ဍုင်မွဲ ဂှ် မာန် စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဥရောပ တၞဟ် တအ် အလုံအိုတ်သီု ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ တေတ်နဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ တၟိဂမၠိုင် (Future Trends and Emerging Technologies) ==
အနာဂတ် သွက် အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မလှဲလး ဗွဲမလောန်။
* '''အသမ္တီ ပ္ဍဲ မေတာဗာသ် (Identity in the Metaverse):''' အခိင် ဂၠးတိ ရုပ်စမ် (Virtual reality) ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် ဂှ်၊ မၞိဟ်တအ် ဒးနွံကဵု အသမ္တီ (Avatars ကေုာံ Digital assets) မမာန် ကေတ်ဏာ နူကဵု ဝပ်သာက် မွဲ စိုပ် ဝပ်သာက် မွဲ ရ။
* '''ဥာဏ်ပညာ ကောန်ပျူတာ (Artificial Intelligence):''' AI ဝွံ မာန် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အခိုက်အလိုက် မၞိဟ် (Behavioral biometrics - ဥပမာ ဗီုပြင် တက် ကဳဗုတ်၊ ဗီုပြင် ရပ် ဖုန်) သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ မၞိဟ် ဇေတ်တ် လောဲသွာ တုဲ၊ မာန် စဵုဒၞာ ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ဒးဒုင် လှေအ်လှန် နကဵု သၞောတ် Deepfake တအ် ရ။
နကဵု သရုပ် မ္ဂး၊ အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ အဓိက သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂွံ ဂျိုင်တဴ ကေုာံ ချဳဓရာင် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် အင်တာနက် ရ။ သွက် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဂကူ မဒးဒုင် ဍဵုဍိုက် တအ် ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သၞောတ် အသမ္တီ မပြးဇး (SSI) ဝွံ မာန် ကဵု သၠးပွး ကေုာံ ပရေင်တန်တဴ ဗၠးၜး ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ဒးဒုင် ပလီုပလာ် အသမ္တီ ညးတအ် လးလး ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Cybersecurity]] (ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု သာဲဗာ)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Public key infrastructure]] (သၞောတ် ပဳကေအာဲ)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Blockchain]] (ဗလံက်ချေန်)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|Biometrics]] (ဗာဲအဝ်မေထရစ်)
{{Navbox
| name = Technology and Society
| title = ကွတ်ပညာ ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Technology and Society)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လဒက်ပတန် အသမ္တီ
| list1 =
* [[အသမ္တီ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်]] (Digital identity)
* [[အသမ္တီ မပိုင်ပြဳ ဇကုဂှ်]] (Self-Sovereign Identity)
* [[အသမ္တီ ပြးဇး]] (Decentralized Identifiers)
| group2 = ကွတ်ပညာ ဂီုကၠီု
| list2 =
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ဗာဲအဝ်မေထရစ်]] (Biometrics)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ခရိပ်တဝ်ဂရပ်ဖဳ]] (Cryptography)
* [[သက်သဳ ဇဳရဝ်-နဝ်လေတ်]] (Zero-knowledge proof)
| group3 = သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရာ
| list3 =
* [[သၞောဝ် ဂျဳဒဳပဳအာ]] (GDPR)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ပရေင်ပိုင်ပြဳ ပူဂိုလ်]] (Data privacy)
* [[တီလ္ၚတ် ကောန်စၟိန်]] (KYC)
}}
[[Category:ကွတ်ပညာ]]
[[Category:အင်တာနက်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု]]
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'''မလိက်မန်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Mon script'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် အက္ခရ် မစကာ သွက်ဂွံ ချူ အရေဝ်ဘာသာမန် ကေုာံ ဒှ် သဇိုင်ရိုဟ်ကၞက် သွက် လိက်ပတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ အာရှအဂၞဲ မွဲရ။ မလိက်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန်လဝ် နကဵု သၞောတ် အဗူဂဳဒါ (Abugida) မဒှ် သၞောတ် မပံင်ကောံ ဗျည် ကေုာံ သွိုရ် မွဲစွံ ရ။ အက္ခရ်မန် ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ ရိုဟ်ကၞက် [[အက္ခရ် ဗြဟ္မဳ]] (Brahmi script) ကေုာံ [[အက္ခရ် ပလ္လဝ]] (Pallava script) နူကဵု ဒေသ အိန္ဒိယ သၠုင်ကျာ တုဲ၊ ပြးဇး စိုပ်ကၠုင် ဒေသ သုဝဏ္ဏဘုမ္မိ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာ အေဒဳ ၅ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ တေအ်ရ။
မလိက်မန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် မိမ သွက် [[မလိက်ဗၟာ]] (Burmese script) ကေုာံ [[မလိက်ကရေင်]] (Karen script) တအ် တုဲ၊ သြဇာ ဍေဟ် ပြးဇး စိုပ်လဝ် ဒဵုကဵု ဍုင်သေံ သၟဝ်ကျာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ခေတ် [[ဟရိဘုဉ္ဇယ]] (Haripuñjaya) ရ။<ref name="lieberman">{{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=V. B. |title=Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, Volume 1: Integration on the Mainland |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |pages=112-115}}</ref>
[[File:Myazedi_inscription_Mon_side.jpg|thumb|right|300px|လိက်တၟအ် မျစေတဳ လပါ် လိက်မန် မဒှ် သက်သဳ ဝင် လိက်ပတ် မန်-ဗၟာ မပြာကတ်အိုတ် (၁၁၁၃ အေဒဳ)။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
မလိက်မန် (Mon script) ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် ချူလိက် မစကာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဍုင်ဗၟာ သၠုင်ကျာ ကေုာံ ဒေသ လ္ၚဵု ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ ရ။ အက္ခရ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞောတ် "အဗူဂဳဒါ" (Abugida) မဒှ် အရာ မနွံကဵု ဗျည် (Consonants) မနွံကဵု သွိုရ် အပ္ဍဲ (Inherent vowel) ဍေဟ်တုဲ၊ သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ရမ္သာင် သွိုရ် မ္ဂး ဒးစုတ် သင်္ကေတ သွိုရ် (Vowel diacritics) မပ္တံကဵု လတူ၊ သၟဝ်၊ ပါဲ၊ ပုင် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု မလိက်မန် ခေတ်လၟုဟ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဗျည် အဓိက ၃၅ မ ကေုာံ သွိုရ် အဓိက ၁၂ မ ရ။ အရာ မတၟေင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ မလိက်မန် ဂှ် သၞောတ် ရမ္သာင် (Register system) ရ။ ဗျည်တအ် ပါ်လဝ် ၜါ ကဏ္ဍ မတွဟ်ဂး ဂကောံ ရမ္သာင်သာ (Clear voice / First Register) ကေုာံ ဂကောံ ရမ္သာင်ဇြိုင် (Breathy voice / Second Register) ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ခေတ်တမၠာ (History and Ancient Development) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် မလိက်မန် ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် လဝ် နကဵု ခေတ် အဓိက ၃ သာ် ရ -
* '''ခေတ် မန်တြေံ (Old Mon):''' မလိက် မန် တြေံအိုတ် မဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် လိက်တၟအ် နူကဵု ခေတ် [[ဒွါရဝတဳ]] (Dvaravati) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ (ၜိုတ် ၆-၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ) ရ။ မလိက် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင်ဏအ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဗီုပြင် စတုရန်း (Square shape) တုဲ ကြပ်ညောန် ကဵု အက္ခရ် ပလ္လဝ ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ လိက်တၟအ် မပြာကတ်အိုတ် ဂှ် လိက်တၟအ် [[ကျာ်သြဳသုဓမ္မာသောက်]] (Phra Pathom Chedi) ရ။
* '''ခေတ် မန်လဒေါဝ် (Middle Mon):''' အခိင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗုကာံ ကေုာံ ဟံသာဝတဳ (၁၁-၁၅ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ)။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဏအ် မလိက် မန် ဝွံ စပြံင်လှာဲ ကၠုင် နဒဒှ် ဗီုပြင် ခဍမ်ခဍမ် (Rounded shapes) ရ။ လိက်တၟအ် [[မျစေတဳ]] (Myazedi inscription) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၁၁၃ ဂှ် ဒှ် သက်သဳ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဏအ် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် မန်လၟုဟ် (Modern Mon):''' နူကဵု ခေတ် ၁၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဒဵုကဵု လၟုဟ်။ မလိက် တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ ခဍမ်ခဍမ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်စကာ သၠရိုတ် (Palm leaves) တုဲ ချူ နကဵု ကၞေဟ် ပသဲ မ္ဂး ယဝ်ရ ဓဇက် လိက် တပ်တပ် မ္ဂး သၠရိုတ် ကထာက် အာ မာန် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ မလိက် ခဍမ်ခဍမ် ဝွံ ဒှ်အာ အခိုက်အလိုက် ရ။<ref name="bauer">{{cite book |last=Bauer |first=C. |title=Morphology and Syntax of Spoken Mon |publisher=University of London |year=1982 |pages=15-20}}</ref>
== ၃။ အင်္ဂလက္သဏ် ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် (Characteristics and Structure) ==
မလိက်မန် ဝွံ ဓဇက် ချူ နူကဵု လပါ်ပါဲ စိုပ် လပါ်ပုင် တုဲ နူ လတူ စှ်ေ သၟဝ် ရ။ ဗီုပြင် လဒက်ပတန် ဂှ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ ရုပ် ခဍမ် (Circles) ကေုာံ ကဝက် ခဍမ် (Semi-circles) ရ။
* '''သွိုရ် အပ္ဍဲ (Inherent Vowel):''' ဗျည် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ နွံကဵု သွိုရ် /a/ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး /ɛ̀/ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ရ။ ဥပမာ - "က" ဂှ် ကော် /ka/ တုဲ "ခ" ဂှ် ကော် /kʰa/ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပံင်အက္ခရ် (Syllable Structure):''' လဒက်ပတန် မွဲဖဍန် ပ္ဍဲ လိက်မန် ဂှ် C(C)V(C) (Consonant - Consonant - Vowel - Consonant) ရ။
* '''အက္ခရ် စှ်ေက္ဍိုက် (Stacked Consonants):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ပါဠိ-မန် ဂှ်၊ ယဝ်ရ ဗျည် ၜါ ပံင်ကောံ ရေင်သကအ် မ္ဂး (Cluster)၊ ဗျည် လက်ကရဴ ဂှ် ဒးချူ သၟဝ် ဗျည် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ရ။ ဥပမာ - န္တ၊ မ္ပ၊ က္က တအ် ဒှ်တမ် ရ။
== ၄။ ဗျည်ဂမၠိုင် ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ရမ္သာင် (Consonants and Register System) ==
မလိက်မန် ခေတ်လၟုဟ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဗျည် အဓိက ၃၅ မ ရ။ အရာ မတၟေင်အိုတ် ဂှ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ပါ်လဝ် ဂကောံ ရမ္သာင် ၜါ သာ် (Register System) ရ -
# '''ရမ္သာင်သာ (First Register / Clear Voice):''' ဗျည် ဂကောံ "အ" មပ္တံကဵု က၊ ခ၊ စ၊ ဆ တအ်။ ရမ္သာင် တအ်ဏအ် ဂှ် ကဵု ရမ္သာင် သာသာ ကေုာံ ပံက်ပါင် သၠဲသၠဲ ရ။
# '''ရမ္သာင်ဇြိုင် (Second Register / Breathy Voice):''' ဗျည် ဂကောံ "ၜ" មပ္တံကဵု ဂ၊ ဃ၊ ဇ၊ ည တအ်။ ရမ္သာင် တအ်ဏအ် ဂှ် ကဵု ရမ္သာင် ဇြိုင် ကေုာံ နှာသံ ပါ ရ။<ref name="jenny">{{cite book |last=Jenny |first=M. |title=The System and Development of Mon |publisher=Siam Society |year=2005 |pages=45-52}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ဗျည် မန် ၃၅ မ
|-
! ဂကောံ (Varga)
! က (Unaspirated)
! ခ (Aspirated)
! ဂ (Voiced)
! ဃ (Voiced Asp.)
! ങ (Nasal)
|-
| '''ကဝဂ် (Velar)'''
| က (/ka/)
| ခ (/kʰa/)
| ဂ (/kɛ̀/)
| ဃ (/kʰɛ̀/)
| ၚ (/ŋɛ̀/)
|-
| '''စဝဂ် (Palatal)'''
| စ (/ca/)
| ဆ (/cʰa/)
| ဇ (/cɛ̀/)
| ၛ (/cʰɛ̀/)
| ည (/ɲɛ̀/)
|-
| '''ဋဝဂ် (Retroflex)'''
| ဋ (/ta/)
| ဌ (/tʰa/)
| ဍ (/ɗa/)
| ဎ (/tʰɛ̀/)
| ဏ (/na/)
|-
| '''တဝဂ် (Dental)'''
| တ (/ta/)
| ထ (/tʰa/)
| ဒ (/tɛ̀/)
| ဓ (/tʰɛ̀/)
| န (/nɛ̀/)
|-
| '''ပဝဂ် (Labial)'''
| ပ (/pa/)
| ဖ (/pʰa/)
| ဗ (/pɛ̀/)
| ဘ (/pʰɛ̀/)
| မ (/mɛ̀/)
|-
| '''အဝဂ် (Misc)'''
| ယ (/jɛ̀/)
| ရ (/rɛ̀/)
| လ (/lɛ̀/)
| ဝ (/wɛ̀/)
| သ (/sa/)
|-
| '''ဆက်တဲ'''
| ဟ (/ha/)
| ဠ (/la/)
| ၜ (/ɓa/)
| အ (/ʔa/)
| ၝ (/ɓɛ̀/)
|}
ဗျည် "ၜ" (Bba) ကေုာံ "ၝ" (Mba) ဝွံ ဒှ် ဗျည် တၟေင် မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သွက် ရမ္သာင် မန် ဇေတ်တ် မဟွံမဲ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ပါဠိ ရ။
== ၅။ သွိုရ်ဂမၠိုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပံင်အက္ခရ် (Vowels and Syllable Formation) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု မလိက်မန် မ္ဂး ပါ်လဝ် သွိုရ် နကဵု ၜါ ကဏ္ဍ -
* '''သွိုရ် အခိုက် (Independent vowels):''' မလိက် သွိုရ် မမာန် တန်တဴ နကဵု အလဵု ဇကု ဍေဟ် (ဥပမာ - ဣ၊ ဤ၊ ဥ၊ ဦ၊ ဧ၊ ဩ)။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ် စကာ အောန် အာ တုဲ၊ စၞးဂှ် စကာ "အ" တုဲ စုတ် သွိုရ် ဍောင် (Dependent vowels) ရ။
* '''သွိုရ် ဍောင် (Dependent vowels):''' သင်္ကေတ မဒးစုတ် ပံင် ကဵု ဗျည် သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ရမ္သာင် (ဥပမာ - ာ၊ ိ၊ ဳ၊ ု၊ ူ၊ ေ၊ ဲ၊ ော၊ ဴ)။
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ ဥပမာ ပရေင်ပံင် သွိုရ် ကု ဗျည် "က"
|-
! သွိုရ် (Vowel)
! သင်္ကေတ (Sign)
! လွပ် (Usage)
! ရမ္သာင် (IPA)
|-
| အ (a)
| -
| က
| /ka/
|-
| အာ (aa)
| ာ
| ကာ
| /ka/
|-
| ဣ (i)
| ိ
| ကိ
| /kɔe/
|-
| ဤ (ii)
| ဳ
| ကဳ
| /ki/
|-
| ဥ (u)
| ု
| ကု
| /kao/
|-
| ဦ (uu)
| ူ
| ကူ
| /ku/
|-
| ဧ (e)
| ေ
| ကေ
| /ke/
|-
| အဲ (ai)
| ဲ
| ကဲ
| /kɔe/
|-
| ဩ (o)
| ော
| ကော
| /kao/
|}
အရာ မဒးစွံသတိ ဂှ် ရမ္သာင် သွိုရ် တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ယဝ်ရ ပံင် ကဵု ဗျည် ရမ္သာင်ဇြိုင် (ဥပမာ - "ဂ" + "ာ" = "ဂါ" ရမ္သာင် /kɛ̀a/၊ ဟွံသေင် /kā/) ရ။
== ၆။ ဗျည်အဆက် ကေုာံ သံယောဂဂမၠိုင် (Medials and Conjunct Consonants) ==
[[ဗျည်အဆက်]] (Medials) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ဗျည် ဍောတ်တ် မစုတ် ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် ဗျည် တမ် ကေုာံ သွိုရ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ မလိက်မန် ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဗျည်အဆက် ၄ မ -
# '''ယ အဆက် (ျ):''' ဥပမာ - ကျ (kya)
# '''ရ အဆက် (ြ):''' ဥပမာ - ကြ (kra)
# '''လ အဆက် (ၠ):''' ဥပမာ - ကၠ (kla)
# '''ဝ အဆက် (ွ):''' ဥပမာ - ကွ (kwa)
ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ဗျည်အဆက် တအ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵုလဝ် သဇိုင် သွက် လဒက်ပတန် ရမ္သာင် မန် မလှဲလး ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ဗျည်အဆက် ၜါ မာန် ပံင် မွဲစွံ ကီုရ (ဥပမာ - ကျွ၊ ကြွ)။
== ၇။ သင်္ကေတဂၞန် ကေုာံ ပုဒ်ဂမၠိုင် (Numerals and Punctuation) ==
မလိက်မန် ဝွံ နွံကဵု သၞောတ် သင်္ကေတ ဂၞန် နူ သုည ဒဵု ၉ ဇကုဍေဟ် ရ။ ဗီုပြင် ဂၞန် တအ်ဝွံ တုပ်သၟဟ် ကဵု ဂၞန်ဗၟာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ လဒက်ပတန် ရမ္သာင် ဂှ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ရ။
* 0 (၀ - သုည)
* 1 (၁ - မွဲ)
* 2 (၂ - ၜါ)
* 3 (၃ - ပိ)
* 4 (၄ - ပန်)
* 5 (၅ - မသုန်)
* 6 (၆ - တရဴ)
* 7 (၇ - ထပှ်)
* 8 (၈ - ဒ္စာံ)
* 9 (၉ - ဒစိတ်)
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပုဒ် ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ လိက် (Punctuation) ဂှ် စကာ "၊" (ပုဒ်ဍောတ် - Comma) ကေုာံ "။" (ပုဒ်ဇၞော် - Full stop) ရ။ သွက် သၠရိုတ် ကေုာံ လိက် တမၠာ တအ်မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် စကာ "႟" (Section sign) သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ တမ် လိက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အခန် တၟိ ရ။
== ၈။ သြဇာ လတူ အက္ခရ် တၞဟ်ဂမၠိုင် (Influence on Other Scripts) ==
[[File:Burmese_script_evolution.png|thumb|left|250px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် မလိက်မန် မဒှ် မိမ သွက် မလိက်ဗၟာ ခေတ် လၟုဟ်။]]
မလိက်မန် ဝွံ ဒှ် လိက်ပတ် မနွံကဵု သြဇာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ အာရှအဂၞဲ လပါ် ပလိုတ် ရ။ အလဵုအသဳ ဍုင်ဗုကာံ ကေုာံ ဂကူဗၟာ တအ်ဝွံ ကာလ ညးတအ် လုပ်သီ ဍုင် သဓီု (Thaton) ပ္ဍဲ ၁၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် ဒုင်ကေတ် ယေန်သၞာင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် နူကဵု ဂကူမန် တအ် ရ။
* '''မလိက်ဗၟာ (Burmese Script):''' မလိက်ဗၟာ လၟုဟ် ဂှ် လွဳစကာ ကေတ်လဝ် လဒက်ပတန် မလိက်မန် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဗီုပြင် အက္ခရ် ဍေဟ်တအ် တုပ်သၟဟ် ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် ၉၀% ပြင်င် ရ။<ref name="aung_thwin">{{cite book |last=Aung-Thwin |first=M. |title=The Mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2005 |pages=45-50}}</ref>
* '''မလိက်ကရေင် (Karen Scripts):''' လိက် ကရေင် သကော (Sgaw Karen) ကေုာံ ကရေင် ပဝ် (Pwo Karen) တအ် လေဝ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ မလိက်မန် ကေုာံ ဗၟာ တုဲ၊ ထပ် စုတ် သင်္ကေတ ရမ္သာင် (Tones) တၟိ သွက် ဘာသာ ညးတအ် ရ။
* '''မလိက် သေံ သၟဝ်ကျာ (Lanna / Tai Tham):''' မလိက် တအ်ဏအ် ၜိုန်ရ တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ရိုဟ်ကၞက် ဍေဟ် တအ်ဂှ် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု မလိက်မန် ခေတ် ဟရိဘုဉ္ဇယ ရ။
== ၉။ ခေတ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ယူနဳကုဒ် (Digital Age and Unicode System) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ကောန်ပျူတာ ကေုာံ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် လၟုဟ်၊ မလိက်မန် ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် [[ယူနဳကုဒ်]] (Unicode Standard) အလုံဂၠးတိ ရ။ မလိက်မန် ဂှ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု "Myanmar Block" (U+1000 ဒဵု U+109F) ရ။
ၜိုန်ရ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဗလး ဗၟာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ သွက် မလိက် မန် တၟေင်င် တအ်ဂှ် ယူနဳကုဒ် ကဵုလဝ် ဒၞာဲ တၟေင် ရ -
* `U+101D` : မလိက် ၝ (Mba)
* `U+101E` : မလိက် ၚ (Nga)
* `U+105A` : မလိက် ၚ (Nna)
သွက်ဂွံ တက် လိက် မန် ပ္ဍဲ ဖုန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကောန်ပျူတာ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကဳဗုတ် (Keyboard layouts) ကေုာံ ဖေါန် (Fonts) မပ္တံကဵု [[ဖေါန် ပြည်ထောင်စု]] (Pyidaungsu Font), Mon3, ကေုာံ Padauk တအ်ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ မဳဒဳယာ ကေုာံ ညးသၟတ် မန် တအ် စကာ သၞောတ် ယူနဳကုဒ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး သွက်ဂွံ ဆက်စၠောအ် ပ္ဍဲ Facebook ကေုာံ Wikipedia တအ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် လိက်မန် (Preservation and Future of the Mon Script) ==
[[File:Mon_Monks_Teaching_Language.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ခမဳသင် မန် တအ် ဗတောန် လိက်မန် ကု ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘာလကျာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဥတုကညင်။]]
ၜိုန်ရ မလိက်မန် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဝင် မဇၞော်သၠဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် ၂၀ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက် အလဵုအသဳ ပၞာန် ဗၟာ (Burmanization policy) တုဲ၊ မလိက်မန် ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာ အလဵုအသဳ တအ် ရ။ <ref name="south">{{cite book |last=South |first=A. |title=Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: The Golden Sheldrake |url=https://archive.org/details/monnationalismci0000sout |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/monnationalismci0000sout/page/145 145]-150}}</ref>
ဆဂး နကဵု ဓဝ်သတ္တိ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ညဳသၟဟ် ဂကောံ ခမဳသင် မန် (Mon Sangha) တအ်၊ ညးတအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် "ပရေင်ဗတောန် လိက် ဥတုကညင်" (Summer Literacy Training) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာလကျာ် ဂမၠိုင် တုဲ မင်မဲ ကၠုင် မလိက် ဏအ် လမျီု ဟွံဂွံ တိတ် အာ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ဂှ်၊ ယဝ်ရ အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ပညာ ကဵု အခေါင် သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် လိက် မန် ပ္ဍဲ ဘာ အလဵုအသဳ ဗွဲမဗၠးၜး မ္ဂး၊ မလိက်မန် ဏအ် ဆက်တုဲ တန်ကြန် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် အာ အလုံ မွဲ အယုက် ကမ္ဘာ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[အရေဝ်ဘာသာမန်]] (Mon language)
* [[အက္ခရ် ဗြဟ္မဳ]] (Brahmi script)
* [[ယူနဳကုဒ်]] (Unicode)
* [[ဝင် လိက်ပတ် မန်]] (History of Mon literature)
{{Navbox
| name = Mon Language and Script
| title = အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် မန် (Mon Language and Script)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သၞောတ် အက္ခရ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[မလိက်မန်]] (Mon script)
* [[အက္ခရ် ပလ္လဝ]] (Pallava script)
* [[မလိက်ဗၟာ]] (Burmese script)
| group2 = သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ရမ္သာင်
| list2 =
* [[သၞောတ်ရမ္သာင် မန်]] (Mon phonology)
* [[ဗျည်]] (Consonants)
* [[သွိုရ်]] (Vowels)
* [[ဗျည်အဆက်]] (Medials)
| group3 = ကွတ်ပညာ ကေုာံ ဝင်
| list3 =
* [[ယူနဳကုဒ်]] (Unicode)
* [[ဖေါန် ပြည်ထောင်စု]] (Pyidaungsu Font)
* [[လိက်တၟအ် မျစေတဳ]] (Myazedi inscription)
* [[ဒွါရဝတဳ]] (Dvaravati)
}}
[[Category:မလိက်မန်]]
[[Category:အရေဝ်ဘာသာမန်]]
[[Category:ယေန်သၞာင်မန်]]
[[Category:အက္ခရ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
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လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန်
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'''လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''လုပ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Loop'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Computer science) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချူ [[ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Computer programming) မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် သၞောတ် လဒက်ပတန် အုပ်ဓုပ် (Control flow statement) မွဲ မကဵု အမိင် ကု ကောန်ပျူတာ သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မွဲမွဲ (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကမၠောန် မွဲကဏ္ဍ) ထပ်တုဲ ထပ်ပၠန် စဵုကဵု တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် (Condition) မွဲမွဲ ဍိုက်ပေင် အာ ရ။ <ref name="knuth">{{cite book |last=Knuth |first=D. E. |title=The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms |edition=3rd |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=1997 |pages=120-125}}</ref>
ယဝ်ရ လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန် (Loop) တအ် ဟွံမဲ မ္ဂး၊ သွက်ဂွံ တွက်ဂၞန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မတုပ် ရေင်သကအ် အလန် မဂၠိုင်ကဵု လ္ၚီ ဂှ် ညးချူ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် (Programmers) တအ် ဒးချူ လိက်ကုတ် (Code) အလန် မဂၠိုင်ကဵု လ္ၚီ ကီု ရ။ သၞောတ် Loop ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ညံင် [[အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳသမ်]] (Algorithms) တအ် ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ကေုာံ ဂၠေအ်ဂၠေအ် မာန် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဂကူ Loop နာနာ၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ဍေဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ကွတ်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:While-loop-diagram.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး လဒက်ပတန် သဇိုင် သွက် While Loop၊ ဒၞာဲမ္ဂး ကမၠောန် ဂှ် ကလေင် ကၠောန် ဒၟံင် စဵုကဵု တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် (Condition) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟွံဍာံပြ (False) ရ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ချူ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် (Programming)၊ Loop ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မဖန်ဗဒှ် ညံင် ကောန်ပျူတာ ဂွံ ကလေင် ကၠောန် (Iterate) ကမၠောန် မွဲမွဲ ရ။ လဒက်ပတန် သဇိုင် သွက် Loop ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ နွံကဵု ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက ၜါ သာ် -
# '''တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် (Condition):''' ဒှ် ၚုဟ်မး ယုတ္တိဗေဒ (Boolean logic) မစၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ Loop ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဆက် ကၠောန် (True) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သ္ဒး ဒေါအ် (False)။
# '''ခန္ဓာ လိက်ကုတ် (Loop Body):''' ဒှ် ကမၠောန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အမိင် မဒး ကလေင် ကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဂှ် ဍာံပြ ဒၟံင် ဏီ ရ။
ဥပမာ - "စဵုကဵု ဍာ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေါက် ဟွံပေင် ဏီ (Condition)، ဆက် စုတ် ဍာ် (Body)" ဝွံ ဒှ် သဘာဝ Loop မွဲ ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိကအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ပကဵု ညံင် စက် တအ် ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ထပ်တုဲ ထပ်ပၠန် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ပရေင်ဍောင်ၜိုတ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
လညာတ် လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန် (Loop) ဝွံ နွံကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု ကိုပ်ကၠာ ကောန်ပျူတာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital computers) တအ် ဟွံကတဵုဒှ် ဏီ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉၊ ညးမချူ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ ပထမအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ မနွံယၟု [[အေဒါ လပ်လေ့စ်]] (Ada Lovelace) ဂှ်၊ ညးတေအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳသမ် သွက် စက် တွက်ဂၞန် (Analytical Engine) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳသမ် ညးတေအ် ဂှ်၊ ပါလုပ် ဒၟံင် သဘာဝ လၟေင် မကလေင် ကၠောန် (Backing operation) မဒှ် တမ်မူလ Loop ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။<ref name="sebesta">{{cite book |last=Sebesta |first=R. W. |title=Concepts of Programming Languages |edition=11th |publisher=Pearson |year=2015 |pages=340-345}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် လိက်ကုတ် စက် (Assembly language) မ္ဂး၊ လညာတ် Loop တအ်ဂှ် စကာ လဝ် နကဵု အမိင် "Jump" (လုပ် ဒံင်) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "Branch" ရ။ ကာလ အမိင် ဍိုက်ပေင် မ္ဂး၊ ကောန်ပျူတာ ဂှ် ဒံင် ကလေင် အာ ဇရေင် လိက်ကုတ် လပါ်လတူ ပၠန် ရ။ ဆဂး ပရေင်စကာ အမိင် "Go To" ဏအ်ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် တအ် ထုဲထံင် (Spaghetti code) မာန် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၈ ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ သင်္ချာ [[အက်ဂါ ဒက်သတြာ]] (Edsger W. Dijkstra) ချူလဝ် လိက်ပရေင် မပြာကတ် "Go To Statement Considered Harmful" တုဲ၊ ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် မနွံကဵု လဒက်ပတန် (Structured programming) မစကာ For, While Loop တအ် ရ။<ref name="dijkstra">{{cite journal |last=Dijkstra |first=E. W. |title=Letters to the editor: Go to statement considered harmful |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=147-148 |year=1968}}</ref>
== ၃။ လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန် ဂကူ ဝါင်လ် (While and Do-While Loops) ==
ဂကူ Loop တအ်ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် လဝ် အတိုင် အကာဲအရာ မစၟတ်သမ္တီ တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် (Condition) ရ။
=== ၃.၁။ While Loop (စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကိုပ်ကၠာ) ===
While loop ဝွံ ဒှ် Loop မစၟတ်သမ္တီ တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ (Pre-test loop) ရ။ ယဝ်ရ တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဂှ် ဍာံပြ (True) မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ရ။ ယဝ်ရ တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဂှ် ဟွံဍာံ (False) နူ စတမ် မ္ဂး၊ ကမၠောန် အပ္ဍဲ Loop ဂှ် ဟွံကၠောန် မွဲလှ်ေ ရ။
ဥပမာ (နကဵု လိက်ကုတ် C/Python ဗီုပြင်):
```c
int count = 0;
while (count < 5) {
print(count);
count++;
}
=== ၃.၂။ Do-While Loop (စၟတ်သမ္တီ လက္ကရဴ) ===
Do-While loop ဝွံ ဒှ် Loop မစၟတ်သမ္တီ တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် လက္ကရဴ (Post-test loop) ရ။ ဍေဟ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် အပ္ဍဲ Loop ဂှ် အောန်အိုတ် မွဲ လှ်ေ ကိုပ်ကၠာ (Do)၊ တုဲမှ ဍေဟ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် (While) ရ။
ဥပမာ:
C
int count = 0;
do {
print(count);
count++;
} while (count < 5);
== ၄။ လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန် ဂကူ ဖေါရ် (For Loops) ==
For loop ဝွံ ဒှ် Loop မစကာ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ အကာဲအရာ မပိုယ် တီလဝ် လၟိဟ် အလန် ချိုတ်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ပၠိုတ် (Definite iteration) ရ။{{cite book |last=Cormen |first=T. H. |author2=Leiserson, C. E. |author3=Rivest, R. L. |author4=Stein, C. |title=Introduction to Algorithms |edition=3rd |publisher=MIT Press |year=2009 |pages=18-22}}
လဒက်ပတန် သဇိုင် For loop မွဲ နွံကဵု ၃ ကဏ္ဍ:
'''Initialization (စတမ်):''' စၟတ်သမ္တီ ၚုဟ်မး စတမ် သွက် လၟိဟ် (ဥပမာ $i = 0$)။
'''Condition (တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်):''' စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ Loop ဂှ် ဒးဆက် ကၠောန် ဏီ ဟာ (ဥပမာ $i < 10$)။
'''Increment/Decrement (ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ):''' ထပ် စုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နုက် လၟိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ လက္ကရဴ ဇၟာပ် အလန် မကၠောန် (ဥပမာ $i++$)။
ဥပမာ (နကဵု လိက်ကုတ် Java/C++):
C
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
print("Loop number: " + i);
}
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥပမာ ဏအ်၊ ကောန်ပျူတာ ဂှ် ဗှ် အမိင် ဏအ် တုဲ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္တိတ် လိက် ၁၀ လှ်ေ ချိုတ်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ရ။
== ၅။ ဖေါရ်အိချ် ကေုာံ အဳတာရေတာ (Foreach and Iterators) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ခေတ်တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု Python, Java, ကေုာံ JavaScript တအ်ဂှ်၊ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် Foreach loop (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး For-in, For-of) သွက်ဂွံ လောဲသွာ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဗှ် ကေတ် တင်ဂၞင် နူကဵု [[လၟေင်]] (Arrays) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ (Collections) တအ် ရ။
စၞး မဒး စကာ လၟိဟ် အညွှန်း (Index) ဗီုကဵု $i=0, 1, 2$ ဂှ်၊ Foreach loop ဝွံ ရုဲကေတ် တင်ဂၞင် မွဲ တုဲ မွဲ အလုံအိုတ်သီု အလဵုအလဵု (Automatically) ရ။
ဥပမာ (နကဵု Python):
Python
fruits = ["Apple", "Banana", "Cherry"]
for fruit in fruits:
print(fruit)
လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ [[အဳတာရေတာ]] (Iterator) မဒှ် လဒက်ပတန် မတွာ် အာ ဇရေင် တင်ဂၞင် ဂမၠိုင် နကဵု လၟေင် လၟေင် ရ။
== ၆။ အမိင် အုပ်ဓုပ် လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန် (Loop Control Statements) ==
လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ပိုယ် နွံပၟိက် မိက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ အကာဲအရာ လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန် အကြာ ဍေဟ် မကၠောန် ဒၟံင် ရ။ သွက် ကမၠောန် ဏအ်၊ ညးတအ် စကာ အမိင် အုပ်ဓုပ် အဓိက ၃ သာ် -
'''Break (ဒေါအ်/ပါ်တိတ်):''' အမိင် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် Loop ဂှ် ဒေါအ် အာ သမၠေဝ် ဓဝ် တုဲ တိတ် အာ နူ Loop ဂှ် ရ။ (ဥပမာ - ဂၠာဲ ဆဵု အရာ မဂၠာဲ ဒၟံင် တုဲမ္ဂး ဟွံဆက် ဂၠာဲ ရ)။
'''Continue (ဆက်အာ):''' အမိင် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ကမၠောန် မသှ်ေ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ အလန် ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒေါအ် အာ တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ဆက် ကၠောန် အလန် ဂတ ဂှ် ပၠန် ရ။ (ဥပမာ - ဟွံတွက် ဂၞန် စုံ တုဲ ဆက် တွက် ဂၞန် လမောဝ် သၟး)။
'''Pass / NOP (ဟွံကၠောန်):''' ပ္ဍဲ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ လ္ၚဵု မပ္တံကဵု Python ဂှ် စကာ သွက်ဂွံ စွံ လဟာင် တုဲ ဟွံကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မုမွဲ ရ။
== ၇။ လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန် ဟွံမဲ အပိုင်အခြာ (Infinite Loops) ==
[[လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန် ဟွံမဲ အပိုင်အခြာ]] (Infinite loop) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် Loop မတင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် (Condition) ဍေဟ် ဟွံမာန် ဒှ် အာ False မွဲလှ်ေ တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ကလေင် ကၠောန် ဒၟံင် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု လအိတ် ရ။
ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ Infinite loop ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ယောန်မှာ (Bug) မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ လိက်ကုတ် တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် ကောန်ပျူတာ တအ် ဟွံချဳဓရာင် (Freeze/Crash) မာန် ရ။ ဆဂး၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လွပ် လ္ၚဵု တအ်မ္ဂး၊ Infinite loop ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မနွံပၟိက် ရ။ ဥပမာ -
'''သၞောတ် သာဗါ (Web Servers):''' သာဗါ ဝပ်သာက် တအ်ဂှ် ဒးပံက် လဝ် Infinite loop သွက်ဂွံ မင် ဒုင် တင်ဂၞင် (Requests) နူကဵု ညးလွပ် တအ် လၟိုန် အခိင် ရ။
'''ဝေင် ဂိမ်း (Game Loops):''' ပ္ဍဲ ကွတ်စက် ဂိမ်း (Game engines) ဂှ် စကာ Infinite loop သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ဓဇက် ရုပ် (Render) ပ္ဍဲ မျက်နှာပြင် (Screen) စဵုကဵု ညးလွပ် ပိတ် ထောအ် ဂိမ်း ဂှ် ရ။
== ၈။ လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန် ထပ်လတူ (Nested Loops) ==
Nested loops ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်စုတ် Loop မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ အပ္ဍဲ Loop မွဲပၠန် ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး တင်ဂၞင် မနွံကဵု ဗလး ၜါ (2D structures) မပ္တံကဵု [[သ္ၚိအင်]] (Tables/Grids) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သ္ၚိအင် လၟိဟ် (Matrices) ရ။
ဥပမာ (သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် သ္ၚိအင် ဂၞန်):
Python
for i in range(1, 4): # Outer loop (Rows)
for j in range(1, 4): # Inner loop (Columns)
print(i * j)
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်]] (Complexity theory) မ္ဂး၊ Nested loops ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် အခိင် ကမၠောန် ဂွံ လအ် အာ ဗွဲမလောန် (ဥပမာ အခိင် $O(n^2)$) ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ညးချူ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် တအ် ဒးစွံ သတိ ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် စကာ ဍေဟ် ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ခိုဟ်အိုတ် ကေုာံ အစောံသတ္တိ (Loop Optimization and Efficiency) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ တွက်ဂၞန် ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ခိုဟ်အိုတ် (Optimization) သွက် Loop တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ ကိစ္စဇၞော် မွဲ ရ။ ကောန်ပျူတာ ခေတ်တၟိ (Compilers) တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ သုတေသန ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ပခိုဟ် ပတိုန် အစောံသတ္တိ Loop တအ် ရ - {{cite book |last=Aho |first=A. V. |author2=Lam, M. S. |author3=Sethi, R. |author4=Ullman, J. D. |title=Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9788177584455 |edition=2nd |publisher=Pearson |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9788177584455/page/592 590]-595}}
'''Loop Unrolling (ပံက်ဗလး လၟေင်):''' ဒှ် နဲကဲ မဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် လၟိဟ် အလန် မကလေင် ကၠောန် နကဵု ပရေင်ပံင် စုတ် ကမၠောန် မဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ မွဲ အလန် ဓဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် အခိင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် (Condition checking time)။
'''Vectorization (ဗက်တာရိုက်ဇေးယှေန်):''' စကာ အစောံသတ္တိ CPU ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး GPU သွက်ဂွံ တွက် ဂၞန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မွဲစွံ (SIMD) စၞး မတွက် မွဲ တုဲ မွဲ အပ္ဍဲ Loop ရ။
'''Loop Invariant Code Motion (ယှောတ် ပတိတ် လိက်ကုတ် တန်တဴ):''' အရာ မတွက် ဂွံ ၚုဟ်မး တုပ်လၟိုန် (Constant) ပ္ဍဲ Loop ဂှ် ယှောတ် ပတိတ် စွံ လပါ်မ္ၚး Loop သွက်ဂွံ တွက် ဆ မွဲ လှ်ေ ဓဝ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် သၠုင် (Future and Functional Programming Equivalents) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ခေတ်တၟိ လ္ၚဵု ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ဖန်ယှေန်နယ်]] (Functional programming) မပ္တံကဵု Haskell, Lisp, ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ES6 JavaScript တအ်ဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် ဂစာန် ဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် လွပ် Loop (For, While) ရ။ စၞး မစကာ Loop မ္ဂး ညးတအ် စကာ [[လၟေင် ကလေင်ကော်ဇကု]] (Recursion) မဒှ် ပရေင်ကော် ဖန်ယှေန် အပ္ဍဲ ဖန်ယှေန် ဂှ် ပၠန် ရ။
လညာတ် တအ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်တွက်ဂၞန် ဒေတာ ဇၞော် (Big Data) ကေုာံ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence) သွက်ဂွံ တွက်ဂၞန် နကဵု ကွန်ရက် မပြးဇး (Distributed computing) မာန် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
[[ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Computer programming)
[[အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳသမ်]] (Algorithm)
[[လၟေင် ကလေင်ကော်ဇကု]] (Recursion)
[[အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ဖန်ယှေန်နယ်]] (Functional programming)
{{Navbox
| name = Programming Constructs
| title = လဒက်ပတန် ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ကေုာံ သဇိုင် ကောန်ပျူတာ (Programming Constructs and Basics)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် (Control Flow)
| list1 =
[[လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန်]] (Loop)
[[တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ইফ]] (If statement)
[[လၟေင် ကလေင်ကော်ဇကု]] (Recursion)
[[တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် သွစ်ချ်]] (Switch statement)
| group2 = ၚုဟ်မး ကေုာံ ဒေတာ (Data)
| list2 =
[[ၚုဟ်မး မဟွံတီဏီ]] (Variable)
[[လၟေင်]] (Array)
[[သ္ၚိအင်]] (Table / Matrix)
[[လဒက်ပတန် တင်ဂၞင်]] (Data structure)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင် (Related Fields)
| list3 =
[[သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Computer science)
[[သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန်]] (Computational theory)
[[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
[[အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳသမ်]] (Algorithm)
}}
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ]]
[[Category:ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ]]
[[Category:အလ်ဂဝ်ရဳသမ်]]
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'''ဒဿနသဘာဝ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''သဘာဝ ဒဿန''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Natural philosophy'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး န်လေတ္တေန် ''philosophia naturalis'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ သဘာဝ (Nature) ကေုာံ စက္ကဝါ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု (Physical universe) နကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿနိကဗေဒ မဒှ်လဝ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် အဓိက ကိုပ်ကၠာ နူကဵု ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ဟွံကတဵုဒှ် ဏီ ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ နူ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ ဂှ်၊ ဘာသာရပ် မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ သဘာဝ အလုံအိုတ်သီု မပ္တံကဵု [[ရူပဗေဒ]] (Physics)၊ [[ဓာတုဗေဒ]] (Chemistry)၊ [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology) ကေုာံ [[နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ]] (Astronomy) တအ်ဂှ် ပံင်ကောံ တုဲ ကော်ခဴ စ "ဒဿနသဘာဝ" ဖအိုတ် ရ။<ref name="grant">{{cite book |last=Grant |first=E. |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran/page/1 1]-10}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် မၞိဟ် တအ်၊ ပရေင်ဂစာန် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဥပဒေသ သဘာဝ ဝွံ စကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ (Ancient Greece) တေအ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ လၟုဟ် ပိုယ် ပါ်ကရေက် လဝ် ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ နာနာ သာ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ လညာတ် သဇိုင် မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ရိုဟ်ကၞက် ဒဿနသဘာဝ ဏအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဝင်၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ဒဿနသဘာဝ လတူ ဂၠးတိ သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687).png|thumb|right|300px|မုက်လိက် ဂတ သၠပတ် ညး [[အာက်ဇြက် နယူတန်]] (Isaac Newton) မနွံယၟု ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' (သဇိုင် သင်္ချာ သွက် ဒဿနသဘာဝ) မပ္တိတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၆၈၇။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ဒဿနသဘာဝ" (Natural philosophy) ဝွံ နွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် မလှဲလး ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ပညာ ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် (Motion)၊ ဒြဟတ် (Forces)၊ အကာဲအရာ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု (Matter) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် သဘာဝ ဂမၠိုင် နကဵု နဲကဲ ချပ်ဗ္စာ ယုတ္တိ (Rational inquiry) တုဲ ဟွံဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ လညာတ် ဒဏ္ဍာရဳ (Mythology) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဘာသာသာသနာ သက်သက် ရ။
ကိုပ်ကၠာ နူ တၠပညာ အင်္ဂလာန် ဝဳလဳယမ် ဝှဴဝေလ် (William Whewell) မခၞံဗဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ "သိပ္ပံပညာရှင်" (Scientist) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၃၄ ဂှ်၊ မၞိဟ် မလ္ၚတ် သဘာဝ တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ညးကော်စ "တၠပညာ ဒဿနသဘာဝ" (Natural philosophers) ရ။ ဥပမာ - [[အာက်ဇြက် နယူတန်]] (Isaac Newton) ဂှ် ဟွံကော်စ ဇကု ညး နဒဒှ် တၠပညာ ရူပဗေဒ ပုဟ်၊ ညးကော်စ ဇကု ညး နဒဒှ် တၠပညာ ဒဿနသဘာဝ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဂရိတ် (History and Origin in Ancient Greece) ==
ဒဿနသဘာဝ ဝွံ စတင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးတိ ဂရိတ် တြေံ ၜိုတ် ဘဳစဳ ၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ရ။ တၠပညာ မကတဵုဒှ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် [[တာလေတ်]] (Thales of Miletus) မဒှ် မၞိဟ် မဂစာန် သောင်ကလး အကာဲအရာ သဘာဝ နကဵု ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵု (Cause and effect) သက်သက် ဟွံပါ်စုတ် အစောံ ဒေဝတဴ (Gods) ရ။<ref name="dear">{{cite book |last=Dear |first=P. |title=Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700 |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionizings0000dear_w0y9 |edition=2nd |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/revolutionizings0000dear_w0y9/page/15 15]-20}}</ref>
တၠပညာ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် [[အရစ္စတဝ်တယ်]] (Aristotle) ရ။ ညးတေအ် ချူလဝ် ပြကိုဟ် မနွံယၟု ''Physics'' (သဘာဝ) မဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဒဿနသဘာဝ လုကဴ ပွိုင် ၜါလ္ၚီ သၞာံ ရ။ လညာတ် အရစ္စတဝ်တယ် ဂှ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ဓါတ် ၄ သာ် (Four elements) မပ္တံကဵု တိ၊ ဍာ်၊ ကျာ၊ ပၟတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် သဘာဝ (Natural motion) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ လညာတ် ညးတေအ် လ္ၚဵု ဟွံဍာံပြ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လၟုဟ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ နဲကဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ယုတ္တိ ညးတေအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အထံက်အပင် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ရ။
== ၃။ ဒဿနသဘာဝ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လဒေါဝ် (Medieval Natural Philosophy) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိင် ခေတ်လဒေါဝ် (Middle Ages) ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဒဿနသဘာဝ ဝွံ ဆက်လက် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးတိ အေတ်သလာမ် (Islamic Golden Age) ကေုာံ ဥရောပ ရ။
တၠပညာ အာရပ် ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု [[အလ်-ဟာဇေန်]] (Alhazen) ကေုာံ [[အာဗဳသေန္နာ]] (Avicenna) တအ်ဝွံ ကလေင် ကၠာဲ လိက် ဂရိတ် တြေံ တအ် ဇရေင် ဘာသာ အာရပ် တုဲ၊ ထပ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် (Experimental method) ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပညာ လျး (Optics) ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ (Medicine) ရ။
လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် လိက် တအ် ဏအ် စိုပ်အာ ဥရောပ တုဲ၊ တၠပညာ ခရေတ်ယာန် မပ္တံကဵု [[တဝ်မာတ် အကွာင်နသ်]] (Thomas Aquinas) တအ် ပံင်ကောံ လညာတ် အရစ္စတဝ်တယ် ကု ဝါဒ ခရေတ်ယာန် တုဲ ခၞံဗဒှ် လညာတ် စကဝ်လာသတစ် (Scholasticism) ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် ခေတ်လဒေါဝ် ဂမၠိုင် ရ။
== ၄။ ခေတ် ပရေင်ကတဵုပြံင်လှာဲ သိပ္ပံ (The Scientific Revolution) ==
ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၆ ကဵု ၁၇ ဝွံ ဒှ် အခိင် မကတဵုဒှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဒဿနသဘာဝ မကော်စ "ပရေင်ကတဵုပြံင်လှာဲ သိပ္ပံ" (Scientific Revolution) ရ။<ref name="kuhn">{{cite book |last=Kuhn |first=T. S. |title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions |url=https://archive.org/details/structureofscien0003kuhn_k955 |edition=3rd |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1996 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/structureofscien0003kuhn_k955/page/65 65]-70}}</ref>
တၠပညာ မပ္တံကဵု [[ကဝ်ပါနဳကပ်သ်]] (Nicolaus Copernicus) ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လညာတ် တ္ၚဲ နွံ လဒေါဝ် (Heliocentrism)၊ တုဲ [[ဂါလဳလဳယဝ်]] (Galileo Galilei) စကာ မှန်သ္ၚောဲ (Telescope) သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ သဘာဝ စက္ကဝါ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဏအ်၊ လညာတ် မဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ "ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်" (Empiricism) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တွက်ဂၞန် [[သင်္ချာ]] (Mathematics) ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် သဇိုင် သွက် ဒဿနသဘာဝ ရ။
[[ဖရန်သေတ် ဗေကောန်]] (Francis Bacon) ဝွံ ခၞံဗဒှ် နဲကဲ သိပ္ပံ (Scientific method) မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ဒဿနသဘာဝ ဝွံ သ္ဒး ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ သက်သဳ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု (Empirical evidence) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လညာတ် ချပ်ဗ္စာ သက်သက် ရ။
== ၅။ နယူတန် ကေုာံ သၠပတ် သဇိုင် သင်္ချာ (Newton and the Principia Mathematica) ==
ကဆံင် မသၠုင်အိုတ် သွက် ဒဿနသဘာဝ ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၆၈၇ အခိင် [[အာက်ဇြက် နယူတန်]] မပ္တိတ် သၠပတ် ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' (သဇိုင် သင်္ချာ သွက် ဒဿနသဘာဝ) ရ။<ref name="newton">{{cite book |last=Newton |first=I. |title=The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy |publisher=University of California Press |year=1999 |note=Translated by I. B. Cohen and A. Whitman}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ သၠပတ် ဏအ်၊ နယူတန် သောင်ကလး လဝ် သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် (Laws of Motion) ကေုာံ သၞောဝ် ဓရောတ် ဒြဟတ် (Universal Gravitation) သီုဖအိုတ် နကဵု ဖော်မျူလာ သင်္ချာ ဗွဲမချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ရ။ လိက်အုပ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပံင်ကောံ ထောအ် လညာတ် ကောန်ဂြဟ် လတူ အကာသ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လတူ တိ ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် သၞောဝ် မွဲဓဝ် ရ။ အရာဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် တမ်မူလ သွက် [[မက်ကေန်နစ် ခေတ်တြေံ]] (Classical mechanics) တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် ဒဿနသဘာဝ ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ နဒဒှ် သိပ္ပံ ရူပဗေဒ ဍာံပြ ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ပါ်ကရေက် ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ (Branching into Modern Sciences) ==
စိုပ် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သဘာဝ ဝွံ ဇၞော်လှဲ အာ ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ၊ မၞိဟ် မွဲဓဝ် လ္ၚတ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံမာန် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ "ဒဿနသဘာဝ" ဝွံ စပါ်ကရေက် အာ နဒဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ဂမၠိုင် ရ။<ref name="cahan">{{cite book |last=Cahan |first=D. |title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2003 |pages=3-15}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဝေါဟာရ ဒဿနသဘာဝ စိုပ် သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ
|-
! ဝေါဟာရ တြေံ (Historical Term)
! လညာတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ်
! ဘာသာရပ် ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern Equivalent)
|-
| ဒဿနသဘာဝ (Natural Philosophy)
| ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်၊ ဒြဟတ်၊ လျး၊ ဓါတ်ပၟတ်
| [[ရူပဗေဒ]] (Physics)
|-
| ဝင် သဘာဝ (Natural History)
| တၞံဆု၊ တိရစ္ဆာန်၊ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ဂျိုင်
| [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
|-
| ကွတ် ဓါတ်ပၠန် (Alchemy)
| ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ်၊ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု တြေံ
| [[ဓာတုဗေဒ]] (Chemistry)
|-
| ဒဿန စက္ကဝါ (Cosmology)
| ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဂြဟ်၊ သၞံင်
| [[နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ]] (Astronomy)
|}
ဝေါဟာရ "Science" (သိပ္ပံ) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ပညာ" ပ္ဍဲ လေတ္တေန် ဂှ် စကာ ကၠုင် နဒဒှ် ယၟု တၟိ သွက် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သဘာဝ အလုံအိုတ်သီု ရ။
== ၇။ ဒဿနသဘာဝ ကေုာံ ရူပဗေဒ (Natural Philosophy and Physics) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ်၊ [[ရူပဗေဒ]] ဝွံ ဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် မဆက်ခံ ကေတ် အာဲကၟာဲ "ဒဿနသဘာဝ" တိုက်ရိုက် အိုတ် ရ။ တက္ကသိုလ် တြေံတြဟ် ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် အံက်သဖို့ (Oxford University) ကေုာံ စကောတ်လာန် တအ်ဂှ် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ညးတအ် ကော်စ ဌာန ရူပဗေဒ ညးတအ် နဒဒှ် ဌာန "Natural Philosophy" ဏီ ရ။
ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သဳအိုရဳ လျး (Optics)၊ သဳအိုရဳ ဂမ္တဴ (Thermodynamics)၊ ကေုာံ လျးလလဳ သံလိုက် (Electromagnetism) တအ်ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဒဿန ကိုပ်ကၠာ ရ။ ဥပမာ - လညာတ် မဟီု "ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု မွဲ ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် နူ မုရော?" ဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် ဒဿန တုဲ၊ လၟုဟ် ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အာ ရူပဗေဒ ကောန်ဒကုတ် (Particle physics) ရ။
== ၈။ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ လညာတ် သဘာဝ (Philosophical Perspectives on Nature) ==
ၜိုန်ရ သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ ပါ်တိတ် အာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဒဿနသဘာဝ ဝွံ ဆက် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် [[ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ]] (Philosophy of science) ရ။ ဍေဟ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ လညာတ် သဇိုင် သိပ္ပံ တအ် မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''Determinism (ဝါဒ မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်):''' ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် အရာ မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ သဘာဝ ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဟိုတ် မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ဟာ? (လညာတ်ဏအ် ဒးဒုင် ပလီု လဝ် နကဵု [[သဳအိုရဳ ကွမ်တမ်]])။
* '''Reductionism (ဝါဒ ဖအောန်ဖျေဟ်):''' အရာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် မာန် သောင်ကလး နကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် အက်တမ် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် တအ် ဟာ?
* '''Teleology (ဝါဒ တင်ရန်တၟအ်):''' သဘာဝ ဂှ် နွံကဵု တင်ရန်တၟအ် (Purpose) မွဲမွဲ ဟာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ အတိုင် ဥပဒေသ သက်သက် ဟာ?
ပြသၞာ ဒဿန တအ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဒၟံင် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တၠပညာ တအ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် သဳအိုရဳ စက္ကဝါ (Cosmology) ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ လမျီု (Origin of life) ရ။
== ၉။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ သာသနာ (Impact on Society and Religion) ==
ဒဿနသဘာဝ ဝွံ နွံကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် သီု ခိုဟ် သီု ပရေအ် ကု ဘာသာသာသနာ ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် မၞိဟ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လဒေါဝ်၊ လညာတ် သဘာဝ ကဵု လညာတ် ကျာ် (Theology) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မွဲစွံ ရ။ တၠပညာ တအ် လ္ၚတ် သဘာဝ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် "ကမၠောန် ကျာ်" (Natural theology) ရ။
ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ပရေင်ကတဵုပြံင်လှာဲ သိပ္ပံ၊ ပရေင်ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ (Conflict) ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။ ဥပမာ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အခိင် [[ဂါလဳလဳယဝ်]] မဒးဒုင် ရပ် နကဵု ဘာကျာ် ကက်သလစ် (Catholic Church) ဟိုတ်နူ ညးတေအ် ထံက်ပင် လညာတ် "တ္ၚဲ နွံ လဒေါဝ်" မဒစးဒုင် ကု လိက်သမ္မာ ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ သာ်ဂှ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ တၠပညာ သဘာဝ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု နယူတန် ကေုာံ [[ကပ်ပလာ]] (Johannes Kepler) တအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဓဝ်ယုံကြည် သာသနာ မဇြိုဟ်နက် ကီု ရ။
== ၁၀။ တင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လက္ကရဴ ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Modern Relevance) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဝေါဟာရ "ဒဿနသဘာဝ" ဝွံ ဟွံစကာ ပ္ဍဲ ကမၠောန် ဓမ္မတာ ရ။ ဆဂး အာဲကၟာဲ ဍေဟ် (Legacy) ဂှ် ဂျိုင် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ကာလ တၠပညာ သိပ္ပံ တအ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အကာဲအရာ သဘာဝ၊ ဂၠာဲ ဥပဒေသ တၟိ၊ ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အရာ မဟွံတီ ဏီ မပ္တံကဵု ဒြဟတ် ဒမၠု (Dark energy) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ဒမၠု (Dark matter) မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ကၠောန် ဒၟံင် ကမၠောန် "ဒဿနသဘာဝ" ညံင်ရဴ တၠပညာ ဂရိတ် ကေုာံ နယူတန် တအ် ကီု ရ။
အနာဂတ် သိပ္ပံ ပညာ ဝွံ သ္ဒး ကလေင် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ဒဿနိကဗေဒ ပၠန် သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Ethics) မဆေင်ကဵု ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဂျဳအေန် (Genetic engineering) ကေုာံ [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence) တအ် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ]] (Philosophy of science)
* [[ရူပဗေဒ]] (Physics)
* [[ပရေင်ကတဵုပြံင်လှာဲ သိပ္ပံ]] (Scientific Revolution)
* [[အာက်ဇြက် နယူတန်]] (Isaac Newton)
{{Navbox
| name = Philosophy and Science
| title = ဒဿန ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံ (Philosophy and Science)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လညာတ် အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ဒဿနသဘာဝ]] (Natural philosophy)
* [[ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ]] (Philosophy of science)
* [[နဲကဲ သိပ္ပံ]] (Scientific method)
* [[ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်]] (Empiricism)
| group2 = ဘာသာရပ် ဆက်စပ်
| list2 =
* [[ရူပဗေဒ]] (Physics)
* [[နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ]] (Astronomy)
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
* [[ဓာတုဗေဒ]] (Chemistry)
| group3 = ဝင် ကေုာံ တၠပညာ
| list3 =
* [[အရစ္စတဝ်တယ်]] (Aristotle)
* [[ဂါလဳလဳယဝ်]] (Galileo Galilei)
* [[အာက်ဇြက် နယူတန်]] (Isaac Newton)
* [[ပရေင်ကတဵုပြံင်လှာဲ သိပ္ပံ]] (Scientific Revolution)
}}
[[Category:ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ]]
[[Category:ဝင် သိပ္ပံ]]
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'''ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Philosophy of science'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍမွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]] (Philosophy) မလ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ သဇိုင်ရိုဟ်ကၞက်၊ သၞောတ်ဝ် နဲကဲ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် သဘာဝ ဍာံပြ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[သိပ္ပံ]] (Science) ရ။ ပြသၞာ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မပ္တံကဵု - "အရာလဵု မဒှ် သိပ္ပံ ဇေတ်တ် ရော؟"، "သဳအိုရဳ သိပ္ပံ တအ်ဂှ် ယုံကြည် ဂွံ ဍာံ ဟာ؟"، ကေုာံ "တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက သိပ္ပံ ဂှ် မုရော؟" တအ် ရ။ <ref name="godfrey">{{cite book |last=Godfrey-Smith |first=P. |title=Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science |url=https://archive.org/details/theoryrealityint0000godf |edition=1st |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/theoryrealityint0000godf/page/1 1]-12}}</ref>
ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု လညာတ် ပရေင်တီကၠိုဟ် [[အေပိသတေမဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Epistemology) ကေုာံ လညာတ် သဘာဝ အရာမနွံတန်တဴ [[အန်တဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Ontology) တုဲ၊ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပါ်ပါဲ လတူ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ သဘာဝ ဍာံပြ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ မၞိဟ် တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင်၊ ကေုာံ တၠပညာ ဒဿန မပြာကတ် တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Karl_Popper.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[ကာရ် ပေါပ်ပါ]] (Karl Popper) ညးမဒှ် တၠပညာ ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ မပြာကတ်အိုတ် မွဲ၊ မခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် လညာတ် ပရေင်တးပါဲ (Falsifiability)။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် မဂစာန် သောင်ကလး ကဵု သွဟ် သွက် ပြသၞာ မနက်သြိုဟ် လတူ သိပ္ပံ ရ။ သိပ္ပံ ဓမ္မတာ (ဥပမာ - ရူပဗေဒ၊ ဇဳဝဗေဒ) တအ်ဂှ် ဂၠာဲ သွဟ် ပရူ သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဆဂး ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ဂှ် လ္ၚတ် ပါ်ပါဲ လတူ "သိပ္ပံ ဇကုဍေဟ်" ပၠန် ရ။
တင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ နွံ ၃ သာ် -
# '''သဇိုင်ရိုဟ်ကၞက် (Foundations):''' မု လညာတ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် (Assumptions) သိပ္ပံ တအ် စကာ ဒၟံင် ရော؟ (ဥပမာ - သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ နွံကဵု သၞောတ်ဝ် မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်)။
# '''သၞောတ်ဝ် နဲကဲ (Methods):''' နဲကဲ သိပ္ပံ (Scientific method) မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ်၊ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ တအ်ဂှ် ကဵု တင်ဍာံပြ မယုံကြည် ဂွံ ဍာံ ဟာ؟
# '''ဖဵုသက်ရောက် (Implications):''' သဳအိုရဳ သိပ္ပံ တအ်ဂှ် ထ္ၜးကဵု သဘာဝ ဍာံပြ ဇေတ်တ် (Ultimate reality) ဟာ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ် ဆ ကိရိယာ သွက်ဂွံ တွက်ဂၞန် သၟး ဟာ؟
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ ဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဝင် ဍေဟ်ဂှ် နွံကၠုင် လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ တေအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် ဂှ်၊ [[အရေစ်သတဝ်တယ်]] (Aristotle) ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် လညာတ် ဒဿန သဘာဝ (Natural philosophy) တုဲ ညးတေအ် စကာ သၞောတ် ယုတ္တိဗေဒ နူကဵု သဇိုင် စိုပ် ကၞောတ် (Deductive reasoning) သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် သဘာဝ ရ။
စိုပ် ခေတ် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၆ ကဵု ၁၇ မဒှ် ခေတ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ သိပ္ပံ (Scientific Revolution) ဂှ်၊ [[ဖရန်စစ် ဘေကောန်]] (Francis Bacon) ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် နဲကဲ အေန်ဒတ်ယှေန် (Inductive method) မဒှ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် နူကဵု တင်ဂၞင် သာမည တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် သဳအိုရဳ သဇိုင် ရ။
လက္ကရဴ ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ မပ္တံကဵု [[ဂါလဳလဳယဝ် ဂါလဳလဳ]] (Galileo Galilei) ကေုာံ [[နယူတန်]] (Isaac Newton) တအ် ပံင်ကောံ လညာတ် သင်္ချာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဂမၠိုင် တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ်ဝ် သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern scientific method) ရ။
== ၃။ ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ (The Demarcation Problem) ==
ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ (Demarcation problem) ဝွံ ဒှ် ပြသၞာ အဓိကအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ရ။ ဍေဟ် သၟာန် ဒၟံင် ဒဒှ်ရ "ဗီုလဵု ပိုယ် ဂွံ ပါ်ခြာ အကြာ သိပ္ပံ ဇေတ်တ် (Science) ကဵု သိပ္ပံ ပလီု (Pseudoscience) မပ္တံကဵု ဗေဒင်၊ ယတြာ တအ် ရော؟" <ref name="popper">{{cite book |last=Popper |first=K. |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |publisher=Routledge |year=1959 |pages=34-39}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ လပါ်စ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ ဂကောံ ڤဳယենနာ (Vienna Circle) တအ် ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "အရာ မမာန် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နကဵု ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ ဍာံပြ (Verifiability)" သၟး ဒှ် သိပ္ပံ ရ။ ဆဂး ကာရ် ပေါပ်ပါ (Karl Popper) ဟွံဒုင်တဲ လညာတ် ဏအ် တုဲ ညးတေအ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် လညာတ် တၟိ ရ။
ပေါပ်ပါ ဟီုမ္ဂး "သိပ္ပံ ဇေတ်တ် ဂှ် ဒးမာန် ထ္ၜး သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ် မှာ အာ မာန် (Falsifiable) ရောင်"။ ဥပမာ - သဳအိုရဳ ရေလဳတဳဗဳတဳ ညး အာင်သတာင် ဂှ် ဒှ် သိပ္ပံ ဇေတ်တ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပိုယ် မာန် စမ်ၜတ် တုဲ ယဝ်ရ သွဟ် ဟွံတုပ် မ္ဂး သဳအိုရဳ ဂှ် လီုလာ် အာ မာန် ရ။ ဆဂး သဳအိုရဳ စိုတ်ပညာ ညး သိက်မန် ဖရွိုက် (Sigmund Freud) ဂှ် သောင်ကလး ဂွံ ဇၟာပ် အရာ ဖအိုတ် တုဲ ဟွံမာန် တးပါဲ (Unfalsifiable) ဂှ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဟွံဒှ် သိပ္ပံ ဇေတ်တ် ရ။
== ၄။ လညာတ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ ကေုာံ ယုတ္တိ (Empiricism and Logical Positivism) ==
[[လညာတ် ယုတ္တိ ဒုင်သဇိုင် တင်ဍာံပြ]] (Logical Positivism) ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂကောံ လညာတ် ဒဿန မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀-၁၉၃၀ တအ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံ ڤဳယենနာ (Vienna Circle) ရ။ ညးတအ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ လညာတ် အေမ်ပဳရဳစဳဇေမ် (Empiricism) မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ဉာဏ်ပညာ သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ အာရုံ ၅ သာ် (Sensory experience) ရ။
ညးတအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် "မူ စၟတ်သမ္တီ တင်ဍာံပြ" (Verification Principle)။ မူ ဏအ် ဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ "ဝါကျ မွဲမွဲ ဂှ် နွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် ယဝ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဂှ် ဒှ် တင်ဍာံပြ လပါ် ယုတ္တိဗေဒ သက်သက် (Analytic) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မာန် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နကဵု ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် သိပ္ပံ ဍာံပြ (Synthetic) သၟး ရ"။ အရာ မဟွံမာန် စမ်ၜတ် ဂွံ မပ္တံကဵု ကျာ်၊ သဘာဝလောန် (Metaphysics) ကေုာံ လညာတ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် တအ်ဂှ် ညးတအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နဒဒှ် အရာ ဟွံမဲ အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Meaningless) ရ။
== ၅။ သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်တးပါဲ (Falsificationism) ==
[[သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်တးပါဲ]] (Falsificationism) ဝွံ ဒှ် သဳအိုရဳ မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် နကဵု ကာရ် ပေါပ်ပါ (Karl Popper) သွက်ဂွံ ဒစးဒုင် လညာတ် Verificationism ရ။
ပေါပ်ပါ ထ္ၜးလဝ် သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ ပိုယ် ဟွံမာန် စၟတ်သမ္တီ သဳအိုရဳ သိပ္ပံ မွဲ ညံင်ဂွံ ဍာံပြ ၁၀၀ ရာခိုင်နှုန်း နကဵု ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ ရ။ ဥပမာ - ပိုယ် ဆဵု ၜိုပ် ဗတာင် ၁၀၀၀ မ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဟွံမာန် ကဵု သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ "ၜိုပ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒှ် အသာ် ဗတာင်" ရ။ ဆဂး၊ ယဝ်ရ ပိုယ် ဆဵု ၜိုပ် လမ္စံက် ဆ မွဲ မ ဓဝ် မ္ဂး၊ သဳအိုရဳ "ၜိုပ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒှ် အသာ် ဗတာင်" ဂှ် လီုလာ် (Falsified) အာ သမၠေဝ် ရ။
ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ သိပ္ပံ ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် အရာ မဂၠာဲ တင်ဍာံပြ မခိုင်ကၠိုက်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် မဖန်ဗဒှ် သဳအိုရဳ ခိုဟ်ဟ် တုဲ ဂစာန် ပလီုပလာ် တးပါဲ (Falsify) သဳအိုရဳ တအ် ဂှ် နကဵု ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် မေတ်မေတ် ဇြိုဟ်ဇြိုဟ် ရ။ သဳအိုရဳ မဟွံဒး လီုလာ် ဏီ တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် သဳအိုရဳ မပိုယ် စကာ ဒၟံင် လၟုဟ် ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပါရာဒိုင် (Paradigm Shifts and Scientific Revolutions) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂ ဂှ် [[တဝ်မာတ် ခန်]] (Thomas Kuhn) ချူပတိတ် လိက်အုပ် မပြာကတ် "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် လညာတ် ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။<ref name="kuhn">{{cite book |last=Kuhn |first=T. S. |title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions |url=https://archive.org/details/structureofscien0000kuhn |edition=4th |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2012 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/structureofscien0000kuhn/page/10 10]-24}}</ref>
ခန် ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ သိပ္ပံ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် အရာ မဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် လၟေင် လၟေင် အဆက်ဆက် (Cumulative progress) ပုဟ်။ စၞးဂှ် ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ နကဵု ပရေင်ကတဵု ကသဳ ဇၞော် (Revolutions) ရ။ ညးတေအ် ပါ်လဝ် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သိပ္ပံ ၃ ကဆံင် -
# '''သိပ္ပံ ဓမ္မတာ (Normal Science):''' တၠပညာ တအ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် အပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် မတုပ် သၟဟ် မွဲ မကော်စ "ပါရာဒိုင်" (Paradigm) ရ။
# '''အကာဲအရာ ခက်ခုဲ (Crisis):''' အခိင် ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် တအ် ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပါရာဒိုင် တုဲ ပြသၞာ တအ် ဇၞော် တိုန် ကၠုင်။
# '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပါရာဒိုင် (Paradigm Shift):''' ပါရာဒိုင် တြေံ လီုလာ် တုဲ သဳအိုရဳ တၟိ အလုံစုံ (ဥပမာ - နူ လညာတ် နယူတန် ပြံင်လှာဲ စိုပ် လညာတ် အာင်သတာင်) တန်တဴ ကၠုင်။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ထ္ၜး ဥပမာ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပါရာဒိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် သိပ္ပံ
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ သိပ္ပံ
! ပါရာဒိုင် တြေံ (Old Paradigm)
! ပါရာဒိုင် တၟိ (New Paradigm)
|-
| နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ
| သၞောတ် ဂၠးတိ ဒှ် လဒေါဝ် (Ptolemaic System)
| သၞောတ် တ္ၚဲ ဒှ် လဒေါဝ် (Copernican System)
|-
| ရူပဗေဒ
| သဳအိုရဳ ရူပဗေဒ နယူတန် (Newtonian Mechanics)
| သဳအိုရဳ ကွမ်တမ် កေုာံ ရေလဳတဳဗဳတဳ
|-
| ဇဳဝဗေဒ
| ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု သီုဖအိုတ် ကျာ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ်
| သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အဆက်ဆက် (Evolution by Natural Selection)
|}
== ၇။ လညာတ် ရဳယယ်လစ်ဇေမ် ကေုာံ အာန်တဳ-ရဳယယ်လစ်ဇေမ် (Scientific Realism and Anti-Realism) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ဂှ်၊ နွံကဵု ပေါဲသဳကၠဳ အဓိက မွဲ ပရူ သဘာဝ သဳအိုရဳ သိပ္ပံ -
* '''လညာတ် ရဳယယ်လစ်ဇေမ် (Scientific Realism):''' ညးတအ် ယုံကြည် ဒဒှ်ရ ဂၠးတိ သိပ္ပံ ဏအ် နွံ တန်တဴ ဍာံပြ၊ တုဲ သဳအိုရဳ သိပ္ပံ ခိုဟ်ဟ် တအ်ဂှ် ဟီုတွံ ပရူ သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် ဍာံပြ ရ။ အရာ မပိုယ် ဟွံမာန် ဆဵု ကေတ် နကဵု မတ် (ဥပမာ - အီလက်ထရွန်၊ DNA၊ တွဵုလဟာင် ဓရောတ်) တအ်ဂှ် နွံ တန်တဴ ဍာံပြ ဇေတ်တ် ရ။
* '''လညာတ် အာန်တဳ-ရဳယယ်လစ်ဇေမ် (Anti-Realism / Instrumentalism):''' ညးတအ် လညာတ် မ္ဂး သဳအိုရဳ သိပ္ပံ တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ "ကိရိယာ" (Tools or Instruments) သွက်ဂွံ တွက်ဂၞန် ကေုာံ ကဵု သွဟ် သွက် အရာ မပိုယ် မာန် ဆဵု ကေတ် (Observables) သၟး ရ။ အရာ မဟွံမာန် ဆဵု ကေတ် တအ်ဂှ် ဍာံ ဟွံဍာံ ညးတအ် ဟွံစွံ အာရီု ရ။
== ၈။ ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ရိုဟ်လၟိဟ် ကေုာံ အေန်ဒတ်ယှေန် (Problem of Induction) ==
[[ပြသၞာ အေန်ဒတ်ယှေန်]] (Problem of Induction) ဝွံ ဒှ် ပြသၞာ ဒဿန မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် နကဵု တၠပညာ သကတ်လန် [[ဒေးဗေတ် ဟယုမ်|ဒေဗေတ် ဟယုမ်]] (David Hume) ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၈ ရ။<ref name="hume">{{cite book |last=Hume |first=D. |title=A Treatise of Human Nature |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |pages=89-94}}</ref>
ဟယုမ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ သိပ္ပံ ဓမ္မတာ ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ "အေန်ဒတ်ယှေန်" ရ။ ဥပမာ - "တ္ၚဲ ဝွံ တၟး တိုန် ပ္ဍဲ ဗၟံက် လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ နူကဵု အတိတ် တေအ်၊ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ယးဂတ လေဝ် တ္ၚဲ တၟး တိုန် ပ္ဍဲ ဗၟံက် ရောင်"။ ဆဂး ဟယုမ် ဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ လညာတ် ဏအ် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု သက်သဳ ယုတ္တိဗေဒ မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ရ။ အရာ မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ အတိတ် ဂှ် ဟွံမာန် အာမခံ ကဵု အနာဂတ် လၟိုန် ကာလ ရ။ ပြသၞာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵုလဝ် အခက်အခုဲ ဇၞော် မွဲ သွက် တၠပညာ သိပ္ပံ တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ သဳအိုရဳ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဍာံပြ ၁၀၀ ရာခိုင်နှုန်း ရ။
== ၉။ ဒဿန ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ သိပ္ပံ တၞဟ်ခြာ (Philosophy of Special Sciences) ==
ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ လ္ၚတ် သိပ္ပံ သာမည သၟး၊ ဍေဟ် လ္ၚတ် ပါ်ပါဲ လတူ ဘာသာရပ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ဂမၠိုင် ကီု ရ -
* '''ဒဿန ရူပဗေဒ (Philosophy of Physics):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ သဘာဝ အခိင် (Time)، ရေလဳတဳဗဳတဳ၊ ကေုာံ [[သဳအိုရဳ ကွမ်တမ်]] (Quantum mechanics) တအ် ရ။ ဥပမာ - ကွမ်တမ် မက်ကေန်နစ် ဂှ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ဟွံချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် (Determinism fails) ဟာ؟
* '''ဒဿန ဇဳဝဗေဒ (Philosophy of Biology):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် "လမျီု" (Life)، သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (Evolution)၊ ကေုာံ တင်ရန်တၟအ် ပ္ဍဲ သဘာဝ (Teleology) ရ။
* '''ဒဿန စိုတ်ပညာ (Philosophy of Psychology):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ သဘာဝ ဉာဏ် က္ဍဟ်၊ စိုတ် (Mind-body problem)၊ ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံ စိုတ်ဓါတ် တအ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Future and Impact on Society) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ပြသၞာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ လညာတ် "သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ ၚုဟ်မး" (Science and Values) ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဒဒှ်ရ သိပ္ပံ ဇေတ်တ် ဝွံ ဗၠးၜး နူကဵု ၚုဟ်မး ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ဘာသာ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍာံ ဇေတ် ဟာ؟
တၠပညာ ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ဂကောံ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ (Feminist philosophy of science) တအ် ထ္ၜးလဝ် သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ သဳအိုရဳ သိပ္ပံ ဝင် အတိတ် တအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒးဒုင် သြဇာ လညာတ် လပါ်ယောန် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်တြုံ (Male-centric bias) ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် နည်းပညာ တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ (Genetic engineering) တအ်ဂှ်၊ ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ ဒဿန စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Ethics) တအ် ဒးပါလုပ် ပံင်ကောံ သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ အနာဂတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရောင်။<ref name="chalmers">{{cite book |last=Chalmers |first=A. F. |title=What Is This Thing Called Science? |url=https://archive.org/details/whatisthisthingc0004chal |edition=4th |publisher=Open University Press |year=2013 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whatisthisthingc0004chal/page/150 150]-165}}</ref>
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]] (Philosophy)
* [[သိပ္ပံ]] (Science)
* [[ယုတ္တိဗေဒ]] (Logic)
* [[သၞောတ်ဝ် သိပ္ပံ]] (Scientific method)
{{Navbox
| name = Philosophy of Science
| title = ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ (Philosophy of Science)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လညာတ် သဇိုင်
| list1 =
* [[ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ]] (Demarcation problem)
* [[လညာတ် ယုတ္တိ ဒုင်သဇိုင် တင်ဍာံပြ]] (Logical positivism)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်တးပါဲ]] (Falsificationism)
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပါရာဒိုင်]] (Paradigm shift)
| group2 = ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ ဒဿန
| list2 =
* [[ပြသၞာ အေန်ဒတ်ယှေန်]] (Problem of induction)
* [[လညာတ် ရဳယယ်လစ်ဇေမ်]] (Scientific realism)
* [[လညာတ် အာန်တဳ-ရဳယယ်လစ်ဇေမ်]] (Anti-realism)
| group3 = တၠပညာ ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ကာရ် ပေါပ်ပါ]] (Karl Popper)
* [[တဝ်မာတ် ခန်]] (Thomas Kuhn)
* [[ဒေးဗေတ် ဟယုမ်]] (David Hume)
* [[ဖရန်စစ် ဘေကောန်]] (Francis Bacon)
}}
[[Category:ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ]]
[[Category:ဒဿန သိပ္ပံ]]
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'''သတ္တဗေဒ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Zoology'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ သာခါ မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology) မလ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ သတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Animals) ကေုာံ ဍုင်သတ် (Animal Kingdom) အလုံအိုတ်သီု ရ။ ဘာသာရပ်ဏအ်ဝွံ လ္ၚတ် ပရူ လဒက်ပတန် ခန္ဓာကိုယ်၊ သဘာဝ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သန္ဓေသား (Embryology)၊ [[သဳအိုရဳ]] ဒြဟတ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (Evolution)၊ ပရေင်ပါ်ကရေက် ဂကူ (Classification)၊ စရိုတ်လၟေတ် (Habits)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပါ်ပြး သတ်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ရ။<ref name="hickman">{{cite book |last=Hickman |first=C. P. |author2=Roberts, L. S. |author3=Larson, A. |title=Integrated Principles of Zoology |edition=11th |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2001 |pages=2-10}}</ref>
သတ္တဗေဒ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် မလှဲလး ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ ဍေဟ် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ တၞဟ်ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ဂေဟဗေဒ (Ecology)၊ ပညာဗဳဇ (Genetics)၊ ကေုာံ သဘာဝဗေဒ (Physiology) တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ သတ္တဗေဒ နကဵု ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက ၁၀ သာ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Animal_diversity.png|thumb|right|350px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်နာနာသာ် သတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Animal diversity) မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သတ် (Animalia) မဒှ် အရာ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သတ္တဗေဒ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "Zoology" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ ၜါ မ - "zōion" (ζῷον) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "သတ်" (Animal) ကေုာံ "logos" (λόγος) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ပညာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်လ္ၚတ်" (Knowledge / Study) ရ။ သတ္တဗေဒ ဂှ် လ္ၚတ် ပရူ သတ် မဂျိုင် ဒၟံင် လၟုဟ် ကီု သီုကဵု သတ် မကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ တုဲ တအ် (Extinct species) ရ။
သတ် (Animalia) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သတ် မနွံကဵု ကလာပ်ရုပ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် (Multicellular)၊ မနွံကဵု နျူကလဳယပ် (Eukaryotic) တုဲ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒးစၞ ဒးစ သတ် တၞဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တၞံ သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ဒြဟတ် ရ (Heterotrophic)။ တၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု တၞံ (Plants) မမာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ အလဵုအလဵု ဍေဟ် နကဵု လျး တ္ၚဲ ရ။ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သတ္တဗေဒ ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ သတ် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သတ္တဗေဒ ဝွံ စကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ် တမၠာ တေအ် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ:''' အစာဒဿန [[အရစ်သတဝ်တယ်]] (Aristotle) ဂှ် ညးစၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နဒဒှ် "မအံက် သတ္တဗေဒ" ရ။ ညးတေအ် လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ပါ်ကရေက် လဝ် သတ် တအ် နကဵု ဂကောံ မနွံကဵု ဆီ ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဆီ (Vertebrates and Invertebrates) ရ။<ref name="singer">{{cite book |last=Singer |first=C. |title=A Short History of Biology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1931 |pages=15-22}}</ref>
* '''ခေတ် လဒေါဝ်:''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် အာရပ် ကေုာံ အေစ်သလာမ် (Islamic Golden Age) ဂှ်၊ အစာ သိပ္ပံ မပ္တံကဵု [[အလ်-ဂျာဟစ်ဇ်]] (Al-Jahiz) တအ် ချူလဝ် ပြကိုဟ် "Kitab al-Hayawan" (Book of Animals) မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ စရိုတ် သတ် ကေုာံ ဂေဟဗေဒ ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ဥရောပ ကလေင်ဂျိုင် (Renaissance):''' တၠပညာ ဂမၠိုင် စကၠောန် ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် လဒက်ပတန် ခန္ဓာ (Anatomical dissections) တုဲ လ္ၚတ် သဘာဝ သတ် တအ် ဗွဲမချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် တၟိ:''' ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၈၊ [[ကားလ် လေန်နဳယပ်သ်]] (Carl Linnaeus) ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပါ်ကရေက် ယၟု ၜါမ (Binomial nomenclature) မစကာ ဒၟံင် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
== ၃။ သဳအိုရဳ ဒြဟတ်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကေုာံ ဒါဝေန် (Evolution and Darwinism) ==
ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သတ္တဗေဒ ခေတ်တၟိ အလုံအိုတ်သီု ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ [[သဳအိုရဳ ဒြဟတ်ဇၞော်မောဝ်]] (Theory of Evolution) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၅၉ ဂှ် [[ချားလ် ဒါဝေန်]] (Charles Darwin) ပတိတ် လိက်အုပ် မနွံယၟု "On the Origin of Species" တုဲ ဗၟံက်ထ္ၜး လဝ် လညာတ် [[ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် သဘာဝ]] (Natural Selection) ရ။
သဳအိုရဳ ဏအ် ဟီုတွံလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ သတ် ဂမၠိုင် အလုံအိုတ်သီု ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု တမ်မူလ မွဲ (Common ancestor) တုဲ ဍေဟ်တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် သိုက်က် အတိုင် အခိင် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ မကဵု အခေါင် ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် အာ ကု ပညာဗဳဇ (Genetics) လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် သုတေသန ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။<ref name="campbell">{{cite book |last=Reece |first=J. B. |author2=Urry, L. A. |author3=Cain, M. L. |title=Campbell Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781269866828_2 |edition=10th |publisher=Pearson |year=2014 |pages=450-465}}</ref>
== ၄။ ပရေင်ပါ်ကရေက် ဂကူ သတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Classification and Taxonomy) ==
ပရေင်ပါ်ကရေက် (Taxonomy) ဂှ် ဒှ် သာခါ မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ သတ္တဗေဒ မစၟတ်သမ္တီ၊ ကဵု ယၟု၊ ကေုာံ ပါ်ကရေက် ဂကောံ သတ် ဂမၠိုင် ရ။ သၞောတ်ဝ် အဓိက မစကာ လၟုဟ် ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ကဆံင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
1. '''ဍုင် (Kingdom):''' Animalia (သတ်)
2. '''ဖိုင်လာမ် (Phylum):''' ဥပမာ - Chordata (သတ် နွံ ဇုတ်စး)
3. '''ကလာတ် (Class):''' ဥပမာ - Mammalia (သတ် မကဵု တှ်)
4. '''အဝ်ဒါ (Order):''' ဥပမာ - Carnivora (သတ် မစ ဖျုန်)
5. '''ဖေမ်မလဳ (Family):''' ဥပမာ - Felidae (ဂကောံ ဗ္ဂဲ)
6. '''ဂျဳနပ်သ် (Genus):''' ဥပမာ - ''Panthera'' (ဗ္ဂဲ ဇၞော်)
7. '''သပဳသဳသ် (Species):''' ဥပမာ - ''Panthera tigris'' (ကၠ)
သတ် ဂမၠိုင် ဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် ဂကောံ ဇၞော် ၜါ - '''သတ် နွံ ဇုတ်စး''' (Vertebrates) မပ္တံကဵု က, ခဒုတ်, တ္ၚေက်, ကေုာံ သတ်ကဵုတှ်၊ ကေုာံ '''သတ် ဟွံမဲ ဇုတ်စး''' (Invertebrates) မပ္တံကဵု စၟ, ခရု, ကေုာံ ကၞု တအ် ရ။ လၟိဟ် သတ် ဟွံမဲ ဇုတ်စး ဝွံ နွံ ဂၠိုင် နူ ၉၅% နှုန်း အလုံ ဍုင်သတ် ရ။
== ၅။ သဘာဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် ခန္ဓာကိုယ် (Anatomy and Physiology) ==
[[အနာတဝ်မဳ]] (Anatomy) ဂှ် လ္ၚတ် ပရူ လဒက်ပတန် ခန္ဓာကိုယ် (Structures) မပ္တံကဵု ရုပ် ကလာပ်ရုပ်၊ ဇုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ကသော် ရ။ သဘာဝဗေဒ (Physiology) ဂှ် လ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဗီုလဵု ကလာပ်ရုပ် တအ် ဂှ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် (Functions) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သတ္တဗေဒ၊ ပိုယ် လ္ၚတ် သၞောတ် အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် သတ် မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''သၞောတ် စၞ (Digestive system):''' ဗီုလဵု သတ် တအ် ၚိတ် စၞ ကေုာံ ကၠာဲ စၞ သွက် ဒြဟတ်။
* '''သၞောတ် ကၠောအ် ဆီ (Circulatory system):''' ဗီုလဵု ဂြိုဟ် ကေုာံ ဆီ ပလံင် ဓါတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် စိုပ် ဇၟာပ် ဒၞာဲ။
* '''သၞောတ် အာရီု (Nervous system):''' ဗီုလဵု က္ဍဟ် ကေုာံ ဇုက် အာရီု တအ် ကဵု အမိင် ကေုာံ ဒုင်စသိုင် ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ။
== ၆။ စရိုတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် (Ethology and Animal Behavior) ==
[[အဳသဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ|အဳထဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Ethology) ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် စရိုတ် ကေုာံ သဘာဝ ချဳဓရာင် သတ် ဂမၠိုင် (Animal behavior) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဇေတ်တ် ရ။ တၠပညာ ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ခေါန်ရက် လဝ်ရေန်သ် (Konrad Lorenz) ကေုာံ နဳကဝ် တေန်ဗါဂေန် (Niko Tinbergen) တအ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မခၞံဗဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ ဏအ် ရ။
ညးတအ် လ္ၚတ် ပရူ -
* '''စရိုတ် သဇိုင် (Instinct/Innate behavior):''' စရိုတ် မပါ ကၠုင် နူ ဂၠံ ဗိုက် မိ (ဥပမာ - တၞင် အာယုက် မကၠောန် ခပေါဲ)။
* '''ပရေင်ဗတောန် (Learned behavior):''' စရိုတ် မကလိဂွံ နူ ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ (ဥပမာ - ကောန် ကၠ ဗတောန် နဲကဲ ရပ် စၞ)။
* '''ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဂကောံ (Social behavior):''' ဗီုလဵု သတ် တအ် မံင် ကောံ နကဵု ဂကောံ၊ စဵုဒၞာ ဒၞာဲတိ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆာန် ကၟိန် (Mating systems)။
== ၇။ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ကေုာံ ဂေဟဗေဒ (Ecology and Environment) ==
[[ဂေဟဗေဒ]] (Ecology) ပ္ဍဲ သတ္တဗေဒ ဂှ် လ္ၚတ် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ သတ် ဂမၠိုင် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ဍေဟ်တအ် ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ တီ ဗီုလဵု သတ် တအ် မံင် ဂျိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ တၞဟ်ခြာ ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ဂြိုပ်၊ က္ၜဳ၊ ကေုာံ တိဗ္တဳ တအ် ရ။<ref name="odum">{{cite book |last=Odum |first=E. P. |author2=Barrett, G. W. |title=Fundamentals of Ecology |edition=5th |publisher=Brooks Cole |year=2004 |pages=85-92}}</ref>
သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ -
* '''ဇာဝိုင် စၞ (Food web):''' ဗီုလဵု ဒြဟတ် တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု တၞံ (Producers) စိုပ် အာ သတ် မစ ဖျုန် (Apex predators)။
* '''ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် သဟဇာတ (Symbiosis):''' ဗီုလဵု သတ် ဂကူ တၞဟ်ခြာ တအ် မံင် မွဲစွံ (ဥပမာ - Mutualism သတ် ၜါလပါ် ကလိဂွံ ဖဵု)။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်ဌာန် (Migration):''' ဗီုလဵု သတ် မပ္တံကဵု ဂစေံ ကေုာံ က တအ် ပြံင် ဌာန် သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ စၞ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဖျေဟ် ခၟာဲ ရ။
== ၈။ ကဏ္ဍ သာခါ သတ္တဗေဒ ဂမၠိုင် (Branches of Zoology) ==
သတ္တဗေဒ ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် လဝ် နကဵု သာခါ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် အတိုင် ဂကူ သတ် မလ္ၚတ် တအ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ထ္ၜး သာခါ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ သတ္တဗေဒ (Branches of Zoology)
|-
! ယၟု သာခါ (Branch)
! ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် (Field of Study)
! ဥပမာ သတ်
|-
| '''အေန်တဝ်မဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ (Entomology)'''
| လ္ၚတ် ပရူ စၟစၟောန် ဂမၠိုင်။
| တာဲ၊ လိုင်၊ ဟိုင်၊ စၟခဍာ်။
|-
| '''အဝ်နဳသဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ (Ornithology)'''
| လ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဂစေံ ကေုာံ တ္ၚေက် ဂမၠိုင်။
| ကၠာင်၊ မြာ်၊ ဟံသာ၊ ခဍာ်။
|-
| '''မာန်မဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ (Mammalogy)'''
| လ္ၚတ် ပရူ သတ် မကဵု တှ် ဂမၠိုင်။
| စိင်၊ ကၠ၊ ကၞုဲ၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ်။
|-
| '''အိက်သဳယဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ (Ichthyology)'''
| လ္ၚတ် ပရူ က ကေုာံ သတ် ဍာ် မနွံ ဇုတ်စး။
| က၊ ကသော်၊ ကမာင်။
|-
| '''ဟာပဳတဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ (Herpetology)'''
| လ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဇြုံ ကေုာံ ခဒုတ် ဍာ် (Amphibians & Reptiles)။
| ဇြုံ၊ စောန်၊ ခဒုတ်၊ ပြာန်။
|}
သာခါ တအ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵု အခေါင် ကု တၠပညာ သတ္တဗေဒ (Zoologists) တအ် သွက်ဂွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လ္ၚတ် ဗွဲမနက်သြိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံ သတ် မွဲမွဲ ရ။
== ၉။ လွပ် ကေုာံ သုတေသန ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern Research and Applications) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဏအ်၊ သတ္တဗေဒ ဝွံ ပံင်ကောံ လဝ် ကု ကွတ်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
* '''ပညာဗဳဇ (Genetics & Genomics):''' တၠပညာ တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ DNA sequencing သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ဝင် ဗဳဇ သတ် ဂမၠိုင် ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ ပါ်ကရေက် ဂကူ သတ် တၟိ တအ် ရ။
* '''[[မလိက်မန်]] (Biotechnology):''' စကာ ကွတ်ပညာ မပ္တံကဵု [[မလိက်မန်]] (CRISPR) သွက်ဂွံ ပလေဝ် ဗဳဇ (Gene editing) သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ယဲ ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ဖန်ဗဒှ် သတ် မကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ တအ် (De-extinction) ရ။
* '''စက် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒၞာဲ (Tracking Technology):''' စကာ စက် GPS ကေုာံ သာတလိုက် (Satellites) သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ဗက် ဂၠံင် တရဴ ပရေင်ပြံင်ဌာန် သတ် မပ္တံကဵု က္ၜင် ဍာ် ကေုာံ ဂစေံ ဂမၠိုင် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၁၀။ ပရေင်မင်မဲ သဘာဝ ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Conservation and Future of Zoology) ==
အနာဂတ် သွက် သတ္တဗေဒ ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု [[ပရေင်မင်မဲ သဘာဝ]] (Conservation biology) ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်လီုလာ် ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (Habitat loss)၊ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate change)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ရပ်စ သတ် ဂြိုပ် လောန်ကာဲ (Overhunting) တအ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ဂကူ သတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စိုပ် ဒၟံင် အကာဲအရာ မကြပ် ကၠေအ်ကၠက် (Endangered species) ရ。<ref name="primack">{{cite book |last=Primack |first=R. B. |title=Essentials of Conservation Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofcons0000prim_j0r1 |edition=6th |publisher=Sinauer Associates |year=2014 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/essentialsofcons0000prim_j0r1/page/112 112]-120}}</ref>
ဂကောံ မပ္တံကဵု WWF ကေုာံ IUCN တအ် စကာ တင်ဂၞင် နူကဵု သုတေသန သတ္တဗေဒ သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ်ဝ် မင်မဲ သတ် ဂြိုပ် (Red List of Threatened Species) ရ။ အနာဂတ် သတ္တဗေဒ ဂှ် ဒှ် ကမၠောန် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ အာဲကၟာဲ သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ညံင် ဂကောံ သတ် ဂမၠိုင် ဂွံ ဆက် ဂျိုင် တန်တဴ အာ မာန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဌာန် ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ဒြဟတ်ဇၞော်မောဝ်]] (Evolution)
* [[ဂေဟဗေဒ]] (Ecology)
* [[ပရေင်မင်မဲ သဘာဝ]] (Conservation biology)
{{Navbox
| name = Biology
| title = ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ သာခါ သတ္တဗေဒ (Biology and Branches of Zoology)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင် ဇဳဝဗေဒ
| list1 =
* [[သတ္တဗေဒ]] (Zoology)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ရုက္ခဗေဒ]] (Botany)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|ဇဳဝဗေဒ ဍောတ်သွတ်]] (Microbiology)
* [[ပညာဗဳဇ]] (Genetics)
| group2 = သာခါ သတ္တဗေဒ
| list2 =
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|အေန်တဝ်မဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Entomology)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|အဝ်နဳသဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Ornithology)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|မာန်မဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Mammalogy)
* [[Wikipedia:Red_link|အိက်သဳယဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Ichthyology)
| group3 = လညာတ် ဆက်စပ်
| list3 =
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ဒြဟတ်ဇၞော်မောဝ်]] (Evolution)
* [[အနာတဝ်မဳ]] (Anatomy)
* [[အဳသဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Ethology)
}}
[[Category:သတ္တဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဇဳဝဗေဒ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ သဘာဝ]]
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'''ဗဳဇ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Gene'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ်စပ် [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology) ကေုာံ ပညာဗဳဇ (Genetics) မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် ယူနေတ် သဇိုင် အဓိကအိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်အာဲကၟာဲ (Heredity) ပ္ဍဲကဵု သတ္တဝါ ဂျိုင်ဂျိုင် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ဗဳဇ တအ်ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဓါတ် [[ဒဳအေန်အေ]] (DNA) တုဲ ဍေဟ်တအ် နွံကဵု တင်ဂၞင် အမိင် (Instructions) သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် မဝ်လဳကျူ (Molecules) မကော်စ [[ပရဝ်တေန်]] (Proteins) ရ။ ပရဝ်တေန် တအ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု အင်္ဂလက္သဏ် (Traits) တၞဟ်ခြာ သတ္တဝါ တအ် ရ။<ref name="alberts">{{cite book |last=Alberts |first=B. |author2=Johnson, A. |author3=Lewis, J. |author4=Raff, M. |author5=Roberts, K. |author6=Walter, P. |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |edition=6th |publisher=Garland Science |year=2014 |pages=195-200}}</ref>
ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် သတ္တဝါ မပ္တံကဵု မၞိဟ်၊ တိရစ္ဆာန်၊ တၞံဆု ကေုာံ ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ တအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဗဳဇ မဂၠိုင်ကဵု လ္ၚီ မသုန်စှ်ော မာန် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု မၞိဟ် မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ခန့်မှန်း လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ နွံ ဗဳဇ ၜိုတ် ၂၀,၀၀၀ စဵုကဵု ၂၅,၀၀၀ မ ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဗဳဇ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန် ဓါတု၊ လၟေင်ကမၠောန်၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ကွတ်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:DNA_chemical_structure.svg|thumb|right|350px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး လဒက်ပတန် ဓါတု သွက် ဒဳအေန်အေ (DNA) မဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ဗဳဇ ဂမၠိုင်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
နကဵု သၞောတ် သိပ္ပံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် မ္ဂး "ဗဳဇ" ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ လၟေင် မလိက် (Sequence) ပ္ဍဲ လတူ တၞုင် ဒဳအေန်အေ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး [[အာရ်အေန်အေ]] (RNA) မနွံကဵု တင်ဂၞင် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် မဝ်လဳကျူ မွဲမွဲ ရ။
ဗဳဇ တအ်ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ လတူ လဒက်ပတန် မကော်စ [[ခရဝ်မဝ်ဇုမ်]] (Chromosome) ရ။ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Cell) သတ္တဝါ တအ် နွံကဵု နျူကလဳယပ် (Nucleus) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မသီသိပ် လဝ် ခရဝ်မဝ်ဇုမ် တအ် ရ။ ဗဳဇ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် အင်္ဂလက္သဏ် မၞိဟ် ဥပမာ - အသာ် မတ်၊ အသာ် သော်၊ ဇမၠိင် သမၠုင်၊ ကေုာံ ယဲဘဲ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ရ။
ဗဳဇ တအ်ဂှ် တုပ်သၟဟ် ကဵု "ပြကိုဟ် မဖျိန် စၞစ" (Recipe book) မွဲ ကီု ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ပိုယ် မိက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မွဲမွဲ პ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် မ္ဂး၊ ကလာပ်ရုပ် တအ် ဒးဗှ် လိက် နူကဵု ဗဳဇ တအ် တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပတိတ် ပရဝ်တေန် မကိတ်ညဳ ကု ကမၠောန် ဂှ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Discovery) ==
လညာတ် ပရူ ပရေင်အာဲကၟာဲ ဂှ် နွံကၠုင် လဝ် ဗွဲမလအ်လ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဗဳဇ နကဵု သၞောတ် သိပ္ပံ ဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ဂှ်၊ ခမဳ ဘာသာ ခရေတ် မနွံယၟု [[ဂရဳဂဝ် မေန်ဒယ်]] (Gregor Mendel) လ္ၚတ် စမ်ၜတ် လဝ် တၞံ ဗရာတ် (Pea plants) တုဲ ညးတေအ် ဂၠာဲ ဆဵု သၞောဝ် ပရေင်အာဲကၟာဲ ရ။ မေန်ဒယ် ဟီုတွံလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အင်္ဂလက္သဏ် တအ်ဝွံ ပြံင်ကၠောအ် အာ နူ မိမ ဇရေင် ကောန်ဇာတ် နကဵု ယူနေတ် တၞဟ်ခြာ မွဲ ရ (ပ္ဍဲ အခိင်ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ကော်စ "Factors")။<ref name="mendel">{{cite journal |last=Mendel |first=G. |title=Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden |journal=Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brünn |volume=4 |pages=3-47 |year=1866}}</ref>
ဝေါဟာရ "Gene" (ဗဳဇ) ဂှ် မၞိဟ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် တၠပညာ ဇဳဝဗေဒ ဒိန်မက် [[ဝဳလ်ဟေမ် ဂျဝ်ဟာန်သေန်]] (Wilhelm Johannsen) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၀၉ ရ။
ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အဓိကအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဗဳဇ ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၃ အခိင် တၠပညာ [[ဘာသာရပ်စပ် ဝပ်သေန်]] (James Watson) ကဵု [[ဖရန်စစ် ကရစ်]] (Francis Crick) တအ် မဂၠာဲ ဆဵု လဒက်ပတန် ထာင်ၜါ (Double helix structure) သွက် ဒဳအေန်အေ ရ။ ပရေင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု ဏအ်ဝွံ ပံက် ကဵု ဂၠံင် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဗီုလဵု ဗဳဇ တအ် တန်သိပ် ကေုာံ ကၠောအ် တင်ဂၞင် ရ။
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် ဓါတု ကေုာံ ဒဳအေန်အေ (Chemical Structure and DNA) ==
ဗဳဇ တအ်ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု မဝ်လဳကျူ ဒဳအေန်အေ ရ။ ဒဳအေန်အေ (Deoxyribonucleic acid) ဝွံ နွံကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ထာင်ၜါ မတုပ် ညံင် ကၞိန် (Ladder) မဝိုင် ဂေတ် ဒၟံင် ရ။
လဒက်ပတန် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ဒဳအေန်အေ ဂှ် ကော်စ နျူကလဳအဝ်တိုက် (Nucleotides) တုဲ ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု ဓါတ် ဗေ့စ် (Nitrogenous bases) ပန် သာ် -
# [[အေဒဳနဳန်]] (Adenine - A)
# [[တိုင်မဳန်]] (Thymine - T)
# [[သဳတဝ်သဳန်]] (Cytosine - C)
# [[ဂွါနဳန်]] (Guanine - G)
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ထာင်ၜါ ဏအ်၊ ဓါတ် ဗေ့စ် တအ် ဆက်စပ် ရေင်သကအ် နကဵု သၞောဝ် ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် မွဲ: '''A ဂှ် ဆက် ကဵု T လၟိုန်''' တုဲ '''C ဂှ် ဆက် ကဵု G လၟိုန်''' ရ။ လၟေင် မလိက် (Sequence) အကြာ A, T, C, G တအ် ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် တင်ဂၞင် ဗဳဇ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဓါတ် သဇိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဒဳအေန်အေ ကေုာံ အာရ်အေန်အေ
|-
! ဓါတ် ဗေ့စ် (Base)
! သင်္ကေတ
! သဘာဝ ဆက်စပ် ပ္ဍဲ DNA
! သဘာဝ ဆက်စပ် ပ္ဍဲ RNA
|-
| Adenine (အေဒဳနဳန်)
| A
| ဆက်စပ် ကဵု T
| ဆက်စပ် ကဵု U
|-
| Thymine (တိုင်မဳန်)
| T
| ဆက်စပ် ကဵု A
| ဟွံမဲ (ပြံင် အာ U)
|-
| Cytosine (သဳတဝ်သဳန်)
| C
| ဆက်စပ် ကဵု G
| ဆက်စပ် ကဵု G
|-
| Guanine (ဂွါနဳန်)
| G
| ဆက်စပ် ကဵု C
| ဆက်စပ် ကဵု C
|-
| [[ယူရာသဳလ်]] (Uracil)
| U
| ဟွံမဲ
| ဆက်စပ် ကဵု A
|}
== ၄။ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပတိတ် ပရဝ်တေန် (Gene Expression and Central Dogma) ==
ဗီုလဵု ဗဳဇ မွဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု တင်ဂၞင် ဒှ် အာ ပရဝ်တေန် ဂှ် ညးကော်စ ဒေါက်မာ ဗဟဵု (Central Dogma of Molecular Biology) ရ။ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဏအ် နွံ ၜါ ကဆံင် အဓိက:
=== ၄.၁။ ပရေင်ကပ်ပဳ (Transcription) ===
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင် ဏအ်၊ တင်ဂၞင် နူကဵု ဒဳအေန်အေ ပ္ဍဲ နျူကလဳယပ် ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ကပ်ပဳ ကေတ် တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပတိတ် မဝ်လဳကျူ တၟိ မကော်စ 메စင်ဂျာ အာရ်အေန်အေ (Messenger RNA - mRNA) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အာရ်အေန်အေ ဂှ် ဓါတ် Thymine (T) ဟွံမဲ တုဲ ဍေဟ် စကာ Uracil (U) စၞး ရ။
=== ၄.၂။ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ (Translation) ===
မဝ်လဳကျူ mRNA ဏအ် တိတ် အာ နူ နျူကလဳယပ် တုဲ စိုပ် အာ ဇရေင် [[ရဳဗဝ်ဇုမ်]] (Ribosome) ရ။ ရဳဗဝ်ဇုမ် ဂှ် ဗှ် ကေတ် လၟေင် မလိက် ပ္ဍဲ mRNA ဂှ် နကဵု လၟေင် ပိ မ (Codon) တုဲ ပံင်ကောံ စုတ် [[အမဳနဝ် အက်သေတ်]] (Amino acids) ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် လၟေင် ပရဝ်တေန် ဇမၠိင် မွဲ ရ။ ပရဝ်တေန် ဏအ် ဂှ်ရ ဒှ် အရာ မကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ပိုယ် အလုံအိုတ်သီု ရ။<ref name="crick">{{cite journal |last=Crick |first=F. |title=Central Dogma of Molecular Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1970-08-08_227_5258/page/561 |journal=Nature |volume=227 |issue=5258 |pages=561-563 |year=1970}}</ref>
== ၅။ သဘာဝ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ (Genetic Mutation) ==
[[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ]] (Mutation) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ယောန်မှာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လၟေင် မလိက် ဒဳအေန်အေ ရ။
ဟိုတ် မကတဵုဒှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ ဂှ် မာန် ကၠုင် နူ:
* ပရေင်ယောန်မှာ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကလာပ်ရုပ် ပါ်ကရေက် (DNA replication errors)။
* ဟိုတ်နူ ပွဳပွူ မပ္တံကဵု ဓါတ်လျး ဓာတ်ရောင်ခြည် (Radiation) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဓါတုဗေဒ အန္တရာယ် (Mutagens)။
ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ ဝွံ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ကဵု အန္တရာယ် (ဥပမာ - ကတဵုဒှ် ယဲ [[ကေန်သာ]] (Cancer))၊ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဖဵု၊ တုဲ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ကဵု ဖဵုခိုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ တၟိ မာန် ရ။ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် တမ်မူလ သွက် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] ဇၞော်မောဝ် သတ္တဝါ (Evolution) ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်အာဲကၟာဲ ကေုာံ ဥပဒေသ မေန်ဒယ် (Heredity and Mendelian Inheritance) ==
ဗဳဇ တအ်ဝွံ ပြံင်ကၠောအ် အာ နူ မိမ ဇရေင် ကောန်ဇာတ် နကဵု လၟေင် ပရေင်အာဲကၟာဲ ရ။ ဇၟာပ် မၞိဟ် မွဲ နွံကဵု ခရဝ်မဝ်ဇုမ် ၂၃ ဇုံ (သီုဖအိုတ် ၄၆ မ) တုဲ၊ မွဲ လပါ် ဂှ် ကၠုင် နူ မိ၊ မွဲ လပါ် ဂှ် ကၠုင် နူ မ ရ။
ဗဳဇ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ နွံကဵု ဗီုပြင် တၞဟ်ခြာ မကော်စ [[အာလဳလ်]] (Alleles) ရ။ အာလဳလ် တအ်ဏအ် ပါ်လဝ်:
* '''အာလဳလ် ဓလီု (Dominant allele):''' ယဝ်ရ နွံ ဆ မွဲ မ ကီုလေဝ်၊ အင်္ဂလက္သဏ် ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပြာကတ် ကၠုင် ရ။
* '''အာလဳလ် ကမၠက် (Recessive allele):''' သွက်ဂွံ ပြာကတ် ကၠုင် ဂှ်၊ ဒးနွံ အာလဳလ် ကမၠက် ၜါ မ မတုပ် ရေင်သကအ် နူ မိ သီု မ ရ။
လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ တွက်ဂၞန် အခေါင် ကတဵုဒှ် (Probability) ယဲ အာဲကၟာဲ မပ္တံကဵု ယဲ ဆီ ဟွံစဲ (Hemophilia) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အသာ် မတ် ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် ရ။
== ၇။ ဂျဳနီု ကေုာံ လၟိဟ် ဗဳဇ (Genome and Gene Quantity) ==
[[ဂျဳနီု]] (Genome) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် တင်ဂၞင် ဗဳဇ အလုံအိုတ်သီု မနွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သတ္တဝါ မွဲ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၀၃ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ဂျဳနီု မၞိဟ် (Human Genome Project) အလုံဂၠးတိ စိုပ် အာ တိုင်ပ္ကဴ တုဲ ညးတအ် ဗှ် ကေတ် လၟေင် မလိက် ဒဳအေန်အေ အလုံအိုတ်သီု မနွံ ၃ ဘဳလဳယာန် မ ပ္ဍဲ မၞိဟ် ဂွံ အံင်ဇၞး အာ ရ။<ref name="hgp">{{cite journal |last=Lander |first=E. S. |author2=et al. |title=Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-02-15_409_6822/page/860 |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6822 |pages=860-921 |year=2001}}</ref>
အရာ မဟွံထေင်လဝ် မွဲဂှ်၊ ဗဳဇ မပတိတ် ပရဝ်တေန် ဇေတ်တ် ပ္ဍဲ မၞိဟ် ဂှ် နွံ ဆ ၜိုတ် ၂% ဓဝ် ပ္ဍဲ လၟေင် ဂျဳနီု သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ အရာ မသှ်ေ ဒၟံင် ၉၈% ဂှ် ညးကော်စ "ဒဳအေန်အေ ဟွံမဲ ကုတ်" (Non-coding DNA) ဆဂး လၟုဟ် တၠပညာ တအ် ဂၠာဲ ဆဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ်တအ် နွံ ကမၠောန် သွက်ဂွံ အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ ဖန်ဇန် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဗဳဇ ဇေတ်တ် တအ် ရ။
== ၈။ ကွတ်ပညာ ဗဳဇ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လွဳလွတ် (Genetic Engineering and Therapy) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ကွတ်ပညာ [[ပညာ ကောန်ပျူတာ ဗဳဇ]] (Genetic engineering) ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
ကွတ်ပညာ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် လၟုဟ် ဂှ် ဒှ် [[သၞောတ် ခရစ်သပါ]] (CRISPR-Cas9) မဒှ် ကိရိယာ သွက်ဂွံ ကုတ် ကေုာံ ပလေဝ်ဒါန် ဒဳအေန်အေ နကဵု ပရေင်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ဗွဲမသၠုင် ရ။ ကွတ်ပညာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵု အခေါင် ကု အစာသဝ် တအ် သွက်ဂွံ:
* လွဳလွတ် ယဲဘဲ အာဲကၟာဲ (Gene therapy) နကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ ယောန်မှာ။
* ဖန်ဗဒှ် တၞံဆု ကေုာံ သြောအ် မဒစးဒုင် ယဲ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (GMOs)။
* ဖန်ဗဒှ် တိရစ္ဆာန် မပ္တံကဵု စၟ မဟွံမာန် ကၠောအ် ယဲ ဇကေပ် (Malaria resistance)။
== ၉။ ဗဳဇ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သတ္တဝါ (Genes and Evolution) ==
ဗဳဇ တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် မော်တာ (Motor) အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သတ္တဝါ (Evolution) ရ။ လညာတ် သင်္ချာ ဗဳဇ ဂကောံ (Population genetics) သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဗီုလဵု လၟိဟ် အလန် ဗဳဇ ပြံင်လှာဲ (Allele frequencies) တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကာလ မွဲ ရ။
ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ (Mutation) ဂှ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု အင်္ဂလက္သဏ် တၟိ တၟိ ရ။ သတ္တဝါ မနွံကဵု အင်္ဂလက္သဏ် မကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ဂှ် မာန် ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ ကေုာံ မိတ်ဆက် ကလိဂွံ ကောန်ဇာတ် ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် (Natural selection) ရ။ ဥပမာ - ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ၊ ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ တအ် မာန် ဒစးဒုင် ဂဥုဲ (Antibiotic resistance) မဒှ် ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ လၟုဟ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ ပြသၞာ စိုတ်ဓါတ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Ethical Issues and Future) ==
ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကွတ်ပညာ ဗဳဇ ဏအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ပြသၞာ စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Ethics) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ: <ref name="sandell">{{cite book |last=Sandel |first=M. J. |title=The Case against Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering |url=https://archive.org/details/caseagainstperfe0000unse |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/caseagainstperfe0000unse/page/25 25]-30}}</ref>
# '''ကောန်ၚာ် ဖန်ဇန် (Designer Babies):''' ယဝ်ရ ပိုယ် မာန် ပလေဝ်ဒါန် ဗဳဇ ကောန်ၚာ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံသၠးဂၠံဂဝ် မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် သ္ဒး ဒှ် ဆ သွက်ဂွံ လွဳ ယဲ သၟး ဟာ? ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သွက်ဂွံ သၠုင် ပတိုန် ဉာဏ် ကေုာံ ရုပ်သာ် ဟာ? အရာဏအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ ကဆံင် မၞိဟ် မာန် ရ။
# '''ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ တင်ဂၞင် (Genetic Privacy):''' ကမ္ပဏဳ မစမ်ၜတ် ဒဳအေန်အေ တအ် နွံကဵု တင်ဂၞင် ဒဳအေန်အေ မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။ တင်ဂၞင် ဏအ် ယဝ်ရ စိုပ် အာ တဲ ကမ္ပဏဳ အာမခံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကမၠောန် မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် မာန် ရုဲစှ် မၞိဟ် နကဵု ဗဳဇ (Genetic discrimination) မာန် ရ။
# '''သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ (Ecological Impact):''' ပရေင်ဗလး သတ္တဝါ မပလေဝ်လဝ် ဗဳဇ (GMOs) ပ္ဍဲ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ဂှ် မာန် ပလီုပလာ် သၞောတ် ဂေဟဗေဒ (Ecosystem) မာန် ရ။
အနာဂတ် ပညာ ဗဳဇ ဝွံ နွံကဵု အစောံသတ္တိ သွက်ဂွံ လွဳ ယဲဘဲ အလုံအိုတ်သီု ကေုာံ ပခိုဟ် ပတိုန် ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ်၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် နွံပၟိက် ဒၟံင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ဗွဲမလောန် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
* [[ဒဳအေန်အေ]] (DNA)
* [[ခရဝ်မဝ်ဇုမ်]] (Chromosome)
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ]] (Mutation)
{{Navbox
| name = Biology
| title = ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ ပညာဗဳဇ (Biology and Genetics)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လဒက်ပတန် အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ဗဳဇ]] (Gene)
* [[ဒဳအေန်အေ]] (DNA)
* [[အာရ်အေန်အေ]] (RNA)
* [[ခရဝ်မဝ်ဇုမ်]] (Chromosome)
| group2 = လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ သဘာဝ
| list2 =
* [[ပရေင်အာဲကၟာဲ]] (Heredity)
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ]] (Mutation)
* [[ပရဝ်တေန်]] (Protein)
* [[သဘာဝ မရုဲစှ်]] (Natural selection)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
* [[ပညာ ကောန်ပျူတာ ဗဳဇ]] (Genetic engineering)
* [[သၞောတ် ခရစ်သပါ]] (CRISPR)
* [[ဂျဳနီု]] (Genome)
}}
[[Category:ဇဳဝဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ပညာ ဗဳဇ]]
[[Category:ဒဳအေန်အေ]]
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'''စက္ကဝါ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Universe'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် အကာသ (Space)၊ အခိင် (Time)၊ ကေုာံ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် အလုံအိုတ်သီု မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ သဘာဝ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု စက္ကဝါ ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ဒၟံင် ဂြဟ် (Planets)၊ သၞံင် (Stars)၊ [[ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ]] (Galaxies)၊ ကေုာံ အလုံ ဒြပ် ဓါတ် (Matter) ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် (Energy) တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ အတိုင် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ မ္ဂး၊ စက္ကဝါ ပိုယ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု ပရေင်ခတိုဟ် ဇၞော် မကော်စ [[သဳအိုရဳ ဗစ်ဗေန်]] (Big Bang Theory) လောန် ကၠုင် သၞာံ ၜိုတ် ၁၃.၈ ဗဳလဳယာန် တေအ် ရ။<ref name="hawking">{{cite book |last=Hawking |first=S. |title=A Brief History of Time |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofti0000hawk_p8a0 |publisher=Bantam Books |year=1988 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofti0000hawk_p8a0/page/40 40]-45}}</ref>
ပညာ မလ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် စက္ကဝါ ဏအ်ဂှ် ညးကော်စ [[ပညာ စက္ကဝါဗေဒ]] (Cosmology) ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ သဘာဝ စက္ကဝါ၊ ဝင် လ္ၚတ်၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် ဍေဟ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် Hubble Ultra-Deep Field မထ္ၜးကဵု ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ မဂၠိုင်ကဵု ဂသင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု စက္ကဝါ ရ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "စက္ကဝါ" ဂှ် ကၠုင် နူ အရေဝ် ပါဠိ (Cakkavāḷa) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ပွဳပွူ လဒက်ပတန် ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ တ္ၚဲ" ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ၊ စက္ကဝါ (Universe) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ သီုဖအိုတ် မမာန် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဂွံ (Observable universe) ကေုာံ အရာ မဟွံမာန် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဂွံ တအ် ဖအိုတ် ရ။
စက္ကဝါ ဝွံ နွံကဵု သဘာဝ မလှဲလး တိတ် ဒၟံင် (Expanding) အလုံ အခိင် ရ။ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ဓမ္မတာ မပ္တံကဵု အက်တမ်၊ သၞံင်၊ ကေုာံ ဂၠးတိ ပိုယ် ဏအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ စက္ကဝါ ဆ ၅ ရာခိုင်နှုန်း သၟး တုဲ၊ သှ်ေ ဒၟံင် ၉၅ ရာခိုင်နှုန်း ဂှ် ဒှ် [[ဒြပ် ဒမၠု]] (Dark matter) ကေုာံ [[ဒြဟတ် ဒမၠု]] (Dark energy) မပိုယ် ဟွံမာန် ဆဵု ကေတ် နကဵု မတ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ (History and Development of Astronomy) ==
ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် စက္ကဝါ ဝွံ နွံကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ် ညးတမၠာ တေအ် ရ။
* '''မဝ်ဒယ် ဂၠးတိ လဒေါဝ် (Geocentric Model):''' ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ၊ တၠပညာ မပ္တံကဵု ပတဝ်လမဳ (Ptolemy) တအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဂၠးတိ ပိုယ် ဏအ် ဒှ် လဒေါဝ် စက္ကဝါ တုဲ၊ တ္ၚဲ ကေုာံ သၞံင် တအ် ဂေတ် ကလေင် ဒၟံင် ဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''မဝ်ဒယ် တ္ၚဲ လဒေါဝ် (Heliocentric Model):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၆၊ ကဝ်ပါနဳကပ်သ် (Nicolaus Copernicus) ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် လညာတ် တၟိ ဒဒှ်ရ တ္ၚဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် လဒေါဝ် တုဲ၊ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် ဂေတ် ကလေင် ဒၟံင် တ္ၚဲ ရ။
* '''စက္ကဝါ ခေတ်တၟိ:''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀ တအ်၊ [[အက်ဒဝေန် ဟပ်ဗဴ]] (Edwin Hubble) ဂၠာဲ ဆဵု ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ စက္ကဝါ ဏအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ တၞဟ်ခြာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တုဲ၊ ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ တအ်ဂှ် ပြးဇး လှဲလး တိတ် အာ ဒၟံင် (Expanding) ရေင်သကအ် လၟိုန် အခိင် ရ။<ref name="hubble">{{cite journal |last=Hubble |first=E. |title=A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=168-173 |year=1929}}</ref>
== ၃။ သဳအိုရဳ ဗစ်ဗေန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် (Big Bang Theory and Origin) ==
သဳအိုရဳ ဗစ်ဗေန် (Big Bang Theory) ဂှ် ဒှ် မဝ်ဒယ် သိပ္ပံ မဒုင်တဲ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ဗီုလဵု စက္ကဝါ ဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။
အတိုင် သဳအိုရဳ ဏအ် မ္ဂး၊ လောန် ကၠုင် သၞာံ ၜိုတ် ၁၃.၈ ဗဳလဳယာန် တေအ်၊ စက္ကဝါ အလုံအိုတ်သီု ဂှ် စောံကောံ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဆံင် မဍောတ်သွတ် အိုတ်၊ ဂမ္တဴ အိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ထပ်သတီု အိုတ် (Singularity) မွဲ ရ။ နူကဵု ကဆံင် ဂှ်၊ စက္ကဝါ ဂှ် ခတိုဟ် ပါ်ပြး တိတ် အာ ဗွဲမပြဟ် တုဲ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် အကာသ (Space) ကေုာံ အခိင် (Time) ရ။ ကာလ စက္ကဝါ ဂှ် ပါ်ပြး တုဲ ၜိုဟ် စှ်ေ အာ ဂှ်၊ ဒြဟတ် တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ကတဵုဒှ် အာ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု သဇိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ပရဝ်တွန် (Protons) ကေုာံ [[အဳလက်ထရောန်]] (Electrons) တုဲ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် အက်တမ် ဟိုက်ဒရဝ်ဂျေန် (Hydrogen) ရ။
== ၄။ ဇမၞော် ကေုာံ အယုက် စက္ကဝါ (Size and Age of the Universe) ==
* '''အယုက်:''' စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ စက္ကဝါ ဝွံ နွံ အယုက် ၁၃.၈ ဗဳလဳယာန် သၞာံ ရ။ အယုက် ဏအ်ဝွံ တွက်ဂၠာဲ ကေတ် နူကဵု ပရေင်ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အသိင် ပရေင်လှဲလး စက္ကဝါ ကေုာံ လျး ပွဳပွူ လက္ကရဴ ဗစ်ဗေန် (Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation) ရ။
* '''ဇမၞော်:''' ဇမၞော် စက္ကဝါ ဇေတ်တ် ဂှ် မၞိဟ် တအ် ဟွံမာန် တီ ဏီ ရ။ ဆဂး "စက္ကဝါ မမာန် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဂွံ" (Observable universe) ဂှ် နွံ အနာံ ဗွဲအလုံ ၜိုတ် ၉၃ ဗဳလဳယာန် [[သၞာံ လျး]] (Light-years) ရ။ သၞာံ လျး ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဇမ္ၚောဲ လျး မအာ စိုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပွိုင် မွဲ သၞာံ (ၜိုတ် ၉.၄၆ ထရဳလဳယာန် ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ) ရ။
== ၅။ လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ဂယ်လာတ်သဳဂမၠိုင် (Structure and Galaxies) ==
စက္ကဝါ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ကဆံင် နာနာ သာ် ရ။
* '''သၞောတ် တ္ၚဲ (Solar System):''' ပိုယ် မံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ မဒှ် သၞောတ် တ္ၚဲ မွဲ ရ။
* '''ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ (Galaxy):''' သၞောတ် တ္ၚဲ ပိုယ် ဂှ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ [[ဂၠံင် ဍာ်တှ်]] (Milky Way Galaxy) မနွံကဵု သၞံင် ၜိုတ် ၁၀၀ စဵုကဵု ၄၀၀ ဗဳလဳယာန် မ ရ။
* '''ဂကောံ ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ (Galaxy Groups/Clusters):''' Milky Way ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ Local Group တုဲ လဒက်ပတန် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ဂှ် ကော်စ Superclusters ရ။
* '''ကွန်ရက် စက္ကဝါ (Cosmic Web):''' လတူ ကဆံင် အလုံ စက္ကဝါ မ္ဂး၊ ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ တအ်ဂှ် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် ညံင်ရဴ ကွန်ရက် ဇာ (Web-like structure) မနွံကဵု လစွံ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် (Filaments) ကေုာံ လဟာင် အကာသ ဂၠုဂၠု (Voids) ရ။
== ၆။ ဒြပ် မဟွံမဲ ရုပ်သာ် ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် မဟွံမဲ ရုပ်သာ် (Dark Matter and Dark Energy) ==
အရာ မအမ်သဝ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ စက္ကဝါ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပိုယ် တီ အရာ မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ စက္ကဝါ ဆ ၅ ရာခိုင်နှုန်း သၟး ရ။<ref name="tyson">{{cite book |last=Tyson |first=N. D. |title=Astrophysics for People in a Hurry |url=https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsforp0000tyso |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2017 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsforp0000tyso/page/70 70]-75}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ပါ်ပြး ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် ပ္ဍဲ စက္ကဝါ
|-
! ဂကူ ဒြပ်/ဒြဟတ်
! ရာခိုင်နှုန်း
! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ်
|-
| '''ဒြဟတ် ဒမၠု (Dark Energy)'''
| ၆၈.၃ %
| ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် မဟွံတီ ဟိုတ် တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် စက္ကဝါ ဂွံ လှဲလး တိတ် အာ နကဵု အသိင် မပြဟ် တိုန် ရ။
|-
| '''ဒြပ် ဒမၠု (Dark Matter)'''
| ၂၆.၈ %
| ဒှ် ဒြပ် မဟွံပတိတ် လျး တုဲ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဟွံဂွံ၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် (Gravity) မတံင်ဓဇက် လဝ် ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ တအ် ရ။
|-
| '''ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ဓမ္မတာ (Ordinary Matter)'''
| ၄.၉ %
| ဒှ် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု မပိုယ် မာန် ဆဵု ကေတ် - မပ္တံကဵု သၞံင်၊ ဂြဟ်၊ ဓါတ် ဓါတ်ငွေ့ ကေုာံ သတ် မဂျိုင် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
|}
== ၇။ သၞောဝ် ရူပဗေဒ ကေုာံ သဘာဝ (Physical Laws and Nature) ==
စက္ကဝါ ပိုယ် ဏအ်ဝွံ အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် နကဵု သၞောဝ် ရူပဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် သဇိုင် ၄ သာ် ရ -
# '''ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် (Gravity):''' ဒြဟတ် မတံင် ဓဇက် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု တအ်၊ မအုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် သၞံင် ကေုာံ ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ တအ် ရ (အတိုင် [[သဳအိုရဳ ရေလဳတဳဗဳတဳ]] ညး အာင်သတာင်)။<ref name="einstein">{{cite book |last=Einstein |first=A. |title=Relativity: The Special and the General Theory |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |year=1920 |pages=100-105}}</ref>
# '''ဒြဟတ် လျး-သံလိုက် (Electromagnetism):''' ဒြဟတ် မထိင်ဒဝ် လျး၊ လလဳ ကေုာံ ဓါတ် သံလိုက် တအ် ရ။
# '''ဒြဟတ် နျူကလဳယျာ ထတ် (Strong Nuclear Force):''' ဒြဟတ် မတံင် ဓဇက် လဝ် ပရဝ်တွန် ကဵု နယူထရွန် ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် အက်တမ် ရ။
# '''ဒြဟတ် နျူကလဳယျာ ဍိုန် (Weak Nuclear Force):''' ဒြဟတ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု သဘာဝ ဓါတ် ရေဒဳယဝ် (Radioactive decay) ရ။
== ၈။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ လအိတ် စက္ကဝါ (Future and End of the Universe) ==
တၠပညာ နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ တအ် ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဗီုပြင် လအိတ် စက္ကဝါ (End of the universe) ၃ သာ် အဓိက ရ -
* '''The Big Freeze (ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် ဍာ်ကလောအ် ဇၞော်):''' ယဝ်ရ စက္ကဝါ ဆက် လှဲလး တိတ် အာ ဒၟံင် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု အပိုတ်အခြာ မ္ဂး၊ သၞံင် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် သ္ဒး ပၠိုတ် အာ တုဲ၊ စက္ကဝါ အလုံအိုတ်သီု ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ ဂၠု ကေုာံ လမုဟ် (Heat death) ရ။ (ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လညာတ် မနွံ ပရေင်တန်တဴ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ရ)။
* '''The Big Crunch (ပရေင်ကလေင် ကောံ ဇၞော်):''' ယဝ်ရ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဇၞော် နူကဵု အသိင် မလှဲလး မ္ဂး၊ စက္ကဝါ ဂှ် ကလေင် စောံကောံ စှ်ေ စိုပ် ဌာန် တမ် သမၠေဝ် မွဲ ပၠန် ရ။
* '''The Big Rip (ပရေင်ထကး ဇၞော်):''' ယဝ်ရ ဒြဟတ် ဒမၠု ထတ် လောန် အာ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် သ္ဒး တံင် ထကး ထောအ် ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ၊ သၞံင် ကေုာံ အက်တမ် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်သုတေသန ကေုာံ ကွတ်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ (Research and Modern Technology) ==
ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် စက္ကဝါ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ကွတ်ပညာ မသၠုင်ပြဲ ရ။
* '''မှန်စောင်း အာကာသ ဟပ်ဗဴ (Hubble Space Telescope):''' ပလံင် ပတိတ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၀ တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် တက် ကေတ် ဗီုရုပ် ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ မသ္ၚောဲ လောန် တအ် ဂွံ ဗွဲမကၠးကြေဟ် ရ။
* '''မှန်စောင်း အာကာသ ဂျိမ်းဝက်ပ် (James Webb Space Telescope - JWST):''' ပလံင် ပတိတ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၁၊ ဍေဟ် မာန် ညာတ် ကေတ် လျး အေန်ဖရာရက် (Infrared) တုဲ ဍေဟ် မာန် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် စဵုကဵု စိုပ် အခိင် ကၠာအိုတ် ကြပ် ကု ဗစ်ဗေန် မာန် ရ။
* တၠပညာ တအ် သီု စကာ [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence) သွက်ဂွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် တင်ဂၞင် (Data) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နူကဵု မှန်စောင်း တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ဆဵု ဂြဟ် တၟိ တၟိ တအ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ လညာတ် ဒဿန ကေုာံ သာသနာ (Philosophical and Religious Perspectives) ==
သဘာဝ စက္ကဝါ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ လညာတ် သိပ္ပံ သၟး ရ၊ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု လညာတ် ဒဿန ကေုာံ ဘာသာ သာသနာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။<ref name="greene">{{cite book |last=Greene |first=B. |title=The Hidden Reality: Parallel Universes and the Deep Laws of the Cosmos |url=https://archive.org/details/hiddenrealitypar00gree_0 |publisher=Knopf |year=2011 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hiddenrealitypar00gree_0/page/11 10]-15}}</ref>
* '''သဳအိုရဳ မာလ်တဳဗာစ် (Multiverse Theory):''' တၠပညာ သိပ္ပံ လ္ၚဵု ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ စက္ကဝါ ပိုယ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဆ မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု စက္ကဝါ မဂၠိုင်ကဵု မ (Parallel universes) ရ။
* '''စက္ကဝါ မဖန်ဇန် လဝ် အတိကျ (Fine-Tuned Universe):''' သၞောဝ် ရူပဗေဒ ပ္ဍဲ စက္ကဝါ ပိုယ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကြပ်ညောန် ကေုာံ ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် လောန် တုဲ၊ ယဝ်ရ ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ဆ ညိဓဝ် မ္ဂး၊ သတ္တဝါ မဂျိုင် တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ဟွံမာန် ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂွံ ချပ် ဒဒှ်ရ စက္ကဝါ ဏအ် နွံကဵု ညးမဖန်ဇန် (Creator) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကတဵုဒှ် နကဵု ဟိုတ် တၟေင် မွဲမွဲ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ဗစ်ဗေန်]] (Big bang)
* [[ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ]] (Galaxy)
* [[ဒြပ် ဒမၠု]] (Dark matter)
* [[ရူပဗေဒ]] (Physics)
{{Navbox
| name = Astronomy
| title = နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ ကေုာံ စက္ကဝါဗေဒ (Astronomy and Cosmology)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင် သဘာဝ
| list1 =
* [[စက္ကဝါ]] (Universe)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ဗစ်ဗေန်]] (Big bang theory)
* [[အကာသ]] (Outer space)
* [[သၞာံ လျး]] (Light-year)
| group2 = လဒက်ပတန် အာကာသ
| list2 =
* [[ဂယ်လာတ်သဳ]] (Galaxy)
* [[သၞံင်]] (Star)
* [[ဂြဟ်]] (Planet)
* [[သၞောတ် တ္ၚဲ]] (Solar system)
| group3 = ရူပဗေဒ စက္ကဝါ
| list3 =
* [[ဒြပ် ဒမၠု]] (Dark matter)
* [[ဒြဟတ် ဒမၠု]] (Dark energy)
* [[ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ်]] (Gravity)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ရေလဳတဳဗဳတဳ]] (Theory of relativity)
}}
[[Category:နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ]]
[[Category:စက္ကဝါဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ရူပဗေဒ]]
[[Category:စက္ကဝါ]]
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'''ပြဝေဏဳ မန်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Mon culture'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Mon tradition'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် အခိုက်အလိုက် ဘဝလၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ၊ ပရေင်ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ၊ သုခုမ၊ လိက်ပတ်၊ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂကူမန် တအ် မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ်တမၠာ တေအ် ရ။ ဂကူမန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂကူ တၠယေန်သၞာင် (Civilization) မဇၞော်မောဝ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရးအာရှအဂၞဲ တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မကေတ်နင် [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada Buddhism) ကေုာံ အက္ခရ် လိက်ပတ် စိုပ် လပါ် ရးသၟဝ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကေုာံ ဍုင်သေံ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။<ref name="guillon">{{cite book |last=Guillon |first=E. |title=The Mons: A Civilization of Southeast Asia |publisher=Siam Society |year=1999 |pages=20-25}}</ref>
ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ ပြဝေဏဳ မန် တအ်ဝွံ ကဵု လဝ် သြဇာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂကူ ဗၟာ၊ သေံ (Thai)၊ ကေုာံ လာဝ် (Lao) တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပြဝေဏဳ မန် နကဵု ကဏ္ဍ နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု ဝင်၊ ဘာသာ၊ သုခုမ၊ စၞစ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Mon_people_dancing.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဝုတ်ဗၠာဲ မန် တအ် လှေ် ဒယှ်ေ ပ္ဍဲ သဘင် ယေန်သၞာင် မန် မွဲ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ပြဝေဏဳ မန် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် မဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဂကူမန် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကေုာံ ဍုင်သေံ ရ။ ပြဝေဏဳ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ သဇိုင် ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မပံင်နှဴ ကု ပရေင်ရှ်ေသှ်ေ ကလော် (Nat/Spirit worship) ရ။
ယေန်သၞာင် မန် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ အရာ မတန်တဴ (Static) သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အရာ မချဳဓရာင် (Dynamic) တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ ကၠုင် အတိုင် အကာဲအရာ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ မပြံင်လှာဲ ကၠုင် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ဂကူမန် တအ် ဒးဆောမ်လေင် လဝ် ဍုင်မိတိမ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပြဝေဏဳ မပ္တံကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ၊ ကယျိုင်ကယဝ်၊ ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် တအ်ဝွံ ဆက် တန်တဴ ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ ဒၟံင် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဏီ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် (History and Cultural Heritage) ==
ပြဝေဏဳ မန် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဝင် ဍုင်မန် တမၠာ တအ် ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကၠာအိုတ် ဂှ်၊ မန် တအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဍုင် ဨကရာဇ် မပ္တံကဵု သုဝဏ္ဏဘူမိ (Suvarnabhumi) ကေုာံ [[ဒွါရဝတဳ]] (Dvaravati) ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ၆ ကဵု ၁၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ရ။<ref name="halliday">{{cite book |last=Halliday |first=R. |title=The Talaings |publisher=Government Printing, Rangoon |year=1917 |pages=10-15}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ထ္ၜး ခေတ် ဝင် မန် မကဵု သြဇာ လတူ ပြဝေဏဳ
|-
! ယၟု ခေတ် ဍုင်
! အခိင်ကာလ
! ဌာန် ဒၞာဲ
! အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် အဓိက
|-
| [[ဒွါရဝတဳ]] (Dvaravati)
| ၆ - ၁၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ
| ဍုင်သေံ လဒေါဝ်
| ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ လိက်တၟအ် မန်တြေံ၊ ရုပ်ကျာ် ဓမ္မစက်။
|-
| [[ဟရိဘုဉ္ဇယျ]] (Haripunjaya)
| ၈ - ၁၃ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ
| ဍုင်သေံ သၟဝ်ကျာ (Lamphun)
| လိက်ပတ် မန်၊ ဗိသုကာ စေတဳ၊ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု လန်နာ။
|-
| ဍုင်သဓီု (Thaton)
| စဵုကဵု ၁၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ
| ရးသၟဝ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ
| ပိဋကတ် ၃၊ ယေန်သၞာင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မပြးဇး စိုပ် ဗုကာံ။
|-
| [[ဟံသာဝတဳ]] (Hanthawaddy)
| ၁၄ - ၁၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ
| ပဲခူး (Bago)
| ပြဝေဏဳ လိက်ပတ် ခေတ်ထဝ်၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်၊ ဝင် ရာဇာဓိရာဇ်။
|}
== ၃။ ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ (Religion and Beliefs) ==
ပြဝေဏဳ မန် ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ အဓိက ၜါ သာ် မပံင်နှဴ ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် ရ -
* '''ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ထေရဝါဒ (Theravada Buddhism):''' ဂကူမန် တအ် ဒှ် ညးမလျိုင်ပတှ်ေ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ရ။ ဘာလကျာ် (Monastery) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဗဟဵု ဌာန သွက် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မန် တအ် တုဲ၊ ပရေင်ကဵုဒါန်၊ ပရေင်မင်သဳ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဓရ် တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ကမၠောန် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ရှ်ေသှ်ေ ကလော် (Nat/Spirit Worship):''' ၜိုန်ရ လျိုင်ပတှ်ေ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပြဝေဏဳ ရှ်ေသှ်ေ ကလော် ဇုဇဗဴလ (Kalok) ဂှ်လေဝ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ သ္ၚိ မန် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ နွံကဵု ဒၞာဲ စွံ ကလော်သ္ၚိ (House spirit) တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကၠောန် သဘင် မပ္တံကဵု သဘင် မင်္ဂလာထပ်တဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ယဲဒိုက် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ပသေက် ပသဝ် ကလော် ညံင်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ကဵု ရ။
== ၄။ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် (Language and Literature) ==
အရေဝ်မန် (Mon language) ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ အရေဝ် [[အဝ်သတြဝ်အေရှတစ်]] (Austroasiatic language family) တုဲ ဒှ် အရေဝ် မနွံကဵု ဝင် မလအ်လအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဏအ် ရ။
[[ပြဝေဏဳ လိက်ပတ်မန်]] (Mon textual tradition) ဝွံ နွံကဵု အစောံသတ္တိ သၠုင် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ မန် တအ် စကာ အက္ခရ် မကၠုင် နူ အိန္ဒိယ သၠုင်ကျာ တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် ညံင်ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ရမ္သာင် ဇကု ရ။ လိက်ပတ် မန် အဓိက တအ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု -
* '''လိက် ဇာတ်:''' လိက် မချူလဝ် ပရူ ဘဝ တမၠာ ကျာ်တြဲ (Jataka tales)။
* '''လိက် ဝင်:''' ရာဇာဝင် မပ္တံကဵု ဝင် ဥပ္ပန္န ဟံသာဝတဳ ကေုာံ ရာဇာဓိရာဇ် အရေးတော်ပုံ။
* '''လိက် ကဗျ ကေုာံ လင်္ကာ:''' မပ္တံကဵု လိက် မိၝောအ်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ လိက် သၟိင်အသး မစကာ သွက်ဂွံ ဗှ် လဟိင် စိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ သဘင်။<ref name="bauer">{{cite journal |last=Bauer |first=C. |title=Language and Ethnicity: The Mon in Burma and Thailand |journal=Gehan Wijeyewardene (Ed.), Ethnicity and Nationalism in Thailand |year=1990 |pages=14-47}}</ref>
== ၅။ သုခုမ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လှေ်ဒယှ်ေ (Arts, Music, and Dance) ==
ယေန်သၞာင် သုခုမ မန် ဝွံ ဍိုက်ပေင် ဒၟံင် နကဵု တူရိယာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လှေ် မတၞဟ်ခြာ ရ။
* '''တူရိယာ မန် (Mon Musical Instruments):''' တူရိယာ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ကျာံ (Kyam/Crocodile zither) မဒှ် တူရိယာ တိုင် မနွံ ဗီုပြင် ညံင် ကျာံ၊ ကေုာံ ဗာတ်ကေင် (Patt Waing / Mon drum circle) မဒှ် သၞောတ် ဖံ ဍောတ်တ် မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်လှေ် မန် (Mon Dance):''' ပရေင်လှေ် မန် တအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု အခိုက်အလိုက် မၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ကေုာံ ကျေဝ်ဂေါဝ် ရ။ လှေ် မပြာကတ် တအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု လှေ် ပၞာန် (Dance of the warriors) ကေုာံ လှေ် ကလော် (Spirit dance - ဒယှ်ေ ကလော်) မကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ပသေက် ပသဝ် ကလော် ရ။
== ၆။ စၞစ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ (Cuisine and Agriculture) ==
ပြဝေဏဳ စၞစ မန် ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ကမၠောန် တဵုလွဳ သြောအ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်တမ္ၚာ ရ။ စၞစ မန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စကာ က ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဖျုန် သီုကဵု သၞေဝ် ကေုာံ ဖရံက် (Fermented fish paste) ရ။
* '''ပုင်သင်္ကြန် (Thingyan Rice / Khao Chae):''' ဒှ် စၞစ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် မကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် သဘင် အတး သင်္ကြန် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ပုင် မစွံ လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍာ် ၜိုဟ်ဟ် မနွံကဵု မသၟူ မောဝ် ပ္ကဴ တုဲ စ ကေုာံ သွ မပ္တံကဵု က ကေုာံ ဖျုန် မကြော် လဝ် ရ။
* '''သွ ဟန်တာ (Han Tar Curry):''' သွ မန် သဘာဝ မစကာ သၞေဝ် ဂြိုပ် ကေုာံ ဖရံက်။
ဂကူမန် တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ညးမတဵုလွဳ သြောအ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဍာ် ဂၠိုင် (Wet-rice agriculture) မစိစောန် တုဲ၊ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု သၞောတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မညိင်ဝတ် ရ။
== ၇။ ကယျိုင်ကယဝ် ကေုာံ တုတ်ဇိင် (Clothing and Weaving Tradition) ==
ကယျိုင်ကယဝ် ပြဝေဏဳ မန် ဝွံ နွံကဵု အသာ် ကေုာံ ဗီုပြင် မတၞဟ်ခြာ ရ။
* '''ကယျိုင် မၞိဟ်တြုဟ်:''' ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကျိုင် ယာတ်ဂၠိင် (Sarong) မနွံကဵု အသာ် ဍာဲ ကေုာံ ဗု ကွက်က် (Red and white checkered pattern) မကော်စ ယာတ် ဍောတ်။ လတူ ဂှ် ကျိုင် ပလောအ် တုဲ ပူ က္ဍိုပ် နကဵု ယာတ် က္ဍိုပ် (Turban) ရ။
* '''ကယျိုင် မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ:''' ကျိုင် ယာတ် ဂၠိင် (Hta-mein) မနွံကဵု ပရေင်တုတ်ဇိင် အသာ် ဍာဲ ကေုာံ လမ္စံက် ရ။ လတူ ဂှ် ကျိုင် ပလောအ် ဗု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အသာ် တၟးတၟး ကေုာံ သ္ပ ကသာပ် ယာတ် ဒစး လတူ ပၞး ရ။
ပရေင်တုတ်ဇိင် (Weaving) ဝွံ ဒှ် ကမၠောန် အာဲကၟာဲ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ မန် တအ် တုဲ၊ ယာတ် မန် တအ်ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်သွံရာန် အကြာ ဒေသ ရ။
== ၈။ သဘင် ကေုာံ အခိုက်အလိုက် (Festivals and Customs) ==
ပြဝေဏဳ မန် ဍိုက်ပေင် ဒၟံင် နကဵု သဘင် (Festivals) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မဆက်စပ် ကု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ ရာသဳ ဥတု ရ။
* '''တ္ၚဲ ကောန်ဂကူ မန် (Mon National Day):''' ဍေဟ် ဒတုံ ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲ ဂိတု မာ် ၁ စွေက် သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ တ္ၚဲ မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဍုင်ဟံသာဝတဳ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၅၇၃ သာသနာ ရ။ တ္ၚဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် တ္ၚဲ မပံင်ကောံ ဂကူမန် သီုဖအိုတ် လတူ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''သဘင် အတး သင်္ကြန် (Thingyan / Songkran):''' သဘင် တ္ၚဲသၞာံတၟိ ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတု စဲ။ မန် တအ် ဝေင် ဍာ်၊ လ္ၚောဝ် ကျာ်၊ ကေုာံ ကဵု ဒါန် ပုင်သင်္ကြန် ရ။
* '''သဘင် သ္ပ ခမဳ (Novitiation Ceremony):''' သဘင် မသ္ပ ကောန်ၚာ် တြုဟ် နဒဒှ် ထပိုယ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ခမဳ။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သဘင် မနွံကဵု ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ မိမ မန် တအ် ရ။
== ၉။ ဗိသုကာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ (Architecture and Building Tradition) ==
ဗိသုကာ မန် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် မသၠုင် ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ဘာကျာ် ကေုာံ စေတဳ ရ။
* '''စေတဳ မန်:''' စေတဳ မန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နွံကဵု ဗီုပြင် ခေါက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ခေါင် (Bell-shaped stupa) မဒှ် တမ်မူလ ဗိသုကာ စေတဳ လကျာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကေုာံ ဍုင်သေံ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ (ဥပမာ - ကျာ်လ္ဂုင် ကေုာံ ကျာ်မုဟ်တှ်)။
* '''သ္ၚိ မန်:''' သ္ၚိ မန် ဓမ္မတာ ဂှ် သြိုင် လဝ် နကဵု ဆု၊ နွံကဵု တိုင် သၠုင် သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ဍာ် ဒဳ ကေုာံ တိရစ္ဆာန် အန္တရာယ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သ္ၚိ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ နွံ တိုင် ကလော် (Spirit pillar) မစွံ လဝ် သွက် ကလော် ဇုဇဗဴလ ရ။
== ၁၀။ အကာဲအရာ ခေတ်လၟုဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ (Contemporary Situation and Preservation) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ၜိုန်ရ ဂကူမန် တအ် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ အခက်အခုဲ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက် လိက်ပတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပြဝေဏဳ မန် ဝွံ ဟွံကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ ဏီ ရ။<ref name="south">{{cite book |last=South |first=A. |title=Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: The Golden Sheldrake |url=https://archive.org/details/monnationalismci0000sout |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/monnationalismci0000sout/page/150 150]-160}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ ဂှ် လေဝ် မၞိဟ်မန် (Thai-Raman) တအ် ဆက် မင်မဲ ဒၟံင် ယေန်သၞာင် ဍေဟ်တအ် နကဵု သဘင် ကၞာ ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘာလကျာ် ရ။<ref name="ocha">{{cite journal |last=Ocha |first=W. |title=Transnational Mon identity: the social and cultural transformation of the Mon people in Thailand |journal=Asian Ethnicity |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=312-329 |year=2014}}</ref> ပရေင်ကတဵု ကလေင် မင်မဲ (Cultural revival) ဝွံ နွံ ဒၟံင် အလုံ ဌာန် ဒေသ၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် နူကဵု ဂကောံ ဝုတ်ဗၠာဲ မန် တအ် မဂစာန် ကလေင် ဗတောန် လိက်မန်၊ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကယျိုင်ကယဝ် ခေတ်တၟိ၊ ကေုာံ စကာ [[အင်တာနက်]] (Internet) သွက်ဂွံ တြးပတိတ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဏအ် ဇရေင် ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ပြဝေဏဳ မန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် သွက် ပရေင်မံင်သ္ၚောဲ ကေုာံ သမိုင်း အာရှအဂၞဲ မဒး ဆက် မင်မဲ အာ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဂကူမန်]] (Mon people)
* [[အရေဝ်မန်]] (Mon language)
* [[ရာဇာဓိရာဇ်]] (Rajadhirat)
* [[ဟံသာဝတဳ]] (Hanthawaddy)
{{Navbox
| name = Mon Culture
| title = ပြဝေဏဳ ကေုာံ ဝင် မန် (Mon Culture and Tradition)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ်
| list1 =
* [[ပြဝေဏဳ မန်]] (Mon culture)
* [[ပြဝေဏဳ လိက်ပတ်မန်]] (Mon textual tradition)
* [[အက္ခရ်မန်]] (Mon script)
* [[အရေဝ်မန်]] (Mon language)
| group2 = ဝင် ကေုာံ ဍုင်မန်ဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[သုဝဏ္ဏဘူမိ]] (Suvarnabhumi)
* [[ဒွါရဝတဳ]] (Dvaravati)
* [[ဟရိဘုဉ္ဇယျ]] (Haripunjaya)
* [[ဟံသာဝတဳ]] (Hanthawaddy)
| group3 = သဘင် ကေုာံ ဓဝ်ပတှ်ေ
| list3 =
* [[တ္ၚဲ ကောန်ဂကူ မန်]] (Mon National Day)
* [[ပုင်သင်္ကြန်]] (Thingyan rice)
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada Buddhism)
* [[ကလော်မန်]] (Mon spirit worship)
}}
[[Category:ယေန်သၞာင် မန်]]
[[Category:ပြဝေဏဳ]]
[[Category:ဝင် အာရှအဂၞဲ]]
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'''သပုတ်နေက် ၁''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Sputnik 1'', ရုရှာ: ''Спутник-1'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် [[ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ]] (Artificial satellite) ပထမအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် မပလံင်ဗစိုပ် လဝ် စိုပ် လတူ [[ဂၠံင်တရဴ တိ]] (Earth orbit) ရ။ ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် လဝ် နကဵု [[ကၟိန်ဍုင် သဵုဗိယေတ်]] (Soviet Union) ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၄ အံက်တဝ်ဗာ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၇ အခိင် ကာလ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် သၞာံ ဇဳဝရူပဗေဒ ဂၠးတိ (International Geophysical Year) ရ။ သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဝွံ ဒှ် ခဍောင် ပသဲ ခဍမ်ခဍမ် မွဲ မနွံကဵု ဇမၞော် ဗွိုက် ၅၈ သေန်တဳမဳတာ (၂၃ ၝောအ်တဲ) တုဲ နွံကဵု အင်တေနာ ၄ တၞုင် သွက်ဂွံ လလောင်တြး [[ရမ္သာင် ရေဒဳယော]] (Radio pulses) ရ။<ref name="siddiqi">{{cite book |last=Siddiqi |first=A. A. |title=Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge |publisher=University Press of Florida |year=2003 |pages=150-155}}</ref>
ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဏအ်ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် ဝင် ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဇၞော် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ညံင် [[ပေါဲပြိုင် လတူ အကာသ]] (Space Race) အကြာ ကၟိန်ဍုင် သဵုဗိယေတ် ကေုာံ [[ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန်]] (United States) ဂွံ စတင် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ သပုတ်နေက် ၁ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Sputnik_1_replica_mac.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ သပုတ်နေက် ၁ မထ္ၜးပျး လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး အကာသ။ (Sputnik 1 replica)]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Meaning) ==
ယၟု "သပုတ်နေက်" (Sputnik) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် ရုရှာ Спутник မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "သကအ်ရဲ ညးမတွာ် တရဴ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ မ္ဂး "ဂြိုဟ်ကောန်" (Satellite) ရ။ နကဵု ယၟု ပ္ဍဲ ရုင် အလဵုအသဳ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ကော်စ ПС-1 (PS-1) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် Простейший Спутник-1 (Prosteyshiy Sputnik-1 ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ ဓမ္မတာ မရနုက်ကဵု ၁) ရ။
ကမၠောန် ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဝွံ ဒှ် လဂံါ ပထမအိုတ် သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဂွံ တတ် သြိုဟ် တိတ် အာ နူကဵု ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် တိ (Earth's gravity) တုဲ တွာ် တရဴ စိုပ် အာ လတူ အကာသ (Space) ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ တုပ် ညံင်ရဴ သင်္ကေတ မပံက် ကဵု တြင် ခေတ် အကာသ (Space Age) ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ကီု ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် (History and Background) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အကြာ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၀ တအ် ဂှ်၊ ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ နွံ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိင် [[ပၞာန် ၜိုဟ်]] (Cold War) အကြာ ဗလံက် ကွန်မျူနစ် ကေုာံ ဗလံက် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၂ ဂှ် ကံင်သဳ သိပ္ပံ ဂၠးတိ တအ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ညံင်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၇-၁၉၅၈ နဒဒှ် သၞာံ ဇဳဝရူပဗေဒ ဂၠးတိ (International Geophysical Year) တုဲ ဆဝ်မ္ၚုဟ် လဝ် ညံင် ဍုင် နာနာ ဂွံ ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ ရ။<ref name="hardesty">{{cite book |last=Hardesty |first=V. |author2=Eiseman, A. |title=Epic Rivalry: The Inside Story of the Soviet and American Space Race |url=https://archive.org/details/epicrivalryinsid0000hard |publisher=National Geographic |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/epicrivalryinsid0000hard/page/70 70]-75}}</ref>
သဵုဗိယေတ် ဂှ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ဂကောံ သုတေသန မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် နကဵု တၠပညာ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ရဝ်ကေတ် [[သေရ်ဂေ ကဝ်ရဝ်လျောပ်]] (Sergei Korolev) ရ。 ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ညးတအ် ရန်တၟအ် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ပလံင် ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မနွံယၟု "Object D" ရ၊ ဆဂး ဟိုတ်နူ အခိင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် လအ် အာ တုဲ၊ ကဝ်ရဝ်လျောပ် ပြံင်လှာဲ သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ကေတ် ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ ဍောတ်ဍောတ် ကေုာံ လောဲလောဲ (PS-1) သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ ပလံင် ပထမအိုတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ နူ ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် ရ။
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ဒီဇိုင်း (Design and Construction) ==
သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု လဒက်ပတန် မလောဲသွာ ဆဂး ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး တင်ဂၞင် သဇိုင် သပုတ်နေက် ၁
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! တင်ဂၞင် အဓိက
|-
| '''ဇမၞော် ဗွိုက်'''
| ၅၈ သေန်တဳမဳတာ (၂၂.၈ ၝောအ်တဲ)
|-
| '''လျိုင်'''
| ၈၃.၆ ကဳလဝ်ဂရာမ် (၁၈၄.၃ ပံင်)
|-
| '''ကပေါတ် မကၠောန်'''
| ဓါတ် ပသဲ ကေုာံ အလူမဳနဳယမ် (Aluminum alloy AMG6T)
|-
| '''အင်တေနာ'''
| ၄ တၞုင် (ဇမၠိင် ၂.၄ စဵုကဵု ၂.၉ မဳတာ)
|-
| '''ရမ္သာင် ရေဒဳယော'''
| 20.005 MHz ကေုာံ 40.002 MHz
|-
| '''ဘက်ထရဳ (Battery)'''
| ဘက်ထရဳ ဓါတ် သြန်-ဇေန် (Silver-zinc batteries) - နွံ ဒြဟတ် သွက် ၂၁ တ္ၚဲ
|}
ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ဍေဟ် ဂှ် ပလိုင် လဝ် သ္ၚေက်သ္ၚေက် ညံင်ဂွံ တုပ် ကဵု မှန် သွက်ဂွံ ရေင်တၠုင် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ကေုာံ လျး တ္ၚဲ ရ။ အပ္ဍဲ ဂှ် ပ္ဍိုက် စုတ် လဝ် ဓါတ် နိုက်ထရဝ်ဂျေန် (Nitrogen) သွက်ဂွံ ထိင် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ကေုာံ မင်မဲ စက် ကိရိယာ တအ် ရ။
== ၄။ ရဝ်ကေတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် (Launch Vehicle and Process) ==
သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဂှ် ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် လဝ် နကဵု ရဝ်ကေတ် [[အာရ်-၇]] (R-7 Semyorka) မဒှ် ရဝ်ကေတ် မပန် ပလံင် ဗုံး နူ တွဵုရး မွဲ စိုပ် မွဲ (ICBM) မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် နကဵု သဵုဗိယေတ် ရ။<ref name="chertok">{{cite book |last=Chertok |first=B. E. |title=Rockets and People, Volume 2: Creating a Rocket Industry |publisher=NASA History Division |year=2006 |pages=180-185}}</ref>
ဍေဟ် ဂွံ ဒးဒုင် ပလံင် ပတိုန် နူကဵု ဌာန် ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် ဗုက်ကဝ်နော (Baikonur Cosmodrome) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ကာဇက်သတာန် (Kazakhstan) ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဗတံ 10:28:34 UTC ရ။ ကြဴနူ ရဝ်ကေတ် ဂှ် ပန် ပတိတ် အာ ပွိုင် မသုန် မိနေတ် တုဲ၊ သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဂှ် ပါ်တိတ် အာ နူကဵု ရဝ်ကေတ် တုဲ စိုပ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠံင်တရဴ တိ ဗွဲမအံင်ဇၞး ရ။
== ၅။ ဂၠံင်တရဴ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လတူ အကာသ (Orbit and Trajectory) ==
သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဝွံ ဂေတ် ဒၟံင် တိ နကဵု ဂၠံင်တရဴ ခၟာဲၚာင် (Elliptical orbit) ရ။ တင်ဂၞင် ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဍေဟ် ဂှ် -
* '''ဒၞာဲ ညန်အိုတ် (Perigee):''' ၂၁၅ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (၁၃၄ တိုင်) နူ မျက်နှာပြင် တိ။
* '''ဒၞာဲ သ္ၚောဲအိုတ် (Apogee):''' ၉၃၉ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (৫৮၃ တိုင်)။
* '''အခိင် မွဲ ဂေတ် (Orbital period):''' ၉၆.၂ မိနေတ်။
* '''လစွံ ထိုင် (Inclination):''' ၆၅.၁ ဒဳဂရဳ လတူ ဓရီု အဳကွေတာ (Equator)။
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု လစွံ ဍေဟ် နွံ ၆၅ ဒဳဂရဳ ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍေဟ် မာန် ဂေတ် တတ် အာ လတူ ဍုင် မၞိဟ် မမံင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ သီုကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် ရ။
== ၆။ ရမ္သာင် ရေဒဳယော ကေုာံ ကမၠောန် သိပ္ပံ (Radio Signals and Science Mission) ==
သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ကေမရာ ကေုာံ ကိရိယာ သိပ္ပံ မထုဲထံင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ရမ္သာင် ရေဒဳယော "ဗိပ်-ဗိပ်-ဗိပ်" (Beep-beep-beep) ဍေဟ် ဂှ် ဒှ် တင်ဂၞင် သိပ္ပံ အဓိက အိုတ် ရ။<ref name="nasasputnik">{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/ |title=Sputnik and the Dawn of the Space Age |publisher=NASA |date=2007 |access-date=2023-10-04}}</ref>
စက် ပလံင် ရမ္သာင် ဍေဟ် ဂှ် ပလံင် တြး ဒၟံင် ရမ္သာင် ပ္ဍဲ 20 MHz ကဵု 40 MHz တုဲ၊ ညးစကာ ရေဒဳယော အပျော် (Amateur radio operators) တအ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ မာန် ဖမ်း ကလင် ကေတ် ရမ္သာင် ဏအ် လောဲလောဲ သွာသွာ ရ။ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရမ္သာင် ဏအ် (Beep rate) ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ အပ္ဍဲ ခဍောင် ပသဲ ဂှ် ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပရေင်စိုပ် ရမ္သာင် ဏအ် စိုပ် တိ ဂှ် လေဝ် ကဵု တင်ဂၞင် သွက် တၠပညာ တအ် ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အထပ် [[အာယောန်နဝ်သဖဳယျာ]] (Ionosphere) ပ္ဍဲ လေယျာ ကျာ တိ ကီု ရ။
== ၇။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ သပုတ်နေက် (Global Impact and Sputnik Crisis) ==
ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဗဒှ် ကဵု "ပြသၞာ သပုတ်နေက်" ([[ပြသၞာ သပုတ်နေက်]] - Sputnik Crisis) ပ္ဍဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် အမေရိကာန် တအ် ထေင် ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးတအ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မနွံကဵု နည်းပညာ သၠုင်အိုတ် ရ။ ဆဂး သဵုဗိယေတ် တအ် အံင်ဇၞး အာ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် အမေရိကာန် တအ် ဂွံ ဖေက်လန် ကေုာံ ထေဲစိုတ် ရ။
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဏအ်၊ အလဵုအသဳ အမေရိကာန် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ကဵု သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ သိပ္ပံ၊ ကေုာံ နည်းပညာ တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် ဂကောံ အကာသ ကောန်ဂကူ [[နာသာ]] (NASA) ကေုာံ အေဂျေန်သဳ သုတေသန ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ [[ဒါပါ]] (DARPA) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၈ ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် စတမ် ပေါဲပြိုင် လတူ အကာသ (Space Race) ရ။
== ၈။ လအိတ် ဘဝ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စှ်ေတိ (End of Mission and Re-entry) ==
ဘက်ထရဳ အပ္ဍဲ သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဂှ် နွံ ဒြဟတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပလံင် ရမ္သာင် ပွိုင် ၂၁ တ္ၚဲ သၟး ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၂၆ အံက်တဝ်ဗာ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၇ ဂှ်၊ ဘက်ထရဳ အိုတ် အာ တုဲ ရမ္သာင် ရေဒဳယော လေဝ် ဒေါအ် အာ ရ။
ၜိုန်ရ ရမ္သာင် ဟွံမဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဝွံ ဆက် ဂေတ် ဒၟံင် လတူ ဂၠံင်တရဴ တိ ပွိုင် ၜါ ဂိတု ပြင်င် ဏီ ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ဇီုကပိုက် ကု လေယျာ ကျာ တိ ညိည ညိည တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် စှ်ေ ညန် ကၠုင် ကဵု တိ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၄ ဇာန်နဝါရဳ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၈ ဂှ်၊ ကြဴနူ ဂေတ် လဝ် တိ ပွိုင် ၁၄၄၀ အလန် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် လုပ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ လေယျာ ကျာ တိ တုဲ တူ စှ်ေ အာ အလုံ မွဲ ရ။<ref name="brzezinski">{{cite book |last=Brzezinski |first=M. |title=Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries that Ignited the Space Age |url=https://archive.org/details/redmoonrisingspu0000brze_b5v5 |publisher=Times Books |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/redmoonrisingspu0000brze_b5v5/page/210 210]-215}}</ref>
== ၉။ အာဲကၟာဲ ကေုာံ ရုပ်ဗက် (Legacy and Replicas) ==
သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဝွံ ဟွံမဲ ယျ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ရုပ်ဗက် (Replicas) ဍေဟ် ဂမၠိုင် ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် မကၠောန် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ စမ်ၜတ် ပ္ဍဲ တိ ဂှ်၊ လၟုဟ် ထ္ၜးပျး လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဒၞာဲ မပြာကတ် တအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး အကာသ ပ္ဍဲ မဝ်သကဝ် (Moscow)၊ ကေုာံ တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး အကာသ ကေုာံ က္ၜင်ကျာ ကောန်ဂကူ ပ္ဍဲ ဝါရှေန်တန် ဒဳသဳ (National Air and Space Museum) တအ် ရ。
ယၟု သပုတ်နေက် ဏအ်ဝွံ လေဝ် ဒှ် ယၟု မပြာကတ် လတူ ဂၠးတိ တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် စကာ ယၟု ဏအ် သွက် ရဝ်ကေတ်၊ က္ၜင် အကာသ၊ ကေုာံ လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် ဂှ် ကဵု ယၟု ကု ဂဥုဲ ဗက်သေန် ကဝ်ဗေတ်-၁၉ ရုရှာ (Sputnik V) ကီု ရ။
== ၁၀။ လကျာ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် လိက်ပတ် (Conclusion and Impact on Future) ==
ပရေင်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မကတဵုဗဒှ် လဝ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ညံင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဂွံ စိုပ် လတူ ဂိတု (Apollo program) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၉၊ ကေုာံ ခၞံဗဒှ် [[ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ ဆက်စပ်]] (Communications satellites) မပကဵု ညံင် အင်တာနက် ကေုာံ ဖုန် မဝ်ဗာင် ဂွံ စကာ ဂွံ ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory) ဝင် မ္ဂး၊ သပုတ်နေက် ၁ ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပသဲ မွဲ မကလုတ် တိတ် အာ လတူ အကာသ သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဉာဏ် ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဂစာန် မဟွံမဲ အပိုတ်အခြာ သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ]] (Artificial satellite)
* [[ပေါဲပြိုင် လတူ အကာသ]] (Space Race)
* [[သေရ်ဂေ ကဝ်ရဝ်လျောပ်]] (Sergei Korolev)
* [[နာသာ]] (NASA)
{{Navbox
| name = Space Exploration
| title = ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် လတူ အကာသ ကေုာံ ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ (Space Exploration and Satellites)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဝင် ပရေင်စတင်
| list1 =
* [[သပုတ်နေက် ၁]] (Sputnik 1)
* [[ပေါဲပြိုင် လတူ အကာသ]] (Space Race)
* [[ပြသၞာ သပုတ်နေက်]] (Sputnik Crisis)
| group2 = အေဂျေန်သဳ
| list2 =
* [[ကၟိန်ဍုင် သဵုဗိယေတ်]] (Soviet space program)
* [[နာသာ]] (NASA)
* [[ဒါပါ]] (DARPA)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ]] (Artificial satellite)
* [[အာရ်-၇]] (R-7 Semyorka)
* [[ပၞာန် ၜိုဟ်]] (Cold War)
* [[ဂၠံင်တရဴ တိ]] (Earth orbit)
}}
[[Category:ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ]]
[[Category:ဝင် ကၟိန်ဍုင် သဵုဗိယေတ်]]
[[Category:၁၉၅၇]]
[[Category:ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် အကာသ]]
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'''သေန်တဳမဳတာ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Centimetre'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Centimeter'', သင်္ကေတ အလုံဂၠးတိ '''cm''') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ယူနေတ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဇမၠိင် (Unit of length) ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[သၞောတ် မက်ထရစ်]] (Metric system) မွဲ တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် တုပ်သၟဟ် ကဵု မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ကၠံ (၁/၁၀၀) ၏ [[မဳတာ]] (Metre) ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ "centi" ဝွံ ဒှ် ဥပသာဂ် (Prefix) ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် [[အက်စ်အာင်]] (SI) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ကၠံ ရ။ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ယူနေတ် သဇိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် စဳဂျဳအက်စ် (Centimetre–gram–second system of units - CGS) ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ စကာ သၞောတ် အက်စ်အာင် (SI) ရ။<ref name="bipm">{{cite book |last=BIPM |first= |title=The International System of Units (SI) |edition=9th |publisher=Bureau International des Poids et Mesures |year=2019 |pages=130-135}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဝ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ၊ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဂှ် စကာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အရာဝတ္ထု မနွံကဵု ဇမၞော် လဒေါဝ် ကေုာံ ဍောတ်တ်၊ မပ္တံကဵု သမၠုင် မၞိဟ်၊ ဇမၞော် ပၠောမ်၊ ကေုာံ ဇမၠိင် လိက်အုပ် တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ သေန်တဳမဳတာ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ယူနေတ်၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ဍေဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ကဏ္ဍ နာနာ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Tape_measure_in_centimeters.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဇုက်ၜတ် (Tape measure) မစကာလဝ် ယူနေတ် သေန်တဳမဳတာ သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဇမၠိင်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ယူနေတ် မပါ်တိတ် နူကဵု ယူနေတ် သဇိုင် မဳတာ ရ။ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဍေဟ် နကဵု သင်္ချာ မ္ဂး -
* $1 \text{ cm} = 0.01 \text{ m}$ (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး $10^{-2} \text{ m}$)
* $100 \text{ cm} = 1 \text{ m}$
နကဵု သၞောတ် ယူနေတ် ဍောတ် နူ ဍေဟ် မ္ဂး၊ မွဲ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဂှ် တုပ်သၟဟ် ကဵု စှ် [[မဳလဳမဳတာ]] (Millimetre):
* $1 \text{ cm} = 10 \text{ mm}$
သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဝွံ စကာ လဝ် သင်္ကေတ "cm" တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မချူ နကဵု အက္ခရ် ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် ဟွံဒး စုတ် စၟတ် (Dot) ပ္ဍဲ လက္ကရဴ ဍေဟ် ရ (ဥပမာ - စကာ 10 cm၊ ဟွံစကာ 10 cm.)။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင် သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် သၞောတ် မက်ထရစ် (Metric system) ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ပရေင်ကတဵုသပုန် ပြင်သေတ် (French Revolution) ပ္ဍဲ လက္ကရဴ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၈ ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ဍုင် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ဍုင် နွံကဵု သၞောတ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ရေင်သကအ် တုဲ၊ ပရေင်သွံရာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်သိပ္ပံ ဂမၠိုင် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ အခက်အခုဲ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ。<ref name="alder">{{cite book |last=Alder |first=K. |title=The Measure of All Things: The Seven-Year Odyssey and Hidden Error That Transformed the World |url=https://archive.org/details/measureofallthin00alde |publisher=Free Press |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/measureofallthin00alde/page/89 89]-95}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၇၉၉ ဂှ် အလဵုအသဳ ပြင်သေတ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် "မဳတာ" နဒဒှ် ယူနေတ် သဇိုင် မွဲ၊ မဒှ် လၟိဟ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ စှ် ပြကောဋိ (1/10,000,000) ၏ ဇမ္ၚောဲ နူကဵု ဓရီု အဳကွေတာ (Equator) စဵုကဵု ဝင်ရိုးစွန်း သၟဝ်ကျာ (North Pole) ရ။ နူကဵု မဳတာ ဏအ် ဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပတိတ် ယူနေတ် သေန်တဳမဳတာ နကဵု ပရေင်ပါ်ကရေက် ကၠံ ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵု လဝ် သြဇာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ မွဲ ဓဝ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၃။ သၞောတ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ (Standardization and Symbols) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၇၄ ဂှ်၊ ဂကောံ သိပ္ပံ ဂမၠိုင် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် CGS (Centimetre-Gram-Second) မစကာ သေန်တဳမဳတာ နဒဒှ် ယူနေတ် သဇိုင် သွက် ဇမၠိင်၊ ဂရာမ် (Gram) သွက် လျိုင်၊ ကေုာံ စက္က (Second) သွက် အခိင် ရ။
ၜိုန်ရ လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၀ တအ် ဂှ်၊ သၞောတ် MKS (Metre-Kilogram-Second) မဒှ် သဇိုင် သၞောတ် အက်စ်အာင် (SI System) ဝွံ ကေတ် အစားထိုး အာ သၞောတ် CGS ကီုလေဝ်၊ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဂှ် ဆက် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် ယူနေတ် မပါ်တိတ် (Derived unit) မစကာ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် မွဲ စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
== ၄။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု ယူနေတ် တၞဟ်ဂမၠိုင် (Equivalence to Other Units of Length) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ယူနေတ် အကြာ သၞောတ် မက်ထရစ် (Metric) ကေုာံ သၞောတ် အေန်ပဳရဳယျေဝ် (Imperial/US customary) ဂှ်၊ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဝွံ ဒှ် တိုင် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အဓိက မွဲ ရ။ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၉ ဂှ် တၠပညာ တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ချိုတ်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ၁ ၝောအ်တဲ (Inch) ဂှ် တုပ်သၟဟ် ကဵု ၂.၅၄ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ကွက်တိ ရ။<ref name="judson">{{cite book |last=Judson |first=L. V. |title=Weights and Measures Standards of the United States: A Brief History |publisher=National Bureau of Standards |year=1976 |pages=15-18}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ယူနေတ် သေန်တဳမဳတာ
|-
! လၟိဟ် သေန်တဳမဳတာ (cm)
! ယူနေတ် မက်ထရစ် တၞဟ်
! ယူနေတ် အေန်ပဳရဳယျေဝ် (Imperial)
|-
| $1 \text{ cm}$
| $10 \text{ mm}$
| $\approx 0.3937 \text{ in}$ (ၝောအ်တဲ)
|-
| $100 \text{ cm}$
| $1 \text{ m}$
| $\approx 39.37 \text{ in}$ / $3.281 \text{ ft}$
|-
| $2.54 \text{ cm}$
| $25.4 \text{ mm}$
| $1 \text{ in}$ (ၝောအ်တဲ ကွက်တိ)
|-
| $30.48 \text{ cm}$
| $0.3048 \text{ m}$
| $1 \text{ ft}$ (ပေ)
|-
| $91.44 \text{ cm}$
| $0.9144 \text{ m}$
| $1 \text{ yd}$ (ကိုက်)
|}
== ၅။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ သင်္ချာ ကေုာံ ဂျဳသြမေထြဳ (Usage in Mathematics and Geometry) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သင်္ချာ ကေုာံ ဂျဳသြမေထြဳ (Geometry) မ္ဂး၊ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ယူနေတ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ တွက်ဂၞန် ဇမၞော် ဗွိုက် အရာဝတ္ထု တအ် ရ။
* '''ဇမၞော် ဗလး (Area):''' ၜတ်ကၞာတ် နကဵု သေန်တဳမဳတာ စတုရန်း (Square centimetre - $cm^2$)။ $1 \text{ cm}^2$ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဇမၞော် ဗလး ပန်ကၠင် မနွံ ဇမၠိင် လပါ် ၁ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ရ။
* '''ဇမၞော် ထုထည် (Volume):''' ၜတ်ကၞာတ် နကဵု သေန်တဳမဳတာ ကုဗ (Cubic centimetre - $cm^3$ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး $cc$)။ $1 \text{ cm}^3$ ဂှ် တုပ်သၟဟ် ကဵု ဍာ် ၁ [[မဳလဳလဳတာ]] (Millilitre - $mL$) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ဂရပ် ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် ဗလး (Cartesian coordinate system) မ္ဂး၊ စက္ကူ ဂရပ် ဓမ္မတာ (Graph paper) တအ်ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် လဝ် နကဵု ဇမၞော် ၁ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ကေုာံ ၁ မဳလဳမဳတာ သွက်ဂွံ ဓဇက် လစွံ ကေုာံ တွက် ဂၞန် ရ။
== ၆။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ (Applications in Science and Engineering) ==
သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ယူနေတ် မစကာ ဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန်စမ်ၜတ် (Laboratory) ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ ရူပဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဓာတုဗေဒ:''' သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဇမၠိင် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်၊ ဇမၞော် ကိရိယာ စမ်ၜတ်၊ ကေုာံ တွက်ဂၞန် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory) CGS တအ် ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ ဆီ (Medicine):''' အစာသဝ် တအ် စကာ သေန်တဳမဳတာ သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဇမၞော် အဝဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် (ဥပမာ - ဇမၞော် ကောန်ၚာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂဝ်ဂၞဴ နကဵု အာလ်ထရာဆောင်း) ကေုာံ ဇမၞော် သရ တအ် ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ မိုးလေဝသ (Meteorology):''' ၜိုန်ရ ဍာ်ဗြဲ ဂှ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် နကဵု မဳလဳမဳတာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ လၟိဟ် နှင်း (Snowfall) မဒတုံ စှ်ေ ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် နကဵု သေန်တဳမဳတာ ရ။<ref name="zitzewitz">{{cite book |last=Zitzewitz |first=P. W. |title=Physics: Principles and Problems |publisher=Glencoe/McGraw-Hill |year=2005 |pages=12-15}}</ref>
== ၇။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝလၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ (Everyday Uses) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် မစကာ သၞောတ် မက်ထရစ် (ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ်) မ္ဂး၊ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ယူနေတ် အဓိက သွက် ဘဝ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ရ -
* '''သမၠုင် မၞိဟ်:''' ပ္ဍဲ ရးဥရောပ၊ အာရှ ကေုာံ ဍုင် တၞဟ် တအ် မ္ဂး သမၠုင် မၞိဟ် ဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နကဵု သေန်တဳမဳတာ ရ (ဥပမာ - ၁၇၅ cm)။
* '''ပရေင်တယျာ (Tailoring) ကေုာံ ပၠောမ်:''' သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဇမၞော် သြိုဟ်၊ တင်၊ ကေုာံ ဇမၠိင် ပၠောမ် ဂှ် စကာ ဇုက်ၜတ် သေန်တဳမဳတာ ရ။
* '''ဇမၞော် အရာဝတ္ထု:''' ပရိဘောဂ (Furniture)၊ ဇမၞော် မျက်နှာပြင် တဳဗဳ (လဆောဝ် တွက် နကဵု ၝောအ်တဲ ကီုလေဝ် တွက် နကဵု cm ကီု)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ဍောတ်တ် တအ် ရ။
== ၈။ ကိရိယာ ၜတ်ကၞာတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Measuring Instruments) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် သေန်တဳမဳတာ ချိုတ်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ဂှ်၊ ပိုယ် စကာ ကိရိယာ နာနာ သာ် ရ -
* '''ပေဒဏ် (Ruler):''' ပေဒဏ် ဓမ္မတာ မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ ဘာတန် တအ် ဂှ် နွံ ဇမၠိင် ၁၅ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ၃၀ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ရ။
* '''ဇုက်ၜတ် (Tape Measure):''' ဇုက်ၜတ် တယျာ (Measuring tape) မကၠောန် လဝ် နကဵု ပလာသတစ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တောဝ် ဂှ် နွံ ဇမၠိင် ၜိုတ် ၁၅၀ cm ရ။ ဇုက်ၜတ် သြိုင်ခၞံ တအ် ဂှ် နွံ ဇမၠိင် ဂၠိုင်ကဵု မဳတာ ဆဂး စၟတ် လဝ် ကဆံင် သေန်တဳမဳတာ ရ။
* '''ကလဳပါ (Vernier Caliper):''' သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဇမၞော် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် (ဥပမာ အပ္ဍဲ ဗွိုက် ပလိုင်) ဂှ် စကာ ကလဳပါ မမာန် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် စဵုကဵု ဒသမ သေန်တဳမဳတာ (မဳလဳမဳတာ) ရ။
== ၉။ ယူနေတ် မဆက်စပ် ကု သေန်တဳမဳတာ (Derived Units related to Centimetre) ==
သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ သွက် ဇမၠိင် သၟး ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် သွက် ယူနေတ် မပါ်တိတ် တၞဟ် တအ် လေဝ် ဒှ် ရ။
မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် သေန်တဳမဳတာ ကုဗ ($cm^3$) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် မက်ထရစ်၊ လျိုင် ဍာ် ဇေတ်တ် ဇေတ်တ် ၁ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ကုဗ ($1 \text{ cm}^3$) ပ္ဍဲ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ၄ ဒဳဂရဳ သေန်တဳဂရိတ် ဂှ် တုပ်သၟဟ် ကဵု လျိုင် ၁ ဂရာမ် ($1 \text{ g}$) ကွက်တိ ရ။ အရာဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အဓိက အကြာ ဇမၞော် ထုထည် ကေုာံ လျိုင် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် မက်ထရစ် ရ။<ref name="tipler">{{cite book |last=Tipler |first=P. A. |title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers |edition=4th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1999 |pages=3-6}}</ref>
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် CGS မ္ဂး၊ ယူနေတ် သွက် ဒြဟတ် (Force) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒိုင်း (Dyne - $g \cdot cm/s^2$) တုဲ၊ ယူနေတ် သွက် ဒြဟတ် ကမၠောန် (Energy) ဂှ် ဒှ် အာဂ် (Erg - $g \cdot cm^2/s^2$) ရ။
== ၁၀။ သြဇာ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဂၠးတိ (Global Influence and Metric System) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် လၟုဟ် ဏအ်၊ သၞောတ် မက်ထရစ် မစကာ သေန်တဳမဳတာ ဏအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞောတ် မစကာ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဆဂး ကၟိန်ဍုင် မပ္တံကဵု [[ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန်]] (United States)၊ ဍုင်လာင်ဗဳရဳယျာ (Liberia) တအ် သၟး ရ ဆက် စကာ ဒၟံင် သၞောတ် အေန်ပဳရဳယျေဝ် (Imperial system) မစကာ ၝောအ်တဲ (Inches) ဏီ ရ။
ဍုင်ဗၟာ (Myanmar) လေဝ် ပ္ဍဲ အတိတ် တေအ် စကာ လဝ် သၞောတ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အခိုက်ကၞာ (Traditional measurements) မပ္တံကဵု တိုင်၊ တောင် တအ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ လၟုဟ် မ္ဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သွံရာန် ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲ စကာ ကၠုင် သေန်တဳမဳတာ ကေုာံ မဳတာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ယျ ရ။ ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် ယူနေတ် အလုံဂၠးတိ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂွံ လောဲသွာ ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ပရေင်ယောန်မှာ ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သၞောတ် မက်ထရစ်]] (Metric system)
* [[မဳတာ]] (Metre)
* [[မဳလဳမဳတာ]] (Millimetre)
* [[အက်စ်အာင်]] (International System of Units - SI)
{{Navbox
| name = Units of Length
| title = ယူနေတ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဇမၠိင် (Units of Length)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သၞောတ် မက်ထရစ် (Metric)
| list1 =
* [[မဳလဳမဳတာ]] (Millimetre - mm)
* [[သေန်တဳမဳတာ]] (Centimetre - cm)
* [[မဳတာ]] (Metre - m)
* [[ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ]] (Kilometre - km)
| group2 = သၞောတ် အေန်ပဳရဳယျေဝ် (Imperial)
| list2 =
* [[ၝောအ်တဲ]] (Inch)
* [[ပေ]] (Foot)
* [[ကိုက်]] (Yard)
* [[တိုင်]] (Mile)
| group3 = ယူနေတ် အခိုက်ကၞာ (Traditional)
| list3 =
* [[တောင်]] (Cubit)
* [[ထာ]] (Span)
* [[လဂံါ]] (Pace)
}}
[[Category:သၞောတ် မက်ထရစ်]]
[[Category:ယူနေတ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ်]]
[[Category:သင်္ချာ]]
[[Category:ရူပဗေဒ]]
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'''မိဟ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Span'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် နကဵု လညာတ် အလုံစုင် မ္ဂး ဒှ် ဇမ္ၚောဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဗၞတ်ၜတ် အကြာ တိုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အရာ ၜါ မနွံ လပါ် ကၞောတ် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် တအ်၊ ယၟု "မိဟ်" ဝွံ ဒှ် ဗၞတ်ၜတ် တြေံ မွဲ မစကာ တဲ (Handspan) သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဇမၠိင် ကပေါတ် တအ် ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ်ဝွံ စကာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[ပညာ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ]] (Engineering)၊ [[ဗိသုကာ]] (Architecture)၊ သွက်ဂွံ ဟီုတွံ ပရူ ဇမ္ၚောဲ အကြာ တိုင် ဒဒန် (Bridge span) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လဒက်ပတန် သ္ၚိ ဌာန် တအ် ရ။<ref name="ching">{{cite book |last=Ching |first=F. D. K. |title=Building Construction Illustrated |url=https://archive.org/details/buildingconstruc0000chin |edition=5th |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2014 |pages=2-15}}</ref>
ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် မိဟ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ ဂၠိင်ဂၠိင် ဝွံ ဒှ် တိုင်ပ္ကဴ အဓိက သွက် တၠပညာ ဗိသုကာ ကေုာံ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ မိဟ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဗၞတ်ၜတ် ဓမ္မတာ၊ လညာတ် အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ရူပဗေဒ၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ဍေဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ကဏ္ဍ နာနာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Akashi-Kaikyo_Bridge.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဒဒန် အကာရှဳ ကိုက်ကျဝ် (Akashi Kaikyo Bridge) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဂျပေန် မနွံကဵု မိဟ် လဒေါဝ် (Central span) ဇမၠိင် ၁,၉၉၁ မဳတာ၊ မဒှ် မိဟ် ဒဒန် မဂၠိင်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "မိဟ်" (Span) ဝွံ နွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် ၜါ သာ် အဓိက အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
# '''ဗၞတ်ၜတ် ဇမၠိင် (Unit of Length):''' ဇမ္ၚောဲ အကြာ တၞုင် ၝောအ်တဲ ကဵု တၞုင် ဍောင်တဲဍောတ် ကာလ ပိုယ် တံင် ပၠး လဝ် တဲ ဇကု အလုံစုင်။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိုက်အလိုက် မန် ကေုာံ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နဒဒှ် ဗၞတ်ၜတ် သဇိုင် မွဲ ရ။
# '''ဇမ္ၚောဲ လဒက်ပတန် (Structural Span):''' ပ္ဍဲ ပညာ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဇမ္ၚောဲ အကြာ တိုင် ထံက် (Supports) ၜါ။ ဥပမာ - ဇမ္ၚောဲ အကြာ တိုင် ဒဒန် ၜါ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇမ္ၚောဲ လဒေါဝ် အကြာ ဌာန် သ္ၚိ မဟွံမဲ ကဵု တိုင် လဒေါဝ် ရ။
ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ မိဟ် ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ (Construction) တုဲ ဍေဟ် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ သတ္တိ ကပေါတ် (Materials properties) ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် မဇီုကပိုက် လတူ လဒက်ပတန် ဂှ် ရ။
== ၂။ မိဟ် နဒဒှ် ဗၞတ်ၜတ် တြေံ (Span as a Traditional Unit of Measurement) ==
ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ် ဗၞတ်ၜတ် ခေတ်တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု သၞောတ် မေတြစ် (Metric system) ဂှ်၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် စကာ လဝ် အဝဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဇမၠိင် ရ။
"မိဟ်" ဝွံ ဒှ် ဗၞတ်ၜတ် မစကာ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် မွဲ ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ဗၞတ်ၜတ် အင်္ဂလိက် တြေံ မ္ဂး၊ မွဲ မိဟ် (One span) ဂှ် တုပ် ကဵု ၉ ၝောအ်တဲ (Inches) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ၀.၂၂၈၆ မဳတာ (Meters) ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဗၞတ်ၜတ် တၞဟ် တအ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ရ -
* မွဲ ဟတ် (Cubit) = ၜါ မိဟ် (၁၈ ၝောအ်တဲ)
* မွဲ လ္ၚာပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မွဲ တဲ (Hand) = ပန် ၝောအ်တဲ (မွဲ မိဟ် နွံ ၜိုတ် ၜါ တဲ ကဝက်)
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိုက်အလိုက် မန် လေဝ် ညးတအ် စကာ "မိဟ်" သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဇမၠိင် ယာတ်၊ လိက်သၠရိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် ဍောတ်တ် တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။<ref name="zupko">{{cite book |last=Zupko |first=R. E. |title=Revolution in Measurement: Western European Weights and Measures Since the Age of Science |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_uYCNFkRgXCoC |publisher=American Philosophical Society |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_uYCNFkRgXCoC/page/20 20]-25}}</ref>
== ၃။ မိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ပညာ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ကေုာံ ဗိသုကာ (Span in Engineering and Architecture) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ခေတ်တၟိ၊ ဇမ္ၚောဲ မိဟ် ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မသ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ကဵု အစောံသတ္တိ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စကာ သြန် သွက် လဒက်ပတန် မွဲ ရ။ တၠပညာ ဗိသုကာ တအ် ဂစာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ညံင် မိဟ် ဂွံ ဂၠိင်အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ဒၞာဲ သၠး (Open space) အပ္ဍဲ သ္ၚိ ဌာန် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု တိုင် ရ။
ဗီုပြင် လဒက်ပတန် သွက် မိဟ် ဂမၠိုင် ပါ်လဝ် -
* '''ခသဳ တိုင် (Beam and Lintel):''' ဒှ် နဲကဲ သဇိုင် အိုတ် မစွံ ခသဳ (Beam) လတူ တိုင် ၜါ။ မိဟ် ဍေဟ် ဂၠိင် ဟွံမာန် ဟိုတ်နူ ခသဳ ဂှ် မာန် ကဝိုင် စှ်ေ (Bending)။
* '''တြင် တင်ကောန် (Arch):''' စကာ လဝ် နူ ခေတ် ရဝ်မ (Roman)၊ မကဵု အခေါင် သွက် မိဟ် ဇၞော်တိုန် ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒြဟတ် လျိုင် ညံင်ဂွံ ဖအုံ ဖျေဟ် လပါ် သၟဝ် (Compression) ရ။
* '''လဒက်ပတန် တြာတ် (Truss):''' လဒက်ပတန် မချပ်လဝ် နကဵု ဗီုပြင် ကၠင်ပိ (Triangles) သွက်ဂွံ ဒုင် လျိုင် ပ္ဍဲ မိဟ် ဇမၠိင် မပ္တံကဵု ခမဳ သ္ၚိ ကေုာံ ဒဒန် ပသဲ ရ။
== ၄။ ဂကူ မိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ လဒက်ပတန် ဒဒန် (Types of Spans in Bridge Construction) ==
ဒဒန် တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဥပမာ ခိုဟ်အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ပရူ မိဟ် ရ။ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် ပါ်လဝ် ဂကူ မိဟ် ဒဒန် ၃ သာ် အဓိက ရ - <ref name="chen">{{cite book |last=Chen |first=W. F. |author2=Duan, L. |title=Bridge Engineering Handbook |edition=2nd |publisher=CRC Press |year=2014 |pages=35-42}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ မိဟ် ဒဒန် အဓိက ဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ မိဟ် ဒဒန်
! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! ဥပမာ သဘာဝ လဒက်ပတန်
|-
| '''မိဟ် ဓမ္မတာ (Simple Span)'''
| ခသဳ ဒဒန် မွဲ မဒုင်လဝ် နကဵု တိုင် ၜါ သၟး၊ တုဲ ဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု ခသဳ တၞဟ်။
| ဒဒန် ဆု ဓမ္မတာ၊ ဒဒန် ဍောတ်တ်။ (မိဟ် ဂၠေအ်)
|-
| '''မိဟ် ဆက် (Continuous Span)'''
| ခသဳ မွဲ မဆက်အာ လတူ တိုင် ထံက် ပိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠိုင်နူ ဂှ်။ ဍေဟ် ဒုင် လျိုင် ခိုဟ် နူ မိဟ် ဓမ္မတာ။
| ဒဒန် ကောန်ကရိတ် (Concrete highway bridges) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။
|-
| '''မိဟ် ကေန်တဳလဳဗာ (Cantilever Span)'''
| မိဟ် မတိတ်အာ နူကဵု တိုင် မွဲ လပါ် သၟး ညံင်ရဴ တဲ မပၠး ပတိတ် လဝ် ကီု။ အကြာ ဍေဟ် ၜါ သၠဲ ပၠောပ် ခသဳ လဒေါဝ်။
| ဒဒန် [[ဖိုတ်]] (Forth Bridge) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သကတ်တလာန်။
|}
ပါဲနူ ဂှ်တုဲ၊ ဒဒန် သီု (Suspension bridge) ကေုာံ ဒဒန် တၞုင် ဇုက် (Cable-stayed bridge) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လဒက်ပတန် မမာန် ကၠောန် မိဟ် ဇမၠိင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၅။ တင်ဂၞင် ရူပဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် မဇီုကပိုက် (Physics and Forces Affecting Span) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် မိဟ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် လတူ [[ရူပဗေဒ]] (Physics) ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် မဇီုကပိုက် ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ ဒြဟတ် အဓိက ၃ သာ် မဇီုကပိုက် လတူ မိဟ် ဂှ် -
* '''ဒြဟတ် ဖအုံ (Compression):''' ဒြဟတ် မဍဵု ဖျေဟ် လဒက်ပတန် သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု ဍေဟ် ဂၠေအ် စှ်ေ။ (ဥပမာ - လပါ် လတူ ညး ခသဳ မိဟ်)။
* '''ဒြဟတ် တံင် (Tension):''' ဒြဟတ် မတံင် ပၠး လဒက်ပတန် သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု ဍေဟ် ဂၠိင် တိတ်။ (ဥပမာ - လပါ် သၟဝ် ညး ခသဳ မိဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇုက် ပသဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဒဒန် သီု)။
* '''ဒြဟတ် ရေက် (Shear):''' ဒြဟတ် မပကဵု ညံင် ကရေက် လဒက်ပတန် ၜါ ဂွံ သြောတ် တိတ် အာ ရေင်သကအ်။ (ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ မဆက် ကု တိုင် ထံက်)။
ကာလ မိဟ် မွဲ ဂၠိင် အာ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ဒးဒုင် ဒြဟတ် လျိုင် ဍေဟ် ကေုာံ လျိုင် ကပေါတ် (Dead load and Live load) တုဲ ကတဵုဒှ် ပရေင်ကဝိုင် စှ်ေ (Deflection) ရ။ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် ဒးတွက်ဂၞန် ညံင် ပရေင်ကဝိုင် ဏအ် ဂွံ နွံ အပ္ဍဲ ဗၞတ် အပိုင်အခြာ မဂီုကၠီု ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ကၠောန် ဗဒှ် မိဟ် ဇမၠိင်အိုတ် (Record-Breaking Spans and Achievements) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ပြိုင်ပကာန် ဒၟံင် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ဗဒှ် မိဟ် မဂၠိင် အိုတ် လၟိုန် အခိင် ရ။
* ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၈ ဂှ်၊ ဒဒန် [[အကာရှဳ ကိုက်ကျဝ်]] (Akashi Kaikyo Bridge) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဂျပေန် ကလိဂွံ စံချိန် ဒဒန် သီု မနွံကဵု မိဟ် လဒေါဝ် ဂၠိင်အိုတ် (၁,၉၉၁ မဳတာ) ရ။
* လၟုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၂ ဂှ်၊ ဒဒန် [[၁၉၁၅ ချာနက်ကာလေ]] (1915 Çanakkale Bridge) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်တူရကဳ ဝွံ သၠုင် ကေတ် လဝ် စံချိန် ဏအ် နကဵု မိဟ် လဒေါဝ် မနွံ ဇမၠိင် ၂,၀၂၃ မဳတာ (၆,၆၃၇ ပေ) ရ။<ref name="canakkale">{{cite journal |last=Sezen |first=H. |title=Design and Construction of the 1915 Çanakkale Bridge |journal=Structural Engineering International |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=200-210 |year=2022}}</ref>
ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး တအ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကပေါတ် ပသဲ ကေုာံ နဲကဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ကောန်ပျူတာ (Computer analysis) တအ် ရ။
== ၇။ မိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု က္ၜင်ကျာ ကေုာံ ဇဳဝဗေဒ (Wingspan in Aviation and Biology) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "မိဟ်" ဝွံ စကာ သီု ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇမ္ၚောဲ သၞေင် (Wingspan) လတူ က္ၜင်ကျာ ကေုာံ သတ်တၞံ တအ် ကီု ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ က္ၜင်ကျာ (Aviation):''' ဇမၠိင် မိဟ် သၞေင် က္ၜင်ကျာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဇမ္ၚောဲ နူ တၞုင် သၞေင် မွဲ လပါ် စိုပ် မွဲ လပါ် ရ။ က္ၜင်ကျာ မနွံကဵု မိဟ် သၞေင် ဇမၠိင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဂှ် ဒှ် က္ၜင်ကျာ [[သတြာတဝ်လာန်]] (Stratolaunch) မနွံကဵု မိဟ် သၞေင် ဇမၠိင် ၁၁၇ မဳတာ (၃၈၅ ပေ) ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ ဇဳဝဗေဒ (Biology):''' သွက် ဂစေမ် တအ် မ္ဂး မိဟ် သၞေင် ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ ပဝ် အာ ဇမ္ၚောဲ ရ။ ဂစေမ် [[အာလ်ဗာတြောသ်]] (Wandering Albatross) ဝွံ နွံကဵု မိဟ် သၞေင် ဇမၠိင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ဂစေမ် ဂျိုင် ဒၟံင် လၟုဟ် တုဲ ဍေဟ် နွံ ဇမၠိင် စဵုကဵု ၃.၇ မဳတာ (၁၂ ပေ) ရ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် မိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ သင်္ချာ (Linear Span in Mathematics) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် သင်္ချာ၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[သ္ၚိအင် အာလ်ဂျဳဗရာ]] (Linear algebra) ဂှ်၊ ယၟု "မိဟ်" (Span) ဝွံ စကာ လဝ် သွက် လညာတ် Linear span ရ။
Linear span ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ဗက်တာ (Vectors) ဂမၠိုင် နကဵု လၟိဟ် တန်တဴ တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ဗလး သပေ့ (Vector space) အလုံစုင် ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ပိုယ် နွံကဵု ဗက်တာ ၜါ သာ် မဟွံ တုပ် ဂၠံင် ရေင်သကအ် မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ၜါ ဂှ် မာန် "Span" (ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် မိဟ်) အလုံ မျက်နှာပြင် ဗလး (2D plane) မွဲ ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်တွက်ဂၞန် ဉာဏ်စက် (Artificial Intelligence) ကေုာံ တွက်ဂၞန် ဒေတာ (Data analysis) ရ။<ref name="strang">{{cite book |last=Strang |first=G. |title=Introduction to Linear Algebra |edition=5th |publisher=Wellesley-Cambridge Press |year=2016 |pages=120-128}}</ref>
== ၉။ လွပ် ခေတ်တၟိ ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် စကာ (Modern Materials and Applications) ==
ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် မိဟ် ဇမၠိင် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တၟိ ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ သတ္တိ ကပေါတ် သြိုင်ခၞံ (Construction materials) ရ။
* '''ပသဲ ကေုာံ သတီးလ် (Steel):''' ဒှ် ကပေါတ် အဓိက မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ မိဟ် ဒဒန် ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု အစောံသတ္တိ ဒုင် ဒြဟတ် တံင် (Tensile strength) သၠုင် ဗွဲမလောန်။
* '''ကောန်ကရိတ် ဒုင်လဝ် ဒြဟတ် (Pre-stressed Concrete):''' နကဵု ပရေင်တံင် လဝ် ဇုက် ပသဲ အပ္ဍဲ ကောန်ကရိတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ဖျေဟ် ဍေဟ် ဂှ်၊ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် မိဟ် ကောန်ကရိတ် မဇမၠိင် နူကဵု ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ရ။
* '''ကာဗောန် ဖါင်ဗာ (Carbon Fiber):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု က္ၜင်ကျာ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် အကာသ၊ ညးတအ် စကာ ကပေါတ် မသာ တုဲ မခိုင် ဏအ် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် မိဟ် သၞေင် ဇမၠိင် ကေုာံ သာ ရ။
== ၁၀။ လကျာ် ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် (Conclusion and Impact) ==
လညာတ် ပရူ "မိဟ်" ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် နူကဵု တဲ မၞိဟ် ဓမ္မတာ တုဲ စိုပ် အာ စဵုကဵု မိဟ် ဒဒန် မနွံ ဇမၠိင် ၜါ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ ကေုာံ လညာတ် သ္ၚိအင် ပ္ဍဲ သင်္ချာ ရ။
ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် မိဟ် ဇမၠိင် တအ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ညံင် ဂၠံင်တရဴ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂွံ လောဲသွာ တိုန်၊ ကေုာံ ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ အနာဂတ် သွက် မိဟ် ဝွံ ဆက် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ ပရေင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု ကပေါတ် တၟိ ကေုာံ ကွတ်ပညာ တၟိ သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဂွံ တတ် အာ ဇမ္ၚောဲ မဇၞော် နူ ဏအ် ဏီ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ပညာ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ]] (Engineering)
* [[ဗိသုကာ]] (Architecture)
* [[ဒဒန်]] (Bridge)
* [[သ္ၚိအင် အာလ်ဂျဳဗရာ]] (Linear algebra)
{{Navbox
| name = Span and Structures
| title = မိဟ် ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် သဇိုင် (Span and Basic Structures)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လညာတ် အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[မိဟ်]] (Span)
* [[ဗၞတ်ၜတ်]] (Measurement)
* [[ဒြဟတ် မဇီုကပိုက်]] (Structural load)
| group2 = လဒက်ပတန် အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ
| list2 =
* [[ဒဒန်]] (Bridge)
* [[ခသဳ]] (Beam)
* [[တြင် တင်ကောန်]] (Arch)
* [[လဒက်ပတန် တြာတ်]] (Truss)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဗိသုကာ]] (Architecture)
* [[ရူပဗေဒ]] (Physics)
* [[သ္ၚိအင် အာလ်ဂျဳဗရာ]] (Linear algebra)
* [[ကပေါတ် သြိုင်ခၞံ]] (Building material)
}}
[[Category:ဗိသုကာ]]
[[Category:ပညာ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ]]
[[Category:ဗၞတ်ၜတ်]]
[[Category:ရူပဗေဒ]]
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'''ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ပထမအိုတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''First quadrotor'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''First quadcopter'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် [[ဟယ်လဳကပ်တာ]] (Helicopter) ခေတ်စမ်ၜတ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လပါ်စ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ မနွံကဵု ရဝ်တာ (Rotor - ပန်ကာ ဇၞော်) ပန် တၞုင် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိုန် လျိုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လတူ ကျာ ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ခေတ်တ္ၚဲဏအ် ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး [[ဒရဝ်]] (Drones) တအ် ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀ တအ် ဂှ် ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် အကာသ (Aviation experiment) မဇၞော်အိုတ် မွဲ ရ။
က္ၜင်ကျာ ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ကေုာံ မအံင်ဇၞး အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု ဟယ်လဳကပ်တာ ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ် (de Bothezat helicopter) မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် နကဵု [[ဂကောံဒပ်ကျာ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (United States Army Air Service) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၂ ကေုာံ အဝ်မဳချေန် စၟတ် ၂ (Oehmichen No. 2) မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် ရ။<ref name="vertical">{{cite web |url=https://verticalmag.com/features/the-u-s-armys-first-helicopter/ |title=The U.S. Army's first helicopter |publisher=Vertical Magazine |date=2022 |access-date=2024-03-01}}</ref> လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ကွတ်ပညာ ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:De_Bothezat_helicopter.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး က္ၜင်ကျာ ဟယ်လဳကပ်တာ ဂျောတ် ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် သၞာံ ၁၉၂၂။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ" (Quadrotor) ဝွံ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် က္ၜင်ကျာ မနွံကဵု ဒြဟတ် ရဝ်တာ ၄ တၞုင် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ မ္ဂး၊ ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ပထမအိုတ် တအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် လျိုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်တန်တဴ (Stability) မကတဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဟယ်လဳကပ်တာ မနွံကဵု ရဝ်တာ မွဲ ဓဝ် ရ။
ရဝ်တာ ၄ တၞုင် ဝွံ ဂေတ် လပါ် မဒစးဒုင် ရေင်သကအ် (၂ တၞုင် ဂေတ် လပါ် ပုင်၊ ၂ တၞုင် ဂေတ် လပါ် ပါဲ) သွက်ဂွံ ပလီု ထောအ် ဒြဟတ် တဝ် (Torque effect) မပကဵု ညံင် က္ၜင် ဂွံ ဂေတ် အာ ရ။ လညာတ် သဇိုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လညာတ် မစကာ ဒၟံင် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒရဝ် တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ကိုပ်ကၠာ (History and Background) ==
ပ္ဍဲ လပါ်စ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် က္ၜင်ကျာ မပဝ် တိုန် လတူ တိုက်ရိုက် (Vertical Takeoff and Landing - VTOL) ဂှ် ဒှ် ပြသၞာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက် တၠပညာ အကာသ တအ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ တၠပညာ မပ္တံကဵု ကောန်ကၟာ ရိုက် (Wright Brothers) တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် က္ၜင်ကျာ ဓမ္မတာ အံင်ဇၞး ကီုလေဝ်၊ က္ၜင် မပဝ် တိုန် လတူ သက်သက် ဂှ် ဇြိုင်သန် လောန် ရ။<ref name="leishman">{{cite book |last=Leishman |first=J. G. |title=Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofheli0000leis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/principlesofheli0000leis/page/12 12]-15}}</ref>
သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ ဏအ်၊ တၠပညာ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လညာတ် ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ရဝ်တာ မွဲ ဓဝ် ဂှ် ကဵု ဒြဟတ် တဝ် မပကဵု ညံင် က္ၜင် ဂေတ် လီု အာ ဂှ်ရ၊ ရဝ်တာ ၄ တၞုင် ဝွံ ကဵု ပရေင်တန်တဴ မခိုဟ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ သဳအိုရဳ ရ။
== ၃။ ဂျောတ် ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ် ကေုာံ ကဝဲပဝ် (George de Bothezat and the Flying Octopus) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၁ ဂှ်၊ [[ဂကောံဒပ်ကျာ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] ကဵု လဝ် ကသပ် ကု အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ဂကူ ရုရှာ [[ဂျောတ် ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ်]] (George de Bothezat) သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဟယ်လဳကပ်တာ မွဲ ရ။ က္ၜင်ကျာ ညးတေအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ဂှ် နွံယၟု ကဝဲပဝ် (Flying Octopus) ဟိုတ်နူ ရုပ်သာ် ဍေဟ် မနွံကဵု တဲ ဇၞော် ၄ တၞုင် ရ။<ref name="simpleflying">{{cite web |url=https://simpleflying.com/de-bothezat-flying-octopus-us-army-1st-1920s-helicopter/ |title=de Bothezat Flying Octopus: Meet The US Army's 1st 1920s Helicopter |publisher=Simple Flying |date=2024 |access-date=2024-03-01}}</ref>
က္ၜင်ကျာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဓါတ် ပသဲ တုဲ ရဝ်တာ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ နွံကဵု ၚေက် (Blades) ၆ တၞုင် ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် က္ၜင်ကျာ ပထမအိုတ် သွက် ဒပ်ပၞာန် အမေရိကာန် တုဲ နွံကဵု ဇမၞော် ၆၅ ပေ (၂၀ မဳတာ) ကေုာံ လျိုင် ၃၆၀၀ ပံင် ရ။
== ၄။ အဳတဳယာန် အဝ်မဳချေန် ကေုာံ အဝ်မဳချေန် စၟတ် ၂ (Étienne Oehmichen and Oehmichen No. 2) ==
ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တုပ်ပ် ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ပြင်သေတ်၊ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ [[အဳတဳယာန် အဝ်မဳချေန်]] (Étienne Oehmichen) လေဝ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဒၟံင် ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ညးတေအ် ကီု ရ။ က္ၜင် ညးတေအ် မကော်စ အဝ်မဳချေန် စၟတ် ၂ (Oehmichen No. 2) ဂှ် ဒှ် က္ၜင်ကျာ ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ မအံင်ဇၞး ဗွဲမလောန် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ရ။<ref name="pilotspost">{{cite web |url=https://www.pilotspost.co.za/PsPpyarn1640 |title=The first successful helicopter flight |publisher=Pilot's Post Online Aviation |date=2021 |access-date=2024-03-01}}</ref>
အဝ်မဳချေန် စၟတ် ၂ ဝွံ နွံကဵု ရဝ်တာ ဇၞော် ၄ တၞုင် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိုန် လျိုင်၊ ကေုာံ ရဝ်တာ ဍောတ် ၈ တၞုင် သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ပရေင်ဂေတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်တွာ် တရဴ (Yaw and Forward flight) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၄ ဂှ် ဍေဟ် မာန် ပဝ် လဝ် လတူ ကျာ ပွိုင် ၇ မိနေတ် ကဵု ၄၀ စက္က တုဲ အံင်ဇၞး အာ လာပ် သြန် ၉၀,၀၀၀ ဖရန့် (Francs) ရ။
== ၅။ လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ဒီဇိုင်း သဇိုင် (Basic Design and Construction) ==
လဒက်ပတန် သဇိုင် ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ပထမအိုတ် တအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ ဗီုပြင် X-shape ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လက်ဝါဲကပ်바 (Cross) ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ သ္ၚိအင် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အကြာ ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ပထမအိုတ် ၜါ သာ်
|-
! တင်ဂၞင်
! ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ် (De Bothezat)
! အဝ်မဳချေန် စၟတ် ၂ (Oehmichen No. 2)
|-
| '''သၞာံ မပဝ်'''
| ၁၉၂၂
| ၁၉၂၂ - ၁၉၂၄
|-
| '''လၟိဟ် ရဝ်တာ အဓိက'''
| ၄
| ၄
|-
| '''ဒြဟတ် စက် (Engine)'''
| ၁၈၀ ကဵု ၂၂၀ ဟတ်သပါဝါ (Le Rhône/Bentley)
| ၁၂၀ ဟတ်သပါဝါ (Gnome)
|-
| '''ဇမၞော် (Diameter)'''
| ၆၅ ပေ
| ဟွံချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ဆဂး ဍောတ် နူ ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ်
|-
| '''အစောံသတ္တိ ပဝ် (Max)'''
| ၜိုတ် ၃ မိနေတ်၊ လတူ ကျာ ၁၅ ပေ
| ၇ မိနေတ် ၄၀ စက္က၊ တရဴ ၁ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ
|}
က္ၜင်ကျာ ၜါဏအ် ဝွံ စကာ လဝ် သဇိုင် ပသဲ ကေုာံ ဇုက် ဂဳတာ (Piano wire) သွက်ဂွံ ထိင် လျိုင် ရ။
== ၆။ ဒြဟတ်စက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် (Propulsion and Control Mechanisms) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် က္ၜင်ကျာ တအ် ဂှ် ဇြိုင်သန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ។ ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ် စကာ လဝ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] ဓါတ်ကျာ (Aerodynamics) မပြံင်လှာဲ စှ်ေတိုန် ၚေက် ရဝ်တာ (Collective pitch control) သွက်ဂွံ ထိင် လျိုင် လတူ ရ။ ဆဂး ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဂီယာ (Gearbox) ဍေဟ် ထုဲထံင် လောန် တုဲ၊ မၞိဟ် ဒဳ တအ် ဒးကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဗွဲမဇြိုင်အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ဍေဟ် ရ။<ref name="anderson">{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=J. D. |title=A History of Aerodynamics and Its Impact on Flying Machines |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofaerodyn0000ande |journal=Cambridge Aerospace Series |year=1997 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofaerodyn0000ande/page/288 340]-345}}</ref>
အဝ်မဳချေန် ဝွံ စကာ လဝ် ရဝ်တာ ဍောတ်တ် ဂမၠိုင် မနွံ လပါ် က္ဍဟ် ကေုာံ ဗတ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင် ပရေင်ဂေတ် ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ လောဲသွာ နူကဵု ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ် ညိ ရ။
== ၇။ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ပထမအိုတ် (Initial Flight Tests and Records) ==
ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၁၈ ဒဳဇြေန်ဗါ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၂ ဂှ်၊ က္ၜင် ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ် မာန် ပဝ် တိုန် လတူ ကျာ အလန် ပထမအိုတ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် မာန် ပဝ် လတူ ၆ ပေ (၁.၈ မဳတာ) တုဲ တန်တဴ ပွိုင် ၜိုတ် ၁ မိနေတ် ကဵု ၄၂ စက္က ရ။ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ဍေဟ် မာန် ပဝ် ကေတ် ညးလွပ် (Passengers) ၃ တၠ မတိုန် ဍိုက် လတူ သဇိုင် ပသဲ ရ။
အဝ်မဳချေန် စၟတ် ၂ ဝွံ လေဝ် အံင်ဇၞး ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၄ ဂှ်၊ ဍေဟ် မာန် ပဝ် ကေတ် တရဴ ၁ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ နကဵု ဗီုပြင် လစွံ တြိဂံ (Triangular trajectory) ရ။ အရာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် စံချိန် (Record) ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဂှ် ရ။
== ၈။ အခက်အခုဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လီုလာ် (Challenges and Failures) ==
ၜိုန်ရ က္ၜင်ကျာ ၜါ ဏအ် အံင်ဇၞး ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပဝ် တိုန် လတူ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ အခက်အခုဲ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ -
# '''ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ဇြိုင် (Control Difficulties):''' ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ခေတ် တမၠာ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ကောန်ပျူတာ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင် (Flight controller) တုဲ၊ မၞိဟ် ဒဳ ဂှ် ဒးထိင် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် စက္က ရ။
# '''ဒြဟတ် စက် အောန် (Underpowered):''' စက် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဂှ် ဇြိုင် လောန် တုဲ ဒြဟတ် ဟွံပေင် သွက်ဂွံ ပဝ် သၠုင်သၠုင် ရ။
# '''ထုဲထံင် (Complexity):''' ဂီယာ ကေုာံ စက်ယန္တရား တအ် ထုဲထံင် လောန် တုဲ လီုလာ် လောဲသွာ ရ။
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဟိုတ် တအ် ဏအ်၊ ဒပ်ပၞာန် အမေရိကာန် ကၟာတ် ထောအ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၄ တုဲ၊ က္ၜင်ကျာ ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ဖျေဟ် လဝ် ရ။
== ၉။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ကွတ်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ (Impact on Modern Quadcopter Technology) ==
လညာတ် ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ဝွံ ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ ပွိုင် လ္ၚတ် ၈၀ သၞာံ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ခေတ် ကောန်ပျူတာ ကေုာံ သေန်သာ (Sensors) ဍောတ်တ် မပ္တံကဵု [[ဇိုင်ရဝ်သကုပ်]] (Gyroscope) တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။<ref name="researchgate">{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Oehmichen-No-2-Quadrotor_fig2_336642243 |title=Oehmichen No 2 Quadrotor |publisher=ResearchGate |date=2024}}</ref>
တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဒရဝ် (Drones) မပ္တံကဵု DJI တအ်ဂှ် စကာ ဒၟံင် သဳအိုရဳ လဒက်ပတန် ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ နူကဵု ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ် ကေုာံ အဝ်မဳချေန် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ကောန်ပျူတာ ဍောတ်တ် (Flight controllers) တအ် ထိင်ဒဝ် ဒြဟတ် ပန်ကာ ၄ တၞုင် ပ္ဍဲ မွဲ စက္က လ္ၚီ အလန် တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် ဒရဝ် တအ် ဂွံ ပဝ် တန်တဴ လောဲလောဲ သွာသွာ ရ။
== ၁၀။ သာမုင် ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ ဝင် (Conclusion and Historical Legacy) ==
ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ပထမအိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ် ကေုာံ အဝ်မဳချေန် စၟတ် ၂ တအ်ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ ဟွံစိုပ် တိုင်ပ္ကဴ လအိတ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ် အရာ မပံက် လဝ် တြင် သွက် ကွတ်ပညာ အကာသ (Aviation technology) မနွံကဵု ရဝ်တာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
အာဲကၟာဲ ညးတအ် ဂှ် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး ဝင် (Museums) ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ကေုာံ လမျီု ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ဂှ် ဆက် ဂျိုင် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒရဝ် ခေတ်တၟိ မပြးဇး ဒၟံင် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဒရဝ်]] (Drone)
* [[ဟယ်လဳကပ်တာ]] (Helicopter)
* [[ဂကောံဒပ်ကျာ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (United States Army Air Service)
* [[ဂျောတ် ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ်]] (George de Bothezat)
{{Navbox
| name = Aviation History
| title = ဝင် ပရေင်က္ၜင်ကျာ ကေုာံ ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ (Aviation History and Quadrotors)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = က္ၜင်ကျာ သမိုင်း
| list1 =
* [[ကွာတ်ရဝ်တာ ပထမအိုတ်]] (First quadrotor)
* [[ဂျောတ် ဒဳ ဗဝ်သဳဇာတ်]] (George de Bothezat)
* [[အဳတဳယာန် အဝ်မဳချေန်]] (Étienne Oehmichen)
| group2 = ကွတ်ပညာ
| list2 =
* [[ဟယ်လဳကပ်တာ]] (Helicopter)
* [[ဒရဝ်]] (Drone)
* [[ဇိုင်ရဝ်သကုပ်]] (Gyroscope)
| group3 = ဂကောံ မဆက်စပ်
| list3 =
* [[ဂကောံဒပ်ကျာ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (United States Army Air Service)
}}
[[Category:ဝင် ပရေင်က္ၜင်ကျာ]]
[[Category:ဟယ်လဳကပ်တာ]]
[[Category:စက်ယန္တရာ]]
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ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင်
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Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260809)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]
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'''ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''အေန်တာဖေသ် အက်ဒမေန်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Interface administrator'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရောဂျေတ် ဝဳကဳမဳဒဳယာ (Wikimedia projects) တအ်မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် ဂကောံ ညးလွပ် မကလိဂွံ လဝ် အခေါင် သွက်ဂွံ ပလေဝ် ပြင်ဆင် မုက်လိက် CSS, JavaScript, ကေုာံ JSON မဆေင်ကဵု သၞောတ် အလုံမွဲ ဝပ်သာက် ရ။ ဂကောံ ညးလွပ် ဏအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု တာလျိုင် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် လဒက်ပတန် ဗီုပြင် မျက်နှာစာ (User interface) ကေုာံ ကိရိယာ သဇိုင် (Gadgets) တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် အတိုင် ပကတိ ရ။ <ref name="mw_interface">{{cite web |url=https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Manual:Interface_administrators |title=Manual:Interface administrators |publisher=MediaWiki |date=2018 |access-date=2023-10-10}}</ref>
ကိုပ်ကၠာ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၈ တေအ်၊ အခေါင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခေါင် ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဓမ္မတာ (Administrators) တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ဆဂး ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ကေုာံ အန္တရာယ် မဆေင်ကဵု လိက်ကုတ် (Code) တအ်တုဲ၊ ဂကောံ ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ပါ် တိတ် နဒဒှ် ဂကောံ တၞဟ်ခြာ မွဲ ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ တာလျိုင်၊ ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Wikimedia_Foundation_logo_-_vertical.svg|thumb|right|300px|သင်္ကေတ ဌာန်သ္ဇိုင် ဝဳကဳမဳဒဳယာ (Wikimedia Foundation) မဒှ် ဌာန် မခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် အခေါင် ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင်" ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ညးလွပ် မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ လိက်ကုတ် အပ္ဍဲ မုက်လိက် MediaWiki နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု `MediaWiki:Common.js`, `MediaWiki:Vector.css`, ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မုက်လိက် လိက်ကုတ် ညးလွပ် တၞဟ် တအ် ရ။
နကဵု သၞောတ် ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် နွံကဵု အခေါင် အဓိက သာ်ဏအ် ရ -
* ပလေဝ် ပြင်ဆင် မုက်လိက် CSS ကေုာံ JS အလုံ ဝပ်သာက်။
* ပလေဝ် ပြင်ဆင် မုက်လိက် CSS/JS ညးလွပ် တၞဟ် တအ်။
* ပလေဝ် ပြင်ဆင် မုက်လိက် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲယၟု (Namespace) MediaWiki ရ။
အခေါင်အရာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အခေါင် မနွံကဵု သြဇာ ဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ဟိုတ်နူ လိက်ကုတ် မပလေဝ် လဝ် ဏအ် ဂှ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောန်ပျူတာ ညးလွပ် သီုဖအိုတ် မလုပ် ဗှ် မုက်လိက် ဏအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် (History and Origin) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ်၊ ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် (Sysops) တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ မုက်လိက် MediaWiki ကေုာံ လိက်ကုတ် JS/CSS တအ် ရ။ ဆဂး လိက်ကုတ် JavaScript ဝွံ နွံကဵု အစောံသတ္တိ မာန် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မပလီုပလာ် (Malicious actions) ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ် ယုတ်မာ တအ် စကာ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၈ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ဇီုကပိုက် လပါ် ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု မွဲ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။ ညးဟက်ကာ (Hackers) တအ် လုပ် ပလီု အကံက် ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် လ္ၚဵု တုဲ စုတ် လိက်ကုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠတ် ဒေတာ ညးလွပ် တအ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူဏအ် ဌာန်သ္ဇိုင် ဝဳကဳမဳဒဳယာ သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပါ် ပတိတ် အခေါင် "Interface administrators" တုဲ၊ ညးမကလိဂွံ အခေါင် ဏအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးစကာ သၞောတ် ဂီုကၠီု ၜါ ကဆံင် (Two-factor authentication - 2FA) ချိုတ်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ရ။<ref name="wmf_rfc">{{cite web |url=https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Creation_of_separate_user_group_for_editing_sitewide_CSS/JS |title=Creation of separate user group for editing sitewide CSS/JS |publisher=Wikimedia Meta-Wiki |date=2018 |access-date=2023-10-10}}</ref>
== ၃။ အခေါင်အရာ ကေုာံ တာလျိုင် (Rights and Responsibilities) ==
တာလျိုင် အဓိက သွက် ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ညံင် ဗီုပြင် ဝပ်သာက် ဂွံ ခိုဟ် ကေုာံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဍာံပြ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး တာလျိုင် ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင်
|-
! ကမၠောန်
! တင်သောင်ကလး
|-
| '''ပလေဝ် လိက်ကုတ် CSS'''
| ဖန်ဗဒှ် အသာ်၊ ဗီုပြင် မလိက်၊ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် မုက်လိက် သွက်ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု စက် နာနာ။
|-
| '''ပလေဝ် လိက်ကုတ် JS'''
| ခၞံဗဒှ် ကိရိယာ လိက်ကုတ် (Scripts) သွက်ဂွံ ရီုဗင် ကမၠောန် ညးလွပ် တအ် လောဲသွာ။
|-
| '''ပလေဝ် Gadgets'''
| ထိင်ဒဝ် ကိရိယာ တၟေင် မပ္တံကဵု Twinkle, HotCat မညးလွပ် တအ် စကာ ဂၠိုင်။
|-
| '''ပလေဝ် မုက်လိက် ညးတၞဟ်'''
| ရီုဗင် ပလေဝ်ကဵု လိက်ကုတ် ယောန်မှာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု မုက်လိက် ညးလွပ် တၞဟ် တအ် ယဝ်ရ ညးတအ် အာတ်မိက်။
|}
ညးတအ် ဒးနွံကဵု ပညာ သဇိုင် လပါ် Web Development ကေုာံ ဒးကၠိုဟ် လိက်ကုတ် CSS ကဵု JavaScript ဗွဲမကၠးကြေဟ် ရ။
== ၄။ ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် နည်းပညာ (Security and Technical Structure) ==
ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ ကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် ဂကောံ ဏအ် ရ။ ဂျာဗာသကြေပ် (JavaScript) မလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု မုက်လိက် အလုံ ဝပ်သာက် မွဲ (ဥပမာ MediaWiki:Common.js) ဂှ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ Browser ညးလွပ် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် တၠ ရ။
ယဝ်ရ လိက်ကုတ် မပလီုပလာ် (Malicious code) ပါလုပ် အာ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် မာန် -
* ကၠတ် ကေတ် ခေါက်ကဳ (Cookies) ကေုာံ အကံက် ညးလွပ် (Account hijacking)။
* ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ညံင်ရဴ ညးလွပ် ဂှ် ကၠောန် ကီု (XSS attacks)။
* ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် လိက် ပ္ဍဲ မုက်လိက် ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် ပရိုင်ပလီု။
ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် တအ် ဒးစွံ သတိ ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ပလေဝ် လိက်ကုတ် တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် ဒးစကာ 2FA သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ညံင် ညးဟက်ကာ တအ် ဟွံဂွံ လုပ် အကံက် ညးတအ် မာန် ရ။<ref name="owasp_xss">{{cite book |last=Stuttard |first=D. |author2=Pinto, M. |title=The Web Application Hacker's Handbook |url=https://archive.org/details/webapplicationha0000dafy |edition=2nd |publisher=Wiley |year=2011 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/webapplicationha0000dafy/page/450 450]-460}}</ref>
== ၅။ သၞောတ်ဝ် မကဵု အခေါင် (Permission Granting Process) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ အခေါင် ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် ဂှ်၊ ညးလွပ် တအ် ဒးဒုင် ရုဲစှ် နကဵု လညာတ် တုပ်စိုတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Community consensus) ရ။
လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဂှ် နွံ အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် -
၁။ ညးလွပ် ဂှ် အာတ်မိက် ပ္ဍဲ မုက်လိက် အာတ်မိက် အခေါင်။
၂။ ညးလွပ် ဂှ် ဒးထ္ၜး သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ ညးတေအ် နွံကဵု ပညာ လပါ် လိက်ကုတ် CSS/JS ကေုာံ ဒးတီ သၞောတ် ဂီုကၠီု။
၃။ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဝဳကဳ တအ် ကဵု မာဲ (Vote) လတူ အာတ်မိက် ဂှ်။
၄။ ယဝ်ရ ကလိဂွံ မာဲ ထံက်ဂလာန် ဍိုက်ပေင် မ္ဂး၊ [[ဗျူရဝ်ကရေတ်]] (Bureaucrat) တအ် ကဵု အခေါင် ဏအ် ရ။ (ညးလွပ် ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဖွင့် လဝ် 2FA ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟေင်)။
== ၆။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရောဂျေတ် ဝဳကဳမဳဒဳယာ (Usage in Wikimedia Projects) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရောဂျေတ် မပ္တံကဵု ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ (Wikipedia)၊ ဝဳကဳပြကိုဟ် (Wiktionary)၊ ကေုာံ ဝဳကဳတမ်ရိုဟ် (Wikisource) တအ်ဂှ် လွပ် ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် တအ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ဒၟံင် ညိည ရ။
* '''ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ:''' စကာ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် Gadgets သွက်ဂွံ ဒစးဒုင် ပလီုပလာ် (Anti-vandalism tools) ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် မုက်လိက် အဓိက။
* '''ဝဳကဳတမ်ရိုဟ် (Wikisource):''' နွံပၟိက် CSS တၟေင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လိက် မတုပ် ကဵု လိက် ကၞပ် တြေံ ဇေတ်တ် ရ။
* '''ဝဳကဳဒေတာ (Wikidata):''' စကာ လိက်ကုတ် JS သွက်ဂွံ ရီုဗင် လတူ ပရေင်စုတ် တင်ဂၞင် ဒေတာ ဗွဲမပြဟ် ရ။
== ၇။ တၞဟ်ခြာ ကု ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဓမ္မတာ (Differences from standard Administrators) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ယၟု တုပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် (Administrator) ကီုလေဝ်၊ အခေါင် ကမၠောန် တအ်ဂှ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ဒၟံင် ရ။
* '''ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် (Sysop):''' မာန် ကၟာတ် အကံက် ညးလွပ် မပလီုပလာ် (Block)၊ မာန် ဇိုတ် ပလီု မုက်လိက် (Delete)၊ မာန် စဵုဒၞာ မုက်လိက် (Protect)။ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မင်မဲ သၞောဝ် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ရ။
* '''ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် (Interface-admin):''' ဟွံမာန် ကၟာတ် အကံက်၊ ဟွံမာန် ဇိုတ် မုက်လိက် ဓမ္မတာ။ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မင်မဲ လဒက်ပတန် နည်းပညာ ကေုာံ ဗီုပြင် ရုပ်သာ် သၟး ရ။
ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ မၞိဟ် မကလိဂွံ အခေါင် အေန်တာဖေသ် ဏအ် လေဝ် နွံကဵု အခေါင် ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဓမ္မတာ ကီု ရ၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် ဟွံဒှ် ဒးနွံ သီု ၜါ လၟိုန် ပုဟ်။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ကေုာံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Monitoring and Auditing) ==
လဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရောဂျေတ် ဏအ် ရ။ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု မုက်လိက် JS ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး CSS တအ်ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ရာဇဝင် (History) တုဲ ညးလွပ် သီုဖအိုတ် မာန် ဗှ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ရံင် မာန် ရ။
ယဝ်ရ ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် မွဲ ကၠောန် ယောန်မှာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စုတ် လိက်ကုတ် ဟွံခိုဟ် မ္ဂး၊ ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် တၞဟ် တအ် မာန် ကလေင် ပလေဝ် (Revert) ဍေဟ် သမၠေဝ် ဓဝ် ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ဂကောံ ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ (Global interface editors) ကေုာံ ရုင် ဌာန်သ္ဇိုင် လေဝ် မင်ရံင် ဒၟံင် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ တအ် ဏအ် ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ နွံကဵု ပြသၞာ ဂီုကၠီု ရ။
== ၉။ လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် (Management Theory Perspective) ==
လဒက်ပတန် အခေါင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory) ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ကောန်ပျူတာ အဓိက မွဲ မကော်စ "မူ အခေါင် အောန်အိုတ်" (Principle of Least Privilege - PoLP) ရ။ <ref name="saltzer">{{cite journal |last=Saltzer |first=J. H. |author2=Schroeder, M. D. |title=The Protection of Information in Computer Systems |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_institution-of-electrical-engineers-the-procee_proceedings-of-the-ieee_1975-09_63_9/page/1278 |journal=Proceedings of the IEEE |volume=63 |issue=9 |pages=1278-1308 |year=1975}}</ref>
သဳအိုရဳ ဏအ် ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးလွပ် မွဲ သ္ဒး ကလိဂွံ အခေါင် ၜိုတ် မနွံပၟိက် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ညးတေအ် သၟး ရ။ ကာလ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဓမ္မတာ (Sysops) တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ကလိဂွံ လဝ် အခေါင် ပလေဝ် JS ဂှ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု သဳအိုရဳ ဏအ် ရ၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟွံစကာ အခေါင် ဏအ် တုဲ ဟွံတီ လိက်ကုတ် JS ရ။ ပရေင်ပါ် ပတိတ် ဂကောံ ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် သၞောတ် မကိတ်ညဳ ကု သဳအိုရဳ PoLP ဗွဲမဍာံပြ ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် လဒက်ပတန် (Future and Interface Development) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အနာဂတ် ဏအ်၊ သၞောတ် MediaWiki ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ကၠုင် ဒၟံင် ရ။ ဌာန်သ္ဇိုင် ဝဳကဳမဳဒဳယာ ဝွံ စကာ ကၠုင် နည်းပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု Vue.js သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် မျက်နှာစာ မုက်လိက် ရ။ <ref name="mw_vue">{{cite web |url=https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Vue.js |title=Vue.js implementation in MediaWiki |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation |date=2021 |access-date=2023-10-10}}</ref>
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဏအ်၊ တာလျိုင် ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင် တအ် လေဝ် ဒးပြံင်လှာဲ ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် ဗက် ကီု ရ။ ညးတအ် ဒးလ္ၚတ် ဗတောန် နည်းပညာ လိက်ကုတ် တၟိ တၟိ သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် ထိင်ဒဝ် ကိရိယာ တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မာန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒက်ပတန် တၟိ ဏအ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ နည်းပညာ တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ သွက်ဂွံ နွံကဵု ဂကောံ ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် မနွံကဵု ပညာ နည်းပညာ ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု ဝွံ ဆက် နွံ ဒၟံင် လၟိုန် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ]] (Wikipedia)
* [[သၞောတ် ဂီုကၠီု ၜါ ကဆံင်]] (Two-factor authentication)
* [[ဂျာဗာသကြေပ်]] (JavaScript)
* [[ဌာန်သ္ဇိုင် ဝဳကဳမဳဒဳယာ]] (Wikimedia Foundation)
{{Navbox
| name = Wikimedia User Groups
| title = ဂကောံ ညးလွပ် ပရောဂျေတ် ဝဳကဳမဳဒဳယာ (Wikimedia User Groups)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဂကောံ အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်
| list1 =
* [[ညးအုပ်ဓုပ်]] (Administrator/Sysop)
* [[ဗျူရဝ်ကရေတ်]] (Bureaucrat)
* [[ညးစၟတ်စစ်]] (Checkuser)
* [[ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ဗီုပြင်]] (Interface administrator)
| group2 = ဂကောံ တၞဟ်
| list2 =
* [[ညးမင်ရံင် ဓမ္မတာ]] (Autopatrolled)
* [[ဘော့]] (Bot)
* [[ညးကၠာဲဘာသာ]] (Translation administrator)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဌာန်သ္ဇိုင် ဝဳကဳမဳဒဳယာ]] (Wikimedia Foundation)
* [[မဳဒဳယာဝဳကဳ]] (MediaWiki)
* [[ဂျာဗာသကြေပ်]] (JavaScript)
* [[သဳအက်သ်အက်သ်]] (CSS)
}}
[[Category:ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ]]
[[Category:မဳဒဳယာဝဳကဳ]]
[[Category:ဂကောံ ညးလွပ်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ကောန်ပျူတာ]]
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မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ်
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'''မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ဝါဒ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Materialism'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]] (Philosophy) မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် လညာတ် မပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု (Matter) ဂှ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ သဘာဝ တုဲ၊ အရာ သီုဖအိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု စိုတ်၊ ဉာဏ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် တအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု တအ် သက်သက် ရ။ အတိုင် လညာတ် ဏအ် မ္ဂး၊ ယဝ်ရ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ဟွံမဲ မ္ဂး၊ စိုတ် ကေုာံ ဝိညာဏ် လေဝ် တန်တဴ ဟွံမာန် ရ။<ref name="armstrong">{{cite book |last=Armstrong |first=D. M. |title=A Materialist Theory of the Mind |url=https://archive.org/details/materialisttheor00arms |publisher=Routledge |year=1968 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/materialisttheor00arms/page/n25 10]-15}}</ref>
ပါဲနူ လညာတ် ဒဿနိကဗေဒ တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Sociology and Culture) မ္ဂး၊ မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဝွံ ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ပရေင်ကဵု ၚုဟ်မး လတူ ကပေါတ် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု၊ သြန်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် လောန်ကာဲ နူကဵု ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ်၊ ပရေင်ဘာသာ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ လညာတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သိပ္ပံ၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ကေုာံ ဒဿနိကဗေဒ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Democritus_by_Agostino_Carracci.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဒဳမဝ်ကြဳတပ် (Democritus) တၠပညာ ဒဿန ဂရိတ် တြေံ မဒှ် ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် လညာတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ပထမအိုတ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် အဓိက ၜါ သာ် -
# '''နကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿနိကဗေဒ (Philosophical Materialism):''' ဒှ် လညာတ် မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ စက္ကဝါ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု (Matter) ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် (Energy) သၟး ရ။ စိုတ် (Mind) ကေုာံ ဝိညာဏ် (Consciousness) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဖဵု မတိတ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ကမၠောန် က္ဍဟ် (Brain processes) မဒှ် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ရ။ အရာ မဟွံသေင် ကဵု ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု မပ္တံကဵု ကျာ်၊ နာဲ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဝိညာဏ် တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံမဲ ဍာံပြ ရ။
# '''နကဵု လညာတ် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Cultural/Economic Materialism):''' ဒှ် အခိုက်အလိုက် မၞိဟ် တအ် မစွံ အာရီု လတူ ပရေင်ဂၠာဲ သြန် ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ တသိုက် စိုတ် (Consumerism)။ ညးတအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ တသိုက် ဍာံပြ ဂှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်နွံ ကပေါတ် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒဿနိကဗေဒ (History and Development in Philosophy) ==
လညာတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဝွံ စကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် တမၠာ ဗွဲမလအ်လ တေအ် ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ တြေံ (Ancient India):''' ဂိုဏ် ဒဿန ချာရ်ဗာက (Charvaka) ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂိုဏ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခရေတ် ရ။ ညးတအ် တးပါဲ လညာတ် ကံ၊ ဘဝ ဂတ၊ ကေုာံ ဝိညာဏ် တုဲ ပတှ်ေ ဆ အရာ မညာတ် ဂွံ နကဵု မတ် သၟး ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဂရိတ် တြေံ (Ancient Greece):''' တၠပညာ လေဝ်ကဳပပ် (Leucippus) ကေုာံ ဒဳမဝ်ကြဳတပ် (Democritus) တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] အက်တမ် (Atomism) ရ။ ညးတအ် ဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ စက္ကဝါ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု အက်တမ် (Atoms) မဍောတ်သွတ် ကေုာံ လဟာင် သၟး ရ။<ref name="russell">{{cite book |last=Russell |first=B. |title=A History of Western Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern0000bert_m8s9 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1945 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern0000bert_m8s9/page/64 64]-70}}</ref>
* '''ခေတ် ပရေင်ကလေင်ဂျိုင် (Renaissance) ကေုာံ ခေတ် တၟိ:''' ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၇ ကဵု ၁၈ ဂှ် တၠပညာ မပ္တံကဵု သောမတ် ဟပ်သ် (Thomas Hobbes) ကေုာံ ဂျောန် လံက် (John Locke) တအ် ကလေင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပတိုန် လညာတ် ဏအ် နကဵု လညာတ် သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။
== ၃။ လညာတ် ဒဿနိကဗေဒ သဇိုင် (Basic Philosophical Concepts) ==
သဇိုင် အဓိက အိုတ် သွက် လညာတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဂှ် ဒှ် "မူလ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု" (Material Monism) ရ။ ဍေဟ် တးပါဲ လညာတ် မပါ်လဝ် သဘာဝ နကဵု ၜါ သာ် (Dualism - စိုတ် ကဵု ရုပ်) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် ဏအ်၊ အရာ သီုဖအိုတ် မကတဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ စက္ကဝါ ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မဆက်စပ် ကု သၞောဝ် ရူပဗေဒ (Physical laws) ရ။ ဥပမာ - ပရေင်ဆာန်၊ ပရေင်ထေဲစိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဆ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတု (Chemical reactions) ပ္ဍဲ အပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် မၞိဟ် တအ် သက်သက် ရ။ ယဝ်ရ က္ဍဟ် လီုလာ် အာ မ္ဂး၊ စိုတ် ဝိညာဏ် လေဝ် ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ ကီု ရ။
== ၄။ မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ပ္ဍဲ သိပ္ပံ (Materialism in Science) ==
လညာတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် လဒက်ပတန် အဓိက သွက် [[သိပ္ပံ]] (Science) ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။ သိပ္ပံ ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု မညာတ် ဂွံ ကေုာံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဂွံ (Empiricism) ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ ရူပဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဓာတုဗေဒ:''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အရာ သီုဖအိုတ် နဒဒှ် အက်တမ် ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ်။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ ဇဳဝဗေဒ:''' သဘာဝ လမျီု (Life) ဂှ် သောင်ကလး လဝ် နကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ဓါတု ကေုာံ ဒီအေန်အေ (DNA)။ လမျီု ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဓါတ် ဝိညာဏ် တၟေင် (Vitalism) ပုဟ်။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ နယူရဝ်ဗေဒ (Neuroscience):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် က္ဍဟ် သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး စိုတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင်။ တၠပညာ သိပ္ပံ တအ် မာန် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လလဳ ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် ကာလ မၞိဟ် မွဲ ချပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒုင်စသိုင် ရ။
== ၅။ မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဝင် နကဵု လညာတ် မာက်သ် (Historical Materialism by Karl Marx) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ ဂှ် တၠပညာ ဂျာမနဳ [[ကာလ် မာက်သ်]] (Karl Marx) ကေုာံ ဖရက်ဒရစ် အိန်ဂယ် (Friedrich Engels) တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] "မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဝင်" (Historical Materialism) မဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် လညာတ် ကွန်မျူနစ် ရ။<ref name="marx">{{cite book |last=Marx |first=K. |author2=Engels, F. |title=The German Ideology |publisher=Progress Publishers |year=1932 |pages=35-40}}</ref>
မာက်သ် ဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် (History) ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု လညာတ် (Ideas) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဘာသာ ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု "ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရာ ကပေါတ် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု" (Material conditions of production) ရ။ အခိုက်အလိုက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန်၊ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ၊ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ ဗီုလဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂှ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကေုာံ ပါ်ပရအ် ကပေါတ် စၞစ ကေုာံ ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economy) ရ။
== ၆။ မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Materialism in Society and Culture) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လွပ် ယေန်သၞာင် ဓမ္မတာ မ္ဂး၊ မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဝွံ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် မစွံ ၚုဟ်မး လတူ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် လောန်ကာဲ (Consumer culture) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ကာပဳတယ်လဳဇြမ် (Capitalism) ဏအ်၊ မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် တသိုက် ကေုာံ အံင်ဇၞး ဘဝ နကဵု လၟိဟ် ကပေါတ် ဍေဟ်တအ် မပိုင်ပြဳ လဝ် မပ္တံကဵု သ္ၚိ ဇၞော်ဇၞော်၊ ကွဳစက် ကျေဝ်ကျေဝ်၊ ကေုာံ သမာတ်ဖုန် ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ်
|-
! လညာတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်
! မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်
! လညာတ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် / သာသနာ
|-
| '''တင်ရန်တၟအ် ဘဝ'''
| ဂၠာဲ သြန် ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် သွက် တသိုက်။
| ဂၠာဲ ဓဝ် ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ကေုာံ ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် စိုတ်။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အံင်ဇၞး'''
| ឋာနန္တရ ကေုာံ ဒြပ်ရတ်။
| ပရေင်ဖန်ခိုဟ် ကု ညးတၞဟ် ကေုာံ ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာ။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် တသိုက်'''
| မတန်တဴ လတူ အရာ မ္ၚး (External goods)။
| မတန်တဴ လတူ အရာ အပ္ဍဲ (Internal peace)။
|}
== ၇။ ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ ကု ဒဿနိကဗေဒ စိုတ် (Contrast with Idealism and Dualism) ==
မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဝွံ ဒစးဒုင် ဒၟံင် ကု လညာတ် ဒဿန အဓိက ၜါ သာ် ရ -
* '''အာင်ဒဳယျာလဳဇြမ် (Idealism):''' မဒှ် လညာတ် မပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "စိုတ်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "လညာတ်" (Ideas) ဂှ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် ဍာံပြ အိုတ် ရ။ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် နူကဵု စိုတ် သၟး ရ။ (ဥပမာ - လညာတ် ပလေတဝ် Plato)။
* '''ဒူဝယ်လဳဇြမ် (Dualism):''' မဒှ် လညာတ် ညး [[ရေနဳ ဒေကတာတ်]] (René Descartes) မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ စက္ကဝါ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဓါတ် ၜါ သာ် - ဓါတ် ရုပ် (Matter) ကေုာံ ဓါတ် စိုတ် (Mind/Soul) မဒှ် အရာ မတၞဟ်ခြာ ရေင်သကအ် တုဲ သောင်ကလး နကဵု ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု သၟး ဟွံမာန် ရ။<ref name="descartes">{{cite book |last=Descartes |first=R. |title=Meditations on First Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/meditationsonfir0000desc_y1b3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/meditationsonfir0000desc_y1b3/page/50 50]-55}}</ref>
== ၈။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ စိုတ်ပညာ (Impact on Economics and Psychology) ==
နကဵု လညာတ် စိုတ်ပညာ (Psychology) မ္ဂး၊ သုတေသန ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ မၞိဟ် မနွံကဵု စိုတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် သၠုင် (Strong materialistic values) တအ်ဝွံ လေပ် ကတဵုဒှ် ယဲ ဍောင်ၜိုတ် စိုတ် (Depression)၊ ပရေင်စိုတ် ဟွံမိပ်သၠံင် (Anxiety)၊ ကေုာံ တသိုက် ဘဝ အောန် နူကဵု မၞိဟ် မဟွံစွံ အာရီု လတူ ဒြပ်ရတ် တအ် ရ။
ဟိုတ်ဂှ် မ္ဂး ညးတအ် တွဵု ဒး မိက်ဂွံ ဂွံ ကပေါတ် တၟိ လၟိုန် အခိင် (Hedonic treadmill) တုဲ၊ ဟွံမာန် ရေင်တၠုင် တသိုက် ဍာံပြ ပ္ဍဲ လအ်လ ရ။ လပါ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မ္ဂး၊ အခိုက်အလိုက် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်သွံရာန် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ပြသၞာ ပလီုပလာ် ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (Environmental degradation) ကေုာံ ခရာ အကြာ ညးဒိုက် ကဵု ညးသိုက် မသၠဲလး တိုန် ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်ပါ်ပါဲ ကေုာံ ပြသၞာဂမၠိုင် (Criticisms and Problems) ==
လညာတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဒဿန ဂှ် လေဝ် ဒးဒုင် ပါ်ပါဲ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကီု ရ -
* '''ပြသၞာ ဝိညာဏ် မဇြိုင်ခုဲ (The Hard Problem of Consciousness):''' တၠပညာ ဒဿန ဒေဗေတ် ချာလ်မာ (David Chalmers) ဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ၜိုန်ရ သိပ္ပံ မာန် သောင်ကလး ဗီုလဵု က္ဍဟ် တွက်ဂၞန် တင်ဂၞင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် သောင်ကလး ဟွံမာန် ဒဒှ်ရ "မုဟိုတ် ကမၠောန် က္ဍဟ် တအ် ဏအ် ဂွံ ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် (Subjective experience) ပ္ဍဲ ပူဂိုလ် မွဲမွဲ ရော?"<ref name="chalmers">{{cite book |last=Chalmers |first=D. J. |title=The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/consciousmindins00chal |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/consciousmindins00chal/page/3 3]-8}}</ref>
* '''သဳအိုရဳ ကွမ်တမ် (Quantum Mechanics):''' ပ္ဍဲ ရူပဗေဒ ခေတ်တၟိ (Quantum physics) ဂှ်၊ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု တအ် ဟွံချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် (Uncertainty) တုဲ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Observation/Mind) ဝွံ နွံကဵု သြဇာ လတူ သဘာဝ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ရ။ အရာ ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် လညာတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ခေတ်တြေံ (Classical materialism) ဂွံ ဍိုန်လျ အာ ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် လညာတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် (Future of Materialism) ==
အနာဂတ် လညာတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence) ကေုာံ ကွတ်ပညာ သၠုင်မၞိဟ် (Transhumanism) ရ။
ယဝ်ရ ကောန်ပျူတာ တအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် စဵုကဵု ဍေဟ်တအ် နွံကဵု ဝိညာဏ် ကေုာံ စိုတ် (Artificial Consciousness) မ္ဂး၊ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် သက်သဳ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် အိုတ် သွက် လညာတ် မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ် မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ "ဝိညာဏ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ ပရေင်တွက်ဂၞန် ဒေတာ နူကဵု ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု (Hardware) သက်သက်" ရ။ ဆဂး၊ ယဝ်ရ လညာတ် ဏအ် ဒှ် ဍာံပြ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပြသၞာ သဳလ (Ethics) ဇၞော်ဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ၚုဟ်မး လမျီု ကေုာံ ဝိညာဏ် စက် တအ် ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]] (Philosophy)
* [[သိပ္ပံ]] (Science)
* [[ကာလ် မာက်သ်]] (Karl Marx)
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
{{Navbox
| name = Philosophy
| title = ဒဿနိကဗေဒ ကေုာံ လညာတ် သဇိုင်ဂမၠိုင် (Philosophy and Fundamental Concepts)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လညာတ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[မာတ်တဳရဳယျာလဳဇြမ်]] (Materialism)
* [[အာင်ဒဳယျာလဳဇြမ်]] (Idealism)
* [[ဒူဝယ်လဳဇြမ်]] (Dualism)
* [[နိဟိလဳဇြမ်]] (Nihilism)
| group2 = ဒဿနိကဗေဒ မၞိဟ်
| list2 =
* [[ကာလ် မာက်သ်]] (Karl Marx)
* [[ရေနဳ ဒေကတာတ်]] (René Descartes)
* [[ဒဳမဝ်ကြဳတပ်]] (Democritus)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[သိပ္ပံ]] (Science)
* [[စိုတ်ပညာ]] (Psychology)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ကွမ်တမ်]] (Quantum theory)
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
}}
[[Category:ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]
[[Category:သဳအိုရဳဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ယေန်သၞာင် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်]]
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'''ကာလ် မာက်သ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Karl Marx'', ၅ မေ ၁၈၁၈ – ၁၄ မာတ် ၁၈၈၃) ဝွံ ဒှ် တၠပညာ [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]] (Philosophy)၊ သၟာ [[ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]] (Economics)၊ တၠပညာ ဝင်၊ သၟာပရိုင် ကေုာံ ညးမချဳဓရာင် သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် (Socialist) ဂကူ ဂျာမနဳ မွဲ ရ။ ညးတေအ် ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] မာက်သစ် (Marxism) တုဲ ချူလဝ် လိက်ပြကိုဟ် မပြာကတ် ဂၠးတိ မပ္တံကဵု "လိက် ကွန်မျူနစ် မနဳဖဲသတဝ်" (The Communist Manifesto) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၄၈ ကေုာံ "ဒက်သ် ကပဳတယ်" (Das Kapital) ရ။<ref name="mclellan">{{cite book |last=McLellan |first=D. |title=Karl Marx: A Biography |publisher=Macmillan |year=1973 |pages=15-20}}</ref>
လညာတ် ကာလ် မာက်သ် တအ်ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် ဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ကောန်ကမၠောန် (Labour movement) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးတိ ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ကာလ် မာက်သ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင် ဘဝ၊ လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Karl Marx 001.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ကာလ် မာက်သ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၇၅ မဒှ် အခိင် ညးတေအ် မံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် လာန်ဒါန်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Overview) ==
ကာလ် မာက်သ် ဝွံ ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် လညာတ် "ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်" (Political economy) ကေုာံ လညာတ် သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် သိပ္ပံ (Scientific socialism) ရ။ ညးတေအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် အလုံအိုတ်သီု ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ "ပရေင်ဗတိုက် ပေါဲပြိုင် အကြာ ကဆံင် မၞိဟ်" (Class struggle) ရ။
မာက်သ် ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကပဳတေဝ်လေတ် (Capitalism) ဝွံ ဍဵုဍိုက် ဒၟံင် ဂကောံ ကောန်ကမၠောန် (Proletariat) တအ် တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် မ္ဂး ကောန်ကမၠောန် တအ် သ္ဒး ပၠန်ဂတး တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ် ကွန်မျူနစ် (Communism) မဟွံမဲ ကဵု ကဆံင် ပါ်ခြာ မၞိဟ် ရောင်။
== ၂။ ဘဝ ကောန်ၚာ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာ (Early Life and Education) ==
ကာလ် မာက်သ် ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၅ မေ သၞာံ ၁၈၁၈ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ထရဳယာ (Trier)၊ ရး ပရပ်ယှာ (Kingdom of Prussia - လၟုဟ် ဂျာမနဳ) ရ။ မိမ ညးတအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကူ ဂျူ (Jewish) မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် လဒေါဝ် ဆဂး ဟိုတ်နူ ဥပဒေ ခေတ် ဂှ် တုဲ၊ မအံက် ညး ပြံင်လှာဲ လျိုင်ပတှ်ေ စိုပ် ဘာသာ ခရေတ်ယာန် ရ။<ref name="singer">{{cite book |last=Singer |first=P. |title=Marx: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/marx0000unse_p8v0 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/marx0000unse_p8v0/page/25 25]-30}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၃၅ ဂှ် မာက်သ် တိုန် ဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် ဗွန် (University of Bonn) သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ဥပဒေ၊ ဆဂး လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ပြံင် အာ တက္ကသိုလ် ဗာလင် (University of Berlin) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ညးတေအ် မလ္ၚတ် ဒဿနိကဗေဒ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ ဂှ် ညးတေအ် လုပ် ဂကောံ "Hegelians သၟတ်" (Young Hegelians) မလ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ပါ်ပဲါ လညာတ် ဒဿန ဟေဂေလ် (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel) ရ။
== ၃။ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ ဌာန်တန်တဴ (Career and Journalism) ==
ကြဴနူ မကလိဂွံ တဆိပ်ကြာ ဒံက်တာ နူ တက္ကသိုလ် ယေနာ (University of Jena) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၄၁ တုဲ၊ မာက်သ် လုပ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် နဒဒှ် သၟာပရိုင် ပ္ဍဲ လိက်ပရိုင် ရေဒီကယ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ကဝ်လောန် (Cologne) ရ။ ဆဂး ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ချူ လိက် ညး မပါ်ပဲါ အလဵုအသဳ ဂှ်ရ၊ လိက်ပရိုင် ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ် ထောအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၄၃ ဂှ် မာက်သ် ပြံင် အာ ဍုင် ပါရဳ (Paris) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ပါရဳ ဏအ် ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဆဵုဂဗ ကု [[ဖရဳဒရစ် အေန်ဂေလ်]] (Friedrich Engels) မဒှ် မၞိဟ် မကဵု အရီုအဗင် ကေုာံ ညးမကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မွဲစွံ စဵုကဵု လအိတ် ဘဝ ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ညးတအ် ဂှ်ရ၊ မာက်သ် ဒးဒုင် ထဍေင် ပတိတ် နူ ဍုင် ပြင်သေတ် တုဲ ပြံင် အာ ဍုင် ဘရပ်သေလ် (Brussels) ပၠန် ရ။
== ၄။ လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Marxist Theory and Society) ==
လညာတ် ဒဿန ကာလ် မာက်သ် ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ [[သဳအိုရဳ]] "ဝါဒ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ဝင်" (Historical Materialism) ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ် ဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် (Modes of production) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ရ။<ref name="wheen">{{cite book |last=Wheen |first=F. |title=Karl Marx: A Life |url=https://archive.org/details/karlmarxlife0000whee |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/karlmarxlife0000whee/page/110 110]-115}}</ref>
မာက်သ် ပါ်လဝ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ကပဳတေဝ်လေတ် အဓိက ၜါ ကဆံင် -
# '''ဗူဇွာဇဳ (Bourgeoisie):''' ညးမပိုင်ပြဳ သၞောတ် ယန္တရား ကေုာံ ရုင်စက် တအ်။
# '''ပရဝ်လဳတေရဳယေတ် (Proletariat):''' ကောန်ကမၠောန် တအ် မဒး သွံ ဒြဟတ် ကမၠောန် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သြန် ဂိတု၊ ဆဂး ဟွံမဲ ကဵု အခေါင် ပိုင်ပြဳ ရုင်စက်။
== ၅။ လိက် ကွန်မျူနစ် မနဳဖဲသတဝ် (The Communist Manifesto) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၄၈ ဂှ်၊ မာက်သ် ကဵု အေန်ဂေလ် တအ် ပံင်ကောံ တုဲ ချူ ပတိတ် လိက် "ကွန်မျူနစ် မနဳဖဲသတဝ်" (The Communist Manifesto) နကဵု လိက် ဂျာမနဳ သွက် ဂကောံ ကွန်မျူနစ် (Communist League) ပ္ဍဲ လာန်ဒါန် ရ။
လိက် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လိက် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဂၠးတိ မွဲ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ဏအ်၊ ညးတအ် ဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ "ဝင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မနွံ ကၠုင် လဝ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဝင် ပရေင်ဗတိုက် ပေါဲပြိုင် အကြာ ကဆံင် မၞိဟ် ရ"။ လိက် ဏအ် ဆဝ်မ္ၚုဟ် လဝ် ကောန်ကမၠောန် တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ပၠန်ဂတး တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ်မၞိဟ် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ကဆံင် (Classless society) ရ။<ref name="manifesto">{{cite book |last=Marx |first=K. |author2=Engels, F. |title=The Communist Manifesto |url=https://archive.org/details/communistmanifes00marx_5 |publisher=Penguin Classics |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/communistmanifes00marx_5/page/10 10]-15}}</ref>
== ၆။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ လိက် ဒက်သ် ကပဳတယ် (Economics and Das Kapital) ==
ကြဴနူ ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတး သၞာံ ၁၈၄၈ ပ္ဍဲ ရးဥရောပ သီုဖအိုတ် ကျ ဆောမ်လေင် အာ တုဲ၊ မာက်သ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်သုတေသန ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ပ္ဍဲ တိုက်လိက် ဗြိတိန် (British Museum) ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ရ。
ဖဵု နူ ပရေင်သုတေသန ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် လိက် ပြကိုဟ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ညး မနွံယၟု "ဒက်သ် ကပဳတယ်" (Das Kapital - သြန်တမ်) ရ။ ကဏ္ဍ ပထမ ဂှ် ပတိတ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၇ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ဏအ်၊ ညးတေအ် သောင်ကလး လဝ် သဳအိုရဳ ၚုဟ်မး ဒြဟတ် ကမၠောန် (Labor theory of value) ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု ညးတၠပိုန်ဒြပ် တအ် ကံက် ကေတ် ဖဵုပရဲ လောန်ကာဲ (Surplus value) နူကဵု ကောန်ကမၠောန် တအ် ရ။
== ၇။ ဘဝ ပ္ဍဲ လာန်ဒါန် ကေုာံ ဂကောံ သၟာကမၠောန် (Life in London and Workingmen's Association) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၄၉ ဂှ် မာက်သ် ဒးဒုင် ထဍေင် ပတိတ် နူ ဍုင် ဂျာမနဳ ကေုာံ ပြင်သေတ် တုဲ ပြံင် အာ တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် လာန်ဒါန် (London) စဵုကဵု လအိတ် ဘဝ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လာန်ဒါန် ဏအ် ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ဒးဒုင် ဒဒိုက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ ဒၟံင် နကဵု သြန် ထံက်ပင် နူ သကအ်ရဲ ညး အေန်ဂေလ် ရ။<ref name="sperber">{{cite book |last=Sperber |first=J. |title=Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life |url=https://archive.org/details/karlmarxnineteen0000sper |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2013 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/karlmarxnineteen0000sper/page/200 200]-205}}</ref>
ၜိုန်ရ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဒဒိုက် ကီုလေဝ်၊ မာက်သ် ဆက် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် တုဲ ဒှ် မၞိဟ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ သၟာကမၠောန် ဂၠးတိ အလန် ပထမ (First International) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၄ သွက်ဂွံ ပံင်ကောံ ဂကောံ ကောန်ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဥရောပ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
== ၈။ လအိတ် ဘဝ ကေုာံ တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး (Death and Legacy) ==
ကြဴနူ သမ္ဘာ ညး ယေန်နဳ (Jenny) ကေုာံ ကောန်ဝုတ် ညး စုတိ အာ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၈၁ ကဵု ၁၈၈၃ တုဲ၊ မာက်သ် လေဝ် ယဲ ဇြိုင် တုဲ စုတိ အာ ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၁၄ မာတ် သၞာံ ၁၈၈၃ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် လာန်ဒါန် ရ။ ညးတေအ် ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် တိုပ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သုသာန် ဟာင်ဂိတ် (Highgate Cemetery) ပ္ဍဲ လာန်ဒါန် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ သ္ၚိ ညး မကတဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ထရဳယာ ဂှ် ပံက် လဝ် နဒဒှ် တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး ကာလ် မာက်သ် (Karl Marx House) မထ္ၜးပျး ဝင် ဘဝ ကေုာံ လိက် ညး သွက် ညးလ္ၚတ် တအ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၉။ သြဇာ လတူ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ဝင် (Global Influence and Historical Impact) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ညး ဂျိုင် ဒၟံင် ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဟွံပြာကတ် လောန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ကြဴနူ ညး စုတိ အာ တုဲ လညာတ် မာက်သစ် ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဒြဟတ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ ရ။
လညာတ် ညးဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတး ရုရှာ (Russian Revolution) သၞာံ ၁၉၁၇ ဂွံ အံင်ဇၞး တုဲ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ကၟိန်ဍုင် သဵုဗိယေတ် ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် လညာတ် ဏအ် ကဵု သြဇာ လတူ ဍုင် ကြုက် (China)၊ ကျူးဘား (Cuba) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ပ္ဍဲ အာရှ တအ် ကီု ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ မၞိဟ် (Sociology) ဂှ်လေဝ် မာက်သ် ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ် မခၞံဗဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ် မွဲ တၠ ကီု ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚိအင် တင်ဂၞင် အဓိက (Table of Key Information) ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး တင်ဂၞင် သဇိုင် ပရူ ကာလ် မာက်သ်
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! တင်ဂၞင် အဓိက
|-
| '''ယၟု ပေင်င်'''
| ကာလ် ဟာင်နရစ် မာက်သ် (Karl Heinrich Marx)
|-
| '''စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ဒှ်မၞိဟ်'''
| ၅ မေ ၁၈၁၈ (ဍုင် ထရဳယာ၊ ရး ပရပ်ယှာ)
|-
| '''စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ စုတိ'''
| ၁၄ မာတ် ၁၈၈၃ (အယုက် ၆၄ သၞာံ၊ လာန်ဒါန်)
|-
| '''ဘာသာရပ် အဓိက'''
| ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ဒဿနိကဗေဒ၊ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ဝင်
|-
| '''လိက် မပြာကတ်'''
| The Communist Manifesto (၁၈၄၈)၊ Das Kapital (၁၈၆၇)
|-
| '''သြဇာ အဓိက'''
| ဟေဂေလ် (Hegel)၊ ဒဿန ဂျာမနဳ၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဗြိတိန်
|}
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]] (Philosophy)
* [[ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]] (Economics)
* [[သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ်]] (Socialism)
* [[ဖရဳဒရစ် အေန်ဂေလ်]] (Friedrich Engels)
{{Navbox
| name = Karl Marx
| title = ကာလ် မာက်သ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် မာက်သစ် (Karl Marx and Marxism)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လိက် မပြာကတ်
| list1 =
* [[လိက် ကွန်မျူနစ် မနဳဖဲသတဝ်]] (The Communist Manifesto)
* [[ဒက်သ် ကပဳတယ်]] (Das Kapital)
* [[ဂျာမန် အုဲဒဳအဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (The German Ideology)
| group2 = လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ
| list2 =
* [[ဝါဒ ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု ဝင်]] (Historical materialism)
* [[ပရေင်ဗတိုက် ပေါဲပြိုင် အကြာ ကဆံင် မၞိဟ်]] (Class struggle)
* [[ၚုဟ်မး ဒြဟတ် ကမၠောန်]] (Labor theory of value)
* [[ပရဝ်လဳတေရဳယေတ်]] (Proletariat)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဖရဳဒရစ် အေန်ဂေလ်]] (Friedrich Engels)
* [[ကွန်မျူနစ်]] (Communism)
* [[သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ်]] (Socialism)
* [[တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး ကာလ် မာက်သ်]] (Karl Marx House)
}}
[[Category:တၠပညာ ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]
[[Category:တၠပညာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]]
[[Category:သၟာပရိုင်]]
[[Category:ညးမချဳဓရာင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
[[Category:၁၈၁၈ သၞာံ ကတဵုဒှ်မၞိဟ်]]
[[Category:၁၈၈၃ သၞာံ စုတိ]]
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'''ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Planning'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ကိစ္စဇၞော် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချပ်ဂၞန် သွက်ဂွံ ရုဲစှ် တိုင်ပ္ကဴ ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ညံင်ဂွံ အာစိုပ် တိုင်ပ္ကဴ ဂှ် နကဵု နဲကဲ မခိုဟ်အိုတ် ရ။ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိကအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ကဏ္ဍ မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် အလဵုအသဳ၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ဘဝလၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ရ။<ref name="mintzberg">{{cite book |last=Mintzberg |first=H. |title=The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning |url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofstra00mint |publisher=Free Press |year=1994 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/risefallofstra00mint/page/10 10]-15}}</ref>
နကဵု လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory) ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကမၠောန် သဇိုင် ပန် သာ် (ဖန်ဇန်၊ စီစဉ်၊ က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ်၊ ထိင်ဒဝ်) တုဲ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် ဂကောံ မွဲမွဲ ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ကေုာံ ဂွံ ဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် အန္တရာယ် (Risk) တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် နကဵု လညာတ် နာနာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:PDCA_Cycle.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး လၟေင် ကလေင်ကၠောန် PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) မဒှ် သၞောတ် သဇိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ဍာ်ဒကေဝ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန်" ဝွံ ဒှ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် မချပ် တွက်ဂၞန် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မွဲမွဲ ရ။ ဍေဟ် သောင်ကလး ကဵု သမာန် အဓိက ၃ သာ် -
# ပိုယ် နွံ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ လဵု ရော? (Current state)
# ပိုယ် မိက်ဂွံ စိုပ် ဒၞာဲ လဵု ရော? (Future state/Goal)
# ပိုယ် ဗီုလဵု ဂွံ အာ စိုပ် ဒၞာဲ ဂှ် ရော? (Strategy/Action plan)
ယဝ်ရ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဟွံမဲ မ္ဂး၊ ကမၠောန် တအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နကဵု အခိုက် ဟွံမဲ သၞောတ်ဝ် (Chaotic) တုဲ မာန် ဆောမ်လေင် အခိင် ကေုာံ သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဝွံ နွံကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် စတင် တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ သြိုင်ခၞံ ဍုင် ကွာန် တေအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဍုင် အဳဂျေပ် (Egypt) ကေုာံ ဍုင် ရဝ်မ (Rome) ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဍုင် (Urban planning) တအ် ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ညးတအ် သြိုင် ပိရမေတ် (Pyramids) ကေုာံ ဍာန် တအ် ရ။
စိုပ် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ရုံစက် (Industrial Revolution) ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ မွဲ နကဵု လညာတ် [[ဖရေဒရစ် တေလာ]] (Frederick Taylor) ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် သဳအိုရဳ အုပ်ဓုပ် သိပ္ပံ (Scientific Management) ရ။ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဗျူဟာ (Strategic planning) ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် ပ္ဍဲ ကမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် ပ္ဍဲ စျေးကွက် ရ။
== ၃။ ဂကူ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Types of Business Planning) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ပါ်လဝ် ၃ ကဆံင် အဓိက ရ - <ref name="koontz">{{cite book |last=Koontz |first=H. |author2=Weihrich, H. |title=Essentials of Management |edition=8th |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill |year=2010 |pages=70-75}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ကဆံင် ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ၃ သာ်
|-
! ဂကူ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန်
! အခိင် အပိုင်အခြာ
! တာလျိုင် ညးမကၠောန်
! တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဗျူဟာ (Strategic Planning)'''
| လအ်လ (၃-၅ သၞာံ ပြင်င်)
| က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ကဆံင်သၠုင် (Top Management)
| ရုဲစှ် တိုင်ပ္ကဴ အလုံ ဂကောံ၊ ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန်၊ ကေုာံ ဌာန်ဒတန် လက္ကရဴအိုတ်။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် နဲဗျူဟာ (Tactical Planning)'''
| လဒေါဝ် (၁-၃ သၞာံ)
| ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ကဆံင်လဒေါဝ် (Middle Management)
| ပါ်ကရေက် ဗျူဟာ သွက် ဌာန နာနာ ညံင်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဒးရး။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ကမၠောန် (Operational Planning)'''
| ဂၠေအ် (တ္ၚဲစဉ် - ၁ သၞာံ)
| ညးအုပ်ဓုပ် ကဆံင်သၟဝ် (Front-line Managers)
| စၟတ်သမ္တီ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဇၟာပ် တ္ၚဲ ကေုာံ သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ (Budgeting)။
|}
== ၄။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် (The Planning Process) ==
လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် မခိုဟ် မွဲ ဒးဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု လဂံါ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
# '''စၟတ်သမ္တီ တိုင်ပ္ကဴ (Setting Objectives):''' ရုဲစှ် အရာ မမိက်ဂွံ အာစိုပ် နကဵု သၞောတ်ဝ် SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound)။
# '''သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အကာဲအရာ (Analyzing Environment):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အကာဲအရာ အပ္ဍဲ ကေုာံ မ္ၚး (SWOT Analysis)။
# '''ဖန်ဗဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် (Developing Alternatives):''' ချပ် ဂၠာဲ နဲကဲ နာနာ သွက်ဂွံ အာစိုပ် တိုင်ပ္ကဴ။
# '''ရုဲစှ် နဲကဲ မခိုဟ်အိုတ် (Selecting the Best Course):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဖဵု ကေုာံ အန္တရာယ် တုဲ ရုဲစှ် နဲကဲ ခိုဟ်အိုတ်။
# '''ဖျေဟ် ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ ထိင်ဒဝ် (Implementation & Review):''' စကၠောန် အတိုင် မဖန်ဇန် လဝ် တုဲ ဍိုတ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် (Evaluate) ကလေင် ပလေဝ် ဍေဟ် ရ။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဍုင် ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ (Urban and Public Planning) ==
ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် သက်သက်၊ ဍေဟ် လေဝ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ လွပ် အလဵုအသဳ ရ။ [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဍုင်]] (Urban planning) ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် သွက်ဂွံ သြိုင်ခၞံ ကေုာံ ပါ်ကရေက် ဒၞာဲ တိ (Zoning) ညံင်ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ညးဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍာန်၊ ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ရ။<ref name="hall">{{cite book |last=Hall |first=P. |title=Urban and Regional Planning |edition=5th |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |pages=20-25}}</ref>
အလဵုအသဳ တအ် လေဝ် စကာ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကောန်ဂကူ (National Economic Planning) မပ္တံကဵု "စီမံကိန်း ၅ သၞာံ" သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဍုင် ညံင်ဂွံ စိုပ် ကဆံင် သၠုင် တိုန် ရ။
== ၆။ လညာတ် စိုတ်ပညာ ကေုာံ ဉာဏ် (Psychological and Cognitive Aspects) ==
နကဵု လညာတ် စိုတ်ပညာ (Psychology) မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဂှ် ဒှ် အစောံသတ္တိ ဉာဏ် က္ဍဟ် (Cognitive function) မွဲ မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒကုတ် က္ဍဟ် ဂတ (Prefrontal cortex) ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု အစောံသတ္တိ မာန် ချပ် ဂတ (Prospection) ကေုာံ ထိင်ဒဝ် စိုတ် (Executive control) ရ။
ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် နွံကဵု သဘာဝ ယောန်မှာ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် မကော်စ "Planning Fallacy" ရ။ အရာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဘာဝ မၞိဟ် တအ် ထေင် ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ကမၠောန် မွဲမွဲ ဂွံ တုဲ အာ ပြဟ် နူ အခိင် ဍာံပြ မဒး ကေတ် ဇေတ်တ် ရ။
== ၇။ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ပ္ဍဲ ဉာဏ်စက် ကေုာံ ကောန်ပျူတာ (Planning in AI and Computing) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence) ဂှ်၊ "AI Planning" ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက မွဲ မဖန်ဗဒှ် ညံင် စက်ယန္တရား (Agents) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကောန်ပျူတာ တအ် ဂွံ ရုဲစှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် အလဵုအလဵု သွက်ဂွံ အာစိုပ် တိုင်ပ္ကဴ ရ။<ref name="russell">{{cite book |last=Russell |first=S. J. |author2=Norvig, P. |title=Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach |edition=4th |publisher=Pearson |year=2020 |pages=350-360}}</ref>
ဥပမာ - သၞောတ် GPS ဂၠာဲ ဂၠံင် (Pathfinding algorithms) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကွဳစက် ဟွံမဲ မၞိဟ်ဒဳ တအ်ဂှ် စကာ လညာတ် ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် အလဵုအလဵု (Automated planning) သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ဂၠံင် ညန်အိုတ် ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ အန္တရာယ် ရ။
== ၈။ ဖဵုခိုဟ် ကေုာံ အခက်အခုဲ (Benefits and Challenges) ==
ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် နွံကဵု ဖဵုခိုဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် -
* ကဵု လညာတ် ကၠးကၠး လတူ တိုင်ပ္ကဴ အနာဂတ်။
* ဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် ပရေင်ဟွံချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် (Reduces uncertainty)။
* ပခိုဟ် ပတိုန် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် (Coordination) အကြာ ဌာန နာနာ။
ဆဂး ဍေဟ် လေဝ် နွံကဵု အခက်အခုဲ ကီု ရ -
* ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ကြေန်လောန် (Rigidity) ပကဵု ညံင် ဟွံမာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗက် အကာဲအရာ တၟိ။
* ဒးကေတ် အခိင် ကေုာံ သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ခိုဟ်ဟ် မွဲ။
== ၉။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝလၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ (Applications in Daily Life) ==
ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ သွက် အလဵုအသဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကမ္ပဏဳ သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ရ။ မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဘဏ္ဍာ သ္ၚိကၟိန် (Personal finance planning)၊ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် တရဴ (Travel planning)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ပညာ (Career planning) တအ်ဝွံ ရီုဗင် ညံင် ဘဝ ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် တုဲ အာစိုပ် တိုင်ပ္ကဴ ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ (Future and Transformations) ==
အနာဂတ် ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် နည်းပညာ (Agile Planning) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် မပြံင်လှာဲ ပြဟ် ဒၟံင် ဏအ်၊ လညာတ် ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် အတိုင် တြေံ (Traditional planning) ဂှ် စကာ ဟွံဂွံ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဂကောံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပြံင်လှာဲ စကာ သၞောတ် Agile မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗက် အကာဲအရာ မပြံင်လှာဲ (Adaptive planning) ရ။<ref name="agile">{{cite book |last=Highsmith |first=J. |title=Agile Project Management: Creating Innovative Products |edition=2nd |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=2009 |pages=25-30}}</ref>
တုဲပၠန် နကဵု အစောံသတ္တိ [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] ကေုာံ ဒေတာ ဇၞော် (Big Data) မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် အနာဂတ် ဂှ် မာန် တွက်ဂၞန် အကာဲအရာ အနာဂတ် (Predictive planning) နကဵု ပရေင်ဍာံပြ သၠုင်အိုတ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်]] (Management)
* [[ဗျူဟာ]] (Strategy)
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
* [[ဖရေဒရစ် တေလာ]] (Frederick Taylor)
{{Navbox
| name = Management and Planning
| title = ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် (Management and Planning)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင် အုပ်ဓုပ်
| list1 =
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန်]] (Planning)
* [[ပရေင်ပကောံ]] (Organizing)
* [[ပရေင်က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ်]] (Leading)
* [[ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ်]] (Controlling)
| group2 = ဂကူ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန်
| list2 =
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဗျူဟာ]] (Strategic planning)
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ကမၠောန်]] (Operational planning)
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဍုင်]] (Urban planning)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်]] (Management)
* [[ဗျူဟာ]] (Strategy)
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
* [[ပရေင်ကၠောန်ဗဒှ်]] (Project management)
}}
[[Category:ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်]]
[[Category:ဗျူဟာ]]
[[Category:စိုတ်ပညာ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]]
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'''ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ပြင်သေတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''French Revolution'', ပြင်သေတ်: ''Révolution française'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် [[ပြင်သေတ်]] (France) နူကဵု သၞာံ ၁၇၈၉ စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၁၇၉၉ ရ။ ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မပလီုပလာ် လဝ် သၞောတ် သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် အလုံအိုတ်သီု (Absolute monarchy) မအုပ်ဓုပ် ကၠုင်လဝ် ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် ဗွဲမလအ်လ တုဲ၊ ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် သမ္မတ (Republic) ပထမအိုတ် အပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် ရ။ ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး ကေုာံ လညာတ် နူကဵု ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် ဝင် ဥရောပ သီုမွဲ ကေုာံ ကဵု သြဇာ လတူ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် [[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy) အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။<ref name="doyle">{{cite book |last=Doyle |first=W. |title=The Oxford History of the French Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryoff00doyl |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryoff00doyl/page/15 15]-20}}</ref>
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဏအ်ရ၊ လညာတ် တြေံ မပ္တံကဵု သၞောတ် သၟိင်စဍီု (Feudalism) ကေုာံ အခေါင်တၟေင် သွက် ဂကောံ သာသနာ ကေုာံ သၟိင်တၠ တအ် ဒးဒုင် ပလီုပလာ် ထောအ် တုဲ၊ စၞးဂှ် အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ဓမ္မတာ (Civil rights)၊ တင်တုပ်သၟဟ် ကေုာံ ဓဝ်ဗၠးၜး တအ် ပြာကတ် ကၠုင် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ပြင်သေတ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဟိုတ် မကတဵုဒှ်၊ လၟေင် အကာဲအရာ၊ ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ ဍေဟ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Prise de la Bastille.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ပြင်သေတ် တအ် ဗတိုက် လုပ် ထံင် ဗာသတဳ (Storming of the Bastille) ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၁၄ ဂျူလာင် ၁၇၈၉ မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Overview) ==
ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ပြင်သေတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပေါဲဗတိုက် မၞိဟ် ဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဒစးဒုင် ကဵု သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် တြေံ (Ancien Régime) ရ။ အခိင်ဂှ် ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် ဂှ် အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် နကဵု သၟိင် [[လူးဝစ် ၁၆]] (King Louis XVI) တုဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဒးဒုင် ဂိ ဗွဲမလောန် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍိုန်လျ၊ အခေါန် မသၠုင်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။
ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဏအ်ဝွံ စတင် နကဵု ပရေင်ကော် ကံင်သဳ ဂကောံ ၃ သာ် (Estates-General) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၇၈၉ တုဲ၊ ဆက် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ လၟေင် ပရေင်ကသဳကၟံက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ချူ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ တၟိ၊ ပရေင်ပလီုကၠေအ် အာဏာ သၟိင်၊ ကေုာံ ခေတ် ဂစိုတ် ပရီု (Reign of Terror) ရ။ လအိတ် ဍေဟ် ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၇၉၉ အခိင် ကာလ သကိုပ်ပၞာန် [[နပိုလဳယောန် ဗဝ်နာပါတ်]] (Napoleon Bonaparte) သီကေတ် အာဏာ ဍုင် ရ။
== ၂။ ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ကိုပ်ကၠာ (Causes and Background) ==
ဟိုတ် မကတဵုဗဒှ် ညံင် ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ အကာဲအရာ အဓိက ၃ သာ် ရ -
# '''ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Social Inequality):''' ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ပြင်သေတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် ၃ ကဆံင် (Three Estates) ร။ ကဆံင် ၁ (လကျာ်) ကဵု ကဆံင် ၂ (သၟိင်တၠ) တအ် နွံကဵု အခေါင်တၟေင် ကေုာံ ဟွံဒး ကဵု အခေါန် (Taxes) ร။ ဆဂး ကဆံင် ၃ (ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဓမ္မတာ မဒှ် ၉၈% ညးဍုင်) ဂှ် ဒးကဵု အခေါန် သီုဖအိုတ် တုဲ ဒးဒုင် ဍဵုဍိုက် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
# '''ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economic Crisis):''' ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် ဒးဒုင် ကျ သြန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပၞာန် ၇ သၞာံ (Seven Years' War) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထံက်ပင် ပၞာန် ဗၠးၜး အမေရိကာန် (American Revolution) ร။ တုဲပၠန် ဟိုတ်နူ ဥတု ဟွံခိုဟ် တုဲ သြောအ် ဟွံခိုဟ် (Crop failures) မကတဵုဗဒှ် ပြသၞာ ကွာင် ဟွံမဲ သွက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ร။
# '''လညာတ် ခေတ် ပညာ (Enlightenment):''' လညာတ် နူကဵု တၠပညာ မပ္တံကဵု ဗော်လ်တဲ (Voltaire) ကေုာံ ရူသဝ် (Rousseau) တအ် မဟီုတွံ ပရူ အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်၊ ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် တအ်ဂှ် ကဵု သတိ ကု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဒစးဒုင် ကု သၞောတ် တြေံ ร။<ref name="lefebvre">{{cite book |last=Lefebvre |first=G. |title=The French Revolution: From its Origins to 1793 |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2001 |pages=25-30}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ၃ ကဆံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် (Estates of the Realm)
|-
! ကဆံင် (Estate)
! မၞိဟ် ပါလုပ်
! လၟိဟ် ရာခိုင်နှုန်း ညးဍုင်
! အခေါင်တၟေင် ကေုာံ တာလျိုင်
|-
| '''ကဆံင် ပထမ (First Estate)'''
| ဂကောံ သာသနာ ကေုာံ လကျာ် (Clergy)
| 1%
| ဟွံဒး ကဵု အခေါန်။ နွံကဵု တိဍာ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။
|-
| '''ကဆံင် ဒုတိယ (Second Estate)'''
| သၟိင်တၠ ကေုာံ ဂကူ သၠုင် (Nobility)
| 2%
| ဟွံဒး ကဵု အခေါန်။ ကလိဂွံ ကဆံင် သၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ပၞာန်။
|-
| '''ကဆံင် တတိယ (Third Estate)'''
| ညးဍုင်ကွာန်၊ သၟာဗၞိက်၊ သၟာတဵုလွဳ (Commoners)
| 97%
| ဒးကဵု အခေါန် သီုဖအိုတ်။ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု အခေါင်အရာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်။
|}
== ၃။ စတင် ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ကေုာံ ဗတိုက် ထံင် ဗာသတဳ (Outbreak and Storming of the Bastille) ==
ပ္ဍဲ မေ ၁၇၈၉၊ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု သြန် ဘဏ္ဍာ ဍုင် အိုတ် အာ တုဲ၊ သၟိင် လူးဝစ် ၁၆ ကော် ပကောံ ကံင်သဳ ဂကောံ ၃ သာ် (Estates-General) ရ။ ဆဂး ကဆံင် တတိယ (Third Estate) တအ် ဟွံပေင်စိုတ် ကဵု သၞောတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် မာဲ (Voting system) တုဲ ညးတအ် ပါ်တိတ် အာ ခၞံဗဒှ် [[ကံင်သဳ ကောန်ဂကူ]] (National Assembly) ရ။ ညးတအ် သစ္စာ ကေတ် ရေင်သကအ် ပ္ဍဲ ရုံ ဝေင် တေန်နစ် (Tennis Court Oath) ဒဒှ်ရ ညးတအ် ဟွံပါ်တိတ် ရေင်သကအ် စဵုကဵု ခၞံဗဒှ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ တၟိ မာန် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ဂျူလာင် ၁၄၊ ၁၇၈၉၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ပါရဳ (Paris) တအ် ဖေက်လန် ဒဒှ်ရ သၟိင် ကော် ပၞာန် သွက်ဂွံ ဍဵုဍိုက် ညးတအ် တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် လုပ် ဗတိုက် [[ထံင် ဗာသတဳ]] (Bastille) မဒှ် ထံင် ကေုာံ တိုက် လွဟ် မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အာဏာ သၟိင် ร။ တ္ၚဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် တ္ၚဲ စတင် ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် အလုံ ဍုင် တုဲ၊ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဂှ် လၟုဟ် ညးစၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နဒဒှ် တ္ၚဲ ကောန်ဂကူ ပြင်သေတ် (Bastille Day) ရ။
== ၄။ လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် (Declaration of the Rights of Man) ==
ပ္ဍဲ အဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၇၈၉ ဂှ်၊ ကံင်သဳ ကောန်ဂကူ ပတိတ် လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ကောန်ဍုင် (Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen) ရ။ လိက် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ တုဲ ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နကဵု အခေါင် ဗၠးၜး ကေုာံ တုပ်သၟဟ် ရေင်သကအ် (Men are born and remain free and equal in rights)" ရ။<ref name="hunt">{{cite book |last=Hunt |first=L. |title=Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsculturec0000hunt_p8w4 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1984 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/politicsculturec0000hunt_p8w4/page/70 70]-75}}</ref>
လိက်လလောင်တြး ဏအ်ဝွံ ပလီုကၠေအ် အခေါင်တၟေင် သွက် ဂကူ သၠုင် ကေုာံ လကျာ် တအ် တုဲ၊ ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် - [[ဗၠးၜး၊ တုပ်သၟဟ်၊ ကောဒေအ်]] (Liberté, égalité, fraternité) ရ။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပလီု သၞောတ် သၟိင် ကေုာံ သမ္မတ ပထမ (Abolition of Monarchy and First Republic) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ညးတအ် ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ် သၟိင် မဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Constitutional monarchy) ကီုလေဝ်၊ အကာဲအရာ တအ် ပရေအ် တိုန် ရ။ သၟိင် လူးဝစ် ၁၆ ကဵု ဂကောံ သ္ၚိကၟိန် ညး ဂစာန် ဒြေပ် တိတ် နူ ဍုင် (Flight to Varennes) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၇၉၁ ဆဂး ဒးဒုင် ရပ် ဂွံ ရ။
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဖေက်လန် ဒဒှ်ရ ဍုင် ဝုတ်ဒိုဟ် မပ္တံကဵု သြသတြဳယျာ (Austria) ကေုာံ ပရတ်ရှာ (Prussia) တအ် လုပ် ဗတိုက် ပြင်သေတ် သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ပတိုန် သၟိင် ဂှ်ရ၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ထေဲစိုတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သေပ်တေမ်ဗာ ၁၇၉၂ ဂှ် ညးတအ် ပလီုကၠေအ် သၞောတ် သၟိင် တုဲ လလောင်တြး ခၞံဗဒှ် [[သမ္မတ ပထမ ပြင်သေတ်]] (First French Republic) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၁၇၉၃ ဂှ် သၟိင် လူးဝစ် ၁၆ ဒးဒုင် ရေက် ကအ် နကဵု စက် [[ဂဳလဝ်တေန်]] (Guillotine) ဟိုတ်နူ ဒုဟ် သစ္စာဖောက် ဍုင် ရ။
== ၆။ ခေတ် ဂစိုတ် ပရီု (The Reign of Terror) ==
အကြာ သၞာံ ၁၇၉၃ ကဵု ၁၇၉၄ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဂှ် စိုပ် အာ ကဆံင် မကြမ်ကြ ဗွဲမလောန် မကော်စ "ခေတ် ဂစိုတ် ပရီု" (Reign of Terror) ရ။ အခိင်ဏအ် ဂှ် အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် နကဵု [[ကမ္မတဳ ဂီုကၠီု ညးဍုင်ကွာန်]] (Committee of Public Safety) မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် နကဵု မက်ဆဳမဳလဳယေန် ရဝ်ဗသပဳယျာ (Maximilien Robespierre) ရ။<ref name="schama">{{cite book |last=Schama |first=S. |title=Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/citizenschronicl00scha_1 |publisher=Knopf |year=1989 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/citizenschronicl00scha_1/page/600 600]-610}}</ref>
ရဝ်ဗသပဳယျာ ကေုာံ ဂကောံ ညးတအ် (Jacobins) စကာ အာဏာ သွက်ဂွံ ရပ် ကေုာံ ဂစိုတ် မၞိဟ် မသၠေဟ်ပၟာ ဒဒှ်ရ ဒစးဒုင် ကု ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ရ။ မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် ၁၆,၀၀၀ ကဵု ၄၀,၀၀၀ (သီုကဵု မိဖုရား မာရဳ အာန်တွာနက် - Marie Antoinette) ဒးဒုင် ရေက် ကအ် နကဵု စက် ဂဳလဝ်တေန် ရ။ ခေတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ အိုတ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ ဂျူလာင် ၁၇၉၄ အခိင် ကာလ ရဝ်ဗသပဳယျာ အလဵု ဇကု လေဝ် ဒးဒုင် ရပ် တုဲ ဒးဒုင် ဂစိုတ် ကီု ရ (Thermidorian Reaction)။
== ၇။ သၞောတ် ဒါရိုက်တဝ်ရဳ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ညိင်ဝတ် (The Directory) ==
ကြဴနူ ခေတ် ဂစိုတ် ပရီု တုဲ၊ ပြင်သေတ် တအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ တၟိ (၁၇၉၅) မအုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံ မၞိဟ် ၅ တၠ မကော်စ [[ဒါရိုက်တဝ်ရဳ]] (The Directory) ရ။
သၞောတ် ဒါရိုက်တဝ်ရဳ ဝွံ ဂစာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ညံင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂွံ ညိင်ဝတ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ ကု ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်အဂတိ (Corruption)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဒစးဒုင် နူကဵု ဂကောံ မၞိဟ် ၜါ လပါ် (ညးမမိက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ပတိုန် သၟိင် ကေုာံ ညးမမိက်ဂွံ ကလေင် စကာ သၞောတ် ရဝ်ဗသပဳယျာ) ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ အလဵုအသဳ ဏအ် ဒးတန်တဴ လတူ ဒြဟတ် ပၞာန် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ အာဏာ ရ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် နပိုလဳယောန် ကေုာံ လအိတ် ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် (Rise of Napoleon and End of the Revolution) ==
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု သၞောတ် ဒါရိုက်တဝ်ရဳ ဍိုန်လျ ဒၟံင် ဂှ်ရ၊ သကိုပ်ပၞာန် ဝုတ်ဗၠာဲ မနွံကဵု အံင်ဇၞး ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ပၞာန် မနွံယၟု နပိုလဳယောန် ဗဝ်နာပါတ် ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ သြဇာ အလုံ ဍုင် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ နဝ်ဝေမ်ဗာ ၉၊ ၁၇၉၉ (18 Brumaire) ဂှ်၊ နပိုလဳယောန် ကၠောန် ပရေင်သီအာဏာ (Coup d'état) တုဲ ပလီုကၠေအ် သၞောတ် ဒါရိုက်တဝ်ရဳ ရ။<ref name="furet">{{cite book |last=Furet |first=F. |title=Interpreting the French Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/interpretingfren0000fure |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1981 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/interpretingfren0000fure/page/55 55]-60}}</ref>
ညးတေအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် သၞောတ် ကံင်သဵု (The Consulate) တုဲ ညးတေအ် အလဵု ဇကု ဒှ် "ကံင်သဵု ပထမ" (First Consul) ရ။ လၟေင် အကာဲအရာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ညးဝင် တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နဒဒှ် လအိတ် ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ပြင်သေတ် ရ။ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၀၄ ဂှ် နပိုလဳယောန် ခပတိုန် ဇကု နဒဒှ် ဨကရာဇ် (Emperor) ရ။
== ၉။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပြင်သေတ် ကေုာံ ဂၠးတိ (Impact on France and the World) ==
ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ပြင်သေတ် ဝွံ ကဵု ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ ဝင် ဂၠးတိ -
* '''လတူ ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ်:''' ဍေဟ် ပလီုကၠေအ် သၞောတ် သၟိင်စဍီု ကေုာံ အခေါင်တၟေင် သာသနာ။ ဍေဟ် ခၞံဗဒှ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ တုပ်သၟဟ် (Napoleonic Code မကတဵုဒှ် လက္ကရဴ) ကေုာံ သၞောတ် တိဍာ် တၟိ သွက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန်။
* '''လတူ ဥရောပ:''' လညာတ် ဗၠးၜး ကဵု တုပ်သၟဟ် ဂှ် ပြးဇး အာ အလုံ ဥရောပ တုဲ ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပရေင်ကသဳကၟံက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် တၞဟ် တအ် (ဥပမာ - ပၞာန် ၁၈၄၈)။
* '''လတူ ဂၠးတိ:''' ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် သွက် ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဟေတဳ (Haitian Revolution) မဒှ် ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဍိက် မအံင်ဇၞး ပထမအိုတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ဍုင် လာတေန် အမေရိက (Latin American wars of independence) ရ။
== ၁၀။ လကျာ် ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ ဝင် (Conclusion and Historical Legacy) ==
ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ပြင်သေတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် ဗီုပြင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် မချပ် လတူ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် လဝ် ပရေင်ဆီပါ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကြမ်ကြ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ လညာတ် မပ္တံကဵု အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်၊ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ၊ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် သမ္မတ တအ်ဂှ် တန်တဴ အာ နဒဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] ဝင် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အဓိကအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု ခေတ် တြေံ စိုပ် ခေတ် တၟိ (Modern Era) ရောင် ညးဝင် တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[နပိုလဳယောန် ဗဝ်နာပါတ်]] (Napoleon Bonaparte)
* [[လူးဝစ် ၁၆]] (Louis XVI)
* [[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy)
* [[ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် အမေရိကာန်]] (American Revolution)
{{Navbox
| name = French Revolution
| title = ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ပြင်သေတ် (French Revolution)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ လၟေင် အကာဲအရာ
| list1 =
* [[ကံင်သဳ ဂကောံ ၃ သာ်]] (Estates General)
* [[ထံင် ဗာသတဳ]] (Bastille)
* [[လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Declaration of the Rights of Man)
* [[ခေတ် ဂစိုတ် ပရီု]] (Reign of Terror)
| group2 = ပူဂိုလ် အဓိက ဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[လူးဝစ် ၁၆]] (Louis XVI)
* [[မက်ဆဳမဳလဳယေန် ရဝ်ဗသပဳယျာ]] (Maximilien Robespierre)
* [[နပိုလဳယောန် ဗဝ်နာပါတ်]] (Napoleon Bonaparte)
| group3 = အစောံ ကေုာံ လညာတ်
| list3 =
* [[ဗၠးၜး၊ တုပ်သၟဟ်၊ ကောဒေအ်]] (Liberté, égalité, fraternité)
* [[သမ္မတ ပထမ ပြင်သေတ်]] (First French Republic)
* [[ဒါရိုက်တဝ်ရဳ]] (The Directory)
* [[ဂဳလဝ်တေန်]] (Guillotine)
}}
[[Category:ဝင် ပြင်သေတ်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန်]]
[[Category:၁၈ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ]]
[[Category:ဝင် ဥရောပ]]
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'''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပါရာဒါင်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Paradigm shift'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒဿနိကဗေဒ သိပ္ပံ မဟီုတွံ ပရူ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ သဇိုင် ရိုဟ်ကၞက်၊ လညာတ်၊ ကေုာံ နဲကဲ စမ်ၜတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ သိပ္ပံ မွဲမွဲ ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကေုာံ ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် နကဵု တၠပညာ ရူပဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဒဿနိကဗေဒ ဂကူအမေရိကာန် [[သောမတ် ကွန်]] (Thomas Kuhn) ပ္ဍဲ ပြကိုဟ် ညးမပြာကတ် မနွံယၟု "လဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် သိပ္ပံ" (''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'', ၁၉၆၂) ရ။<ref name="kuhn">{{cite book |last=Kuhn |first=T. S. |title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions |url=https://archive.org/details/structureofscien0000thom |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1962 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/structureofscien0000thom/page/10 10]-15}}</ref>
ကိုပ်ကၠာ ကွန် ဟွံကတဵုဒှ် ဏီ ဂှ်၊ မၞိဟ်တအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပညာ သိပ္ပံ ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် နကဵု လၟေင် ပံင်ကောံ (Cumulative progress) မဒှ် ပရေင်ထပ် စုတ် တင်ဂၞင် တၟိ လတူ တင်ဂၞင် တြေံ ညိည ညိည သၟး ရ။ ဆဂး ကွန် ထ္ၜးလဝ် သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ ဝင် သိပ္ပံ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် (Revolutions) မကတဵုဒှ် နကဵု အလန် မတတ်ကၠောအ် အာ လညာတ် တြေံ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ဍေဟ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Duck-Rabbit_illusion.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် "ခၟာဲၚာင်-ယန်" (Duck-Rabbit illusion) ဝွံ ဒှ် ဥပမာ သွက် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ လညာတ် (Paradigm shift) မွဲ ရ။ ကာလ မူသဇိုင် ပြံင်လှာဲ မ္ဂး ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ မၞိဟ် လတူ အရာ မွဲလေဝ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ အလုံစုံ ရ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"မူသဇိုင်" (Paradigm) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကောံ လညာတ်၊ သဳအိုရဳ၊ နဲကဲ သုတေသန၊ ကေုာံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် မတၠပညာ သိပ္ပံ တအ် ဒုင်တဲ ကေုာံ စကာ မွဲစွံ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင်ကာလ မွဲမွဲ ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် "မှန်" မွဲ မပကဵု ညံင် တၠပညာ တအ် ဂွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
"ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင်" (Paradigm shift) မ္ဂးဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မူသဇိုင် တြေံ ဂှ် ဟွံမာန် သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ တၟိ (Anomalies) မကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် တအ် တုဲ၊ ဂကောံ သိပ္ပံ တအ် ဒးဒုင်တဲ လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ တၟိ အလုံစုံ မွဲ ရ။ လညာတ် တၟိ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဍေဟ် ဟွံသေင် ပရေင်ပလေဝ်ပလေတ် လတူ လညာတ် တြေံ သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် သဇိုင် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် လညာတ် တြေံ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ သောမတ် ကွန် (History and Thomas Kuhn) ==
သောမတ် ကွန် ဝွံ ဒှ် တၠပညာ ရူပဗေဒ မွဲ တုဲ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ လ္ၚတ် ဝင် သိပ္ပံ (History of Science) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ညးတေအ် လ္ၚတ် ဝင် လညာတ် [[အရစ်သတဝ်တယ်]] (Aristotle) ဂှ်၊ ညးတေအ် ဂွံတီ ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ လညာတ် ရူပဗေဒ တြေံ တအ်ဂှ် ဍေဟ် ဟွံသေင် လညာတ် မယောန်မှာ သက်သက်၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ် လညာတ် မဍာံပြ အတိုင် မူသဇိုင် အခိင် ကာလ တေအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂၊ ကွန် ချူ ပတိတ် လိက် "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" ရ။ လိက် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒစးဒုင် လညာတ် ပိုစဳတဳဗိဇေမ် (Positivism) ကေုာံ လညာတ် [[ကားလ် ပေါပ်ပါ]] (Karl Popper) မဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ သိပ္ပံ ဂှ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် နကဵု ပရေင်ပလီု သဳအိုရဳ ယောန် (Falsification) လၟိုန် အဆက်ဆက် ရ။<ref name="popper">{{cite book |last=Popper |first=K. |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |url=https://archive.org/details/logicofscientifi00popp |publisher=Hutchinson |year=1959 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/logicofscientifi00popp/page/40 40]-45}}</ref>
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ပြံင်လှာဲ (The Cycle of Paradigm Shift) ==
သောမတ် ကွန် ပါ်လဝ် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ဇၞော်မောဝ် သိပ္ပံ နကဵု ကဆံင် အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ကဆံင် လၟေင်ကမၠောန် ကွန် (Kuhn's Cycle)
|-
! ကဆံင်
! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! အကာဲအရာ အဓိက
|-
| '''၁။ သိပ္ပံ ကိုပ်ကၠာ (Pre-Science)'''
| အခိင် မဟွံမဲ ကဵု မူသဇိုင် (Paradigm) မွဲဓဝ်။
| ဂကောံ တၠပညာ တအ် နွံကဵု လညာတ် တၞဟ်ခြာ၊ ဟွံမဲ သၞောတ်ဝ် မွဲ။
|-
| '''၂။ သိပ္ပံ ဓမ္မတာ (Normal Science)'''
| အခိင် မဒုင်တဲ မူသဇိုင် မွဲဓဝ် အလုံ ဂကောံ။
| ညးတအ် သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ ဍောတ်တ် (Puzzle-solving) အတိုင် မူသဇိုင်။
|-
| '''၃။ ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ ကပ်ဘဲ (Crisis)'''
| အရာ မဟွံဓမ္မတာ (Anomalies) ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဂၠိုင်င်။
| မူသဇိုင် တြေံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ ဟွံမာန်၊ တၠပညာ တအ် စသၠေဟ်ပၟာ။
|-
| '''၄။ ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် (Revolution)'''
| ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင် အလုံစုံ (Paradigm Shift)။
| သဳအိုရဳ တၟိ တိတ် ကၠုင် တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် သဇိုင် လညာတ် တြေံ သီုဖအိုတ်။
|-
| '''၅။ သိပ္ပံ ဓမ္မတာ တၟိ (New Normal Science)'''
| မူသဇိုင် တၟိ ဂှ် ဒှ် အာ သဇိုင် ဓမ္မတာ။
| တၠပညာ တအ် ကလေင် စ ကမၠောန် Puzzle-solving အတိုင် သၞောတ် တၟိ ပၠန်။
|}
== ၄။ သိပ္ပံ ဓမ္မတာ ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ မကတဵုဒှ် (Normal Science and Anomalies) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ကဆံင် [[သိပ္ပံ ဓမ္မတာ]] (Normal Science) ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ တအ် ဟွံဂစာန် ဂၠာဲ သဳအိုရဳ တၟိ ပုဟ်။ ညးတအ် ဂစာန် ဖန် ညံင် မူသဇိုင် မနွံ ဒၟံင် လၟုဟ် ဂွံ ခိုဟ် တိုန် ကေုာံ ဍိုက်ပေင် တိုန် ရ။ ကွန် ကော်စ ကမၠောန် ဏအ် "ပရေင်သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ" (Puzzle-solving) ရ။
ဆဂး ကာလ အခိင် လအ် အာ၊ ညးတအ် ဆဵုဂဗ ကၠုင် "အရာ ဟွံဓမ္မတာ" (Anomalies) မဒှ် သွဟ် စမ်ၜတ် မဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု မူသဇိုင် တြေံ ရ။ ဗွဲဓမ္မတာ မ္ဂး၊ တၠပညာ တအ် ဟွံပလီု မူသဇိုင် တြေံ ဓဝ်ဓဝ်၊ ညးတအ် စကာ နဲကဲ လေအ်လှန် (Ad hoc modifications) သွက်ဂွံ ပလေဝ် ပြသၞာ ဏအ် ရ။<ref name="hacking">{{cite book |last=Hacking |first=I. |title=Introductory Essay to Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2012 |pages=x-xv}}</ref>
== ၅။ အကာဲအရာ ကပ်ဘဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် (Crisis and Scientific Revolution) ==
ကာလ အရာ ဟွံဓမ္မတာ တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဂၠိုင် လောန် အာ တုဲ ပရေင်ပလေဝ် (Ad hoc) တအ်လေဝ် သောင်ကလး ဟွံမာန် မ္ဂး၊ ဂကောံ သိပ္ပံ ဂှ် စိုပ် အာ ကဆံင် "ကပ်ဘဲ" (Crisis) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဏအ်၊ ဓဝ်ယုံကြည် လတူ မူသဇိုင် တြေံ ဂှ် စှ်ေ အာ တုဲ တၠပညာ တအ် စဂၠာဲ လညာတ် တၟိ ရ။
ကာလ လညာတ် တၟိ (New Paradigm) မာန် သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ တြေံ ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ တၟိ တအ် ဂွံ အလုံစုံ မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင် (Scientific Revolution) ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ တုပ် ညံင်ရဴ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဘာသာ (Religious conversion) ကီု၊ ဟိုတ်မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ဒးပြံင်လှာဲ လညာတ် ဇကု အလုံစုံ ရ။
== ၆။ ဥပမာ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် သိပ္ပံ (Major Examples in History of Science) ==
ဝင် သိပ္ပံ ဝွံ ဍိုက်ပေင် ဒၟံင် နကဵု ဥပမာ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် ကဝ်ပါနဳကပ် (Copernican Revolution):''' ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု လညာတ် [[ပတဝ်လမဳ]] (Ptolemy) မဟီုတွံ တိ ဒှ် ဗဟဵု ဂၠးတိ ဂှ်၊ စိုပ် အာ လညာတ် [[ကဝ်ပါနဳကပ်]] (Copernicus) မဟီုတွံ တ္ၚဲ ဒှ် ဗဟဵု ရ။
* '''ရူပဗေဒ ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern Physics):''' ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု ရူပဗေဒ [[နယူတန်]] (Newtonian mechanics) မဟီုတွံ အခိင် ကေုာံ ဌာန် တန်တဴ ဓမ္မတာ ဂှ်၊ စိုပ် အာ လညာတ် [[အာင်သတာင်]] (Einstein) မဟီုတွံ သဳအိုရဳ ဆက်စပ် (Relativity) ကေုာံ [[သဳအိုရဳ ကွမ်တမ်]] (Quantum mechanics) ရ။
* '''ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ စၟ (Germ Theory):''' ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု လညာတ် "Miasma theory" (ယဲ ကတဵုဒှ် နူ ကျာ ပရေအ်) ဂှ် စိုပ် အာ "Germ theory" (ယဲ ကတဵုဒှ် နူ စၟ ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ ကေုာံ ဗိုင်းရပ်)။<ref name="barker">{{cite journal |last=Barker |first=P. |author2=Goldstein, B. R. |title=Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy |journal=Osiris |volume=16 |pages=88-113 |year=2001}}</ref>
== ၇။ လညာတ် တၞဟ်ခြာ လတူ သဳအိုရဳ ကွန် (Criticisms and Alternative Theories) ==
သဳအိုရဳ သောမတ် ကွန် ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ပါ်ပါဲ နူကဵု တၠပညာ ဒဿနိကဗေဒ တၞဟ် တအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ တင်အဓိက မဒးဒုင် ပါ်ပါဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် "Incommensurability" (ပရေင်ဟွံမာန် ၜတ်ကၞာတ်) ရ။ ကွန် ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ မူသဇိုင် တြေံ ကဵု တၟိ ဂှ် ဟွံမာန် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ရေင်သကအ် နကဵု ပရေင်ယုတ္တိ ဓမ္မတာ (Objectively) ရ။
[[အေမ်ရေ လာကာတဝ်]] (Imre Lakatos) ဂှ် ဒစးဒုင် လညာတ် ဏအ် တုဲ ညးတေအ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် "Scientific Research Programmes" မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ သဳအိုရဳ သိပ္ပံ ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် အာ နကဵု ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် အကြာ သၞောတ် သုတေသန ဂမၠိုင် ရ၊ ဟွံသေင် နကဵု ကပ်ဘဲ မပြဟ်ပြဟ် သက်သက် ပုဟ်။<ref name="lakatos">{{cite book |last=Lakatos |first=I. |title=Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1970 |pages=91-95}}</ref>
== ၈။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Applications in Business and Society) ==
ၜိုန်ရ "Paradigm shift" ဝွံ စကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သိပ္ပံ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အာ ဝေါဟာရ ဓမ္မတာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Society) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင် ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကာလ ကွတ်ပညာ တၟိ (Disruptive technology) ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် သၞောတ် သွံရာန် တြေံ အလုံစုံ ရ။ ဥပမာ -
* ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု ရုပ်ရှင် ပလာသတစ် (Kodak) စိုပ် ကေမရာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital cameras)။
* ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု စက် ကၠောန် လိက် (Typewriter) စိုပ် ကောန်ပျူတာ (Computers) ကေုာံ အင်တာနက်။
== ၉။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဒဿနိကဗေဒ ကေုာံ လညာတ် ခေတ်တၟိ (Impact on Philosophy and Modern Thought) ==
လညာတ် ကွန် ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ လညာတ် ခေတ်တၟိ လက္ကရဴ (Postmodernism) ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ညးတေအ် ထ္ၜးလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "အရာ မဍာံပြ" (Truth) ပ္ဍဲ သိပ္ပံ ဂှ် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု မူသဇိုင် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ အခိင်ကာလ (Social construct) ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍေဟ် ပလီု ထောအ် လညာတ် မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ သိပ္ပံ ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မဍာံပြ သက်သက် ၁၀၀ ရာခိုင်နှုန်း ဂှ် ရ။
လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵု အခေါင် သွက် သုတေသန ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Sociology of scientific knowledge) သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ၊ ကေုာံ အဝဵုအာဏာ တအ် ကဵု သြဇာ လတူ သွဟ် သိပ္ပံ တအ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ ကဏ္ဍ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ နည်းပညာ (Future Shifts and Technological Paradigm) ==
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင် ဝွံ ဆက် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ လၟိုန် ရ။ တၠပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒၟံင် ဒဒှ်ရ ပိုယ် ညးတအ် နွံ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သြင် ဇိုင် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇၞော် မွဲပၠန် မဟိုတ်နူကဵု -
* '''[[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence):''' မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ လညာတ် ပရူ မုဒှ် ဉာဏ် ပညာ (Intelligence) ကေုာံ ကမၠောန် မၞိဟ်။
* '''[[ကွမ်တမ် ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Quantum Computing):''' မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင် သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ (Theoretical computer science) အလုံစုံ။
* '''ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဇဳဝဗေဒ (CRISPR/Gene Editing):''' မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ သဇိုင် လညာတ် ပရူ ပရေင်မင်မဲ လမျီု ကေုာံ ယဲဂမၠိုင်။
ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင် တအ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဍေဟ် တုပ် ညံင်ရဴ သၞောတ်ဝ် သဘာဝ မွဲ တုဲ၊ သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ဂှ် ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အရာ မဒး ကတဵုဒှ် ဍာံပြ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သောမတ် ကွန်]] (Thomas Kuhn)
* [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ သိပ္ပံ]] (Philosophy of science)
* [[ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် သိပ္ပံ]] (Scientific revolution)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory)
{{Navbox
| name = Philosophy of Science
| title = ဒဿနိကဗေဒ သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ (Philosophy of Science and Shifts)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လညာတ် အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ မူသဇိုင်]] (Paradigm shift)
* [[သိပ္ပံ ဓမ္မတာ]] (Normal science)
* [[ပရေင်ကတဵုပၠန် သိပ္ပံ]] (Scientific revolution)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory)
| group2 = တၠပညာဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[သောမတ် ကွန်]] (Thomas Kuhn)
* [[ကားလ် ပေါပ်ပါ]] (Karl Popper)
* [[အေမ်ရေ လာကာတဝ်]] (Imre Lakatos)
* [[ကဝ်ပါနဳကပ်]] (Nicolaus Copernicus)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဝင် သိပ္ပံ]] (History of science)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ကွမ်တမ်]] (Quantum theory)
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
}}
[[Category:ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ]]
[[Category:သဳအိုရဳဂမၠိုင်]]
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'''ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ပရေင်ပြံင်ဒတန်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Migration'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Human migration'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဌာန်ဒတန် မၞိဟ် တအ် နူကဵု ဒေသ မွဲ ဇရေင် ဒေသ မွဲပၠန် သွက်ဂွံ တန်တဴ ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ အာ ပွိုင် အခိင် လအ်လ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အလုံ မွဲ ဘဝ ရ။ ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဝွံ မာန် ကတဵုဒှ် အပ္ဍဲ မွဲ ဍုင် (Internal migration) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တတ် အာ ပယျဵု ဍုင် တၞဟ် (International migration) ရ။ မၞိဟ် မပြံင်ဆာဲ တအ်ဂှ် ညးကော်စ မၞိဟ်ပြံင်ဒတန် (Migrants) တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ တအ် ရ။<ref name="castles">{{cite book |last=Castles |first=S. |author2=Miller, M. J. |title=The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofmigrationin00cast_0 |edition=4th |publisher=Guilford Press |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofmigrationin00cast_0/page/16 15]-20}}</ref>
ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဘာဝ အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်၊ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဂကူ နာနာ၊ [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory)၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Net_migration_rate_world.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် လက္ကရဴ ဂၠးတိ ထ္ၜးကဵု လၟိဟ် ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ (Net migration rate) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် နာနာ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ" (Migration) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် မၞိဟ် နူ ဌာန် တမ်မူလ ဇရေင် ဌာန် တၟိ မွဲ ရ။ နကဵု သၞောတ် ဂကောံ ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဂၠးတိ (International Organization for Migration - IOM) မ္ဂး၊ မၞိဟ် မပြံင်ဆာဲ (Migrant) ဂှ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မပြံင်လှာဲ ဒၞာဲ ဇကု မံင် လၟိုန် (Habitual residence) ဟွံရုဲ ဒဒှ်ရ ပြံင် အလဵုစိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒးဒုင် ဓရိုဟ် ပတိတ် ရ။
ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် လဝ် နကဵု ဝေါဟာရ အဓိက ၜါ သာ် -
* '''Emigration (ပရေင်တိတ် နူ ဍုင်):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်တိတ် အာ နူကဵု ဍုင် တမ်မူလ ဇကု ရ။
* '''Immigration (ပရေင်လုပ် ဍုင်):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်လုပ် ကၠုင် တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် တၟိ မွဲ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ မၞိဟ် (History of Human Migration) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ စကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် တမၠာ တေအ် ရ။ လညာတ် သုတေသန ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တမၠာ (Homo sapiens) တအ် စတိတ် ကၠုင် နူ တိုက် အာဖရိက (Out of Africa) ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ၆၀,၀၀၀ စဵုကဵု ၇၀,၀၀၀ သၞာံ မတုဲ ကၠုင် တေအ် ရ။ ညးတအ် ပြးဇး အာ ဇရေင် တိုက် အာရှ၊ ဥရောပ ကေုာံ အမေရိက သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ စၞစ ကေုာံ ဌာန်ဒတန် မဂီုကၠီု ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် [[ကိုဝ်လဝ်နဳ]] (Colonialism) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ဍိက် (Slave trade) အကြာ ၁၆ ကဵု ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဂှ်၊ မၞိဟ် နူ အာဖရိက မဳလဳယာန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒးဒုင် ရပ် ဏာ ဇရေင် အမေရိက သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ရ။ စိုပ် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ တေအ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အလန် ပထမ ကေုာံ ဒုတိယ တုဲ၊ မၞိဟ် မဳလဳယာန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဥရောပ ဒး ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဒတန် ရ။
== ၃။ ဂကူ ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲဂမၠိုင် (Types of Migration) ==
ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဌာန်ဒတန် ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သာ် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ အပ္ဍဲ (Internal Migration):''' ပြံင်ဆာဲ အပ္ဍဲ ပယျဵု ဍုင် မွဲ ဓဝ် (ဥပမာ - နူ ကွာန် ပြံင် လုပ် ဍုင် ဇၞော်)။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဂၠးတိ (International Migration):''' ပြံင်ဆာဲ တတ် အာ ပယျဵု ဍုင် တၞဟ်။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ အလဵုစိုတ် (Voluntary Migration):''' ညးလွပ် တအ် ရုဲစှ် ပြံင်ဆာဲ နကဵု ပၟိက်စိုတ် ဇကု သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ကမၠောန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ပညာ။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ အဓမ္မ (Forced Migration):''' မၞိဟ် တအ် ဒး ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပၞာန်၊ ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဘဲ သဘာဝ။<ref name="massey">{{cite journal |last=Massey |first=D. S. |author2=Arango, J. |author3=Hugo, G. |author4=Kouaouci, A. |title=Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_population-and-development-review_1993-09_19_3/page/431 |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=431-466 |year=1993}}</ref>
== ၄။ ဟိုတ် ဓရိုဟ် ပတိတ် ကေုာံ ဟိုတ် ဓဇက် ပၠောပ် (Push and Pull Factors) ==
သဳအိုရဳ အဓိက အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် Push and Pull (ဓရိုဟ် ကဵု ဓဇက်) ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဟိုတ် ဓရိုဟ် ကေုာံ ဟိုတ် ဓဇက် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ
|-
! ဟိုတ် ဓရိုဟ် ပတိတ် (Push Factors - မာတ် နူ ဍုင် ဇကု)
! ဟိုတ် ဓဇက် ပၠောပ် (Pull Factors - တံင်ဓဇက် ဇရေင် ဍုင် တၟိ)
|-
| ကမၠောန် ဟွံမဲ (Unemployment) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍိုန်လျ။
| ကမၠောန် ဂၠိုင် ကေုာံ သြန်ဂိတု သၠုင် (Higher wages)။
|-
| ပရေင်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံညိင်ဝတ် ဍုင်ကွာန်။
| ပရေင်ညိင်ဝတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု (Safety and stability)။
|-
| ဘဲ သဘာဝ မပ္တံကဵု ဒေသ ကှ် ဍာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တိချဳ။
| ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ခိုဟ် ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရာ ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ ခိုဟ်။
|-
| ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက် လတူ ဘာသာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကူ (Persecution)။
| အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် (Human rights) ကေုာံ ဗၠးၜး။
|}
== ၅။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economic Impact) ==
ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဝွံ ကဵု ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍုင် ၜါ လပါ် (ဍုင် မတိတ် ကေုာံ ဍုင် မလုပ်) ရ -
* '''သွက် ဍုင် မဒုင်တဲ (Host Country):''' မၞိဟ် ပြံင်ဒတန် တအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဒြဟတ် ကမၠောန် (Labor force) ဂွံ ဍိုက်ပေင် တုဲ၊ ရီုဗင် ပ္ဍဲ ကမၠောန် မပ္တံကဵု သြိုင်ခၞံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ဍေဟ်တအ် ကဵု အခေါန် ဍုင် တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ရ။
* '''သွက် ဍုင် တမ်မူလ (Origin Country):''' မၞိဟ် ပြံင်ဒတန် တအ် ပလံင် ဖျဴ သြန် (Remittances) ဇရေင် သ္ၚိကၟိန် ဍေဟ်တအ် တုဲ ဍေဟ် ရီုဗင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍုင် တမ်မူလ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ ဆဂး ပြသၞာ မွဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် "ပရေင်ဉာဏ် တိတ် အာ" (Brain drain) ဟိုတ်နူ တၠပညာ ကေုာံ မၞိဟ် စောန် တအ် ပြံင် အာ ဍုင် တၞဟ် ရ။<ref name="iom">{{cite web |url=https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/ |title=World Migration Report 2020 |publisher=International Organization for Migration (IOM) |year=2020 |access-date=2023-10-04}}</ref>
== ၆။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Social and Cultural Impact) ==
ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ဍုင် မနွံကဵု ယေန်သၞာင် နာနာ (Multicultural societies) ရ။ မၞိဟ် ပြံင်ဒတန် တအ် ကေတ်နင် အခိုက်အလိုက်၊ စၞစ၊ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ၊ ကေုာံ ကွတ်အနုသုခုမ တၟိ စိုပ် ဍုင် မဒုင်တဲ ရ။
ဆဂး ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ယေန်သၞာင် ဏအ်ဝွံ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ကတဵုဗဒှ် ကဵု ပြသၞာ လညာတ် လပါ်ယောန် (Discrimination) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံဒးဂၞပ် လတူ မၞိဟ် ကၠုင် တၟိ (Xenophobia) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တြေံ တအ် မာန် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ညဳညဳသာသာ (Social integration) ဂှ် ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက် အလဵုအသဳ တအ် ရ။
== ၇။ ညးလဒပ် ကေုာံ ညးဂၠာဲ ဌာန်စဵုဒၞာ (Refugees and Asylum Seekers) ==
[[ညးလဒပ်]] (Refugees) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မဒး ဒြေပ် တိတ် နူ ဍုင် ဇကု ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက် (Persecution)၊ ပၞာန်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဘဲ အန္တရာယ် လမျီု တုဲ ဍေဟ်တအ် ကလေင် စဴ ဍုင် ဇကု ဟွံမာန် ဏီ ရ။ ညးဂၠာဲ ဌာန်စဵုဒၞာ (Asylum seekers) ဂှ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မအာတ် အခေါင် သွက်ဂွံ တန်တဴ နဒဒှ် ညးလဒပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် တၟိ ရ။
သၞောဝ် ဥပဒေ ဂၠးတိ မပ္တံကဵု လိက်ကသုက် ကေန်ဗနေတ် ညးလဒပ် ၁၉၅၁ (1951 Refugee Convention) ဝွံ ကဵု လဝ် အခေါင် အရာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ သွက် ညးလဒပ် တအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပၞာန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် သဳရဳယျာ (Syria)၊ ယူကရေန် (Ukraine) ကေုာံ ဍုင် တၞဟ် တအ် တုဲ၊ လၟိဟ် ညးလဒပ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ဇၞော် တိုန် စိုပ် ကဆံင် သၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ရ။
== ၈။ သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲဂမၠိုင် (Theories of Migration) ==
တၠပညာ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory) နာနာ သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ရ -<ref name="ravenstein">{{cite journal |last=Ravenstein |first=E. G. |title=The Laws of Migration |journal=Journal of the Statistical Society of London |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=167-235 |year=1885}}</ref>
* '''သၞောဝ် ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ရေဗေန်သတိန်း (Ravenstein's Laws of Migration):''' ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၈၅၊ မဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပြံင်ဆာဲ အာ ဇမ္ၚောဲ ဟွံသ္ၚောဲ (Short distance) တုဲ ဍေဟ်တအ် ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဇရေင် ဌာန် ဒေသ စက်ယန္တရား ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍုင် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ရ။
* '''သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ခေတ်တၟိ (Neoclassical Economics):''' လညာတ် ဏအ် ဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ သြန်ဂိတု အကြာ ဍုင် ၜါ (Wage differentials) ရ။
* '''သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Network Theory):''' လညာတ် ဏအ် ဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ မၞိဟ် တအ် ပြံင်ဆာဲ လောဲသွာ တိုန် ယဝ်ရ ညးတအ် နွံ ကလောကောဒေအ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သကအ်ရဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် မဒုင်တဲ ဂှ် ရ (Social networks)။
== ၉။ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ (Laws and Global Policies) ==
ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးတိ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။ ဍုင် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ဍုင် နွံကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် မလုပ် ဍုင် ဇကု ရ။ မၞိဟ် မလုပ် ဍုင် နကဵု သၞောဝ် ဍာံပြ ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ ဗဳဇာ (Visa) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အခေါင် တန်တဴ လၟိုန် (Permanent residency) ရ။
ဆဂး မၞိဟ် မပြံင်ဆာဲ ဟွံသ္ဒး သၞောဝ် (Undocumented or Illegal migration) တအ်ဝွံ ဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာယ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် အကြာ ဂၠံင် တရဴ (ဥပမာ - တတ် ၜဳ မေဒဳတေရာနဳယာန်) ကေုာံ ဒးဒုင် ရပ် ကြိုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကလေင် ပလံင် ဖျဴ ဍုင် (Deportation) ရ။ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (UN) တအ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် "တင်တုပ်စိုတ် ဂၠးတိ သွက် ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ" (Global Compact for Migration) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၈ သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဇန် ညံင် ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဂွံ နွံကဵု ဂီုကၠီု ကေုာံ စီောန် ညဳသာ ရ။<ref name="lee">{{cite journal |last=Lee |first=E. S. |title=A Theory of Migration |journal=Demography |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=47-57 |year=1966}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဟိုတ်နူ ဥတု (Future Trends and Climate Migration) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အနာဂတ် ဏအ်၊ ပြသၞာ ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate change) ဝွံ သေင် ဒှ် ဟိုတ် အဓိက အိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဂၠးတိ ရောင် တၠပညာ တအ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ရ။ "မၞိဟ် ပြံင်ဒတန် ဟိုတ်နူ ဥတု" (Climate migrants) တအ်ဝွံ ဒး ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဟိုတ်နူ ဍာ် ၜဳ သၠုင် တိုန်၊ ဒေသ ကှ် ဍာ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဘဲ သဘာဝ မကတဵုဒှ် ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် ဘဏ် ဂၠးတိ (World Bank) မ္ဂး၊ စိုပ် သၞာံ ၂၀၅၀ တေအ်၊ မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် ၂၁၆ မဳလဳယာန် မာန် ဒး ပြံင်ဆာဲ အပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဇကု ဟိုတ်နူ ပြသၞာ ရာသဳဥတု ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် အနာဂတ် သွက် ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဝွံ ဒး အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ ဘဲ သဘာဝ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ရီုဗင် ညးမဒးဒုင် ဘဲ တအ် ဗွဲမပြဟ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ညးလဒပ်]] (Refugee)
* [[ဂၠးတိ]] (Globalization)
* [[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human rights)
* [[ရာသဳဥတု ပြံင်လှာဲ]] (Climate change)
{{Navbox
| name = Human Migration
| title = ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ကေုာံ လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ် (Human Migration and Population)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဂကူ ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ
| list1 =
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဂၠးတိ]] (International migration)
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ အပ္ဍဲ]] (Internal migration)
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ အဓမ္မ]] (Forced migration)
* [[ညးလဒပ်]] (Refugee)
| group2 = ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ လညာတ်
| list2 =
* [[ဟိုတ် ဓရိုဟ် ကေုာံ ဓဇက်]] (Push and pull factors)
* [[ပရေင်ဉာဏ် တိတ် အာ]] (Brain drain)
* [[သြန် ပလံင် ဖျဴ]] (Remittance)
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ ဟိုတ်နူ ဥတု]] (Climate migration)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]] (Economics)
* [[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human rights)
* [[ဂကောံ IOM]] (International Organization for Migration)
* [[ယေန်သၞာင် နာနာ]] (Multiculturalism)
}}
[[Category:ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆာဲ မၞိဟ်]]
[[Category:လူမှုဗေဒ]]
[[Category:လၟိဟ်မၞိဟ်]]
[[Category:သဳအိုရဳဂမၠိုင်]]
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ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ
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'''ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်သ္အာင်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Global politics'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''International relations'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် မလ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ကၟိန်ဍုင် (States)၊ [[ဂကောံ အလဵုအသဳ ဂၠးတိ]] (International organizations)၊ ကေုာံ [[ဂကောံ ဟွံသေင် အလဵုအသဳ]] (Non-governmental organizations) တအ် လတူ စင် ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ်ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ ဗီုလဵု ဍုင် တအ် စကာ အဝဵု၊ ဗီုလဵု ဍေဟ်တအ် ပံင်ကောံ ရေင်သကအ်၊ ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု ဍေဟ်တအ် သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ပၞာန်၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ ရ။<ref name="baylis">{{cite book |last=Baylis |first=J. |author2=Smith, S. |author3=Owens, P. |title=The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations |edition=8th |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2019 |pages=15-20}}</ref>
ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် မနက်သြိုဟ် တုဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဒၟံင် ပရူ ဝင်၊ [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory)၊ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ၊ ကေုာံ အခိုက်အလိုက် မၞိဟ် တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ နကဵု လညာတ် လဒက်ပတန် အလုံစုံ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:United_Nations_General_Assembly_hall.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဌာန် သဘင်သဳကၠဳ ဇၞော် [[ဂကောံ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations General Assembly) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ" ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]] (Political science) ရ။ နကဵု သၞောတ် ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် လတူ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ (Global dynamics) မပကဵု ညံင် ဂၠးတိ ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ရ။
ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ် အာရီုစွံ ဆ လတူ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ဍုင် ကဵု ဍုင် (State-to-state relations) သက်သက် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အလုံဂၠးတိ (Globalization) ဂှ်ရ၊ လညာတ် ဏအ် လှဲလး တိတ် အာ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ကဏ္ဍ ဂကောံ ဍုင်စုံ (Multinational corporations) ကေုာံ ဂကောံ အကြမ်းဖက် ဂၠးတိ တအ် ကီု ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ ခေတ်တၟိ ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု [[လိက်ကသုက် ဝက်သဖေလဳယျာ]] (Peace of Westphalia) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၆၄၈ တေအ် ရ။ လိက်ကသုက် ဏအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် လညာတ် "ကၟိန်ဍုင် မနွံကဵု အဝဵုကၞောတ်အထောတ်" (Sovereign state) မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ဍုင် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ဍုင် နွံကဵု အခေါင် အုပ်ဓုပ် အပ္ဍဲ ပယျဵု ဇကု ဗွဲမဗၠးၜး ရ။
လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ [[ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အလန် ပထမ]] (World War I) ကေုာံ [[ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အလန် ဒုတိယ]] (World War II) တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် တုဲ၊ ဍုင် နာနာ တအ် ညာတ် ကေတ် အန္တရာယ် ပၞာန် တုဲ ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် ဂကောံ ဂၠးတိ မပ္တံကဵု [[ဂကောံ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations) သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ရ။ အကြာ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၇ ကဵု ၁၉၉၁ ဂှ် ဒှ် အခိင် [[ပၞာန် ၜိုဟ်]] (Cold War) အကြာ ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် ကဵု သဵုဗိယေတ် မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ ခေတ်လဒေါဝ် ရ။
== ၃။ သဳအိုရဳ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ (Major Theories in Global Politics) ==
ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် နကဵု [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory) နာနာ သာ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး သဳအိုရဳ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်သ္အာင်
|-
! သဳအိုရဳ (Theory)
! လညာတ် အဓိက (Core Concept)
! တၠပညာ အဓိက (Key Scholars)
|-
| '''ရဳယေလ်လစ်ဇေမ်''' (Realism)
| ဍုင် တအ် စွံ အဓိက လတူ အဝဵု (Power) ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု ဇကု။ ပွဳပွူ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ ဟွံမဲ သၞောဝ် (Anarchy)။<ref name="morgenthau">{{cite book |last=Morgenthau |first=H. J. |title=Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace |publisher=Knopf |year=1948 |pages=10-15}}</ref>
| ဟာန် မဝ်ဂေန်သဝ် (Hans Morgenthau)
|-
| '''လဳဘရယ်လစ်ဇေမ်''' (Liberalism)
| ဍုင် တအ် မာန် ပံင်ကောံ ရေင်သကအ် နကဵု ဂကောံ ဂၠးတိ၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ကေုာံ ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်။
| ရဝ်ဗတ် ကဳအဝ်ဟာန် (Robert Keohane)
|-
| '''ကောန်သတြက်တဳဗစ်ဇေမ်''' (Constructivism)
| ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု လညာတ် မၞိဟ်၊ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Identity)။
| အလေက်ဇာန်ဒါ ဝေန် (Alexander Wendt)
|}
== ၄။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ဍုင် ကေုာံ အဝဵု (State Relations and Power) ==
အဝဵု (Power) ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ ရ။ တၠပညာ တအ် ပါ်လဝ် အဝဵု ၃ သာ် -
# '''အဝဵု ကြံင်မ္ၚိုဟ် (Hard Power):''' ပရေင်စကာ ဒြဟတ် ပၞာန် ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် သွက်ဂွံ ဍဵုဍိုက် ဍုင် တၞဟ်။
# '''အဝဵု ဍိုန်ဍောတ် (Soft Power):''' ပရေင်စကာ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ လညာတ် ခိုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ဓဇက် စိုတ် ဍုင် တၞဟ် (ဥပမာ - ရုပ်ရှင် ဟဝ်လဳဝုတ်)။<ref name="nye">{{cite book |last=Nye |first=J. S. |title=Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2004 |pages=5-10}}</ref>
# '''အဝဵု ဍာ်က္ဍဟ် (Smart Power):''' ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ အဝဵု ၜါ သာ် ဏအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု အကာဲအရာ။
== ၅။ ဂကောံ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (International Organizations and Law) ==
သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဂှ် ဍုင် နာနာ တအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် [[ဂကောံ ဂၠးတိ]] (International organizations) ရ။
* '''[[ဂကောံ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (UN):''' ဒှ် ဂကောံ ဇၞော်အိုတ် မာန် သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ ပၞာန် ကေုာံ ထံက်ပင် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်။
* '''[[ဂကောံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဥရောပ]] (EU):''' ဒှ် ဂကောံ ပံင်ကောံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲ ရးဥရောပ။
* '''[[အာသဳယာန်]] (ASEAN):''' ဂကောံ ပံင်ကောံ ဍုင် ရးအာရှအဂၞဲ သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု။
သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဂၠးတိ (International Law) တအ် လေဝ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် က္ၜင် ကျာ၊ ၜဳ သမုဒ္ဒရာ ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးတိ (Global Political Economy) ==
ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးတိ (GPE) ဝွံ လ္ၚတ် ရံင် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် လတူ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အလုံဂၠးတိ ([[ဂလဝ်ဗယ်လိုက်ဇေးယှေန်]] - Globalization) ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ညံင် ဍုင် တအ် ဂွံ သွံရာန် ဗွဲမဗၠးၜး (Free trade) ဆဂး လေဝ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် (Inequality) ကီု ရ။ ဂကောံ အဓိက မပ္တံကဵု [[ဘဏ် ဂၠးတိ]] (World Bank)၊ [[ဂကောံ သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ ဂၠးတိ]] (IMF) ကေုာံ [[ဂကောံ သွံရာန် ဂၠးတိ]] (WTO) တအ်ဝွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးတိ လၟုဟ် ရ။
== ၇။ ဂီုကၠီု ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပဋိပက္ခ (Security and Conflict) ==
ပြသၞာ ဂီုကၠီု ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပၞာန် အကြာ ဍုင် ကဵု ဍုင် စိုပ် အာ ပၞာန် မဟွံသေင် ဍုင် (Asymmetric warfare) မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်အကြမ်းဖက် (Terrorism) ရ။
ပြသၞာ ဂီုကၠီု ခေတ်တၟိ တအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု -
* '''လက်နက် နျူကလဳယျာ (Nuclear proliferation):''' အန္တရာယ် လက်နက် မပလီုပလာ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ။
* '''ပရေင်ပၞာန် သာဲဗာ (Cyber warfare):''' ပရေင်ဗတိုက် သၞောတ် ကောန်ပျူတာ အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်။<ref name="waltz">{{cite book |last=Waltz |first=K. N. |title=Theory of International Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/theoryofinternat00walt |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=1979 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/theoryofinternat00walt/page/102 102]-110}}</ref>
== ၈။ ပြသၞာ သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Environmental Issues and Climate Change) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၁ ဏအ်၊ ပြသၞာ သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ ဗွဲတၟေင် [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု]] (Climate change) ဝွံ ဒှ် ပြသၞာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် မွဲ လတူ စင် ဂၠးတိ ရ。 ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဓါတ် ကာဗောန် (Carbon emissions) တုဲ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ဂၠးတိ သၠုင် တိုန် ဒၟံင် ရ။ သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ ဏအ်၊ ဍုင် နာနာ တအ် ထပက် လဝ် [[လိက်ကသုက် ပါရဳ]] (Paris Agreement) သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် ပရေင်ပတိတ် ဓါတ် ယက် ဂျိ ရ။
== ၉။ အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ရီုဗင် (Human Rights and Humanitarian Intervention) ==
[[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human rights) ဝွံ ဒှ် တင်ဂၞင် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ ရ။ စတမ် နူကဵု [[လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ]] (Universal Declaration of Human Rights) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၈ ဂှ်၊ ဂၠးတိ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ အခေါင် မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
ကာလ အလဵုအသဳ မွဲမွဲ ဍဵုဍိုက် ဂစိုတ် ကောန်ဍုင် ဇကု (Genocide) မ္ဂး၊ ဂကောံ ဂၠးတိ တအ် နွံ အခေါင် လုပ် ရီုဗင် နကဵု ပၞာန် မကော်စ "ပရေင်လုပ် ပသောင် သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ်" (Humanitarian intervention) မာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ (Future of Global Politics) ==
အနာဂတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ဒးဆဵုဂဗ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရောင် ဟီု နကဵု လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] တၠပညာ တအ် ရ။
* '''ဂၠးတိ ဍုင်ဇၞော် ဂၠိုင် (Multipolar World):''' အဝဵု ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် အာ အကြာ ဍုင် အမေရိကာန်၊ ဍုင် ကြုက် (China)၊ ကေုာံ ရးဥရောပ။<ref name="huntington">{{cite book |last=Huntington |first=S. P. |title=The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order |url=https://archive.org/details/clashofciviliza00hunt |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1996 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/clashofciviliza00hunt/page/20 20]-25}}</ref>
* '''နည်းပညာ ကေုာံ [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence):''' လွပ် ဉာဏ်စက် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဝွံ မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် သၞောတ် အဝဵု ဂၠးတိ အလုံစုံ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် အကာသ (Space Politics):''' ပေါဲပြိုင် သွက်ဂွံ စိုပ် ဂြိုဟ် အင်္ၚာ (Mars) ကေုာံ ဂၠာဲ သယံဇာတ ပ္ဍဲ အကာသ။
ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မချဳဓရာင် လၟိုန် တုဲ သွက် ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ရေင်သကအ် ဒှ် အရာ မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]] (Political science)
* [[ဂကောံ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations)
* [[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human rights)
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု]] (Climate change)
{{Navbox
| name = Political Science
| title = သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်သ္အာင် (Political Science and International Relations)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဳအိုရဳ အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ရဳယေလ်လစ်ဇေမ်]] (Realism)
* [[လဳဘရယ်လစ်ဇေမ်]] (Liberalism)
* [[ကောန်သတြက်တဳဗစ်ဇေမ်]] (Constructivism)
| group2 = ဂကောံ ဂၠးတိ
| list2 =
* [[ဂကောံ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations)
* [[ဂကောံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဥရောပ]] (European Union)
* [[အာသဳယာန်]] (ASEAN)
* [[ဘဏ် ဂၠးတိ]] (World Bank)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးတိ]] (Global political economy)
* [[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human rights)
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု]] (Climate change)
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
}}
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်သ္အာင်]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
[[Category:သဳအိုရဳဂမၠိုင်]]
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'''မဏ္ဍလ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Mandala'', သံသကြိုတ်: मण्डल) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ လဒက်ပတန် ဂျဳသြမေတ်တြဳ (Geometric pattern) မနွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် နက်သြိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ် ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် [[သံသကြိုတ်]] (Sanskrit) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "စက်ဝိုင်" (Circle) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ]] (Hinduism) ကေုာံ [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism) မ္ဂး၊ မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ စၞးပြု ကဵု စက္ကဝါ (Universe) တုဲ စကာ နဒဒှ် ကိရိယာ သွက်ဂွံ ပတန် စိုတ် (Meditation) ကေုာံ ကၠောန် သဘင် ကၞာ ပရေင်ဘာသာ ရ။<ref name="tucci">{{cite book |last=Tucci |first=G. |title=The Theory and Practice of the Mandala |url=https://archive.org/details/theorypracticeof0000tucc_q3d5 |publisher=Dover Publications |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/theorypracticeof0000tucc_q3d5/page/20 20]-25}}</ref>
ပါဲနူကဵု ပရေင်ဘာသာ တုဲ၊ လညာတ် မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ ပြးဇး စိုပ် အာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် [[စိုတ်ပညာ]] (Psychology) ကေုာံ လညာတ် ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲ [[အာရှအဂၞဲ]] (Southeast Asia) ကီု ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ မဏ္ဍလ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ပရေင်ဘာသာ၊ လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory) ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ကေုာံ အနုသုခုမ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Chenrezig_Mandala.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး မဏ္ဍလ ဓမ္မတာ (Mandala) ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တိဗေတ် မကၠောန်လဝ် နကဵု ဗတဳ အသာ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
မဏ္ဍလ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဗွဲဓမ္မတာ မ္ဂး ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဗီုပြင် စက်ဝိုင် (Circle) မနွံ အပ္ဍဲ ပန်ကၠင် (Square) မွဲ တုဲ၊ နွံကဵု တြင် ပန် ဒိုဟ် (Four gates) ရ။ လဒက်ပတန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ညဳသၟဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ သဘာဝ ကေုာံ စက္ကဝါ ရ။
နကဵု သၞောတ် ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပရေင်ဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ ဒှ် "ဌာန် ကျာ်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ဘုံ သွဝ်" မစၞးပြု ကဵု အကာဲအရာ စိုတ် မအးဇ္ၚး (Enlightened mind) ရ။ ညးမကၠောန် ဘာဝနာ တအ် စကာ မဏ္ဍလ သွက်ဂွံ စွံ အာရီု ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် ဗဟဵု (Center) တုဲ ညံင်ဂွံ တိတ် ဗၠး နူကဵု ဒဒိုက် သံသာ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ (History and Origin) ==
ဝင် တမ်မူလ မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ စကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ တြေံ (Ancient India) ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ခေတ် [[ဝေဒ]] (Vedic period) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ឫဂ်ဝေဒ (Rigveda) ဂှ်၊ ဝေါဟာရ "မဏ္ဍလ" ဝွံ စကာ လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ကော်စ ကဏ္ဍ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အုပ် လိက် ဒွက် ဓမ္မတာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ နဒဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ပရေင်ဘာသာ ရ။
နူကဵု အိန္ဒိယ ဂှ် လညာတ် မဏ္ဍလ ပြးဇး အာ ဇရေင် ဍုင် တိဗေတ် (Tibet)၊ ဍုင် ကြုက် (China)၊ ဍုင် ဂျပေန် (Japan) ကေုာံ ဍုင် ရးအာရှအဂၞဲ တအ် မွဲစွံ ကု ပရေင်ပြးဇး သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၈ တေအ်၊ အစာ ဓရ် [[ပဒ္မသမ္ဘဝ]] (Padmasambhava) ပတိုန် ထ္ၜး လညာတ် မဏ္ဍလ ဇရေင် ဍုင် တိဗေတ် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ လဒက်ပတန် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တိဗေတ် ရ။
== ၃။ မဏ္ဍလ ပ္ဍဲ ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ (Mandala in Hinduism) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ ညးကော်စ [[ယန္တရ]] (Yantra) ရ။ ယန္တရ တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လဒက်ပတန် ဂျဳသြမေတ်တြဳ မစၞးပြု ကု ကျာ် ဟိန္ဒူ နာနာ သာ် ရ။
ယန္တရ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် သြဳ ယန္တရ (Sri Yantra) မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု တြိဂံဏ် (Triangles) ၉ မ ထပ် လတူ ရေင်သကအ် ရ။ လဒက်ပတန် ဏအ်ဝွံ စၞးပြု ကု ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ အကြာ ကျာ် သဳဝ (Shiva - စၞးပြု ကၟက်) ကေုာံ ကျာ် ၝောအ် သျှတ္တိ (Shakti - စၞးပြု ၝောအ်) ရ။ ယန္တရ တအ်ဝွံ စကာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သဘင် ပူဇဴ (Puja) တုဲ ညးတအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ်တအ် နွံကဵု ဒြဟတ် မာန် ဆက်စပ် ကု ဒြဟတ် စက္ကဝါ ရ။<ref name="kramrisch">{{cite book |last=Kramrisch |first=S. |title=The Hindu Temple |publisher=University of Calcutta |year=1946 |pages=130-135}}</ref>
== ၄။ မဏ္ဍလ ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Mandala in Buddhism) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂိုဏ် [[ဝဇိရယာန]] (Vajrayana Buddhism) မ္ဂး၊ မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
မဏ္ဍလ ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ဂှ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဘုံ သွဝ် (Pure Land) ကျာ်တြဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဗောဓိသတ် တအ် ရ။ ဥပမာ - မဏ္ဍလ ကာလစက္က (Kalachakra Mandala) ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု လဒက်ပတန် အခိင် ကေုာံ စက္ကဝါ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တိဗေတ် ဂှ်၊ လကျာ် တအ် နွံကဵု ပြဝေဏဳ ကၠောန် မဏ္ဍလ နကဵု ဗတဳ အသာ် (Sand mandala) ရ။ ညးတအ် ကေတ် အခိင် ဗွဲမလအ်လ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် မဏ္ဍလ ဏအ် တုဲ၊ ကာလ တုဲအိုတ် မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ပလီု ထောအ် ဍေဟ် သမၠေဝ် ဓဝ် ရ။ အရာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု သဘာဝ အနိစ္စ (Impermanence) ပ္ဍဲ လောက ဏအ် ရ။<ref name="brauen">{{cite book |last=Brauen |first=M. |title=The Mandala: Sacred Circle in Tibetan Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/mandalasacredcir0000mart |publisher=Serindia Publications |year=1997 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mandalasacredcir0000mart/page/45 45]-50}}</ref>
== ၅။ လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတဂမၠိုင် (Structure and Symbolism) ==
မဏ္ဍလ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ ဝွံ နွံကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ သဇိုင် မတုပ် ရေင်သကအ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ ပ္ဍဲ မဏ္ဍလ
|-
! လဒက်ပတန်
! သင်္ကေတ ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
|-
| '''ဗိန္ဒု (Bindu / Center Point)'''
| လဒေါဝ် ဗဟဵု မစၞးပြု ကဵု တမ်မူလ စက္ကဝါ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အကာဲအရာ နိဗ္ဗာန်။
|-
| '''စက်ဝိုင် (Circles)'''
| စၞးပြု ကု သဘာဝ ထိင်ဒဝ် လမျီု၊ လဟီု အဆက်အစပ် ဟွံမဲ အပိုတ်အခြာ။
|-
| '''ပန်ကၠင် (Square / Palace)'''
| စၞးပြု ကု နန် ကျာ် မနွံကဵု တြင် ပန် ဒိုဟ် (သၟဝ်ကျာ၊ သၠုင်ကျာ၊ ဗမံက်၊ ပလိုတ်)။
|-
| '''ဒကှ် (Lotus flower)'''
| စၞးပြု ကု သဘာဝ မအးဇ္ၚး (Purity) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တိတ်ဗၠး နူ ဒဒိုက်။
|-
| '''ဝဇိရ (Vajra / Thunderbolt)'''
| စၞးပြု ကု ဉာဏ် ပညာ မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ညံင်ရဴ စိန် (Diamond)။
|}
== ၆။ ပရေင်သုင်စောဲ သွက် ပရေင်ဘာဝနာ (Usage in Meditation and Rituals) ==
သွက် ညးမကၠောန် ဘာဝနာ တအ် မ္ဂး၊ မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ရုပ် ဓမ္မတာ ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ကိရိယာ သွက်ဂွံ ပတန် စိုတ် ရ။
ညးမလ္ၚတ် တအ် စွံ အာရီု လတူ မဏ္ဍလ နူကဵု ဒရီု မ္ၚး (Outer edge) တုဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လၟေင် လၟေင် လုပ် အာ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် လဒေါဝ် ဗဟဵု (Center) ရ။ ပရေင်ကၠောန် သာ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵု ဖဵု ညံင်ရဴ ပရေင်တွာ် တရဴ စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Spiritual journey) နူကဵု ဂၠးတိ လောကဳ စိုပ် အာ ဌာန် လောကုတ္တဵု ရ။ လဆောဝ်မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ပတန် အာရီု ညာတ် ကေတ် မဏ္ဍလ ပ္ဍဲ စိုတ် (Visualization) ဟွံဒး ရံင် ရုပ် ဇေတ်တ် ကီု ရ။
== ၇။ လညာတ် စိုတ်ပညာ ကေုာံ ကာလ် ဂျုံ (Psychological Interpretation and Carl Jung) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ တေအ်၊ တၠပညာ စိုတ်ပညာ ဆွစ်ဇာလာန် [[ကာလ် ဂျုံ]] (Carl Jung) ဝွံ ပတိုန် ထ္ၜး လညာတ် မဏ္ဍလ ဇရေင် လညာတ် စိုတ်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။
ဂျုံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဆဵု ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ကာလ မၞိဟ် တအ် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ အခက်အခုဲ စိုတ်ဓါတ် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ဓဇက် ရုပ် ဗီုပြင် မဏ္ဍလ အလဵုအလဵု ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဂျုံ ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ မတိတ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု "စိုတ် မဟွံတီ အလဵုအလဵု" (Unconscious mind) မစၞးပြု ကု ပရေင်ဂစာန် ဂၠာဲ ဓဝ် ညဳသၟဟ် ကေုာံ ဓဝ် အလုံစုံ (Wholeness of the self) ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ပညာ လွဳယဲ နကဵု အနုသုခုမ (Art therapy) ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။<ref name="jung">{{cite book |last=Jung |first=C. G. |title=Mandala Symbolism |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1973 |pages=3-10}}</ref>
== ၈။ မဏ္ဍလ ပ္ဍဲ သမိုင်း ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် အာရှအဂၞဲ (Mandala in Southeast Asian Political History) ==
ပါဲနူကဵု လညာတ် ပရေင်ဘာသာ တုဲ၊ နကဵု လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory) ဝင် မ္ဂး၊ ဝေါဟာရ "မဏ္ဍလ" ဝွံ စကာ လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး လဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[အာရှအဂၞဲ]] (Southeast Asia) ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တမၠာ တေအ် ရ။
တၠပညာ သုတေသန O.W. Wolters ပတိုန် ထ္ၜး လဝ် "သဳအိုရဳ မဏ္ဍလ" မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ပ္ဍဲ အာရှအဂၞဲ တြေံ (မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင် [[ဒွါရဝတဳ]]၊ [[ဟံသာဝတဳ]]၊ အန်ကောရ်) တအ်ဝွံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဓရီု ဍုင် (Borders) မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ပုဟ်။ စၞးဂှ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု လဒေါဝ် ဗဟဵု (Center) မနွံကဵု သြဇာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် တုဲ၊ သြဇာ ဍေဟ် ဍိုန်လျ အာ ကာလ သ္ၚောဲ တိတ် အာ နူ လဒေါဝ် ဂှ် ရ (ညံင်ရဴ လဒက်ပတန် ရုပ် မဏ္ဍလ ကီု)။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဝင် မန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် သၟိင် တမၠာ တအ် ရ။<ref name="wolters">{{cite book |last=Wolters |first=O. W. |title=History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives |publisher=SEAP Publications |year=1999 |pages=27-35}}</ref>
== ၉။ အနုသုခုမ ကေုာံ ဗီုပြင် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တၟိ (Art and Modern Interpretations) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ အရာ ပရေင်ဘာသာ ဓဝ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ ဗီုပြင် အနုသုခုမ မပြာကတ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
လိက် ကဵု အသာ် သွက် မၞိဟ် ဇၞော် (Adult coloring books) တအ်ဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စကာ လဒက်ပတန် မဏ္ဍလ သွက်ဂွံ ယှောတ် ဖအောန် ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက် စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Stress relief) ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပညာ ဓဇက် ရုပ် စက် (Graphic design)၊ အနုသုခုမ တက် ရုပ် (Tattoos)၊ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် သ္ၚိ (Architecture) တအ် လေဝ် စကာ လညာတ် ဂျဳသြမေတ်တြဳ မဏ္ဍလ သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်ကျေဝ်ဂေါဝ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ညဳသၟဟ် ကီု ရ။
== ၁၀။ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် (Preservation and Cultural Heritage) ==
မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ ဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဟွံမဲ ကု ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု (Intangible cultural heritage) မကိစ္စဇၞော် မွဲ သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် တိဗေတ်၊ နဳပေါ၊ ကေုာံ ဘူတန် တအ် ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ဗတောန် ကၠောန် မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ ဆက် မင်မဲ လဝ် နူကဵု အစာ စိုပ် ကွး စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဏီ ရ။
တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး အနုသုခုမ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ မပ္တံကဵု Rubin Museum of Art ပ္ဍဲ နျူးယောက် (New York) တအ် ဂစာန် မင်မဲ ကေုာံ ထ္ၜးပျး ရုပ် ပက် မဏ္ဍလ တြေံ တအ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ဏအ် ရ။ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ မဏ္ဍလ ဝွံ ဆက် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် နွံပၟိက် မိက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ဓဝ် ညဳသၟဟ် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဘဝ ၜိုန်ရ ခေတ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ကီုလေဝ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ]] (Hinduism)
* [[ကာလ် ဂျုံ]] (Carl Jung)
* [[အာရှအဂၞဲ]] (Southeast Asia)
{{Navbox
| name = Religion and Culture
| title = ပရေင်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် အနုသုခုမ (Religion, Culture and Art)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လညာတ် သဇိုင်
| list1 =
* [[မဏ္ဍလ]] (Mandala)
* [[ယန္တရ]] (Yantra)
* [[ဘာဝနာ]] (Meditation)
* [[စက္ကဝါ]] (Universe)
| group2 = ပရေင်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဒဿန
| list2 =
* [[ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ]] (Hinduism)
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[ဝဇိရယာန]] (Vajrayana Buddhism)
* [[စိုတ်ပညာ]] (Psychology)
| group3 = ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်
| list3 =
* [[သဳအိုရဳ မဏ္ဍလ]] (Mandala political model)
* [[အာရှအဂၞဲ]] (Southeast Asia)
* [[ဒွါရဝတဳ]] (Dvaravati)
* [[ဟံသာဝတဳ]] (Hanthawaddy)
}}
[[Category:ပရေင်ဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ]]
[[Category:အနုသုခုမ]]
[[Category:ဝင် အာရှအဂၞဲ]]
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'''ဝဇိရယာန''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တန္တရ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Vajrayana'', သက္ကတ: ''वज्रयान'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဂိုဏ်ဇၞော် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism) မကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ အကြာ ၅ ကဵု ၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ တုဲ ပြးဇး စိုပ် အာ ဍုင် တိဗေတ်၊ ဗူတန်၊ မန်ဂဝ်လဳယျာ ကေုာံ ဂျပေန် ရ။ ယၟု ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ယာန် ဗဇြ" (Diamond Vehicle ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Thunderbolt Vehicle) မထ္ၜးကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿန မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ညံင်ရဴ ဗဇြ ကေုာံ မနွံကဵု ဒြဟတ် မပြဟ် ညံင်ရဴ လလဳ ရ။ ဂိုဏ် ဏအ်ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ နဲကဲ လွပ် ပရေင်ကျင့် (Esoteric practices) မပ္တံကဵု ဂါထာ (Mantras)၊ မုဒြာ (Mudras) ကေုာံ မဏ္ဍလ (Mandalas) သွက်ဂွံ အာစိုပ် ဓရ် နိဗ္ဗာန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဝ လၟုဟ် ဗွဲမပြဟ် ရ။<ref name="snellgrove">{{cite book |last=Snellgrove |first=D. |title=Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and Their Tibetan Successors |url=https://archive.org/details/indotibetanbuddh00snel |publisher=Shambhala |year=1987 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indotibetanbuddh00snel/page/117 117]-122}}</ref>
ပြဝေဏဳ ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ သဇိုင် [[မဟာယာန]] (Mahayana) ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် နဲကဲ မနက်သြိုဟ် တုဲ သ္ဒး ဒုင်ကေတ် ပရေင်ကဵု အခေါင် (Initiation) နူကဵု အစာ (Guru / Lama) ကိုပ်ကၠာ ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဝဇိရယာန နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဒဿန၊ သဳအိုရဳ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကျင့် ဍေဟ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Vajra_and_bell.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဗဇြ (Vajra) ကေုာံ ခၞိင် (Ghanta) မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ဝဇိရယာန။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ဝဇိရယာန" (Vajrayana) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် သက္ကတ ၜါ မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် ရ - "ဝဇိရ" (Vajra) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဗဇြ၊ ဝရဇိုန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လလဳ တုဲ ကေုာံ "ယာန" (Yana) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ယာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠံင်တရဴ ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ညံင်ရဴ ဗဇြ ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ တတိယ လက္ကရဴ နူကဵု [[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada - ယာန် ဍောတ်) ကေုာံ [[မဟာယာန]] (Mahayana - ယာန် ဇၞော်) ရ။ ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ ညးတအ် ကော်စ သီုကဵု မန္တရယာန (Mantrayana - ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဂါထာ) ကေုာံ ဂုဟျမန္တရ (Guhyamantra - ဂါထာ အောပ်ဓလုက်) ရ။ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် အဓိက ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်စကာ ဖဵု ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ဘဝ ဓမ္မတာ ဏအ် သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ နဒဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ဓရ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စတင် (History and Origin) ==
ဝင် ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ အကြာ ၅ ကဵု ၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ခေတ် အေန်ပါယာ ဂုတ္တ (Gupta Empire) လက္ကရဴ ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန် တၠပညာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မပ္တံကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် [[နာလန္ဒာ]] (Nalanda) ကေုာံ ဝိကြမသဳလာ (Vikramashila) ရ။<ref name="davidson">{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=R. M. |title=Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement |url=https://archive.org/details/indianesotericbu0000davi |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indianesotericbu0000davi/page/112 112]-115}}</ref>
တၠပညာ လ္ၚဵု ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ လညာတ် တန္တရ (Tantra) ဏအ်ဝွံ ပံင်နှဴ ဒၟံင် ကု အခိုက်အလိုက် ပူဇဴ ဒေဝတဴ ဟိန္ဒူ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကျင့် ဂြိုပ် (Mahasiddhas) တအ် ရ။ လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ ၈ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဂှ်၊ အစာ ဇၞော် [[ပဒ္မသမ္ဘဝ]] (Padmasambhava) ကေတ်နင် လညာတ် ဝဇိရယာန ဏအ် စိုပ် အာ ဍုင် [[တိဗေတ်]] (Tibet) တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တိဗေတ် အတိုင် မဆဵု ဂွံ ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
== ၃။ လညာတ် ဒဿန ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳ အဓိက (Core Philosophy and Theory) ==
ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ [[သဳအိုရဳ]] မဟာယာန မပ္တံကဵု သုညတ (Sunyata - ပရေင်သၠး) ကေုာံ ကရုဏာ (Karuna - မေတ္တာ) ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿန တၞဟ်ခြာ ဂမၠိုင် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ဟွံပါ်ခြာ (Non-duality):''' သံသာ (Samsara) ကဵု နိဗ္ဗာန် (Nirvana) ဂှ် တုပ် ဓဝ် ရ။ အရာ မကတဵုဒှ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု သဘာဝ ကျာ် ရ။
* '''သဘာဝ ကျာ် (Buddha-nature):''' သတ္တံ သီုဖအိုတ် နွံကဵု သဘာဝ ကျာ် ပ္ဍဲ စိုတ် ဍေဟ်တအ် တုဲတုဲ ရ။ ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ပံက် ထ္ၜး ကဵု သဘာဝ ဏအ် ဗွဲမပြဟ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်စကာ ဒြဟတ် ကိလေသ (Using Emotions):''' စၞး မပါဲ ဒး ဒြဟတ် ကိလေသ (Desire, anger) မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် စကာ ဍေဟ်တအ် ညံင်ရဴ ဒြဟတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ စိုတ် ညံင်ဂွံ တီ ဓရ် ရ။
== ၄။ ကိရိယာ ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတဂမၠိုင် (Tools and Symbols) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ကျင့် ဝဇိရယာန မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် စကာ ကိရိယာ ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ရီုဗင် စိုတ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး သင်္ကေတ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဝဇိရယာန
|-
! သင်္ကေတ
! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ
|-
| '''ဗဇြ (Vajra / Dorje)'''
| လက်နက် ဗဇြ မနွံ တၞုင် မသုန်။
| စၞးပြု ကဵု သဘာဝ မဟွံမာန် ပလီုပလာ် ကေုာံ မေတ္တာ (Upaya - Method)။
|-
| '''ခၞိင် (Ghanta / Drilbu)'''
| ခၞိင် ဓမ္မတာ မစကာ ကရောမ် ဗဇြ။
| စၞးပြု ကဵု ပညာ (Prajna - Wisdom) ကေုာံ သုညတ။ (ပံင်ကောံ ဗဇြ ကဵု ခၞိင် ဂှ် ဒှ် Non-duality)။
|-
| '''မဏ္ဍလ (Mandala)'''
| ဗီုရုပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇယား မဓဇက် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ တိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လိက်။
| စၞးပြု ကဵု စက္ကဝါ ကေုာံ ဘုံ ဌာန် ကျာ်။ စကာ သွက် ပရေင်ဘာဝနာ (Meditation)။
|-
| '''ဖရေင် ပုတ္တမ (Mala)'''
| ပုတ္တမ သွက်ဂွံ ရိုဟ် ဂါထာ (၁၀၈ မ)။
| စကာ သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လၟိဟ် အလန် မဖတ် ဂါထာ။
|}
== ၅။ နဲကဲ ပရေင်ကျင့် ကေုာံ သမာဓိ (Practices and Meditation) ==
ပရေင်ကျင့် ပ္ဍဲ ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ ဟွံတုပ် ကု ပရေင်ကျင့် ဓမ္မတာ ရ။ ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု နဲကဲ မနက်သြိုဟ် -<ref name="ray">{{cite book |last=Ray |first=R. A. |title=Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet |url=https://archive.org/details/secretofvajrawor0000rayr |publisher=Shambhala |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/secretofvajrawor0000rayr/page/85 85]-90}}</ref>
# '''ယောဂ ဒေဝတဴ (Deity Yoga):''' အစာ လ္ၚတ် ဓရ် တအ် ညာတ် ကေတ် ဇကု ဍေဟ်တအ် ညံင်ရဴ ကျာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဗောဓိသတ် (Bodhisattva) မွဲ ရ။ ဏအ်ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် စိုတ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ စိုပ် ကဆံင် ကျာ် ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ရ။
# '''ဂါထာ (Mantras):''' ပရေင်ဖတ် ရမ္သာင် ဥပမာ "ဥုံ မဏိ ပဒ္မေ ဟုံ" (Om mani padme hum) မဒှ် ဂါထာ အဝလောကိတေသွရ သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သမာဓိ။
# '''မုဒြာ (Mudras):''' ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် သင်္ကေတ တဲ မဆက်စပ် ကု ပရေင်စိုတ် ဓါတ်။
# '''ယောဂ အစာ (Guru Yoga):''' ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ စိုတ် ဇကု ကု စိုတ် အစာ (Guru) ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် မွဲ ဓဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ပညာ။
== ၆။ လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ တန္တရဂမၠိုင် (Texts and Tantras) ==
လိက်ပတ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဝဇိရယာန ဂှ် ဒှ် လိက် [[တန္တရ]] (Tantras) မဒှ် လိက် မဟီုတွံ လဝ် နကဵု ကျာ်တြဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဗီုပြင် ဒေဝတဴ ရ။ လိက် တအ်ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လိက် အောပ်ဓလုက် တုဲ ဒးနွံကဵု အစာ သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ရ။
လိက် တန္တရ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် တအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု -
* '''ဂုဟျသမာဇ တန္တရ (Guhyasamāja Tantra):''' လ္ၚတ် ပရူ လဒက်ပတန် စိုတ် ကေုာံ ခန္ဓာ နကဵု နဲကဲ နက်သြိုဟ်။
* '''ဟေဝဇြ တန္တရ (Hevajra Tantra):''' အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ကျင့် ပရေင်ဟွံပါ်ခြာ (Non-duality) ကေုာံ ပရေင်စကာ ဒြဟတ် သဘာဝ။
* '''ကာလစကြ တန္တရ (Kalachakra Tantra):''' "စက် အခိင်" မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ စက္ကဝါ မ္ၚး ကဵု ခန္ဓာကိုယ် အပ္ဍဲ။
== ၇။ ဂိုဏ် ကေုာံ သာခါဂမၠိုင် (Schools and Branches) ==
ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ ပြးဇး အာ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ နာနာ တုဲ ကတဵုဒှ် အာ ဂိုဏ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ဂမၠိုင် ရ -
* '''ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တိဗေတ် (Tibetan Buddhism):''' ဒှ် ဂိုဏ် ဝဇိရယာန မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ပါ်လဝ် ဂိုဏ် အဓိက ၄ ဂိုဏ် - ညိင်မာ (Nyingma)၊ ကာဂျူ (Kagyu)၊ သကျ (Sakya)၊ ကေုာံ ဂေလူ (Gelug - ဂိုဏ် [[ဒလာင် လာမာ]] Dalai Lama)။
* '''ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ရှင်ဂွန် (Shingon Buddhism):''' ဒှ် ဂိုဏ် ဝဇိရယာန ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဂျပေန် မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု အစာ ဇၞော် ကုကိုင် (Kukai) ပ္ဍဲ ၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ။
* '''နဳဝါရ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Newar Buddhism):''' ဂိုဏ် တန္တရ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ခတ္တမန္ဒု (Kathmandu) ဍုင်နဳပေါ မမင်မဲ လဝ် အခိုက်အလိုက် သက္ကတ တြေံ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု မဟာယာန ကေုာံ ထေရဝါဒ (Relationship with Mahayana and Theravada) ==
ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ဒဿန မဟာယာန (ဥပမာ - ပရေင်ဒှ် ဗောဓိသတ် သွက်ဂွံ ရီု သတ္တံ) ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု နဲကဲ မပြဟ် နူ မဟာယာန ရ။ မဟာယာန ဂှ် စကာ နဲကဲ ပရေင်ကျင့် ပါရမဳ သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ကျာ် (မကေတ် အခိင် လအ်)၊ ဆဂး ဝဇိရယာန ဂှ် စကာ နဲကဲ ဖဵု (Fruition) ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် ကျာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ လၟုဟ် ဓဝ် ရ။<ref name="williams">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=P. |title=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhistthoughtc0000will |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhistthoughtc0000will/page/194 194]-198}}</ref>
ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု ထေရဝါဒ ဂှ်၊ ၜိုန်ရ ဝဇိရယာန နွံကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿန တၞဟ်ခြာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ အစာ ဝဇိရယာန တအ် ဒးမင်မဲ သဳလ ကေုာံ ဝိနဲ အတိုင် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ထေရဝါဒ ကီု ရ။ ညးတအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ယာန် ၃ သာ် (ထေရဝါဒ၊ မဟာယာန၊ ဝဇိရယာန) ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဆံင် သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် စိုပ် ဓရ် အလုံအိုတ်သီု ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်ပြးဇး ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ (Global Spread and Influence) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ ပြးဇး စိုပ် အာ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ကြဴနူကဵု တိဗေတ် ဒးဒုင် သီ ကေတ် နကဵု ကြုက် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၉ ဂှ်၊ ဒလာင် လာမာ ကေုာံ အစာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပြံင် ဌာန် စိုပ် အာ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ရးပလိုတ် တအ် ရ။
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင် ဌာန် ဏအ်၊ ဘာကျာ် ဝဇိရယာန ကေုာံ ဌာန် လ္ၚတ် ဓရ် ဂမၠိုင် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန်၊ ရးဥရောပ၊ ကေုာံ အဝ်သတေလျာ ရ။ ပရေင်ကျင့် ယောဂ ကေုာံ သမာဓိ တိဗေတ် (Tibetan Meditation) ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ လၟုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက် စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Stress) ရ။<ref name="samuel">{{cite book |last=Samuel |first=G. |title=Introducing Tibetan Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingtibet0000samu |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/introducingtibet0000samu/page/210 210]-215}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အနုသုခုမ (Impact on Culture and Art) ==
ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အနုသုခုမ အာရှ ရ။
* '''အနုသုခုမ (Art):''' ဗီုရုပ် က္သူ (Thangka paintings) ကေုာံ မဏ္ဍလ ဍာ်မသီ (Sand mandalas) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အနုသုခုမ မနွံကဵု အသာ် ဇဝက် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဒဿန နက်သြိုဟ် ရ။ ဍေဟ်တအ် စကာ သွက် ပရေင်ဘာဝနာ ဟွံသေင် ဆ သွက် အလှ သက်သက် ပုဟ်။
* '''ဗိသုကာ (Architecture):''' လဒက်ပတန် ဘာကျာ် ကေုာံ စေတဳ ပ္ဍဲ တိဗေတ် (ဥပမာ - ဘာကျာ် ပဝ်တာလာ Potala Palace) တအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် အတိုင် လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ မဏ္ဍလ ကေုာံ စက္ကဝါ ရ။
* '''ဂဳတ (Music):''' ရမ္သာင် ဖတ် ဂါထာ (Overtone chanting) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တက် ဗာတ် ကိရိယာ ဂဳတ ဝဇိရယာန ဝွံ ဒှ် ရမ္သာင် မကဵု ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ကု စိုတ် ဓါတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[မဟာယာန]] (Mahayana)
* [[တိဗေတ်]] (Tibet)
* [[ဒလာင် လာမာ]] (Dalai Lama)
{{Navbox
| name = Buddhism
| title = ဂၠံင်တရဴ ကေုာံ ဂိုဏ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Buddhist Traditions and Vehicles)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ယာန် အဓိက (Major Vehicles)
| list1 =
* [[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada)
* [[မဟာယာန]] (Mahayana)
* [[ဝဇိရယာန]] (Vajrayana)
| group2 = ဂိုဏ် ဝဇိရယာန ဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တိဗေတ်]] (Tibetan Buddhism)
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ရှင်ဂွန်]] (Shingon Buddhism)
* [[ညိင်မာ]] (Nyingma)
* [[ဂေလူ]] (Gelug)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဒလာင် လာမာ]] (Dalai Lama)
* [[တန္တရ]] (Tantra)
* [[မဏ္ဍလ]] (Mandala)
* [[ပဒ္မသမ္ဘဝ]] (Padmasambhava)
}}
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဝဇိရယာန]]
[[Category:ဘာသာ တိဗေတ်]]
[[Category:သဳအိုရဳ ဘာသာ]]
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'''ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ဍုင် သၟိင်သင် ဗာတဳကာန်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Vatican City'', အဳတလဳ: ''Città del Vaticano'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မသၠးပွး မွဲ မနွံ အပ္ဍဲ [[ဍုင်ရောမ်]] (Rome)၊ [[အဳတလဳ]] (Italy) ရ။ နကဵု ဇမၞော် တိဍာ် ၄၉ ဟက်တာ (၁၂၁ ဧက) ကေုာံ လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် ၈၀၀ တၠ ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် ဍောတ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ နကဵု လညာတ် ဇမၞော် တိဍာ် ကေုာံ လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် ရ။ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု [[ကသုက် လာတာရန်]] (Lateran Treaty) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၉ အကြာ ဟဝ်လဳသဳ (Holy See) ကေုာံ ဍုင်အဳတလဳ ရ။ ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဗဟဵု သွက် ဘာသာ [[ကာတ္တလေတ်]] (Catholic Church) မနွံ သၟိင်သင် [[ပုပ်]] (Pope) နဒဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် ရ။<ref name="chadwick">{{cite book |last=Chadwick |first=O. |title=A History of the Popes 1830-1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpopes180000chad |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpopes180000chad/page/2 2]-10}}</ref>
လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ပထဝဳ၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်သ္အာင် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Vatican_City_map_EN.png|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပထဝဳ တိဍာ် ကေုာံ ပယျဵု ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် မနွံ အပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ရောမ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ယၟု "ဗာတဳကာန်" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ ယၟု တဵု ဗာတဳကာန် (Vatican Hill) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ တိဍာ် သ္ၚိက္ဍိုင် ကျာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ရောမ် တြေံ ရ။ ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု "ဟဝ်လဳသဳ" (Holy See) ရ။ ဟဝ်လဳသဳ ဂှ် ဒှ် အလဵုအသဳ ဗဟဵု သွက် ဘာသာ ကာတ္တလေတ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ တုဲ၊ ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဌာန် တိဍာ် မကဵု အခေါင် သၠးပွး (Sovereignty) ကု ဟဝ်လဳသဳ သွက်ဂွံ အုပ်ဓုပ် အလဵုဇကု ရ။
သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု အဝဵု အုပ်ဓုပ်၊ အဝဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ၊ ကေုာံ အဝဵု သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် တရား အလုံစုံ (Absolute monarchy) ပ္ဍဲ လတူ ဍုင် ဏအ် ရ။ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂၠးတိ (World Heritage Site) မစၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံ [[ယူနေတ်သကဝ်]] (UNESCO) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၄ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင် ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဝင် သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် ဂမၠိုင် ရ။ နူကဵု ၄ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၁၈၇၀ ဂှ်၊ သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် တအ် အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် တိဍာ် သၟိင်သင် (Papal States) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် ဍုင်အဳတလဳ အလုံ မွဲ ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၇၀ ကာလ ဍုင်အဳတလဳ ပံင်ကောံ (Italian Unification) အံင်ဇၞး အာ ဂှ်၊ ဒပ်ပၞာန် အဳတလဳ တအ် သီကေတ် ဍုင်ရောမ် တုဲ အဝဵု တိဍာ် သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် လီုလာ် အာ ရ။<ref name="duffy">{{cite book |last=Duffy |first=E. |title=Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes |url=https://archive.org/details/00book1593273669 |edition=3rd |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/00book1593273669/page/230 230]-235}}</ref>
သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် တအ် ဒးဒုင် ကြိုင် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သ္ၚိ ဗာတဳကာန် ပွိုင် ၅၉ သၞာံ စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၂၉ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၁၁ ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၉ ဂှ်၊ အလဵုအသဳ အဳတလဳ မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် နကဵု [[ဗေနဳတဝ် မူသဝ်လဳနဳ]] (Benito Mussolini) ကေုာံ သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် ပိုင်ယပ် (Pope Pius XI) တအ် ထပက် စၟတ်တဲ ကသုက် လာတာရန် တုဲ၊ ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် နဒဒှ် ဍုင် သၠးပွး တၟိ မွဲ ရ။
== ၃။ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Geography and Climate) ==
ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ လပါ် ပလိုတ် ၜဳ တိုက်ဗါ (Tiber River) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ရောမ်။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး တင်ဂၞင် သဇိုင် ပထဝဳ ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန်
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! တင်ဂၞင် အဓိက
|-
| '''ဇမၞော် တိဍာ်'''
| ၄၉ ဟက်တာ (၁၂၁ ဧက)
|-
| '''ပယျဵု'''
| ၃.၂ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (ပံင်ကောံ လဝ် ကု ဍုင်အဳတလဳ မွဲဓဝ်)
|-
| '''သမၠုင်အိုတ်'''
| တဵု ဗာတဳကာန် (၇၅ မဳတာ / ၂၄၆ ပေ)
|-
| '''တိဍာ် သ္ၚိက္ဍိုင်'''
| ၅၀ ရာခိုင်နှုန်း (ကၠအ် ဗာတဳကာန် - Vatican Gardens)
|}
ရာသဳဥတု ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ တုပ် ကဵု ရာသဳဥတု ဍုင်ရောမ် မဒှ် ရာသဳဥတု ၜဳ လဒေါဝ် တိ (Mediterranean climate) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကညင် မ္ဂး ကတဴ တုဲ ကှ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဇကု မ္ဂး ဂံက် တုဲ ဗြဲ ဂူ ဂၠိုင် ရ။
== ၄။ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Government and Legal System) ==
ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞောတ် သၟိင်သင် ပိုင်ပြဳ အဝဵု အလုံစုံ (Absolute elective monarchy) ရ။ သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် ဂှ် ဒှ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် တုဲ၊ ညးတေအ် ဂွံ ဒးဒုင် ရုဲစှ် နကဵု ဂကောံ ကာဒဳနယ် (College of Cardinals) စဵုကဵု လအိတ် ဘဝ ရ။<ref name="rees">{{cite book |last=Rees |first=T. J. |title=The Vatican: A Guide to the Holy City |publisher=Vatican Press |year=2015 |pages=45-48}}</ref>
အဝဵု အုပ်ဓုပ် လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ဂှ် သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် ပအပ် လဝ် ကု ကံမရှေန် ပွိုင်ဍုင် (Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State) මဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ကာဒဳနယ် ၇ တၠ ရ။ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ သၞောဝ် ဘာသာ (Canon law) ကေုာံ သၞောဝ် အဳတလဳ ပ္ဍဲ ကိစ္စ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ရ။ ဍုင် ဏအ် နွံကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန် မကော်စ [[ဒပ် ဆွစ်]] (Pontifical Swiss Guard) မဒှ် ဂကောံ မင်မဲ လမျီု သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် မစကာ ကောန်ပၞာန် ဍုင် ဆွစ်ဇာလာန် (Switzerland) ရ။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ (Economy and Finance) ==
ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မတဵုလွဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် စက်ယန္တရား (Manufacturing) ရ။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍေဟ်တအ် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ -
* '''သြန် ဒါန် ညးပတှ်ေ (Peter's Pence):''' သြန် ဒါန် နူကဵု ကောန် ဘာသာ ကာတ္တလေတ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ။
* '''ပရေင်တက် တဆိပ် (Philately & Numismatics):''' တက် ပတိတ် တဆိပ် ခမဳ (Stamps) ကေုာံ လှုဲ ဒင်္ဂါး (Coins) မဒှ် အရာ မၞိဟ် ကောံကေတ် တအ် ဒးဂၞပ် ဗွဲမလောန်။
* '''ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး (Museum admissions):''' သြန် လုပ် နူကဵု ညးမကၠုင် လ္ၚတ် တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး ဗာတဳကာန် (Vatican Museums) မနွံ လၟိဟ် ဂၠိုင်ကဵု မဳလဳယာန် ဇၟာပ် သၞာံ။
ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ စကာ သြန် [[ယူရဝ်]] (Euro) အတိုင် ကသုက် ပံင်ကောံ ကု ဍုင်အဳတလဳ ကေုာံ ရးဥရောပ တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် နွံကဵု ဘဏ် ဗဟဵု (Institute for the Works of Religion - IOR) ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ (Demographics and Languages) ==
လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် မပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ နွံ ၜိုတ် ၈၀၀ တၠ ဓဝ် ရ။ မၞိဟ် တအ် ဏအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒှ် -
* ခမဳ ကေုာံ လကျာ် ကာတ္တလေတ် (Clergy)။
* ကောန်ပၞာန် ဒပ် ဆွစ် (Swiss Guards)။
* ကောန်ကမၠောန် အလဵုအသဳ (Diplomats and state officials)။
အခေါင် ကောန်ဍုင် (Citizenship) ပ္ဍဲ ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ ဟွံကလိဂွံ ဟိုတ်နူ ဇာတိ (Jus soli) ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ကလိဂွံ ဆ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဏအ် သၟး ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကမၠောန် တုဲ အာ မ္ဂး၊ အခေါင် ကောန်ဍုင် လေဝ် အိုတ် အာ ကီု ရ။
အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ ရုင် အလဵုအသဳ (Holy See) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရေဝ် [[လေတ္တေန်]] (Latin) ရ။ ဆဂး အပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဂှ် အရေဝ် [[အဳတလဳ]] (Italian) ဝွံ ဒှ် အရေဝ် အဓိက မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ရ။
== ၇။ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အနုသုခုမ (Culture and Arts) ==
ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဗဟဵု အနုသုခုမ ကေုာံ ဓဇက်ရုပ် ခေတ် ရေနေသောင် (Renaissance) မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဒၞာဲ အဓိက တအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် -<ref name="vasari">{{cite book |last=Vasari |first=G. |title=The Lives of the Artists |publisher=Oxford World's Classics |year=1998 |pages=300-310}}</ref>
* '''ကျာ်ဇၞော် သူရိန် ပဳတာ (St. Peter's Basilica):''' ဒှ် ဘာကျာ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ မသြိုင်ခၞံ လဝ် နကဵု တၠပညာ မာက်ကယ်အာန်ဂျေလဝ် (Michelangelo) ကေုာံ ဗရာမာန်တေ (Bramante)။
* '''ဘာကျာ် သိစ်သတေန် (Sistine Chapel):''' ပြာကတ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ရုပ် ဓဇက် လတူ မျက်နှာကာဲ (Ceiling) မဓဇက် လဝ် နကဵု မာက်ကယ်အာန်ဂျေလဝ် ပရူ ဝင် ခၞံဗဒှ် ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ တ္ၚဲ သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် လက္ကရဴအိုတ် (The Last Judgment)။
* '''တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး ဗာတဳကာန် (Vatican Museums):''' ဒၞာဲ မတန်သိပ် လဝ် ရုပ် ဓဇက်၊ ရုပ် စုတ် ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ အနုသုခုမ နူကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ခေတ် တၟိ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်သ္အာင် (Foreign Relations) ==
ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ကိုယ်တိုင် ဝွံ ဟွံကၠောန် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်သ္အာင် ပုဟ်၊ ကမၠောန် ဏအ်ဂှ် ဟဝ်လဳသဳ (Holy See) ဒှ် ညးမကၠောန် ရ။ ဟဝ်လဳသဳ ဝွံ နွံကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်သ္အာင် (Diplomatic relations) ကု ဍုင် ဂၠိုင်နူ ၁၈၀ ဍုင် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
ဟဝ်လဳသဳ ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations) နဒဒှ် ဍုင် ညးလ္ၚတ် မဟွံမဲ အခေါင် မဲ (Non-member observer state) ရ။ ဍေဟ်တအ် လေဝ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံ ဂၠးတိ နာနာ သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုအ်၊ ပရေင်အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ရ။
== ၉။ လဒက်ပတန် အခြေခံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် (Infrastructure and Communications) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဒှ် ဍုင် ဍောတ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ နွံကဵု လဒက်ပတန် အခြေခံ (Infrastructure) ဍိုက်ပေင် အလုံစုံ ရ -
* '''သၞောတ် ပလံင် လိက် (Post Office):''' သၞောတ် ပလံင် လိက် ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပြဟ် တုဲ ခိုဟ် နူကဵု ဍုင်ရောမ် အဳတလဳ ဏီ ရ။
* '''က္ၜင်ကျာ ကေုာံ ရထာ (Transport):''' ဍုင် ဏအ် နွံကဵု သၞေဟ် ရထာ ဍောတ်တ် မွဲ မဆက်စပ် ကု သၞောတ် အဳတလဳ၊ ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ စှ်ေ ရဟတ်ယာဉ် (Heliport) သွက် သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် (Media):''' နွံကဵု ရေဒဳယော ဗာတဳကာန် (Vatican Radio) မလလောင် တြး လိက် ဘာသာ နကဵု ၄၇ ဘာသာ၊ လိက်ပရိုင် L'Osservatore Romano၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အင်တာနက် လတူ ဌာန် ဝပ်သာက် တအ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာဂမၠိုင် (Future and Challenges) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တၟိ ဏအ်၊ ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ကေုာံ ဟဝ်လဳသဳ တအ် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ ဒၟံင် ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -<ref name="francis">{{cite book |last=Pope Francis |title=Laudato si': On Care for Our Common Home |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclicalletter0000cath_l3c5 |publisher=Vatican Press |year=2015 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclicalletter0000cath_l3c5/page/15 15]-20}}</ref>
* '''ပရေင်ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (Environmental Goals):''' သၟိင်သင် ပုပ် ဖရန်သစ် (Pope Francis) ဆဝ်မ္ၚုဟ် လဝ် ညံင်ဂွံ မင်မဲ သဘာဝ တုဲ၊ ဗာတဳကာန် ဝွံ စုတ် လဝ် ផ្ទាំង လျးတ္ၚဲ (Solar panels) ပ္ဍဲ လတူ သ္ၚိ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ စကာ ဒြဟတ် လျးတ္ၚဲ ရ။ ဍေဟ်တအ် ရန်တၟအ် လဝ် ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် မဟွံပတိတ် ဓါတ် ကာဗောန် (Carbon neutral) ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ (Financial Transparency):''' ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပြသၞာ အဂတိ (Scandals) ပ္ဍဲ ဘဏ် ဗာတဳကာန် ပ္ဍဲ အတိတ် တေအ် တုဲ၊ လၟုဟ် ညးတအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ်ဝ် ထိင်ဒဝ် သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ညံင်ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု သၞောဝ် ဥရောပ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ခေတ်တၟိ (Modernization):''' ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ အကြာ အာဲကၟာဲ ဝင် ခေတ်တြေံ ကေုာံ ကွတ်ပညာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digitization) သွက်ဂွံ စကာ ပ္ဍဲ တိုက်လိက် (Vatican Library) ကေုာံ မဳဒဳယာ ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ဒှ် ကမၠောန် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သၟိင်သင် ပုပ်]] (Pope)
* [[ကာတ္တလေတ်]] (Catholic Church)
* [[ဍုင်ရောမ်]] (Rome)
* [[အဳတလဳ]] (Italy)
{{Navbox
| name = Vatican City
| title = ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန် ကေုာံ ဟဝ်လဳသဳ (Vatican City and the Holy See)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်
| list1 =
* [[သၟိင်သင် ပုပ်]] (Pope)
* [[ဟဝ်လဳသဳ]] (Holy See)
* [[ကသုက် လာတာရန်]] (Lateran Treaty)
* [[ဒပ် ဆွစ်]] (Swiss Guard)
| group2 = ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ
| list2 =
* [[ကျာ်ဇၞော် သူရိန် ပဳတာ]] (St. Peter's Basilica)
* [[ဘာကျာ် သိစ်သတေန်]] (Sistine Chapel)
* [[တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး ဗာတဳကာန်]] (Vatican Museums)
* [[ကၠအ် ဗာတဳကာန်]] (Vatican Gardens)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဍုင်ရောမ်]] (Rome)
* [[အဳတလဳ]] (Italy)
* [[ကာတ္တလေတ်]] (Catholic Church)
* [[အရေဝ် လေတ္တေန်]] (Latin language)
}}
[[Category:ဍုင်ဗာတဳကာန်]]
[[Category:ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲ ရးဥရောပ]]
[[Category:ဘာသာ ကာတ္တလေတ်]]
[[Category:ယေန်သၞာင် အဳတလဳ]]
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'''ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ဂကောံ အကြာ ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''International organization'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကောံ မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု လိက်ကသုက် (Treaty) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၞောတ်ဝ် လတူ ဍုင် နာနာ တုဲ၊ နွံကဵု အခေါင်အရာ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ အလုံဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဂကောံ တအ်ဝွံ ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ ဂၠးတိ၊ ပခိုဟ် ပတိုန် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ မင်မဲ ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်၊ ကေုာံ ဆက်စပ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မွဲစွံ အကြာ ကၟိန်ဍုင် တၞဟ်ခြာ တအ် ရ။<ref name="archer">{{cite book |last=Archer |first=C. |title=International Organizations |url=https://archive.org/details/internationalorg0000arch_d4u9 |edition=3rd |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/internationalorg0000arch_d4u9/page/30 30]-35}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဂလဝ်ဗယ်လာ်ဇေးယှေန် (Globalization) ဏအ်၊ ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ တအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဇန် လဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ဂကူ နာနာ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် အလုံဂၠးတိ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:United_Nations_HQ_-_New_York_City.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ရုင်ဗဟဵု [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် နေဝ်ယံက် (New York)၊ မဒှ် ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
နကဵု သၞောတ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ အလုံဂၠးတိ မ္ဂး၊ ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ မွဲ နွံပၟိက် ဒြပ်စင် အဓိက ၃ သာ် -
# ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အလဵုအသဳ အောန်အိုတ် ၜါ ဍုင် (Membership)။
# နွံကဵု လိက်ကသုက် တင်တုပ်စိုတ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် (Constitutive instrument)။
# နွံကဵု အခေါင်အရာ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မတၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု ဍုင် ကောန်ဂကောံ တအ် (Legal personality)။
နကဵု လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory) ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် (International relations) မ္ဂး၊ ဂကောံ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဌာန် သွက် ဍုင် တအ် ဂွံ သဳကၠဳ ပညဳပညပ် (Negotiation) ကေုာံ ဖန်ဇန် ဥပဒေ သွက် ဂၠးတိ မွဲ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင် ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ ဝွံ စကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဗွဲမကၠးကြေဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ ရ။ ဂကောံ ပထမအိုတ် တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကောံ သွက်ဂွံ ပခိုဟ် ပတိုန် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် လိက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စက်ယန္တရား (Functional organizations) မပ္တံကဵု [[ဂကောံ ပရေင်ပလံင်လိက် ဂၠးတိ]] (Universal Postal Union) ကေုာံ ဂကောံ ကြေးနန်း (International Telegraph Union) မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၅ ရ。<ref name="pease">{{cite book |last=Pease |first=K. K. |title=International Organizations: Perspectives on Governance in the Twenty-First Century |edition=4th |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |pages=15-20}}</ref>
ကြဴနူ [[ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အလန် ပထမ]] (World War I) တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၁၉ ဂှ် တၠပညာ တအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် [[ဂကောံ ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်]] (League of Nations) နဒဒှ် ဂကောံ ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ပထမအိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ဂကောံ ဏအ် လီုလာ် အာ ကာလ [[ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အလန် ဒုတိယ]] (World War II) ကတဵုဒှ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၅ စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
== ၃။ ဂကူ ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ ဂမၠိုင် (Types of International Organizations) ==
ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ ဂမၠိုင် ဂှ် ပါ်ကရေက် လဝ် နကဵု ဂကူ အဓိက ၜါ သာ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ အဓိက
|-
! ဂကူ ဂကောံ
! ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ အခေါင်
! ဥပမာ ဂကောံ
|-
| '''[[ဂကောံ အလဵုအသဳ အလုံဂၠးတိ]] (IGOs)'''
| ဂကောံ မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု အလဵုအသဳ ကၟိန်ဍုင် ဂမၠိုင် တုဲ နွံ အခေါင်အရာ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဍုင် (Intergovernmental Organizations)။
| [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (UN)၊ [[ဂကောံ ဍုင်ဥရောပ]] (EU)၊ [[အာသဳယျာန်]] (ASEAN)။
|-
| '''[[ဂကောံ ဟွံသေင် အလဵုအသဳ ဂၠးတိ]] (INGOs)'''
| ဂကောံ မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (International Non-governmental Organizations)။
| [[ဂကောံ ကြက်ခြေနီ]] (Red Cross)၊ [[အေန်မနესသတဳ]] (Amnesty International)။
|}
== ၄။ ဂကောံ အလဵုအသဳ အလုံဂၠးတိ (Intergovernmental Organizations - IGOs) ==
IGOs တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂကောံ မနွံကဵု ဩဇာ အာဏာ သၠုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဂကောံ တအ် ဏအ် မာန် ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ပရေင်ပိုင်ခြာ တၞဟ်ခြာ သာ် -
* '''ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ (Global IGOs):''' ဂကောံ မပံက် လဝ် အခေါင် သွက် ဇၟာပ် ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ မာန် လုပ် ဒှ် ကောန်ဂကောံ ရ (ဥပမာ - UN, WTO)။
* '''ဂကောံ ဒေသ (Regional IGOs):''' ဂကောံ မပံက် လဝ် ဆ သွက် ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ မွဲ ဓဝ် သၟး ရ (ဥပမာ - [[အာသဳယျာန်]] ASEAN သွက် အာရှအဂၞဲ၊ [[သမဂ္ဂ အာဖရိက]] African Union သွက် အာဖရိက)။
== ၅။ သၞောတ် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (The United Nations System) ==
[[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations) ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂကောံ IGO မပြာကတ် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၅ တုဲ နွံကဵု ဍုင် ကောန်ဂကောံ ၁၉၃ ဍုင် ရ။<ref name="karns">{{cite book |last=Karns |first=M. P. |author2=Mingst, K. A. |title=International Organizations: The Politics and Processes of Global Governance |edition=2nd |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |year=2009 |pages=95-100}}</ref>
သၞောတ် UN ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''သဘင်သဳကၠဳ ဇၞော် (General Assembly):''' ဒၞာဲ ဍုင် အလုံအိုတ်သီု မာန် ဟီုဂလာန် ကေုာံ ကဵု မဲ။
* '''ကံင်သဳ ဂီုကၠီု (Security Council):''' နွံကဵု ဍုင် ကောန်ဂကောံ ၁၅ ဍုင် (၅ ဍုင် နွံ အခေါင် ဗဳတဝ် Veto) သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် လမျီု ပၞာန်။
* '''ဂကောံ ဌာန ဆက်စပ် (Specialized Agencies):''' မပ္တံကဵု [[ဂကောံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ဂၠးတိ]] (WHO)၊ [[ဂကောံ ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင်]] (UNESCO)၊ ကေုာံ [[ဗဏ် ဂၠးတိ]] (World Bank) ရ။
== ၆။ တာလျိုင် ကေုာံ ကမၠောန် အဓိက (Roles and Core Functions) ==
ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ တအ် နွံ တာလျိုင် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဂၠးတိ -
* '''မင်မဲ ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် (Peacekeeping):''' ပလံင် ကောန်ပၞာန် ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ဇရေင် ဍုင် မနွံကဵု ပၞာန်အပ္ဍဲ (Civil wars)။
* '''ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (Development):''' ထံက်ပင် သြန် ကေုာံ ပညာ သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် ပရေင်ဒိုက်ဂတ် (Poverty alleviation) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ခေတ်တၟိ တအ်။
* '''အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် (Human Rights):''' လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ အခေါင် မၞိဟ် နကဵု လိက်ကသုက် [[လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် အလုံဂၠးတိ]] (UDHR)။
== ၇။ ဂကောံ ဟွံသေင် အလဵုအသဳ ဂၠးတိ (International NGOs) ==
ပါဲနူ အလဵုအသဳ တုဲ၊ [[ဂကောံ ဟွံသေင် အလဵုအသဳ]] (NGOs) တအ်လေဝ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ ဂကောံ တအ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သက်သက် (Civil society) တုဲ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု သြဇာ အလဵုအသဳ ရ။
ဍေဟ်တအ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ရီုဗင် မၞိဟ် (Humanitarian aid) ကာလ ဒးဆဵု ဘဲ သဘာဝ ဥပမာ [[ဂကောံ ကြက်ခြေနီ]] (International Red Cross)။ တုဲပၠန် ဍေဟ်တအ် ကဵု ဒြဟတ် ဍဵုဍိုက် (Advocacy) ကု အလဵုအသဳ တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (ဥပမာ [[ဂရင်းပိစ်]] - Greenpeace) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အခေါင် မၞိဟ် ရ။
== ၈။ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ အလုံဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ တင်တုပ်စိုတ် (International Law and Treaties) ==
ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဌာန် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် [[သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ အလုံဂၠးတိ]] (International law) ရ။ ကာလ ဍုင် တအ် စိုပ် တင်တုပ်စိုတ် (Consensus) မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ထ္ပက် စၟတ်တဲ လိက်ကသုက် (Treaties/Conventions) မာန် ရ။<ref name="weiss">{{cite book |last=Weiss |first=T. G. |title=Global Governance: Why? What? Whither? |url=https://archive.org/details/globalgovernance0000weis |publisher=Polity Press |year=2013 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/globalgovernance0000weis/page/120 120]-125}}</ref>
ယဝ်ရ ဍုင် မွဲမွဲ ဟွံဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် အတိုင် သၞောဝ် မ္ဂး၊ ဂကောံ တအ် မာန် ဖန်ဇန် ဒဏ် (Sanctions) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပ္ဍဲ ရုင်ဗစာ အလုံဂၠးတိ မပ္တံကဵု [[ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဂၠးတိ]] (International Court of Justice - ICJ) ကေုာံ [[ရုင်ဗစာ ရာဇာဝတ် ဂၠးတိ]] (International Criminal Court - ICC) တအ် ရ။
== ၉။ အခက်အခုဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပါ်ပါဲ (Challenges and Criticisms) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ တအ် နွံကဵု ဖဵု ဇၞော် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒးဒုင် ပါ်ပါဲ (Criticisms) နာနာ သာ် ရ -
* '''ပြသၞာ ဗဳတဝ် (Veto Problem):''' ပ္ဍဲ ကံင်သဳ ဂီုကၠီု ကုလသမဂ္ဂ၊ ဍုင် ဇၞော် ၅ ဍုင် နွံ အခေါင် ဗဳတဝ် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ပလီု ထောအ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် မဟွံကိတ် ကု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍေဟ်တအ် လောဲလောဲ မာန် ရ။
* '''အာဏာ ဟွံမဲ (Lack of Enforcement):''' ဂကောံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဒြဟတ် ပၞာန် အလဵုဇကု သွက်ဂွံ ရပ်စပ် ဍုင် မလီု သၞောဝ် တအ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဗျူရဝ်ကရေသဳ (Bureaucracy):''' ဂကောံ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် မလေပ် ဒှ် အာ လဇုဲလဇ ဟိုတ်နူ သၞောတ် စက္ခူ ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် မထုဲထံင် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဂၠးတိ (Future of Global Governance) ==
အနာဂတ် ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ဒးဆဵုဂဗ ဒၟံင် ကု ပြသၞာ တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု]] (Climate change)၊ [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)၊ ကေုာံ ယဲကပ် ဂၠးတိ တအ် ရ။ ပြသၞာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဍုင် မွဲ ဓဝ် သောင်ကလး ဟွံမာန် တုဲ ဒးနွံကဵု ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ (Global cooperation) ဍာံဍာံ ရ။
တၠပညာ တအ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး ဒၟံင် ညံင်ဂွံ ပလေဝ်ပလေတ် (Reform) သၞောတ် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ ကေုာံ ပကဵု ညံင် ဍုင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု အိန္ဒိယ၊ ဗရာဇြဳ တအ် ဂွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ကံင်သဳ ဂီုကၠီု ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။ ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ဆက် ဒှ် အာ ဒၞာဲ ဌာန် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ဓဝ်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်တန်တဴ ဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရောင်။<ref name="karns2">{{cite book |last=Karns |first=M. P. |author2=Mingst, K. A. |title=International Organizations: The Politics and Processes of Global Governance |edition=2nd |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |year=2009 |pages=550-555}}</ref>
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations)
* [[သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ အလုံဂၠးတိ]] (International law)
* [[အာသဳယျာန်]] (ASEAN)
* [[ဂကောံ ဟွံသေင် အလဵုအသဳ]] (Non-governmental organization)
{{Navbox
| name = International Organizations
| title = ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် (International Organizations and Relations)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဂကောံ ဂၠးတိ အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations)
* [[ဂကောံ ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်]] (League of Nations)
* [[ဗဏ် ဂၠးတိ]] (World Bank)
* [[ဂကောံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ဂၠးတိ]] (World Health Organization)
| group2 = ဂကောံ ဒေသဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[ဂကောံ ဍုင်ဥရောပ]] (European Union)
* [[အာသဳယျာန်]] (ASEAN)
* [[သမဂ္ဂ အာဖရိက]] (African Union)
* [[နေတဝ်]] (NATO)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ အလုံဂၠးတိ]] (International law)
* [[ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်]] (International relations)
* [[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human rights)
* [[ဂကောံ ဟွံသေင် အလဵုအသဳ]] (NGO)
}}
[[Category:ဂကောံ အလုံဂၠးတိ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ]]
[[Category:သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ အလုံဂၠးတိ]]
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'''အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Microbiology'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍမွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology) မလ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ သတ္တဝါ မဍောတ်သွတ် ဗွဲမလောန် စဵုကဵု မတ် ဓမ္မတာ ညာတ် ဟွံမာန် တအ် ရ။ သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ (Microorganisms ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Microbes) တအ်ဝွံ ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု သတ္တဝါ ကလာပ်ရုပ် မွဲ (Unicellular)၊ သတ္တဝါ ကလာပ်ရုပ် ဂၠိုင် မဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် (Multicellular)၊ ကေုာံ သတ္တဝါ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Acellular) မပ္တံကဵု [[ဗိုၚ်ရပ်သ်]] (Viruses) ရ။ ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် မၞိဟ်၊ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ရ။<ref name="madigan">{{cite book |last=Madigan |first=M. T. |author2=Bender, K. S. |author3=Buckley, D. H. |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |edition=15th |publisher=Pearson |year=2018 |pages=1-10}}</ref>
သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ တအ်ဝွံ နွံ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ဒၞာဲ လတူ ဂၠးတိ - စတမ် နူကဵု ဍာ် ၜဳ၊ တိ၊ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် အပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ထေင် ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ တအ် ကဵု ယဲဘဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ အများစု ဂှ် ကဵု ဖဵု လတူ ဇဳဝ ဂၠးတိ (Biosphere) ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဂကူ သတ္တဝါ၊ လွပ် သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ ကွတ်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Agar_plate_with_colonies.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ [[ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ]] (Bacterial colonies) ပ္ဍဲ ပ္ၚာန် အာဂါ (Agar plate) သွက် ပရေင်သုတေသန အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ" (Microbiology) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ ၃ မ - "mīkros" (ဍောတ်သွတ်)၊ "bios" (လမျီု)၊ ကေုာံ "logia" (ပညာ လ္ၚတ်) ရ။
နကဵု သၞောတ် သိပ္ပံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် မ္ဂး၊ အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် မလ္ၚတ် လတူ ရုပ်သာ်၊ လဒက်ပတန် ကလာပ်ရုပ်၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် (Ecology) သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ တအ် ရ။ ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ကဏ္ဍ သိပ္ပံ တၞဟ် တအ် မပ္တံကဵု [[ဇဳဝဓါတုဗေဒ]] (Biochemistry) ကေုာံ [[ဂဳဇီုဗေဒ]] (Genetics) ကီု ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင် လ္ၚတ် အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ လပါ်စ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၇ ကြဴနူ မခၞံဗဒှ် ကိရိယာ မှန်ဇၞော် (Microscope) တုဲ ရ။<ref name="prescott">{{cite book |last=Willey |first=J. |author2=Sherwood, L. |author3=Woolverton, C. J. |title=Prescott's Microbiology |url=https://archive.org/details/looseleafforpres0000joan |edition=10th |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education |year=2016 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/looseleafforpres0000joan/page/15 15]-22}}</ref>
* '''အေန်တဝ်နဳ ဗန် လဳဝေန်ဟုက် (Antonie van Leeuwenhoek):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၆၇၆ ဂှ် ညးတေအ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် ပထမအိုတ် မညာတ် ကေုာံ ချူ ဓဇက် လဝ် ရုပ် သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ မကော်စ "Animalcules" နကဵု မှန်ဇၞော် ညးမကၠောန် လဝ် ကေတ်တ် ရ။
* '''လူးဝစ် ပါသချာ (Louis Pasteur):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ ဂှ်၊ ပါသချာ သောင်ကလး လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ယဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သရိုဟ်လီု စၞစ တအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ ရ (Germ theory of disease)။ ညးတေအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် နဲကဲ ဂစိုတ် စၟ နကဵု ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ (Pasteurization) ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ ဗက်သေန် (Vaccines) သွက် ယဲ ခွေးရူး (Rabies) ရ။
* '''ရောဘတ် ကိုချ် (Robert Koch):''' ညးတေအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] မကော်စ "Koch's postulates" မဒှ် သၞောတ်ဝ် သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ စၟ မွဲမွဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ် မကဵု ယဲ ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ရ။
== ၃။ ကဏ္ဍ ကေုာံ သာခါ အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ (Branches of Microbiology) ==
အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ကဏ္ဍ သဇိုင် ကေုာံ ကဏ္ဍ လွပ် နာနာ သာ် ရ -
* '''ပညာ လ္ၚတ် ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ (Bacteriology):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ [[ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ]] (Bacteria)။
* '''ပညာ လ္ၚတ် ဗိုၚ်ရပ်သ် (Virology):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ ဗိုၚ်ရပ်သ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ယဲ ဍေဟ်တအ်။
* '''ပညာ လ္ၚတ် ပတိုဟ် (Mycology):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ ပတိုဟ် (Fungi) ကေုာံ မဟ် (Yeast)။
* '''ပညာ လ္ၚတ် သတ္တဝါ ကလာပ်ရုပ် မွဲ (Protozoology):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ ပရဝ်တဝ်ဇိုဝ်ဝါ (Protozoa) ဥပမာ - အမဳဗာ (Amoeba)။
* '''ပညာ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ (Immunology):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ သၞောတ် စဵုဒၞာ ယဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် (Immune system) ညံင်ဂွံ ဒစးဒုင် ကု စၟယဲ တအ်။
== ၄။ ဂကူ သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ ဂမၠိုင် (Types of Microorganisms) ==
သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ တအ်ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် လဝ် နကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ကလာပ်ရုပ် အဓိက ၃ သာ် - ဒဝ်မိန် (Domains of Life) ရ။<ref name="woese">{{cite journal |last=Woese |first=C. R. |author2=Kandler, O. |author3=Wheelis, M. L. |title=Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=87 |issue=12 |pages=4576-4579 |year=1990}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ သတ္တဝါ
! ဂကူ ကလာပ်ရုပ်
! ပွံက် အဓိက
! ဥပမာ
|-
| '''ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ (Bacteria)'''
| ပရဝ်ကာရဳယုတ် (Prokaryote)
| ကလာပ်ရုပ် မွဲ၊ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု နျူကလဳယပ် (Nucleus)။ မံင် ဂွံ ပ္ဍဲ ပွဳပွူ နာနာ။
| ''E. coli'', ''Staphylococcus''
|-
| '''အာခဳယျာ (Archaea)'''
| ပရဝ်ကာရဳယုတ် (Prokaryote)
| တုပ် ကဵု ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ ဆဂး ဗဳဇ တၞဟ်ခြာ။ မံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန် ဂမ္တဴ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဖ္ဍုင် လောန်ကာဲ (Extremophiles)။
| ''Halobacteria'', ''Methanogens''
|-
| '''ပတိုဟ် ကေုာံ မဟ် (Fungi)'''
| ယူကာရဳယုတ် (Eukaryote)
| နွံကဵု နျူကလဳယပ် ဍာံပြ။ ကလာပ်ရုပ် မွဲ (Yeast) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠိုင်။
| ''Saccharomyces'' (Yeast), ''Penicillium''
|-
| '''ပရဝ်တဝ်ဇိုဝ်ဝါ (Protozoa)'''
| ယူကာရဳယုတ် (Eukaryote)
| ကလာပ်ရုပ် မွဲ၊ ချဳဓရာင် မာန်၊ တုပ် ညံင် တိရစ္ဆာန် ဍောတ်တ်။
| ''Plasmodium'' (စၟ ဇွဟ်မိတ်)
|-
| '''ဗိုၚ်ရပ်သ် (Viruses)'''
| ဟွံမဲ ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Acellular)
| ကလာပ်ရုပ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ပရဝ်တေန် ကေုာံ DNA/RNA သၟး။ ဒးမံင် အပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာ ညးတၞဟ်။
| SARS-CoV-2, HIV, Influenza
|}
== ၅။ လဒက်ပတန် ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Cellular Structure and Biology) ==
သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ တအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ [[သဳအိုရဳ]] ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Cell theory) ရ။ ကလာပ်ရုပ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ပါ်လဝ် ၜါ သာ် -
၁. '''ပရဝ်ကာရဳယုတ် (Prokaryotes):''' ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဗွိုက် နျူကလဳယပ် (Nuclear membrane) ရ။ [[ဒဳအေန်အေ]] (DNA) ဍေဟ်တအ် ပြးဇး ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဆိုက်တဝ်ပလာဇမ် (Cytoplasm) ရ။ ဍေဟ်တအ် နွံကဵု ဗွိုက် ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Cell wall) မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ရ။
၂. '''ယူကာရဳယုတ် (Eukaryotes):''' နွံကဵု နျူကလဳယပ် (Nucleus) မဂိုမ်းသိပ် လဝ် DNA ဗွဲမစနစ်တကျ ရ။ တုဲပၠန် နွံကဵု သၞောတ် အင်္ဂါ ဍောတ်တ် (Organelles) မပ္တံကဵု မာင်တဝ်ကောန်ဒရဳယျာ (Mitochondria) ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု ယဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Medical Microbiology and Disease) ==
ကဏ္ဍ အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ ဆေင်ကဵု ဂဥုဲ (Medical microbiology) ဝွံ လ္ၚတ် ပရူ စၟယဲ (Pathogens) မကဵု ဘဲ ကု မၞိဟ်၊ တိရစ္ဆာန်၊ ကေုာံ တၞံဆု တအ် ရ။<ref name="murray">{{cite book |last=Murray |first=P. R. |author2=Rosenthal, K. S. |author3=Pfaller, M. A. |title=Medical Microbiology |edition=8th |publisher=Elsevier |year=2015 |pages=45-50}}</ref>
စၟယဲ တအ် မာန် လုပ် ဇီုကပိုက် ခန္ဓာကိုယ် နကဵု ဍာ်၊ စၞစ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကျာ ရ။ သွက်ဂွံ လွဳယဲ တအ် ဏအ်၊ တၠပညာ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ဂဥုဲ ဂျိ (Antibiotics) ဥပမာ - ပေန်နဳသဳလေန် (Penicillin) မဂွံ နူကဵု ပတိုဟ် ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် လၟုဟ် ပြသၞာ အဓိက မွဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် စၟယဲ တအ် ဒစးဒုင် ကု ဂဥုဲ ဂျိ (Antibiotic resistance) မာန် ကၠုင် ဂှ် ရ။ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ (Vaccination) ဝွံ ဒှ် နဲကဲ သာ် အဓိကအိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ယဲ ကၠောအ်ကၠး မပ္တံကဵု ယဲ ခဍက် ကေုာံ ယဲ ကဝ်ဗေတ်-၁၉ ရ။
== ၇။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်စၞစ ကေုာံ စက်ရုံ (Food and Industrial Microbiology) ==
သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ တအ်ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ကဵု ယဲ သၟး ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ကဵု ဖဵု သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်စၞစ (Food Microbiology):''' ပရေင်ကၠောန် အရက်၊ ဘဳယာ၊ ကွာင်က္ၜင်၊ ကေုာံ ဍာ်တှ် ဓရောတ် (Yogurt) တအ်ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ သဘာဝ ပရေင်ဖမုဟ် (Fermentation) နကဵု မဟ် (Yeast) ကေုာံ ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ ဂမၠိုင် ရ။
* '''ကဏ္ဍ စက်ရုံ (Industrial Microbiology):''' ပ္ဍဲ စက်ရုံ ဂဥုဲ တအ်ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ တုဲ စကာ ဍေဟ်တအ် ညံင်ရဴ စက်ရုံ ဍောတ်တ် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် ဓါတ် ဟဝ်မုန်း အေန်သူလေန် (Insulin) ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ နာနာ ရ။
== ၈။ အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (Environmental Microbiology) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သဘာဝ (Ecosystem) မ္ဂး၊ သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ညးမသရိုဟ် ပလီု ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု တြေံ (Decomposers) ကေုာံ ညးမထိင်ဒဝ် စက်သြိုဟ် ဓါတ် (Nutrient cycles) ရ။
* '''စက်သြိုဟ် နိုက်ထရဝ်ဂျေန် (Nitrogen cycle):''' ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ ပ္ဍဲ ရိုဟ် တၞံဆု တအ် မာန် ဓဇက် ကေတ် ဓါတ် နိုက်ထရဝ်ဂျေန် နူ ကျာ တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ ကဵု ဓါတ် ဝဲ သွက် တၞံဆု ဂွံ စကာ မာန် ရ။
* '''စက်သြိုဟ် ကာဗောန် (Carbon cycle):''' ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ ကေုာံ Algae ပ္ဍဲ ၜဳ တအ် ကၠောန် ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ လျး (Photosynthesis) တုဲ ပတိတ် ကဵု ဓါတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် (Oxygen) သွက် ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၉။ ကွတ်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ ကေုာံ သုတေသန (Modern Techniques and Research) ==
ဘာသာရပ် အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ ခေတ်တၟိ ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ ကွတ်ပညာ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဳအေန်အေ (DNA sequencing) ကေုာံ ဇဳဝဗေဒ မဝ်လဳစျူး (Molecular biology) ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
စၞး မဒး လွဳ ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ပ္ဍဲ ပ္ၚာန် အာဂါ သၟး ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) သွက်ဂွံ တွက် ကေုာံ မိပ် ကေတ် DNA သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ ဗွဲမပြဟ် ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် တၠပညာ တအ် စကာ [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence) သွက်ဂွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် တင်ဂၞင် ဗဳဇ (Genome data) မဇၞော် မာန် တုဲ ဂၠာဲ ဆဵု ဂဥုဲ ဂျိ တၟိ တၟိ မာန် ရ။<ref name="doudna">{{cite book |last=Doudna |first=J. A. |author2=Sternberg, S. H. |title=A Crack in Creation: Gene Editing and the Unthinkable Power to Control Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/crackincreationg0000jenn |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2017 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/crackincreationg0000jenn/page/100 100]-115}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ (Future of Microbiology) ==
အနာဂတ် သုတေသန အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ ဝွံ စွံ အာရီု လတူ ပရေင်သောင်ကလး ပြသၞာ ဂၠးတိ ရ -
* '''ပရေင်လွဳ နကဵု ဖေ့ချ် (Phage therapy):''' ဟိုတ်နူ ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ တအ် ဒစးဒုင် ဂဥုဲ ဂျိ (Superbugs) ဂၠိုင် ကၠုင် ဂှ်ရ၊ တၠပညာ တအ် လ္ၚတ် ဒၟံင် နဲကဲ လွဳ ယဲ နကဵု "ဗိုၚ်ရပ်သ် မစ ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ" (Bacteriophages) ရ။
* '''ဇဳဝဗေဒ ဖွဲ့စည်း (Synthetic biology):''' ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဗဳဇ သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ တၟိ အလုံစုံ သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် ကၠေင် ဓါတ် (Biofuels) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စုပ် ကေတ် ပလာသတစ် မလီုလာ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ၜဳ တအ် ရ။
* '''မိုက်ခရဝ်ဗိုင်အုမ်း (Microbiome research):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ ဂကောံ သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ မမံင် ပ္ဍဲ ကြုတ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် (Gut microbiome) မဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် စိုတ် ကေုာံ ယဲ နာနာ သာ် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
* [[ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ]] (Bacteria)
* [[ဗိုၚ်ရပ်သ်]] (Virus)
* [[ဒဳအေန်အေ]] (DNA)
{{Navbox
| name = Biology and Microbiology
| title = ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ (Biology and Microbiology)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သတ္တဝါ အဏုဇဳဝ
| list1 =
* [[ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ]] (Bacteria)
* [[ဗိုၚ်ရပ်သ်]] (Virus)
* [[အာခဳယျာ]] (Archaea)
* [[ပတိုဟ်]] (Fungus)
| group2 = ကဏ္ဍ သုတေသန
| list2 =
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ မဝ်လဳစျူး]] (Molecular biology)
* [[ဂဳဇီုဗေဒ]] (Genetics)
* [[ဇဳဝဓါတုဗေဒ]] (Biochemistry)
* [[ပညာ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ]] (Immunology)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ကလာပ်ရုပ်]] (Cell (biology))
* [[ဒဳအေန်အေ]] (DNA)
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
* [[လူးဝစ် ပါသချာ]] (Louis Pasteur)
}}
[[Category:ဇဳဝဗေဒ]]
[[Category:အဏုဇဳဝဗေဒ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ]]
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'''ဘာသာ မိ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''အရေဝ် မိ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''First language'', ''Mother tongue'', ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Native language'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မွဲ မကောန်ၚာ် မွဲ လ္ၚတ် ကတ်ကေတ် လဝ် နူကဵု အခိင် ကာလ ဍောတ်တ် (နူ သၠးဂၠံဂဝ် စဵုကဵု အခိင် အဝဲ ဍောတ်) ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ရ။ ဘာသာ မိ ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိကအိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် (Communication)၊ ပရေင်ချပ် စိုတ် (Cognition)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ အခိုက်အလိုက် ယေန်သၞာင် ညးမွဲ မွဲ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[ဘာသာဗေဒ]] (Linguistics) မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ကော်စ အရေဝ် မိ ဏအ် နဒဒှ် (L1) တုဲ၊ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မလ္ၚတ် လက္ကရဴ တအ်ဂှ် ကော်စ ဘာသာ ဒုတိယ (L2) ရ။<ref name="crystal">{{cite book |last=Crystal |first=D. |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo0000crys_w3f5 |edition=3rd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo0000crys_w3f5/page/430 430]-435}}</ref>
မၞိဟ် မဟီု အရေဝ် ဘာသာ မိ မွဲမွဲ ဂှ် ညးကော်စ "Native speaker" (ညးမဟီု အရေဝ် သဇိုင်) ရ။ ဘာသာ မိ ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် က္ဍဟ် ကောန်ၚာ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂကူ ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဘာသာ မိ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ၊ ဇဳဝဗေဒ၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ဘာသာ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Shaheed_Minar_Dhaka.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး တိုင်သမ္တီ တ္ၚဲ ဘာသာ မိ ဂၠးတိ (Shaheed Minar) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဍာကာ၊ ဘင်္ဂလာဒေတ် (Bangladesh) မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ပရေင်ဆာန် ဘာသာ မိ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ဘာသာ မိ" ဝွံ နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် မ္ဂး ဒှ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မမၞိဟ် မွဲ ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ကေတ် အလဵုအလဵု (Acquired naturally) ဟွံဒး စကာ ပရေင်ဗတောန် နကဵု လိက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဘာတန် ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မမၞိဟ် ဂှ် မာန် ဟီု၊ ကၠိုဟ်၊ ကေုာံ ချပ် ဗွဲမပြဟ် ကေုာံ ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် အိုတ် (Most proficient) ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ ညးတေအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အကာဲအရာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် လ္ၚဵု တအ် မ္ဂး၊ ကောန်ၚာ် မွဲ မာန် နွံကဵု "ဘာသာ မိ" ဂၠိုင်နူ မွဲ မာန် ရ (Simultaneous bilingualism)။ ဥပမာ - ယဝ်ရ မိ မဟီု အရေဝ် မန် တုဲ မ မဟီု အရေဝ် အင်္ဂလိက် ကဵု ကောန်ၚာ် ဂှ် နူ အခိင် ကတဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ် မ္ဂး၊ ကောန်ၚာ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဘာသာ မိ ၜါ (Bilingual native speaker) မာန် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ လညာတ် ဝေါဟာရ (History and Terminology) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "Mother tongue" (ဘာသာ မိ) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ လညာတ် တြေံ မစၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "မိ" (Mother) ဝွံ ဒှ် မၞိဟ် အဓိက မလွဳလွတ် ကေုာံ ဟီု အရေဝ် ကဵု ကောန်ၚာ် အခိင် ဍောတ်တ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ အရေဝ် ကောန်ၚာ် ဂှ် ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ကေတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အရေဝ် မိ ဍေဟ် ရ။<ref name="skutnabb">{{cite book |last=Skutnabb-Kangas |first=T. |title=Bilingualism or Not: The Education of Minorities |url=https://archive.org/details/bilingualismorno0000skut |publisher=Multilingual Matters |year=1981 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bilingualismorno0000skut/page/12 12]-18}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ကၠာ တေအ် ဂှ် ညးတအ် ထေင် ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဘာသာ မိ ဂှ် ပါကၠုင် နူ ဆီ (Bloodline)၊ ဆဂး နကဵု လညာတ် သုတေသန ခေတ်တၟိ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု ဆီဇာတ် (Ethnicity) ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဆက်စပ် ကု ပွဳပွူ (Environment) ညးတေအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် လဝ် ဂှ် သၟး ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကောန်ၚာ် မန် မွဲ ဒးဒုင် လွဳလွတ် ပ္ဍဲ သ္ၚိကၟိန် အင်္ဂလိက် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် နူ အခိင် မသၠးဂၠံဂဝ် မ္ဂး၊ ဘာသာ မိ ညးတေအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အင်္ဂလိက် ရ။
== ၃။ လၟေင် ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ဘာသာ (Language Acquisition Process) ==
ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ဘာသာ မိ ဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင် သဘာဝ မအမ်သဝ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ရ။ လၟေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် အတိုင် အဆံင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
# '''အဆံင် ရမ္သာင် (Babbling stage):''' အကြာ ၆ ဂိတု ကဵု ၈ ဂိတု၊ ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် စ ပတိတ် ရမ္သာင် ဗျည် ကဵု သွိုရ် မပ္တံကဵု "မာ-မာ" "ပါ-ပါ"။
# '''အဆံင် မွဲ ဝေါဟာရ (One-word stage):''' အကြာ ၉ ဂိတု ကဵု ၁၈ ဂိတု၊ ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် စ ဟီု မလိက် မွဲမွဲ (ဥပမာ - "ဍာ်"၊ "မိ") သွက်ဂွံ လလောင်တြး အဓိပ္ပါယ် အလုံ။
# '''အဆံင် ၜါ ဝေါဟာရ (Two-word stage):''' အကြာ ၁၈ ဂိတု ကဵု ၂၄ ဂိတု၊ ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် စ ပံင် ဝေါဟာရ ၜါ (ဥပမာ - "သုင် ဍာ်"၊ "အာ ဝေင်")။
# '''အဆံင် သဒ္ဒါ အလုံ (Telegraphic stage):''' ကြဴနူ ၂ သၞာံ ပြင်၊ ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် စ လ္ၚတ် သဒ္ဒါ (Grammar) တုဲ ဟီု ဝါကျ အလုံ မာန် ကၠုင် ရ။
== ၄။ သဇိုင် ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ က္ဍဟ် (Biological Basis and Brain) ==
နကဵု လညာတ် [[သဳအိုရဳ]] (Theory) တၠပညာ ဘာသာဗေဒ နဝ်မ် ချောမ်သကဳ (Noam Chomsky) မ္ဂး၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် သီုကဵု သၞောတ် စက် ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် မကော်စ Language Acquisition Device (LAD) ရ။ အရာ ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် ဂွံ တီ သဒ္ဒါ သဘာဝ (Universal Grammar) အလဵုအလဵု ရ။<ref name="chomsky">{{cite book |last=Chomsky |first=N. |title=Aspects of the Theory of Syntax |url=https://archive.org/details/aspectsoftheoryo00chom |publisher=MIT Press |year=1965 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/aspectsoftheoryo00chom/page/25 25]-30}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂှ်၊ ဒၞာဲ မကော်စ ဒၞာဲ ဗရဝ်ကာ (Broca's area) ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ကု ပရေင်ပတိတ် ရမ္သာင် တုဲ၊ ဒၞာဲ ဝါနဳကဳ (Wernicke's area) ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ကု ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ရ။ တၠပညာ Eric Lenneberg လေဝ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် သဳအိုရဳ အခိင်ကာလ ကိစ္စဇၞော် (Critical Period Hypothesis) မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ် မွဲ ဟွံဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ဘာသာ မိ အကြာ အခိင် ကတဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ် ကဵု အဝဲ ဍောတ် (ကိုပ်ကၠာ အခိင် အဝဲ စိုပ်) မ္ဂး၊ ညးတေအ် ဟွံမာန် လ္ၚတ် ဘာသာ မိ ဂှ် ဍိုက်ပေင် မွဲလှ်ေ ရ။
== ၅။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်စိုတ် ကေုာံ ဉာဏ် (Cognitive and Psychological Impact) ==
ဘာသာ မိ ဝွံ ကဵု ဖဵု လတူ ဗီုလဵု ပိုယ် ညာတ် ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဂၠးတိ ရ။ သဳအိုရဳ ဝေါ့ဖ်-သာပဳယျာ (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဘာသာဗေဒ (Linguistic relativity) ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ လဒက်ပတန် ဘာသာ မိ ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် လညာတ် ပရေင်ချပ် (Thought) မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ တၞဟ်ခြာ ရ။<ref name="pinker">{{cite book |last=Pinker |first=S. |title=The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language |url=https://archive.org/details/languageinstinct00pink |publisher=William Morrow and Company |year=1994 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/languageinstinct00pink/page/55 55]-60}}</ref>
ဥပမာ - ပ္ဍဲ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဂှ် ဟွံမဲ ဝေါဟာရ သွက် အသာ် "သွာတ်" ကဵု "သ္ၚေက်" တၞဟ်ခြာ (စကာ မွဲ မ လိက် ဓဝ်)။ မၞိဟ် မဟီု အရေဝ် ဂှ် တအ် မာန် ပါ်ခြာ အသာ် ၜါ ဏအ် ဝါတ် နူ မၞိဟ် မဟီု အရေဝ် အင်္ဂလိက် မာန် ရ။ တုဲပၠန်၊ ဘာသာ မိ ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မဆက်စပ် ကု ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် (Emotions) မနက်သြိုဟ် အိုတ် ရ။ ကာလ မၞိဟ် တအ် ထေဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အောန်စိုတ် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကလေင် စကာ ဘာသာ မိ ညးတအ် အလဵုအလဵု ရ။
== ၆။ ဘာသာ မိ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Mother Tongue and Culture) ==
အရေဝ် မိ ကဵု ယေန်သၞာင် (Culture) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ ၜါ မပါ်ခြာ ဟွံဂွံ ရ။ ဘာသာ မိ ဝွံ ဒှ် "သ္ၚိ တိုက်" (Repository) မတန်သိပ် လဝ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဇုဇဗဴလ၊ ဝင်၊ လိက်ပတ်၊ ဒွက်၊ ကေုာံ လညာတ် သဘာဝ တအ် ရ။
ဝေါဟာရ ပ္ဍဲ ဘာသာ မိ မွဲမွဲ ဂှ် ထ္ၜးကဵု အရာ မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂှ် ရ။ ဥပမာ - ပ္ဍဲ အရေဝ် မန် ဂှ် နွံ ဝေါဟာရ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မဆက်စပ် ကု ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ မထ္ၜးကဵု အခိုက်အလိုက် ဘဝ ဂကူမန် ရ။ ကာလ ဘာသာ မိ မွဲ ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ မ္ဂး၊ သၞောတ် ပရေင်တီ (Knowledge system) သွက် ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် လေဝ် ကၠေအ် အာ မွဲစွံ ကီု ရ။
== ၇။ လၟိဟ် ညးမဟီု ဘာသာ သဇိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ (Top Native Languages Globally) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ တ္ၚဲဏအ် နွံ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ၜိုတ် ၇,၀၀၀ ပြင်င် ရ။ ဆဂး လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် စကာ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မိ ညိည သၟး ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မနွံ ညးမဟီု နဒဒှ် ဘာသာ မိ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် (စရင် Ethnologue)
|-
! လၟေင်
! အရေဝ်ဘာသာ
! လၟိဟ် ညးမဟီု (ဘာသာ မိ)
! ဒေသ အဓိက
|-
| ၁
| ကြုက် (Mandarin Chinese)
| ၉၃၉ မဳလဳယာန်
| ဍုင်ကြုက် (China)
|-
| ၂
| သပိန် (Spanish)
| ၄၈၅ မဳလဳယာန်
| သမၠုင်ကျာ အမေရိက (South America), ဍုင်သပိန်
|-
| ၃
| အင်္ဂလိက် (English)
| ၃၈၀ မဳလဳယာန်
| အမေရိကာန်, ယူကေ, သြသတြေလျ
|-
| ၄
| ဟိန်ဒဳ (Hindi)
| ၃၄၅ မဳလဳယာန်
| အိန္ဒိယ (India)
|-
| ၅
| ဘင်္ဂလဳ (Bengali)
| ၂၃၆ မဳလဳယာန်
| ဘင်္ဂလာဒေတ် (Bangladesh), အိန္ဒိယ
|}
== ၈။ ပရေင်ကၠေအ်ကၠက် ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ (Language Endangerment and Preservation) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် နွံ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ဂၠိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ လက္ကရဴ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဏအ် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မနွံ ညးမဟီု အောန် (Minority languages) တအ်ဝွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ အန္တရာယ် မကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ (Language endangerment) ရ။ လညာတ် တၠပညာ တအ် မ္ဂး ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ၁၄ တ္ၚဲ မ္ဂး အရေဝ်ဘာသာ မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ ဒၟံင် ရ။<ref name="krauss">{{cite journal |last=Krauss |first=M. |title=The World's Languages in Crisis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language_1992-03_68_1/page/4 |journal=Language |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=4-10 |year=1992}}</ref>
ဟိုတ် မပကဵု ညံင် ဘာသာ မိ ဂွံ ကၠေအ် အာ ဂှ် -
* '''သြဇာ ဘာသာ ဇၞော် (Linguistic Imperialism):''' ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် ဒးလ္ၚတ် ဘာသာ အဓိက ဍုင် (ဥပမာ - ဗၟာ၊ သေံ၊ အင်္ဂလိက်) သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ ကမၠောန် တုဲ ဟွံဟီု အရေဝ် မိ။
* '''ပရေင်ဖအောန် အခေါင်အရာ (Assimilation Policies):''' အလဵုအသဳ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဟွံကဵု အခေါင် ဗတောန် ဘာသာ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် ပ္ဍဲ ဘာတန်။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင် ဌာန် (Migration):''' မၞိဟ် တအ် ပြံင် ဌာန် စိုပ် ဍုင် ဇၞော် တုဲ ပရေင်စကာ ဘာသာ မိ အောန် စှ်ေ အာ။
သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ဘာသာ မိ ဏအ် ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်သုတေသန၊ ပရေင်ချူ လိက်ပတ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗတောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဘာတန် (Mother-tongue based education) တအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
== ၉။ အခေါင်အရာ ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ် ဂၠးတိ (Educational Rights and International Law) ==
ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (UN) ကေုာံ UNESCO တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အခေါင် မဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ဗတောန် ပညာ နကဵု ဘာသာ မိ ဇကု ဂှ် ဒှ် အခေါင်အရာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် (Human right) အဓိက မွဲ ရ။ သုတေသန ပရေင်ပညာ ဂမၠိုင် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ကောန်ၚာ် မဂွံ ဗတောန် ဘာ သဇိုင် နကဵု ဘာသာ မိ (Mother-tongue based multilingual education - MTB-MLE) တအ်ဂှ် နွံ အစောံသတ္တိ ပရေင်ချပ် ကေုာံ အံင်ဇၞး ဘာ ခိုဟ် နူ ကောန်ၚာ် မဒး ဗတောန် နကဵု ဘာသာ တၞဟ် တအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၉ ဂှ် UNESCO စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် တ္ၚဲ ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၂၁ (21 February) နဒဒှ် '''တ္ၚဲ ဘာသာ မိ ဂၠးတိ''' (International Mother Language Day) သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ နာနာ ကေုာံ ဂစာန် မင်မဲ ယေန်သၞာင် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ တ္ၚဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ပရေင်အာတ်မိက် ပရေင်ဘာသာ ဘင်္ဂလဳ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဘင်္ဂလာဒေတ် (Language Movement) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၂ ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ဘာသာ မိ ကေုာံ နည်းပညာ (Future of Mother Tongue and Technology) ==
အနာဂတ် ဘာသာ မိ ဗွဲတၟေင် ဘာသာ မနွံ ညးမဟီု အောန် တအ်ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ နည်းပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence) ကေုာံ စက် ကၠာဲဘာသာ (Machine Translation) တအ် မာန် ရီုဗင် ကဵု ပရေင်မင်မဲ ဘာသာ မိ ဂွံ ရ။
ယဝ်ရ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မွဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ (Wikipedia) နကဵု ဘာသာ မိ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဂၠိုင်င် မ္ဂး၊ ဉာဏ်စက် တအ် လေဝ် မာန် လ္ၚတ် ကေတ် သဒ္ဒါ ကေုာံ ဝေါဟာရ တအ် ဏအ် တုဲ မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ကိရိယာ မပ္တံကဵု စက် ကၠာဲဘာသာ သွက် ဘာသာ ဂှ် မာန် ရ။ ပရေင်ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digitalization) ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ဘာသာ မိ တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ အာ စဵုကဵု အနာဂတ် ကောန်စဴ ကောန်စေက် တအ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဘာသာဗေဒ]] (Linguistics)
* [[ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ဘာသာ]] (Language acquisition)
* [[သဘာဝ ဘာသာ ၜါ]] (Bilingualism)
* [[တ္ၚဲ ဘာသာ မိ ဂၠးတိ]] (International Mother Language Day)
{{Navbox
| name = Linguistics
| title = ဘာသာဗေဒ ကေုာံ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ (Linguistics and Languages)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင် ဘာသာဗေဒ
| list1 =
* [[ဘာသာ မိ]] (First language)
* [[ဘာသာ ဒုတိယ]] (Second language)
* [[သဘာဝ ဘာသာ ၜါ]] (Bilingualism)
* [[ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ဘာသာ]] (Language acquisition)
| group2 = သဳအိုရဳ ကေုာံ လညာတ်
| list2 =
* [[သဒ္ဒါ သဘာဝ]] (Universal grammar)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ အခိင်ကာလ ကिစ္စဇၞော်]] (Critical period hypothesis)
* [[ဘာသာဗေဒ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်]] (Sociolinguistics)
* [[ဘာသာဗေဒ ဉာဏ်ပညာ]] (Cognitive linguistics)
| group3 = မင်မဲ ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရာ
| list3 =
* [[တ္ၚဲ ဘာသာ မိ ဂၠးတိ]] (International Mother Language Day)
* [[ပရေင်ကၠေအ်ကၠက် ဘာသာ]] (Language endangerment)
* [[ပရေင်ပညာ ဒုင်သဇိုင် ဘာသာ မိ]] (MTB-MLE)
}}
[[Category:ဘာသာဗေဒ]]
[[Category:အရေဝ်ဘာသာဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ပညာ]]
dmrdwkelt7hseiy8f85gi7q4kl0y7kk
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'''ဍာ်ဒဳ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Flood'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် အကာဲအရာ သဘာဝ မကတဵုဒှ် အခိင်ကာလ ဍာ် ဇၞော်တိုန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပြးဇး အာ လတူ ဌာန် တိ သကှ် (Dry land) ရ။ ဗွဲဓမ္မတာ မ္ဂး ဍာ်ဒဳ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဗြဲ ဂူ သန်လောန်၊ တမ် ဍာ် ၜဳ ကြုင် တအ် ထပှ် တိတ် အာ နူကဵု ဓရီု သြင်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လဗိုတ် ကျာ ကေုာံ ဍာ်လပှ် ဇၞော် မဇီုကပိုက် လတူ ပြင်ၜဳ တအ် ရ။ ဍာ်ဒဳ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဘဲအန္တရာယ် သဘာဝ မကတဵုဒှ် ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် လမျီု မၞိဟ်၊ သ္ၚိဌာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် တအ် ဂွံ ဒးဒုင် လီုလာ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။<ref name="ward">{{cite book |last=Ward |first=R. C. |title=Floods: A Geographical Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/floodsgeographic0000ward_r0q1 |publisher=Macmillan |year=1978 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/floodsgeographic0000ward_r0q1/page/12 12]-18}}</ref>
ၜိုန်ရ ဍာ်ဒဳ ဏအ် ကဵု ဘဲအန္တရာယ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် ဂေဟဗေဒ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ်တအ် နွံကဵု ဖဵု ခိုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ဗပေင် ဓါတ် ဝဲ ပ္ဍဲ တိ ဗ္ၚ (Floodplains) သွက် ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကီု ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဍာ်ဒဳ နကဵု လညာတ် သိပ္ပံ သဘာဝ ဍာ်၊ ဟိုတ်၊ ဂကူ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ဘဲအန္တရာယ် တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:2010_Pakistan_floods.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပရေင် ဍာ်ဒဳ ဇၞော် မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ပါကဳသတာန် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၀၊ မပကဵု ညံင် သ္ၚိဌာန် ကေုာံ တိဗ္ၚ တအ် ဒးဒုင် နစ်မိုတ် အာ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ဍာ်ဒဳ" ဝွံ နကဵု လညာတ် [[ဇလဗေဒ]] (Hydrology) မ္ဂး ဒှ် အကာဲအရာ မဍာ် နူကဵု ပွဳပွူ မပ္တံကဵု ၜဳ၊ ကၟာ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍာ်ၜဳ သမုဒ္ဒရာ တအ် ဇၞော် လောန် အာ နူကဵု ပယျဵု အပိုင်အခြာ ဍေဟ် (Carrying capacity) တုဲ ပြးဇး တိတ် အာ လတူ ဌာန် တိ သကှ် ရ။
ဍာ်ဒဳ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လၟေင် သဘာဝ မကတဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် သၞာံ ဗွဲမလအ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဟွံဂွံ သြိုင်ခၞံ သ္ၚိဌာန် လတူ ပြင်ၜဳ ဏီ ရ။ ဍာ်ဒဳ မာန် ကတဵုဒှ် လောဲလောဲ (ဥပမာ - ဍာ်ဒဳ အပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဟိုတ်နူ ဗြဲ ဂူ ဇၞော်) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မာန် ကတဵုဒှ် နကဵု ဒြဟတ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် (ဥပမာ - ဍာ်ဒဳ ဟိုတ်နူ ကၟာ ဇၞော် ထကး) ရ။
== ၂။ ဟိုတ် မကတဵုဗဒှ် ဍာ်ဒဳ (Causes of Flooding) ==
ဟိုတ် မကတဵုဗဒှ် ဍာ်ဒဳ ဝွံ နွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တုဲ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဟိုတ် သဘာဝ ကေုာံ ဟိုတ် နူ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ -<ref name="smith">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=K. |title=Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster |url=https://archive.org/details/environmentalhaz0000smit_c0e7 |edition=6th |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/environmentalhaz0000smit_c0e7/page/150 150]-160}}</ref>
* '''ဗြဲ ဂူ သန်လောန် (Heavy Rainfall):''' ဒှ် ဟိုတ် အဓိက အိုတ် ရ။ ကာလ ဗြဲ ဂူ သန် လောန် အာ နူကဵု အစောံ တိ မမာန် ဇြောတ် ကေတ် ဍာ် မ္ဂး၊ ဍာ် တအ် ဇွောဝ် တိတ် အာ လတူ တိ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ရိုဟ် လှာ် (Snowmelt):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် မနွံကဵု လှာ် တအ်၊ ကာလ ဥတု ကညင် စိုပ် မ္ဂး လှာ် တအ် ရိုဟ် ဇွောဝ် စှ်ေ ကၠုင် နူကဵု ဒဵု တုဲ ကတဵုဗဒှ် ဍာ်ဒဳ ပ္ဍဲ ကြုင် ၜဳ ရ။
* '''လဗိုတ် ကျာ ကေုာံ ဍာ်လပှ် (Storm Surges):''' လဗိုတ် ကျာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် ပတိုန် လှိုင် ဍာ်ၜဳ ဇၞော်တိုန် တုဲ ဍာ် လုပ် ဓလီု လတူ ပြင်ၜဳ ရ။
* '''ကၟာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဓရီု ထကး (Dam or Levee Failure):''' ပရေင်လီုလာ် လဒက်ပတန် သြိုင်ခၞံ တအ်ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် ဍာ် ပမာဏ ဇၞော် ဂွံ ပြးဇး တိတ် ဗွဲမပြဟ် ရ။
== ၃။ ဂကူ ဍာ်ဒဳ နာနာ (Types of Floods) ==
ဍာ်ဒဳ တအ်ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ အတိုင် ပွဳပွူ ဌာန်ဒေသ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ဍာ်ဒဳ အဓိက ၄ သာ်
|-
! ဂကူ ဍာ်ဒဳ
! ပရေင်ပသောင်ကလး
! ဟိုတ် အဓိက
|-
| '''[[ဍာ်ဒဳ ဗွဲမပြဟ်]] (Flash floods)'''
| ဍာ် ဇၞော်တိုန် ဗွဲမပြဟ် အပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ၆ နာဍဳ ကိုပ်ကၠာ။ ဒြဟတ် ဇွောဝ် ထတ် ဗွဲမလောန်။
| ဗြဲ ဂူ သန်လောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဒဵု၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကၟာ ထကး။
|-
| '''[[ဍာ်ဒဳ ၜဳ]] (River/Fluvial floods)'''
| ဍာ် အပ္ဍဲ ၜဳ ဇၞော်တိုန် တုဲ ပြးဇး တိတ် အာ လတူ ဓရီု သြင် (Floodplains)။
| ဗြဲ ဂူ မလအ်လ၊ လှာ် ရိုဟ် စှ်ေ ကၠုင်။
|-
| '''[[ဍာ်ဒဳ ပြင်ၜဳ]] (Coastal floods)'''
| ဍာ်ၜဳ ဇၞော်တိုန် တုဲ လုပ် ဓလီု တိ ပြင်ၜဳ။
| လဗိုတ် ကျာ သိုင်ကလုန် (Cyclones)၊ ဍာ်ဒဳ သမုဒ္ဒရာ ဇၞော်။
|-
| '''[[ဍာ်ဒဳ ဍုင်]] (Urban floods)'''
| ဍာ် ဗြဲ ဟွံမာန် ဇွောဝ် တိတ် ဟိုတ်နူ တိ ဒးဒုင် ဂြောပ် လဝ် နကဵု ကောန်ကရစ် (Concrete)။
| သၞောတ် ဇွောဝ် ဍာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် (Drainage system) ဍိုန်လျ၊ လၟိဟ် ဗြဲ ဂၠိုင်။
|}
== ၄။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Impacts on Society and Economy) ==
ဍာ်ဒဳ ဝွံ ပတိတ် ကဵု ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ် -
* '''ဖဵု အဓိက (Primary effects):''' ပရေင်ချိုတ် ပၠိုတ် လမျီု ဟိုတ်နူ နစ် ဍာ်၊ သ္ၚိဌာန်၊ ဂၠံင် ဍာန်၊ တိုင် ဒဒန်၊ ကေုာံ ကွဳစက် တအ် ဒးဒုင် လီုလာ်။
* '''ဖဵု ဆက်စပ် (Secondary effects):''' ဍာ် သုင် စကာ ဒးဒုင် ကၠိခတန် အာ နကဵု ဍာ်ကမၠိ တုဲ ကတဵုဗဒှ် ယဲ မပ္တံကဵု [[ယဲ ကဝ်လဳရာ]] (Cholera) ကေုာံ ဝမ်းပျက် ဝမ်းလျှော။ ဓါတ်လလဳ ပိုတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ပိုတ်ခြာ အာ။
* '''ဖဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Tertiary/Long-term effects):''' တိဗ္ၚ ကေုာံ တၞံဆု တဵုလွဳ တအ် ဒးလီုလာ် တုဲ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အလုံ ဍုင် ဒးစှ်ေ အာ။ ကမၠောန် ကလေင် သြိုင်ခၞံ (Reconstruction) တအ် လေဝ် အိုတ် သြန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။<ref name="chow">{{cite book |last=Chow |first=V. T. |author2=Maidment, D. R. |author3=Mays, L. W. |title=Applied Hydrology |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=1988 |pages=105-115}}</ref>
== ၅။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ကေုာံ ဖဵုခိုဟ် (Environmental Impacts and Ecological Benefits) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဍာ်ဒဳ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဘဲအန္တရာယ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု ဖဵုခိုဟ် (Benefits) သွက် ဂေဟစနစ် ကီု ရ။
ကာလ ဍာ် ၜဳ ဇၞော်တိုန် တုဲ ပြးဇး လတူ တိဗ္ၚ မ္ဂး၊ ဍာ် တအ် ယိုက် ကေတ် နင် ဓါတ် ဝဲ ကေုာံ နှိက် (Silt) တအ် တုဲ သီဖျေဟ် လတူ တိ ဂှ် ရ။ အရာ ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် တိ ဂွံ ကလေင် ဍိုတ် ၜတ် ကေုာံ နွံကဵု ဓါတ် သွက် ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ဗွဲမခိုဟ် ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ဍာ်ဒဳ ဝွံ လေဝ် ကလေင် ဗပေင် ဍာ် ပ္ဍဲ သၟဝ် တိ (Groundwater recharge) ကေုာံ ပံက် ကဵု ဂၠံင် ဍာ် သွက် က တအ် ဂွံ ပြံင် ဌာန် ကေုာံ ဖျေဟ် ခၟာဲ ပ္ဍဲ လှာ တအ် ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ကေုာံ ကမၠောန် စဵုဒၞာ (Flood Control and Mitigation) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ယှောတ် ဖအောန် ဘဲအန္တရာယ် ဍာ်ဒဳ ဂှ်၊ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ လဒက်ပတန် သြိုင်ခၞံ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် ရ -
* '''[[ကၟာ]] ဇၞော် (Dams):''' စကာ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင် ဍာ် မဇွောဝ် စှ်ေ ကၠုင် နူကဵု ဌာန် သၠုင် ကေုာံ ထိင် လၟိဟ် ဍာ် အပ္ဍဲ ၜဳ။
* '''[[ဓရီုကၟာ]] ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇိုင်ကၟာ (Levees / Dikes):''' ဒှ် ဓရီု တိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကောန်ကရစ် မသြိုင် လဝ် လပါ် ဇိုင် ၜဳ သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ညံင် ဍာ် ဟွံဂွံ ပြး တိတ် လတူ ဍုင်။
* '''ဂၠံင် လလုဲ ဍာ် (Floodways/Diversion canals):''' ဒှ် ဂၠံင် မခါဲ လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ပလံင် ပတိတ် ဍာ် လပါ် တၞဟ် ကာလ ဍာ် ၜဳ ဇၞော် အာ။
ပါဲနူ ဂှ် တုဲ၊ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် တၠပညာ တအ် စကာ "လဒက်ပတန် အသာ် သ္ၚေက်" (Green infrastructure) မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ကလေင် တဵု တၞံဆု၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ဂြိုပ် လမုဟ် ဍာ် (Wetlands) ညံင်ဂွံ ဇြောတ် ကေတ် ဍာ် ဗြဲ နကဵု သဘာဝ ရ။
== ၇။ ဝင် ဍာ်ဒဳ မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ (Historical Floods in the World) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ဂၠးတိ၊ ဍာ်ဒဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပကဵု ညံင် လမျီု ကောန်မၞိဟ် မဳလဳယာန် တအ် ဒးချိုတ် အာ ရ။<ref name="oconnor">{{cite journal |last=O'Connor |first=J. E. |author2=Costa, J. E. |title=Hydrology and Hydraulics of Large Floods |journal=Geological Society of America |volume=184 |pages=4-9 |year=2004}}</ref>
* '''ဍာ်ဒဳ ဍုင်ကြုက် (၁၉၃၁):''' ဒှ် ဍာ်ဒဳ ၜဳ ဇၞော် (Yangtze River) ကေုာံ ၜဳ မိတ် (Yellow River) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ကြုက်။ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဍာ်ဒဳ ဏအ် တုဲ လမျီု မၞိဟ် အကြာ ၁ ကဵု ၄ မဳလဳယာန် ဒးချိုတ် အာ တုဲ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဘဲအန္တရာယ် သဘာဝ သီုဖအိုတ် မဂစိုတ် မၞိဟ် ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ရ။
* '''ဍာ်ဒဳ ၜဳ ဂင်္ဂါ (၁၉၉၈):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဘင်္ဂလာဒေတ် (Bangladesh)၊ ဍာ်ဒဳ ဇၞော် ဓလီု လဝ် ဍုင် ၜိုတ် ၇၅% တုဲ မၞိဟ် ၃၀ မဳလဳယာန် ပြင်င် ဟွံမဲ သ္ၚိဌာန် ရ။
* '''ဍာ်ဒဳ ပါကဳသတာန် (၂၀၁၀ ကေုာံ ၂၀၂၂):''' ဍာ်ဒဳ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဗြဲ ဥတု မောန်သုန် (Monsoon) ဇၞော် လောန် အာ တုဲ တိဗ္ၚ ကေုာံ ဍုင် ကွာန် တအ် ဒးဒုင် နစ်မိုတ် အလုံ ဍုင် ရ။
== ၈။ ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate Change and Future Risks) ==
ပရေင်ကတဴတိုန် ဂၠးတိ (Global warming) ကေုာံ '''[[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု]]''' (Climate change) ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် အန္တရာယ် ဍာ်ဒဳ ဂွံ ဇၞော် ကၠုင် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
* '''ဍာ်ၜဳ သၠုင်တိုန် (Sea level rise):''' ဟိုတ်နူ လှာ် ပ္ဍဲ ပၞိဟ် တိ တအ် ဇွောဝ် ရိုဟ် အာ ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍာ် သမုဒ္ဒရာ သၠုင် တိုန် ကၠုင် ဒၟံင် ရ။ ဍုင် မနွံ လတူ ပြင်ၜဳ ကေုာံ ဍုင် တကအ် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် တအ် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ အန္တရာယ် ဍာ် ဓလီု ရ။
* '''ရာသဳ ဥတု ကြံင်မ္ၚိုဟ် (Extreme weather events):''' ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု ပကဵု ညံင် အလန် ဗြဲ ဂူ ဂွံ ထတ် တိုန်၊ ကေုာံ လဗိုတ် ကျာ သိုင်ကလုန် (Cyclones/Hurricanes) တအ် ဂွံ နွံ ဒြဟတ် ထတ် နူ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ရ။
== ၉။ နဲကဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကဵု သတိ (Flood Forecasting and Warning Systems) ==
သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ လမျီု ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဂှ်၊ ဌာန် သုတေသန မပ္တံကဵု [[ဌာန် ဥတုဗေဒ]] (Meteorological departments) တအ် စကာ ကွတ်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ သွက်ဂွံ တွက်ဂၞန် အခိင် ဍာ် ဇၞော် ရ။
* '''ဂြိုဟ်တုဲ ကေုာံ ရေဒါ (Satellites and Radar):''' စကာ သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ရံင် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် မတ်ဗြဲ ကေုာံ လၟိဟ် ဗြဲ မဂူ စှ်ေ လတူ တိ။
* '''သေန်သာ ပ္ဍဲ ကြုင် (River sensors):''' စွံ လဝ် ကိရိယာ သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ် သမၠုင် ဍာ် ပ္ဍဲ ၜဳ တုဲ ပလံင် တင်ဂၞင် ဗွဲမပြဟ် စိုပ် ဌာန် ဗဟဵု။
* '''သၞောတ် ကဵု သတိ (Early warning systems):''' ယဝ်ရ ဍာ် ဇၞော် အာ နူ လၟိဟ် မသ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် လဝ် မ္ဂး၊ သၞောတ် တအ် လလောင် တြး ကဵု သတိ ကု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် နကဵု ဖုန် (SMS)၊ ရေဒဳယော၊ ကေုာံ ရမ္သာင် ခၞိင် သွက်ဂွံ ဒြေပ် တိတ် အာ ဌာန် သၠုင် ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ရ။<ref name="ipcc">{{cite book |last=IPCC |title=Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021 |pages=15-20}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ ကမၠောန် အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ လကျာ် (Future Management and Conclusion) ==
နကဵု လညာတ် အနာဂတ် မ္ဂး၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဟွံမာန် စဵုဒၞာ ဟွံကဵု ဍာ်ဒဳ ကတဵုဒှ် အလုံစုံ ပုဟ်၊ ညးတအ် သ္ဒး လ္ၚတ် "နဲကဲ ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ မွဲစွံ ကု ဍာ်ဒဳ" (Living with floods) ရ။ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍာ်ဒဳ နကဵု နဲကဲ မတန်တဴ လအ် (Sustainable flood management) မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ဟွံသြိုင် သ္ၚိ ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန် တိဗ္ၚ မဍာ် ဒဳ လောဲ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ တၞံဆု ဂြိုပ် တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ အဓိက အိုတ် ရ။
ဍာ်ဒဳ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဘဲအန္တရာယ် သဘာဝ မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် နူ အတိတ်၊ ကတဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ပစ္စုပ္ပန်၊ ကေုာံ ဆက် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရောင်။ ပရေင်ပလေဝ်ပလေတ် ခိုဟ်၊ လဒက်ပတန် မခိုင်ကၠိုက်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကဵု သတိ ပြဟ်ပြဟ် တအ် ဓဝ် ဟေင် မာန် ရီုဗင် စဵုဒၞာ လမျီု ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် နူကဵု ဘဲ ဍာ် ဏအ် မာန် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဘဲအန္တရာယ် သဘာဝ]] (Natural disaster)
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု]] (Climate change)
* [[ဇလဗေဒ]] (Hydrology)
* [[ကၟာ]] (Dam)
{{Navbox
| name = Natural Disasters
| title = ဘဲအန္တရာယ် သဘာဝ (Natural Disasters)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဘဲ ဥတု ကေုာံ ဍာ်
| list1 =
* [[ဍာ်ဒဳ]] (Flood)
* [[လဗိုတ်ကျာ]] (Cyclone/Hurricane)
* [[မတ်ဗြဲ]] (Tornado)
* [[ကညင် ကှ်ကှ်]] (Drought)
| group2 = ဘဲ တိ ကေုာံ ပထဝဳ
| list2 =
* [[ကသဳတိ]] (Earthquake)
* [[ဍာ်ဒဳ သမုဒ္ဒရာ]] (Tsunami)
* [[တိလာ်]] (Landslide)
* [[ဒဵုပၟတ် ခတိုဟ်]] (Volcanic eruption)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု]] (Climate change)
* [[သၞောတ် စဵုဒၞာ ဘဲအန္တရာယ်]] (Disaster management)
* [[ဌာန် ဥတုဗေဒ]] (Meteorology)
}}
[[Category:ဘဲအန္တရာယ် သဘာဝ]]
[[Category:ရာသဳဥတု]]
[[Category:ဇလဗေဒ]]
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'''တိဗေဒ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Geology'', နူ အရေဝ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ γῆ, ''gē'', "တိ" ကေုာံ -λoγία, ''-logia'', "ပညာ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်") ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ သဘာဝ မလ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ ဂြိုဟ် တိ (Earth)၊ လဒက်ပတန် ခန္ဓာ ဍေဟ်၊ ကပေါတ် ဓါတ် မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဍေဟ် တအ်၊ ကေုာံ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် သဘာဝ မပြံင်လှာဲ ပကဵု ညံင် ဂြိုဟ် ဏအ် ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ နူကဵု အခိင် အတိတ် စဵုကဵု လၟုဟ် ရ။ ဘာသာရပ် တိဗေဒ ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် ဝင် ဂၠးတိ، ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် ဘဲအန္တရာယ် သဘာဝ (ဥပမာ - ကသဳတိ၊ ဒဵုပၟတ်)، ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဂၠာဲ တိုဟ် ကပေါတ် သတ္တု သဘာဝ ရ။<ref name="tarbuck">{{cite book |last=Tarbuck |first=E. J. |author2=Lutgens, F. K. |title=Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781269137782 |edition=11th |publisher=Pearson |year=2014 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781269137782/page/n29 2]-10}}</ref>
တိဗေဒ ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက ၜါ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး တိဗေဒ ရူပ (Physical geology) မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ ကပေါတ် ကေုာံ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် တိ၊ ကေုာံ တိဗေဒ ဝင် (Historical geology) မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဝင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိ နူကဵု သၞာံ ၄.၆ ဗဳလဳယာန် တေအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ တိဗေဒ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ဍေဟ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Geological_map_of_the_World.png|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပေန်တိ တိဗေဒ ဂၠးတိ (Geological map of the World) မထ္ၜးပျး လဝ် ဂကူ တၟအ် ကေုာံ ဝင် အခိင်ကာလ နာနာ သာ် ပ္ဍဲ လတူ သြင်တိ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
တိဗေဒ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် မလ္ၚတ် "တိ" နကဵု နဲကဲ သိပ္ပံ ရ။ တၠပညာ တိဗေဒ (Geologists) တအ် လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် တၟအ် (Rocks)၊ သတ္တု (Minerals)၊ ကေုာံ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် အပ္ဍဲ မပ္တံကဵု ဒြဟတ် ကသဳတိ (Plate tectonics) ကေုာံ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မ္ၚး မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်လီုလာ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဥတု (Weathering) တအ် ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် ခေတ်တၟိ မ္ဂး၊ ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ကဏ္ဍ သိပ္ပံ ဂြိုဟ်တိ (Earth Sciences) သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ အရာ မတၟေင် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ တိဗေဒ ဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် ပရူ "အခိင်ကာလ တိဗေဒ" (Deep time) မလ္ၚတ် အခိင် နကဵု လၟိဟ် သၞာံ မဳလဳယာန် ကဵု ဗဳလဳယာန် မဒှ် အခိင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ကၠိုဟ် ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိဗေဒ (History and Development of Geology) ==
ဝင် ပညာ တိဗေဒ ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ၊ အခိင် အရစ်သတဝ်တယ် (Aristotle) လ္ၚတ် လဝ် ပရူ ကသဳတိ ကေုာံ ဒဵုပၟတ် ရ။ ဆဂး တိဗေဒ နဒဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern science) ဂှ် စကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၁၈ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ရ။
* '''နဳကဝ်လာတ် သတဳနဝ် (Nicolas Steno):''' ပ္ဍဲ ၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ညး ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောဝ် ထပ် လေယျာ တၟအ် (Law of superposition) မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ အထပ် တၟအ် သၟဝ် ဂှ် တြေံ နူ အထပ် လတူ ရ။
* '''ဂျေမ်း ဟတ်တန် (James Hutton):''' ညးဂှ် မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နဒဒှ် "မအံက် တိဗေဒ ခေတ်တၟိ" ရ။ ညး ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး သဳအိုရဳ လၟေင် တုပ်သၟဟ် (Uniformitarianism) မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ "ပစ္စုပ္ပန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ကသပ် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် အတိတ်" ရ။<ref name="lyell">{{cite book |last=Lyell |first=C. |title=Principles of Geology |url=https://archive.org/details/PrinciplesgeoloVol2Lyel |publisher=John Murray |year=1830 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/PrinciplesgeoloVol2Lyel/page/75 75]-85}}</ref>
* '''ချာလ် လာင်အဲ (Charles Lyell):''' ချူ ခၞံ ပြကိုဟ် "Principles of Geology" မဒှ် လိက် မကဵု သြဇာ လတူ ချာလ် ဒါဝင် (Charles Darwin) ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ဓါတ် ခန္ဓာ တိ (Earth's Structure and Composition) ==
ဂြိုဟ် တိ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု အထပ် နာနာ သာ် ရ။ တၠပညာ တိဗေဒ တအ် ပါ်လဝ် အထပ် တိ နကဵု လညာတ် ဓါတု (Chemical composition) ၃ ထပ် ရ -
# '''[[အထပ် သြင်တိ]] (Crust):''' ဒှ် အထပ် မ္ၚး အိုတ် မသာ တုဲ ကြံင်မ္ၚိုဟ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ပါ်လဝ် သြင်တိ တိုက် (Continental crust) မတီု (၃၀-၅၀ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ) ကေုာံ သြင်တိ သမုဒ္ဒရာ (Oceanic crust) မဟေင် (၅-၁၀ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ) ရ။
# '''[[အထပ် လဒေါဝ်တိ]] (Mantle):''' ဒှ် အထပ် အပ္ဍဲ မတီု အိုတ် (ၜိုတ် ၂,၉၀၀ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ)။ ဍေဟ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု တၟအ် သဳလဳကိတ် (Silicate rocks) မမာန် ချဳဓရာင် ညံင်ရဴ ပလာသတစ် (Plastic flow) ဟိုတ်နူ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ဇၞော် ရ။
# '''[[ကြက်တိ]] (Core):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ လဒေါဝ် အိုတ် မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဓါတ် ပသဲ (Iron) ကဵု နဳကယ် (Nickel) ရ။ ဍေဟ် ပါ်လဝ် ကြက် မ္ၚး (Outer core) မဒှ် ဍာ် တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ဓါတ် သံလိုက် တိ (Magnetic field)၊ ကေုာံ ကြက် အပ္ဍဲ (Inner core) မဒှ် ကလောအ် ကြံင်မ္ၚိုဟ် ရ။<ref name="plummer">{{cite book |last=Plummer |first=C. C. |author2=Carlson, D. H. |author3=Hammersley, L. |title=Physical Geology |edition=15th |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2015 |pages=45-52}}</ref>
== ၄။ သဳအိုရဳ လေယျာ တိ (Plate Tectonics) ==
[[သဳအိုရဳ လေယျာ တိ]] (Plate tectonics) ဝွံ ဒှ် သဳအိုရဳ အဓိက အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် တိဗေဒ မပသောင်ကလး ဗီုလဵု အထပ် သြင်တိ ချဳဓရာင် ဒၟံင် ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု သဳအိုရဳ တိုက် ပြံင်ဌာန် (Continental drift) မပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် နကဵု အဲဖရက် ဝေဂနာ (Alfred Wegener) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၁၂ ရ။
အထပ် မ္ၚး တိ ဝွံ ပါ်ကရေက် ဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် [[လေယျာ တိ]] (Tectonic plates) ဇၞော် သၟတ် ၜိုတ် ၁၅ ကရေက် ရ။ လေယျာ တအ် ဏအ် ချဳဓရာင် ဒၟံင် လတူ အထပ် လဒေါဝ်တိ (Asthenosphere) ရ။ ပရေင်ဇီုကပိုက် အကြာ လေယျာ တအ် ဏအ် ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု -
* '''ပရေင်ပြးဇး (Divergent boundaries):''' လေယျာ ၜါ ပြး တိတ် အာ ရေင်သကအ် တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု သြင် သမုဒ္ဒရာ တၟိ (ဥပမာ - Mid-Atlantic Ridge)။
* '''ပရေင်ဇီုကပိုက် (Convergent boundaries):''' လေယျာ ၜါ တိုက် ဇီု ရေင်သကအ် တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဒဵု (ဥပမာ - ဒဵု ဟိမဝန္တာ) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကသဳတိ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပွတ် (Transform boundaries):''' လေယျာ ၜါ ပွတ် တတ် အာ ရေင်သကအ် (ဥပမာ - ဖံက် သာန် အာန်ဒရဳယျာ San Andreas Fault) ရ။
== ၅။ တၟအ် ကေုာံ သတ္တုဂမၠိုင် (Rocks and Minerals) ==
တၟအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ကပေါတ် သဘာဝ မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဓါတ် သတ္တု (Minerals) မွဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠိုင် နူ မွဲ သာ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ တိဗေဒ၊ တၟအ် တအ် ပါ်လဝ် ဂကူ အဓိက ၃ သာ် အတိုင် ဗီုလဵု ဍေဟ်တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ တၟအ် အဓိက ၃ သာ်
|-
! ဂကူ တၟအ်
! လၟေင် ကတဵုဒှ် (Formation)
! ဥပမာ (Examples)
|-
| '''[[တၟအ်လာဗာ]] (Igneous rock)'''
| ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် နူကဵု တၟအ် ဍာ် လာဗာ (Magma/Lava) မဂံက် ကၠုင် တုဲ ကလောအ် အာ။
| ကျောက်စိမ်း (Granite), ဗာသဝ် (Basalt), မျောဝ် (Obsidian)
|-
| '''[[တၟအ် ကလောအ်]] (Sedimentary rock)'''
| ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် နူကဵု ဓါတ် ခဗိုက် ကေုာံ သွံက် (Sediments) မကောံ ကၠုင် ကေုာံ ထပ် ဍဵု ဒၟံင် ပွိုင် မဳလဳယာန် သၞာံ။
| ကျောက်ခဲ (Sandstone), ကျောက်ထုံး (Limestone), ကျောက်မီးသွေး (Coal)
|-
| '''[[တၟအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ]] (Metamorphic rock)'''
| ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် နူကဵု တၟအ် တြေံ မဒးဒုင် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် ဍဵု ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ သၟဝ် တိ တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ဗီုပြင်။
| စကျင်ကျောက် (Marble), သလိတ် (Slate), နိုက် (Gneiss)
|}
လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မပြံင်လှာဲ တၟအ် နူ ဂကူ မွဲ စိုပ် ဂကူ မွဲ ဂှ် ညးကော်စ [[စက်ဝိုင် တၟအ်]] (Rock cycle) ရ။
== ၆။ သၞောတ် အခိင်ကာလ တိဗေဒ (Geologic Time Scale) ==
[[သၞောတ် အခိင်ကာလ တိဗေဒ]] (Geologic Time Scale) ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞောတ် ပြက္ခဒိန် မစကာ သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဝင် ဂြိုဟ် တိ ရ။ တၠပညာ တအ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် လဝ် အာယုက် တိ ဂှ် နွံ ၜိုတ် ၄.၅၄ ဗဳလဳယာန် သၞာံ နကဵု နဲကဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဓါတ် ရေဒဳယဝ် (Radiometric dating) ရ။<ref name="dalrymple">{{cite book |last=Dalrymple |first=G. B. |title=The Age of the Earth |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofearth00unse |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1991 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ageofearth00unse/page/15 15]-22}}</ref>
အခိင် တိဗေဒ ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု အဆံင် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မပ္တံကဵု Eon, Era, Period, ကေုာံ Epoch ရ။ အခိင် လၟုဟ် ပိုယ် မမံင် ဒၟံင် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ -
* '''Eon:''' Phanerozoic (အခိင် သတ္တဝါ မပြာကတ်)
* '''Era:''' Cenozoic (ခေတ် ဇဳဝ တၟိ / နို့တိုက်သတ္တဝါ)
* '''Period:''' Quaternary (ခေတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ပန်)
* '''Epoch:''' Holocene (ခေတ် ဟဝ်လဝ်သေန် - စကတဵုဒှ် နူ သၞာံ ၁၁,၇၀၀ ကိုပ်ကၠာ)
== ၇။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် သဘာဝ တိဗေဒ (Geological Processes) ==
ဂြိုဟ် တိ ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒၟံင် လၟိုန် အခိင် ရ။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မပြံင်လှာဲ တိ ဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် ၜါ သာ် -
# '''လၟေင် ကမၠောန် အပ္ဍဲ (Endogenic processes):''' ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် မကၠုင် နူ အပ္ဍဲ တိ မပ္တံကဵု ကသဳတိ (Earthquakes)၊ ဒဵုပၟတ် မကတဵုဒှ် (Volcanism)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် ဒဵု (Orogeny)။ လၟေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဗဒှ် ကဵု ဌာန် တိ တၟိ တအ် ရ။
# '''လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မ္ၚး (Exogenic processes):''' ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် မကၠုင် နူ မ္ၚး တိ မပ္တံကဵု ဒြဟတ် တ္ၚဲ، ကျာ၊ ကေုာံ ဍာ်။ လၟေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု ပရေင်လီုလာ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဥတု (Weathering)၊ ပရေင်တိုက်စား (Erosion)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တန်သိပ် တၟအ် (Deposition) မပလီုပလာ် ဖျေဟ် ဒဵု တအ် ရ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် တိဗေဒ (Economic Geology) ==
[[ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် တိဗေဒ]] (Economic geology) ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လွပ် တိဗေဒ သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ တိုဟ် ကေုာံ စကာ ကပေါတ် သဘာဝ တအ် ရ။ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ တိဗေဒ သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။
* '''တိုဟ် သတ္တု (Mining):''' ကမၠောန် ဂၠာဲ ထဝ်၊ သြန်၊ ပသဲ، တွိုတ် ကေုာံ သတ္တု Rare-earth မဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် နည်းပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ (ဥပမာ - ဘက်ထရဳ)။
* '''စက်ယန္တရား ဒြဟတ် (Fossil fuels):''' ကမၠောန် ဂၠာဲ ကၠေင် ဍေန် (Petroleum)၊ ဓါတ် ဂျိ (Natural gas)၊ ကေုာံ ကျောက်မီးသွေး (Coal) မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် နူကဵု ရုပ်ကလာပ် သတ္တဝါ တမၠာ ပ္ဍဲ သၟဝ် တိ။
* '''ဍာ် သၟဝ် တိ (Groundwater):''' တၠပညာ ဟုက်ဒရဝ်-တိဗေဒ (Hydrogeologists) တအ် လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လမ်းကြောင်း ဍာ် သၟဝ် တိ သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ဍာ် သုင် ကေုာံ ဍာ် တဵုလွဳ မသ္အးဇ္ၚး ရ။
== ၉။ တိဗေဒ ဂြိုဟ် (Planetary Geology) ==
နကဵု ကွတ်ပညာ အကာသ မဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ဂှ်ရ၊ တိဗေဒ ဝွံ ဟွံလ္ၚတ် ဆ လတူ ဂြိုဟ် တိ ဓဝ် ပုဟ်။ [[တိဗေဒ ဂြိုဟ်]] (Planetary geology ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Astrogeology) ဝွံ လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် သဘာဝ ပ္ဍဲ ဂြိုဟ် တၞဟ် တအ် ကေုာံ ဂိတု တအ် ရ။<ref name="mc-sween">{{cite book |last=McSween |first=H. Y. |title=Planetary Science |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |pages=100-110}}</ref>
ဥပမာ - ညးတအ် လ္ၚတ် ပရူ တၟအ် ကေုာံ ဒဵုပၟတ် လတူ ဂြိုဟ် အင်္ၚာ (Mars)၊ ပရေင်ဇီုကပိုက် တၟအ် လတူ ဂိတု (Moon)၊ ကေုာံ ဍာ် ကလောအ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတု ဂျူပဳတာ တအ် ညံင်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် ဝင် ကတဵုဒှ် သၞောတ် တ္ၚဲ (Solar System) ပိုယ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ လွပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် တိဗေဒ (Applications and Future of Geology) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ်၊ ဘာသာရပ် တိဗေဒ ဝွံ နွံ ပၟိက် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ စဵုဒၞာ ဘဲအန္တရာယ် ကေုာံ မင်မဲ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (Environmental geology) ရ။
* '''အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တိဗေဒ (Engineering geology):''' ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ သြိုင် တိုင်ဒဒန် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ ကၟာတ် ဍာ် (Dams) တအ်၊ သ္ဒး လ္ၚတ် ဓါတ် တိ သွက်ဂွံ ဒစးဒုင် ပရေင်လီုလာ်။
* '''စဵုဒၞာ ဘဲ သဘာဝ (Natural hazards):''' လ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဖံက် တိ (Faults) သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု သတိ အန္တရာယ် ကသဳတိ ကေုာံ လ္ၚတ် ဒဵုပၟတ် သွက်ဂွံ ကာကွယ် လမျီု မၞိဟ်။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate change):''' လ္ၚတ် တၟအ် ကလောအ် တြေံ (Paleoclimatology) သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် ဗီုလဵု ဥတု တိ ပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ အတိတ် ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အနာဂတ် ရ။
တိဗေဒ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် မဆက်စပ် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် အရာ မနွံ လတူ ဂြိုဟ် ဏအ် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ကောန်သော့ အဓိက သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂွံ ဆက် ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ တန်တဴ အာ ပ္ဍဲ ဂြိုဟ် တိ ဏအ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဂြိုဟ်တိ]] (Earth)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ လေယျာ တိ]] (Plate tectonics)
* [[ပထဝဳဗေဒ]] (Geography)
* [[ဘဲအန္တရာယ် သဘာဝ]] (Natural disaster)
{{Navbox
| name = Earth Sciences
| title = ကဏ္ဍ သိပ္ပံ ဂြိုဟ်တိ ကေုာံ တိဗေဒ (Earth Sciences and Geology)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဘာသာရပ် သဇိုင်
| list1 =
* [[တိဗေဒ]] (Geology)
* [[ပထဝဳဗေဒ]] (Geography)
* [[ဥတုဗေဒ]] (Meteorology)
* [[သမုဒ္ဒရာဗေဒ]] (Oceanography)
| group2 = လဒက်ပတန် တိ
| list2 =
* [[အထပ် သြင်တိ]] (Crust)
* [[အထပ် လဒေါဝ်တိ]] (Mantle)
* [[ကြက်တိ]] (Core)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ လေယျာ တိ]] (Plate tectonics)
| group3 = ကပေါတ် ကေုာံ လၟေင်
| list3 =
* [[တၟအ်လာဗာ]] (Igneous rock)
* [[တၟအ် ကလောအ်]] (Sedimentary rock)
* [[တၟအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ]] (Metamorphic rock)
* [[သၞောတ် အခိင်ကာလ တိဗေဒ]] (Geologic time scale)
}}
[[Category:တိဗေဒ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ သဘာဝ]]
[[Category:ဂြိုဟ်တိ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ ဂြိုဟ်တိ]]
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'''ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် အေန်ဇြာင်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Enzyme assay'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် နဲကဲ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ပ္ဍဲ ရုင်စမ်ၜတ် (Laboratory method) သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ကေုာံ လဟိုင် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ် (Reaction rate) နကဵု [[အေန်ဇြာင်]] (Enzyme) တအ် ရ။ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် [[ဇဳဝဓာတု]] (Biochemistry) သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် တွက်ဂၞန် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် အေန်ဇြာင် (Enzyme kinetics) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆေဝ်ဒဝ် အေန်ဇြာင် (Enzyme inhibition) ရ။<ref name="nelson">{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=D. L. |author2=Cox, M. M. |title=Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=2017 |pages=189-195}}</ref>
အေန်ဇြာင် တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရဝ်တဳန် မရီုဗင် ဇၞော်ပတိုန် လဟိုင် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာ ဇဳဝ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဂှ် ညးတအ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် လၟိဟ် [[သပ်သတရိတ်]] (Substrate) မအိုတ် အာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လၟိဟ် ကပေါတ်တိတ် (Product) မကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ မွဲ ယူနေတ် အခိင် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် အေန်ဇြာင် နကဵု လညာတ် နဲကဲ ဂမၠိုင်၊ ယူနေတ် မၜတ်ကၞာတ်၊ အကာဲအရာ သဘာဝ၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Michaelis-Menten_curve_v2.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဂရေက် မျကေလစ်-မေန်တေန် (Michaelis-Menten curve) မဒှ် တင်ဂၞင် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် တွက်ဂၞန် လဟိုင် အေန်ဇြာင် အခိင် စမ်ၜတ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် အေန်ဇြာင် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ကမၠောန် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ကေုာံ လၟိဟ် အေန်ဇြာင် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍာ် ကေုာံ ဖျုန် (Sample) မွဲမွဲ ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ ဇဳဝဓာတု မ္ဂး၊ အေန်ဇြာင် မွဲ ဂှ် ဟွံပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ရုပ်သာ် ဍေဟ် ကြဴနူ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ် တုဲဒှ် အာ ရ၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ကဵု သပ်သတရိတ် သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် အာ ကပေါတ်တိတ် ရ။
သွက်ဂွံ တီ လၟိဟ် အေန်ဇြာင် ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ တအ် ဟွံၜတ် လျိုင် အေန်ဇြာင် တပ်တပ် (ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် နွံ ညိည သၟး)၊ ဆဂး ညးတအ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် (Activity) ဍေဟ် မာန် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မွဲမွဲ ဂှ် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် နဲကဲ သဇိုင် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရုင်စမ်ၜတ် သိပ္ပံ ရ။
== ၂။ ယူနေတ် အေန်ဇြာင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် (Enzyme Units and Activity) ==
သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လၟိဟ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် အေန်ဇြာင် (Enzyme activity) ဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် စကာ ယူနေတ် သၞောတ် ဂၠးတိ (SI unit) ကေုာံ ယူနေတ် အေန်ဇြာင် ဓမ္မတာ ရ။<ref name="bisswanger">{{cite book |last=Bisswanger |first=H. |title=Practical Enzymology |url=https://archive.org/details/practicalenzymol0000biss |edition=2nd |publisher=Wiley-VCH |year=2011 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/practicalenzymol0000biss/page/45 45]-50}}</ref>
* '''ယူနေတ် အေန်ဇြာင် (Enzyme Unit - U):''' ၁ U မ္ဂး ဒှ် လၟိဟ် အေန်ဇြာင် မမာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ သပ်သတရိတ် ၁ မိုက်ခရဝ်မဝ် (1 μmol) ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ၁ မိနေတ် အတိုင် အကာဲအရာ သဘာဝ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ရ။
* '''ကာတလ် (Katal - kat):''' ဒှ် ယူနေတ် SI တုဲ၊ ၁ kat မ္ဂး ဒှ် လၟိဟ် အေန်ဇြာင် မမာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ သပ်သတရိတ် ၁ မဝ် (1 mol) ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ၁ စက္က။ (၁ U = 16.67 nanokatals)။
* '''ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် တၟေင် (Specific Activity):''' ၜတ်ကၞာတ် လဝ် နကဵု ယူနေတ် အေန်ဇြာင် မပါ် လဝ် ကု လျိုင် ပရဝ်တဳန် သီုဖအိုတ် (U/mg) သွက်ဂွံ တီ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် အးဇ္ၚး (Purity) ဍေဟ် ရ။
== ၃။ ဂကူ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Continuous and Discontinuous Assays) ==
ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် အေန်ဇြာင် ဝွံ ဗွဲအလုံ ပါ်လဝ် ၂ သာ် အဓိက ရ -
# '''ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဆက်စပ် အဆက်အစောန် (Continuous Assays):''' ပ္ဍဲ နဲကဲ ဏအ်၊ စက် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် တအ် ဝွံ တက် ကေတ် တင်ဂၞင် အဆက်အစောန် (Continuous reading) အခိင် ကာလ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ် ကတဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် ရ။ နဲကဲ ဏအ် လောဲသွာ တုဲ ကဵု တင်ဂၞင် ဂၠိုင် ရ။ (ဥပမာ - Spectrophotometric)
# '''ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဟွံဆက်စပ် (Discontinuous/Stopped Assays):''' ပ္ဍဲ နဲကဲ ဏအ်၊ ညးတအ် ကဵု အခေါင် အေန်ဇြာင် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပွိုင် အခိင် မွဲ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် တုဲမ္ဂး ညးတအ် စုတ် ဓါတ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု (Quenching agent) သွက်ဂွံ ဒေါအ် ကမၠောန် ဍေဟ် ရ။ တုဲမ္ဂး သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ကပေါတ်တိတ် ရ။ နဲကဲ ဏအ် စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ကာလ နဲကဲ ဆက်စပ် စကာ ဟွံဂွံ ရ။
== ၄။ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် သပက်ထရဝ်ဖဝ်တဝ်မဳတာ (Spectrophotometric Assays) ==
ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် သပက်ထရဝ်ဖဝ်တဝ်မဳတာ (Spectrophotometric assay) ဝွံ ဒှ် နဲကဲ မစကာ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ရ။ စက် [[သပက်ထရဝ်ဖဝ်တဝ်မဳတာ]] (Spectrophotometer) ဝွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ပရေင်ဇြိုပ် လျး (Light absorbance) ပ္ဍဲ ဍာ် ဓါတ် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် အခိင် ရ။<ref name="eisenthal">{{cite book |last=Eisenthal |first=R. |author2=Danson, M. J. |title=Enzyme Assays: A Practical Approach |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |pages=10-15}}</ref>
ယဝ်ရ ကပေါတ်တိတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သပ်သတရိတ် ဂှ် ဇြိုပ် လျး မာန် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် စကာ နဲကဲ ဏအ် ရ။ ဥပမာ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် မဆက်စပ် ကု ဓါတ် ကိုအေန်ဇြာင် (Coenzymes) မပ္တံကဵု NADH ကဵု NADPH ရ။ ဓါတ် NADH ဂှ် ဇြိုပ် လျး ပ္ဍဲ 340 nm တုဲ NAD+ ဂှ် ဟွံဇြိုပ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ညးတအ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် လျး 340 nm သွက်ဂွံ တီ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရ။
== ၅။ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဖလူရဝ်မေတ်ထရစ် (Fluorometric Assays) ==
ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဖလူရဝ်မေတ်ထရစ် (Fluorometric assay) ဝွံ စကာ လျး ဖလူရဝ်သေန် (Fluorescence) မပတိတ် နူကဵု ကပေါတ်တိတ် ရ။ နဲကဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု အစောံသတ္တိ (Sensitivity) သၠုင် နူ နဲကဲ သပက်ထရဝ်ဖဝ်တဝ်မဳတာ စဵုကဵု ၁,၀၀၀ ဆ မာန် ရ။
ဍေဟ် ဒးဂၞပ် စကာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် မနွံ အေန်ဇြာင် အောန်အောန် မပ္တံကဵု သုတေသန ပ္ဍဲ ဇဳဝ ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Cell biology)။ ဆဂး အခက်အခုဲ ဍေဟ် ဂှ် ဓါတ် ဖလူရဝ်သေန် လ္ၚဵု တအ် မာန် ပလီုပလာ် အာ နကဵု လျး တၟး (Photobleaching) ကေုာံ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ကာလဝ်ရဳမေတ်ထရစ် (Calorimetric Assays) ==
ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ကာလဝ်ရဳမေတ်ထရစ် (Calorimetric assay) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် နဲကဲ မၜတ်ကၞာတ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ (Heat) မပတိတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇြိုပ် လုပ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ် ရ။
ဟိုတ်နူ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ် သီုဖအိုတ် ပတိတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကေတ် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ (Enthalpy change) ဂှ်ရ၊ နဲကဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ မာန် စကာ ကု အေန်ဇြာင် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ စက် မၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဂှ် ကော်စ မိုက်ခရဝ်ကာလဝ်ရဳမဳတာ (Microcalorimeter) ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် အေန်ဇြာင် မဟွံမဲ ကဵု သပ်သတရိတ် မပြံင်လှာဲ အသာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လျး ရ။
== ၇။ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ရေဒဳယဝ်မေတ်ထရစ် ကေုာံ ခဳမဳလူးမဳနေတ်သေန် (Radiometric and Chemiluminescent Assays) ==
* '''ရေဒဳယဝ်မေတ်ထရစ် (Radiometric):''' နဲကဲ ဏအ် စကာ ဓါတ် ရေဒဳယဝ် သတ္တိ (Radioactive isotopes) မပ္တံကဵု $^{14}C$, $^{32}P$, ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး $^{3}H$ ညံင် ဂွံ စုတ် တွာ် (Tag) ပ္ဍဲ သပ်သတရိတ် ရ။ နဲကဲ ဏအ် အစောံသတ္တိ သၠုင် အိုတ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ဘဲအန္တရာယ် ဓါတ် ရေဒဳယဝ် ဂှ်ရ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ညးတအ် စကာ အောန် ကၠုင် ရ။
* '''ခဳမဳလူးမဳနေတ်သေန် (Chemiluminescent):''' ဒှ် နဲကဲ မစကာ လျး မတိတ် ကၠုင် နူ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ် ရ။ ဥပမာ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ် စကာ အေန်ဇြာင် လူးသဳဖာရေ့ (Luciferase) မဂွံဆဵု ပ္ဍဲ စၟပၟတ်ဍာ် (Firefly) သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဓါတ် ATP ရ။
== ၈။ အကာဲအရာ မကဵု ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် (Factors Affecting Assays) ==
ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် အေန်ဇြာင် ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ အကာဲအရာ သဘာဝ ညဳသၟဟ် ရ။ ကာလ စမ်ၜတ် မ္ဂး သ္ဒး ထိင်ဒဝ် တင်ဂၞင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ဍိုဟ်ဍိုဟ်ကြဳကြဳ ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး အကာဲအရာ အဓိက မကဵု ဖဵု လတူ အေန်ဇြာင်
|-
! အကာဲအရာ (Factor)
! ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ အေန်ဇြာင် (Effect on Enzyme Activity)
|-
| '''ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ (Temperature)'''
| လဟိုင် ပြဟ် တိုန် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ တိုန်။ ဆဂး ယဝ် သၠုင် လောန် အာ မ္ဂး (ဥပမာ - ပြင် ၄၀°C) အေန်ဇြာင် တအ် စ ပလီုပလာ် လဒက်ပတန် (Denaturation) ရ။
|-
| '''သၞောတ် ဖဳအိတ် (pH)'''
| အေန်ဇြာင် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ နွံကဵု အဆံင် pH မခိုဟ်အိုတ် သွက် ဍေဟ် (Optimal pH)။ ယဝ် ဖောက်ပြဟ် အာ မ္ဂး အစောံသတ္တိ ဍေဟ် ဍိုန် အာ ရ။
|-
| '''လၟိဟ် သပ်သတရိတ် (Substrate Conc.)'''
| လဟိုင် ပြဟ် တိုန် စဵုကဵု လၟိဟ် သပ်သတရိတ် ဍိုက်ပေင် အာ ကု အေန်ဇြာင် (စိုပ် ကဆံင် $V_{max}$)။
|-
| '''ဓါတ် ဍာ်ဖ္ဍာ် ကေုာံ ၜဵု (Buffers & Salts)'''
| ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ထိင် လဒက်ပတန် ပရဝ်တဳန် ညံင်ဂွံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဖဳအိတ်။
|}
<ref name="cornish">{{cite book |last=Cornish-Bowden |first=A. |title=Fundamentals of Enzyme Kinetics |edition=4th |publisher=Wiley-VCH |year=2012 |pages=60-65}}</ref>
== ၉။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ သုတေသန (Applications in Medicine and Research) ==
ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် အေန်ဇြာင် ဝွံ နွံ လွပ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ပ္ဍဲ ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် ဂဥုဲ (Medical diagnostics) ရ။ ဥပမာ - ကာလ စၟတ်ၜတ် ဆီ ညးယဲ တအ် ဂှ်၊ အစာသဝ် တအ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် လၟိဟ် အေန်ဇြာင် ALT ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး AST သွက်ဂွံ တီ ပရေင်လီုလာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဖျုန် ဂြိုဟ် (Liver damage) မာန် ရ။
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပ္ဍဲ သုတေသန ဂဥုဲ (Drug discovery) လေဝ် ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် အေန်ဇြာင် ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ဓါတ် ဆေဝ်ဒဝ် အေန်ဇြာင် (Enzyme inhibitors) တၟိ တၟိ သွက်ဂွံ လွဳလွတ် ယဲ မပ္တံကဵု ယဲ ကေန်သာ ကေုာံ ယဲ အေဒ် (HIV/AIDS) ရ။
== ၁၀။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ စက်ယန္တရား ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Industrial Applications and Future) ==
ပါဲနူ ပရေင်ဂဥုဲ တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် စကာ နဲကဲ စမ်ၜတ် အေန်ဇြာင် ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ ကမၠောန် စက်ယန္တရား (Industrial biotechnology) မပ္တံကဵု ကမၠောန် ပတိတ် စၞစ၊ ဍာ်တှ်၊ ကေုာံ သပုန် ဇာတ် တအ် ရ။ ဥပမာ - ပ္ဍဲ သပုန် ဇာတ် ဂှ် နွံ အေန်ဇြာင် ဖြဝ်တဳရေ့ (Protease) သွက်ဂွံ ပလီု ကၠိခတန် ပရဝ်တဳန်၊ တုဲ ညးတအ် စကာ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်ၜတ် ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ဍေဟ် ရ။<ref name="copeland">{{cite book |last=Copeland |first=R. A. |title=Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors in Drug Discovery |url=https://archive.org/details/evaluationofenzy0000cope |publisher=Wiley |year=2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/evaluationofenzy0000cope/page/85 85]-90}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ဏအ်၊ သုတေသန ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် အေန်ဇြာင် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု နည်းပညာ ဍောတ်တ် မပ္တံကဵု မိုက်ခရဝ်ဖလူးအစ် (Microfluidics) ကေုာံ နာနဝ်တေတ်နဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ (Nanotechnology) ညံင် ဂွံ စမ်ၜတ် လောဲသွာ၊ ပြဟ်၊ ကေုာံ ကဵု တင်ဂၞင် ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် အိုတ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[အေန်ဇြာင်]] (Enzyme)
* [[ဇဳဝဓာတု]] (Biochemistry)
* [[သပက်ထရဝ်ဖဝ်တဝ်မဳတာ]] (Spectrophotometry)
* [[ပရဝ်တဳန်]] (Protein)
{{Navbox
| name = Biochemistry Techniques
| title = နဲကဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် ဇဳဝဓာတု (Biochemical Techniques and Assays)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = နဲကဲ အေန်ဇြာင်
| list1 =
* [[ပရေင်စမ်ၜတ် အေန်ဇြာင်]] (Enzyme assay)
* [[ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် အေန်ဇြာင်]] (Enzyme kinetics)
* [[ပရေင်ဆေဝ်ဒဝ် အေန်ဇြာင်]] (Enzyme inhibition)
| group2 = ကိရိယာ ကေုာံ နဲကဲ ၜတ်ကၞာတ်
| list2 =
* [[သပက်ထရဝ်ဖဝ်တဝ်မဳတာ]] (Spectrophotometry)
* [[ဖလူရဝ်မေတ်ထရဳ]] (Fluorometry)
* [[ကာလဝ်ရဳမေတ်ထရဳ]] (Calorimetry)
* [[မိုက်ခရဝ်ဖလူးအစ်]] (Microfluidics)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဇဳဝဓာတု]] (Biochemistry)
* [[သပ်သတရိတ်]] (Substrate)
* [[ဓါတ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု]] (Inhibitor)
* [[ယူနေတ် အေန်ဇြာင်]] (Enzyme unit)
}}
[[Category:ဇဳဝဓာတု]]
[[Category:အေန်ဇြာင်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:နဲကဲ ရုင်စမ်ၜတ်]]
[[Category:ဇဳဝဗေဒ မဝ်လဳကျူလာ]]
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'''သာ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Tsar'', သီု ချူ ဓရီု ''Czar'', ''Tzar'', ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Csar'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ သၟိင်တၠ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မဟိမု မစကာ လဝ် သွက် သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံဍုင် သလာဗစ် (Slavic) မပ္တံကဵု ရးဥရောပ ဗၟံက် ကေုာံ ဥရောပ သၠုင်ကျာ ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ်ဝွံ တုပ်သၟဟ် ကု အဓိပ္ပါယ် "အေန်ပါယာ" (Emperor) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် အလုံစုံ" ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ်၊ ယၟု ဏအ်ဝွံ စကာ လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဘူဂေရဳယျာ (Bulgaria) ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၀၊ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် စကာ ပ္ဍဲ အေန်ပါယာ သေရ်ဗဳယျာ (Serbian Empire)၊ ကေုာံ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ် စကာ လဝ် နဒဒှ် သၟိင်တၠ အလုံ ဍုင်ရုရှာ (Tsardom of Russia) စတမ် နူ သၞာံ ၁၅၄၇ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် သၞာံ ၁၉၁၇ ရ။<ref name="riasanovsky">{{cite book |last=Riasanovsky |first=N. V. |author2=Steinberg, M. D. |title=A History of Russia |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia0000rias_j4z5_7ed |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia0000rias_j4z5_7ed/page/100 100]-105}}</ref>
သၟိင်တၠ မဒှ် မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၞကျာ် သၟိင် သာ တအ်ဂှ် ညးကော်စ "သာရဳနာ" (Tsarina ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Tsaritsa) ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ "သာ" ဏအ်ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ဝင် အေန်ပါယာ ရဝ်မ (Roman Empire) တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု အဝဵုအာဏာ မသၠုင်အိုတ် ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ ဝင် ရးဥရောပ ဗၟံက် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဝေါဟာရ "သာ" နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ တမ်မူလ၊ အဝဵုအာဏာ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဝင် ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Ivan_the_Terrible_(K.Makovsky).jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် သၟိင် သာ အဳဗာန် စတုတ္ထ (Ivan the Terrible) မဒှ် သၟိင် သာ ပထမအိုတ် အလုံ ဍုင်ရုရှာ၊ ချူလဝ် နကဵု ကောန်သတာန်တေန် မာကဝ်ဗသကဳ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "သာ" (Tsar) ဝွံ နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဝင် မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် မဟိမု သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် မနွံကဵု အဝဵုအာဏာ အလုံစုံ (Absolute monarch) သွက် ဍုင် မဟီု အရေဝ် သလာဗစ် ရ။ သၟိင် သာ မွဲ ဝွံ နွံ အဝဵု လတူ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်၊ ပၞာန်၊ ကေုာံ သာသနာ (ဗွဲတၟေင် သာသနာ အော်သဝ်ဒံက် - Orthodox Christianity) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဍုင်ရုရှာ မ္ဂး၊ သၟိင် သာ ဝွံ ညးတအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ် မဒးဒုင် ရုဲစှ် လဝ် နကဵု ကျာ် (Divine right of kings) တုဲ၊ အဝဵုအာဏာ ညးတေအ် ဂှ် ဟွံမဲ ကု ပယျဵု အပိုင်အခြာ လတူ ကောန်ဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ဝေါဟာရ (Etymology and Origin) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "သာ" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ လိက် လပ်တေန် (Latin) မဟီု "Caesar" (သဳသာ) မဒှ် ယၟု ဇုဇဗဴလ သၟိင် အေန်ပါယာ ရဝ်မ [[ဂျူလဳယက် သဳသာ]] (Julius Caesar) ရ။ နူကဵု ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ်၊ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ စိုပ် အရေဝ် သလာဗစ် တြေံ (Old Church Slavonic) နဒဒှ် "tsěsarĭ" (цѣсарь) တုဲ၊ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ဂၠေအ် စှ်ေ အာ သှ်ေ ဆ "tsar" (царь) ရ။<ref name="vasmer">{{cite book |last=Vasmer |first=M. |title=Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language |publisher=Progress |year=1986 |pages=20-25}}</ref>
သၟိင်တၠ ဥရောပ လပါ်ပလိုတ် တအ် စကာ "Emperor" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "Kaiser" (ပ္ဍဲ ဂျာမနဳ) သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် အာဲကၟာဲ ရဝ်မ ကီုလေဝ်၊ သၟိင်တၠ ရးဗၟံက် တအ် စကာ "Tsar" သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ ဍုင် ညးတအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် "ရဝ်မ တတိယ" (Third Rome) ကြဴနူ အေန်ပါယာ ဗာဲဇြေန်တာင် (Byzantine Empire) ဒးလီုလာ် အာ ရ။
== ၃။ သာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဘူဂေရဳယျာ (Tsars of Bulgaria) ==
ဍုင် မစကာ မဟိမု "သာ" ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် ဘူဂေရဳယျာ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၉၁၃ အေဒဳ၊ သၟိင် သဳမဳယောန် ပထမ (Simeon I of Bulgaria) ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် "သာ" (အေန်ပါယာ) သွက် ဂကူ ဘူဂေရဳယျာ နကဵု သၟိင်သင် ဗာဲဇြေန်တာင် ရ။
ဍုင် ဘူဂေရဳယျာ ဝွံ ညးတအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နဒဒှ် အေန်ပါယာ သလာဗစ် ပထမအိုတ် တုဲ၊ သၟိင် သာ ညးတအ် နွံ အဝဵု တုပ်သၟဟ် ကု သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် ရဝ်မ ရ။ မဟိမု ဏအ် ဆက် စကာ အာ ပ္ဍဲ အေန်ပါယာ ဘူဂေရဳယျာ အလန် ဒုတိယ ကေုာံ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ခေတ် ဍုင်ဘူဂေရဳယျာ ခေတ်တၟိ (စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၄၆ အခိင် ပလီု သၞောတ် ဨကရာဇ်) ရ။<ref name="fine">{{cite book |last=Fine |first=J. V. A. |title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=1991 |pages=140-145}}</ref>
== ၄။ သာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေရ်ဗဳယျာ (Tsars of Serbia) ==
ကြဴနူ ဘူဂေရဳယျာ တုဲ၊ ဍုင် သေရ်ဗဳယျာ လေဝ် စကာ မဟိမု "သာ" ဏအ် ကီု ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၃၄၆၊ သၟိင် သတဳဖာန် ဒူရှာန် (Stefan Dušan) ဝွံ အာတ်မိက် မဟိမု တုဲ ကေတ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် "သာ သွက် ဂကူ သေရ်ဗဳယျာ ကေုာံ ဂရိတ်" (Tsar of the Serbs and Greeks) ရ။
အေန်ပါယာ သေရ်ဗဳယျာ ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ နွံ အခိင် ဂၠေအ် ကီုလေဝ် (နူ သၞာံ ၁၃၄၆ စဵုကဵု ၁၃၇၁)၊ သြဇာ သၟိင် သာ သေရ်ဗဳယျာ ဂှ် ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဗောလ်ကန် (Balkans) တုဲ ညးတအ် ပတိတ် လဝ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဒူရှာန် (Dušan's Code) မဒှ် သၞောဝ် ဝင် မပြာကတ် မွဲ ရ။
== ၅။ သာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ရုရှာ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် (Tsars of Russia and Establishment) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "သာ" ဂှ် ပြာကတ် အိုတ် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဍုင်ရုရှာ ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် သၟိင် ရုရှာ တအ် စကာ မဟိမု "သၟိင်ဇၞော် မောတ်သကဝ်" (Grand Prince of Moscow) ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၅၄၇၊ သၟိင် [[အဳဗာန် စတုတ္ထ]] (Ivan IV - Ivan the Terrible) ဝွံ ဒုင် ကေတ် မဟိမု "သာ အလုံ ဍုင်ရုရှာ သီုဖအိုတ်" (Tsar of All Rus') ပထမအိုတ် ရ။
ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ဍုင်ရုရှာ ဝွံ ဟွံမံင် သၟဝ် အဝဵု ဂကူ မောန်ဂဝ် (Mongols/Golden Horde) မွဲလှ်ေ ရ တုဲ၊ ဍုင်ရုရှာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် အေန်ပါယာ သၠးပွး မနွံကဵု အဝဵု အလဵုဇကု ဍိုက်ဍိုက်ပေင်ပေင် ရ။ သၟိင် သာ အဳဗာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဗဟဵု (Centralized state) မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ပ္ဍဲ ရုရှာ ရ။<ref name="service">{{cite book |last=Service |first=R. |title=The Russian Revolution, 1900-1927 |url=https://archive.org/details/russianrevolutio0000serv |publisher=Macmillan |year=1999 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/russianrevolutio0000serv/page/15 15]-20}}</ref>
== ၆။ သြဇာ ကေုာံ အဝဵုအာဏာ (Power and Authority) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဍုင်ရုရှာ မ္ဂး၊ သြဇာ ကေုာံ အဝဵု သၟိင် သာ ဝွံ နွံ သၠုင်အိုတ် ရ (Autocracy)။
* '''အဝဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်:''' သၟိင် သာ ဝွံ မာန် ပတိတ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ အလဵုဇကု၊ မာန် ဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ အခေါင်၊ ကေုာံ နွံ အဝဵု သွက်ဂွံ စီရင် လမျီု ကောန်ဍုင် ရ။
* '''အဝဵု သာသနာ:''' သၟိင် သာ ဝွံ ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မမင်မဲ ဘာသာ ရုရှာ အော်သဝ်ဒံက် (Russian Orthodox Church) တုဲ ညးတအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ သၟိင် ဂှ် ဒှ် သၟိင် မစှ်ေ ကၠုင် နူ ကျာ် ရ။
* '''အဝဵု စစ်ရေး:''' သၟိင် သာ ဝွံ ဒှ် သကိုပ်ပၞာန် ဇၞော်အိုတ် အလုံ ဒပ်ပၞာန် ရုရှာ ရ။
ၜိုန်ရ သၟိင် သာ နွံ အဝဵု သၠုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒးတန်တဴ လတူ ဂကောံ သၟိင်တၠ ခေတ်တြေံ (Boyars) ကေုာံ အမတ် ဍုင် ကီု ရ။
== ၇။ သာ ပြာကတ်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် (Prominent Tsars in History) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဍုင်ရုရှာ နွံ သၟိင် သာ ကေုာံ သာရဳနာ မပြာကတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး သၟိင် သာ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ရုရှာ
|-
! ယၟု သၟိင် (အၚ်္ဂလိက်)
! အခိင် အုပ်ဓုပ် (သၞာံ)
! တင်သမ္တီ အဓိက
|-
| '''[[အဳဗာန် စတုတ္ထ]]''' (Ivan IV / The Terrible)
| ၁၅၄၇ – ၁၅၈၄
| သၟိင် သာ ပထမအိုတ်၊ ညးမသၠဲပတိတ် အေန်ပါယာ စိုပ် ဆိုက်ဗဳရဳယျာ၊ ဆဂး ဂစိုတ် ကောန်ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။
|-
| '''[[ပဳတာ ပထမ]]''' (Peter I / The Great)
| ၁၆၈၂ – ၁၇၂၅
| ပြံင်လှာဲ ဍုင်ရုရှာ ညံင်ဂွံ တုပ် ကဵု ရးဥရောပ ခေတ်တၟိ၊ သြိုင်ခၞံ ဍုင် စိန့်ပဳတာသဗတ် (St. Petersburg)။ ညးတေအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ မဟိမု နူ "Tsar" စိုပ် "Emperor" (Император)။
|-
| '''[[ကက်သရေန် ဒုတိယ]]''' (Catherine II / The Great)
| ၁၇၆၂ – ၁၇၉၆
| သာရဳနာ မဇၞော်မောဝ် ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ရုရှာ، သၠဲပတိတ် ပယျဵု ဍုင် ဗွဲမဇၞော်။
|-
| '''[[အလက်ဇန္ဒာ ဒုတိယ]]''' (Alexander II)
| ၁၈၅၅ – ၁၈၈၁
| "သာ ညးမကဵု သၠးပွး" (The Liberator)၊ ညးမပလီု ထောအ် သၞောတ် ဍိက် ဗ္ၚ (Serfdom) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၁။
|-
| '''[[နဳကဝ်လာတ် ဒုတိယ]]''' (Nicholas II)
| ၁၈၉၄ – ၁၉၁၇
| သၟိင် သာ လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် မဒးဒုင် ပလီု အဝဵု ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတး ရုရှာ ကေုာံ ဒးဒုင် ပန်ဂစိုတ်။
|}
== ၈။ ပရေင်ကၠေအ်ကၠက် ကေုာံ တဝ်စၞေဟ် ဗဝ်ရှေဗေတ် (Decline and Bolshevik Revolution) ==
အဝဵုအာဏာ သၟိင် သာ ဝွံ စဍိုန်လျ ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ လက္ကရဴ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ ကေုာံ လဒေါဝ် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍိုန်လျ၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဓဇန် လတူ ကောန်ဍုင်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကျ ပၞာန် ပ္ဍဲ [[ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အလန် ပထမ]] (World War I) ဂှ်ရ၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ဒေါသ ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။<ref name="pipes">{{cite book |last=Pipes |first=R. |title=The Russian Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/russianrevolutio00pipe_0 |publisher=Vintage Books |year=1991 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/russianrevolutio00pipe_0/page/271 270]-280}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတု မာတ် သၞာံ ၁၉၁၇၊ သၟိင် သာ နဳကဝ်လာတ် ဒုတိယ ဒး ဖျေဟ် အဝဵု (Abdiction) ရ။ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတု အံက်တဝ်ဗါ၊ ဂကောံ '''ဗဝ်ရှေဗေတ်''' (Bolsheviks) မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် နကဵု [[ဗလာဒဳမာ လေနိန်]] (Vladimir Lenin) သီ ကေတ် အဝဵု ဍုင် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၁၇ ဂျူလာင် သၞာံ ၁၉၁၈၊ သၟိင် သာ နဳကဝ်လာတ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ညးတေအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးဒုင် ပန်ဂစိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ယေကာတာရင်ဗတ် (Yekaterinburg) တုဲ၊ သၞောတ် သာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ရုရှာ စိုပ် လအိတ် အလုံစုံ ရ။
== ၉။ လွပ် ဝေါဟာရ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern Usage of the Term) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဝေါဟာရ "သာ" (Czar ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Tsar) ဝွံ ဟွံဒှ် ဆ မဟိမု သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် ဓဝ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Political jargon) မွဲ မစကာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်ရးပလိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် ရ။
ကာလ အလဵုအသဳ ခပတိုန် မၞိဟ် မွဲ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ကိစ္စ အဓိက မွဲမွဲ နကဵု အဝဵု အလုံစုံ မ္ဂး၊ မၞိဟ် ဂှ် ညးကော်စ "Czar" ရ။ ဥပမာ -
* '''Drug Czar:''' မၞိဟ် မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ဂဥုဲၜူမာဲ။
* '''Energy Czar:''' မၞိဟ် မထိင်ဒဝ် ကဏ္ဍ ဒြဟတ် ဓါတ် (Energy policy)။
* '''Cyber Czar:''' မၞိဟ် မထိင်ဒဝ် ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ကောန်ပျူတာ ကေုာံ အင်တာနက်။
== ၁၀။ အာဲကၟာဲ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဝင် (Legacy and Historical Impact) ==
အာဲကၟာဲ ခေတ် သၟိင် သာ ဝွံ နွံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ ဝင် ဥရောပ ဗၟံက် ကေုာံ ဝင် ဂၠးတိ ရ။ သၟိင် သာ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ဍုင်ရုရှာ နူကဵု ဍုင် ဍောတ်တ် မွဲ စိုပ် အာ အဆံင် အေန်ပါယာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ၊ မနွံ ပယျဵု နူကဵု ဥရောပ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် တွဵုရး အာလာတ်သကာ (Alaska) ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိက သၟဝ်ကျာ ရ။
သြဇာ ယေန်သၞာင် (Cultural legacy) လေဝ် ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် မပ္တံကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ကျာ်တြိ (Orthodox churches)၊ လိက်ပတ် ကဝိ ရုရှာ، ကေုာံ နန် သြိုင်ခၞံ တအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် သာ တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ သၞောတ် ဏအ် ဒးလီုလာ် အာ နကဵု ပရေင်ဆီပါ် (Bloody revolution) ကီုလေဝ်၊ လညာတ် သြဇာ "သၟိင်တၠ မနွံ အဝဵု သၠုင်" (Strongman rule) ဂှ် ဆက် ဂျိုင် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ အခိုက်အလိုက် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ရုရှာ စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရောင်။<ref name="massie">{{cite book |last=Massie |first=R. K. |title=Peter the Great: His Life and World |url=https://archive.org/details/petergreat00robe |publisher=Knopf |year=1980 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/petergreat00robe/page/150 150]-165}}</ref>
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[အေန်ပါယာ ရုရှာ]] (Russian Empire)
* [[ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတး ရုရှာ]] (Russian Revolution)
* [[သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ်]] (Monarch)
* [[ဗဝ်ရှေဗေတ်]] (Bolsheviks)
{{Navbox
| name = Russian Monarchs
| title = သၟိင် သာ ကေုာံ ဝင် အေန်ပါယာ ရုရှာ (Tsars and History of the Russian Empire)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သၟိင် သာ ပြာကတ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[အဳဗာန် စတုတ္ထ]] (Ivan the Terrible)
* [[ပဳတာ ပထမ]] (Peter the Great)
* [[ကက်သရေန် ဒုတိယ]] (Catherine the Great)
* [[အလက်ဇန္ဒာ ဒုတိယ]] (Alexander II)
* [[နဳကဝ်လာတ် ဒုတိယ]] (Nicholas II)
| group2 = ခေတ် ဝင် ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန်
| list2 =
* [[ဍုင်ရုရှာ အလုံစုံ]] (Tsardom of Russia)
* [[အေန်ပါယာ ရုရှာ]] (Russian Empire)
* [[ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ရဝ်မာနံဗ်]] (House of Romanov)
* [[ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတး ရုရှာ]] (Russian Revolution)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ်]] (Emperor)
* [[အဝဵုအာဏာ အလုံစုံ]] (Absolute monarchy)
* [[ဗဝ်ရှေဗေတ်]] (Bolsheviks)
* [[ဂျူလဳယက် သဳသာ]] (Julius Caesar)
}}
[[Category:သၟိင်တၠဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ဝင် ရုရှာ]]
[[Category:ခေတ် ဨကရာဇ်]]
[[Category:မဟိမု ကေုာံ ဌာနန္တရ]]
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'''ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Gautama Buddha'') ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ ဂေါတမ''' (Siddhartha Gautama) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် တၠပညာ ပရေင်ဓမ္မ၊ ညးမကလိဂွံ သဗ္ဗညုတဉာဏ်၊ ကေုာံ ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် '''[[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]''' မဒှ် ဘာသာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ရ။ ကျာ်တြဲ ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်လုမ္ဗိနဳ (Lumbini) (လၟုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်နဳပေါလ်) ပ္ဍဲ ၜိုတ် ဘဳသဳ ၅ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ တုဲ ပပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ကုသိနာရ (Kushinagar) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ ညးဝွံ ဒှ် "ကျာ်" (Buddha - ညးမကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ၚုဟ်မး ကေုာံ လညာတ် ဓဝ်ဍာံ) မဒှ် မၞိဟ် မမာန် တိတ် ဗၠး နူကဵု သံသာ (Samsara) မဒှ် ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ်၊ ချိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဒဒိုက် ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=P. |title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |pages=14-20}}</ref>
ကြဴနူ ကလိဂွံ ဓဝ်ကျာ် တုဲ၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ဝွံ ဂေတ် တွံ ဓဝ် သွက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ လဒေါဝ် ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ (Magadha ကေုာံ Kosala) ပွိုင် ၄၅ သၞာံ ပြင်င် ရ။ ဓဝ် အဓိက ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဝွံ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ '''ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန်''' (Four Noble Truths) ကေုာံ '''မဂ္ဂင်ဒစာံ''' (Noble Eightfold Path) ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ပရေင်ဘဝ၊ လညာတ် ဒဿန၊ ဓဝ် အဓိက၊ ကေုာံ သြဇာ လတူ ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Sarnath_Buddha_5th_century_CE.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ရုပ်ပဋိမာရုပ် ကျာ်တြဲ (Dhammajak Mutra) မထ္ၜး လက်သဏ် အခိင် ကျာ် တွံ ဓဝ် ဓမ္မစက် ပ္ဍဲ သာရနာတ်၊ လၟုဟ် ထ္ၜးပျး လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး သာရနာတ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် ယၟု (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ယၟု "ဗုဒ္ဓ" (Buddha) ဝွံ ဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ ဘာသာ သက္ကတ (Sanskrit) ကေုာံ ပါဠိ (Pali) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ညးမၚုဟ်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ညးမကလိဂွံ ဓဝ် ပညာ အလုံစုံ" (The Awakened One or The Enlightened One) ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ယၟု ပူဂိုလ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ကဆံင် (Title) မစၟတ်သမ္တီ ကု ညးမကလိဂွံ သဗ္ဗညုတဉာဏ် (Sabbannutana) ရ။
ယၟု ပူဂိုလ် ညးတေအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် '''သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ''' (Siddhartha) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ညးမအံင်ဇၞး အတိုင် ပရေင်ရန်တၟအ်" တုဲ၊ ယၟု တၞောဝ် က္ၜင် ဂှ် ဒှ် '''ဂေါတမ''' (Gautama) ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ညးတအ် သီု ကော်စ ကျာ်တြဲ နကဵု ယၟု '''သာကျမုနိ''' (Sakyamuni) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "တၠပညာ ဂကူ သာကျ" ကီု ရ။ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဝွံ ဒှ် ကျာ် မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဒ္ဒကပ် ဏအ် မရနုက် ကု ပန် တုဲ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ဘဝ သၟတ် (Early Life and Background) ==
အတိုင် လိက် ဝင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ ဂေါတမ ဝွံ သၠးဂၠံဂဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂြိုပ် အင်ကြင် '''လုမ္ဗိနဳ''' (Lumbini) ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲ ကျာ် ဗပေင် (Vesak) ရ။ မအံက် ညးတေအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် သၟိင် သုဒ္ဓေါဒန (King Suddhodana) မအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် ကပိလဝတ္ထု (Kapilavastu)၊ တုဲ မိအံက် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂၞကျာ် မာယာ (Queen Maya) ရ။ ကြဴနူ သၠးဂၠံဂဝ် တုဲ ၇ တ္ၚဲ၊ မိအံက် ဂၞကျာ် မာယာ စုတိ အာ တုဲ၊ မိဒဒေအ် မဟာပဇာပတိ ဂေါတမဳ (Mahapajapati Gotami) ဒှ် မၞိဟ် လွဳလွတ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဗ္စ ကၠုင် ရ။<ref name="gethin">{{cite book |last=Gethin |first=R. |title=The Foundations of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |pages=15-22}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကတဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ် ဂှ်၊ ရသိ အသိတ (Asita) သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ရံင် လက်သဏ် ဇကု သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ တုဲ ဟီု တွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "ကောန်ၚာ် ဏအ် ဇၞော် တိုန် မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် သၟိင်စက္ကဝဝ် ဇၞော် (Chakravartin) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒှ် ကျာ် (Buddha) မွဲ မာန် ရောင်"။ ဟိုတ်နူ မအံက် သၟိင် ဇၞော် ဟွံမိက် ကဵု ကောန် တိတ် ဂြိုပ် ဂှ်ရ၊ ညးတေအ် ဖန်ဇန် လဝ် နန် ပိ ခဒမ် (သွက် ဥတု ပိ) မပေင် တဴ နကဵု ကပေါတ် ပရေင်ကာမဂုဏ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ကောန် ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ဆဵု ဒဒိုက် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အာယုက် ၁၆ သၞာံ၊ သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ ဒက် ဘဝ သ္ၚိကၟိန် ကု ဂၞကျာ် '''ယသောဓရာ''' (Yasodhara) တုဲ ကလိဂွံ ကောန်တြုဟ် မွဲ မနွံ ယၟု '''ရာဟုလ''' (Rahula) ရ။
== ၃။ ပရေင်ထောအ်ကၠေအ် နန် ကေုာံ ဂၠာဲ ဓဝ် (Renunciation and Ascetic Life) ==
ၜိုန်ရ မံင် ပ္ဍဲ နန် မပေင် တဴ နကဵု ပရေင်တသိုက် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ အာယုက် ၂၉ သၞာံ ဂှ် သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ တိတ် အာ မ္ၚး ဍုင် တုဲ ဂွံ ဆဵု ဂဗ "နိမိတ် ပန် သာ်" (The Four Sights) မတွဟ်ဂး - '''မၞိဟ်ဗျု (Old man)၊ မၞိဟ်ယဲ (Sick man)၊ မၞိဟ်ချိုတ် (Dead man)၊ ကေုာံ ရသိ (Ascetic)''' ရ။
နိမိတ် တအ်ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ညးတေအ် ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် အာ ဒဒှ်ရ ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဒဒိုက် အလုံစုံ (Dukkha) တုဲ ပရေင်တသိုက် ပ္ဍဲ နန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မဟွံဗိုန် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဗတံ မွဲ ဂှ်၊ ညးတေအ် ထောအ် ကၠေအ် ကောန် ကဵု သမ္ဘာ တုဲ ဍိုက် ကေတ် ချေဟ် ကဏ္ဍက တုဲ တိတ် အာ ဂြိုပ် သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ဓဝ် မတိတ် ဗၠး နူ သံသာ ဏအ် (Great Renunciation) ရ။
ညးတေအ် အာ လ္ၚတ် ဓဝ် သမာဓိ ဇရေင် အစာ အာဠာရ ကာလာမ (Alara Kalama) ကေုာံ ဥဒ္ဒက ရာမပုတ္တ (Uddaka Ramaputta) စဵုကဵု အာစိုပ် ကဆံင် ဇျာန် သၠုင်အိုတ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဟွံဒှ် သွဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ပလီု ကိလေသ ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ညးတေအ် ကျင် ဓဝ် ဒုက္ကရစရိယာ (Asceticism) မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်အေင် စၞ အလုံစုံ ပွိုင် ၆ သၞာံ စဵုကဵု ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ဇြာဲ အာ ဗွဲမလောန် ကီုလေဝ် ဟွံဂွံ ဓဝ် ဏီ ရ။
== ၄။ ပရေင်ကလိဂွံ ဓဝ် ကျာ် (Enlightenment / Awakening) ==
ကြဴနူ မလ္ၚတ် ကျင် ကၠုင် နဲကဲ လပါ် တေအ် လပါ် ဏအ် တုဲ၊ သိဒ္ဓတ္ထ ကၠိုဟ် အာ ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ပပျဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ဗွဲမလောန် ဂှ် ဟွံဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဍာံ ရ။ ညးတေအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လညာတ် '''မဇ္ဇျိမပဋိပဒါ''' (Middle Way - လညာတ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ လဒေါဝ် မဟွံလောန် အာ လပါ် ကာမဂုဏ် ကေုာံ ဟွံလောန် အာ လပါ် ပပျဲ ဇကု) ရ။<ref name="gombrich">{{cite book |last=Gombrich |first=R. F. |title=Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo |url=https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis0000gomb |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis0000gomb/page/45 45]-50}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲ ကျာ် ဗပေင် ဂိတု ပသာ် ဂှ်၊ ညးတေအ် ဒုင် ကေတ် ပုင် ဃရုတ် နူ သုဇာတာ (Sujata) တုဲ အာ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် သၟဝ် တၞံ ဇြဲ ဗောဓိ (Bodhi Tree) ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဗောဓဂယာ (Bodh Gaya) ရ။ ညးတေအ် ဖျေဟ် အဓိဌာန် "ဆီ ဖျုန် စှ်ေ အာ လေဝ်၊ ယဝ် ဟွံဂွံ ဓဝ် ကျာ် မ္ဂး ဟွံကတဵု" တုဲ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဓဝ် သမာဓိ ကေုာံ ဝိပဿနာ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဗတံ ဂှ်၊ ညးတေအ် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကဵု မာရ် (Mara) ကေုာံ ကောန်ပၞာန် မာရ် မကၠုင် ပလီု ကီုလေဝ်၊ ညးတေအ် အံင်ဇၞး ကေတ် နကဵု ဓဝ် ပါရမဳ ၁၀ သာ် တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် နူဂယး ဂှ် အာစိုပ် '''သဗ္ဗညုတဉာဏ်''' (Enlightenment) တုဲ ဒှ် အာ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ပ္ဍဲ အာယုက် ၃၅ သၞာံ ရ။
== ၅။ လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံသင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်တွံဓဝ် (Formation of the Sangha and Teaching) ==
ကြဴနူ ကလိဂွံ ဓဝ် တုဲ၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ကွာ် အာ စိုပ် ဂြိုပ် မိဂဒါဝိုန် (Deer Park) ပ္ဍဲ သာရနာတ် (Sarnath) သွက်ဂွံ တွံ ဓဝ် ကု ရသိ မသုန် တၠ (ပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ ၅) ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ရ။ ဓဝ် ပထမ အိုတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကော်စ '''ဓမ္မစက္ကပ္ပဝတ္တန သုတ်''' (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta - ပရေင်ဂေတ် စက် ဓမ္မ) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲ ဏအ်၊ ညးမွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ အညာကောဏ္ဍည (Kondanna) ကလိဂွံ မတ် ဓဝ် တုဲ ဒှ် ခမဳ ပထမအိုတ် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် တမ်မူလ မဒက်ပတန် '''ဂကောံသင်''' (Sangha) သွက် ရတနာ ပိ (ကျာ်၊ ဓဝ်၊ သင်) အလုံစုံ ရ။
ပွိုင် ၄၅ သၞာံ၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေတ် လန် တွံ ဓဝ် ပ္ဍဲ တွဵုရး နာနာ ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ တုဲ ကလိဂွံ ကောန်ကွး ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု သာရိပိုတ် (Sariputta)၊ မောဂ္ဂလာန် (Moggallana)၊ အာနန္ဒာ (Ananda) တအ် ရ။ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ်၊ ကျာ်တြဲ လေဝ် ကဵု အခေါင် ပံက် ဂကောံ ဘိက္ခုနဳ (Bhikkhuni - ခမဳဗြဴ) ဗွဲမဒုင် ဂိုတ် ဂစာန် နူကဵု မိဒဒေအ် မဟာပဇာပတိ ဂေါတမဳ တုဲ ဒှ် လညာတ် မဇၞော်မောဝ် သွက် အခေါင်အရာ ညးဗြဴ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တမၠာ တေအ် ရ။
== ၆။ ဓဝ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Core Teachings / Dhamma) ==
ဓဝ် အဓိက ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဂှ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ဒဒိုက် ကေုာံ လၟေင် ပရေင်တိတ် ဗၠး နူ ဒဒိုက် (Liberation from suffering) ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် (The Four Noble Truths)
|-
! လၟေင်
! ယၟု သစ္စာ (ပါဠိ / မန်)
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်
|-
| ၁
| '''ဒုက္ခသစ္စာ''' (Dukkha)
| ဘဝ ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဒဒိုက်။ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ်၊ ယဲ၊ ဗျု၊ ချိုတ် တအ် ဒှ် ဒဒိုက် ဖအိုတ်။
|-
| ၂
| '''သမုဒယသစ္စာ''' (Samudaya)
| ဟိုတ် မကတဵုဗဒှ် ဒဒိုက် ဂှ် ဒှ် တဏှာ (Craving) ကေုာံ အဝိဇ္ဇာ (Ignorance)။
|-
| ၃
| '''နိရောဓသစ္စာ''' (Nirodha)
| ပရေင်ပလီုကၠေအ် ဒဒိုက် ဍာံ ဂှ် နွံ (နိဗ္ဗာန် - Nirvana) ယဝ် ပလီု တဏှာ မာန်။
|-
| ၄
| '''မဂ္ဂသစ္စာ''' (Magga)
| ဂၠံင်တရဴ သွက်ဂွံ စိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန် ဂှ် ဒှ် မဂ္ဂင်ဒစာံ (Noble Eightfold Path)။
|}
'''မဂ္ဂင်ဒစာံ (Noble Eightfold Path):''' ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ၃ ကဏ္ဍ -
* '''ပညာ (Wisdom):''' သမ္မာဒိဋ္ဌိ (လညာတ် ဍာံ)၊ သမ္မာသင်္ကပ္ပ (လချပ် ဍာံ)။
* '''သဳလ (Morality):''' သမ္မာဝါစာ (လဟီု ဍာံ)၊ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ (ကမၠောန် ဍာံ)၊ သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ (လမျီု ဍာံ)။
* '''သမာဓိ (Meditation):''' သမ္မာဝါယာမ (လွဳ ဍာံ)၊ သမ္မာသတိ (သတိ ဍာံ)၊ သမ္မာသမာဓိ (သမာဓိ ဍာံ)။
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ဓဝ် အဓိက တၞဟ် တအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု '''ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်''' (Dependent Origination - အရာ အိုတ်သီု ကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဆက်စပ် ရေင်သကအ်)၊ ကေုာံ လက္ခဏာ ပိ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး '''အနိစ္စ''' (ဟွံဗိုန်)၊ '''ဒုက္ခ''' (ဒဒိုက်)၊ '''အနတ္တ''' (ဟွံမဲ ကဵု အတ္တ/Self) ရ။<ref name="narada">{{cite book |last=Narada |first=M. T. |title=The Buddha and His Teachings |publisher=Buddhist Missionary Society |year=1992 |pages=150-165}}</ref>
== ၇။ ပရေင်ပပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် (Mahaparinirvana / Death) ==
ပ္ဍဲ အာယုက် ၈၀ သၞာံ၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဟီု တွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အခိင် ပပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် (Mahaparinirvana) ညးတေအ် ညန် ကၠုင် ရ။ ညးတေအ် ဒုင် ကေတ် ပုင် လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် နူကဵု ဒကာ စုန္ဒ (Cunda) မဒှ် မၞိဟ် တက် ပသဲ မွဲ တုဲ၊ ဂိ ဗုင် ဗွဲမဇၞော် (Dysentery) ရ။
ကျာ်တြဲ ကွာ် အာ စိုပ် ဂြိုပ် သာလ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ကုသိနာရ (Kushinagar) တုဲ သ္တိက် ဇၞိက် လပါ် ပုင် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် ဂှ် ညးတေအ် တွံ ဓဝ် လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် ကု ခမဳ တအ် ဒဒှ်ရ -
* ''"ဝယဓမ္မာ သင်္ခါရာ၊ အပ္ပမာဒေန သမ္ပာဒေထ" (Vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādetha)'' မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "သင်္ခါရ ဓဝ် သီုဖအိုတ် မလေပ် ပလီုပလာ် အာ ဒၟံင် ရ၊ နကဵု ဓဝ် သတိ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ပရေင်ဟိုတ်မာဲ ဂှ် ဂစာန် ရေင်တၠုင် ညိ"။
ကြဴနူ ဏအ် ကျာ်တြဲ လုပ် ဇျာန် နာနာ သာ် တုဲ ပပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် (စုတိ မဟွံမဲ ကဵု ကလေင် ကတဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ်) ရ။ ဇုတ် ဓါတ် (Relics) ညးတေအ် ဂှ် ပါ်ကဵု သၟိင် ဍုင် ၈ ဍုင် တုဲ ညးတအ် သြိုင် ကျာ်စေတဳ သွက်ဂွံ ပူဇဴ ရ။
== ၈။ ကွတ်ပညာ ကေုာံ လညာတ် ဒဿန (Philosophical Perspectives and Methods) ==
လညာတ် ဒဿန ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု ဘာသာ ဗြဟ္မဏ (Brahmanism) အခိင် တေအ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
* '''ဟွံဒုင်တဲ သၞောတ် ဇာတ် (Rejection of Caste System):''' ကျာ်တြဲ ဟွံစၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ မၞိဟ် မွဲ ပြဲ သၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူ သၠးဂၠံဂဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဇာတ် ပုဏ္ဏား ရ။ ညးတေအ် ဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ "မၞိဟ် ခိုဟ် ဟွံခိုဟ် ဂှ် တန်တဴ လတူ ကမၠောန် (ကံ) သၟး ရ"။
* '''ဟွံဒုင်တဲ သမ္ဘာရ ဖန်ဗဒှ် (Rejection of Creator God):''' ကျာ်တြဲ ဟွံတွံ ပရူ ကျာ် ထာဝရ မဖန်ဗဒှ် ဂၠးတိ (Creator God) ရ။ ညးတေအ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Psychology) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တိတ် ဗၠး နူ ဒဒိုက် နကဵု ဒြဟတ် ဇကု အလဵုဇကု သၟး ရ။
* '''လညာတ် အနတ္တ (Anatta / Not-Self):''' ဒှ် လညာတ် မဇၞော်အိုတ် မပါ်ခြာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ နူ ဘာသာ ဟိန္ဒူ (Hinduism) မဒုင်တဲ လညာတ် အတ္တ (Atman/Soul) ရ။ ကျာ်တြဲ တွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အရာ အလုံစုံ ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ကေုာံ စိုတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု "အတ္တ" မဗိုန် ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ရ။<ref name="armstrong">{{cite book |last=Armstrong |first=K. |title=Buddha |url=https://archive.org/details/buddha0000arms |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddha0000arms/page/85 85]-92}}</ref>
== ၉။ သြဇာ လတူ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Cultural and Social Impact) ==
သြဇာ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဝွံ ပြးဇး လတူ အလုံ ရးအာရှ ကေုာံ ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ လညာတ် ဓဝ် ညးတေအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် အခိုက်အလိုက်၊ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် သွက် ဂကူ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ သီုကဵု ဂကူမန်၊ ဂကူဗၟာ၊ ဂကူသေံ၊ ဂကူကြုက်၊ ကေုာံ ဂကူဂျပေန် တအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် မန် မ္ဂး၊ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ထေရဝါဒ (Theravada Buddhism) ဝွံ လုပ် စိုပ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ဍုင်သဳရိလင်္ကာ (Sri Lanka) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အိန္ဒိယ သၠုင်ကျာ တုဲ၊ လိက်ပတ် မန် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ဘာသာ ပါဠိ ရ။ ပါရမဳ ကေုာံ ဂုဏ် ကျာ်တြဲ ၉ သာ် ဂှ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ပရေင်ရှ်ေသှ်ေ ပူဇဴ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ သုဝဏ္ဏဘူမိ (Suvannabhumi) ကေုာံ ဒေသ အာရှ အဂၞဲ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ကွတ် သုခုမ မပ္တံကဵု ကျာ်စေတဳ (Stupas) ကေုာံ ရုပ်ပဋိမာရုပ် (Buddha statues) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ မကၠုင် နူ လညာတ် ဏအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ ဝင် လက္ကရဴ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြးဇး ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Legacy and Spread of Buddhism) ==
ကြဴနူ ကျာ်တြဲ ပပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် တုဲ၊ ခမဳ တအ် ကၠောန် ပေါဲ သင်္ဂါယနာ (Buddhist Councils) မပ္တံကဵု ပဌမ သင်္ဂါယနာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ရာဇဂြိုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ပကောံပကေဝ် ဓဝ် ကေုာံ ဝိနယ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ လိက် တအ်ဏအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် နဒဒှ် '''ပိဋကတ် ပိ''' (Tripitaka) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ လက်ထက် သၟိင် အသောက (Emperor Ashoka) ပ္ဍဲ ၃ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဘဳသဳ ဂှ်၊ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ပြးဇး တိတ် အာ မ္ၚး ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ရ။ လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ပါ် ကၠုင် နကဵု ဂိုဏ် အဓိက သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး -
* '''ထေရဝါဒ (Theravada):''' လ္ၚတ် အတိုင် ဓဝ် တြေံ အိုတ် (ပြးဇး ပ္ဍဲ သဳရိလင်္ကာ၊ ဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ သေံ၊ လာအို၊ ကမ္ဗောဒဳယာ)။
* '''မဟာယာန (Mahayana):''' အာရီုစွံ လတူ လညာတ် ဗောဓိသတ် သွက်ဂွံ ဟံင်ပြာ် သတ် သီုဖအိုတ် (ပြးဇး ပ္ဍဲ ကြုက်၊ ဂျပေန်၊ ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာ၊ ဗဳယေတ်နာမ်)။
* '''ဝဇဳရယာန (Vajrayana):''' လ္ၚတ် နဲကဲ တန္တရ (Tantra) ကေုာံ မန္တန် (ပြးဇး ပ္ဍဲ တိဗေတ်၊ မောန်ဂဝ်လဳယျာ)။
လၟုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ်၊ လၟိဟ် ညးမရှ်ေသှ်ေ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ နွံ ၜိုတ် ၅၀၀ မဳလဳယာန် ပြင်င် တုဲ လညာတ် ဓဝ် ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ မပ္တံကဵု သတိ (Mindfulness) ကေုာံ သမာဓိ တအ်ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရးပလိုတ် တအ် နဒဒှ် နဲကဲ လွဳလွတ် ပရေင်စိုတ်ဓါတ် ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန်]] (Four Noble Truths)
* [[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada)
* [[မဂ္ဂင်ဒစာံ]] (Noble Eightfold Path)
{{Navbox
| name = Buddhism
| title = [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ရတနာ ပိ (Three Jewels)
| list1 =
* [[ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ]] (Buddha)
* [[ဓဝ်]] (Dhamma)
* [[ဂကောံသင်]] (Sangha)
| group2 = ဓဝ် အဓိက (Core Teachings)
| list2 =
* [[ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန်]] (Four Noble Truths)
* [[မဂ္ဂင်ဒစာံ]] (Noble Eightfold Path)
* [[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]] (Dependent origination)
* [[အနတ္တ]] (Anatta)
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] (Nirvana)
| group3 = ဂိုဏ် ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ်
| list3 =
* [[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada)
* [[မဟာယာန]] (Mahayana)
* [[ဝဇဳရယာန]] (Vajrayana)
* [[ပိဋကတ် ပိ]] (Tripitaka)
}}
[[Category:ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ]]
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ပူဂိုလ် ဝင်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:အိန္ဒိယ]]
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'''ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Four Noble Truths'', ပါဠိ: ''Cattāri ariyasaccāni'', သံသကြိုတ်: ''Catvāri āryasatyāni'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဓဝ်သဇိုင် ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် အဓိက အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism) မတွံလဝ် နကဵု [[ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ]] ရ။ သစ္စာပန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဓဝ်ဍာံ မပြဲ (Noble Truths) ညးမကလိဂွံ ဉာဏ်ပညာ မတီကေတ် သဘာဝ ဍာံ ပြာ် တအ် သၟး မာန် ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ရ။ ဓဝ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အလုံ မွဲ သာသနာ တုဲ၊ ဂိုဏ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ သီုဖအိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု [[ထေရဝါဒ]] ကေုာံ [[မဟာယာန]] တအ် ဒုင်တဲ ကေုာံ ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ရ။<ref name="gethin">{{cite book |last=Gethin |first=R. |title=The Foundations of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe/page/59 59]-63}}</ref>
သစ္စာပန် ဝွံ တွံလဝ် ပရူ သဘာဝ ဒဒိုက် မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ သတ် တအ်၊ ဟိုတ် မပကဵု ညံင် ဒဒိုက် ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ်၊ အကာဲအရာ မဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဒဒိုက် (နိဗ္ဗာန်)၊ ကေုာံ ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဒ္ဂေတ်ပဋိပတ် သွက်ဂွံ တိတ် ဗၠး နူ ဒဒိုက် တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ၊ ဒဿန၊ သဒ္ဒါ၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ဍေဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Dharma_Wheel.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး [[ဓမ္မစက်]] (Dharmacakra) မနွံကဵု ဇလ ၈ မ၊ မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ဂၠံင်တရဴ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ပြကာ မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "သစ္စာ" ပ္ဍဲ ပါဠိ ဝွံ ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "အရာ မဍာံပြ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ဓဝ်ဍာံ" ရ။ "အရိယ" ဝွံ ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "မပြဲ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ညးမပြဲ" ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ "အရိယသစ္စာ" ဝွံ ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ဓဝ်ဍာံ မပြဲ ပန် သာ်" မဒှ် အရာ မဆေင်စပ် ကု ညးမစိုပ် အဆံင် အရိယ (Ariya) မပ္တံကဵု သောတာပန် စဵုကဵု တၠအရှန် တအ် သၟး ဂွံ ညာတ် ကေတ် မာန် ရ။
ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
# '''ဒုက္ခသစ္စာ (Dukkha Sacca):''' ဓဝ်ဍာံ မပြဲ မဆေင် ကု ဒဒိုက်။ (သဘာဝ ဘဝ ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဒဒိုက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံပေင်စိုတ်)။
# '''သမုဒယသစ္စာ (Samudaya Sacca):''' ဓဝ်ဍာံ မပြဲ မဆေင် ကု ဟိုတ် ဒဒိုက်။ (ဒဒိုက် ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု တဏှာ လောဘ)။
# '''နိရောဓသစ္စာ (Nirodha Sacca):''' ဓဝ်ဍာံ မပြဲ မဆေင် ကု လအိတ် ဒဒိုက်။ (ဒဒိုက် သီုဖအိုတ် မာန် ပၠိုတ် အာ - အာစိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန်)။
# '''မဂ္ဂသစ္စာ (Magga Sacca):''' ဓဝ်ဍာံ မပြဲ မဆေင် ကု ဂၠံင်တရဴ လအိတ် ဒဒိုက်။ (ဂၠံင်တရဴ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ပြကာ)။
တၠပညာ ဂမၠိုင် မလေပ် ပတောအ်ၜတ် သစ္စာပန် ဏအ် ကု နဲကဲ သဝ်ဝန် ဂဥုဲ (Medical model) ရ - ဒုက္ခသစ္စာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ယဲ၊ သမုဒယသစ္စာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ် ယဲ ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ်၊ နိရောဓသစ္စာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ဗၠး ယဲ၊ ကေုာံ မဂ္ဂသစ္စာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂဥုဲ သွက်ဂွံ လွဳ ယဲ ညံင် ဂွံ ဗၠး ရ။<ref name="rahula">{{cite book |last=Rahula |first=W. |title=What the Buddha Taught |url=https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp |publisher=Grove Press |year=1974 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp/page/16 16]-20}}</ref>
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ် (Origin and Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta) ==
ဝင် ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကာလ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ကလိဂွံ သဗ္ဗညုတဉာဏ် (Enlightenment) ပ္ဍဲ သၟဝ် [[တၞံဇြဲဗောဓိ]] ကြဴနူ မဂစာန် လွဳ လဝ် ပါရမဳ ပွိုင် တြဴ သၞာံ ပြင် ဂှ် ရ။ ကြဴနူ ကလိဂွံ ဉာဏ် တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတု ဒဂိုန် ပေင်၊ ကျာ်တြဲ အာ စိုပ် ဌာန် ဂြိုပ် မိဂဒါဝိုန် (Deer Park at Sarnath) တုဲ တွံ ဓဝ် ပထမအိုတ် ကု ခမဳ ပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ (Pancavaggiya) မသုန် ဇကု ရ။
ဓဝ် ပထမ ဏအ်ဝွံ ညးကော်စ '''[[ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်]]''' (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "သုတ် မချဳဓရာင် စက် ဓမ္မ" ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သုတ် ဏအ်၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ထောအ် ကၠေအ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ လောန်ကာဲ ၜါ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး ကာမသုခလ္လိကာနုယောဂ (ပရေင်စသိုင် ကာမဂုဏ် သၠဲလး) ကေုာံ အတ္တကိလမထာနုယောဂ (ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက် ဇကု ညံင် ဂွံ ဍောင်ၜိုတ်) တုဲ တွံ ထ္ၜး ကဵု '''[[မဇ္ဇျိမပဋိပဒါ]]''' (Middle Way) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠံင်တရဴ လဒေါဝ် မဒှ် ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် ဏအ် ရ။ ခမဳ ကောဏ္ဍည (Kondanna) ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ သောတာပတ္တိမဂ် ပထမအိုတ် နကဵု ပရေင်ကလင် ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် ဏအ် ရ။
== ၃။ ဒုက္ခသစ္စာ - သဘာဝ ဒဒိုက် (Dukkha Sacca - The Truth of Suffering) ==
ဒုက္ခသစ္စာ ဝွံ ဒှ် တင်သဇိုင် ပထမအိုတ် မဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဘဝ ကောန်သတ် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒဒိုက် ရ။ "ဒုက္ခ" (Dukkha) ပ္ဍဲ ပါဠိ ဝွံ နွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် လှဲလး ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ဂိသကေဝ် နကဵု ခန္ဓာ (Physical pain) သၟး ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် သီုကဵု ပရေင်ဟွံပေင်စိုတ်၊ ပရေင်စံင်တူ၊ ကေုာံ သဘာဝ မဟွံခိုင်ကၠိုက် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=P. |title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |pages=52-57}}</ref>
ကျာ်တြဲ ပါ်လဝ် ဒုက္ခ နွံ ၃ သာ် အဓိက -
# '''ဒုက္ခဒုက္ခ (Dukkha-dukkha):''' ဒဒိုက် ဓမ္မတာ မပ္တံကဵု ယဲ ဇၞော် (Illness)၊ ဗျူ (Aging)၊ ချိုတ် (Death)၊ ကေုာံ ဝေဒနာ စိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု ထေဲ၊ စံင်တူ၊ ဟွံဂွံ ရေင်မိန် ကု ညးမဆာန် တအ်။
# '''ဝိပရိဏာမဒုက္ခ (Viparinama-dukkha):''' ဒဒိုက် မကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ (Suffering of change)။ အရာ မခိုဟ် အရာ မတသိုက် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ဟွံခိုင်ကၠိုက် (အနိစ္စ - Anicca) တုဲ ကာလ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ လီုလာ် အာ မ္ဂး ကတဵုဗဒှ် ကဵု ဒဒိုက် ရ။
# '''သင်္ခါရဒုက္ခ (Sankhara-dukkha):''' ဒဒိုက် မဆက်စပ် ကု လဒက်ပတန် ခန္ဓာ မသုန် (Conditioned states)။ သတ် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ရုပ် ကေုာံ နာမ် မဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဇကုဇကု (အနတ္တ - Anatta) တုဲ ပရေင်တန်တဴ ဏအ် အလဵုအလဵု ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒဒိုက် ရ။
== ၄။ သမုဒယသစ္စာ - ဟိုတ် ဒဒိုက် ကေုာံ တဏှာ (Samudaya Sacca - Origin and Craving) ==
သမုဒယသစ္စာ ဝွံ ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဒုက္ခ သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု '''[[တဏှာ]]''' (Craving / Tanha) ရ။ တဏှာ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်မိက်ဂွံ ဂွံ၊ ပရေင်စောဲလာံ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မက်ဂၠက် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဝ ကေုာံ ကာမဂုဏ် တအ် ရ။
တဏှာ နွံ ၃ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး -
# '''ကာမတဏှာ (Kama-tanha):''' ပရေင်စောဲလာံ လတူ အာရီု မသုန် မတွဟ်ဂး ရုပ်၊ ရမ္သာင်၊ သၟူ၊ ရသာ၊ ကေုာံ ဒဒုင်စသိုင် နကဵု ဇကု (Sensual craving)။
# '''ဘဝတဏှာ (Bhava-tanha):''' ပရေင်မိက်ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ဘဝ မွဲမွဲ၊ မိက်ဂွံ ဂျိုင် အာ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ (Craving for existence / becoming)။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဆက်စပ် ကု လညာတ် သဿတဒိဋ္ဌိ (Eternalism) ရ။
# '''ဝိဘဝတဏှာ (Vibhava-tanha):''' ပရေင်မိက်ဂွံ ပၠိုတ် အာ၊ မိက်ဂွံ သရိုဟ် ပလီု ဘဝ (Craving for non-existence)။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဆက်စပ် ကု လညာတ် ဥစ္ဆေဒဒိဋ္ဌိ (Annihilationism) မပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ ကြဴနူ ချိုတ် တုဲ အရာ သီုဖအိုတ် ပၠိုတ် အာ ရ။
တဏှာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု '''အဝိဇ္ဇာ''' (Ignorance) မဒှ် ပရေင်ဟွံတီ ဍာံပြ လတူ သဘာဝ အနိစ္စ၊ ဒုက္ခ၊ အနတ္တ ရ။
== ၅။ နိရောဓသစ္စာ - လအိတ် ဒဒိုက် ကေုာံ နိဗ္ဗာန် (Nirodha Sacca - Cessation and Nirvana) ==
နိရောဓသစ္စာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဓဝ်ဍာံ မထ္ၜး ကဵု ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒၞာဲ မဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဒဒိုက် ရ။ ကာလ တဏှာ သီုဖအိုတ် ပၠိုတ် အာ ဍိုက်ဍိုက်ပေင်ပေင် (ဟွံသှ်ေ ၜိုတ် မွဲ မ) မ္ဂး၊ ဒဒိုက် လေဝ် အိုတ် အာ ကီု ရ။ အကာဲအရာ ဏအ် ဂှ် ညးကော်စ '''[[နိဗ္ဗာန်]]''' (Nirvana / Nibbana) ရ။
"နိဗ္ဗာန်" ပ္ဍဲ ပါဠိ ဝွံ ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ပရေင်ပၠိုတ် အာ ပၟတ်" ရ။ ပၟတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပၟတ် လောဘ (Greed)၊ ဒေါသ (Hatred)၊ ကေုာံ မောဟ (Delusion) ရ။ နိဗ္ဗာန် ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ဌာန် ဒၞာဲ မွဲမွဲ ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဓမ္မ သဘာဝ မသၠးပွး နူ ကိလေသ ကေုာံ သံသရာ (Cycle of Rebirth) ရ။ မၞိဟ် မစိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဂျိုင် ဒၟံင် ဂှ် ကော်စ သောပါဒိသေသနိဗ္ဗာန် တုဲ၊ ကာလ ညးတေအ် ပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် စုတိ အာ ဂှ် ကော်စ အနုပါဒိသေသနိဗ္ဗာန် ရ။
== ၆။ မဂ္ဂသစ္စာ - ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဒစာံ ပြကာ (Magga Sacca - The Noble Eightfold Path) ==
မဂ္ဂသစ္စာ ဝွံ ဒှ် နဲကဲ ဒ္ဂေတ်ပဋိပတ် သွက်ဂွံ စိုပ် လအိတ် ဒဒိုက် (နိဗ္ဗာန်) ရ။ နဲကဲ ဏအ် ဂှ် ညးကော်စ '''[[မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ပြကာ]]''' (Noble Eightfold Path) မဒှ် မဇ္ဇျိမပဋိပဒါ (Middle Way) ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး လဒက်ပတန် ဂၠံင်တရဴ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ပြကာ
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက (Division)
! မဂ္ဂင် (Path)
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Meaning)
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''ပညာ (Paññā / Wisdom)'''
| ၁။ သမ္မာဒိဋ္ဌိ (Sammā-diṭṭhi)
| လညာတ် ဍာံပြ (Right View) - တီ ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် ကေုာံ သဘာဝ ဍာံ။
|-
| ၂။ သမ္မာသင်္ကပ္ပ (Sammā-saṅkappa)
| ကသပ် ဍာံပြ (Right Intention) - ချပ် သွက်ဂွံ သၠးပွး၊ ဟွံကဵု ဘဲ၊ ကေုာံ မေတ္တာ။
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''သဳလ (Sīla / Ethics)'''
| ၃။ သမ္မာဝါစာ (Sammā-vācā)
| လဟီု ဍာံပြ (Right Speech) - ဝေင်ပါဲ နူ ဇီ၊ လဟီု ၜါ ဂၠံင်၊ ဂရိုဟ်၊ ကေုာံ ဟီု သက်က်။
|-
| ၄။ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ (Sammā-kammanta)
| ကမၠောန် ဍာံပြ (Right Action) - ဝေင်ပါဲ ဂစိုတ် သတ်၊ ကၠတ်၊ ကေုာံ မေထုန် ဟွံဒး။
|-
| ၅။ သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ (Sammā-ājīva)
| ဂယိုင်ဂျိုင် ဍာံပြ (Right Livelihood) - ဂယိုင် လမျီု ဟွံကဵု ဘဲ ကု ညးတၞဟ် (ဥပမာ ဟွံသွံ လွဟ်)။
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''သမာဓိ (Samādhi / Concentration)'''
| ၆။ သမ္မာဝါယာမ (Sammā-vāyāma)
| လွဳ ဍာံပြ (Right Effort) - လွဳ ညံင် အကုသိုလ် ဟွံဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကေုာံ ကုသိုလ် ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ်။
|-
| ၇။ သမ္မာသတိ (Sammā-sati)
| သတိ ဍာံပြ (Right Mindfulness) - စွံ သတိ လတူ ကာယ၊ ဝေဒနာ၊ စိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဓမ္မ (Satipatthana)။
|-
| ၈။ သမ္မာသမာဓိ (Sammā-samādhi)
| သမာဓိ ဍာံပြ (Right Concentration) - ကလိဂွံ အာရီု မွဲ (Jhana) သွက်ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် ဝိပဿနာ။
|}
မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဒး ဒ္ဂေတ် အတိုင် လၟေင် လၟေင် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒး ဒ္ဂေတ် မွဲစွံ (Simultaneously) သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။<ref name="bodhi">{{cite book |last=Bodhi |first=B. |title=The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |year=1994 |pages=10-15}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဆက်စပ် ကု ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ် (Connection with Dependent Origination) ==
ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဓဝ် '''[[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]]''' (Paticcasamuppada / Dependent Origination) ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ရ။ ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ် ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵု (Cause and Effect) မနွံ ၁၂ ဆက် ရ။
* '''သမုဒယသစ္စာ (ဟိုတ်)''' ဂှ် တုပ် ကဵု လၟေင် ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ် လပါ် တိုန် (Anuloma) မတွဟ်ဂး "ဟိုတ်နူ အဝိဇ္ဇာ နွံ တုဲ သင်္ခါရ ကတဵုဒှ်... ဟိုတ်နူ တဏှာ နွံ တုဲ ဥပါဒါန် ကတဵုဒှ်... စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ဇာတိ ဇရာ မရဏ ကေုာံ ဒုက္ခ ကတဵုဒှ် ရ။"
* '''နိရောဓသစ္စာ (လအိတ်)''' ဂှ် တုပ် ကဵု လၟေင် ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ် လပါ် စှ်ေ (Patiloma) မတွဟ်ဂး "ဟိုတ်နူ အဝိဇ္ဇာ ပၠိုတ် အာ တုဲ သင်္ခါရ ပၠိုတ် အာ... စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ဇာတိ ဇရာ မရဏ ကေုာံ ဒုက္ခ သီုဖအိုတ် ပၠိုတ် အာ ရ။"
ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ သစ္စာပန် ကဵု ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဓဝ် မွဲ ဓဝ် မဟီု လဝ် နကဵု လညာတ် ၜါ ဂၠံင် သၟး ရ။
== ၈။ လညာတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂိုဏ် ထေရဝါဒ ကေုာံ မဟာယာန (Perspectives in Theravada and Mahayana) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဂိုဏ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ သီုဖအိုတ် ဒုင်တဲ သစ္စာပန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ ဍေဟ် တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ ညိည ရ။
* '''[[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada):''' လညာတ် ထေရဝါဒ (မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ သေံ၊ သဳရိလင်္ကာ) မ္ဂး၊ သစ္စာပန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဓဝ် အဓိက အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ တသိုက် လအိတ် ဒဒိုက် ကေုာံ ကလိဂွံ အဆံင် တၠအရှန် (Arahant) သွက် ဇကု မွဲ တၠ ဓဝ် ရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ပၠိုတ် ကၠေအ် ကိလေသ ကေုာံ လုပ် စိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန် ရ။
* '''[[မဟာယာန]] (Mahayana):''' လညာတ် မဟာယာန (မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ ဂျပေန်၊ ထာဲဝါန်) မ္ဂး၊ သစ္စာပန် ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ညးတအ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဗောဓိသတ် (Bodhisattva path) မဒှ် ပရေင်ဂစာန် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သဗ္ဗညုတဉာဏ် ကေုာံ ရီုဗင် သတ် သီုဖအိုတ် ညံင် ဂွံ တိတ် ဗၠး နူ သံသရာ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် မဟာယာန လ္ၚဵု မပ္တံကဵု [[ဒဿန သုညတ]] (Madhyamaka / Emptiness) မ္ဂး၊ ဒုက္ခ ကေုာံ နိဗ္ဗာန် ဝွံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု သဘာဝ အလဵုဇကု (Empty of inherent existence) တုဲ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ် အရာ မတုပ် ရေင်သကအ် ပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် ပရမတ္ထ (Ultimate reality) ရ။
== ၉။ လွပ် သစ္စာပန် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ လၟိုန်တ္ၚဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စိုတ် (Application in Daily Life and Psychology) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ပရေင်လွဳလွတ် ယဲ စိုတ် (Psychotherapy) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဘဝ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ တၠပညာ ဂဥုဲ စိုတ် တအ် ဒုင်ကေတ် လညာတ် ဏအ် တုဲ ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် နဲကဲ လွဳလွတ် နာနာ ရ။<ref name="keown">{{cite book |last=Keown |first=D. |title=Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhismveryshor0000unse |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhismveryshor0000unse/page/45 45]-50}}</ref>
ဥပမာ - ပ္ဍဲကဵု CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy) ကေုာံ ACT (Acceptance and Commitment Therapy) ဂှ် -
* ညးတအ် ဒုင်တဲ ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်စံင်တူ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍဵုဍိုက် စိုတ်ဓါတ် ဂှ် နွံ ဒၟံင် ဓမ္မတာ (တုပ် ကဵု ဒုက္ခသစ္စာ)။
* ဂၠာဲ ဟိုတ် မပကဵု ညံင် စိုတ် ဂွံ ယဲ၊ မပ္တံကဵု လညာတ် ဗၠေတ်ဗၠေတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်မက်ဂၠက် (တုပ် ကဵု သမုဒယသစ္စာ)။
* ပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ ယဲ ဏအ် မာန် ဗၠး (တုပ် ကဵု နိရောဓသစ္စာ)။
* ကဵု ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ နဲကဲ ပရေင်စွံ သတိ (Mindfulness) သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ စရိုတ် (တုပ် ကဵု မဂ္ဂသစ္စာ)။
ပရေင်စွံ သတိ ဏအ် (MBSR - Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction) ဝွံ လၟုဟ် ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရုင်ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ ရုင် ကမၠောန် တအ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၁၀။ အာဲကၟာဲ သစ္စာပန် လတူ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ သုတေသန ခေတ်တၟိ (Global Legacy and Modern Research) ==
ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရေး သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် လေဝ် နွံကဵု သြဇာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ ဒဿနိကဗေဒ (Philosophy)၊ လိက်ပတ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ ရ။
တၠပညာ ဒဿန ရးပလိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု [[အာသာ ရှဝ်ပေန်ဟာဝါ]] (Arthur Schopenhauer) တအ် လ္ၚတ် လဝ် လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တုဲ ချူ လဝ် ဒဿန မတုပ် ကဵု ဒုက္ခ ကေုာံ တဏှာ (Will) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သုတေသန သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ (Neuroscience) လေဝ်၊ တၠပညာ တအ် စမ်ၜတ် လ္ၚတ် က္ဍဟ် ခမဳ တအ် အခိင် ပၟဝ် ဓဝ် (Meditation) တုဲ ဆဵုဂဗ ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ဒ္ဂေတ် မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ (ဗွဲတၟေင် သမာဓိ ကေုာံ သတိ) ဂှ် မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ လဒက်ပတန် က္ဍဟ် (Neuroplasticity) တုဲ ယှောတ် ဖအောန် ဝေဒနာ ဂိသကေဝ် ကေုာံ စိုတ်ဍိုန်လျ ဗွဲမဇၞော် မာန် ရ။ ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒြပ် အာဲကၟာဲ ကောန်မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် မာန် ကဵု ဖဵု သွက် ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် (Peace) လၟိုန် ကာလ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]] (Dependent Origination)
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] (Nirvana)
* [[မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ပြကာ]] (Noble Eightfold Path)
{{Navbox
| name = Buddhism
| title = လညာတ် ကေုာံ ဓဝ်သဇိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Fundamental Concepts in Buddhism)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဓဝ်သစ္စာပန်
| list1 =
* [[ဒုက္ခသစ္စာ]] (Dukkha)
* [[သမုဒယသစ္စာ]] (Samudaya)
* [[နိရောဓသစ္စာ]] (Nirodha)
* [[မဂ္ဂသစ္စာ]] (Magga)
| group2 = မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ပြကာ
| list2 =
* [[သမ္မာဒိဋ္ဌိ]] (Right View)
* [[သမ္မာသင်္ကပ္ပ]] (Right Intention)
* [[သမ္မာဝါစာ]] (Right Speech)
* [[သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ]] (Right Action)
* [[သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ]] (Right Livelihood)
* [[သမ္မာဝါယာမ]] (Right Effort)
* [[သမ္မာသတိ]] (Right Mindfulness)
* [[သမ္မာသမာဓိ]] (Right Concentration)
| group3 = ဓဝ် ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]] (Dependent Origination)
* [[တဏှာ]] (Craving)
* [[အဝိဇ္ဇာ]] (Ignorance)
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] (Nirvana)
}}
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဒဿန ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဓဝ်သဇိုင်]]
[[Category:မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ပြကာ]]
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'''အက္ခရ် မန်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Mon script'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် အက္ခရ် မချူ လိက် သွက် [[အရေဝ်မန်]]၊ တုဲ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံ အက္ခရ် အဗူဂဳဒါ (Abugida) မဆေင်စပ် ကု ဂကောံ ဘာသာ ဗြဟ္မဳ (Brahmic family) ရ။ အက္ခရ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု အက္ခရ် ပလ္လဝ (Pallava script) နူကဵု သမၠုင်ကျာ အိန္ဒိယ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် အကြာ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၆ ကဵု ၈ တေအ် ရ။ လိက်တၟအ် မန် တြေံအိုတ် တအ်ဂှ် ဂွံ ဆဵု ကေတ် ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် ဍုင်သေံ (ဒေသ ဒွါရဝတဳ) ကေုာံ လပါ် သမၠုင်ကျာ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ရ။<ref name="jenny">{{cite book |last=Jenny |first=M. |title=The Mon Language: An Outline of its History and Structure |publisher=Mon-Khmer Studies |year=2015 |pages=15-30}}</ref>
အက္ခရ် မန် ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ရးအာရှအဂၞဲ၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် လဒက်ပတန် အက္ခရ် ဗၟာ (Burmese script) ကေုာံ ကဵု လဝ် သြဇာ လတူ အက္ခရ် လာန်နာ (Lanna) ကေုာံ အက္ခရ် တၞဟ် တအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ အက္ခရ် မန် ဝွံ စကာ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ လိက်ပတ်၊ ဘာသာရေး၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂကူမန် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ အက္ခရ် မန် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန် အက္ခရ်၊ ရမ္သာင်၊ ကေုာံ နည်းပညာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Myazedi_pillar.jpg|thumb|right|300px|လိက်တၟအ် မြစေတဳ (Myazedi Inscription) မချူလဝ် နကဵု အက္ခရ် မန် တြေံ ကေုာံ အရေဝ် တၞဟ် ပိ ဘာသာ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၁၁၃ အေဒဳ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"အက္ခရ် မန်" ဝွံ နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် သိပ္ပံ ဘာသာဗေဒ မ္ဂး ဒှ် သၞောတ် ချူ လိက် (Writing system) မတန်တဴ လတူ အဗူဂဳဒါ (Abugida) ရ။ အဗူဂဳဒါ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မ ဗျည် နွံကဵု ရမ္သာင် သွိုရ် မတန်တဴ အလဵုအလဵု (Inherent vowel)၊ ဥပမာ ပ္ဍဲ အရေဝ် မန် မ္ဂး ရမ္သာင် "အ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "အေ" ရ။
အက္ခရ် မန် ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဗီုပြင် ခ္ဍမ်ခ္ဍမ် (Circular shape) ရ။ ဟိုတ် မဂွံ ဒှ် ဗီုပြင် ခ္ဍမ်ခ္ဍမ် ဂှ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ကၠာ တေအ် ညးတအ် ချူ လိက် လတူ သၠရိုတ် (Palm leaves) နကဵု ကၞေဟ် ဇုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပသဲ ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ချူ နကဵု ဓရီု တပ်တပ် ကေုာံ ကၠေင် မ္ဂး၊ သၠရိုတ် တအ် မာန် ထကး လီုလာ် အာ ပြဟ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ အက္ခရ် မန် ဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ကၠုင် နဒဒှ် ဗီုပြင် ခ္ဍမ်ခ္ဍမ် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် (History and Origin) ==
ဝင် အက္ခရ် မန် ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ကောန်ဂကူ မန်-ခမာ (Mon-Khmer) ကေုာံ တၠပညာ ဗြဟ္မဏ နူ ဍုင် အိန္ဒိယ သမၠုင်ကျာ ရ။ တၠပညာ သုတေသန ဝင် မပ္တံကဵု မိုက်ကယ် အံင်သွင် (Michael Aung-Thwin) ကေုာံ ခရစ်သတဳယန် ဗའာ (Christian Bauer) တအ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အက္ခရ် မန် တြေံအိုတ် ဂှ် ကၠုင် နူ အက္ခရ် ပလ္လဝ ရ။<ref name="bauer">{{cite journal |last=Bauer |first=C. |title=Notes on Mon Epigraphy |journal=Journal of the Siam Society |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=31-83 |year=1991}}</ref>
ဝင် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အက္ခရ် မန် ပါ်လဝ် ပိ ခေတ် -
* '''မန် တြေံ (Old Mon):''' ဂွံ ဆဵု ကေတ် ပ္ဍဲ လိက်တၟအ် ဍုင် နခောန်ပထောမ် (Nakhon Pathom) ကေုာံ သာရပူရဳ (Saraburi) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ။ (ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၆ - ၁၁)
* '''မန် လဒေါဝ် (Middle Mon):''' ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဟံသာဝတဳ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဗဂေါ။ လိက်တၟအ် သီကလျာဏဳ ဒှ် သက်သဳ အဓိက ရ။ (ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၅ - ၁၇)
* '''မန် ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern Mon):''' ဒှ် အက္ခရ် မစကာ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ လိက်ပတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ မဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ကြဴနူ ပရေင်ကျ ပၞာန် အံင်ဇေယျ။ (ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၈ - လၟုဟ်)
== ၃။ အက္ခရ် ဗျည်ဂမၠိုင် (Consonants) ==
အက္ခရ် မန် ခေတ်တၟိ ဝွံ နွံ ဗျည် သီုဖအိုတ် ၃၅ မ (၃၅ တူ) ရ။ ဗျည် တအ်ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဌာန် ကတဵုဒှ် ရမ္သာင် ကေုာံ ဂကူ ရမ္သာင် "သာ" (Light register / a-register) ကဵု ရမ္သာင် "ဇြိုင်" (Heavy register / e-register) ရ။
{| class="wikitable center"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး အက္ခရ် ဗျည် မန် ၃၅ မ
|-
! ဝဂ် (Group) !! သာ (a-vowel) !! သာ (a-vowel) !! ဇြိုင် (e-vowel) !! ဇြိုင် (e-vowel) !! ဇြိုင် (Nasal)
|-
| '''က-ဝဂ် (Velar)''' || က (k) || ခ (kh) || ဂ (g) || ဃ (gh) || င (ng)
|-
| '''စ-ဝဂ် (Palatal)''' || စ (c) || ဆ (ch) || ဇ (j) || ၛ (jh) || ည (ny)
|-
| '''ဋ-ဝဂ် (Retroflex)''' || ဋ (ṭ) || ဌ (ṭh) || ဍ (ḍ) || ဎ (ḍh) || ဏ (ṇ)
|-
| '''တ-ဝဂ် (Dental)''' || တ (t) || ထ (th) || ဒ (d) || ဓ (dh) || န (n)
|-
| '''ပ-ဝဂ် (Labial)''' || ပ (p) || ဖ (ph) || ဗ (b) || ᨓ/ဘ (bh) || မ (m)
|-
| '''အဝဂ် (Misc)''' || ယ (y) || ရ (r) || လ (l) || ဝ (w) || သ (s)
|-
| '''အဝဂ် (Misc)''' || ဟ (h) || ဠ (ḷ) || ၜ (ɓ) || အ (a) || ၝ (mb)
|}
တင်စၟတ်: အက္ခရ် ၜ (ba) ကေုာံ ၝ (mha) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အက္ခရ် မတၞဟ်ခြာ သွက် အရေဝ် မန် တုဲ ဟွံမဲ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ဗြဟ္မဳ အဓိက တအ် ရ။<ref name="jenny"/>
== ၄။ သระ ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ သွိုရ်ဂမၠိုင် (Vowels and Diacritics) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် အက္ခရ် မန် ဂှ်၊ သွိုရ် ဝွံ နွံ ၜါ သာ် - သွိုရ် မတန်တဴ ကေတ်ကေတ် (Independent vowels) ကေုာံ သွိုရ် မဒး ဍိုက် လတူ ဗျည် (Dependent vowels/Diacritics) ရ။
* '''သွိုရ် အလဵု (Independent vowels):''' ဣ (i), ဤ (ī), ဥ (u), ဦ (ū), ဧ (e), ဩ (o)။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စကာ ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ပါဠိ။
* '''သင်္ကေတ သွိုရ် (Dependent vowels):'''
* ာ (ā) - ဥပမာ က + ာ = ကာ (ka)
* ိ (i) - ဥပမာ က + ိ = ကိ (ki)
* ဳ (ī) - ဥပမာ က + ဳ = ကဳ (kī)
* ု (u) - ဥပမာ က + ု = ကု (ku)
* ူ (ū) - ဥပမာ က + ူ = ကူ (kū)
* ေ (e) - ဥပမာ က + ေ = ကေ (ke)
* ဲ (ai) - ဥပမာ က + ဲ = ကဲ (kai)
* ော (o) - ဥပမာ က + ော = ကော (ko)
* ဴ (ao) - ဥပမာ က + ဴ = ကဴ (kao)
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဗျည် မန် ပါ်လဝ် ရမ္သာင် သာ ကဵု ဇြိုင် ဂှ်ရ၊ ကာလ ပံင် ကု သွိုရ် မ္ဂး ရမ္သာင် တိတ် တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ ရ။ ဥပမာ: "ကာ" တိတ် ရမ္သာင် "ka" တုဲ၊ "ဂာ" တိတ် ရမ္သာင် "gèa" (ရမ္သာင် ဇြိုင်) ရ။
== ၅။ ဗျည် ကၟက် ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် ဝေါဟာရ (Medials and Syllable Structure) ==
ဝေါဟာရ မန် မွဲ မ္ဂး လဒက်ပတန် နကဵု (၁) ဗျည် တမ် (၂) ဗျည် ကၟက် (၃) သွိုရ် ကေုာံ (၄) ဗျည် အုပ်နိဂီု မာန် ရ။ ဗျည် ကၟက် (Medials) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ မစုတ် လပါ် သၟဝ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အကြာ ဗျည် တမ် သွက်ဂွံ ပံင် ရမ္သာင် ရ။
ဗျည် ကၟက် အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''ျ (ယ-ကၟက်):''' က + ျ = ကျ (kya)
* '''ြ (ရ-ကၟက်):''' က + ြ = ကြ (kra)
* '''ွ (ဝ-ကၟက်):''' က + ွ = ကွ (kwa)
* '''ှ (ဟ-ကၟက်):''' မ + ှ = မှ (mha)
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ အက္ခရ် မန် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဗျည် ကၟက် အထူး မပ္တံကဵု ၞ (န-ကၟက်)၊ ၟ (မ-ကၟက်)၊ ကေုာံ ၠ (လ-ကၟက်) မဒှ် အရာ တၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု အက္ခရ် ဗၟာ ရ။ ဥပမာ - ကၞိ (kni - rat)၊ ကၟာ (kma - frog)၊ ကၠဵု (klo - dog) တအ် ရ။
== ၆။ သင်္ချာ ကေုာံ ဂၞန် မန် (Mon Numerals) ==
သၞောတ် ဂၞန် သင်္ချာ မန် (Mon numerals) ဝွံ နွံ ဗီုပြင် မတုပ် ကဵု ဂၞန် ဗြဟ္မဳ တၞဟ် တအ် ကီု၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ခ္ဍမ်ခ္ဍမ် အတိုင် အက္ခရ် ဗျည် မန် ရ။
* ၀ (သုည - 0)
* ၁ (မွဲ - 1)
* ၂ (ၜါ - 2)
* ၃ (ပိ - 3)
* ၄ (ပန် - 4)
* ၅ (မသုန် - 5)
* ၆ (တြဴ - 6)
* ၇ (ထပှ် - 7)
* ၈ (ဒစာံ - 8)
* ၉ (ဒစိတ် - 9)
* ၁၀ (စှ် - 10)
သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လအိတ် ဝါကျ ဂှ် စကာ ပုဒ် ဍောတ် "။" ကေုာံ ပုဒ် ဇၞော် "༎" ရ။
== ၇။ သြဇာ လတူ အက္ခရ် တၞဟ်ဂမၠိုင် (Influence on Other Scripts) ==
အက္ခရ် မန် ဝွံ ကဵု လဝ် သြဇာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အက္ခရ် လိက်ပတ် ပ္ဍဲ ရးအာရှအဂၞဲ ရ။
* '''အက္ခရ် ဗၟာ (Burmese script):''' ကြဴနူ သၟိင် အနဝ်ရထာ (Anawrahta) သီ ဂွံ ဍုင်သဓီု (Thaton) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၀၅၇ တုဲ၊ ဂကူ ဗၟာ တအ် လ္ၚတ် ကေတ် အက္ခရ် မန် တုဲ ခၞံဗဒှ် လိက်ပတ် ဗၟာ ရ။ လိက်တၟအ် ဗၟာ တြေံအိုတ် တအ်ဂှ် စကာ လဝ် ဗီုပြင် အက္ခရ် မန် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။<ref name="aung-thwin">{{cite book |last=Aung-Thwin |first=M. |title=The Mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2005 |pages=45-55}}</ref>
* '''အက္ခရ် ကရေင် (Karen scripts):''' အက္ခရ် ကရေင် သကောဝ် ကေုာံ ပိုး (S'gaw and Pwo Karen) တအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နူကဵု အက္ခရ် မန် ရ။
* '''အက္ခရ် လာန်နာ ကေုာံ တာဲသာမ် (Lanna and Tai Tham scripts):''' အက္ခရ် မန် ဟရိဘုဉ္ဇယ (Hariphunchai) ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ဍုင်သေံ ဂှ် ကဵု လဝ် သြဇာ လတူ အက္ခရ် တာဲသာမ် မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ရ။
== ၈။ လိက်တၟအ် ဝင် မပြာကတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Notable Historical Inscriptions) ==
သက်သဳ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အက္ခရ် မန် ဂှ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ လိက်တၟအ် (Inscriptions) တအ် ရ။
* '''လိက်တၟအ် မြစေတဳ (Myazedi Inscription):''' ညးကော်စ "ရဝ်သေတ္တာ သတုံ ဍုင်ဗၟာ" (Rosetta Stone of Burma)၊ ခၞံလဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၁၁၃။ ချူ လဝ် နကဵု အက္ခရ် မန်၊ ပျူ (Pyu)၊ ဗၟာ၊ ကေုာံ ပါဠိ ရ။ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သက်သဳ ဒဒှ်ရ အက္ခရ် မန် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တန်တဴ ဍိုက်ပေင် အာ ရ။<ref name="lieberman">{{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=V. |title=Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-1830 |url=https://archive.org/details/strangeparallels0000lieb |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/strangeparallels0000lieb/page/112 112]-118}}</ref>
* '''လိက်တၟအ် သီ ကလျာဏဳ (Kalyani Inscriptions):''' ခၞံလဝ် နကဵု သၟိင် ဓမ္မစေတဳ (Dhammazedi) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၄၇၆ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗဂေါ။ လိက်တၟအ် ဏအ် ချူ လဝ် ပရူ ဝင် သာသနာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် မန် နကဵု အက္ခရ် မန် လဒေါဝ် ရ။
== ၉။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ကေုာံ ယူနဳကုဒ် (Digital Usage and Unicode) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ အက္ခရ် မန် ဝွံ ဂွံ ဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် '''ယူနဳကုဒ်''' (Unicode Standard) အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ အက္ခရ် မန် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ "Myanmar Block" မစတမ် နူ `U+1000` စဵုကဵု `U+109F` ရ။
ဆဂး အက္ခရ် မန် နွံကဵု တင်ဂၞင် အထူး မပ္တံကဵု ဗျည် `ၜ` (`U+102B`)၊ `ၝ` (`U+105D`) ကေုာံ သွိုရ် မန် တၞဟ် တအ် ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ဂကူမန် တအ် စကာ သၞောတ် ဖေါင့် ဇော်ဂျဳ (Zawgyi-Mon) မဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု ယူနဳကုဒ်၊ ဆဂး လၟုဟ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ စကာ ယူနဳကုဒ် အလုံစုံ (ဥပမာ - Padauk, Pyidaungsu, Mon3) ဂှ် အံင်ဇၞး ကၠုင် တုဲ လိက်ပတ် မန် လတူ အင်တာနက် ဂွံ ဒတူလိုင် ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ကၠုင် ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ (Future and Preservation) ==
အနာဂတ် အက္ခရ် မန် ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပညာ ရ။ ပရေင်ပညာ ဒုင်သဇိုင် ဘာသာ မိ (MTB-MLE) ပ္ဍဲ တွဵုရးဍုင်မန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ကမၠောန် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် အက္ခရ် မန် ကု ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် ရ။<ref name="south">{{cite book |last=South |first=A. |title=Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: The Golden Sheldrake |url=https://archive.org/details/monnationalismci0000sout |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/monnationalismci0000sout/page/150 150]-160}}</ref>
တုဲပၠန်၊ ပရေင်ချူ လိက်ပတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ မန် (Mon Wikipedia)၊ ပရေင်ကၠာဲ ဘာသာ ပ္ဍဲ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital translation)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စကာ အက္ခရ် မန် ပ္ဍဲ မဳဒဳယာ ဇာမၞိဟ် (Social media) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ တၟိ သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ညံင် အက္ခရ် ဏအ် ဟွံဂွံ ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု ပြသၞာ သြဇာ အရေဝ် ဗၟာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် သၟတ် မန် တအ် ပကဵု ညံင် အက္ခရ် မန် ဂွံ ဆက် ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ တန်တဴ အာ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[အရေဝ်မန်]] (Mon language)
* [[ဂကူမန်]] (Mon people)
* [[အဗူဂဳဒါ]] (Abugida)
* [[လိက်တၟအ် မြစေတဳ]] (Myazedi Inscription)
{{Navbox
| name = Brahmic scripts
| title = အက္ခရ် ဗြဟ္မဳ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ချူ လိက် (Brahmic Scripts and Writing Systems)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ရးအာရှအဂၞဲ
| list1 =
* [[အက္ခရ် မန်]] (Mon script)
* [[အက္ခရ် ဗၟာ]] (Burmese script)
* [[အက္ခရ် သေံ]] (Thai script)
* [[အက္ခရ် ခမာ]] (Khmer script)
* [[အက္ခရ် လာန်နာ]] (Tai Tham script)
| group2 = တမ်မူလ
| list2 =
* [[အက္ခရ် ဗြဟ္မဳ]] (Brahmi script)
* [[အက္ခရ် ပလ္လဝ]] (Pallava script)
* [[အဗူဂဳဒါ]] (Abugida)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[အရေဝ်မန်]] (Mon language)
* [[ယူနဳကုဒ်]] (Unicode)
* [[ဘာသာဗေဒ]] (Linguistics)
* [[ဝင် လိက်ပတ်]] (History of writing)
}}
[[Category:အက္ခရ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ဂကူမန်]]
[[Category:အရေဝ်မန်]]
[[Category:ဘာသာဗေဒ]]
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'''အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''အက္ခရ် ဟနစရက''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Javanese script'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Aksara Jawa''; ဂျာဗာ: ꦲꦏ꧀ꦱꦫꦗꦮ) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် အက္ခရ် မချူ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ဂျာဗာ ကေုာံ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ တၞဟ် မပ္တံကဵု သွန်ဒါ (Sundanese)၊ မဒူရာ (Madurese) ကေုာံ သာသာက် (Sasak) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်အင်ဒဝ်နဳယျာ (Indonesia) ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ တကအ် ဂျာဗာ ရ။ အက္ခရ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞောတ် အဘူဂဳဒါ (Abugida) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၞောတ် အက္ခရ်-သွိုရ် မပါ်တိတ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ဂကောံ အက္ခရ် ဗြဟ္မဳ (Brahmic scripts) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ တေအ် ရ။<ref name="daniels">{{cite book |last=Daniels |first=P. T. |author2=Bright, W. |title=The World's Writing Systems |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/474 474]-477}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ၜိုန်ရ ညးတအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ စကာ လိက် အက္ခရ် လေတ္တေန် (Latin script) သွက် အရေဝ် ဂျာဗာ ဂၠိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ဝွံ ဆက် ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ လိက်သမ္တီ အာဲကၟာဲ ခေတ်တြေံ တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန် အက္ခရ်၊ ကွတ်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Hanacaraka.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ သဇိုင် ၂၀ မကော်စ (ဟနစရက - Hanacaraka) မဒှ် သၞောတ် အက္ခရ် အဓိက သွက် အရေဝ် ဂျာဗာ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ (Aksara Jawa) ဝွံ မလေပ် ကော်စ နကဵု ယၟု '''ဟနစရက''' (Hanacaraka) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''စရကန်''' (Carakan) ရ။ ယၟု ဏအ်ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ ဗျည် သဇိုင် မသုန် မ ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် လၟေင် အက္ခရ် ညးတအ် (ဟ-န-စ-ရ-က) ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် ဘာသာဗေဒ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် "အဘူဂဳဒါ" (Abugida)၊ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဂှ် ဗျည် သဇိုင် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မွဲ နွံကဵု သွိုရ် "အ/A" (a ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး o အတိုင် ရမ္သာင် ဂျာဗာ) မပါ်ပံင် လဝ် အလဵုအလဵု ရ။ ယဝ်ရ မိက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ သွိုရ် မ္ဂး သ္ဒး စုတ် သင်္ကေတ လတူ၊ သၟဝ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လပါ် ဗမံက် ပလိုတ် ဗျည် ဂှ် ရ (တုပ် ညံင် သၞောတ် အက္ခရ် မန်-ဗၟာ ကီု)။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Origins) ==
အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု '''[[အက္ခရ် ကာဝဳ]]''' (Kawi script) မဒှ် လိက် ခေတ်တြေံ ပ္ဍဲ တကအ် ဂျာဗာ ရ။ လိက် ကာဝဳ ဏအ်ပၠန် ဂှ်လေဝ် တမ်မူလ ကၠုင် နူကဵု '''[[အက္ခရ် ပလ္လဝ]]''' (Pallava script) နူကဵု ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ သၠုင်ကျာ မစိုပ် ကၠုင် ဒေသ အာရှအဂၞဲ ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၄ ကဵု ၅ တေအ် ရ။<ref name="kuipers">{{cite book |last=Kuipers |first=J. C. |title=Indic Scripts of Austronesia |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2003 |pages=15-22}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် လက်ထက် အေန်ပါယာ '''[[မဂျပဟိတ်]]''' (Majapahit Empire) အကြာ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၃ ကဵု ၁၅ ဂှ်၊ သၞောတ် လိက် ဂျာဗာ ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် တုဲ နွံကဵု ဗီုပြင် အက္ခရ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ကၠုင် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် သၟိင် ဍုင် မတာရမ် (Mataram Sultanate) ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၇ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ချူ လိက် ဂျာဗာ ဏအ် စိုပ် အဆံင် ကဝိ ကေုာံ နန်နိဝေသ် (Court literature) မနွံကဵု အနုသုခုမ ဗွဲမသၠုင် ရ။
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် အက္ခရ် ကေုာံ သၞောတ် (Structure and System) ==
အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု သၞောတ် အဓိက ၃ သာ် -
# '''ဗျည် သဇိုင် (Aksara nglegena):''' ဒှ် ဗျည် ၂၀ မ မနွံကဵု သွိုရ် "အ/a" ပကတိ။
# '''သင်္ကေတ သွိုရ် (Sandhangan):''' ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ သွိုရ် (ဥပမာ - ဣ၊ ဥ၊ ဧ၊ ဩ) ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ စုတ် ဂစိုတ် (ဥပမာ - င်၊ က်၊ ရ်)။
# '''ကၟက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဗျည် သၟဝ် (Pasangan):''' သွက်ဂွံ ချူ ဗျည် ၜါ မဆက် ရေင်သကအ် (Consonant clusters) မ္ဂး၊ ဗျည် ဒုတိယ ဂှ် သ္ဒး ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ဗီုပြင် "ပသာင်ငန်" (Pasangan) တုဲ စုတ် သၟဝ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လပါ် ပလိုတ် ဗျည် ပထမ ရ (တုပ် ကဵု သၞောတ် ကၟက် မန် ဥပမာ - က+္မ = ကၟ)။
== ၄။ အက္ခရ် သဇိုင် ၂၀ - ဟနစရက (The 20 Basic Consonants - Hanacaraka) ==
ဗျည် သဇိုင် ၂၀ မ ပ္ဍဲ အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ဝွံ ညးတအ် ရေင် လဝ် ဟွံတုပ် ကဵု သၞောတ် ဗြဟ္မဳ အိန္ဒိယ (က ခ ဂ ဃ င) ပုဟ်။ ညးတအ် ရေင် လဝ် အတိုင် ဒွက် ကဗျ ပရူ ဒဏ္ဍာရဳ အာဂျဳ သကာ (Aji Saka) အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable center"
|+ '''သၞောတ် လၟေင် အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ၂၀ (Hanacaraka)'''
|-
! အက္ခရ် (ဂျာဗာ) !! ရမ္သာင် (လေတ္တေန်) !! အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပ္ဍဲ ကဗျ (Legendary Poem)
|-
| ꦲ ꦤ ꦕ ꦫ ꦏ || ha, na, ca, ra, ka || နွံ ကလုတ် (ညးပလံင် ဇရေင်) ၜါ တၠ။
|-
| ꦢ ꦠ ꦱ ꦮ ꦭ || da, ta, sa, wa, la || ညးတအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပေါဲဗတိုက် (ဟွံကလင် အမိင်) ရေင်သကအ်။
|-
| ꦥ ꦝ ꦗ ꦪ ꦚ || pa, dha, ja, ya, nya || ညးတအ် ၜါ နွံ ဒြဟတ် တုပ် ရေင်သကအ် ဍာံဍာံ။
|-
| ꦩ ꦒ ꦧ ꦛ ꦔ || ma, ga, ba, tha, nga || ညးတအ် ၜါ သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးချိုတ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ဂှ်။
|}
== ၅။ သင်္ကေတ သွိုရ် ကေုာံ အစံင်အရာဂမၠိုင် (Vowel Diacritics - Sandhangan) ==
ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမဲ သင်္ကေတ မ္ဂး ဗျည် တအ် ပတိတ် ရမ္သာင် /a/ (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး /ɔ/ ပ္ဍဲ အရေဝ် ဂျာဗာ)။ သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ သွိုရ် မ္ဂး ညးတအ် စကာ "ဆန်ဒါင်ငန်" (Sandhangan) မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''ဝူလူး (Wulu - ꦶ):''' စုတ် လတူ ဗျည်၊ ပြံင် ရမ္သာင် စိုပ် /i/ (ဣ) (ဥပမာ - က -> ကိ)။
* '''သုကု (Suku - ꦸ):''' စုတ် သၟဝ် ဗျည်၊ ပြံင် ရမ္သာင် စိုပ် /u/ (ဥ)။
* '''တာလိုင် (Taling - ꦺ):''' စုတ် ဂတ ဗျည်၊ ပြံင် ရမ္သာင် စိုပ် /e/ (ဧ)။
* '''ပေပေတ် (Pepet - ꦼ):''' စုတ် လတူ ဗျည်၊ ပြံင် ရမ္သာင် စိုပ် /ə/ (အ် - schwa)။
* '''တာလိုင် တာရိုင် (Taling tarung - ꦺꦴ):''' စုတ် အကြာ ဗျည် (ဂတ ကဵု လက္ကရဴ)၊ ပြံင် ရမ္သာင် စိုပ် /o/ (ဩ)။<ref name="robson">{{cite book |last=Robson |first=S. |title=Javanese Grammar for Students |edition=2nd |publisher=Monash University Publishing |year=2011 |pages=30-38}}</ref>
== ၆။ အက္ခရ် တၟေင် (Aksara Murda, Swara, and Rekan) ==
ပါဲနူ ဗျည် သဇိုင် ၂၀ မ ဂှ် တုဲ၊ သၞောတ် လိက် ဂျာဗာ နွံကဵု အက္ခရ် တၟေင် နာနာ သာ် သွက်ဂွံ ချူ လိက် မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''အက္ခရ် မူရ်ဒါ (Aksara Murda):''' ဒှ် အက္ခရ် ဇၞော် (Capital letters) တုဲ စကာ သွက်ဂွံ ချူ ယၟု မၞိဟ် ကိစ္စဇၞော်၊ ယၟု ဍုင်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ရှ်ေသှ်ေ (Honorifics)။
* '''အက္ခရ် သွရ (Aksara Swara):''' ဒှ် သွိုရ် တန်တဴ အလဵုဇကု (Independent vowels) ဥပမာ A, I, U, E, O တုဲ စကာ ပ္ဍဲ လိက် မကၠုင် နူ အရေဝ် ပါဠိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သံသကြိုတ် ရ။
* '''အက္ခရ် ရေကန် (Aksara Rekan):''' ဒှ် အက္ခရ် မခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် တၟိ နကဵု မစုတ် စက် ၃ မ လတူ ဗျည် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် ရမ္သာင် ပါင် ဍုင်သအာင် မပ္တံကဵု အာရပ် (Arabic) ဥပမာ - f, kh, dz, sy, z တအ် ရ။
== ၇။ လၟိဟ် ဂၞန် ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ ပုဒ် (Numerals and Punctuation) ==
အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ နွံကဵု သၞောတ် ဂၞန် အလဵုဇကု မကော်စ "အာင်ကာ ဂျာဗာ" (Angka Jawa - ꧑꧒꧓꧔꧕꧖꧗꧘꧙꧐) ရ။ လဒက်ပတန် ရုပ်သာ် ဂၞန် ဏအ်ဝွံ တုပ် ဒၟံင် ကု အက္ခရ် ဗျည် လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဂှ်ရ ကာလ ချူ ဂၞန် မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ဒး စုတ် သင်္ကေတ တၟေင် လပါ် ဂတ ကဵု လက္ကရဴ (Pada pangkat) သွက်ဂွံ ပါ်ခြာ လိက် ကဵု ဂၞန် ရ။
သွက် သင်္ကေတ ပုဒ် (Punctuation/Pada) မ္ဂး ညးတအ် စကာ -
* '''ပါဒ လိုင်သာ (Pada lingsa - ꧈):''' တုပ် ကဵု ကမာ (Comma `,`)။
* '''ပါဒ လုင်သဳ (Pada lungsi - ꧉):''' တုပ် ကဵု ပုဒ် အလုံ (Full stop `.`) သွက်ဂွံ ကၟာတ် ဝါကျ ရ။
== ၈။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Usage in Literature and Culture) ==
အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ဝွံ ဒှ် တိုင်ခဳ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂျာဗာ ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခေတ် ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ၊ လိက်ပတ် ဂျာဗာ သီုဖအိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု '''ကာကာဝိန်''' (Kakawin - ကဗျ ခေတ်တြေံ)၊ '''ဘာဘတ်''' (Babad - ဝင် ရာဇဝင်)၊ ကေုာံ '''သေရတ်''' (Serat - ဒဿန ကေုာံ ဘာသာ) တအ် ချူ လဝ် နကဵု အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ရ။<ref name="gallop">{{cite book |last=Gallop |first=A. T. |title=Indonesian Manuscripts in Great Britain |publisher=British Library |year=2012 |pages=102-110}}</ref>
လိက် မပြာကတ် အိုတ် မွဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် လိက် '''သေရတ် သေန်တဳနဳ''' (Serat Centhini) မဒှ် လိက် မချူ လဝ် ပရူ ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ဒဿန၊ ပညာ ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ ဘဝ ဂကူ ဂျာဗာ ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ မနွံကဵု မုက်လိက် လ္ၚီ ပြင်င် ရ။ အက္ခရ် ဏအ်ဝွံ လေဝ် စကာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် အနုသုခုမ မပ္တံကဵု ထ္ၜး ရုပ်သၞာ် ဝါယံင် (Wayang) ကေုာံ ကွိင်ကွိုက် ဂါမလန် (Gamelan) ကီု ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်ကၠေအ်ကၠက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တၟိ (Decline and Preservation) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ အခိင် ကာလ အလဵုအသဳ ဒပ်ချ် (Dutch East Indies) အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် ဍုင် အင်ဒဝ်နဳယျာ ဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် စကာ အက္ခရ် လေတ္တေန် နဒဒှ် သၞောတ် လိက် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာ ရ။ ကြဴနူ အင်ဒဝ်နဳယျာ ကလိဂွံ သၠးပွး တုဲ လေဝ် အရေဝ် အင်ဒဝ်နဳယျာ (Bahasa Indonesia) ကေုာံ အက္ခရ် လေတ္တေန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ကၠုင် လိက် သဇိုင် အလုံ ဍုင် ရ။
ဟိုတ်ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်စကာ အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ပ္ဍဲ လွပ် လၟေင် တ္ၚဲ ဂွံ အောန် စှ်ေ အာ ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ သာ်ဂှ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် အလဵုအသဳ ဒေသ ဂျာဗာ လပါ်လဒေါဝ် (Central Java)၊ ဂျာဗာ လပါ်ဗမံက် (East Java) ကေုာံ ဒေသ တၟေင် ယောဂယာကာတာ (Yogyakarta) တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒး ဗတောန် အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ပ္ဍဲ ဘာတန် အလဵုအသဳ တအ် ရ။ လၟုဟ် ပိုယ် မာန် ဆဵု ဂွံ အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ လတူ ခြပ် လိက် ယၟု ဂၠံင် ဍာန် (Street signs) ကေုာံ ရုင် အလဵုအသဳ ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ တအ် ဏအ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ ယူနဳကုဒ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Unicode and Digitalization) ==
သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ကောန်ပျူတာ၊ ဂကောံ ယူနဳကုဒ် (Unicode Consortium) ပၠောပ် စုတ် လဝ် အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ယူနဳကုဒ် မူ ၅.၂ (Unicode Version 5.2) ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတု အံက်တဝ်ဗာ သၞာံ ၂၀၀၉ ရ။ ဒၞာဲ ဗလံက် သွက် အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ ဝွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ `U+A980` ကဵု `U+A9DF` ရ။<ref name="everson">{{cite web |last=Everson |first=M. |title=Proposal for encoding the Javanese script in the UCS |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2008/08015r-javanese.pdf |publisher=ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 |year=2008 |access-date=2026-07-18}}</ref>
ၜိုန်ရ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ယူနဳကုဒ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု လဒက်ပတန် "ပသာင်ငန်" ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ သွိုရ် မဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ထုဲထံင် ဂှ်ရ၊ ပရေင်ထ္ၜး ရုပ် လတူ နှောက် ဖုန် ကေုာံ ကောန်ပျူတာ လ္ၚဵု တအ် (Font rendering) ဒးဆဵု အခက်အခုဲ ညိည နွံ ဒၟံင် ဏီ ရ။ ဆဂး တၠပညာ နည်းပညာ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ဖေါန် (Fonts) မပ္တံကဵု Noto Sans Javanese တုဲ၊ လၟုဟ် မၞိဟ် တအ် မာန် ချူ အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ လတူ အင်တာနက် ကေုာံ မဳဒဳယျာ မၞိဟ် (Social media) တအ် ဂွံ ကၠုင် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[အက္ခရ် ဗြဟ္မဳ]] (Brahmic scripts)
* [[အက္ခရ် ကာဝဳ]] (Kawi script)
* [[အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ဂျာဗာ]] (Javanese language)
* [[အင်ဒဝ်နဳယျာ]] (Indonesia)
{{Navbox
| name = Brahmic scripts
| title = ဂကောံ အက္ခရ် ဗြဟ္မဳ ပ္ဍဲ အာရှအဂၞဲ (Brahmic Scripts in Southeast Asia)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = အာရှအဂၞဲ လပါ် ဍုင်ဇၞော်
| list1 =
* [[အက္ခရ် မန်]] (Mon)
* [[အက္ခရ် ဗၟာ]] (Burmese)
* [[အက္ခရ် သေံ]] (Thai)
* [[အက္ခရ် ခမာ]] (Khmer)
* [[အက္ခရ် လဴ]] (Lao)
| group2 = အာရှအဂၞဲ လပါ် တကအ် (အင်ဒဝ်နဳယျာ/ဖဳလဳပေန်)
| list2 =
* [[အက္ခရ် ဂျာဗာ]] (Javanese)
* [[အက္ခရ် ဗလဳ]] (Balinese)
* [[အက္ခရ် သွန်ဒါ]] (Sundanese)
* [[အက္ခရ် ဘာတတ်]] (Batak)
* [[အက္ခရ် ဗာဲဗာယိန်]] (Baybayin)
| group3 = အက္ခရ် ခေတ်တြေံ ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ
| list3 =
* [[အက္ခရ် ဗြဟ္မဳ]] (Brahmi)
* [[အက္ခရ် ပလ္လဝ]] (Pallava)
* [[အက္ခရ် ကာဝဳ]] (Kawi)
}}
[[Category:အက္ခရ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:အက္ခရ် ဗြဟ္မဳဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ဂျာဗာ]]
[[Category:အင်ဒဝ်နဳယျာ]]
[[Category:ယေန်သၞာင် ဂျာဗာ]]
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ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ
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'''ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Translation'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ကမၠောန် မကၠာဲပြံင် အဓိပ္ပါယ် လိက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အသံ နူကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ တမ်မူလ (Source language) ညံင်ဂွံ စိုပ် အာ ဇရေင် အရေဝ်ဘာသာ အတိုင်ရန်တၟအ် (Target language) နကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် မဍာံပြ ကေုာံ ဗီုပြင် မကိတ်ညဳ ရ။ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက်ဂွံ သၠာဲဂတး လညာတ်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အကြာ ဂကူ ကေုာံ ဍုင် မဟီု အရေဝ် တၞဟ်ခြာ တအ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ (Translation) ကဵု ပရေင်ကၠာဲအရေဝ် (Interpreting - ကၠာဲ နကဵု ပါင်) ၜါ ဏအ် တုပ် ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ နကဵု လညာတ် ဘာသာဗေဒ မ္ဂး ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ လိက် မချူလဝ် (Written text) သၟး ရ။<ref name="munday">{{cite book |last=Munday |first=J. |title=Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications |edition=4th |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |pages=5-12}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ကမၠောန် ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ မၞိဟ် တအ် သၟး ကၠောန် ပုဟ်၊ နည်းပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု စက် ကၠာဲဘာသာ (Machine Translation) ကေုာံ [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence) တအ် လေဝ် ပါလုပ် ကၠောန် ကၠုင် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ၊ လၟေင် ကမၠောန်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Rosetta_Stone.JPG|thumb|right|300px|တၟအ် ရဝ်သေတ်တာ (Rosetta Stone) မဒှ် သက်သဳ ဝင် ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် လိက် အဳဂျေပ် တမၠာ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ အင်္ဂလိက် "Translation" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် လေတ်တေန် "translatio" မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ယိုက် ပလံင် ဏာ မွဲ ဒၞာဲ သ္ၚောဲသ္ၚောဲ" ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ ဘာသာရပ် သုတေသန ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ (Translation Studies) မ္ဂး၊ လိက် မဒးဒုင် ကၠာဲ ဂှ် ညးကော်စ '''လိက် တမ်မူလ''' (Source Text - ST) တုဲ၊ လိက် မကၠာဲ တိတ် ကၠုင် အာစိုပ် ဘာသာ တၟိ ဂှ် ညးကော်စ '''လိက် အတိုင်ရန်တၟအ်''' (Target Text - TT) ရ။
ကမၠောန် ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ မကၠာဲ ဝေါဟာရ မွဲ မ စိုပ် မွဲ မ (Word-for-word) သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒး တွက်ဆ သီုကဵု သဒ္ဒါ၊ အခိုက်အလိုက်၊ ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင်၊ ကေုာံ ဝင် ယေန်သၞာင် ၜါ လပါ် ညံင် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဟွံဂွံ ယောင်ယာ အာ ရ။ တၠပညာ ဘာသာဗေဒ တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ကွတ် (Art) ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံ (Science) မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် မွဲ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ လညာတ် သမိုင်း (History and Historical Perspectives) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု အခိင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် စတင် ခၞံဗဒှ် လိက်ပတ် တေအ် ရ။ သက်သဳ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ တြေံအိုတ် မွဲဂှ် ဒှ် လိက် "Epics of Gilgamesh" မကၠာဲ လဝ် နူကဵု ဘာသာ သူမာရဳယျာ (Sumerian) စိုပ် ဘာသာ အာက္ကဒဳယာန် (Akkadian) ပ္ဍဲ မေသဝ်ပဝ်တေးမီးယား (Mesopotamia) ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခရစ်တော် ၜိုတ် ၂၀၀၀ သၞာံ တေအ် ရ။
သက်သဳ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဂှ် ဒှ် '''တၟအ် ရဝ်သေတ်တာ''' (Rosetta Stone) မချူလဝ် နကဵု လိက် ၃ ဘာသာ (ဟဳရဝ်ဂလစ်၊ ဒီမဝ်တစ်၊ ကေုာံ ဂရိတ် တြေံ) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ထဝ် အေဿလာမ် (Islamic Golden Age)၊ တၠပညာ ဂၠိုင်ကဵု ကၠံ တအ် ကၠာဲပြံင် လိက် သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ ဒဿန နူကဵု ဘာသာ ဂရိတ် စိုပ် အာ ဘာသာ အာရပ် တုဲ၊ ပရေင်ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ပညာ တမၠာ တအ် ဟွံဂွံ ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ ရ။<ref name="venuti">{{cite book |last=Venuti |first=L. |title=The Translation Studies Reader |url=https://archive.org/details/translationstudi0000unse_r4e9 |edition=3rd |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/translationstudi0000unse_r4e9/page/15 15]-28}}</ref>
== ၃။ သဳအိုရဳ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် ဘာသာဗေဒ (Theories and Linguistic Frameworks) ==
သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ ရ။ လညာတ် အဓိက အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် တၠပညာ ယူဂျေန် နဳဒါ (Eugene Nida) မပါ်ခြာ လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ၜါ သာ် -
* '''ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် ရုပ်သာ် (Formal Equivalence):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်ကၠာဲ မဗက် လက္ကရဴ ရုပ်သာ် သဒ္ဒါ ကေုာံ ဝေါဟာရ လိက် တမ်မူလ ချိုတ်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ပၠိုတ်။ (ကၠာဲ အတိုင် မလိက်)။
* '''ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် သဘာဝ (Dynamic Equivalence):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်ကၠာဲ မအာရီုစွံ လတူ အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်စိုတ် ညးဗှ် လိက် အတိုင်ရန်တၟအ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် သဘာဝ အိုတ်။ (ကၠာဲ အတိုင် အဓိပ္ပါယ်)။<ref name="nida">{{cite book |last=Nida |first=E. A. |title=Toward a Science of Translating |url=https://archive.org/details/towardscienceoft0000nida_v4u2 |publisher=E. J. Brill |year=1964 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/towardscienceoft0000nida_v4u2/page/150 150]-165}}</ref>
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် သၞာံ ၁၉၇၀ တအ် ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ ဂျာမနဳ တအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် '''သဳအိုရဳ သကဝ်ပဝ်သ်''' (Skopos theory) မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ကမၠောန် ကၠာဲဘာသာ သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ "တင်ရန်တၟအ်" (Purpose) သွက် လိက် မကၠာဲ တိတ် အာ ဂှ် ရောင်။
== ၄။ ဂကူ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဂမၠိုင် (Types of Translation) ==
ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ကဏ္ဍ လွပ် နာနာ သာ် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! ဥပမာ လိက်
|-
| '''လိက်ပတ် (Literary)'''
| ပရေင်ကၠာဲ မအာရီုစွံ လတူ အနုသုခုမ၊ ရမ္သာင်၊ ကေုာံ ရသ လိက်။
| ဝတ္ထု၊ ကဗျ၊ လိက် ဇာတ်၊ ဒွက်။
|-
| '''သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Legal)'''
| ပရေင်ကၠာဲ မဒး ဍာံပြ ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ဗွဲမလောန် အတိုင် ဝေါဟာရ သၞောဝ်။
| ကသုက် လိက်၊ ဥပဒေ၊ လိက် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ရုင် အလဵုအသဳ။
|-
| '''နည်းပညာ ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံ (Technical)'''
| ပရေင်ကၠာဲ မစကာ ဝေါဟာရ အထူး (Terminology) မဆက်စပ် ကု ကွတ်။
| လိက် စၞောန် (Manuals)၊ လိက်ပရေင် သိပ္ပံ၊ တင်ဂၞင် အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဂဥုဲ (Medical)'''
| ပရေင်ကၠာဲ မဆက်စပ် ကု လမျီု မၞိဟ်၊ ဒး ဍာံပြ ၁၀၀% ရောင်။
| စရင် ဂဥုဲ၊ လိက် စၟတ်သမ္တီ အစာသဝ်၊ သုတေသန ဂဥုဲ။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Commercial)'''
| ပရေင်ကၠာဲ သွက် ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ ဓဇက် စိုတ် ညးရာန်။
| လိက် လလောင်တြး (Marketing)၊ စရင် သြန်၊ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကမ္ပဏဳ။
|}
== ၅။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ (Process and Challenges) ==
လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ကၠာဲဘာသာ ခိုဟ် မွဲ ဂှ် ဒး ကွာ် အာ အတိုင် အဆံင် မပ္တံကဵု - လ္ၚတ် လိက် တမ်မူလ၊ ကၠာဲ အဆံင် ပထမ၊ စၟတ်ဒါန် သဒ္ဒါ ကေုာံ ဝေါဟာရ (Editing)၊ ကေုာံ ကဵု ညးတၞဟ် ဗှ် စၟတ်ၜတ် (Proofreading) ရ။
ပြသၞာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဂှ် ဒှ် '''အရာ မကၠာဲ ဟွံဂွံ''' (Untranslatability) ရ။ ဥပမာ - ဝေါဟာရ လ္ၚဵု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အီဒဳယံ (Idioms) မဆက်စပ် ကု ယေန်သၞာင် ဒေသ မွဲမွဲ ဂှ် ကၠာဲ စိုပ် ဘာသာ တၞဟ် ဝါတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ ပြသၞာ တၞဟ် မွဲ ပၠန် ဂှ် ဒှ် "သကအ်ရဲ မိစ္ဆာ" (False friends) မဒှ် မလိက် မနွံ ရမ္သာင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရုပ်သာ် တုပ် အကြာ ဘာသာ ၜါ၊ ဆဂး အဓိပ္ပါယ် တၞဟ်ခြာ သမၠေဝ် ဓဝ် ရ။<ref name="catford">{{cite book |last=Catford |first=J. C. |title=A Linguistic Theory of Translation |url=https://archive.org/details/linguistictheory0000catf |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1965 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/linguistictheory0000catf/page/20 20]-35}}</ref>
== ၆။ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ လိက်ပတ် (Literary Translation) ==
ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ လိက်ပတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂကူ မဝါတ်အိုတ် ကေုာံ မနွံကဵု အနုသုခုမ အိုတ် ရ။ ကာလ ကၠာဲ လိက် ဝတ္ထု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကဗျ မ္ဂး၊ ညးမကၠာဲ ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ဒး ကၠာဲ အဓိပ္ပါယ် သၟး ပုဟ်၊ ညးတအ် သ္ဒး မင်မဲ လဝ် ရမ္သာင် ကဝိ (Tone)၊ အခိုက် ချူ (Style)၊ ကေုာံ ကာရန် (Rhyme) ညံင် ဂွံ စိုပ် ညးဗှ် လိက် တအ် ကီု ရ။
တၠပညာ တအ် ဟီု လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "ပရေင်ကၠာဲ ကဗျ မွဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ကလေင် ခၞံဗဒှ် တၟိ မွဲ" (Re-creation) ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ညးမကၠာဲ လိက်ပတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဂှ် ဒှ် ကဝိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အစာချူလိက် ဇကု အလဵုဇကု ကီု ရ။
== ၇။ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ကဏ္ဍ ဘာသာရေး (Religious Translation) ==
လိက် ဘာသာရေး တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လိက် မဒးဒုင် ကၠာဲ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ။ လိက် သမ္မာ (Bible) ဝွံ ဒှ် လိက် မဒးဒုင် ကၠာဲ လဝ် ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ (ၜိုတ် ၃,၀၀၀ ဘာသာ ပြင်)။
ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ခရေတ်ယာန်၊ ပရေင်ကၠာဲ လိက် "Septuagint" (နူ ဟေဗြဲ စိုပ် ဂရိတ်) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠာဲ လိက် "Vulgate" မကၠောန် လဝ် နကဵု သင် ဂျရုမ်း (St. Jerome) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သက်သဳ အဓိက ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ဘာသာ အေဿလာမ် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ လိက် ကုရအာန် (Quran) ဂှ် ကၠာဲ နကဵု ဘာသာ တၞဟ် ဟွံဂွံ ဍိုက်ပေင် (Untranslatable) တုဲ လိက် မကၠာဲ လဝ် တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ "လညာတ် အဓိပ္ပါယ်" (Interpretation of meanings) သၟး ရောင်။
== ၈။ စက် ကၠာဲဘာသာ ကေုာံ နည်းပညာ (Machine Translation and Technology) ==
ပ္ဍဲ လက္ကရဴ သၞာံ ဏအ်၊ ကဏ္ဍ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် စက် ကၠာဲဘာသာ (Machine Translation - MT) ရ။
စက် မပ္တံကဵု Google Translate ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး DeepL တအ်ဝွံ စကာ သၞောတ် ကၠာဲဘာသာ နကဵု က္ဍဟ် ဉာဏ်စက် (Neural Machine Translation - NMT) မာန် လ္ၚတ် ဝါကျ အလုံ တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လိက် မနွံကဵု သဘာဝ ခိုဟ် နူ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ညးမကၠာဲ လိက် (Translators) ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် လေဝ် စကာ ကိရိယာ CAT (Computer-Assisted Translation tools) မပ္တံကဵု Trados ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး MemoQ သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ တင်ဂၞင် လိက် (Translation Memory) ကေုာံ ဝေါဟာရ (Termbase) တုဲ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပြဟ် တိုန် ရ။<ref name="hutchins">{{cite book |last=Hutchins |first=W. J. |author2=Somers, H. L. |title=An Introduction to Machine Translation |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoma0000hutc |publisher=Academic Press |year=1992 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoma0000hutc/page/105 105]-120}}</ref>
== ၉။ အခေါင်အရာ၊ သိက္ခာ ကေုာံ ဂကောံ (Ethics, Rights, and Organizations) ==
ညးမကၠာဲ ဘာသာ တအ်ဝွံ သ္ဒး ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် စေဝ်ပၞောန် သိက္ခာ (Code of Ethics) အဓိက ၜါ သာ် ရ -
# '''ပရေင်ဆာန်သၟိန် (Fidelity):''' သ္ဒး ကၠာဲ လိက် တမ်မူလ ဂှ် ချိုတ်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ဟွံထပ် စုတ် လညာတ် ဇကု။
# '''ပရေင်ကၠးဖ္ဍး (Transparency):''' លိက် မကၠာဲ တိတ် ကၠုင် ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဗှ် ကၠိုဟ် လောဲ သဘာဝ သွက် ညးဗှ် လိက်။
ပရေင် အခေါင် မူလ (Copyright) လေဝ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ရ။ လိက် မကၠာဲ တိတ် လဝ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒြပ် ညးမကၠာဲ (Translator's copyright) ယဝ်ရ ညးတေအ် ကလိဂွံ အခေါင် နူ တၠ မူလ တုဲ ရ။ ဂကောံ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ သွက် ညးမကၠာဲ ဘာသာ မပ္တံကဵု FIT (International Federation of Translators) တအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ အခေါင်အရာ ကေုာံ ကဵု ပညာ ကု သမာ ကၠာဲ လိက် တအ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂၠးတိ (Future and Global Impact) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဂၠးတိ မွဲ (Globalization) ဏအ်၊ ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရိုင် ကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ရ။
ကမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ "ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဒေသ" (Localization - L10n) မဒှ် ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ လိက် သော့ဝဲ (Software) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂိမ်း (Games) ညံင် ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု အခိုက်အလိုက် ယေန်သၞာင် ဒေသ တအ် ရ။ အနာဂတ် ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု သြဇာ ဉာဏ်စက် (AI) ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကီုလေဝ်၊ သွက် လိက် မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင်၊ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် တအ် ဂှ် လွပ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် (Human translation) ဆက် တန်တဴ အာ ဒၟံင် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဘာသာဗေဒ]] (Linguistics)
* [[ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ဘာသာ]] (Language acquisition)
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
* [[ဝေါဟာရဗေဒ]] (Terminology)
{{Navbox
| name = Translation and Linguistics
| title = ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဘာသာဗေဒ (Translation and Linguistics)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင် ကေုာံ လညာတ်
| list1 =
* [[ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ]] (Translation)
* [[ပရေင်ကၠာဲအရေဝ်]] (Interpreting)
* [[လိက် တမ်မူလ]] (Source text)
* [[လိက် အတိုင်ရန်တၟအ်]] (Target text)
| group2 = နဲကဲ ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳ
| list2 =
* [[သဳအိုရဳ သကဝ်ပဝ်သ်]] (Skopos theory)
* [[ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် သဘာဝ]] (Dynamic equivalence)
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် ဒေသ]] (Localization)
| group3 = နည်းပညာ ကေုာံ ကိရိယာ
| list3 =
* [[စက် ကၠာဲဘာသာ]] (Machine translation)
* [[ကိရိယာ CAT]] (CAT tools)
* [[Google Translate]] (English)
* [[တင်ဂၞင် လိက် ကၠာဲ]] (Translation memory)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[ဘာသာဗေဒ]] (Linguistics)
* [[ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ လိက်ပတ်]] (Literary translation)
* [[တၟအ် ရဝ်သေတ်တာ]] (Rosetta Stone)
}}
[[Category:ပရေင်ကၠာဲဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဘာသာဗေဒ]]
[[Category:အရေဝ်ဘာသာဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဆက်စပ်]]
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ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်
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'''ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'', ပါဠိ: ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဒေသနာ သုတ် ပထမအိုတ် မကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ (Gautama Buddha) ဟီုတွံ ပ္တိတ် လဝ် ကြဴနူ မကလိဂွံ ဉာဏ် သဗ္ဗညုတ (Enlightenment) တုဲ ရ။ သုတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကျာ်တြဲ ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဌာန် ဂြိုပ် မိဂဒါဝိုန် (Deer Park at Isipatana)၊ ညန် ကဵု ဍုင် ဗာရာဏသဳ (Varanasi) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၅၂၈ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခရေတ် (BCE) သွက် ညးမဒှ် ခမဳ ပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ (Five Ascetics) မသုန် ဇကု ရ။ ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တန ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ပရေင်လန် ဂေတ် သၞောတ် စက် ဓရ်" (Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dharma) ရ။<ref name="bodhi">{{cite book |last=Bodhi |first=Bhikkhu |title=The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2000 |pages=1843-1847}}</ref>
သုတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Buddhism) တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ပံင်ကောံ လဝ် လညာတ် အဓိက မပ္တံကဵု ဂၠံင်တရဴ လဒေါဝ် (Middle Way) ကေုာံ သစ္စပန် (Four Noble Truths) ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန် ဒေသနာ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုအာစိုပ် လတူ ပရေင်ချပ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Buddha_first_sermon_at_Sarnath.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ကျာ်တြဲ ဟီုတွံ ဒေသနာ ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ် သွက် ပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ မသုန် ဇကု ပ္ဍဲ ဂြိုပ် မိဂဒါဝိုန်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်" ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒေသနာ အဓိက မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သံယုတ္တနိကာယ် (Samyutta Nikaya)၊ မဟာဝဂ္ဂ (Sacca Samyutta) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပြကိုဟ် သုတ် (Sutta Pitaka) ရ။
ဝေါဟာရ ပါဠိ "ဓမ္မ" (Dhamma) ဂှ် မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် သစ္စ ဓရ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သဘာဝ ဍာံ၊ "စက္က" (Cakka) ဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် သၞောတ် စက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လေအ် စက်၊ တုဲ "ပဝတ္တန" (Pavattana) ဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ဂေတ် လန် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ယၟု သုတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် တပ်တပ် "ဒေသနာ မဂေတ် လန် စက် ဓရ်" ရ။ ဒေသနာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲ ဂိတု ဒဂိုန် ပေင် (Asalha Puja)၊ မဒှ် တ္ၚဲ မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ အခိင် ဒေသနာ (Historical Context and the Sermon) ==
ကြဴနူ ကျာ်တြဲ ကလိဂွံ ဉာဏ် သဗ္ဗညုတ ပ္ဍဲ သၟဝ် တၞံ ဗောဓိ ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဂယာ (Bodh Gaya) တုဲ ပွိုင် ထပှ် သတ္တဟ (၄၉ တ္ၚဲ)၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ချပ် ဂၠာဲ ရံင် ညးမထေက် ကဵု ဂွံ ဒုင် ကေတ် ဓရ် သစ္စဏအ် ပြဟ်အိုတ် ရ။
ကျာ်တြဲ တီ ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ အစာ တြေံ ညးမတွဟ်ဂး အာဠာရကာလာမ ကဵု ဥဒကရမပုတ္တ တအ် ဂှ် စုတိ ကၠေအ် အာ တုဲ၊ ညး လန် စိုပ် အာ ဇရေင် ပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ (Five Ascetics - ညးမသုန် မပ္တံကဵု ကောဏ္ဍည၊ ဝပ္ပ၊ ဘဒ္ဒိယ၊ မဟာနာမ်၊ အဿဇိ) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဂြိုပ် မိဂဒါဝိုန်၊ ဍုင် ဗာရာဏသဳ (Isipatana in Varanasi) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဂှ် ညးမသုန် ဏအ် ထေင် ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ကျာ်တြဲ ဟွံမာန် ပတိတ် ဓရ် တုဲ ပါ်တိတ် အာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ကာလ ကျာ်တြဲ စိုပ် ကၠုင် ညးတအ် ဒးဒုင် ကေတ် ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာ တုဲ ကလင် ပင်မှိင် ဒေသနာ ဏအ် ရ။<ref name="rahula">{{cite book |last=Rahula |first=Walpola |title=What the Buddha Taught |url=https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp |publisher=Grove Press |year=1974 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp/page/16 16]-17}}</ref>
== ၃။ မဇ္ဇျိမပဋိပဒါ - ဂၠံင်တရဴ လဒေါဝ် (Majjhima Patipada - The Middle Way) ==
ကျာ်တြဲ စတင် ဒေသနာ ဏအ် နကဵု ပရေင်ဟီုတွံ ပရူ အစောံ ဂၠံင်တရဴ အလောန် ၜါ သာ် (Two Extremes) မခမဳ တအ် သ္ဒး ဝေင်ဒစး ရ။
# '''ကာမသုခလ္လိကာနုယောဂ (Kamasukhallikanuyoga):''' ပရေင်ဗက် ဂၠာဲ သာယျာ ဒုင်စသိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ကာမဂုဏ်၊ မဒှ် အရာ မယုတ်မာ၊ သက်သၟိင် ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဖဵု။
# '''အတ္တကိလမထာနုယောဂ (Attakilamathanuyoga):''' ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက် ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ဇကု ညံင်ဂွံ ဍောင်ၜိုတ် (Self-mortification)၊ မဒှ် အရာ မကဵု ဒဒိုက် ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဖဵု ကီု ရ။
စၞး မဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် ဂၠံင် ၜါ ဏအ်၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ထ္ၜးကဵု "မဇ္ဇျိမပဋိပဒါ" (The Middle Way) မဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ လဒေါဝ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု မတ် ဉာဏ် တၟး၊ ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် (Nirvana)၊ ကေုာံ ဉာဏ် သဗ္ဗညုတ မာန် ရ။
== ၄။ စတုအရိယသစ္စ - သစ္စပန် (The Four Noble Truths) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သုတ် ဏအ် ကျာ်တြဲ ပံက် ထ္ၜး ကဵု တင်သမ္တီ အဓိက မကော်စ သစ္စပန် (Four Noble Truths) မဒှ် ပၞောန် သဇိုင် သွက် ဂၠံင်တရဴ လဒေါဝ် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး စတုအရိယသစ္စ (The Four Noble Truths)
|-
! သစ္စ (Truth)
! ပါဠိ (Pali)
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Meaning)
|-
| '''၁။ ဒဒိုက် သစ္စ'''
| Dukkha Ariya Sacca
| ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် နကဵု ဒဒိုက် မပ္တံကဵု သၠးဂၠံဂဝ်၊ ဗျု၊ ယဲ၊ ကေုာံ ချိုတ်။ ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ နူ အရာ မဆာန်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံကလိဂွံ အရာ မဒးဂၞပ် တအ် ဒှ် ဒဒိုက် ရ။
|-
| '''၂။ သမုဒယ သစ္စ'''
| Samudaya Ariya Sacca
| ဟိုတ် မပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ဒဒိုက် ဂှ် ဒှ် တဏှာ (Craving/Desire) မတွဟ်ဂး ကာမတဏှာ၊ ဘဝတဏှာ၊ ဝိဘဝတဏှာ တအ် ရ။
|-
| '''၃။ နိရောဓ သစ္စ'''
| Nirodha Ariya Sacca
| ပရေင်ဒေါအ် ဇြ ဒဒိုက် (Cessation of Suffering) မဒှ် ပရေင်ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ တဏှာ သီုဖအိုတ် မာန် နွံ ဒၟံင် ရ (နိဗ္ဗာန်)။
|-
| '''၄။ မဂ္ဂ သစ္စ'''
| Magga Ariya Sacca
| ဂၠံင်တရဴ သွက်ဂွံ အာ စိုပ် ပရေင်ဒေါအ် ဇြ ဒဒိုက် (နိဗ္ဗာန်) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ အရိယမဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ပါ် ရ။
|}
== ၅။ အရိယမဂ္ဂင်ဒစာံပါ် - ဂၠံင်တရဴ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ (The Noble Eightfold Path) ==
သစ္စ မရနုက်ကဵု ပန် (မဂ္ဂ သစ္စ) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရိယမဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ပါ် (Noble Eightfold Path) ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ မာန် ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ တိတ် ဗၠး နူ သံသာ သံဝဲ (Samsara) ရ။<ref name="piyadassi">{{cite book |last=Thera |first=Piyadassi |title=The Buddha's Ancient Path |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |year=1996 |pages=35-40}}</ref>
# '''သမ္မာဒိဋ္ဌိ (Samma Ditthi):''' လညာတ် ဍာံ (Right View) - ကၠိုဟ်ခိုဟ် သစ္စပန် ကေုာံ ကံ ကံ-ဖဵု။
# '''သမ္မာသင်္ကပ္ပ (Samma Sankappa):''' ချပ် ဍာံ (Right Resolve) - ချပ် သွက်ဂွံ ပါ်တိတ် နူ ကာမဂုဏ်၊ ဟွံပျဲပျာံ ညးတၞဟ်။
# '''သမ္မာဝါစာ (Samma Vaca):''' ဟီု ဍာံ (Right Speech) - ဝေင်ဒစး နူ ဟီု ဖြီဖြဟ်၊ လှေအ်လှန်၊ ဝါတ်ဂါတ်။
# '''သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ (Samma Kammanta):''' ကၠောန် ဍာံ (Right Action) - ဝေင်ဒစး နူ ဂစိုတ် သတ်၊ ကၠတ် ဒြပ်၊ ကေုာံ မိစ္ဆာစာရ။
# '''သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ (Samma Ajiva):''' လမျီု ဍာံ (Right Livelihood) - ပရေင်ဂယိုင် လမျီု မဟွံကဵု ဒဒိုက် ကု ညးတၞဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သတ်။
# '''သမ္မာဝါယာမ (Samma Vayama):''' ဂစာန် ဍာံ (Right Effort) - ဂစာန် ညံင် အကုသိုလ် ဂွံ လီု တုဲ ကုသိုလ် ဂွံ တိုန်။
# '''သမ္မာသတိ (Samma Sati):''' သတိ ဍာံ (Right Mindfulness) - နွံ သတိ လတူ ခန္ဓာ၊ ဝေဒနာ၊ စိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဓရ် (Satipatthana)။
# '''သမ္မာသမာဓိ (Samma Samadhi):''' သမာဓိ ဍာံ (Right Concentration) - ကလိဂွံ ဇျာန် (Jhana) သွက်ဂွံ ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် စိုတ်။
== ၆။ သစ္စဉာဏ်၊ ကိစ္စဉာဏ်၊ ကတဉာဏ် (The Three Phases and Twelve Permutations) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သုတ် ဏအ်၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ထ္ၜး လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညး ကလိဂွံ ဉာဏ် သဗ္ဗညုတ ဟိုတ်နူ ညး ကၠိုဟ် သစ္စပန် ဏအ် နကဵု လၟေင် အဆံင် ပိ သာ် (Ti-parivatta) မကတဵုဒှ် အလုံ သစ္စ ၁၂ သာ် (Dvadasakara) ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Peter |title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |pages=47-52}}</ref>
* '''သစ္စဉာဏ် (Sacca-nana):''' လညာတ် မတီ ဒဒှ်ရ "ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒဒိုက်၊ ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ် ဒဒိုက်" မဒှ် တီ သစ္စ အတိုင် သဘာဝ ရ။
* '''ကိစ္စဉာဏ် (Kicca-nana):''' လညာတ် မတီ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် သ္ဒး ကၠောန် ဒဒှ်ရ "ဒဒိုက် ဏအ် သ္ဒး တီ၊ ဟိုတ် ဍေဟ် သ္ဒး ပလီု၊ ဒေါအ် ဇြ ဍေဟ် သ္ဒး ကလိဂွံ၊ ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက်" ရ။
* '''ကတဉာဏ် (Kata-nana):''' လညာတ် မတီ ဒဒှ်ရ ကမၠောန် သီုဖအိုတ် လတူ သစ္စ ပန် ဂှ် ကၠောန် တုဲဒှ် အာ ရ (ဥပမာ - ဒဒိုက် ဏအ် တီ တုဲ အာ ရ)။
ကျာ်တြဲ ဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ စဵုကဵု ညး ဟွံကလိဂွံ ဉာဏ် ၁၂ သာ် ဏအ် လတူ သစ္စ ပန် ဂှ်၊ ညး ဟွံလလောင် တြး ဒဒှ်ရ ညး ကလိဂွံ အနုတ္တရ သမ္မာသမ္ဗောဓိ ဉာဏ် (Supreme Enlightenment) ပ္ဍဲ လောက ဏအ် ပုဟ်။
== ၇။ အရှင်ကောဏ္ဍည ကေုာံ သောတာပန် (Venerable Kondañña and Stream-entry) ==
ကာလ ကျာ်တြဲ ဟီုတွံ ဓရ် သုတ် ဏအ် တုဲဒှ် အာ၊ ပၞောဝ် ကဵု ပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ မသုန် ဇကု ဂှ်၊ '''[[အရှင်ကောဏ္ဍည]]''' (Kondañña) ကလိဂွံ "ဓမ္မစက္ခု" (Dhammacakkhu - Eye of the Dhamma) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မတ် ဉာဏ် ဓရ် ရ။
လညာတ် မတ် ဉာဏ် ဓရ် ဂှ် တွဟ်ဂး '''"ယံကိဉ္စိ သမုဒယဓမ္မံ၊ သဗ္ဗန္တံ နိရောဓဓမ္မံ"''' (Yam kiñci samudayadhammam, sabbam tam nirodhadhammam) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "အရာ သီုဖအိုတ် မကတဵုဒှ် မာန် ဂှ်၊ နွံ သဘာဝ သွက်ဂွံ လီုလာ် အာ အ```wikitext
'''ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of the Dharma'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဓရ် သုတ် ပထမအိုတ် ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ မတွဟ် လဝ် ကြဴနူ မကလိဂွံ သဗ္ဗညုတဉာဏ် (Enlightenment) တုဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဌာန် ဂြိုပ်မိဂဒါဝိုန် (Deer Park)၊ ဍုင်ဗာရာဏသဳ (Varanasi)၊ ရးအိန္ဒိယ ရ။ ဓရ် သုတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် လဝ် ကု [[ခမဳပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ]] (Five Ascetics) မသုန် ဇကု ပ္ဍဲကဵု တ္ၚဲ အာသဠှဳ ပုဏ္ဏမဳ (တ္ၚဲ ဒဂိုန် ပုဏ္ဏမဳ) ရ။ ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အဓိက အိုတ် သွက် ဂၠံင်တရဴ [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism) အလုံ မွဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။<ref name="bodhi">{{cite book |last=Bodhi |first=Bhikkhu |title=The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2000 |pages=1843-1847}}</ref>
ဓရ် ဏအ်ဝွံ တွဟ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ အဓိက ၜါ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး '''[[မဇ္ဇှိမပဋိပဒါ]]''' (The Middle Way - ဂၠံင်လဒေါဝ်) မဝေင်ပါဲ လဝ် လညာတ် လပါ် စွံဲ ၜါ သာ် ကေုာံ '''[[သစ္စပန်]]''' (The Four Noble Truths - အာရိယ သစ္စာ ပန် သာ်) မဒှ် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခိုဟ် လတူ ဒုက္ခ ကေုာံ နဲကဲ မဂွံ တိတ် ဗၠး နူကဵု သံသာ (Samsara) ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဒ္ဒါ၊ ဒဿန၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠောန် အခိုက်အလိုက် ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Sarnath_Buddha_Preaching.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် ဓမ္မစကြာ ကု ခမဳပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ ပ္ဍဲ ဂြိုပ်မိဂဒါဝိုန်၊ ဍုင်ဗာရာဏသဳ (တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး သာရဏာတ်)]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Meaning of the Title) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်" ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု မလိက် ပါဠိ ပိ မ မတွဟ်ဂး -
* '''ဓမ္မ (Dhamma):''' ဒှ် တင်သစ္စာ၊ သဘာဝ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဓရ် ကျာ် (The Truth or Teaching)။
* '''စက္က (Cakka):''' ဒှ် စက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အရာ မဂေတ် ချဳဓရာင် ဒၟံင် (Wheel)။
* '''ပဝတ္တန (Pavattana):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် ညံင် ဂွံ ချဳဓရာင် အာ လပါ် ဂတ (Setting in motion)။
* '''သုတ် (Sutta):''' ဒှ် တွဟ် ဓရ် မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် နဒဒှ် လိက် ဓမ္မ (Discourse)။
ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ အဓိပ္ပါယ် အလုံ ဍေဟ် ဂှ် "တွဟ် ဓရ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် ညံင် စက် ဓမ္မ ဂွံ ဂေတ် ချဳဓရာင် အာ အလန် ပထမ" (The discourse that sets the wheel of Dhamma in motion) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ အခိင် ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် ဓရ် ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အခိင် "စက် ဓမ္မ" စတင် ဂေတ် လတူ လောက တုဲ ညးလဵု မွဲ လေဝ် ဆေဝ်ဒဝ် ပဒေါအ် ထောအ် ဟွံမာန် ရ။ သုတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[သံယုတ္တနိကာယ်]] (Samyutta Nikaya) ပ္ဍဲ သစ္စသံယုတ် (Sacca-samyutta) ၅၆.၁၁ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ (Historical Background and Context) ==
ကြဴနူ ဂေါတမ ဗောဓိသတ် (Bodhisatta) ကလိဂွံ သဗ္ဗညုတဉာဏ် သၟဝ် တၞံဇြဲဗောဓိ ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဂယာ (Bodh Gaya) တုဲ၊ ညး ချပ် ဒၟံင် လတူ လဟီု ဓရ် ဏအ် ဒဒှ်ရ မၞိဟ် ဓမ္မတာ တအ် ကၠိုဟ် ဝါတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ အခိင် ဂှ် [[ဗြီုသဟမ္ပတိ]] (Brahma Sahampati) စှ်ေ ကၠုင် ဇရေင် ကျာ်တြဲ တုဲ အာတ်မိက် ညံင် ဂွံ တွဟ် ဓရ် ကု ညးမနွံကဵု ခမောဝ် ကိလေသ အောန် တအ် ရ။
ကျာ်တြဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ရံင် နကဵု ဉာဏ် တုဲ၊ ရန်တၟအ် တွဟ် ဓရ် ကု အစာ ညးတြေံ [[အာဠာရကာလာမ]] ကေုာံ [[ဥဒကရာမပုတ္တ]] ကီုလေဝ် ညးတအ် စုတိ အာ တုဲ ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ကျာ်တြဲ ရုဲစှ် ကေတ် ခမဳပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ (ကောဏ္ဍည၊ ဝပ္ပ၊ ဘဒ္ဒိယ၊ မဟာနာမ်၊ ကေုာံ အဿဇိ) မကေင် လွဳလွတ် လဝ် ညး ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကၠောန် ဒုက္ကရစရိယာ တေအ် ရ။ ကျာ်တြဲ ကွာ် တရဴ နူ ဗုဒ္ဓဂယာ ဇက် အာ စိုပ် [[ဂြိုပ်မိဂဒါဝိုန်]] (Isipatana) ပ္ဍဲ ဗာရာဏသဳ ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ခမဳ မသုန် ဇကု ဏအ် ဟွံဒုင်တဲ ကျာ်တြဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ညာတ် ကေတ် ရုပ်သာ် ကျာ် မၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် တုဲ ညးတအ် ဒုင် ကလင် ဓရ် ရ။<ref name="rahula">{{cite book |last=Rahula |first=Walpola |title=What the Buddha Taught |url=https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp |publisher=Grove Press |year=1974 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp/page/16 16]-17}}</ref>
== ၃။ ဒေသနာ သဇိုင်: ဂၠံင်လဒေါဝ် (The Core Teaching: The Middle Way) ==
ပ္ဍဲ စတင် တွဟ် ဓရ် ဂှ်၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ဟီု ပရေင် ဒဒှ်ရ ခမဳ မဂၠာဲ တြဴ ဗၠးၜး တအ် သ္ဒး ဝေင်ပါဲ ကွေတ် မစွံဲ လပါ် ၜါ သာ် (Two extremes) ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် ဒဿန ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ အဓိက မွဲ ရ။
* '''ကာမသုခလ္လိကာနုယောဂ (Kāmasukhallikānuyoga):''' ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် ကာမဂုဏ် မယုတ်မာ (Sensual indulgence)။ ကျာ်တြဲ ဟီု ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မယုတ်၊ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဖဵု၊ ကေုာံ ဟွံဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ အာရိယ ရ။
* '''အတ္တကိလမထာနုယောဂ (Attakilamathānuyoga):''' ပရေင်ပျဲပျာံ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ဇကု ညံင် ဂွံ ဒး ဍဵုဍိုက် ဒုက္ခ (Self-mortification)။ (ကျာ်တြဲ ကေင် စမ်း လဝ် ဂၠံင် ဏအ် ပွိုင် ၆ သၞာံ ဆဂး ဟွံအံင်ဇၞး)။ ဏအ် လေဝ် ဒှ် အရာ မကဵု ဒုက္ခ ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဖဵု ရ။
ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် ထ္ၜး ကဵု လညာတ် တၟိ မတွဟ်ဂး '''မဇ္ဇှိမပဋိပဒါ''' (Majjhima Patipada) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠံင်လဒေါဝ် ရ။ ဂၠံင် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ညာတ် (Cakkhu)၊ ဉာဏ် (Ñāṇa)၊ ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် (Upasama)၊ ပရေင်တီ ဍာံ (Abhiññā)၊ ကေုာံ နိဗ္ဗာန် (Nibbana) ရ။ ဂၠံင်လဒေါဝ် ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် "မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံသာ်" ဂှ် ရ။
== ၄။ သစ္စပန်: အာရိယ သစ္စာ ပန်သာ် (The Four Noble Truths) ==
ကြဴနူ တွဟ် ပရူ ဂၠံင်လဒေါဝ် တုဲ၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ဆက် တွဟ် ပရူ "အာရိယ သစ္စာ ပန် သာ်" (Cattāri Ariyasaccāni) မဒှ် တင်သစ္စာ ဍာံ မဟွံပြံင်လှာဲ ရ။
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး အာရိယ သစ္စာ ပန်သာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်
|-
! ယၟု သစ္စာ (ပါဠိ/မန်)
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ ပွံက်
! ကမၠောန် မဒး ကၠောန် (Kicca)
|-
| '''ဒုက္ခသစ္စာ (Dukkha)'''
| သစ္စာ မဒှ် ပရူ ဒုက္ခ (Truth of Suffering) - ဒဒှ် ဇာတိ (သၠးဂၠံဂဝ်)၊ ဇရာ (ဗျု)၊ ဗျာဓိ (ယဲ)၊ မရဏ (စုတိ) တအ် ဒှ် ဒုက္ခ။ ပံင်ကောံ မ္ဂး ခန္ဓာ မသုန် ဏအ် ဒှ် ဒုက္ခ ရ။
| သ္ဒး တီ ကၠိုဟ် ဍိုက်ဍိုက်ပေင်ပေင် (Pariññeyya)။
|-
| '''သမုဒယသစ္စာ (Samudaya)'''
| သစ္စာ မဒှ် ဟိုတ် ဒုက္ခ ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် (Truth of Origin) - ဟိုတ် အဓိက ဂှ် ဒှ် "တဏှာ" (Craving) မပ္တံကဵု ကာမတဏှာ၊ ဘဝတဏှာ၊ ဝိဘဝတဏှာ ရ။
| သ္ဒး ဖအောန် ပလီုပလာ် ထောအ် (Pahātabba)။
|-
| '''နိရောဓသစ္စာ (Nirodha)'''
| သစ္စာ မဒှ် ပရေင်ပဒေါအ် ဒုက္ခ (Truth of Cessation) - ကာလ ပလီု ထောအ် တဏှာ အလုံစုံ မ္ဂး၊ ဒုက္ခ သီုဖအိုတ် လေဝ် ရိုတ် အာ တုဲ ကလိဂွံ နိဗ္ဗာန် ရ။
| သ္ဒး ဖန်ဗဒှ် ညံင် ဂွံ မံက်ဂတဝ် (Sacchikātabba)။
|-
| '''မဂ္ဂသစ္စာ (Magga)'''
| သစ္စာ မဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ သွက်ဂွံ ပဒေါအ် ဒုက္ခ (Truth of the Path) - ဒှ် အာရိယ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံသာ် မဒှ် ဂၠံင် သွက်ဂွံ အာ စိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန် ရ။
| သ္ဒး ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပွားများ (Bhāvetabba)။
|}
== ၅။ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံသာ်: ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဗၠးၜး (The Noble Eightfold Path) ==
မဂ္ဂသစ္စာ ဂှ် ကျာ်တြဲ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု လၟေင် အင်္ဂ ဒစာံသာ် မကော်စ '''အာရိယ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံသာ်''' (Ariya Aṭṭhaṅgika Magga) ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂၠံင်လဒေါဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ၜက် ကၠောအ် သံသာ ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Peter |title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |pages=47-52}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး အာရိယ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံသာ်
|-
! ဂကူ (Group)
! ယၟု မဂ္ဂင်
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Meaning)
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''ပညာ (Paññā)'''
| ၁။ သမ္မာဒိဋ္ဌိ (Sammā-diṭṭhi)
| လညာတ် မဍာံ (Right View) - တီ သစ္စပန် ဍာံပြ။
|-
| ၂။ သမ္မာသင်္ကပ္ပ (Sammā-saṅkappa)
| လချပ် မဍာံ (Right Intention) - ချပ် လပါ် ဝေင်ပါဲ ကာမ၊ ဟွံဂစိုတ်။
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''သဳလ (Sīla)'''
| ၃။ သမ္မာဝါစာ (Sammā-vācā)
| ဟီုအရေဝ် မဍာံ (Right Speech) - ဝေင်ပါဲ မုသာ၊ အရေဝ် ကတေက်။
|-
| ၄။ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ (Sammā-kammanta)
| ကမၠောန် မဍာံ (Right Action) - ဝေင်ပါဲ ပါဏာတိပါတ၊ အဒိန္နာ။
|-
| ၅။ သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ (Sammā-ājīva)
| ဂယိုင်လမျီု မဍာံ (Right Livelihood) - ဂယိုင်လမျီု မဟွံမဲ ကဵု အန္တရာယ် ကု ညးတၞဟ်။
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''သမာဓိ (Samādhi)'''
| ၆။ သမ္မာဝါယာမ (Sammā-vāyāma)
| လွဳ ပရာ မဍာံ (Right Effort) - ဂစာန် ဖအောန် အကုသိုလ် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကုသိုလ်။
|-
| ၇။ သမ္မာသတိ (Sammā-sati)
| ပရေင်စွံသတိ မဍာံ (Right Mindfulness) - စွံ သတိ လတူ ကာယ၊ ဝေဒနာ၊ စိတ္တ၊ ဓမ္မ။
|-
| ၈။ သမ္မာသမာဓိ (Sammā-samādhi)
| ပရေင်စွံစိုတ် တန်ကြန် မဍာံ (Right Concentration) - လုပ် စိုပ် ဈာန် ပန် အဆံင်။
|}
== ၆။ လၟေင် ပရေင်တီ ညးမသုန် (Realization of the Five Ascetics - Kondañña) ==
[[File:Dharmacakra.svg|thumb|left|200px|စက်ဓရ် (Dharmacakra) နွံကဵု ခဍောင် ဒစာံ မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အာရိယ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံသာ်။]]
ပ္ဍဲ ဓရ် သုတ် ဏအ်၊ ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် ထ္ၜး ပရူ ဉာဏ် (Insight) မဒှ် လတူ သစ္စပန် နကဵု လၟေင် ၃ အဆံင် မကော်စ "တိပရိဝဋ္ဋ" (Three phases) ကေုာံ "ဒွါဒသာကာရ" (Twelve aspects) ရ။
* '''သစ္စဉာဏ် (Sacca-ñāṇa):''' တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒုက္ခ၊ ဏအ်ဂှ် သမုဒယ ရ။
* '''ကိစ္စဉာဏ် (Kicca-ñāṇa):''' တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ဒုက္ခ ဂှ် သ္ဒး တီ، သမုဒယ ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဖအောန် ရ။
* '''ကတဉာဏ် (Kata-ñāṇa):''' တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ကမၠောန် ဏအ် ဂစာန် တွဟ် လဝ် တုဲဒှ် အာ ရ။
ကျာ်တြဲ လလောင်တြး ဒဒှ်ရ ညးတေအ် ကလိဂွံ ကတဉာဏ် လတူ သစ္စာ ပန် သာ် ဏအ် တုဲ ဟေင်၊ ညးတေအ် ဂံင် လလောင်တြး ဒဒှ်ရ ညး ဒှ် အာ ကျာ် မကလိဂွံ သဗ္ဗညုတဉာဏ် (Anuttara Sammāsambodhi) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် ဓရ် ဏအ် တုဲဒှ် အာ ဂှ်၊ ပၞောဝ် ကဵု ခမဳ မသုန် ဇကု၊ ခမဳ '''[[ကောဏ္ဍည]]''' (Kondañña) ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ သောတာပတ္တိမဂ်ဉာဏ် (Stream-entry) တုဲ ညာတ် ကေတ် ဓရ် သဘာဝ မတွဟ်ဂး - "ယံ ကိဉ္စိ သမုဒယဓမ္မံ သဗ္ဗံ တံ နိရောဓဓမ္မံ" (''Yam kiñci samudayadhammam sabbam tam nirodhadhammam'' - အရာ မကတဵုဒှ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် နွံ သဘာဝ မဒး ရိုတ် အိုတ် အာ ရ)။ ကျာ်တြဲ ညာတ် တုဲ ဟီု တွံ "အညာသိ ဝတ ဘော ကောဏ္ဍညော" (ကောဏ္ဍည တီ အာ ဓရ် တုဲ ရ) တုဲ ညးတေအ် ကလိဂွံ ယၟု '''အညာကောဏ္ဍည''' (Añña Kondañña) ရ။<ref name="gethin">{{cite book |last=Gethin |first=Rupert |title=The Foundations of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe/page/59 59]-63}}</ref>
== ၇။ ကသဳတိ ကေုာံ အသံ ဒေဝတဴ တအ် (Earthquake and Rejoicing of the Devas) ==
ကာလ ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ် တွဟ် တုဲဒှ် အာ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင် သဘာဝ အမ်သဝ် နာနာ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။ ဒေဝတဴ နူကဵု ဌာန် တိ (Bhumma Deva) တအ် လလောင် ကရေဲ တိုန် ဒဒှ်ရ "ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် ဓရ် ဓမ္မစကြာ ပ္ဍဲ မိဂဒါဝိုန် တုဲ ရ၊ သမဏ၊ ဗြာဟ္မဏ၊ ဒေဝတဴ၊ မာရ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဗြီု လဵု မွဲ လေဝ် ဆေဝ်ဒဝ် ပလီုပလာ် လေဝ် ဟွံမာန် ရ"။
အသံ လလောင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကၠောအ် အာ စိုပ် ဌာန် ဒေဝတဴ စတုမဟာရာဇ်၊ တာဝတိံသာ၊ ယာမာ၊ တုသဳတာ၊ နိမ္မာနရတိ၊ ကေုာံ ပရနိမ္မိတဝသဝတ္တဳ တအ် စဵုကဵု စိုပ် အာ ဌာန် ဗြီု (Brahma worlds) ပ္ဍဲ မွဲ ခဏ ဓဝ် ရ။ အလုံ မွဲ စက္ကဝါ (Ten thousand world systems) ဂှ် ချဳ ကသဳ တိုန် တုဲ လျး အရံင် ဇၞော် မၜက် ကၠောအ် အာ နူ လျး ဒေဝတဴ တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် မံက်ဂတဝ် ကၠုင် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ လအိတ် မဒဒှ်ရ စက် ဓမ္မ ဂှ် စတင် ချဳဓရာင် အာ တုဲ ရ။
== ၈။ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လညာတ် သဒ္ဒါ ကေုာံ ဘာသာဗေဒ (Philological and Linguistic Analysis) ==
နကဵု လညာတ် [[ဘာသာဗေဒ]] (Linguistics) မ္ဂး၊ ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ် ဝွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက် ပါဠိ သၟး ဟွံသေင် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် လေဝ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက် သံသကြိုတ် မကော်စ ''Dharmacakrapravartana Sūtra'' ကီု ရ။ လိက် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပြးဇး အာ ဇရေင် ဍုင် ကြုက်၊ တိဗက် (Tibet)၊ ကေုာံ ရးအာရှ လပါ်ဗမံက် (East Asia) တုဲ ညးတအ် ကၠာဲ လဝ် နကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ညးတအ် အလဵုဇကု ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။<ref name="analayo">{{cite book |last=Anālayo |first=Bhikkhu |title=The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal |publisher=Hamburg University Press |year=2010 |pages=85-92}}</ref>
သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လညာတ် သဒ္ဒါ မ္ဂး၊ ဝေါဟာရ "ဒုက္ခ" (Dukkha) ပ္ဍဲ သုတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံဂွံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဆ ပရေင်ဂိသကေဝ် ဓမ္မတာ သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ပံင်ကောံ လဝ် သီုကဵု ပရေင်ဟွံဍိုက်ပေင် (Unsatisfactoriness)၊ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ (Impermanence)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံမဲ ကဵု အတ္တ (Non-self) ရ။ တၠပညာ ဂၠးတိ တအ် ဟီု တွံ ဒဒှ်ရ သုတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လိက် မချူ လဝ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿန သၠုင်အိုတ် မွဲ မစကာ ဝေါဟာရ ဍောတ်တ် ဆဂး အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဇြိုဟ်နက် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
== ၉။ အခိုက်အလိုက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Rituals and Practice in Buddhism) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ထေရဝါဒ (Theravada) မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ ဍုင်သေံ၊ သဳရိလင်္ကာ၊ ကေုာံ ကမ္ဗောဒဳယျာ တအ် မ္ဂး၊ ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် လိက် ပရိုတ် မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် မွဲ ရ။
* '''တ္ၚဲ အာသဠှဳ ပုဏ္ဏမဳ:''' တ္ၚဲ ဒဂိုန် ပုဏ္ဏမဳ ဂှ် ဒှ် တ္ၚဲ ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် ဓရ် ဏအ် တုဲ၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ကၠောန် ပေါဲ သဘင် တ္ၚဲ ဓမ္မစကြာ တုဲ ဖ္ဍေါတ် ပရိုတ် သုတ် ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာကျာ် ကေုာံ စေတဳ ဂမၠိုင် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဖ္ဍေါတ် သရဇ္ဇျာယ် (Chanting):''' ခမဳ သံဃာ တအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဖ္ဍေါတ် သုတ် ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကၠောန် ပရေင်ကုသိုလ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး လတူ အန္တရာယ်။
* '''ကမ္မဋ္ဌာန် (Meditation):''' တၠပညာ ကမ္မဋ္ဌာန် တအ် စကာ လညာတ် သစ္စပန် ကေုာံ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံသာ် နူ သုတ် ဏအ် နဒဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဝိပဿနာ ဉာဏ် (Vipassana insight) ရ။
== ၁၀။ ဖဵုအာစိုပ် လတူ လညာတ် ဒဿန ကေုာံ ဝင် (Impact on Philosophy and History) ==
ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် "သဇိုင် လဒက်ပတန်" (Foundation paradigm) သွက် ဒဿန ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် နွံ ကၠုင် ဂိုဏ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု ထေရဝါဒ၊ မဟာယာန (Mahayana)၊ ကေုာံ ဝဇိရယာန (Vajrayana) ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဂိုဏ် သီုဖအိုတ် တအ် ဒုင်တဲ ကေုာံ စွံ ၚုဟ်မး လတူ သစ္စပန် မတွဟ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သုတ် ဏအ် ညဳသၟဟ် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင် ဂၠးတိ (World history) မ္ဂး၊ တွဟ် ဓရ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇၞော် မွဲ မပကဵု ညံင် လညာတ် ပရေင်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဒဿန ပ္ဍဲ ရးအိန္ဒိယ တြေံ (Ancient India) ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ တိတ် နူကဵု ကွေတ် ဗြာဟ္မဏ မဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ပရေင်ပူဇဴ ယဇ် (Sacrifices) ကေုာံ ဇာတ် ဂကူ (Caste system) တုဲ၊ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ဂၠံင်တရဴ ဗၠးၜး မတန်တဴ လတူ ကမၠောန် အလဵုဇကု ကေုာံ ပညာ မာန် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[သစ္စပန်]] (Four Noble Truths)
* [[အာရိယ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံသာ်]] (Noble Eightfold Path)
* [[မဇ္ဇှိမပဋိပဒါ]] (Middle Way)
{{Navbox
| name = Buddhism
| title = [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] ကေုာံ ဓရ် ကျာ် (Buddhism and Dhamma)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဓရ် သဇိုင်
| list1 =
* [[သစ္စပန်]]
* [[အာရိယ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံသာ်]]
* [[မဇ္ဇှိမပဋိပဒါ]]
* [[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]]
| group2 = သုတ် အဓိက ဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်]]
* [[အနတ္တလက္ခဏသုတ်]]
* [[မဟာသတိပဋ္ဌာနသုတ်]]
* [[မေတ္တာသုတ်]]
| group3 = မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဒေသ
| list3 =
* [[ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ]]
* [[ခမဳပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ]]
* [[အညာကောဏ္ဍည]]
* [[ဂြိုပ်မိဂဒါဝိုန်]]
}}
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:သုတ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ဒဿန ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:လိက် ပရိုတ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
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'''တက္ကသဳလာ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''တက္ကသိုလ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Taxila'', သံသကြိုတ်: तक्षशिला ''Takṣaśilā'', ပါဠိ: တက္ကသိလာ ''Takkasilā'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင်တြေံ ကေုာံ ဌာန် ပရေင်သုတေသန အခိုက်ကၞာ မနွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တွဵုရး ပန်ဂျာပ် (Punjab)၊ ဍုင် ပါကစ္စတာန် (Pakistan) ရ။ ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ နွံ ဇမ္ၚောဲ ၜိုတ် ၃၂ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ နူ ဍုင်ဇၞော် အေဿလာမာဗာဒ် (Islamabad) တုဲ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် လဝ် ဍုင် အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တမၠာ သွက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သာသနာ အကြာ ရးအာရှ လဒေါဝ် ကဵု ရးအိန္ဒိယ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ပရေင်ပညာ မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် နဒဒှ် တက္ကသိုလ် ခေတ် တမၠာ ပထမအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ (Ancient University of Taxila) မနွံကဵု တၠပညာ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု စာဏကျ (Chanakya) ကေုာံ ဇဳဝက (Jivaka) တအ် မလ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ဗတောန် လဝ် ပညာ ရ။<ref name="marshall">{{cite book |last=Marshall |first=J. |title=Taxila: An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Excavations |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1951 |pages=15-20}}</ref>
ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ပလီုပလာ် လဝ် နကဵု ဂကူ ဟောန် ဗတာင် (White Huns) ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ၅ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ တုဲ၊ လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၀ ဂှ် ဂကောံ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် (UNESCO) တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ဒၞာဲ ဏအ် နဒဒှ် '''ဒၞာဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ''' (World Heritage Site) မွဲ ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ သုတေသန ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Dharmarajika_Stupa,_Taxila.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပထောဝ် ဓမ္မရာဇိက (Dharmarajika Stupa) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ မဒှ် သက်သဳ အာဲကၟာဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ခေတ် တမၠာ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ယၟု (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ယၟု "တက္ကသဳလာ" (Takṣaśilā) ဝွံ နကဵု ဘာသာ သံသကြိုတ် မ္ဂး ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ဍုင် တၟအ် မထပက် ဍာ်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ဍုင် တၟအ် မရေက် လဝ်" ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင် ဒဏ္ဍာရဳ ဟိန္ဒူ အပ္ဍဲ လိက် ရာမာယဏ မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု သၟိင် ဘရတ (Bharata) မဒှ် ဒေအ် သၟိင် ရာမ တုဲ၊ ကဵု လဝ် ယၟု နကဵု ယၟု ကောန် သၟိင် ဂှ် "တက္သ" (Taksha) ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင် ပရေင်ပညာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ညးတအ် ကော်စ "တက္ကသိလာ" (Takkasila) ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ပါဠိ တအ် တုဲ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ တမ်မူလ မပကဵု ညံင် ဝေါဟာရ "တက္ကသိုလ်" (University) ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ လိက် အရေဝ် မန် ကေုာံ ဗၟာ စဵုကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ခေတ် အခမေနဳယျာ (Early History and Achaemenid Empire) ==
ဝင် ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် လဝ် နူကဵု အခိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခရေတ် သၞာံ ၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ (6th century BCE) တေအ် ရ။ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ နွံ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ မဆက်စပ် အကြာ ဂၠံင် တရဴ ဗၞိက် အဓိက သုံး ဂၠံင် - ဂၠံင် အိန္ဒိယ သၠုင်ကျာ၊ ဂၠံင် အာရှ လဒေါဝ်၊ ကေုာံ ဂၠံင် ရးပလိုတ် တအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ၅၁၈ ဘဳသဳ (BC)၊ သၟိင် ဒရဳယပ် ဇၞော် (Darius the Great) နူ အေန်ပါယာ အခမေနဳယျာ (Achaemenid Empire) ဍုင် ဖါသဳ (Persia) လုပ် သီ ဇၞး ကေတ် ဒေသ ဂန္ဓာရ (Gandhara) မပါလုပ် သီု ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဏအ် ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ကၠုင် ဍုင် မဇၞော်မောဝ် တုဲ လိက် အခိုက် အာရမိတ် (Aramaic) လေဝ် ပြးဇး စိုပ် ကၠုင် ဇရေင် ဒေသ ဏအ် ရ။<ref name="dani">{{cite book |last=Dani |first=A. H. |title=The Historic City of Taxila |publisher=Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies |year=1986 |pages=45-55}}</ref>
== ၃။ ဗတိုက်ပၞာန် အာလေစ်ဇန္ဒာ ကေုာံ ခေတ် မောရဳယျာ (Alexander's Invasion and Mauryan Empire) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၃၂၆ ဘဳသဳ၊ သၟိင် ဇၞော် [[အာလေစ်ဇန္ဒာ]] (Alexander the Great) နူ ဍုင် ဂရိတ် လုပ် ဗတိုက် ဍုင် အိန္ဒိယ တုဲ၊ သၟိင် ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ မနွံ ယၟု "အာမ်ဘဳ" (Ambhi) ဂှ် ဒုင် ကဵု ဒြဟတ် ရီုဗင် ကု အာလေစ်ဇန္ဒာ သွက်ဂွံ ဗတိုက် သၟိင် ပေါရပ် (Porus) ရ။
ကြဴနူ အာလေစ်ဇန္ဒာ ကလေင် စဴ အာ တုဲ၊ သၟိင် စန္ဒဂုတ္တ မောရဳယျာ (Chandragupta Maurya) ဒက်ပတန် အေန်ပါယာ မောရဳယျာ (Mauryan Empire) တုဲ သီ ကေတ် ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ရ။ အခိင် လက္ကရဴ ပ္ဍဲ လက်ထက် သၟိင် [[အာသောက]] (Ashoka the Great) ဂှ်၊ ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒှ် အာ ဌာန် ဗဟဵု ပရေင်ပညာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ သၟိင် အာသောက ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပထောဝ် ဓမ္မရာဇိက (Dharmarajika Stupa) မဒှ် ပထောဝ် မစွံ ဓါတ် ကျာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဏအ် ရ။
== ၄။ ခေတ် အေန်ဒဝ်-ဂရိတ် ကေုာံ ကုသာန် (Indo-Greek and Kushan Periods) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ၂ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဘဳသဳ၊ ဂကူ ဂရိတ်-ဗက်ထရဳယျာ (Greco-Bactrians) တအ် လုပ် သီ ကေတ် ဒေသ ဏအ် တုဲ ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် ဍုင် တၟိ မကော်စ "သိရ်ကပ်" (Sirkap) ရ။ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ဍုင် အတိုင် အခိုက်အလိုက် ဂရိတ်၊ မနွံကဵု ဂၠံင် ဍာန် တပ်တပ် ကေုာံ ဘာကျာ် မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကဵု အနုသုခုမ ဂရိတ် (Greco-Buddhist art) ရ။
လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ ၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ အေဒဳ (AD)၊ အေန်ပါယာ ကုသာန် (Kushan Empire) သၟဝ် ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် သၟိင် ကနိသျှက (Kanishka) ဂှ် သီ ကေတ် တက္ကသဳလာ တုဲ သြိုင်ခၞံ ဍုင် တၟိ "သိရ်သုခ်" (Sirsukh) ရ။ အခိင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အခိင် အနုသုခုမ ဂန္ဓာရ (Gandhara art) ဇၞော်မောဝ် အိုတ် ရ။<ref name="dar">{{cite book |last=Dar |first=S. R. |title=Taxila and the Western World |publisher=Vanguard Books |year=1998 |pages=112-118}}</ref>
== ၅။ တက္ကသိုလ် တက္ကသဳလာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာ (Taxila University and Education System) ==
တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဌာန် ဗတောန် ပညာ အဓိက မွဲ သွက် ရးအာရှ တုဲ၊ တၠပညာ တအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ဍေဟ် နဒဒှ် "တက္ကသိုလ် ပထမအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ" ရ။ ကောန်ကွး ၜိုတ် ၁၀,၀၀၀ ပြင်င် နူကဵု ဍုင် နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု ဗာရာဏသဳ (Varanasi)၊ ရာဇဂြိုဟ် (Rajagriha)၊ ဗာဗဳလောန် (Babylon)၊ ကေုာံ ဂရိတ် (Greece) တအ် ကၠုင် လ္ၚတ် ပညာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဏအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံမဲ သၞောတ် စာမေးပွဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တဆိပ်ကြာ ဓမ္မတာ ပုဟ်။ ကောန်ကွး တအ် ဒးမံင် ဇရေင် အစာ တုဲ လ္ၚတ် ပညာ စဵုကဵု အစာ ဂှ် ဒုင်တဲ ရ။ ဘာသာရပ် အဓိက တအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု -
* လိက် ဗေဒ (Vedas) ကေုာံ ဒဿန (Philosophy)
* ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ ခွဲက် (Medicine and Surgery)
* ကွတ် ပၞာန် ကေုာံ ပန် တ္ၚ (Archery and Military strategy)
* ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Commerce and Law)
* နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ ကေုာံ သင်္ချာ (Astronomy and Mathematics)
== ၆။ တၠပညာ ပြာကတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Famous Scholars and Alumni) ==
တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ ပတိတ် ကဵု လဝ် တၠပညာ အဓိက ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် ဝင် ရးအိန္ဒိယ ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး တၠပညာ ပြာကတ် မကၠုင် နူ တက္ကသဳလာ
|-
! ယၟု တၠပညာ
! ကဏ္ဍ ပရေင်ပညာ
! အရာ မပြာကတ်
|-
| '''စာဏကျ''' (Chanakya/Kautilya)
| ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ဒဿန
| ညးမချူ လိက် "အတ်ထသာတ်သတရ" (Arthashastra) ကေုာံ အစာ သၟိင် စန္ဒဂုတ္တ။
|-
| '''ပါဏိနိ''' (Panini)
| ဘာသာဗေဒ
| ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် သဒ္ဒါ သံသကြိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ လိက် "Ashtadhyayi" မဒှ် သဇိုင် သဒ္ဒါ ဂၠးတိ။
|-
| '''ဇဳဝက''' (Jivaka)
| ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ ခွဲက်
| အစာသဝ် ပြာကတ် မလွဳလွတ် လဝ် [[ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ]] ကေုာံ သၟိင် ဗိမ္ဗိသာရ။
|-
| '''စရက''' (Charaka)
| ဂဥုဲ အာယုရ်ဗေဒ (Ayurveda)
| ညးမချူ လိက် "Charaka Samhita" မဒှ် သဇိုင် ပညာ ဂဥုဲ အိန္ဒိယ တြေံ။
|-
| '''စန္ဒဂုတ္တ''' (Chandragupta)
| ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ ပၞာန်
| ညးမဒက်ပတန် အေန်ပါယာ မောရဳယျာ မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ဍုင် အိန္ဒိယ အလုံ။
|}
== ၇။ ပရေင်လီုလာ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠေအ်ကၠက် (Destruction and Decline) ==
ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ စတမ် လီုလာ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ၅ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ခေတ် အေဒဳ အခိင် ကာလ ဂကူ ဟောန် ဗတာင် (Hephthalites / White Huns) တအ် လုပ် ဗတိုက် ကေုာံ ပလီုပလာ် ဍုင် ဂှ် ရ။ ဂကူ ဟောန် တအ်ဝွံ ပလီု ထောအ် ပထောဝ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ ဘာလကျာ်၊ ကေုာံ တိုက်လိက် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
ကာလ တၠပညာ ဍုင်ကြုက် မနွံ ယၟု "ရွှေန်ကျာန်" (Xuanzang) စိုပ် အာ ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ပ္ဍဲ ၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဂှ်၊ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ လီုလာ် သရိုဟ် စှ်ေ အာ တုဲဒှ် ရ၊ ဘာကျာ် တအ် ဒှ် ဒၟံင် ဒတန် လီုလီု သၟး ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ဂၠံင် တရဴ ဗၞိက် လေဝ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ လပါ် တၞဟ် ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ နူကဵု ဝင် ပွိုင် ၁၀၀၀ သၞာံ ပြင်င် ရ။<ref name="samad">{{cite book |last=Samad |first=R. U. |title=Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys |publisher=Algora Publishing |year=2011 |pages=70-82}}</ref>
== ၈။ သုတေသန ခေတ်တၟိ ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ အခိုက်ကၞာ (Modern Archaeological Excavations) ==
ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ ကလေင် ဂွံ ဆဵု ကေတ် ပၠန် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၆၃ နကဵု တၠပညာ သုတေသန ဗြိတိန် အာလေက်ဇန္ဒာ ကာန်နိန်ဟာမ် (Sir Alexander Cunningham) ร။ ဆဂး ပရေင်ခါဲ တိ သုတေသန မလှဲလး အိုတ် ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် နကဵု သာ ဂျောန် မာရှယ် (Sir John Marshall) ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ သၞာံ ၁၉၁၃ ကဵု ၁၉၃၄ ရ။
ညးတအ် ခါဲ ဂွံ ဆဵု ကေတ် ဒၞာဲ ဍုင် တြေံ ၃ ဒၞာဲ မတၞဟ်ခြာ ရေင်သကအ် - မပ္တံကဵု ဘဳရ် (Bhir Mound)၊ သိရ်ကပ် (Sirkap)၊ ကေုာံ သိရ်သုခ် (Sirsukh) ရ။ အရာ မခါဲ ဂွံ ဆဵု တအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဗီုရုပ် ကျာ်၊ ဍိုတ်၊ လိက် တၟအ်၊ ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် လွပ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ခေတ် တမၠာ တအ် ရ။ လၟုဟ် ကပေါတ် တအ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ထ္ၜးပျး လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး တက္ကသဳလာ]] (Taxila Museum) မဒှ် တိုက်ထ္ၜးပျး မဇၞော်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ပါကစ္စတာန် ရ。
== ၉။ ဒၞာဲ ဒတန် သုတေသန အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Key Archaeological Sites) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ တက္ကသဳလာ ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဒၞာဲ သုတေသန အဓိက ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် -
* '''ဘဳရ် မောန် (Bhir Mound):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဍုင် တြေံ အိုတ် (၆-၂ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဘဳသဳ) မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဂၠံင် ဍာန် ကေဝ်ကေဝ် ကေုာံ သ္ၚိ မကၠောန် လဝ် နကဵု ဍိုတ် လတူ တိ။
* '''သိရ်ကပ် (Sirkap):''' ဒှ် ဍုင် ဂရိတ်-ဗက်ထရဳယျာ မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် အတိုင် ဗီုပြင် သၞောတ် ဂဇာ (Grid system) မနွံကဵု ဘာကျာ် မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် အနုသုခုမ ဟိန္ဒူ၊ ဗုဒ္ဓ ကေုာံ ဂရိတ် (Double-Headed Eagle Stupa)။
* '''ပထောဝ် ဓမ္မရာဇိက (Dharmarajika Stupa):''' ဒှ် ပထောဝ် မဇၞော်အိုတ် မခၞံ လဝ် နကဵု သၟိင် အာသောက သွက်ဂွံ စွံ ဓါတ် ကျာ်တြဲ။
* '''ဂျိုဝ်လဳယာန် (Jaulian):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဘာလကျာ် ကေုာံ တက္ကသိုလ် မနွံ လတူ ဒဵု မနွံကဵု ဗီုရုပ် ကျာ် မကၠောန် လဝ် နကဵု တိ ပလေတ်သတာ (Stucco) မဍိုတ် ကေဝ်။<ref name="allchin">{{cite book |last=Allchin |first=F. R. |title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States |url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofear0000allc |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofear0000allc/page/125 125]-135}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (UNESCO World Heritage and Legacy) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၀ ဂှ်၊ ဂကောံ ယူနေတ်သကဝ် (UNESCO) စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒၞာဲ တက္ကသဳလာ ဏအ် နဒဒှ် ဒၞာဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂၠးတိ (World Heritage Site) ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သက်သဳ အဓိက မထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အနုသုခုမ ဂန္ဓာရ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ လညာတ် ပရေင်ပညာ အကြာ ရးအာရှ ရ။
လၟုဟ် အလဵုအသဳ ပါကစ္စတာန် ကေုာံ ဂကောံ သုတေသန ဂၠးတိ တအ် ပံင်ကောံ တုဲ မင်မဲ ဒၟံင် ဒၞာဲ ဏအ် သွက် ဟွံဂွံ လီုလာ် အာ နူကဵု ဘဲ သဘာဝ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။ ဍုင် တက္ကသဳလာ ဝွံ ဆက် ဒှ် ဒၟံင် သင်္ကေတ ပရေင်ပညာ ခေတ် တမၠာ မကဵု သတိ ကု ဂၠးတိ ဒဒှ်ရ ပညာ ဝွံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ပယျဵု ဍုင် ကေုာံ ဘာသာ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဂန္ဓာရ]] (Gandhara)
* [[သၟိင် အာသောက]] (Ashoka the Great)
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[စာဏကျ]] (Chanakya)
{{Navbox
| name = Ancient India
| title = ဍုင် ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ ဝင် တြေံ ပ္ဍဲ ရးအာရှ လဒေါဝ် (Ancient Cities and Historical Sites of South Asia)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဍုင် တမၠာဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[တက္ကသဳလာ]] (Taxila)
* [[ပါဋလိပုတ်]] (Pataliputra)
* [[ရာဇဂြိုဟ်]] (Rajagriha)
* [[နာလာန္ဒာ]] (Nalanda)
* [[မောဟေန်ဂျဝ်-ဒါရဝ်]] (Mohenjo-daro)
| group2 = အေန်ပါယာ ကေုာံ ခေတ်
| list2 =
* [[အေန်ပါယာ မောရဳယျာ]] (Mauryan Empire)
* [[အေန်ပါယာ ကုသာန်]] (Kushan Empire)
* [[ဂရိတ်-ဗက်ထရဳယျာ]] (Greco-Bactrian Kingdom)
* [[ခေတ် ဂုပ္ပတ]] (Gupta Empire)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[အနုသုခုမ ဂန္ဓာရ]] (Gandhara art)
* [[တက္ကသိုလ် ခေတ် တမၠာ]] (Ancient universities)
* [[အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ]] (World Heritage Site)
* [[ပရေင်သုတေသန]] (Archaeology)
}}
[[Category:ဝင် အာရှ]]
[[Category:ပါကစ္စတာန်]]
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဒၞာဲ အာဲကၟာဲ ဂၠးတိ ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:တက္ကသိုလ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
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'''ဝေသာလဳ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Vaishali'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Vesali''; ပါဠိ: 𑀯𑁂𑀲𑀸𑀮𑀻) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် တြေံ မွဲ မနွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တွဵုရး ဗဳဟာ (Bihar)၊ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ခေတ်လၟုဟ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တမၠာ တေအ်၊ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် သွက် ကၟိန်ဍုင် ဝဇ္ဇဳ (Vajjian Confederacy) ကေုာံ ဂကူ လိစ္ဆဝဳ (Licchavis) တအ် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဒၟံင် နဒဒှ် ဍုင် မစကာ သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ရဳပဗလစ် (Republic) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၞောတ် မၞိဟ်ဂၠိုင် အုပ်ဓုပ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။<ref name="upinder">{{cite book |last=Singh |first=U. |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2008 |pages=266-270}}</ref>
ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဝင် မဆက်စပ် ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ကု သာသနာ ဇၞော် ၜါ ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ မတွဟ်ဂး [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] ကေုာံ [[ဂျိန်ဘာသာ]] ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ တွဟ် လဝ် ဓရ် လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဏအ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ လုပ် ပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် ရ။ သွက် ဂျိန်ဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဌာန် တၟုဲ တိ မဟာဝဳရ (Mahavira) မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် မၞိဟ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်၊ သာသနာ၊ ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Ashoka_Pillar_at_Vaishali.jpg|thumb|right|300px|တိုင်တၟအ် သၟိင်အသောက မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ၊ မနွံကဵု ရုပ် ဇာဒိသိုင် မွဲ ဓဝ် ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍိုပ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Background) ==
ယၟု ဍုင် "ဝေသာလဳ" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ ယၟု သၟိင် ဨကရာဇ် မနွံ ယၟု သၟိင် ဝိရှာလ် (King Vishal) မဒှ် ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် ဍုင် ဏအ် အတိုင် ဝင် ပေါမ် အိန္ဒိယ ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင် ခေတ်တၟိ မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အခိင် ၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဘဳသဳ (6th century BCE) တုဲ ဒှ် ဍုင် အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ မဟာဇနပဒ ၁၆ (Sixteen Mahajanapadas) ရ။
ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ၜဳ ဂင်္ဂါ (Ganges River) တုဲ၊ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု တိဍာ် ဝွံ ခိုဟ် သွက် ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သွံရာန် ဗၞိက် ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍုင် ဏအ် ဒှ် ကၠုင် ဍုင် မနွံကဵု ဒြပ်ရတ် ကေုာံ သြဇာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် အိန္ဒိယ တြေံ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ အခိင် ကိုပ်ကၠာ (Early History and Origins) ==
အတိုင် ဝင် ရာမာယဏ (Ramayana) ကေုာံ ပုရာဏ် (Puranas) ဂမၠိုင် မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ သၟိင် ဝိရှာလ် မဒှ် ကောန် သၟိင် ဣက်ရှဝါကု (Ikshvaku dynasty) တအ် သြိုင်ခၞံ လဝ် ရ။
ဆဂး နကဵု သက်သဳ ဝင် မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် ဍုင် ဝဇ္ဇဳ (Vajji) ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် အကြာ ၇၀၀ - ၆၀၀ ဘဳသဳ ရ။ အခိင် ဂှ် ဝဇ္ဇဳ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံ ဂကူ ၈ ဂကူ မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် (Confederacy) တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ဂှ် ဂကူ လိစ္ဆဝဳ (Licchavi) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကူ မနွံ သြဇာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ရ။<ref name="thapar">{{cite book |last=Thapar |first=R. |title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap |publisher=University of California Press |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap/page/146 146]-150}}</ref>
== ၃။ သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ ရဳပဗလစ် (Administration and Republic System) ==
ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဒၟံင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ညးတအ် မကော်စ ဂဏသင်္ဃ (Gana-sangha) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရဳပဗလစ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မဍုင် တၞဟ် မပ္တံကဵု မဂဓ (Magadha) တအ် စကာ သၞောတ် သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် (Monarchy) ဂှ်၊ ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ အုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵု ဂကောံ မၞိဟ်စၞး ရ။
သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဝေသာလဳ ဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု -
* '''ရာဇာ ၇၇၀၇ တၠ:''' မၞိဟ်စၞး နူကဵု ဂကောံ သ္ၚိကၟိန် သၟိင် တအ် (7707 Rajas) တအ် ပကောံ ကောံဓရီု ပ္ဍဲ ရုင် (Santhagara) သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်။
* '''ဥပရာဇာ (Uparaja):''' ဒုတိယ သၟိင် မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ကမၠောန်။
* '''သေနာပတိ (Senapati):''' သကိုပ် ပၞာန် အဓိက။
* '''ဘဏ္ဍာဂါရိက (Bhandagarika):''' သကိုပ် ဘဏ္ဍာ တိုက် သြန် ဍုင်။
သၞောတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သက်သဳ သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မစ ကတဵုဒှ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အာရှ ကီု ရ။
== ၄။ ဆက်စပ် ကု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ (Connection to Buddhism) ==
ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဝင် သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ရ။ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဝွံ က္ည ဂ္ၚေင် စိုပ် ဍုင် ဏအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကဵု အလန် တုဲ သီုကဵု ဒ္ဂိုန် ဝှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဏအ် ကီု ရ။
* '''ဒုင် ဒါန် အမ္ဗပါလဳ:''' အမ္ဗပါလဳ (Amrapali) မဒှ် မိဏေင် ဍုင် (Courtesan) မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ်၊ လျုင်ဇြုင်သ္ဍိုက် လတူ ကျာ်တြဲ တုဲ ကဵု ဒါန် ကၠအ် ကြုက် ညး ကု ကျာ် ကေုာံ သင် တအ် ရ။
* '''ကၞောက် မင် ပူဇဴ ဍာ်သာဲ:''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ ဏအ် ရ၊ ကၞောက် မင် မွဲ ကေတ် ဍာ်သာဲ တုဲ ကၠုင် ပူဇဴ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ၊ မဒှ် ပရူဒဒှ် မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဗီုရုပ် ဝင် ကျာ်။
* '''တွဟ် ဓရ် လက္ကရဴ အိုတ်:''' ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ လုပ် ပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် ပ္ဍဲ ကုသိနာရ (Kushinagar) ဂှ်၊ ကျာ်တြဲ က္ည စိုပ် ဝေသာလဳ တုဲ တွဟ် လဝ် ဓရ် လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် ကု ခမဳ တအ်၊ ကေုာံ ဟီု ပရော ဒဒှ် မညး သ္ဒး လုပ် ပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် မာန် ရ။<ref name="malalasekera">{{cite book |last=Malalasekera |first=G. P. |title=Dictionary of Pali Proper Names |publisher=Pali Text Society |year=1937 |pages=940-945}}</ref>
== ၅။ ဒုတိယ သင်္ဂါယနာ (The Second Buddhist Council) ==
ကြဴနူ ကျာ်တြဲ လုပ် ပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် လောန် အာ ၁၀၀ သၞာံ (ၜိုတ် ၃၈၃ ဘဳသဳ) ဂှ်၊ '''[[ဒုတိယ သင်္ဂါယနာ]]''' (Second Buddhist Council) ဝွံ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ ဏအ် ရ။
ပေါဲ သင်္ဂါယနာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ခမဳ ဂကူ ဝဇ္ဇဳ (Vajjian monks) တအ် ဍိုန်လျ လတူ သိက္ခာပိုဒ် ၁၀ တင် (ဥပမာ - ပရေင်ရပ် သြန် ကေုာံ ထဝ်၊ စ စၞ ကြဴနူ အခိင် တ္ၚဲ ဒေါဝ် လောန်)။ သၟိင် ကာလာသောက (King Kalasoka) ဒုင် ဒါန် တုဲ ခမဳ တၠအရှန် ၇၀၀ တၠ တအ် ကၠောန် သင်္ဂါယနာ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲ ဏအ်၊ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ ပါ် ထကး အာ ၜါ ဂကောံ မတွဟ်ဂး - ထေရဝါဒ (Sthaviravada) ကေုာံ မဟာသင်္ဃိက (Mahasanghika) မဒှ် တမ်မူလ သာသနာ မဟာယာန် ရ။
== ၆။ ဆက်စပ် ကု ဂျိန်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ မဟာဝဳရ (Connection to Jainism and Mahavira) ==
ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ဌာန် သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ ဓဝ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် သီု ဒှ် ဌာန် ပရဲ သွက် ဂျိန်ဘာသာ (Jainism) ကီု ရ။
တိရ်ထင်္ကရ (Tirthankara) မရနုက်ကဵု ၂၄ မဒှ် အစာ ဇၞော် ဂျိန်ဘာသာ '''မဟာဝဳရ''' (Mahavira) ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကွာန် ကုဏ္ဍဂါမ (Kundagrama) မနွံ ညန် ကု ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၅၉၉ ဘဳသဳ ရ။ မိမ ညးတေအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကူ သၟိင် ပ္ဍဲ လိစ္ဆဝဳ ရ။ မဟာဝဳရ ဝွံ ပဒတဴ လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝေသာလဳ အခိင် မညး ဒ္ဂိုန် ဝှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တုဲ၊ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မဘုမ္မိ ဂကောံ ဂျိန် တအ် ကၠုင် ဗဵု လ္ၚောဝ် လၟိုန် ရ။<ref name="basham">{{cite book |last=Basham |first=A. L. |title=The Wonder That Was India |publisher=Picador |year=1954 |pages=290-295}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဒၞာဲ သက်သဳ ဝင် ကေုာံ အာရှာဝက (Archaeological Sites and Ashoka Pillar) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ်၊ ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဌာန် သုတေသန အခိုက် တြေံ (Archaeological site) အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ ရ။ အရာ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် တအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် -
* '''တိုင်တၟအ် အသောက (Ashoka Pillar):''' သၟိင် အသောက (Emperor Ashoka) စုတ် လဝ် တိုင်တၟအ် ဏအ် သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒၞာဲ ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် ဓရ် လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် ရ။ တိုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ရုပ် ဇာဒိသိုင် မွဲ ဓဝ် ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍိုပ်၊ မတၞဟ်ခြာ နူ တိုင် မနွံ ဇာဒိသိုင် ၄ (Lion Capital of Ashoka) ရ။
* '''စေတဳ ဓါတ် (Relic Stupa):''' ကြဴနူ ကျာ်တြဲ လုပ် ပရိနိဗ္ဗာန် တုဲ၊ ဂကူ လိစ္ဆဝဳ တအ် ကလိဂွံ ဓါတ် ကျာ် မွဲ သ္ၚိဲ နူကဵု ၈ သ္ၚိဲ တုဲ ညးတအ် သြိုင် လဝ် စေတဳ သွက်ဂွံ ပူဇဴ ရ။
* '''ကူဋာဂါရသာလာ ဝိဟာရ (Kutagarasala Vihara):''' ဒှ် ဘာ ကျာ်တြဲ ကေုာံ ခမဳ တအ် မပဒတဴ အခိင် က္ည စိုပ် ဝေသာလဳ ရ။
* '''ကၟာ အဘိသေက (Abhisheka Pushkarini):''' ဒှ် ကၟာ ဍာ် ပရဲ သွက် သၟိင် လိစ္ဆဝဳ တအ် ဂွံ ဟုံ ဍာ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ဒုင် စဝ် အဘိသေက် ရ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Economy and Culture) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၆ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဘဳသဳ တေအ်၊ ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် မနွံကဵု ဒြပ်ရတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ အတိုင် လိက် ပိဋကတ် တအ် ထ္ၜး လဝ် မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ကၟာင် ဍုင် ၃ ထပ် တုဲ နွံကဵု တြင် ဍုင် ကေုာံ ပြာသာဒ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
ဟိုတ်နူ ဍုင် ဏအ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ လတူ ဂၠံင် သွံရာန် ဗၞိက် အဓိက (Trade routes) တုဲ ညးဗၞိက် တအ် နူကဵု ဍုင် သာဝတ္ထိ (Shravasti)၊ ရာဇဂြိုဟ် (Rajgir)၊ ကေုာံ ဗာရာဏသဳ (Varanasi) တအ် ကၠုင် သွံရာန် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။ လတူ ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ကဵု ၚုဟ်မး လတူ ပရေင်လဟိင်စိုတ်၊ လှ်ေ ဒယှ်ေ တုဲ မိဏေင် ဍုင် မပ္တံကဵု အမ္ဗပါလဳ တအ်ဝွံ ကလိဂွံ ဒၞာဲ သၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။<ref name="cunningham">{{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=A. |title=The Ancient Geography of India |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.7234 |publisher=Trübner & Co. |year=1871 |pages=443-448}}</ref>
== ၉။ ပရေင်လီုလာ် ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ခေတ်တၟိ (Decline and Modern Status) ==
သြဇာ ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ စစှ်ေ အာ အခိင် သၟိင် အဇာတသတြု (Ajatashatru) နူ ဍုင် မဂဓ ကၠုင် ဗတိုက် ပလီု ဍုင် ရ။ အဇာတသတြု စကာ လဝ် အမတ် ညး ဝဿကာရ (Vassakara) သွက်ဂွံ ပလီု ပရေင်ညဳသၟဟ် ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ သၟိင် လိစ္ဆဝဳ တအ် ပွိုင် ၃ သၞာံ ပြင် တုဲ၊ အခိင် မဂကူ လိစ္ဆဝဳ ထကး အာ မ္ဂး၊ ညးတေအ် ဗတိုက် ကေတ် ဍုင် ဂွံ အာ ရ။
ကြဴနူ ဂှ်၊ ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ပံင်ကောံ စုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အေန်ပါယာ မောရိယျာ (Mauryan Empire) ကေုာံ ဂုပ္ပတ (Gupta Empire) တအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ် မ္ဂး၊ ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပွိုင်ဍုင် မွဲ (Vaishali district) ပ္ဍဲ တွဵုရး ဗဳဟာ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဇိုင် ဗဵုလ္ၚောဝ် သွက် ကောန်ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဂျိန်ဘာသာ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၁၀။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဝင် ဂၠးတိ (Impact on World History) ==
ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ နွံကဵု အာဲကၟာဲ ဝင် မဇၞော် သွက် ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ ကဏ္ဍ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဘာသာ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး တင်ဂၞင် အာဲကၟာဲ ဝင် ဍုင် ဝေသာလဳ
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! အာဲကၟာဲ (Legacy)
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်'''
| ဒှ် သက်သဳ ဝင် သၞောတ် ရဳပဗလစ် (Republic) ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အာရှ (ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဍုင် အေသင် ဂရိတ် တေအ် ဏီ)။
|-
| '''ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ'''
| ဌာန် သင်္ဂါယနာ ဒုတိယ၊ ဒၞာဲ ဓရ် လက္ကရဴ၊ ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ ခမဳ ဗြဴ ပထမအိုတ် (မဟာပဇာပတိ ဂေါတမဳ) ကလိဂွံ အခေါင် ပ ခမဳ။
|-
| '''ဂျိန်ဘာသာ'''
| ဒၞာဲ မဟာဝဳရ ကတဵုဒှ် မၞိဟ်၊ မဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အဓိက သွက် ဂျိန်ဘာသာ ခေတ်တၟိ။
|-
| '''အနုသုခုမ'''
| တိုင်တၟအ် အသောက မနွံ ဇာဒိသိုင် မွဲ ဓဝ် မဒှ် သက်သဳ အနုသုခုမ မောရိယျာ။
|}
ဝေသာလဳ ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ လီုလာ် အာ နဒဒှ် ဍုင် မွဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ယၟု ဍေဟ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ဍေဟ် ဂှ် ဆက် ဂျိုင် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် အိန္ဒိယ ကေုာံ ဝင် သာသနာ ဂၠးတိ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ]] (Gautama Buddha)
* [[ဒုတိယ သင်္ဂါယနာ]] (Second Buddhist Council)
* [[သၟိင် အသောက]] (Ashoka)
{{Navbox
| name = Ancient India
| title = ဍုင် တြေံ ကေုာံ မဟာဇနပဒ ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ (Ancient Cities and Mahajanapadas in India)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဍုင် အဓိက ဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[ဝေသာလဳ]] (Vaishali)
* [[သာဝတ္ထိ]] (Shravasti)
* [[ရာဇဂြိုဟ်]] (Rajgir)
* [[ပါဋလိပုတ်]] (Pataliputra)
* [[ဗာရာဏသဳ]] (Varanasi)
* [[ကပိလဝတ်]] (Kapilavastu)
| group2 = မဟာဇနပဒ
| list2 =
* [[မဂဓ]] (Magadha)
* [[ဝဇ္ဇဳ]] (Vajji)
* [[ကောသလ]] (Kosala)
* [[အင်္ဂ]] (Anga)
* [[မလ္လ]] (Malla)
| group3 = ဝင် ဆက်စပ်
| list3 =
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[ဂျိန်ဘာသာ]] (Jainism)
* [[သၟိင် အသောက]] (Ashoka)
* [[ဒုတိယ သင်္ဂါယနာ]] (Second Buddhist Council)
}}
[[Category:ဍုင်တြေံ အိန္ဒိယဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ]]
[[Category:ဝင် အိန္ဒိယ]]
[[Category:ဒေသ သုတေသန အခိုက်တြေံ]]
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စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ
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'''စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Fourth Buddhist council'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပေါဲသဘင် ကောံဓရီု ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ သွက်ဂွံ ပလေဝ်ဒါန်၊ မင်မဲ ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဓမ္မဝိနယ မဒှ် တွဟ်ဍောင်ဓရ် [[ကျာ်တြဲ]] ဂေါတမ ရ။ အရာ မတၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု သင်္ဂါယနာ ပထမ၊ ဒုတိယ ကေုာံ တတိယ တအ် ဂှ်၊ သင်္ဂါယနာ စတုတ္ထ ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ၜါ ဗီုပြင် အတိုင် ဂိုဏ် (Tradition) မပါ်တိတ် လဝ် ရ။ မွဲဂှ် ဒှ် သင်္ဂါယနာ စတုတ္ထ အတိုင် လညာတ် '''[[ထေရဝါဒ]]''' (Theravada) မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် [[သဳရိလင်္ကာ]] (Sri Lanka) ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ပထမ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခရေတ် (1st Century BCE)၊ တုဲ မွဲပၠန် ဂှ် ဒှ် သင်္ဂါယနာ စတုတ္ထ အတိုင် လညာတ် '''[[သရဝါသတိဝါဒ]]''' (Sarvastivada/Mahayana) မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ကသ္မဳရ (Kashmir) ပ္ဍဲ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ပထမ ကြဴနူ ခရေတ် (1st Century CE) ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=P. |title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |pages=88-92}}</ref>
ပေါဲ သင်္ဂါယနာ ၜါ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက် ဝင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ရ။ သင်္ဂါယနာ ထေရဝါဒ ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ချူ စၟတ်သမ္တီ [[ပိဋကတ်ပိ]] (Tipitaka) လတူ သၠရိုတ် ပေ ပထမအိုတ် တုဲ၊ သင်္ဂါယနာ ကသ္မဳရ ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ခၞံဗဒှ် လိက် အဋ္ဌကထာ မဟာဝိဘာသ (Mahavibhasa) သွက် လညာတ် မဟာယာန ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ ဂိုဏ်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ သာသနာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Aluvihare_Rock_Temple.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဘာထီု အလုဝိဟာရ (Aluvihare Rock Temple) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သဳရိလင်္ကာ၊ မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မကၠောန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ ထေရဝါဒ ကေုာံ မချူစၟတ်သမ္တီ လိက်ပိဋကတ် လတူ သၠရိုတ် ပေ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Background) ==
"သင်္ဂါယနာ" ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ ပါဠိ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ဖ္ဍောတ် သှ်ဇျာယ် မွဲစွံ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ကောံဓရီု သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ" ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ နူ စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ ဏအ်၊ ဝင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ နွံ လဝ် သင်္ဂါယနာ ဇၞော် ၃ ဝါ - ပထမ သင်္ဂါယနာ (ပ္ဍဲ ရာဇဂြိုဟ်)၊ ဒုတိယ သင်္ဂါယနာ (ပ္ဍဲ ဝေသာလဳ)၊ ကေုာံ တတိယ သင်္ဂါယနာ (ပ္ဍဲ ပါဋလိပုတ် အခိင် သၟိင် အသောက) ရ။
ကြဴနူ တတိယ သင်္ဂါယနာ တုဲ၊ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ ပြးဇး အာ အလုံ ရးအာရှ ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ပြးဇး ဏအ်၊ လညာတ် ဝါဒ တၞဟ်ခြာ (Schisms) ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ကာလ စိုပ် အခိင် စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ မ္ဂး၊ ဂကောံ သံဃာ တအ် ဟွံမာန် ကောံဓရီု မွဲစွံ အလုံ မွဲ သာသနာ တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် ဒးကၠောန် ဗဒှ် သင်္ဂါယနာ အတိုင် ဒေသ ကေုာံ ဂိုဏ် ညး ကဵု ညး ရ။
== ၂။ ဟိုတ် မဂွံကတဵုဒှ် စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ (Causes and Motivations) ==
ဟိုတ် အဓိက မပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ကၠောန် သင်္ဂါယနာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု အကာဲအရာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ လိက်ပတ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဆောမ်လေင် ခမဳ:''' ပ္ဍဲ သဳရိလင်္ကာ၊ ကပ်ကၞောဝ် ဇၞော် (Famine) မကော်စ ၜါမိဏိတိဿ (Baminitiya Seya) ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပွိုင် ၁၂ သၞာံ။ ခမဳ မနွံကဵု အစောံ မာန် ဖ္ဍောတ် နှိုင် လိက်ပိဋကတ် တအ် ဒးစုတိ အာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။ ယဝ်ရ ဆက် မင်မဲ နကဵု နှုတ် (Oral tradition) သၟး မ္ဂး လိက်ပတ် ဓရ် ကျာ် သ္ဒး ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ မာန် ရ။
* '''ပြသၞာ ဓမ္မ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်:''' ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ဍုင် အိန္ဒိယ သၟဝ်ကျာ ကေုာံ လဒေါဝ် အာရှ၊ လညာတ် မဟာယာန ကေုာံ သရဝါသတိဝါဒ တအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် တုဲ ညးတအ် နွံပၟိက် မိက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လိက် အဋ္ဌကထာ (Commentaries) သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး အဘိဓရ် ရ။<ref name="gombrich">{{cite book |last=Gombrich |first=R. |title=Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo |url=https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis0000gomb |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis0000gomb/page/150 150]-155}}</ref>
== ၃။ စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ ထေရဝါဒ (The Theravada Fourth Council) ==
သွက် ဂိုဏ် ထေရဝါဒ (ဂိုဏ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်မန်၊ ဗၟာ၊ သေံ၊ လာအဝ်၊ ကမ္ဗောဒဳယျာ) မ္ဂး၊ စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် သဳရိလင်္ကာ (တမ္ဗပဏ္ဏိ) ရ။
* '''အခိင်:''' ၜိုတ် ၂၉ ဘဳသဳ (BCE)
* '''ဒၞာဲ:''' ဘာထီု အလုဝိဟာရ (Aluvihare Rock Temple)၊ ဍုင် အနုရာဓပုရ
* '''သၟိင် ညးမထံက်ပင်:''' သၟိင် ဝဋ္ဋဂါမဏိ အဘယ (King Vattagamani Abhaya ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Valagamba)
* '''ခမဳ ညးမက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ်:''' မှာထေရ် ရက္ခိတ (Mahathera Rakkhita) ကေုာံ ခမဳ အရဟန္တ ၅၀၀ ဇကု။
ပေါဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ သာသနာ နူကဵု ကပ်ကၞောဝ် ကေုာံ ဘဲ ပၞာန် မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဂှ် ရ။
== ၄။ ပရေင်ချူစၟတ်သမ္တီ လိက်ပိဋကတ် (Committing the Tipitaka to Writing) ==
အံင်ဇၞး ဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက် စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ ပ္ဍဲ သဳရိလင်္ကာ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ချူစၟတ်သမ္တီ လိက်ပိဋကတ် ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ နူ ဏအ်၊ လိက်ပိဋကတ်ပိ (ဝိနယ၊ သုတ္တန္တ၊ အဘိဓမ္မ) တအ်ဝွံ ခမဳ တအ် တန်သိပ် မင်မဲ လဝ် နကဵု လဟီု နှုတ် (Oral transmission / Mukhapatha) နူ မွဲ ဒတောဝ် စိုပ် မွဲ ဒတောဝ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ သင်္ဂါယနာ ဏအ်၊ ခမဳ ၅၀၀ ဇကု ဖ္ဍောတ် သှ်ဇျာယ် တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် ချူ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ဍောင်ဓရ် သီုဖအိုတ် လတူ '''သၠရိုတ် ပေ''' (Palm leaves) နကဵု လိက် ပါဠိ ရ။ ပရေင်ချူ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဝင် ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ လိက်ပတ် ပ္ဍဲ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ညးတအ် ဟွံချူ လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဂှ် မ္ဂး၊ လိက်ပိဋကတ် ပါဠိ မဒှ် သဇိုင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မန် ကေုာံ ဗၟာ တ္ၚဲဏအ် တအ် သ္ဒး ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ မာန် ရ။
== ၅။ စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ သရဝါသတိဝါဒ (The Sarvastivada Fourth Council) ==
သွက် ဂိုဏ် မဟာယာန ကေုာံ ဂိုဏ် သၟဝ်ကျာ တအ် မ္ဂး၊ စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ကသ္မဳရ (Kashmir) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇလန္ဓရ (Jalandhar) ရ။
* '''အခိင်:''' ၜိုတ် ၇၈ သဳအဳ (CE - ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ပထမ)
* '''ဒၞာဲ:''' ဍုင် ကသ္မဳရ (Kashmir)
* '''သၟိင် ညးမထံက်ပင်:''' သၟိင် ကနိသျှက (King Kanishka of the Kushan Empire)
* '''ခမဳ ညးမက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ်:''' မှာထေရ် ဝသုမိတြ (Vasumitra) ကေုာံ အဿဃောသ (Aśvaghoṣa)၊ သီုကဵု ခမဳ ၅၀၀ ဇကု။
သင်္ဂါယနာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံဒးဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နကဵု ဂိုဏ် ထေရဝါဒ ပုဟ်၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက် လညာတ် မဟာယာန ကေုာံ တိဗေတ် (Tibetan Buddhism) ရ။<ref name="buswell">{{cite book |last=Buswell |first=R. E. |author2=Lopez, D. S. |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2013 |pages=312-315}}</ref>
== ၆။ သၟိင် ကနိသျှက ကေုာံ မဟာဝိဘာသ (King Kanishka and Mahavibhasa) ==
သၟိင် ကနိသျှက (Kanishka) ဝွံ ဒှ် သၟိင် ဇၞော် အင်ပါယာ ကုသျှာန် (Kushan Empire) မအုပ်ဓုပ် ဒေသ လဒေါဝ် အာရှ ကေုာံ အိန္ဒိယ သၟဝ်ကျာ ရ။ ညးတေအ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု သဒ္ဓါ လတူ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တုပ် ညံင် သၟိင် အသောက ကီု ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ သင်္ဂါယနာ ဏအ်၊ အရာ အဓိက ညးတအ် ကၠောန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ချူ လိက် အဋ္ဌကထာ (Commentaries) သွက် လိက် အဘိဓရ် မကော်စ '''မဟာဝိဘာသ သတ္တရ''' (Mahavibhaṣa Śastra) ရ။ လိက် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ကျောဝ် ဇၞော် သွက် လညာတ် သရဝါသတိဝါဒ ရ။ အတိုင် ဝင် မ္ဂး၊ လိက် အဋ္ဌကထာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ညးတအ် ချူ လဝ် လတူ '''ပြး သလာ် တွိုတ်''' (Copper plates) ကေုာံ စွံ လဝ် အပ္ဍဲ စေတဳ ရ။
== ၇။ တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ သင်္ဂါယနာ ၜါ (Comparison of the Two Councils) ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ ၜါ ဗီုပြင်
|-
! တင် အဓိက
! သင်္ဂါယနာ ထေရဝါဒ (သဳရိလင်္ကာ)
! သင်္ဂါယနာ သရဝါသတိဝါဒ (ကသ္မဳရ)
|-
| '''ဂိုဏ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ'''
| ထေရဝါဒ (Theravada)
| သရဝါသတိဝါဒ / မဟာယာန (Sarvastivada)
|-
| '''စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ကေုာံ သၞာံ'''
| ~ ၂၉ BCE
| ~ ၇၈ CE
|-
| '''သၟိင် မထံက်ပင်'''
| သၟိင် ဝဋ္ဋဂါမဏိ အဘယ (Vattagamani Abhaya)
| သၟိင် ကနိသျှက (King Kanishka)
|-
| '''အရေဝ်ဘာသာ'''
| ပါဠိ (Pali)
| သက္ကတ (Sanskrit)
|-
| '''အံင်ဇၞး အဓိက'''
| ချူ လိက်ပိဋကတ် လတူ သၠရိုတ် ပေ။
| ခၞံဗဒှ် လိက် အဋ္ဌကထာ မဟာဝိဘာသ။
|}
== ၈။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ (Impact on Buddhism) ==
စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ သီု ၜါ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵု ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ -
* '''သၞောတ် လိက်ပတ် (Textual Tradition):''' ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် သာသနာ ဝွံ တန်တဴ လတူ လဟီု နှုတ်၊ လၟုဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ လတူ သၞောတ် လိက်ပတ် (Written texts) မာန် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် လိက် ပတ် ဂွံ တန်တဴ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ သာသနာ (Solidification of Schisms):''' ဟိုတ်နူ သင်္ဂါယနာ ၜါ ဏအ် ကၠောန် တၞဟ်ခြာ ဒၞာဲ ကေုာံ အခိင် ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍေဟ် ထ္ၜး ကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ဂိုဏ် ထေရဝါဒ ပ္ဍဲ သၠုင်ကျာ ကေုာံ ဂိုဏ် မဟာယာန ပ္ဍဲ သၟဝ်ကျာ တအ် ပါ်ခြာ အာ ရေင်သကအ် ဍိုက်ဍိုက်ပေင်ပေင် တုဲ၊ လညာတ် ညးတအ် လေဝ် အာ မွဲ ဂၠံင် ဟွံသေင် ရ။<ref name="keown">{{cite book |last=Keown |first=D. |title=A Dictionary of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofbudd0000keow |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofbudd0000keow/page/105 105]-108}}</ref>
== ၉။ အာဲကၟာဲ သာသနာ ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် (Religious and Literary Heritage) ==
အာဲကၟာဲ နူကဵု သင်္ဂါယနာ ထေရဝါဒ ပ္ဍဲ သဳရိလင်္ကာ ဂှ် ဒှ် လိက်ပိဋကတ် ပါဠိ မပေင်ဍိုက် မသှ်ေၜက် လဝ် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။ လိက် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကြဴနူ ဂှ် စိုပ် အာ ဍုင် သုဝဏ္ဏဘူမိ (Suvannabhumi) ကေုာံ ရးအာရှအဂၞဲ မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်မန်၊ ဗၟာ၊ ကေုာံ သေံ တုဲ ဒှ် လိက် သဇိုင် သွက် ဂကူ တအ် ဏအ် ရ။
နူကဵု သင်္ဂါယနာ ကသ္မဳရ ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် အရေဝ် သက္ကတ (Sanskrit) ဂွံ ဒှ် အရေဝ် အဓိက သွက် ဂိုဏ် မဟာယာန ရ။ လိက် ကသ္မဳရ တအ် ဏအ် ဂှ် လက္ကရဴ ပြာပ် အာ စိုပ် ဍုင် ကြုက်၊ ဂျပေန်၊ ကေုာံ တိဗေတ် တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် ကၠာဲ စၠောအ် လဝ် နကဵု ဘာသာ ညးတအ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လညာတ် ဝင် ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern Historical Analysis) ==
နကဵု လညာတ် တၠပညာ ဝင် ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် မ္ဂး၊ စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ ၜါ ဏအ်ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အခိုက်အလိုက် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ နာနာ ရ။
တၠပညာ တအ် ဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ချူ လိက် ပ္ဍဲ သဳရိလင်္ကာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Social change) ဇၞော် မွဲ၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ယှောတ် ဖျေဟ် ဒြဟတ် အဝဵု သံဃာ ညးမသှ်ဇျာယ် (Reciters) တုဲ ကဵု အခေါင် ကု ညးလ္ၚတ် လိက် တအ် မာန် ဂၠာဲ တီ ဓရ် နကဵု လိက် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ကသ္မဳရ ပၠန် ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ထံက်ပင် သၟိင် ကနိသျှက ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ အဝဵု သၟိင် ကေုာံ သာသနာ သွက်ဂွံ လလောင်တြး အင်ပါယာ ကုသျှာန် ရ။<ref name="thapar">{{cite book |last=Thapar |first=R. |title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap |publisher=University of California Press |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap/page/260 260]-265}}</ref>
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သင်္ဂါယနာ ပထမ]] (First Buddhist council)
* [[ပိဋကတ်ပိ]] (Tipitaka)
* [[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada)
* [[မဟာယာန]] (Mahayana)
{{Navbox
| name = Buddhist Councils
| title = သင်္ဂါယနာ ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Buddhist Councils)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သင်္ဂါယနာ တမၠာဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[ပထမ သင်္ဂါယနာ]] (First Council - Rajagaha)
* [[ဒုတိယ သင်္ဂါယနာ]] (Second Council - Vesali)
* [[တတိယ သင်္ဂါယနာ]] (Third Council - Pataliputta)
| group2 = သင်္ဂါယနာ စတုတ္ထ ကေုာံ လက္ကရဴ
| list2 =
* [[စတုတ္ထ သင်္ဂါယနာ]] (Fourth Council - Sri Lanka / Kashmir)
* [[ပဉ္စမ သင်္ဂါယနာ]] (Fifth Council - Mandalay, 1871)
* [[ဆဋ္ဌမ သင်္ဂါယနာ]] (Sixth Council - Yangon, 1954)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ပိဋကတ်ပိ]] (Tipitaka)
* [[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada)
* [[သရဝါသတိဝါဒ]] (Sarvastivada)
* [[ဝင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (History of Buddhism)
}}
[[Category:သင်္ဂါယနာဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ဝင် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
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'''ပရေင်သီ အဝဵု ဍုင်ဗၟာ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''1962 Burmese coup d'état'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် မဇၞော်ကဵု ဒြဟတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ဍုင်ဗၟာ ခေတ်တၟိ တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၂ မာတ် သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲဂှ် ဂကောံဒပ်ပၞာန် ဍုင်ဗၟာ (တပ်မတော်) မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် လဝ် နကဵု ဗိုလ်ချုပ်ဇၞော် [[နေဝေန်]] (General Ne Win) ဝွံ သီ ကေတ် ထောအ် အဝဵု အလဵုအသဳ အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် နူကဵု အလဵုအသဳ မရုဲစှ် လဝ် နကဵု မာဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် နကဵု နာယကဝန်ဇၞော် [[ဥူနု]] (U Nu) ရ။<ref name="taylor">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=R. H. |title=The State in Myanmar |url=https://archive.org/details/stateinmyanmar0000tayl_z5z4 |publisher=NUS Press |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/stateinmyanmar0000tayl_z5z4/page/293 293]-295}}</ref>
ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဏအ်ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ပါလဳမာန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ မစတင် ကၠုင် လဝ် နူ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၈ ဂှ် ဒးအိုတ် အာ တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် စတင် လဝ် ခေတ် အလဵုအသဳ တၠအဝဵု ပၞာန် မအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် ဗွဲမလအ်လ စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၈၈ ရ။ ဗိုလ်ချုပ်ဇၞော် နေဝေန် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် "ကံင်သဳ တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်" (Union Revolutionary Council) တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် နကဵု ဝါဒ '''[[ဂၠံင်တရဴ သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ]]''' (Burmese Way to Socialism) ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဏအ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဟိုတ်၊ လၟေင် ပရူဒဒှ်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုအာစိုပ် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ。
[[File:Ne_Win,_1962_(cropped).jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗိုလ်ချုပ်ဇၞော် နေဝေန် (Ne Win) ညးမက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဍုင်ဗၟာ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Overview) ==
ပရေင်သီအဝဵု (Coup d'état) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်သီ ကေတ် အဝဵု အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် နကဵု ဒြဟတ် လက်နက် (ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နူကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန်) နကဵု ဗီုပြင် မဟွံသၟဟ် ကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ရ။ ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဍုင်ဗၟာ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်သီအဝဵု မဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဆီပါ် ဍာ်ဇွောဝ် (Bloodless coup) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဝင် ဍုင်ဗၟာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲ ၂ မာတ် ၁၉၆၂ အခိင် နူဂယး ပြဟ် ဂှ်၊ ဒပ်ပၞာန် တအ် လုပ် ရပ် ကေတ် နာယကဝန်ဇၞော် ဥူနု၊ သမ္မတ ဍုင် [[စဝ်ရွှေသိုက်]] (Sao Shwe Thaik)၊ ကေုာံ ဝန်ဇၞော်၊ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ တုဲမ္ဂး ဗိုလ်ချုပ်ဇၞော် နေဝေန် လလောင်တြး နကဵု ရေဒဳယော ဍုင်ဗၟာ ဒဒှ်ရ ဒပ်ပၞာန် သီ ကေတ် လဝ် အဝဵု တုဲယျ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု အကာဲအရာ ဍုင် မယောင်ယာ ဒၟံင် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ၁၉၆၂ (Historical Background and Pre-1962 Context) ==
ကြဴနူ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကလိဂွံ ဍုင်သၠးပွး နူကဵု အင်္ဂလိက် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၈ တုဲ၊ ဍုင် ဂှ် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ ကု ပရေင်ပၞာန် အပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် (Civil war) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကတဵုသပုန် နူကဵု ဂကောံ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် ကေုာံ ဗော် ကောန်မျူနေတ် တအ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ဥူနု က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် လဝ် အလဵုအသဳ "ဖဆပလ" (AFPFL) ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၈ ဂှ် ဗော် ဖဆပလ ပါ်ထကး အာ ၜါ ကရေက် ရ။<ref name="myintu">{{cite book |last=Myint-U |first=T. |title=The River of Lost Footsteps: Histories of Burma |url=https://archive.org/details/riveroflostfoots0000than_d0r2 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/riveroflostfoots0000than_d0r2/page/290 290]-297}}</ref>
ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဟွံညိင်ဝတ် ဂှ်ရ၊ ဥူနု ကဵု အပ် လဝ် အဝဵု ကု ဗိုလ်ချုပ်ဇၞော် နေဝေန် နဒဒှ် '''အလဵုအသဳ မင်မဲ ဍုင်''' (Caretaker Government) ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၈ စဵုကဵု ၁၉၆၀ ရ。ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၀ ဂှ် ကလေင် ကၠောန် ပေါဲရုဲမာဲ တုဲ ဗော် ဥူနု ကလိဂွံ ဇမၞး၊ ညး ကလေင် ဒှ် နာယကဝန်ဇၞော် ပၠန် ရ။ ဆဂး ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ညး ဟွံမာန် ထိင်ဒဝ် ပြသၞာ သၞောတ် ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် ကေုာံ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် တအ် ရ။
== ၃။ ဟိုတ် မကတဵုဒှ် ပရေင်သီအဝဵု (Causes of the Coup) ==
ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု အကာဲအရာ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်အာတ်မိက် ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် (Federal Movement):''' က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် တအ် ဗွဲတၟေင် နူကဵု တွဵုရး သေံ (Shan State) တအ် ကၠောန် ပေါဲသဳကၠဳ ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်လ္ဂုင် သွက်ဂွံ အာတ်မိက် အခေါင်အရာ အုပ်ဓုပ် အလဵုဇကု ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် မဍာံပြ ရ။ ဒပ်ပၞာန် (ဗိုလ် နေဝေန်) ညာတ် ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ အရာ ဏအ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ပါ်ထကး ကၟိန်ဍုင် (Secession) တုဲ ဒးကၟာတ်လဒဵု ရ။
* '''ပရေင်သာသနာ နဒဒှ် သာသနာ ဍုင် (State Religion Issue):''' ဥူနု ဂစာန် ပတိုန် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ နဒဒှ် သာသနာ ဍုင် တုဲ၊ အရာ ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် မလျိုင်ဇြိုင် လတူ ဘာသာ ခရေတ်ယာန် (ဥပမာ - ကချေင်၊ ကရေင်) တအ် ဟွံပေင်စိုတ် ကေုာံ ထေဲ တိုန် ရ။
* '''ဒြဟတ် ပရေင်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ လညာတ် သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ်:''' ဂကောံ သကိုပ်ပၞာန် လ္ၚဵု တအ် ညာတ် ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ပါလဳမာန် ဂှ် ဍိုန်လျ လောန် တုဲ သ္ဒး စကာ သၞောတ် သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဍုင် ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ရ။
== ၄။ လၟေင် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် သီအဝဵု ၂ မာတ် (Events of the March 2 Coup) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဗတံ ၁ မာတ် ကေုာံ အခိင် နူဂယး ပြဟ် ၂ မာတ် ၁၉၆၂ ဂှ်၊ ဒပ်ပၞာန် သီ ကေတ် ဒၞာဲ အဓိက တအ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်လ္ဂုင် မပ္တံကဵု ရုင် ဗလး ရမ္သာင်၊ ရုင် တေဝ်လဳဖုန်၊ ကေုာံ သ္ၚိ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် အလဵုအသဳ တအ် ရ။
ဥူနု၊ စဝ်ရွှေသိုက်၊ ကေုာံ ဝန်ဇၞော် တၞဟ် တအ် ဒးဒုင် ရပ် ကေတ် အပ္ဍဲ သ္ၚိ ညးတအ် အခိင် တိတ် ဒၟံင် သတိ ရ။ ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဏအ် ၜိုန်ရ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ပေါဲဗတိုက် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဒပ်ပၞာန် လုပ် ရပ် သမ္မတ တြေံ စဝ်ရွှေသိုက် ဂှ်၊ ကောန်ဝုတ် ညး စဝ်မဳသိုက် (Sao Mye Thaik) မနွံ အာယုက် ၁၇ သၞာံ ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ပန် ဂစိုတ် နကဵု ကောန်ပၞာန် တအ် ရ။ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ဆီပါ် မွဲ ဓဝ် ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲ သီအဝဵု ရ။<ref name="steinberg">{{cite book |last=Steinberg |first=D. I. |title=Burma: The State of Myanmar |url=https://archive.org/details/burmastateofmyan0000stei |publisher=Georgetown University Press |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/burmastateofmyan0000stei/page/70 70]-75}}</ref>
== ၅။ ပရေင်ဒက်ပတန် ကံင်သဳ တဝ်စၞေဟ် (Establishment of the Union Revolutionary Council) ==
ကြဴနူ သီ အဝဵု တုဲ၊ ဗိုလ်ချုပ်ဇၞော် နေဝေန် ဒက်ပတန် '''[[ကံင်သဳ တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်]]''' (Union Revolutionary Council - RC) မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု သကိုပ်ပၞာန် ဇၞော် ၁၇ တၠ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ အခိင် အလဵုအသဳ ဥူနု ကဵု ကံင်သဳ တဝ်စၞေဟ်
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! ခေတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ပါလဳမာန် (၁၉၄၈-၁၉၆၂)
! ခေတ် ကံင်သဳ တဝ်စၞေဟ် (၁၉၆၂-၁၉၇၄)
|-
| '''သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ်'''
| ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ပါလဳမာန် မရုဲစှ် နကဵု မာဲ။
| အလဵုအသဳ ပၞာန် တၠအဝဵု။
|-
| '''သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ'''
| သၞောတ်ဥပဒေ သဇိုင် ဍုင် သၞာံ ၁၉၄၇ (Constitution)။
| ပလီု ထောအ် သၞောတ်ဥပဒေ သဇိုင်၊ အုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵု အမိင်။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်'''
| သၞောတ် ပိုန်ဒြပ် နှဴရဴ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗၞိက် သၠးပွး။
| သၞောတ် ပိုန်ဒြပ် ပိုင် အလဵုအသဳ (Nationalization)။
|-
| '''လညာတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်'''
| ဗော် နာနာ သာ် နွံ အခေါင် ချဳဓရာင်။
| ဗော် မွဲ ဓဝ် (BSPP) သၟး နွံ အခေါင်။
|}
ကံင်သဳ တဝ်စၞေဟ် ဝွံ ပလီု ထောအ် လွှတ်တော် (Parliament)၊ ပလီု ထောအ် သၞောတ်ဥပဒေ သဇိုင် သၞာံ ၁၉၄၇၊ ကေုာံ ရပ် ကေတ် ညးမချဳဓရာင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
== ၆။ ဂၠံင်တရဴ သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ (The Burmese Way to Socialism) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတု ဨဗရဳ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂ ဂှ်၊ ကံင်သဳ တဝ်စၞေဟ် လလောင်တြး ကြညာစာ '''[[ဂၠံင်တရဴ သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ]]''' (The Burmese Way to Socialism) မဒှ် သၞောတ် လညာတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် တၟိ သွက် ဍုင်ဗၟာ ရ။
ဝါဒ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ လဝ် လညာတ် မာတ်ဝါဒ (Marxism)၊ လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Buddhism)၊ ကေုာံ ဝါဒ ဆာန်ဂကူ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု (Isolationist nationalism) ရ။ အလဵုအသဳ ဒက်ပတန် '''ဗော် ပရေင်သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် လမ်းစဉ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ''' (Burma Socialist Programme Party - BSPP) မဒှ် ဗော် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မွဲ ဓဝ် မနွံ အခေါင် ဗက် သၞောဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ တုဲ ဗော် တၞဟ် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ရ။
== ၇။ ဖဵုအာစိုပ် လတူ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Economic and Social Impacts) ==
နကဵု သၞောတ် သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် ဂှ်၊ ကံင်သဳ တဝ်စၞေဟ် သီ ကေတ် (Nationalization) ရုင် ကမၠောန်၊ ဘဏ်၊ ရုင် ပတိတ် လိက်ပရိုင်၊ ကေုာံ ဆေင် ကမၠောန် အလုံ ဍုင် သီုဖအိုတ် ပၠောပ် ထောအ် သၟဝ် တဲ အလဵုအသဳ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဒးပြံင်တိတ် ညးဍုင်တၞဟ်:''' အလဵုအသဳ ပတိတ် သၞောဝ် ညံင် သေဌဳ ကေုာံ ညးဗၞိက် မပ္တံကဵု ဂကူ အိန္ဒိယ (Indians) ကေုာံ ကြုက် (Chinese) ၜိုတ် ၃၀၀,၀၀၀ ပြင်င် ဒးပြံင်တိတ် အာ နူ ဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ မပကဵု ညံင် သၞောတ် ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ဍုင် ဒးလီုလာ် အာ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် စှ်ေ:''' ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ပရေအ် ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု ဍုင်မ္ၚး (Isolation) ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍုင်ဗၟာ မဒှ် လဝ် ဍုင် သိုက်သိုက် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ အာရှ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ၁၉၆၂ ဂှ်၊ ဒှ် အာ ဍုင် မဒိုက်ဂတ် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ (LDC) ရ။<ref name="smith">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=M. |title=Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity |url=https://archive.org/details/burmainsurgencyp0000smit |publisher=Zed Books |year=1991 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/burmainsurgencyp0000smit/page/195 195]-200}}</ref>
== ၈။ ပရေင်ဒစးဒုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗတိုက်ပလီု ကွးဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် (Opposition and the Student Union Bombing) ==
ကြဴနူ သီ အဝဵု တုဲ မွဲ လစှ်ေ ဓဝ်၊ ကွးဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်လ္ဂုင် တအ် စ ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဒစးဒုင် လတူ အလဵုအသဳ ပၞာန် တအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲ ၇ ဂျူလာင် ၁၉၆၂ ဂှ်၊ ဒပ်ပၞာန် တအ် ပန် ဖျေဟ် ကွးဘာ မထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ပ္ဍဲ ဗလး တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် (Rangoon University) တုဲ ကွးဘာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒးချိုတ် ကေုာံ ဒးဝပ် အာ ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် နူဂယး ပြဟ် ၈ ဂျူလာင် ဂှ်၊ ဗိုလ်ချုပ်ဇၞော် နေဝေန် ကဵု အမိင် ဖျေဟ် ဗုံး ပလီု ထောအ် သြိုင်ခၞံ '''ဂကောံ သမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် တအ်''' (Student Union Building - သမဂ္ဂအဆောက်အအုံ) မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဍုင်ဗၟာ စဵုကဵု ထကး လီုလာ် အာ အလုံစုံ ရ။<ref name="lintner">{{cite book |last=Lintner |first=B. |title=Outrage: Burma's Struggle for Democracy |url=https://archive.org/details/outrageburmasstr0000lint |publisher=White Lotus |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/outrageburmasstr0000lint/page/45 45]-48}}</ref>
== ၉။ ဖဵုအာစိုပ် လတူ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပၞာန် အပ္ဍဲ (Impact on Ethnic Minorities and Civil War) ==
ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဏအ်ဝွံ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ထောအ် ပရေင်အာတ်မိက် အခေါင်အရာ ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် နူကဵု ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် မပ္တံကဵု သေံ၊ ကရေင်၊ ကချေင် တအ် ညာတ် ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ လိက်ကသုက် ပင်လုံ (Panglong Agreement) ဂှ် အလဵုအသဳ ပၞာန် တအ် ပလီု ထောအ် တုဲယျ ရ။
ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ပရေင်ပၞာန် အပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် (Civil war) ကတဵု ဇၞော် တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ ဒပ် ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် မပ္တံကဵု KIA (ကချေင်) မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ၁၉၆၁ ဂှ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန်၊ ကေုာံ ဂကောံ တဝ်စၞေဟ် မန် တအ် လေဝ် ကလေင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် ပရေင်ပၞာန် သွက်ဂွံ ဗတိုက် ကဵု အလဵုအသဳ တၠအဝဵု ပၞာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ အာဲကၟာဲ ဝင် ကေုာံ လကျာ် လက္ကရဴ (Historical Legacy and Aftermath) ==
ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ၂ မာတ် ၁၉၆၂ ဝွံ ဒှ် တမ်ရိုဟ် သွက် ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် စတင် လဝ် အခိုက်အလိုက် "ဒပ်ပၞာန် ပိုင်ပြဳ အဝဵု" (Military supremacy) မလအ်လ အာ ပွိုင် ၂၆ သၞာံ သၟဝ် ဗိုလ် နေဝေန် တုဲ၊ သီုကဵု ဆက် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ပရေင်သီအဝဵု လက္ကရဴ ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၈၈ ကေုာံ ၂၀၂၁ ရ။
အလဵုအသဳ သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် နေဝေန် ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ဖျေဟ် ထောအ် အဝဵု ဟိုတ်နူ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် မဇၞော်အိုတ် မကော်စ '''ပေါဲကတဵုသပုန် ၈၈၈၈''' (8888 Uprising) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၈ ရ။ ဆဂး ၜိုန်ရ ခေတ် သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် အိုတ် အာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ သၞောတ် တၠအဝဵု ပၞာန် (Military dictatorship) ဂှ် ဆက် ကတဵုဒှ် အာ နကဵု ဗီုပြင် တၟိ စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၂၀၁၁ (ခေတ် နအဖ / SLORC/SPDC) တုဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ကေုာံ လက္ကရဴ ဍုင် တၞဟ် တအ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[နေဝေန်]] (Ne Win)
* [[ဂၠံင်တရဴ သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ]] (Burmese Way to Socialism)
* [[ဥူနု]] (U Nu)
* [[ပေါဲကတဵုသပုန် ၈၈၈၈]] (8888 Uprising)
{{Navbox
| name = History of Myanmar
| title = ဝင် ဍုင်ဗၟာ (History of Myanmar)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ခေတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ
| list1 =
* [[ခေတ် ပုဂံ]] (Pagan Kingdom)
* [[ခေတ် တံင်ငူ]] (Taungoo Dynasty)
* [[ခေတ် ကုန်းဘောင်]] (Konbaung Dynasty)
| group2 = ခေတ် အင်္ဂလိက် ကေုာံ သၠးပွး
| list2 =
* [[ပၞာန် အင်္ဂလိက်-ဗၟာ]] (Anglo-Burmese Wars)
* [[လိက်ကသုက် ပင်လုံ]] (Panglong Agreement)
* [[ခေတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ပါလဳမာန်]] (Parliamentary Democracy Era 1948-1962)
| group3 = ခေတ် ပၞာန်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်သီ အဝဵု ဍုင်ဗၟာ ၁၉၆၂]] (1962 Coup d'état)
* [[ဂၠံင်တရဴ သဵုယှေဝ်လေတ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ]] (Burmese Way to Socialism)
* [[ပေါဲကတဵုသပုန် ၈၈၈၈]] (8888 Uprising)
* [[ပရေင်သီ အဝဵု ဍုင်ဗၟာ ၂၀၂၁]] (2021 Coup d'état)
}}
[[Category:ဝင် ဍုင်ဗၟာ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်သီ အဝဵုဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:၁၉၆၂ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဍုင်ဗၟာ]]
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ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆
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'''ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''1936 University Students' Strike'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ [[တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင်]] (Rangoon University) ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆ အခိင် ဍုင်ဗၟာ မနွံ သၟဝ် တဲ အင်္ဂလိက် တအ် ရ။ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ အလန် ဒုတိယ (ကြဴနူ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀) တုဲ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ဍုင်ဗၟာ ရ။ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဏအ် ဂှ် က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် လဝ် နကဵု ကွးဘာ သၟတ် မပ္တံကဵု '''[[အံင်သာန်၊ နာဲ|နာဲအံင်သာန်]]''' (Aung San) ကေုာံ '''[[နု၊ ဦး|ဥူနု]]''' (U Nu) တအ် ရ။<ref name="maung">{{cite book |last=Maung |first=Maung |title=Burmese Nationalist Movements 1940-1948 |publisher=Kiscadale Publications |year=1989 |pages=15-22}}</ref>
ဟိုတ် အဓိက မပကဵု ညံင် ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ဂှ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု အစာဇၞော်ဘာ (Principal) တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် ဍဵုဍိုက် ကွးဘာ တအ် ကေုာံ ပ္တိတ် ထောအ် နာဲအံင်သာန် ကဵု ဥူနု နူကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် ရ။ ပရေင်ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ကွးဘာ တအ် ဒစးဒုင် တုဲ တိတ် ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ပ္ဍဲ လတူ က္ဍိုပ် ကျာ်လ္ဂုင် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဟိုတ်၊ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်၊ လၟေင် ပရူဒဒှ်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Yangon_University_Convocation_Hall.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ခဒမ် ပသေက် တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် (Yangon University Convocation Hall) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ကွးဘာ တအ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ကလိဂွံ ဍုင်သၠးပွး။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Overview) ==
ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပေါဲတဝ်စၞေဟ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတု ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆ ရ။ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ သွက် အခေါင်အရာ ပရေင်ပညာ သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ပေါဲတဝ်စၞေဟ် ဒစးဒုင် ဝါဒ ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ (Anti-colonialism) မွဲ ကီု ရ။
ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဏအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ဂကောံ သမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ မခိုင်ကၠိုက် မွဲ မတွဟ်ဂး '''[[ဂကောံသမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ အလုံဍုင်ဗၟာ]]''' (All-Burma Students' Union - ABSU) ကေုာံ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ အနာဂတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင် မ္ဂး၊ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆ ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞာံ မပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဗီုပြင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဍုင်ဗၟာ နူကဵု ပရေင်အာတ်မိက် အခေါင်အရာ ဓမ္မတာ ဂှ် စိုပ် အာ အဆံင် ပရေင်အာတ်မိက် ဗၠးၜး (Independence) ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Historical Background and Political Context) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀ တေအ် ဂှ်၊ ကွးဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် တအ် ထ္ၜး လဝ် ဆန္ဒ အလန် ပထမ သွက်ဂွံ ဒစးဒုင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် (Rangoon University Act of 1920) မဒှ် သၞောဝ် မဖန် လဝ် သွက် ကောန် သေဌဳ ကေုာံ ကောန် မၞိဟ်ဇၞော် အင်္ဂလိက် တအ် သၟး ဂွံ တိုန် ဘာ မာန် ရ။ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀ ဂှ် အံင်ဇၞး အာ တုဲ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် [[ဘာကောန်ဂကူ]] (National Schools) ပ္ဍဲ အလုံ ဍုင် ရ။<ref name="silverstein">{{cite book |last=Silverstein |first=J. |title=Burma: Military Rule and the Politics of Stagnation |url=https://archive.org/details/burmamilitaryrul00silv |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1977 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/burmamilitaryrul00silv/page/32 32]-38}}</ref>
ဆဂး စိုပ် သၞာံ ၁၉၃၀ တအ် ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် ဝွံ ဆက် တင်းကျပ် ဒၟံင် ဖိုဟ် ရ။ အစာဇၞော်ဘာ (Principal) မနွံ ယၟု '''[[အစာဇၞော် သလော့တ်]]''' (D.J. Sloss) ဝွံ အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် တက္ကသိုလ် နကဵု သၞောတ် တင်းကျပ် တုဲ ဟွံကဵု အခေါင် ကု ကွးဘာ တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ချဳဓရာင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ရ။ အကာဲအရာ တင်းကျပ် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ကွးဘာ တအ် ဂွံ ဒှ် ဒေါသ ကေုာံ နွံ ပၟိက် မိက်ဂွံ တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု အလဵုအသဳ အင်္ဂလိက် ရ။
== ၃။ ဟိုတ် မကတဵုဒှ် (Causes of the Strike) ==
ဟိုတ် အဓိက မပကဵု ညံင် ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဂွံ သကေက် တိတ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆ ဂှ် နွံ ၜါ သာ် -
# '''ပရေင်ပ္တိတ် ဥူနု နူ ဘာ:''' ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် စ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆၊ ဥူနု (ညးမဒှ် ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ သမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် အခိင် ဂှ်) ဟီု တွံ လိက် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပေါဲကောံသန္နိပါတ် ညးတအ် တုဲ ညးတေအ် ဒစးဒုင် ပါ်ပါဲ လတူ လဒက်ပတန် အုပ်ဓုပ် တက္ကသိုလ် မတင်းကျပ် လောန် အာ ဂှ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ဂှ် အစာဇၞော် သလော့တ် ဖျေဟ် အမိင် ပ္တိတ် ထောအ် ညးတေအ် နူကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် ရ။
# '''လိက်ပရေင် ပ္ဍဲ မဂ္ဂဇြေန် အိုးဝေ:''' နာဲအံင်သာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် အစာထီု (Editor) သွက် '''[[မဂ္ဂဇြေန် အိုးဝေ]]''' (Oway Magazine) မဒှ် မဂ္ဂဇြေန် သမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ မဂ္ဂဇြေန် ဂှ်၊ လိက်ပရေင် မွဲ မနွံ ယၟု '''"ကၠဵုကၠိက် အပါယ် ဂြိပ်တိတ် ဒၟံင်"''' (Hell Hound At Large) မချူလဝ် နကဵု ယၟု ဓလုက် (ကြဴနူ ဂှ် တီ ကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ ဒှ် [[ညိုမြ၊ ဦး|ဦးညိုမြ]]) တိတ် ကၠုင် ရ။ လိက် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပျုတ်စောမ် လဝ် ကောန်သၟိင် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဘာ မွဲ တၠ ရ။ အစာဇၞော် သလော့တ် အာတ်မိက် နာဲအံင်သာန် ညံင်ဂွံ လလောင် ထ္ၜး ယၟု ညးမချူ လိက် ဂှ် ရ။ ဆဂး နာဲအံင်သာန် ဒစးဒုင် ဟွံဟီု၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် စည်းကမ်း သိက္ခာ အစာပရိုင် (Journalistic ethics) တုဲ ညးတေအ် လေဝ် ဒးဒုင် ပ္တိတ် နူ ဘာ ကီု ရ။<ref name="lintner">{{cite book |last=Lintner |first=B. |title=Outrage: Burma's Struggle for Democracy |url=https://archive.org/details/outrageburmasstr0000lint |publisher=White Lotus |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/outrageburmasstr0000lint/page/25 25]-28}}</ref>
== ၄။ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Key Leaders and Figures) ==
ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဏအ်ဝွံ ပံင်ကောံ လဝ် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် သၟတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မဒှ် ကၠုင် မၞိဟ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဍုင်ဗၟာ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်အဓိကဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ၁၉၃၆
|-
! ယၟု က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ်
! တာလျိုင် အခိင်ဂှ် (၁၉၃၆)
! တာလျိုင် လက္ကရဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဝင်
|-
| '''[[အံင်သာန်၊ နာဲ|နာဲအံင်သာန်]]''' (Aung San)
| အစာထီု မဂ္ဂဇြေန် အိုးဝေ ကေုာံ ဖက်ဆော ညးအုပ်ကာ
| က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ကေုာံ ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် ဒပ်ပၞာန်
|-
| '''[[နု၊ ဦး|ဥူနု]]''' (U Nu)
| ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ သမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ (RUSU)
| သမ္မတ/ဝန်ဇၞော် ပထမအိုတ် အခိင် ဍုင်ဗၟာ သၠးပွး
|-
| '''[[အေမ်. အေ. ရာရှေတ်]]''' (M. A. Raschid)
| ညးအုပ်ကာ သမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ
| ဝန်ဇၞော် ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ သၟာပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်
|-
| '''[[ကျော်ငြိမ်း၊ ဦး|ဦးကျော်ငြိမ်း]]''' (Kyaw Nyein)
| က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ကွးဘာ တဝ်စၞေဟ်
| ဒု-ဝန်ဇၞော် ဍုင်ဗၟာ အခိင် ဖဆပလ (AFPFL)
|-
| '''[[ညိုမြ၊ ဦး|ဦးညိုမြ]]''' (Nyo Mya)
| ညးမချူ လိက် "Hell Hound At Large"
| အစာကဝိ ကေုာံ အစာပရိုင် ပြာကတ်
|}
== ၅။ လၟေင် ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် (Timeline of the Strike and Activities) ==
ကြဴနူ နာဲအံင်သာန် ကဵု ဥူနု ဒးဒုင် ပ္တိတ် နူ ဘာ တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၂၅ ဖေဖဝ်ဝါရဳ ၁၉၃၆ ဂှ် ကွးဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် ၜိုတ် ၇၀၀ ပြင်င် ဒေါအ် ထောအ် ပရေင်တိုန် ဘာ တုဲ စတင် ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ရ။
ညးတအ် တိတ် အာ နူ တက္ကသိုလ် တုဲ အာ တန် သ္ၚိ ကွးဘာ (Strike Camp) ပ္ဍဲ လတူ က္ဍိုပ် '''[[ကျာ်လ္ဂုင်]]''' (Shwedagon Pagoda) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဒက်ပတန် "ကမ္မတဳ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ" (Strike Committee) မွဲ ရ။ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ဏအ် ပြးဇး အာ ပြဟ်ပြဟ် တုဲ ကွးဘာ နူကဵု ဘာတန် အလုံ ဍုင် မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်မတ်မလီု၊ ဍုင်မာန္တလေ တအ် လေဝ် ပါလုပ် ကၠုင် မွဲစွံ ကီု ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ပါလုပ် နူကဵု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ဂကောံနာနာ (Public and Organizational Support) ==
ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ ဏအ် ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ထံက်ပင် နူကဵု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ ဂကူမန်၊ ဂကူဗၟာ၊ ကေုာံ ဂကူ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် တၞဟ် တအ် လေဝ် ပလံင် ဇွောအ်မ စၞစ သွက် ကွးဘာ တအ် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ကျာ်လ္ဂုင် ရ။<ref name="houtman">{{cite book |last=Houtman |first=G. |title=Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics |publisher=ILCAA |year=1999 |pages=120-125}}</ref>
သၟာပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ လကျာ် တအ် လေဝ် ဟီု ထံက်ဂလာန် ကု ကွးဘာ တအ် ကီု ရ။ လိက်ပရိုင် မပ္တံကဵု '''[[ပရိုင် မြန်မာ့အလင်း]]''' (New Light of Myanmar) တအ် ချူ ထ္ၜး ပရူ ကွးဘာ တအ် လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် အလဵုအသဳ အင်္ဂလိက် တအ် ဂွံ ဒးဒုင် ဓရိုဟ် က္ဍင် ကၠုင် ရ။ ပရေင်ဏအ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ ဂှ် ဒှ် အာ ပေါဲတဝ်စၞေဟ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
== ၇။ ပေါဲသဳကၠဳ ကေုာံ တင်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် (Negotiations and Resolutions) ==
ဟိုတ်နူ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဂှ် ဇၞော် ကၠုင် လောန် တုဲ၊ အလဵုအသဳ အင်္ဂလိက် တအ် ဒး ဒက်ပတန် ကမ္မတဳ သၟာန်စၟတ် သွက်ဂွံ သဳကၠဳ ကု ကွးဘာ တအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဂှ် ဝန်ဇၞော် ပရေင်ပညာ '''[[ဘမော်၊ ဒေါက်တာ|ဒေါက်တာ ဘမော်]]''' (Dr. Ba Maw) ဒှ် မၞိဟ် ဒေါဝ် မသဳကၠဳ အကြာ ကွးဘာ ကေုာံ တက္ကသိုလ် ရ။
ကြဴနူ ပေါဲသဳကၠဳ ပွိုင် မွဲ ဂိတု ပြင် တုဲ၊ တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် ဒုင်တဲ တင်အာတ်မိက် ကွးဘာ တအ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
* ကလေင် ဒုင်တဲ နာဲအံင်သာန် ကဵု ဥူနု ညံင် ဂွံ ဆက် တိုန် ဘာ။
* ဖျေဟ် အမိင် သွက်ဂွံ ပြင်ဆင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ တက္ကသိုလ် (University Act) ညံင် ဂွံ နွံကဵု ဗၠးၜး။
* ကဵု အခေါင် ဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံ သမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ လတူ ဥပဒေ (Legal recognition of Students' Unions)။
== ၈။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ပညာ (Impact on Education) ==
ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆ ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ လဒက်ပတန် တက္ကသိုလ် မအုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် နကဵု မၞိဟ် အင်္ဂလိက် သၟး ဂှ် ဒး ဖျေဟ် အစောံ တုဲ၊ မၞိဟ် ဒေသ (Local educators) တအ် ပါလုပ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။
လက္ကရဴ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဂှ်၊ '''[[ဖေမောင်တင်၊ ဦး|ဦးဖေမောင်တင်]]''' (U Pe Maung Tin) ဂွံ ဒှ် အစာဇၞော်ဘာ ကောန်ဍုင် ဒေသ ပထမအိုတ် (First native Principal) ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် ရ။ တုဲပၠန် သၞောတ် ဗတောန် လိက် မစကာ ဆ အင်္ဂလိက် သၟး ဂှ် ယှောတ် စှ်ေ တုဲ ကဵု အခေါင် လ္ၚတ် လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ဝင် ဒေသ ဇကု ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပညာ ကောန်ဂကူ ရ။
== ၉။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး (Impact on History and Independence Movement) ==
ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ဇၞော်အိုတ် သွက် ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ ဝင် ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မတန် သ္ၚိ ပ္ဍဲ ကျာ်လ္ဂုင် ဂှ်၊ ကွးဘာ တအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် '''ဂကောံသမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ အလုံဍုင်ဗၟာ''' (ABSU) မဒှ် ဂကောံ မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် ကွးဘာ နူကဵု အလုံ ဍုင် မွဲ ရ။<ref name="aungthwin">{{cite book |last=Aung-Thwin |first=M. |title=A History of Myanmar since Ancient Times |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2013 |pages=180-185}}</ref>
ဂကောံ ABSU ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ကောန်ဍုင် (Training ground) သွက် က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် သၟတ် တအ် ဂွံ လ္ၚတ် လညာတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်၊ ကေုာံ ဝါဒ သဵုရှေယ်လေစ် (Socialism) ရ။ နူကဵု ကွးဘာ တအ် ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ကၠုင် ဂကောံ သခင် (Thakin movement) ကေုာံ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဒက်ပတန် '''[[ရဲဘော်သုံးကျိပ်]]''' (Thirty Comrades) တုဲ တဝ်စၞေဟ် ပၞာန် ကု အင်္ဂလိက် စဵုကဵု ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၈ ရ။
== ၁၀။ ကဏ္ဍ အာဲကၟာဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Legacy and Commemoration) ==
ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆ ဝွံ ဒှ် အာဲကၟာဲ ဝင် မပြာကတ် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကေုာံ ဝင် ဂကူမန် ရ။ လညာတ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် "ဟွံဖျေဟ် က္ဍိုပ် ကု ညးမဍဵုဍိုက်" (Defiance against oppression) မစတင် လဝ် နူကဵု ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဏအ် ဂှ် ဆက် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ကွးဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂၊ ၁၉၈၈ (ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ၈၈၈၈) ကေုာံ စဵုကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
အခိင် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ သ္ၚိ သမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင် ၜိုန်ရ ဒးဒုင် ပလီု လဝ် နကဵု အလဵုအသဳ ပၞာန် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၂ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ပရူ ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ၁၉၃၆ ဝွံ ဆက် ဂျိုင် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ စိုတ် သၟတ် တအ် လၟိုန် ရ။ တ္ၚဲ ကွးဘာ တအ် မစတင် ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ဂှ် ညးတအ် ကၠောန် သဘင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် တ္ၚဲ ဝင် ကွးဘာ မွဲ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင်]] (Yangon University)
* [[အံင်သာန်၊ နာဲ]] (Aung San)
* [[နု၊ ဦး]] (U Nu)
* [[ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀]] (1920 student strike)
{{Navbox
| name = Burmese Independence Movement
| title = ဝင် ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ (Independence Movement in Myanmar)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်
| list1 =
* [[ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀]]
* [[ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၆]]
* [[ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ ကွးဘာ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၈]]
* [[ပေါဲတဝ်စၞေဟ် ဖါသစ်]]
| group2 = က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[အံင်သာန်၊ နာဲ]]
* [[နု၊ ဦး]]
* [[ရဲဘော်သုံးကျိပ်]]
* [[သခင် ကိုယ်တော်မှိုင်း]]
* [[ဘမော်၊ ဒေါက်တာ]]
| group3 = ဂကောံ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဂကောံသမဂ္ဂ ကွးဘာ အလုံဍုင်ဗၟာ]] (ABSU)
* [[ဂကောံ ဖဆပလ]] (AFPFL)
* [[ဒပ်ပၞာန် ဍုင်ဗၟာ]] (BIA)
* [[တက္ကသိုလ် လ္ဂုင်]]
}}
[[Category:ဝင် ဍုင်ဗၟာ]]
[[Category:ပေါဲထ္ၜးဆန္ဒဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဍုင်ဗၟာ]]
[[Category:၁၉၃၆ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
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ပုရဏ ကဿပ
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'''ပုရဏ ကဿပ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Purana Kassapa'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Pūraṇa Kassapa'') ဝွံ ဒှ် အစာ သမဏ (Ascetic teacher) မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် အိန္ဒိယ တမၠာ အကြာ ၅ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ၄ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဘဳသဳ (BCE) ရ။ ညးဝွံ ဒှ် အစာ တိတ္ထိ ဇၞော် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲအကြာ အစာ တိတ္ထိ တြဴ တၠ (Six Heretical Teachers) မဂျိုင် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တုပ် ကု [[ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ]] (Gautama Buddha) ကေုာံ [[မဟာဝဳရ]] (Mahavira) ရ။
ပုရဏ ကဿပ ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် နကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿန ညး မကော်စ '''အကိရိယဝါဒ''' (Akiriyavāda) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လညာတ် မဟွံပတှ်ေ ဖဵု ကံ (Amoralism / Doctrine of Non-action) ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ညးမ္ဂး၊ ကမၠောန် မကၠောန် လဝ် သီုဖအိုတ် - လပါ် ခိုဟ် (ကုသိုလ်) ကီု၊ လပါ် ပရေအ် (အကုသိုလ်) ကီု - တအ်ဂှ် ဖဵု (Karma) ဟွံမဲ ပုဟ်။ ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ် မွဲ ဂစိုတ် သတ်၊ ကၠတ် ဒြပ် မ္ဂး ဒုဟ် ဟွံမဲ၊ တုဲပၠန် ယဝ်ရ ကဵု ဒါန်၊ မင် သဳ မ္ဂး လေဝ် ဖဵု ခိုဟ် ဟွံကလိဂွံ ရောင် ညး တွံ လဝ် ရ။<ref name="basham">{{cite book |last=Basham |first=A. L. |title=History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas: A Vanished Indian Religion |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.108523 |publisher=Luzac & Company |year=1951 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.108523/page/80 80]-85}}</ref>
လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပုရဏ ကဿပ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဒဿန၊ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ညး လတူ လညာတ် အိန္ဒိယ တမၠာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Ajatasatru_worships_the_Buddha_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Eastern_Gateway.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ရုပ်ကၠောတ် တမၠာ လတူ ပါင်တြင် သာန်ချဳ (Sanchi Stupa) မထ္ၜး သၟိင် အဇာတသတ္တု။ သၟိင် ဏအ် ဝွံ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ဆဵု ကျာ်တြဲ ဂှ်၊ ညးတေအ် အာ သၟာန် လဝ် ပြသၞာ ကု ပုရဏ ကဿပ ကေုာံ အစာ တိတ္ထိ တၞဟ် တအ် ရ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ဝင် အခိင်ကာလ (Introduction and Historical Context) ==
ခေတ် အခိင် ကာလ အကြာ ၅ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဘဳသဳ ဝွံ၊ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ အိန္ဒိယ လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ် ဒှ် အခိင် မကတဵုဒှ် လညာတ် တွံ ဓရ် ကေုာံ ဒဿန တၟိ တၟိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ အခိင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ညးကော်စ "ခေတ် သမဏ" (Śramaṇa movement) မဒှ် အခိင် ဂကောံ ရသေ့ သမဏ တအ် တဝ်စၞေဟ် လတူ လညာတ် ဗြဟ္မဏ (Brahminical orthodoxy) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပူဇဴ ယဇ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဏအ် ဂှ်၊ ပုရဏ ကဿပ ဝွံ ဒှ် အစာ ဇၞော် မွဲ မနွံ ကဵု ကောန်ဗက် ကြဴ (Disciples) ၜိုတ် ၅၀၀ ပြင်င် တုဲ၊ ညးတေအ် ဝွံ ထ္ၜး ကဵု လညာတ် ဗၠးၜး နူကဵု ပရေင်ဖေက်လကိုတ် ကံ (Karma) ကေုာံ နရက် သွဝ် လတူ လညာတ် ဗြဟ္မဏ တအ် ရ။ လညာတ် ညးတေအ် ဝွံ ကဵု သြဇာ လတူ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ရး မဂဓ (Magadha) ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိ (Background and Biography) ==
အတိုင် တင်ဂၞင် လိက် အဋ္ဌကထာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ပုရဏ ကဿပ ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဘဝ ဍိက် ရ။ ညးဝွံ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ဒှ် ကောန်ဍိက် (Slave) ပ္ဍဲ သ္ၚိ ညးတၠဒြပ် မွဲ ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ညးတေအ် ဟွံဒးဂၞပ် ဘဝ ဍိက် ဂှ်ရ၊ ညးတေအ် ဒြေပ် ဒဴ တိတ် နူ သ္ၚိ တၠ ညးတေအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မဒြေပ် ဒဴ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂြိုပ် ဂှ်၊ ညးတေအ် ဒးဒုင် ပၠံင် ၜး ကေတ် ကပေါတ် ကေုာံ ဗွိုက်လတက် သီုဖအိုတ် နကဵု ကမၠတ် တအ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ဟွံမဲ ဗွိုက်လတက် (Naked) ဂှ်ရ၊ ညးတေအ် ဒး တွာ် ကၠုင် အတိုင် ပကတိ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် (ဟွံမဲ ယာတ်) စိုပ် ကၠုင် ကွာန် ရ။ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဆဵု ညးတေအ် တုဲ၊ ထေင် ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးဝွံ ဒှ် "ရသေ့ သမဏ မကၠေအ် ကၠက် ထောအ် ကိလေသ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စောဲလာမ်" တုဲ ရှ်ေသှ်ေ ရဴဂဴ ညးတေအ် ရ။ စနူ ဂှ် တုဲ ညးတေအ် ပဒတဴ နဒဒှ် အစာ သမဏ ဟွံမဲ ယာတ် မွဲ ရ။<ref name="bhaskar">{{cite book |last=Bhaskar |first=Bhagchandra Jain |title=Jainism in Buddhist Literature |publisher=Alok Prakashan |year=1972 |pages=15-20}}</ref>
== ၃။ ယၟု ကေုာံ ဂကူ (Name and Clan / Gotra) ==
ယၟု "ပုရဏ ကဿပ" ဝွံ နွံ ကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် တၞဟ်ခြာ သာ်ဏအ် ရ -
* '''ပုရဏ (Pūraṇa):''' မလိက် ပါဠိ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ပေင်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "မပပေင် ကဵု" (Full / Completer)။ ဝင် လ္ၚဵု ဟီု လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးတေအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ကောန်ဍိက် မရနုက် ကု ကၠံ (100th slave) မပပေင် ကဵု လၟိဟ် ဍိက် ပ္ဍဲ သ္ၚိ တၠ ဂှ်ရ ညးကော်စ "ပုရဏ" ရ။
* '''ကဿပ (Kassapa):''' ဝွံ ဒှ် ယၟု ဂကူ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂေါတြ (Gotra) မဆက်စပ် ကု ဂကူ ဗဗၞး (Brahmin) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ညးတေအ် ဒှ် ဍိက် ကီုလေဝ်၊ အခိင် ကာလ ညးတေအ် ဒှ် အစာ တိတ္ထိ ဂှ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ကော်စ ညးတေအ် နကဵု ယၟု ဂေါတြ ဏအ် ရ။
== ၄။ လညာတ် ဒဿန ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳ အကိရိယဝါဒ (Philosophy and Akiriyavada Doctrine) ==
ဒဿန အဓိက ပုရဏ ကဿပ ဝွံ ဒှ် '''အကိရိယဝါဒ''' (Akiriyavāda) ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ တးပါဲ ထောအ် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ကမၠောန် (Action) ကေုာံ ဖဵု ကံ (Moral consequence) သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် ပုရဏ မ္ဂး၊ ဇီဝ (ဝိညာဏ်) ဝွံ နွံ ဒၟံင် ပကတိ ဟွံချဳဓရာင် (Passive) ရ။ ကမၠောန် မကၠောန် လဝ် နကဵု ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ဂှ် ဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု ဇီဝ ပုဟ်။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ် မွဲ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပရေအ် (ဥပမာ - ဂစိုတ်)၊ ကမၠောန် ဂှ် ဟွံစောဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဝိညာဏ် ညးတေအ် တုဲ ဖဵု အကုသိုလ် လေဝ် ဟွံကတဵုဒှ် ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လညာတ် မဒစးဒုင် ကု လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဂျေန် (Jainism) ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
== ၅။ ကံ ကေုာံ ဖဵု ကံ ပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် ပုရဏ (Karma and its Effects in his view) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် အကိရိယဝါဒ ဂှ်၊ ပုရဏ ကဿပ ထ္ၜး လဝ် ဥပမာ ဗွဲမကၠးဇြိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ သမဏဖလ သုတ် (Samaññaphala Sutta) အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ရ -
* '''လပါ် အကုသိုလ် (Demerit):''' "ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ် မွဲ ရပ် ကေတ် သၞာ် ဇၞော် တုဲ၊ ဂစိုတ် ထောအ် သတ် ပ္ဍဲ လတူ တိ ဏအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် အာ ဖျုန် ဗွဝ် ဇၞော် မွဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ကမၠောန် ဏအ် တုဲ အကုသိုလ် ဟွံမဲ၊ ဒုဟ် ဟွံမဲ။ မၞိဟ် ဂှ် ယဝ်ရ အာ ပၠံင် ၜး၊ ကၠတ် ဒြပ် ညး၊ ပလီု ကောန်ဗြဴ ညး မ္ဂး လေဝ် ဒုဟ် ကံ ဟွံကတဵုဒှ် ရ။"
* '''လပါ် ကုသိုလ် (Merit):''' "ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ် မွဲ ကဵု ဒါန်၊ ပူဇဴ၊ မင် သဳ သွက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် လပါ် သြင် ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ (Ganges) ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ကမၠောန် ဏအ် တုဲ ကုသိုလ် ဟွံမဲ၊ ဖဵု ခိုဟ် ဟွံကလိဂွံ ရ။"<ref name="walshe">{{cite book |last=Walshe |first=Maurice |title=The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Digha Nikaya |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=1995 |pages=95-97}}</ref>
== ၆။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ ကေုာံ သမဏဖလ သုတ် (Relationship with Buddhism and Samannaphala Sutta) ==
တင်ဂၞင် အဓိက သွက် ပုရဏ ကဿပ ဝွံ ဂွံ ဆဵု ပ္ဍဲကဵု '''[[သမဏဖလ သုတ်]]''' မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ [[ဒဳဃနိကာယ်]] (Digha Nikaya) ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ သုတ် ဏအ်၊ သၟိင် '''အဇာတသတ္တု''' (King Ajatasattu) နူ ဍုင် ရာဇဂြိုဟ် (Rajagaha) ဝွံ အာ သၟာန် ပြသၞာ ကု ပုရဏ ကဿပ ပရူ "ဖဵု မဂွံ ဒှ် ရသေ့ သမဏ ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ လၟုဟ်" ရ။ ပုရဏ သှ် ကဵု ပြသၞာ ဏအ် နကဵု လညာတ် အကိရိယဝါဒ (ဟွံမဲ ဖဵု) ရ။ သၟိင် အဇာတသတ္တု ဟွံပေင် စိုတ် လတူ သွဟ် ဏအ် တုဲ၊ ညးတေအ် နှိုင်းယှဉ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "သၟာန် ပရူ သတ် မွဲ၊ သှ် ကဵု ပရူ သတ် တၞဟ် မွဲ" ညံင်ရဴ ဂှ် ရ။ ကြဴနူ ဂှ် သၟိင် အဇာတသတ္တု ပြာပ် အာ ဇရေင် ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ တုဲ ကလိဂွံ သွဟ် မဍိုက်ပေင် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] နှိုင်းယှဉ် လညာတ် ပုရဏ ကဿပ ကေုာံ လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! လညာတ် ပုရဏ ကဿပ (Akiriyavada)
! လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Kammavada)
|-
| '''ကံ ကေုာံ ဖဵု'''
| ကမၠောန် သီုဖအိုတ် ဖဵု ကံ ဟွံမဲ။
| ဇၟာပ် ကမၠောန် (နွံ စေတနာ) ဖဵု ကံ နွံ။
|-
| '''အကုသိုလ် (ပါပ)'''
| ဂစိုတ် သတ် လေဝ် အကုသိုလ် ဟွံဒှ်။
| ပါဏာတိပါတ ဝွံ ဒှ် အကုသိုလ် ဇၞော်။
|-
| '''ကုသိုလ် (ပုည)'''
| ကဵု ဒါန်၊ မင် သဳ လေဝ် ဖဵု ခိုဟ် ဟွံမဲ။
| ဒါန၊ သဳလ ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ စိုပ် သွဝ်၊ နိဗ္ဗာန်။
|-
| '''ဝိညာဏ်'''
| ဝိညာဏ် (ဇီဝ) ဝွံ ပကတိ၊ ဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု ကမၠောန်။
| ဝိညာဏ် ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒၟံင်၊ ဆက်စပ် ကု ကံ။
|}
== ၇။ တၠပညာ တိတ္ထိ တြဴ တၠ (The Six Heretical Teachers) ==
ပုရဏ ကဿပ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပ္ဍဲအကြာ ဂကောံ အစာ သမဏ မပြာကတ် တြဴ တၠ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဂှ် ရ။ ဂကောံ တြဴ တၠ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒစးဒုင် (Rivals) သွက် ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ကေုာံ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ ရ။ ညးတအ် ဂှ် -
# '''ပုရဏ ကဿပ''' (Purana Kassapa) - လညာတ် အကိရိယဝါဒ။
# '''[[မက္ခလဳ ဂေါသာလ]]''' (Makkhali Gosala) - အစာ ဇၞော် အာဇဳဝက (Ajivika) မပတှ်ေ နိယတိ (Fatalism)။
# '''[[အဇိတ ကေသကမ္ဗလ]]''' (Ajita Kesakambali) - လညာတ် ဥစ္ဆေဒဝါဒ (Materialism/Annihilationism)။
# '''[[ပကုဓ ကစ္စာယန]]''' (Pakudha Kaccayana) - လညာတ် သဿတဝါဒ (Eternalism of elements)။
# '''[[သဉ္ဇယ ဗေလဋ္ဌိပုတ္တ]]''' (Sanjaya Belatthiputta) - လညာတ် အမရာဝိက္ခေပ (Agnosticism)။
# '''[[နိဂဏ္ဌ နာဋပုတ္တ]]''' (Nigantha Nataputta) - မဟာဝဳရ (Mahavira) မဒှ် အစာ ဂျေန် (Jainism)။<ref name="nanamoli">{{cite book |last=Ñāṇamoli |first=Bhikkhu |author2=Bodhi, Bhikkhu |title=The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya |url=https://archive.org/details/middlelengthdisc00anam |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=1995 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/middlelengthdisc00anam/page/636 630]-635}}</ref>
== ၈။ လအိတ် ဘဝ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စုတိ (End of Life and Death) ==
အတိုင် တင်ဂၞင် လိက် အဋ္ဌကထာ ဓမ္မပဒ (Dhammapada Commentary) ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ လအိတ် ဘဝ ပုရဏ ကဿပ ဝွံ အိုတ် အာ နကဵု ပရေင်ဟွံခိုဟ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် သာဝတ္ထိ (Shravasti)၊ အစာ တိတ္ထိ တြဴ တၠ တအ် ဂစာန် ပြိုင်ပကာန် ထ္ၜး ဣဒ္ဓိပါဋိဟာ (Miracles) ကု ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ရ။ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ထ္ၜး "ယမိုက် ပါဋိဟာ" (Twin Miracle) တုဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် လျိုင်ဇြုင်သ္ဍိုက် လတူ ကျာ်တြဲ အိုတ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ မကျ အာ ပေါဲပြိုင် ဏအ် ကေုာံ ဒးဒုင် ထေက် က္ဍုဟ် နူ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဂှ်ရ၊ ပုရဏ ကဿပ စိုတ်ဍိုန်လျ ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ၊ ညးတေအ် ကေတ် နုင် ဍာ် ဇၞော် မွဲ၊ စုတ် ဇုက် ပ္ဍဲ ကအ်၊ တုဲ ကၠဟ် ဖျေဟ် ဇကု ပ္ဍဲ ဍာ် ကြုင် တုဲ စုတိ (Suicide by drowning) အာ ရ။<ref name="rhysdavids">{{cite book |last=Rhys Davids |first=T. W. |title=Dialogues of the Buddha (Sacred Books of the Buddhists) |publisher=Luzac & Company |year=1899 |pages=69-75}}</ref>
== ၉။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ လညာတ် ဒဿန အိန္ဒိယ (Impact on Indian Philosophy) ==
ၜိုန်ရ လညာတ် ပုရဏ ကဿပ ဒးဒုင် တးပါဲ နကဵု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဂျေန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဒဿန ညးတေအ် ဝွံ ကဵု သြဇာ လတူ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် လညာတ် ဗၠးၜး (Free thought) ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ တမၠာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
ပရေင်တးပါဲ ကံ ကေုာံ ဖဵု ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လညာတ် မပကဵု ညံင် မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂွံ ပါ်ပါဲ လတူ သၞောတ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒုဟ် ကုသိုလ် (Moral orthodoxy) မထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဗဗၞး တအ် ရ။ လညာတ် အကိရိယဝါဒ ဝွံ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ပံင်ကောံ အာ ကု လညာတ် သဘာဝဝါဒ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စာရဝါက (Cārvāka) မဒှ် လညာတ် မပတှ်ေ ဆ ဒြပ် ရုပ် သက်သက် ရ။
== ၁၀။ နှိုင်းယှဉ်ချက် ကု လညာတ် ခေတ်တၟိ (Comparison with Modern Thought - Amoralism) ==
ယဝ်ရ နှိုင်းယှဉ် အာ ကု လညာတ် ဒဿန ခေတ်တၟိ ပ္ဍဲ ရးပလိုတ် မ္ဂး၊ လညာတ် ပုရဏ ကဿပ ဝွံ တုပ် ဒၟံင် ကု လညာတ် '''အာမဝ်ရယ်လစ်ဇမ်''' (Amoralism) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''နဳဟဳလစ်ဇမ် သဳလ''' (Moral Nihilism) ရ။
လညာတ် ခေတ်တၟိ ဏအ် ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "ခိုဟ်" ကဵု "ပရေအ်" (Good and Evil) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဍာံဍာံ တေအ် ဟွံမဲ ပ္ဍဲ သဘာဝ ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဆ အရာ မၞိဟ် တအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ အုပ်ဓုပ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Social constructs) သၟး ရ။ ပုရဏ ကဿပ ဝွံ ကိုပ်ကၠာ နူ တၠပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု ဖြဳဒရစ်ှ နဳချေ (Friedrich Nietzsche) တအ် ပြာကတ် တေအ်၊ ညးတေအ် စတင် လညာတ် မတးပါဲ သၞောတ် သဳလ သဘာဝ (Objective morality) ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ တမၠာ နူကဵု ၂,၅၀၀ သၞာံ ပြင် တေအ် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သမဏဖလ သုတ်]] (Samaññaphala Sutta)
* [[ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ]] (Gautama Buddha)
* [[မက္ခလဳ ဂေါသာလ]] (Makkhali Gosala)
* [[အကိရိယဝါဒ]] (Amoralism)
{{Navbox
| name = Sramana
| title = အစာ သမဏ ကေုာံ တိတ္ထိ တြဴ တၠ ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ တမၠာ (Sramana and the Six Heretical Teachers)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = တိတ္ထိ တြဴ တၠ
| list1 =
* [[ပုရဏ ကဿပ]] (Purana Kassapa)
* [[မက္ခလဳ ဂေါသာလ]] (Makkhali Gosala)
* [[အဇိတ ကေသကမ္ဗလ]] (Ajita Kesakambali)
* [[ပကုဓ ကစ္စာယန]] (Pakudha Kaccayana)
* [[သဉ္ဇယ ဗေလဋ္ဌိပုတ္တ]] (Sanjaya Belatthiputta)
* [[နိဂဏ္ဌ နာဋပုတ္တ]] (Nigantha Nataputta)
| group2 = လညာတ် ဒဿန အဓိက
| list2 =
* [[အကိရိယဝါဒ]] (Akiriyavada)
* [[အာဇဳဝက]] (Ajivika)
* [[ဥစ္ဆေဒဝါဒ]] (Materialism)
* [[သဿတဝါဒ]] (Eternalism)
* [[အမရာဝိက္ခေပ]] (Agnosticism)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[သမဏဖလ သုတ်]] (Samaññaphala Sutta)
* [[သၟိင် အဇာတသတ္တု]] (King Ajatasattu)
* [[သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ]] (Buddhism)
* [[သာသနာ ဂျေန်]] (Jainism)
}}
[[Category:ဒဿန အိန္ဒိယ]]
[[Category:သမဏ]]
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:တၠပညာ ဒဿန အိန္ဒိယဂမၠိုင်]]
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'''ဓရ်''' (သံသကြိုတ်: धर्म ''dharma'', ပါဠိ: धम्म ''dhamma'', အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Dharma'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ ကေုာံ လညာတ် အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဒဿန ရးအာရှသၠုင်ကျာ မပ္တံကဵု [[ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ]] (Hinduism)၊ [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)၊ [[ဂျိန်ဘာသာ]] (Jainism)၊ ကေုာံ [[သိခ်ဘာသာ]] (Sikhism) တအ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် တၞဟ်ခြာ အတိုင် အခိုက်အလိုက် ဘာသာ နာနာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ သဇိုင် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဓရ် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု သၞောတ် သဘာဝ၊ အရာ မဒးဒှ် (Cosmic order)၊ လမေင် တာလျိုင် (Duty)၊ ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ် လၟေတ် မခိုဟ်ပြဲ (Righteousness) ရ။<ref name="olivelle">{{cite book |last=Olivelle |first=P. |title=Dharma: Studies in its Semantic, Cultural and Religious History |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2009 |pages=10-15}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး "ဓရ်" ဝွံ ဒှ် တင်ဂၞင် ဒၠောအ်ဗတောန် ကျာ်တြဲ ကေုာံ သစ္စ သဘာဝ မဍာံပြ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဒ္ဂေတ် လၟေတ် ကေုာံ တာလျိုင် မၞိဟ် မွဲမွဲ မဒး ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် အတိုင် အဝဲ ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ လညာတ် ဓရ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဝေါဟာရဗေဒ၊ ပရေင်ဘာသာ နာနာ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရးအာရှ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Dharmacakra.svg|thumb|right|300px|သင်္ကေတ [[ဓမ္မစက်]] (Dharmachakra) မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အဓိက မစၞးကဵု ဓရ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဘာသာ ရးအိန္ဒိယ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ဓရ်" ဝွံ ဒှ် ဝေါဟာရ မနွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် လှဲလး ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ၊ ကၠာဲ စၠောအ် နကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ တၞဟ် (ဥပမာ - အင်္ဂလိက်) မွဲ ဝေါဟာရ ဓဝ် ဟွံလောဲသွာ ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ မလေပ် ကၠာဲစၠောအ် နဒဒှ် Law (သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ)၊ Duty (တာလျိုင်)၊ Religion (ပရေင်ဘာသာ)၊ Truth (သစ္စ)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Righteousness (ဒ္ဂေတ် လၟေတ် မခိုဟ်ပြဲ) ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် သဇိုင် မ္ဂး၊ ဓရ် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် "အရာ မထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ လီုလာ်" ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် သဘာဝ မပကဵု ညံင် တ္ၚဲ ဂွံ တိုန်၊ ဍာ် ဂွံ ဇွောဝ်၊ ကေုာံ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂွံ နွံကဵု ဒ္ဂေတ် သိက္ခာ ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကောန်မၞိဟ် မွဲ ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် အတိုင် ဓရ် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတေအ် ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် တုဲ သံသရာ ဂွံ တန်တဴ ညိင်ညိင် မာန် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ဝေါဟာရဗေဒ (History, Origins, and Etymology) ==
ဝေါဟာရ သံသကြိုတ် ''dharma'' ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ ရိုဟ်ကၞက် ဓါတ် (Root) ''dhṛ'' (ဓឫ) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "မယိုက်ဂၠေင်"၊ "မထိင်ဒဝ်"၊ "မဒုင်လဝ်" ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ အဓိပ္ပါယ် တမ်မူလ ဍေဟ် ဂှ် ဒှ် "အရာ မထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် (That which upholds or supports)" ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက် វេဒ (Vedas) တြေံအိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု ရိဂ် វេဒ (Rigveda) ပ္ဍဲ ဘဳသဳ ၁၅၀၀ တေအ် ဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် စကာ ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ် သွက်ဂွံ ဟီုတွံ ပရူ သၞောတ် ဓမ္မတာ မထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် သဘာဝ ရ။ လက္ကရဴ ဏအ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဥပနိသှ် (Upanishads)၊ လညာတ် ဏအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ တုဲ ဒှ် ကၠုင် သၞောတ် ဒ္ဂေတ် လၟေတ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် ကေုာံ တာလျိုင် (Moral law and Duty) သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ရ။
== ၃။ ဓရ် ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Dharma in Buddhism) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ ဝေါဟာရ "ဓရ်" (ပါဠိ - Dhamma) ဝွံ နွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ ဒှ် ရတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[ရတ်ပိပါ်]] (Triple Gem: ဗုဒ္ဓ၊ ဓမ္မ၊ သံဃ) ရ။<ref name="gethin">{{cite book |last=Gethin |first=R. |title=The Foundations of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |pages=35-40}}</ref> အဓိပ္ပါယ် အဓိက တအ်ဂှ် -
# '''ဒၠောအ်ဗတောန် ကျာ် (The Buddha's Teachings):''' ဒှ် တင်ဂၞင် မကျာ်တြဲ တွံ လဝ် မပ္တံကဵု [[သစ္စပန်]] (Four Noble Truths) ကေုာံ [[မဂ္ဂင်ဒစာံ]] (Noble Eightfold Path) ရ။
# '''သဘာဝ ဓမ္မတာ (Nature of Reality):''' ဓရ် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သဘာဝ မဍာံပြ၊ ဥပမာ - အနိစ္စ (ဟွံဗိုန်)၊ ဒုက္ခ (ဒဒိုက်)၊ အနတ္တ (ဟွံမဲ ဇကု)။
# '''သဘဴဓရ် (Phenomena/Elements):''' ပ္ဍဲ အဘိဓရ် မ္ဂး ဓရ် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ခန္ဓာ၊ စိုတ်၊ စေတသိက် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဓရ် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် အရာ မညး ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သဘာဝ မနွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် တုဲတုဲ ရ။ ကျာ်တြဲ ဒှ် ညးမဂၠာဲ ဆဵု (Discoverer) ဓရ် တအ် ဏအ် တုဲ တွံ ထ္ၜး ကဵု သတ် တအ် ရ။
== ၄။ ဓရ် ပ္ဍဲ ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ (Dharma in Hinduism) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ ဓရ် ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ လမေင် ဘဝ ညံင် ဂွံ ညိင်သ္ၚိင် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တင်ရန်တၟအ် ဘဝ ပန် သာ် (Purusharthas) မတွဟ်ဂး ဓရ်၊ အာတ္ထ (ပိုန်ဒြပ်)၊ ကာမ (တသိုက် လောကဳ)၊ ကေုာံ မောက္ခ (လွစ်ဗၠး) ရ။<ref name="flood">{{cite book |last=Flood |first=G. |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo_n5j0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo_n5j0/page/50 50]-55}}</ref>
ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ ပါ်လဝ် ဓရ် နကဵု လမေင် အဝဲ ကေုာံ ဂကူ (Varnashrama Dharma) -
* '''ဗဗၞး (Brahmins):''' တာလျိုင် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဂှ် လ္ၚတ် လိက် វេဒ ကေုာံ ကၠောန် ပေါဲ ပူဇဴ။
* '''သၟိင် ကေုာံ ကောန်ပၞာန် (Kshatriyas):''' တာလျိုင် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဂှ် မင်မဲ ဍုင် ကေုာံ အုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵု သၞောဝ်။
* '''သၟာဗၞိက် (Vaishyas):''' တာလျိုင် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဂှ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ တဵုလွဳ။
* '''ညးကမၠောန် (Shudras):''' တာလျိုင် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဂှ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ရီုဗင် ဂကူ တၞဟ် တအ်။
တုဲပၠန် နွံ သီုကဵု သာဓါရဏ ဓရ် (Sadharana Dharma) မဒှ် ဒ္ဂေတ် လၟေတ် ဓမ္မတာ မပ္တံကဵု ဟွံပလီု လမျီု ညးတၞဟ် (Ahimsa)၊ မဟီု ဍာံ (Satya)၊ တအ် မဒှ် တာလျိုင် သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
== ၅။ ဓရ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂျိန်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ သိခ်ဘာသာ (Dharma in Jainism and Sikhism) ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး လညာတ် ဓရ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဘာသာ ရးအိန္ဒိယ အဓိက ပန်
|-
! ပရေင်ဘာသာ
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် အဓိက သွက် "ဓရ်"
! လွပ် အဓိက
|-
| '''ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ'''
| သဘာဝ မဍာံပြ၊ ဒၠောအ်ဗတောန် ကျာ်
| သစ္စပန်၊ မဂ္ဂင်ဒစာံ၊ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် စိုတ်
|-
| '''ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ'''
| တာလျိုင် ဘဝ၊ ဒ္ဂေတ် လၟေတ် သၞောတ် ဂကူ
| တာလျိုင် (Varnashrama)၊ ကမၠောန် ခိုဟ်
|-
| '''ဂျိန်ဘာသာ'''
| ဘာသာတရား၊ မဟွံပလီု လမျီု ညးတၞဟ်
| အဟိံသ (Ahimsa)၊ သၞောတ် ချဳဓရာင် ဝိညာဏ်
|-
| '''သိခ်ဘာသာ'''
| လမေင် တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် ဂုရု
| လွဳလွတ် ညးတၞဟ်၊ ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်၊ ဓရ် ဍာံ
|}
ပ္ဍဲကဵု '''ဂျိန်ဘာသာ''' (Jainism)၊ ဓရ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် ၜါ သာ် - မွဲဂှ် ဒှ် ဒ္ဂေတ် လၟေတ် မတွဟ်ဂး ဒ္ဂေတ် ဟွံပလီုပလာ် လမျီု (Ahimsa) ကေုာံ သစ္စ၊ မွဲပၠန် ဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် ဇဳဝဗေဒ မတွဟ်ဂး သဘာဝ မကဵု ဒြဟတ် ချဳဓရာင် (Principle of Motion) သွက် ဝိညာဏ် ရ။<ref name="cort">{{cite book |last=Cort |first=J. E. |title=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India |url=https://archive.org/details/jainsinworldreli0000cort |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jainsinworldreli0000cort/page/20 20]-25}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု '''သိခ်ဘာသာ''' (Sikhism) လေဝ်၊ ဝေါဟာရ "ဓရမ်" (Dharam) ဝွံ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ သစ္စ ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ် မခိုဟ်ပြဲ အတိုင် တင်ဂၞင် ဒၠောအ်ဗတောန် ဂုရု တအ် (Gurus' teachings) မတွဟ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ဂုရု ဂရန် သဟိပ် (Guru Granth Sahib) ရ။
== ၆။ လညာတ် ဓရ် ပ္ဍဲ ယေန်သၞာင် မန် ကေုာံ ရးအာရှအဂၞဲ (Concept of Dhamma in Mon Culture and Southeast Asia) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ယေန်သၞာင် [[ဂကူမန်]] (Mon culture) ကေုာံ ရးအာရှအဂၞဲ၊ လညာတ် ဓရ် ဝွံ လုပ် စိုပ် လဝ် နူကဵု ထေရဝါဒ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Theravada Buddhism) ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ်ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ဘဝ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ကုသိုလ်:''' မန် တအ် စကာ ဝေါဟာရ "ကၠောန် ဓရ်"၊ "နာင် ဓရ်" သွက် ပရေင်ကုသိုလ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဝိပဿနာ (Vipassana meditation)။
* '''ဓမ္မသတ်:''' ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တမၠာ တေအ်၊ သၟိင် ဨကရာဇ် မန် တအ် အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် ဍုင် နကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မကော်စ "[[ဓမ္မသာတ်]]" (Dhammasattha) မဒှ် သၞောဝ် မဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ဒ္ဂေတ် လၟေတ် ဓရ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ရ။
* '''ဝေါဟာရ သက်လောကဳ:''' ကာလ မၞိဟ် မွဲမွဲ စိုတ် ခိုဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဍာံပြ မ္ဂး၊ မန် တအ် ကော်စ ညးတေအ် ဂှ် "မၞိဟ် နွံ ကဵု ဓရ်" ရ။
== ၇။ ဓရ် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Dharma and Law/Jurisprudence) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ရးအိန္ဒိယ တမၠာ၊ ဓရ် ဝွံ ဒှ် တမ်မူလ သွက် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Jurisprudence) ရ။ လိက် ကၞပ် သၞောဝ် မကော်စ ဓမ္မသာသတြ (Dharmashastras) တအ်ဂှ် (ဥပမာ - Manusmriti) ထ္ၜး လဝ် သၞောဝ် ဥပဒေ မဆက်စပ် ကု ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်၊ ပရေင်သ္ၚိကၟိန်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဒုဟ် ရာဇာဝတ် နာနာ ရ။
လညာတ် ဓရ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဂှ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ သဘာဝ မဍာံပြ (Natural Law) တုဲ၊ သၟိင် တအ် သ္ဒး အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် ညံင် ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ဓရ် (Dhammika) ရ။ ယဝ်ရ သၟိင် မွဲ ဟွံဒ္ဂေတ် ဓရ် မ္ဂး ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂှ် လီုလာ် ဒဒိုက် ဂၠိုင် ရောင် ညးတအ် ပတှ်ေ လဝ် ရ။
== ၈။ သင်္ကေတ ကေုာံ အာဲကၟာဲ အနုသုခုမ (Symbols and Artistic Heritage) ==
သင်္ကေတ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် သွက် ဓရ် ဂှ် ဒှ် '''[[ဓမ္မစက်]]''' (Dharmachakra / Wheel of Dharma) ရ။ ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ခ္ဍိုင် ၈ တၞုင် (Spokes) မစၞးကဵု မဂ္ဂင်ဒစာံ သွက် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ ကေုာံ ညးတအ် စကာ ဍေဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ပရေင်တွံ ဓရ် ပထမအိုတ် (ဓမ္မစက်ကပဝတ္တန သုတ်) ပ္ဍဲ မိဂဒါဝိုန် ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=P. |title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |pages=80-85}}</ref>
သၟိင် [[အသောက]] (Emperor Ashoka) ဂှ် သြိုင်ခၞံ လဝ် တိုင် တၟအ် (Ashoka Pillars) မနွံကဵု ရုပ် ဇာဒိသိုင် ပန် ကေုာံ ဓမ္မစက် သွက်ဂွံ တြး ဓရ် ပ္ဍဲ အလုံ အေန်ပါယာ ညးတေအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ်၊ သင်္ကေတ ဓမ္မစက် ဏအ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ အလာံ ဍုင် အိန္ဒိယ (Tiranga) နဒဒှ် တင်သမ္တီ ပရေင်သစ္စ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် တရား ရ။
== ၉။ ဓရ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် ဒဿန ခေတ်တၟိ (Dharma and Modern Philosophical Thought) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿန ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern Philosophy) ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ ရးပလိုတ်၊ ဓရ် ဝွံ မလေပ် ပတောအ် ၜတ် ကု ဒဿန လညာတ် ဒ္ဂေတ် သိက္ခာ (Ethics) ကေုာံ သၞောတ် သဘာဝ (Natural Law Theory) ရ။
တၠပညာ ရးပလိုတ် တအ် စိုတ်လုပ်စား လတူ လညာတ် ဓရ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ဟွံဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ပၟိက် ကျာ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် (Creator God)၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ သဘာဝ ဟိုတ် ကဵု ဖဵု (Cause and Effect / Karma) ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု လညာတ် သိပ္ပံ ခေတ်တၟိ မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ သဘာဝ ကေုာံ စိုတ် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Psychology) ရ။
== ၁၀။ ဇီဝဗေဒစိုတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵု ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဓရ် (Psychological and Practical Benefits of Studying Dharma) ==
လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် ဓရ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဖဵုခိုဟ် လတူ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် စိုတ် ကေုာံ ဘဝ လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ဇီဝဗေဒစိုတ် (Psychology) ခေတ်တၟိ မ္ဂး၊ လညာတ် ဓရ် (ဗွဲတၟေင် နဲကဲ သတိ - Mindfulness) ဝွံ မာန် ရီုဗင် -
* ယှောတ်ဖအောန် စိုတ်ဍဵုဍိုက် (Stress reduction) ကေုာံ စိုတ် ယဲ (Anxiety)။
* ကဵု ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် လတူ သဘာဝ အနိစ္စ (Impermanence) တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် စိုတ် ဂွံ တန်တဴ ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် လတူ လောကဓံ (Resilience)။
* ဖန်ဗဒှ် စိုတ် မေတ္တာ (Compassion) ကေုာံ ကရုဏာ လတူ သတ် တၞဟ် တုဲ သ္ပ ညံင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂွံ ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဓရ် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပ္ဍဲ ဘာကျာ် ဓဝ် ရ၊ ဍေဟ် လေဝ် စိုပ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ ရုင် ကမၠောန်၊ ရုင် ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ ဘာတန် နဒဒှ် နဲကဲ ကလေင် လွဳလွတ် စိုတ် (Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy) မွဲ ကီု ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[သစ္စပန်]] (Four Noble Truths)
* [[ကံ]] (Karma)
* [[ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ]] (Hinduism)
{{Navbox
| name = Dharma
| title = လညာတ် ဓရ် ကေုာံ ဒဿန ရးအာရှ (Dharma and Eastern Philosophy)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဘာသာ မလ္ၚတ် ဓရ်
| list1 =
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ]] (Hinduism)
* [[ဂျိန်ဘာသာ]] (Jainism)
* [[သိခ်ဘာသာ]] (Sikhism)
| group2 = လညာတ် ဆက်စပ်
| list2 =
* [[ကံ]] (Karma)
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] (Nirvana)
* [[သစ္စပန်]] (Four Noble Truths)
* [[မဂ္ဂင်ဒစာံ]] (Noble Eightfold Path)
| group3 = ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ
| list3 =
* [[ဓမ္မစက်]] (Dharmachakra)
* [[ဓမ္မသာတ်]] (Dhammasattha)
* [[တိုင် အသောက]] (Ashoka Pillars)
* [[ဝိပဿနာ]] (Vipassana)
}}
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဒဿန]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဓရ်]]
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'''ဓမ္မစက်''' (ပါဠိ: ''Dhammacakka'', သံသကြိုတ်: ''Dharmachakra'', အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Wheel of Dharma'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သာသနာ အိန္ဒိယ တမၠာ မပ္တံကဵု [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]၊ [[ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ]] ကေုာံ [[ဂျိန်ဘာသာ]] တအ် ရ။ ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မစၞးကဵု "ဓမ္မ" (Dharma) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၞောဝ် သဘာဝ၊ ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဂၠံင်တရဴ သစ္စ မဍာံပြ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ မစၞးကဵု ပရေင်ဟီုတွံ ဓရ် ကျာ်တြဲ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် [[မဂ္ဂင် ၈ ပြကာ]] (Noble Eightfold Path) သွက်ဂွံ တိတ် ဗၠး နူကဵု ဒဒိုက် [[သံသာ]] (Samsara) ရ။<ref name="snelling">{{cite book |last=Snelling |first=J. |title=The Buddhist Handbook: A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhisthandbook0276snel_W3BMB |publisher=Inner Traditions |year=1991 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhisthandbook0276snel_W3BMB/page/35 35]-40}}</ref>
သင်္ကေတ ဓမ္မစက် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ အနုသုခုမ အိန္ဒိယ တမၠာ ကေုာံ အလုံ မွဲ ရးအာရှ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဓမ္မစက် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သင်္ကေတ၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ တမ်မူလ၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Dharma_Wheel.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ဓမ္မစက် မနွံကဵု ဇၞိင် ၈ မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ မစၞးကဵု မဂ္ဂင် ၈ ပြကာ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ဓမ္မစက်" (Dhammacakka) ဝွံ ဒှ် မလိက် ပံင်ကောံ ပါဠိ ၜါ မတွဟ်ဂး "ဓမ္မ" (Dharma/Dhamma - ဓရ်၊ သစ္စ၊ ဂၠံင်တရဴ) ကေုာံ "စက်" (Cakra/Cakka - စက်၊ ကွဳစက်၊ လစောတ်) ရ။ နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် မ္ဂး ဍေဟ်ဝွံ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "စက် ဓရ်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "လစောတ် ဓရ် မဟွံဒေါအ်ဇူ" ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ ပရေင်စသၠိုင် ဟီုတွံ ဓရ် အလန် ပထမအိုတ် နကဵု ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဂှ် ညးကော်စ [[ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်]] (Turning the Wheel of the Dharma) ရ။ ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု "မင်္ဂလာ ၈ သာ်" (Ashtamangala) မဒှ် အရာ ပရဲ အိုတ် သွက် ညးလျိုင်ပတှ်ေ တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ (History and Origin) ==
ဝင် ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ တမ်မူလ ဍေဟ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် ယေန်သၞာင် လဂေါဝ် ကြုင် သိန္ဒု (Indus Valley Civilization) ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခေတ် ကျာ်တြဲ တေအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တေအ်၊ သင်္ကေတ စက် (Wheel) ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ သွက် တ္ၚဲ (Solar symbol) ကေုာံ ဒြဟတ် မချဳဓရာင် လၟိုန် ရ။<ref name="pal">{{cite book |last=Pal |first=P. |title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700 |url=https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa |publisher=Los Angeles County Museum of Art |year=1986 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa/page/42 42]-45}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဝေဒ (Vedic period)၊ "စက်" ဂှ် စၞးကဵု ကွဳစက် ပၞာန် သွက် သၟိင်တၠ တအ် ကေုာံ အဝဵုအာဏာ ရ။ ညးမက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် လတူ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် ညးကော်စ [[စက္ကဝဝ်]] (Chakravartin - Universal Monarch) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "သၟိင် မမာန် လစောတ် ကဵု စက် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ" ရ။ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တအ် ကေတ် လညာတ် ဏအ် တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ စကာ နဒဒှ် "သၟိင် ဓမ္မ" မလစောတ် စက် ဓရ် သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု တသိုက် ကု သတ် တအ် ရ။
== ၃။ သင်္ကေတ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် (Symbolism and Structure) ==
ဓမ္မစက် မွဲ ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု အင်္ဂါ အဓိက ၃ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး အထောတ် လဒေါဝ် (Hub)၊ ဇၞိင် / ကၞင် (Spokes)၊ ကေုာံ ဗွိုင် မ္ၚး (Rim) ရ။
* '''အထောတ် လဒေါဝ် (Hub):''' စၞးကဵု [[သဳလ]] (Moral discipline) မဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ကျင့် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
* '''ဇၞိင် / ကၞင် (Spokes):''' စၞးကဵု [[ပညာ]] (Wisdom) မမာန် ပလီုပလာ် အဝိဇ္ဇာ ရ။
* '''ဗွိုင် မ္ၚး (Rim):''' စၞးကဵု [[သမာဓိ]] (Concentration/Meditation) မထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် ဇၞိင် တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ တန်တဴ ညဳသၟဟ် ရ။
== ၄။ လၟိဟ် ဇၞိင် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်ဂမၠိုင် (Number of Spokes and Meanings) ==
ဓမ္မစက် တအ် နွံကဵု လၟိဟ် ဇၞိင် (Spokes) နာနာ သာ်၊ တုဲ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် လၟိဟ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဓရ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တၞဟ်ခြာ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး လၟိဟ် ဇၞိင် ဓမ္မစက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
|-
! လၟိဟ် ဇၞိင်
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပ္ဍဲ ဓရ်
! တင်သမ္တီ
|-
| '''၄'''
| [[သစ္စ ၄ ပြကာ]] (Four Noble Truths)
| ဒဒိုက်၊ သမုဒယ၊ နိရောဓ၊ မဂ္ဂ သစ္စ။
|-
| '''၈'''
| [[မဂ္ဂင် ၈ ပြကာ]] (Noble Eightfold Path)
| ဓမ္မစက် မစကာ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် ကေုာံ မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ဓမ္မ အဓိက။
|-
| '''၁၀'''
| [[ပါရမဳ ၁၀ ပြကာ]] (Ten Paramitas)
| ဂၠံင်တရဴ သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ကျာ်။
|-
| '''၁၂'''
| [[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]] ၁၂ အင် (Twelve Links of Dependent Origination)
| သၞောတ် ဟိုတ် ကဵု ဖဵု ပ္ဍဲ သံသာ။
|-
| '''၂၄'''
| ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ် လပါ် အာ ကဵု လပါ် ကလေင်
| ဓမ္မစက် အသောက မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ အလံ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ လၟုဟ်။
|}
== ၅။ ဓမ္မစက် ကေုာံ သုတ် ပထမ (Dharmachakra and the First Sermon) ==
ကြဴနူ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ကလိဂွံ သဗ္ဗညုတဉာဏ် ပ္ဍဲ သၟဝ် တၞံဇြဲဗောဓိ တုဲ၊ ညး ပြာပ် အာ ဇရေင် ဂြိုပ် မိဂဒါဝိုန် (Deer Park at Sarnath) တုဲ ဟီုတွံ ဓရ် ပထမအိုတ် ကု ပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ ၅ တၠ ရ။
ဓရ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ညးကော်စ '''ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်''' (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta) ရ။ ဓရ် ဏအ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ကစောတ် ဓမ္မစက် အလန် ပထမအိုတ် မပံက် ထ္ၜး ကဵု လညာတ် "မဇ္ဇျိမပဋိပဒါ" (Middle Way) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠံင်တရဴ လဒေါဝ်၊ မဝေင်ဒစး လညာတ် ဒဒိုက် ကေုာံ ကာမဂုဏ် ၜါ လပါ် ရ။ ပရေင်ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် သၞောဝ် ဓရ် မဍာံပြ ဂွံ ဇွောဝ် တိတ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။<ref name="geshe">{{cite book |last=Gyatso |first=G. K. |title=Joyful Path of Good Fortune: The Complete Buddhist Path to Enlightenment |publisher=Tharpa Publications |year=2001 |pages=150-155}}</ref>
== ၆။ သြဇာ လတူ အနုသုခုမ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Influence on Art and Culture) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ်၊ ညးတအ် ဟွံကၠောန် ရုပ် ကျာ်တြဲ နကဵု ရုပ် မၞိဟ် (Aniconic phase) ပုဟ်။ ညးတအ် စကာ သင်္ကေတ မပ္တံကဵု တၞံဗောဓိ၊ ရုပ် ပၞိဟ် ဇိုင်၊ ကေုာံ '''ဓမ္မစက်''' သွက်ဂွံ စၞးကဵု ကျာ်တြဲ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် သၟိင် အသောက (Emperor Ashoka) မအုပ်ဓုပ် အိန္ဒိယ ပ္ဍဲ ၃ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဘဳသဳ ဂှ်၊ ညး သြိုင်ခၞံ လဝ် တိုင် တၟအ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် (Ashoka Pillars) မနွံကဵု ရုပ် ဇာဒိသိုင် ပန် မဒုင် လဝ် ဓမ္မစက် ၂၄ ဇၞိင် ရ (Lion Capital of Ashoka)။ ရုပ် အနုသုခုမ ဏအ်ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သာသနာ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တေအ် ရ။<ref name="huntington">{{cite book |last=Huntington |first=J. C. |title=The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain |url=https://archive.org/details/artofancientindi0000hunt |publisher=Weatherhill |year=1985 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/artofancientindi0000hunt/page/45 45]-52}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဓမ္မစက် ပ္ဍဲ ဟိန္ဒူ ကေုာံ ဂျိန် (Dharmachakra in Hinduism and Jainism) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ သာသနာ အိန္ဒိယ တၞဟ် တအ် လေဝ် ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ရ -
* '''ဟိန္ဒူဘာသာ (Hinduism):''' စက် ဂှ် ဆက်စပ် ကု လွဟ် "သုဒရ်ရှန် စက်" (Sudarshana Chakra) မဒှ် လွဟ် ကျာ် ဗိသၞု (Vishnu) ရ။ ဍေဟ် စၞးကဵု ဓရ် မင်မဲ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပလီုပလာ် ဒုစရိုက် ရ။
* '''ဂျိန်ဘာသာ (Jainism):''' ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ညးမက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် သာသနာ "တဳရထင်္ကရ" (Tirthankaras) ၂၄ တၠ၊ မစၞးကဵု သၞောဝ် အဟိံသ (Ahimsa - ဟွံပလီု လမျီု) ရ။
== ၈။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ သင်္ကေတ ဍုင် ကေုာံ အလံ (Usage in National Symbols and Flags) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ်၊ ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ ဂွံ ဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ဍုင် ကေုာံ အလံ နာနာ -
* '''ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ (India):''' အလံ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ဝွံ နွံကဵု "အသောက စက်" (Ashoka Chakra) မနွံ ၂၄ ဇၞိင် အသာ် သ္ၚေက်-ပြာ (Navy blue) ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် စၞးကဵု ဓရ် ဍာံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တန်တဴ သွက် ကောန်ဍုင် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
* '''ဍုင်သေံ (Thailand):''' အလံ ဓမ္မစက် (Thammachak flag) မနွံ အသာ် ဍီု လဒေါဝ် ဓမ္မစက် အသာ် ဗကေတ် ဂှ် စကာ နဒဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ ရ။
* '''ဍုင်သဳရိလင်္ကာ (Sri Lanka):''' ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ တဆိပ် ဍုင် ကေုာံ တဆိပ် ဒပ် ပၞာန် လ္ၚဵု တအ် ကီု ရ။
== ၉။ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လညာတ် ဒဿန (Philosophical Interpretation) ==
နကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿန မ္ဂး၊ ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ လစောတ် အခိင် ကေုာံ ဘဝ (Cyclical nature of existence) ရ။ မၞိဟ် တအ် ဒး ဂေတ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ သံသာ ဟိုတ်နူ အဝိဇ္ဇာ (Ignorance)၊ ဆဂး နကဵု ပရေင်ကျင့် မဂ္ဂင် ၈ ပြကာ မဒှ် ဇၞိင် စက် ဂှ်၊ ပိုယ် မာန် ကုတ် ခြာ သံယောဇိုန် (Bonds) တုဲ တိတ် ဗၠး နူ သံသာ မာန် ရ။
အထောတ် လဒေါဝ် ဂှ် စၞးကဵု ပရေင်ညိင်ဝတ် (Stillness/Nirvana) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဟွံချဳဓရာင် ရ။ စက် မ္ၚး ဂေတ် ဒၟံင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ လဒေါဝ် ဂှ် တန်တဴ ညိင်ညိင် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ထ္ၜးကဵု လညာတ် နိဗ္ဗာန် မနွံ လဒေါဝ် ဒဒိုက် သံသာ ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=P. |title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |pages=80-85}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ ဓမ္မစက် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လၟုဟ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် သုတေသန (Modern Times and Research) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ ဆက် ဒှ် ဒၟံင် သင်္ကေတ ဗွဲမဇၞော် မဆက်စပ် ကု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ လတူ အင်တာနက် ကေုာံ ယူနဳကုဒ် (Unicode) ☸ (U+2638) ရ။
တၠပညာ သုတေသန ဝင် တအ် ဆက် လ္ၚတ် ဒၟံင် ရုပ် ဓမ္မစက် မဆဵု ဂွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန် တြေံ မပ္တံကဵု ဂန္ဓာရ (Gandhara)၊ အမရဝတဳ (Amaravati) ကေုာံ ဍုင် သုဝဏ္ဏဘူမိ ပ္ဍဲ အာရှအဂၞဲ ရ။ ရုပ် တၟအ် ဓမ္မစက် မဂွံ ဆဵု ကေတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် [[နခေါန်ပထမ်]] (Nakhon Pathom) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ ဂှ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် မန် ဒွါရဝတဳ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တေအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် လဝ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ ဓမ္မစက် ဝွံ ဒှ် မင်မဲ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ သစ္စ၊ ကေုာံ ဓရ် သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[မဂ္ဂင် ၈ ပြကာ]] (Noble Eightfold Path)
* [[ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်]] (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta)
* [[အသောက]] (Ashoka)
{{Navbox
| name = Buddhism
| title = ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတဂမၠိုင် (Buddhism and Symbols)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင် ဓရ်
| list1 =
* [[သစ္စ ၄ ပြကာ]] (Four Noble Truths)
* [[မဂ္ဂင် ၈ ပြကာ]] (Noble Eightfold Path)
* [[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]] (Dependent Origination)
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] (Nirvana)
| group2 = သင်္ကေတ အဓိက
| list2 =
* [[ဓမ္မစက်]] (Dharmachakra)
* [[တၞံဗောဓိ]] (Bodhi Tree)
* [[ရုပ် ပၞိဟ် ဇိုင်]] (Buddha footprint)
* [[ပ္ကဴ ဒကှ်]] (Lotus)
| group3 = ဝင် ကေုာံ ဒေသ
| list3 =
* [[ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ]] (Gautama Buddha)
* [[အိန္ဒိယ]] (India)
* [[မိဂဒါဝိုန်]] (Sarnath)
* [[အသောက]] (Ashoka)
}}
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:သင်္ကေတဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:အိန္ဒိယ]]
[[Category:ယေန်သၞာင်]]
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'''ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Ganges'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Ganga'') ဝွံ ဒှ် ကြုင် မကိစ္စဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရးအာရှသၠုင်ကျာ ကေုာံ ဍုင် [[အိန္ဒိယ]] (India) သီုကဵု ဍုင် [[ဘင်္ဂလာဒေတ်]] (Bangladesh) ရ။ ကြုင် ဏအ်ဝွံ နွံ ဇမၠိင် ၜိုတ် ၂,၅၂၅ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (၁,၅၆၉ တိုင်) တုဲ၊ စတင် ဇွောဝ် တိတ် နူကဵု ဂြိုဟ်ဍာ်ခဲ (Glacier) လတူ ဒဵု [[ဟိမဝန္တာ]] (Himalayas) ပ္ဍဲ တွဵုရး ဥတ္တရာခါန် (Uttarakhand) ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ တုဲ ဇွောဝ် စှ်ေ အာ လပါ် ဗမံက် ကေုာံ သၠုင်ကျာ စိုပ် ပါင်ၜဳ [[ၜဳ ဗင်္ဂလား]] (Bay of Bengal) ရ။<ref name="alter">{{cite book |last=Alter |first=S. |title=Sacred Waters: A Pilgrimage Up the Ganges River to the Source of Hindu Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/sacredwaterspilg0000alte |publisher=Harcourt |year=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sacredwaterspilg0000alte/page/15 15]-20}}</ref>
နကဵု လညာတ် [[ဟိန္ဒူ]] (Hinduism) မ္ဂး၊ ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ ဒှ် ကြုင် မနွံကဵု ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာ သၠုင်အိုတ် ကေုာံ ဒှ် ကြုင် ကျာ်မိ (Goddess Ganga) မာန် ဇာပ် ကြာတ် ကဵု အာပတ် အလုံအိုတ် ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ဇိုင်ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ (Ganges basin) ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မနွံကဵု တိဍာ် သြဇာ ခိုဟ်အိုတ် တုဲ၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ၜိုတ် ၄၀၀ မဳလဳယာန် ပြင်င် တန်တဴ ဂျိုင်လမျီု လတူ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ ဍာ် နူ ကြုင် ဏအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ နကဵု လညာတ် ပထဝဳ၊ ဝင်၊ ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ သဘာဝ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna_basins.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ဇလောဲ သၞောတ် ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ-ဗြဟ္မပုတ္တရ (Ganges-Brahmaputra basin) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ကေုာံ ဘင်္ဂလာဒေတ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ဂင်္ဂါ" (Ganga) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် [[သံသကြိုတ်]] (Sanskrit) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "အရာ မချဳဓရာင် ပြဟ်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ကြုင် မဇွောဝ် သြာဲ" ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်ပတ် သံသကြိုတ် တြေံ မပ္တံကဵု ရိဂ်ဗေဒ (Rigveda) တအ် ဂှ်၊ ယၟု ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ ဂွံ ဆဵု ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ကြုင် မနွံကဵု ဣဒ္ဓိအနုဘဴ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ဇၞော် ရ။
ညးရးပလိုတ် တအ် ကော်စ ကြုင် ဏအ် နကဵု ယၟု "Ganges" မကၠုင် နူ အရေဝ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ ကေုာံ လာတေန် (Latin) ร။ သၞောတ် ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ကြုင် ဇၞော် မွဲ ဓဝ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ကြုင် ဍောတ်တ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မဇွောဝ် ပံင်ကောံ ရေင်သကအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ဒဏ္ဍာရဳ (History and Mythology) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ၊ ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အင်ပါယာ တြေံ ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု မောရိယ (Maurya Empire) ကေုာံ ဂုတ္တ (Gupta Empire) ရ။ ဍုင် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တမၠာ မပ္တံကဵု ပါဋလဳပုတ် (Pataliputra) တအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ လတူ သြင် ကြုင် ဏအ် ရ။<ref name="darian">{{cite book |last=Darian |first=S. G. |title=The Ganges in Myth and History |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2001 |pages=35-42}}</ref>
နကဵု လညာတ် ဒဏ္ဍာရဳ ဟိန္ဒူ မ္ဂး၊ ကျာ်မိ ဂင်္ဂါ (Goddess Ganga) ဝွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန် သွဝ် တုဲ၊ သၟိင် ဨကရာဇ် ဘဂဳရထ (Bhagiratha) ဒ္ဂေတ် ပရေင်တရား ဂစာန် အာတ်မိက် ညံင် ကျာ်မိ ဂွံ စှ်ေ ကၠုင် လတူ တိ သွက်ဂွံ ကြာတ် ကဵု အာပတ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ဒြဟတ် ဍာ် ဇၞော် လောန် တုဲ သွက် တိ ဟွံဂွံ ထကး ဂှ်၊ ကျာ်သဳဝ (Lord Shiva) ဒုင် ကေတ် ဍာ် ကြုင် ဏအ် လတူ က္ဍိုပ် ညးတေအ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ တုဲ ဖျေဟ် ကဵု ဇွောဝ် စှ်ေ လတူ တိ သာသာ ရ။
== ၃။ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် (Geography and Course) ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး တင်ဂၞင် သဇိုင် ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ
|-
! တင်ဂၞင်
! အလုံအိုတ် (Data)
|-
| '''ဇမၠိင်'''
| ၂,၅၂၅ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (၁,၅၆၉ တိုင်)
|-
| '''တမ်မူလ'''
| ဂြိုဟ်ဍာ်ခဲ ဂင်္ဂေါတြဳ (Gangotri Glacier), ဒဵုဟိမဝန္တာ
|-
| '''ပါင်ကြုင်'''
| ၜဳ ဗင်္ဂလား (Bay of Bengal)
|-
| '''ဇမၞော် ဇိုင်ကြုင် (Basin)'''
| ၜိုတ် ၁,၃၂၀,၀၀၀ စတုရံ ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ
|-
| '''ဍုင် မဇွောဝ် တတ်'''
| အိန္ဒိယ, ဘင်္ဂလာဒေတ်
|}
ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ကြုင် အဓိက ၜါ မတွဟ်ဂး '''ဘာဂဳရထဳ''' (Bhagirathi) ကေုာံ '''အလကနန္ဒာ''' (Alaknanda) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဒေဝပရာယဂ် (Devprayag) ပ္ဍဲ တွဵုရး ဥတ္တရာခါန် ရ။
နူဂှ် ဍေဟ် ဇွောဝ် စှ်ေ ကၠုင် လတူ ဌာန် တိ ဗလး သၟဝ် (Indo-Gangetic Plain) တုဲ တတ် အာ တွဵုရး ဥတ္တရဒေသ (Uttar Pradesh)၊ ဗဳဟာ (Bihar)၊ ကေုာံ ရးဗင်္ဂလား ပလိုတ် (West Bengal) ရ။ ကာလ စိုပ် ရးဗင်္ဂလား ပလိုတ် မ္ဂး ကြုင် ဏအ် ပါ် အာ ၜါ သာ် - ကြုင် ဟူဂလဳ (Hooghly River) မဇွောဝ် တတ် ဍုင် ကဝ်ကာတာ (Kolkata)၊ ကေုာံ ကြုင် ပဒၟာ (Padma River) မဇွောဝ် လုပ် အာ ဍုင် ဘင်္ဂလာဒေတ် ရ။
== ၄။ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကြုင် ကေုာံ ဍာ် (Hydrology and River System) ==
သၞောတ် ဇိုင်ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ ဒှ် သၞောတ် ကြုင် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ရ။ ဍေဟ် ကလိဂွံ ဍာ် နူကဵု ပရေင်ရိုဟ် ဍာ်ခဲ နူ ဒဵု ဟိမဝန္တာ ကေုာံ ဗြဲ မတ် (Monsoon) မဂူ ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ဂိတု ဂျောန် စဵုကဵု သေတ်တေမ်ပါ ရ။<ref name="jain">{{cite journal |last=Jain |first=S. K. |title=Water Resources Management in the Ganga Basin |journal=Water Resources Management |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=1067-1080 |year=2008}}</ref>
ကြုင် ဂမၠိုင် မဇွောဝ် ပံင်ကောံ (Tributaries) ကု ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု -
* '''ကြုင် ယမုနာ (Yamuna):''' ဒှ် ကြုင် မပံင်ကောံ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ကေုာံ ဇွောဝ် တတ် ဍုင် နယူးဒေလဳ (New Delhi)။ ပံင်ကောံ ကု ဂင်္ဂါ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အလာဟာဗာတ် (Prayagraj)။
* '''ကြုင် ဂဝ်မာတဳ (Gomti):''' ဇွောဝ် တတ် ဍုင် လက်နော (Lucknow)။
* '''ကြုင် ဃာଘရာ (Ghaghara), ဂဏ္ဍကဳ (Gandaki), ကေုာံ ကောသဳ (Kosi):''' ဇွောဝ် စှ်ေ ကၠုင် နူ ဍုင် နဳပေါ (Nepal)။
== ၅။ ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ သဘာဝ (Biology and Ecology) ==
ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ ဒှ် သ္ၚိဌာန် သွက် တိရစ္ဆာန် ကေုာံ တၞံဆု ဇဳဝဗေဒ (Biodiversity) နာနာ သာ် ရ။ တိရစ္ဆာန် မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် '''လိုင် ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ''' (Ganges river dolphin) မဒှ် ဂကူ လိုင် မစၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နဒဒှ် တိရစ္ဆာန် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ အန္တရာယ် (Endangered) ရ။
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပ္ဍဲ ပါင်ကြုင် မဇွောဝ် စိုပ် ၜဳ ဗင်္ဂလား ဂှ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ဂြိုပ် လမု (Mangrove forest) မဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ မကော်စ '''သုန္ဒရဗန်''' (Sundarbans) ရ။ ဒၞာဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ တန်တဴ ကၠဗြန် ဗင်္ဂလား (Bengal tiger) ကေုာံ ကၠုက် ကြုင် (Gharial crocodiles) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။<ref name="wwf">{{cite web |title=Ganges River Ecology |publisher=World Wildlife Fund |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/places/ganges-river-basin |accessdate=2024}}</ref>
== ၆။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ (Economy and Agriculture) ==
တိဍာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဇိုင်ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ ဒှ် တိ ဩဇာ (Alluvial soil) မခိုဟ်အိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ရ။ လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် မွဲ ပိ ဂအုံ (1/3) သွက် ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဂျိုင်လမျီု ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဏအ် တုဲ၊ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ အဓိက မပ္တံကဵု သြောအ်၊ ဂျုံ (Wheat)၊ တၞံ ကဝ် (Sugarcane)၊ ကေုာံ သၞေဝ် ကေဝ် တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
ကြုင် ဏအ် လေဝ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် စက်ရုံ (Industries) မပ္တံကဵု စက် ကၠောန် သ္ၚာ၊ စက် ကၠောန် စက္ခူ၊ ကေုာံ စက် ဍာ်သြိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ကာန်ပူ (Kanpur) တအ် ရ။ ဍာ် ကြုင် ဂှ် စကာ သွက် ပရေင်ပတိတ် ဓါတ်လလဳ ဍာ် (Hydroelectricity) ကေုာံ ဍာ် သုင် သွက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ကီု ရ။
== ၇။ ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Religion and Cultural Significance) ==
[[File:Varanasi_sunrise.jpg|thumb|left|250px|ဍုင် ဗာရဏသဳ (Varanasi) မဒှ် ဍုင် ကျာ်သြဳ ဟိန္ဒူ လတူ သြင်ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ။]]
သွက် ဘာသာ ဟိန္ဒူ တအ် မ္ဂး၊ ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ ဒှ် ကျာ် (Divine) မွဲ ရ။ ညးတအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ယဝ်ရ ဂွံ ဟုံ ဍာ် ဂင်္ဂါ မ္ဂး၊ အာပတ် မကၠောန် လဝ် သီုဖအိုတ် လီုလာ် အာ တုဲ ကလိဂွံ ဘဝ မသ္အးဇ္ၚး ရ။
ဍုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဘာသာ မပ္တံကဵု '''ဗာရဏသဳ''' (Varanasi)၊ '''ဟာရိဒွါရ်''' (Haridwar)၊ ကေုာံ '''အလာဟာဗာတ်''' (Prayagraj) တအ် နွံ လတူ သြင် ကြုင် ဏအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အလာဟာဗာတ် ဂှ်၊ ပေါဲသဘင် '''ကုမ္ဘမေလာ''' (Kumbh Mela) မဒှ် ပေါဲ ကောံ မၞိဟ် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် လၟိုန် ဇၟာပ် ၁၂ သၞာံ မွဲ အလန် ရ။ ညး ဟိန္ဒူ တအ် လေဝ် နွံ အခိုက် မစံင် ဇွ လတူ သြင် ကြုင် တုဲ ဖျေဟ် ဇုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍာ် ဂင်္ဂါ သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ သၠးပွး နူ လၟေင် ဘဝ (Moksha) ရ။
== ၈။ ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ကၠိခတှ် (Pollution and Environmental Issues) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဒှ် ကြုင် မနွံကဵု ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ ဒှ် ကြုင် မကၠိခတှ် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဟိုတ် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ကၠိခတှ် (Pollution) တအ်ဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု -
* '''ဍာ် ကၠိ နူ သ္ၚိဌာန် (Sewage):''' ဍုင် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မဇွောဝ် ဖျေဟ် ဍာ် ကၠိ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ပရေင်လွဳလွတ် (Untreated sewage) လုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ကြုင် လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ။
* '''စက်ရုံ (Industrial Waste):''' စက်ရုံ ဍာ်သြိုဟ် စၞာံ (Leather tanneries) ပ္ဍဲ ကာန်ပူ တအ် ပတိတ် ဓါတ် ဝဲ (Toxic chemicals) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။
* '''အမှိုက် ကေုာံ ဇွ (Solid Waste and Corpses):''' ပရေင်ထောအ် ပ္ကဴ၊ ပလာသတစ်၊ ကေုာံ ဇွ မၞိဟ်/တိရစ္ဆာန် တအ် ပ္ဍဲ ကြုင်။
ပရေင်ကၠိခတှ် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ယဲ ဂၞဴ၊ ယဲ စၞာံ ကေုာံ ယဲ နာနာ ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကု မၞိဟ် မသုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟုံ ဍာ် ဏအ် ရ။<ref name="sengupta">{{cite news |last=Sengupta |first=S. |title=The Ganges: India's Sacred and Polluted River |work=The New York Times |date=2014-06-19 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/20/world/asia/the-ganges-indias-sacred-and-polluted-river.html |accessdate=2024}}</ref>
== ၉။ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ကေုာံ ဟံင်ပြာ် (Conservation Efforts and Ganga Action Plan) ==
သွက်ဂွံ သ္အးဇ္ၚး ကြုင် ဏအ် ဂှ်၊ အလဵုအသဳ အိန္ဒိယ စတင် လဝ် ကမၠောန် '''နဲကဲ ပရေင်ဟံင်ပြာ် ဂင်္ဂါ''' (Ganga Action Plan - GAP) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၅ အခိင် လက်ထက် သမ္မတ ရာဂျစ် ဂန္ဓဳ (Rajiv Gandhi) ရ။
လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၄ ဂှ်၊ အလဵုအသဳ နရေန္ဒြာ မဝ်ဒဳ (Narendra Modi) ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကမၠောန် '''နမာမဳ ဂင်္ဂါ''' (Namami Gange Programme) မနွံ ၚုဟ်မး သြန်ဗွဝ် ၃ ဘဳလဳယာန် ဒဝ်လာ ပြင်င် သွက်ဂွံ သြိုင် စက် လွဳလွတ် ဍာ် ကၠိ ကေုာံ မင်မဲ သြင် ကြုင် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ဂစာန် လဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် ဂၠိုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍိုန်လျ တုဲ၊ ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး ဂှ် နွံ အောန် ဒၟံင် ဏီ ရ။<ref name="das">{{cite book |last=Das |first=P. |title=Cleaning the Ganga: An Assessment of the Ganga Action Plan |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |pages=85-92}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ (Future of the Ganges River) ==
အနာဂတ် သွက် ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ ဝွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ အန္တရာယ် ဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate Change) ရ။
ပရေင်ကတဴ တိုန် လတူ ဂၠးတိ (Global warming) ပကဵု ညံင် ဂြိုဟ်ဍာ်ခဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဟိမဝန္တာ ဂွံ လီုလာ် (Melting glaciers) ပြဟ် လောန် အာ ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဍာ် ဂွံ တိုန် ပြဟ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဏအ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် မ္ဂး ဍာ် ခဲ တအ် အိုတ် အာ တုဲ ဍာ် ကြုင် မာန် စှ်ေ အာ ကေုာံ ဇြာတ် အာ မာန် ရ။ သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ကြုင် ဏအ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဂျိုင်သှ်ေ အာ မ္ဂး၊ သ္ဒး နွံကဵု ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ကမၠောန် အကြာ အလဵုအသဳ၊ တၠပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် တၠ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ]] (India)
* [[ဘာသာ ဟိန္ဒူ]] (Hinduism)
* [[ဒဵု ဟိမဝန္တာ]] (Himalayas)
* [[ပရေင်ကၠိခတှ် ဍာ်]] (Water pollution)
{{Navbox
| name = Rivers of South Asia
| title = ကြုင် အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ရးအာရှသၠုင်ကျာ (Major Rivers of South Asia)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သၞောတ် ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ
| list1 =
* [[ကြုင် ဂင်္ဂါ]] (Ganges)
* [[ကြုင် ယမုနာ]] (Yamuna)
* [[ကြုင် ဂဝ်မာတဳ]] (Gomti)
* [[ကြုင် ပဒၟာ]] (Padma)
* [[ကြုင် ဟူဂလဳ]] (Hooghly)
| group2 = သၞောတ် တၞဟ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[ကြုင် သိန္ဓု]] (Indus)
* [[ကြုင် ဗြဟ္မပုတ္တရ]] (Brahmaputra)
* [[ကြုင် ဂေါဒါဝရဳ]] (Godavari)
* [[ကြုင် နရမ္မဒါ]] (Narmada)
* [[ကြုင် မေဃနာ]] (Meghna)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဒဵု ဟိမဝန္တာ]] (Himalayas)
* [[ၜဳ ဗင်္ဂလား]] (Bay of Bengal)
* [[ဘာသာ ဟိန္ဒူ]] (Hinduism)
* [[သုန္ဒရဗန်]] (Sundarbans)
}}
[[Category:ကြုင်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ အိန္ဒိယ]]
[[Category:ကြုင်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဘင်္ဂလာဒေတ်]]
[[Category:ကြုင်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပထဝဳ အာရှ]]
[[Category:ဟိန္ဒူ ဒဏ္ဍာရဳ]]
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'''သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ကွတ်သိပ္ပံ လွပ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Applied science'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်စကာ တင်ဂၞင် သိပ္ပံ သဇိုင် (Basic science) မပ္တံကဵု လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ဝ် သဘာဝ တအ် သွက်ဂွံ သောတ်သြဟ် ပြသၞာ ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ လၟေင်တ္ၚဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် ကေုာံ နဲပညာ တၟိ သွက် ဖဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။ ဗွဲဓမ္မတာ မ္ဂး၊ သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒဒန် မဆက်စပ် လဝ် အကြာ ပရေင်သုတေသန သဇိုင် မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ သဘာဝ ကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ကွတ်ပညာ ရ။<ref name="bunge">{{cite journal |last=Bunge |first=M. |title=Technology as Applied Science |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_technology-and-culture_summer-1966_7_3/page/329 |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=329-347 |year=1966}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ် ဂှ်၊ ပါလုပ် ဒၟံင် ကဏ္ဍ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ (Engineering)၊ သိပ္ပံ ဂဥုဲ (Medicine)၊ သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ (Agriculture)၊ ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ (Computer science) တအ် ရ။ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဝွံ ကေတ် လညာတ် နူကဵု သိပ္ပံ သဇိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ရူပဗေဒ (Physics)၊ ဓါတုဗေဒ (Chemistry)၊ ကေုာံ ဇဳဝဗေဒ (Biology) တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ဍာံဍာံ (Practical applications) ရ။
[[File:ISS_March_2011.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး [[ရုင်အကာသ ဂၠးတိ]] (International Space Station) မဒှ် သၞောတ်ဝ် အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ မဇၞော်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ကောန်မၞိဟ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ (Applied science) ဝွံ နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် "ပညာ မစကာ တင်ဂၞင် သုတေသန သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ အဖြေ သွက် ပြသၞာ တၟေင် မွဲမွဲ" ရ။
အရာ မတၞဟ်ခြာ အဓိက အကြာ ဍေဟ် ကဵု သိပ္ပံ သဇိုင် ဂှ် ဒှ် တင်ရန်တၟအ် (Objective) ရ။ သိပ္ပံ သဇိုင် ဂှ် ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ တင်ဂၞင် တၟိ ကေုာံ ကၠိုဟ် သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိ ရ၊ ဆဂး သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ ဂှ် ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံ စကာ တင်ဂၞင် တအ် ဂှ် တုဲ သြိုင်ခၞံ ဒက်ပတန် အရာ မနွံကဵု ဖဵု (Useful products) ဥပမာ - ဂဥုဲ တၟိ၊ တိုင်ဒဒန်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကောန်ပျူတာ တအ် ရ။<ref name="feibleman">{{cite journal |last=Feibleman |first=J. K. |title=Pure Science, Applied Science, and Technology: An Attempt at Definitions |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_technology-and-culture_fall-1961_2_4/page/305 |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=305-317 |year=1961}}</ref>
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ပရေင်စကာ သၞောတ်ဝ် သိပ္ပံ ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ လၟေင်တ္ၚဲ ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တမၠာ တေအ် ရ။ လဒက်ပတန် အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ဂရိတ် ကေုာံ ရဝ်မ မပ္တံကဵု ပလိုင်ဍာ် (Aqueducts) ကေုာံ စက် ခဍိုတ် (Catapults) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဥပမာ သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တြေံ ရ။
ဆဂး ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နဒဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက မွဲ ဂှ်၊ ဒှ် အခိင် ပရေင်ကတဵု ကမၠောန် စက်ယန္တရား (Industrial Revolution) ပ္ဍဲ ၁၈ ကဵု ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ရ။ အခိင် ဂှ် လညာတ် ရူပဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဓါတုဗေဒ တအ် ဒးဒုင် စကာ သွက်ဂွံ သြိုင် စက် ပၟတ် (Steam engines) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပတိတ် ဓါတ်လလဳ (Electricity generation) တုဲ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
== ၃။ တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ သိပ္ပံသဇိုင် ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ (Basic vs. Applied Science) ==
သၞောတ် သိပ္ပံ ၜါ ဏအ် ၜိုန်ရ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ နွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ အဓိက အတိုင် သ္ၚိအင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ သိပ္ပံသဇိုင် ကေုာံ သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ
|-
! လက္ခဏာ (Features)
! သိပ္ပံသဇိုင် (Basic/Pure Science)
! သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ (Applied Science)
|-
| '''တင်ရန်တၟအ် (Goal)'''
| သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် သဘာဝ ကေုာံ ထပ် ပတိုန် လညာတ် တၟိ။
| သွက်ဂွံ သောတ်သြဟ် ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ ခၞံဗဒှ် ကပေါတ်။
|-
| '''ဥပမာ ဘာသာရပ်'''
| ရူပဗေဒ၊ ဇဳဝဗေဒ၊ ဓါတုဗေဒ၊ သင်္ချာ
| အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ၊ ဂဥုဲ၊ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ၊ ကောန်ပျူတာ
|-
| '''စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Focus)'''
| သဳအိုရဳ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Theories & Laws)
| လွပ် ကေုာံ နဲပညာ (Applications & Tech)
|-
| '''ဖဵု (Outcome)'''
| လိက်ပရေင် သုတေသန၊ တင်ဂၞင် သဇိုင်
| ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ်၊ စက်ယန္တရား၊ ဂဥုဲ လွဳယဲ
|}
== ၄။ ကဏ္ဍ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ကေုာံ နဲပညာ (Engineering and Technology) ==
အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ကေတ် လညာတ် သင်္ချာ ကေုာံ ရူပဗေဒ တုဲ သြိုင်ခၞံ လဒက်ပတန် (Structures) ကေုာံ စက် (Machines) ရ။
* '''အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Civil Engineering):''' သြိုင်ခၞံ တိုင်ဒဒန်၊ ဂၠံင် ဍာန်၊ ကေုာံ တိုက် ဇၞော်ဇၞော်။
* '''အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ စက် (Mechanical Engineering):''' ခၞံဗဒှ် စက်ယန္တရား၊ က္ၜင်ကျာ၊ ကေုာံ ကွဳစက် နာနာ။
* '''အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ဓါတ်လလဳ (Electrical Engineering):''' လ္ၚတ် သၞောတ် လလဳ ကေုာံ ဒက်ပတန် ကိရိယာ အဳလက်ထရဝ်နစ် မပ္တံကဵု ဖုန် ကေုာံ ကောန်ပျူတာ။<ref name="brooks">{{cite journal |last=Brooks |first=H. |title=The Relationship between Science and Technology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_research-policy_1994-09_23_5/page/477 |journal=Research Policy |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477-486 |year=1994}}</ref>
== ၅။ သိပ္ပံ ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Medical Science and Healthcare) ==
သိပ္ပံ ဂဥုဲ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်စကာ ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဓါတုဗေဒ သွက်ဂွံ လွဳလွတ် ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ ယဲ ရ။
* '''စၟတ်ၜတ် ယဲ (Diagnostics):''' ပရေင်စကာ စက် မပ္တံကဵု X-ray ကေုာံ MRI သွက်ဂွံ ညာတ် ဇုတ် ကေုာံ အင်္ဂါ အပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ်။
* '''ပရေင်ဖျေဟ် ဂဥုဲ (Pharmacology):''' ဂၠာဲ ဓါတ် နူ သဘာဝ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဓါတ် တၟိ (Synthesis) သွက်ဂွံ လွဳ ယဲ အာယုက် အန္တရာယ် မပ္တံကဵု ကေန်သာ ကေုာံ စၟ ဝေရတ် (Viruses)။
* '''ပရေင်ခွဲက် (Surgery):''' စကာ ကွတ်ပညာ တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု စက် ဉာဏ်စက် လေဇာ (Laser surgery) သွက်ဂွံ ပခွဲက် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု သရ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ရ။
== ၆။ သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ စၞစ (Agricultural and Food Science) ==
သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ အန္တရာယ် ဒးကၠောဝ် ဗျဵု အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ်၊ သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဂျီန် (Genetically Modified Organisms - GMOs):''' တၠပညာ တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ သၞောတ် ဂျီန် ပ္ဍဲ တၞံဆု ညံင် ဂွံ ဒစးဒုင် ယဲ စၟ ကေုာံ ဥတု ကညင် မာန်၊ တုဲ ပတိတ် သတ် တၞံ ဂၠိုင် တိုန်။
* '''သိပ္ပံ စၞစ (Food Technology):''' ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု ဂွံ မင်မဲ စၞစ ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ အုဲအေင် ပြဟ်၊ ကေုာံ ခၞံဗဒှ် စၞ မနွံကဵု ဓါတ် ဗဳတာမေန် ဍိုက်ပေင် ရ။
== ၇။ သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် (Computer Science and Informatics) ==
သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု လညာတ် သင်္ချာ သဇိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်စကာ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် သၞောတ် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် (Communication) အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''သော့ဝဲ ကေုာံ လိက်ကုတ် (Software Engineering):''' ခၞံဗဒှ် ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် သွက်ဂွံ တွက်ဂၞန်၊ လ္ၚတ် တင်ဂၞင်၊ ကေုာံ ကမၠောန် ရုင် နာနာ။
* '''ဉာဏ်စက် (Artificial Intelligence):''' လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် က္ဍဟ် စက် ညံင် ဂွံ ချပ် ကေုာံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မာန် အလဵုအလဵု ညံင်ရဴ ကောန်မၞိဟ် (ဥပမာ - က္ၜင်ကျာ ဟွံမဲ မၞိဟ်ဒဳ ကေုာံ ChatGPT)။
== ၈။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Economic and Social Impact) ==
သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ရ။ အခိင် ကမ္ပဏဳ တအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် ကပေါတ် တၟိ (Innovation) မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ကမၠောန် တၟိ၊ ပတိုန် ၚုဟ်မး ဍုင်၊ ကေုာံ ယှောတ်ဖအောန် ပရေင်ဒိုက်ဂတ် ရ။
ဥပမာ - ကွတ်ပညာ စက်ရုံ ၄.၀ (Industry 4.0) မစကာ စက်ရုပ် (Robotics) ကေုာံ အင်တာနက် ပ္ဍဲ စက်ရုံ (IoT) ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် ကမၠောန် ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် ဂွံ ပြဟ် ကေုာံ သက်သာ အာ ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် လေဝ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပြသၞာ သွက် ကောန်ကမၠောန် မဟွံမဲ ကဵု ပညာ ကွတ် တအ် မဒး ဆောမ်လေင် ကမၠောန် ကီု ရ။
== ၉။ ပြသၞာ သဳလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ သဘာဝ (Ethical Issues and Environmental Conservation) ==
ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ ဗွဲမပြဟ် ဝွံ ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပြသၞာ သဳလ (Ethics) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။<ref name="rollin">{{cite book |last=Rollin |first=B. E. |title=Science and Ethics |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceethics0000roll |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scienceethics0000roll/page/45 45]-60}}</ref>
* '''လွပ် ပရေင်ပၞာန် (Dual-use Technology):''' ကွတ်ပညာ လ္ၚဵု မပ္တံကဵု ဓါတုဗေဒ ကေုာံ နျူကလဳယျာ ဂှ် မာန် စကာ သွက် ပရေင်ခိုဟ် (ပတိတ် လလဳ) ကီု၊ ကေုာံ သွက် ပရေင်ပလီုပလာ် (ဗုံး နျူကလဳယျာ) ကီု ရ။
* '''ဇဳဝ သဳလ (Bioethics):''' ပရေင်ကၠောန် ပတိတ် မၞိဟ် နကဵု နဲကဲ ကလုံ (Cloning) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဂျီန် ပ္ဍဲ ကောန်ၚာ် (Designer babies) တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မဒး သဳကၠဳ ပရေင်သဳလ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် သဘာဝ မ္ဂး၊ သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ သောတ်သြဟ် ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဥတု (Climate change) နကဵု လွပ် ဒြဟတ် သဘာဝ (Renewable energy) မပ္တံကဵု လလဳ တ္ၚဲ ကေုာံ လလဳ ကျာ ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ ကေုာံ သုတေသန (Future of Applied Science and Research) ==
အနာဂတ် သွက် သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု နဲပညာ တၟိ ဇၞော် ၃ သာ် ရ -<ref name="niiniluoto">{{cite journal |last=Niiniluoto |first=I. |title=The Aim and Structure of Applied Research |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_erkenntnis_1993-01_38_1/page/1 |journal=Erkenntnis |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=1-21 |year=1993}}</ref>
# '''နာနဝ် နဲပညာ (Nanotechnology):''' ပရေင်စကာ ကိရိယာ မနွံ ဇမၞော် ဍောတ် နူကဵု အက်တမ် သွက်ဂွံ လွဳ ယဲ ကေန်သာ တပ်တပ် လတူ သဲလ်။
# '''ကောန်ပျူတာ ကွမ်တမ် (Quantum Computing):''' သၞောတ် ကောန်ပျူတာ မာန် တွက်ဂၞန် တင်ဂၞင် ထုဲထံင် မာန် ပြဟ် နူကဵု သူပါ ကောန်ပျူတာ လၟုဟ် လ္ၚီ ဆ။
# '''ဇဳဝ နဲပညာ တၟိ (Advanced Biotechnology):''' ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် အင်္ဂါ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် တၟိ နကဵု သဲလ် (3D Bioprinting) သွက် မၞိဟ်ယဲ မဒး ဆောမ်လေင် လဝ် အင်္ဂါ တအ် ရ။
သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ ဝွံ ဆက် ဒှ် ဒၟံင် သဇိုင် ဒြဟတ် မဒရိုဟ် ပတိုန် ဂၠးတိ ပိုယ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကေုာံ တန်တဴ အာ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သိပ္ပံ]] (Science)
* [[အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ]] (Engineering)
* [[နဲပညာ]] (Technology)
* [[သုတေသန]] (Research)
{{Navbox
| name = Science and Technology
| title = ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ နဲပညာ (Science and Technology Disciplines)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သိပ္ပံ သဇိုင်
| list1 =
* [[ရူပဗေဒ]] (Physics)
* [[ဓါတုဗေဒ]] (Chemistry)
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
* [[သင်္ချာ]] (Mathematics)
* [[နက္ခတ္တဗေဒ]] (Astronomy)
| group2 = သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ
| list2 =
* [[အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ]] (Engineering)
* [[သိပ္ပံ ဂဥုဲ]] (Medicine)
* [[သိပ္ပံ ကောန်ပျူတာ]] (Computer science)
* [[သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ]] (Agricultural science)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
* [[နာနဝ် နဲပညာ]] (Nanotechnology)
* [[ဇဳဝ နဲပညာ]] (Biotechnology)
* [[ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ်]] (Innovation)
}}
[[Category:သိပ္ပံမစကာနတဲ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ]]
[[Category:နဲပညာ]]
[[Category:အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ]]
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ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ်
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'''ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ကမၠောန် ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကပေါတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Manufacturing'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Production'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မပြံင်လှာဲ ကပေါတ်သဇိုင် (Raw materials) ညံင်ဂွံ ဒှ် အာ ကပေါတ် မမာန် စကာ ဂွံ (Finished goods) နကဵု ပရေင်စကာ ကိရိယာ၊ စက်ယန္တရာ၊ ဒြဟတ် ကောန်မၞိဟ်၊ ကေုာံ လၟေင် ဓါတုဗေဒ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇဳဝဗေဒ ရ။ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးတိ တုဲ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ၚုဟ်မး (Value addition) လတူ ကပေါတ်သဘာဝ တအ် ရ။<ref name="groover">{{cite book |last=Groover |first=M. P. |title=Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofmo0000groo_g4e3 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofmo0000groo_g4e3/page/2 2]-10}}</ref>
စတမ် နူကဵု ကမၠောန် တဲ (Handicraft) ဍောတ်တ် စဵုကဵု စိုပ် စက်ရုံ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မနွံကဵု နဲပညာ သၠုင် (High-tech factories) တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွိုက် ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ နဲကဲ လဒက်ပတန်၊ နဲပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:KUKA_Industrial_Robots_IRB.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ခေတ်တၟိ မစကာ [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] ကေုာံ စက်ရဝ်ဗတ် (Industrial robots) သွက်ဂွံ ပကောံ က္ၜင်ကျာ ကေုာံ ကွဳစက် ပ္ဍဲ စက်ရုံ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ အင်္ဂလိက် "Manufacturing" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် လာတ္တေန် တြေံ "manu factum" မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ကၠောန် လဝ် နကဵု တဲ" (Made by hand) ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ကမၠောန် တဲ ဓဝ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ပရေင်စကာ စက်ယန္တရာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် (Mass production) ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မပြံင်လှာဲ (Transformation)။ ဥပမာ - ပသဲ (Iron ore) ဂှ် ဒှ် ကပေါတ်သဇိုင် ရ၊ ကာလ ပိုယ် ဍိုဟ် ၜိုဟ် တုဲ ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ဇုတ် ကွဳစက် မ္ဂး၊ ၚုဟ်မး ဍေဟ် သၠုင် တိုန် အာ ရ။ လၟေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ မလေပ် ပံင်ကောံ လဝ် နကဵု ဒြဟတ် မၞိဟ် (Labor)၊ တမ်ရိုဟ် (Capital)၊ ကေုာံ နဲပညာ (Technology) အလုံ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံစိုပ် ခေတ် စက်ယန္တရာ တေအ် ဂှ်၊ ကပေါတ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ကၠောန် လဝ် နကဵု တဲ ပ္ဍဲ သ္ၚိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရုင် ကမၠောန် ဍောတ်တ် (Craft production) သၟး ရ။
ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၈ လပါ်အိုတ် ဂှ်၊ '''[[ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတး ကွတ်စက်ယန္တရာ]]''' (Industrial Revolution) စကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန် (England) ရ။ အရာ အဓိက မပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဝင် ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် စက် ဍာ်လတိုပ် (Steam engine) နကဵု ဂျိမ်း ဝပ် (James Watt) ရ။ စက် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် စက်ရုံ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် မာန် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် နကဵု ဒြဟတ် စက် ဟွံဒး စကာ ဒြဟတ် တိရစ္ဆာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု လပါ် စ သၞာံ ၁၉၀၀ တအ် ဂှ်၊ ဟင်နရဳ ဖေါ့တ် (Henry Ford) ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် အလုံ (Assembly line) တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ကွဳစက် မာန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် (Mass production) နကဵု ၚုဟ်မး သက်သာ ရ။<ref name="womack">{{cite book |last=Womack |first=J. P. |author2=Jones, D. T. |author3=Roos, D. |title=The Machine That Changed the World: The Story of Lean Production |url=https://archive.org/details/machinethatchang0000jame |publisher=Free Press |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/machinethatchang0000jame/page/21 21]-27}}</ref>
== ၃။ နဲကဲ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Main Manufacturing Processes) ==
ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် မွဲမွဲ ဂှ် ဒးစကာ နဲကဲ ကၠောန် (Manufacturing processes) နာနာ သာ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး နဲကဲ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် သဇိုင် ဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ယၟု နဲကဲ (အၚ်္ဂလိက်)
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! ဥပမာ လွပ်
|-
| '''Casting / Molding''' (နဲကဲ ဍိုဟ် ဗီုပြင်)
| ဍိုဟ် သွိုဟ် ကပေါတ် မပ္တံကဵု ပသဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပလာသတစ် စဵုကဵု ဒှ် ဍာ်၊ တုဲ စုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဗီု (Mold) သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ရုပ်သာ်။
| ကၠောန် စက် ကွဳစက်၊ ထၟာဲ ပသဲ၊ ပလာသတစ် ခေါက် ဍာ်။
|-
| '''Forming''' (နဲကဲ ပတိတ် ဗီုပြင်)
| လ္ပာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဍဵု ကပေါတ် သမ္ၚံက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သမ္တဴ ညံင် ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗီုပြင် ဟွံဒး တုတ် ကုတ်။
| ကၠောန် ဇုတ် ကွဳစက်၊ ပသဲ ဓရိုတ် (Forging)။
|-
| '''Machining / Cutting''' (နဲကဲ ရေက် ကုတ်)
| ကုတ်၊ ရေက်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပလိုင် ထောအ် ကပေါတ် မဟွံဒးဂၞပ် နူကဵု ကပေါတ်သဇိုင် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မွဲ။
| ကၠောန် ပသဲ ဒလုင် (Milling)၊ ကၠောန် ကောန်သော် (Drilling)။
|-
| '''Joining / Assembly''' (နဲကဲ ဆက်စပ် ကေုာံ ပံင်ကောံ)
| ပံင်ကောံ ကပေါတ် နာနာ သာ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ကပေါတ် အလုံ မွဲ။
| ကမၠောန် ဂဟဵု ပသဲ (Welding)၊ တိတ် ဓရိုတ်၊ ပံင်ကောံ ကောန်ပျူတာ။
|}
== ၄။ သၞောတ် ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် (Manufacturing Systems) ==
လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် စက်ရုံ တအ် လေဝ် နွံ နာနာ သာ် ရ -
* '''သၞောတ် ပတိတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် (Mass Production):''' ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် မတုပ် ရေင်သကအ် ဍိုက်ဍိုက်ပေင်ပေင် (Standardized products) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။ ဖဵု ဍေဟ် ဂှ် ၚုဟ်မး သက်သာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗီုပြင် ကပေါတ် ဝါတ် ရ။
* '''သၞောတ် လိန် (Lean Manufacturing):''' ဒှ် သၞောတ် မခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် နကဵု ကမ္ပဏဳ တဝ်ယဝ်တာ (Toyota) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဂျပေန်။ သၞောတ် ဏအ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ယှောတ်ဖအောန် အရာ မဟွံမဲ ပၟိက် (Waste reduction) ကေုာံ ပခိုဟ် တိုန် ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် လၟိုန် (Continuous improvement) ရ။
* '''သၞောတ် သာမယ (Agile Manufacturing):''' အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပြဟ်ပြဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ဍိုက်ကေက် ကု ပၟိက် စိုတ် ညးရာန် တအ်။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် (Economics and Manufacturing) ==
ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဇုတ်ဇၞော် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economic backbone) သွက် ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ပတိတ် ကဵု လၟိဟ် ကမၠောန် သွက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ကေုာံ ကဵု ဖဵု လတူ ပရေင်သွံရာန် နူ ဂၠးတိ (Exports) ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။<ref name="kalpakjian">{{cite book |last=Kalpakjian |first=S. |author2=Schmid, S. R. |title=Manufacturing Engineering and Technology |publisher=Pearson |year=2014 |pages=35-42}}</ref>
ဍုင် မပ္တံကဵု [[ဍုင်ကြုက်]] (China)၊ ဂျာမနဳ (Germany)၊ ကေုာံ ဂျပေန် (Japan) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် မဇၞော်မောဝ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ ဏအ် ရ။ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပလံင် ကပေါတ် (Supply chain management) ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။ ယဝ်ရ စက်ရုံ မွဲ ဒေါအ် အာ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် မာန် ကဵု ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ မာန် ရ (ဥပမာ - အခက်အခုဲ ပရေင်ပလံင် ကပေါတ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ယဲ ကဝ်ဗစ်-၁၉)။
== ၆။ နဲပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် (Modern Technologies in Manufacturing) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ နဲပညာ ကောန်ပျူတာ ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဂွံ ခိုဟ် ကေုာံ ပြဟ် တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ -
* '''CAD (Computer-Aided Design):''' ပရေင်စကာ သော့ဝဲ (Software) ကောန်ပျူတာ သွက်ဂွံ ဓဇက် ရုပ် ဒီဇိုင်း ကပေါတ် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံကၠောန်။
* '''CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing):''' ပရေင်စကာ ကောန်ပျူတာ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် စက်ယန္တရာ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ကပေါတ်။
* '''CNC (Computer Numerical Control):''' စက် ရေက်၊ ကုတ် ကပေါတ် မချဳဓရာင် အလဵုအလဵု အတိုင် တင်ဂၞင် ကောန်ပျူတာ သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ရုပ်သာ် မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် (High precision)။
== ၇။ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် အလဵုအလဵု ကေုာံ စက်ရဝ်ဗတ် (Automation and Robotics) ==
ပရေင်စကာ စက် ရဝ်ဗတ် (Industrial robots) ပ္ဍဲ စက်ရုံ ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ် ရ။ ရဝ်ဗတ် တအ် မာန် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မပ္တံကဵု ဂဟဵု ပသဲ၊ ဖျေဟ် အသာ်၊ ကေုာံ ယိုက် ကပေါတ် ဇြိုင်ဇြိုင် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဍောင်ၜိုတ် ပွိုင် ၂၄ နာဍဳ ရ။
အရာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ယှောတ်ဖအောန် အန္တရာယ် လမျီု သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် မဒး ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မကဵု အန္တရာယ် (ဥပမာ - ဒၞာဲ မနွံ ဓါတုဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ သၠုင်) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ပရေင်စကာ ရဝ်ဗတ် ဂၠိုင် တိုန် မ္ဂး မၞိဟ် တအ် မာန် ဆောမ်လေင် ကမၠောန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ကလေင် ခၞံဗဒှ် ကဵု ကမၠောန် တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု ညးမထိင်ဒဝ် စက် ကေုာံ ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် (Robot programmers) တအ် ကီု ရ။
== ၈။ စက်မှုဇၞော် မရနုက်ကဵု ပန် (Industry 4.0 and Smart Factories) ==
"စက်မှုဇၞော် မရနုက်ကဵု ပန်" (Industry 4.0 / Fourth Industrial Revolution) ဝွံ ဒှ် ခေတ် သၞောတ် ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် တၟိ အိုတ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ပံင်ကောံ လဝ် နဲပညာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ကု စက်ရုံ သဇိုင် ရ။<ref name="schwab">{{cite book |last=Schwab |first=K. |title=The Fourth Industrial Revolution |publisher=Crown Publishing Group |year=2017 |pages=12-20}}</ref>
* '''IoT (Internet of Things):''' စက်ယန္တရာ သီုဖအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ စက်ရုံ ဆက်စပ် လဝ် ကု အင်တာနက် တုဲ ပလံင် တင်ဂၞင် ရေင်သကအ် အလဵုအလဵု။
* '''Big Data ကေုာံ Cloud Computing:''' ပကောံ တင်ဂၞင် နူ စက် တအ် တုဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ရံင် ပြသၞာ သွက်ဂွံ ပလေဝ် ပြင် ကိုပ်ကၠာ စက် ဟွံလီု (Predictive maintenance)။
* '''3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing):''' ပရေင်ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် နကဵု စက် တက် ၃-ဒဳ မထပ် ကပေါတ် မွဲ ထပ် တုဲ မွဲ ထပ် (စၞး မဒး ကုတ် ရေက် ထောအ်)။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ဒီဇိုင်း အခက်အခုဲ။
== ၉။ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် သၚ်္ဂေက် (Environment and Green Manufacturing) ==
ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဂၠးတိ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဟိုတ် အဓိက မွဲ မပတိတ် ဓါတ် ကာဗောန် (Carbon emissions) ကေုာံ မလီုလာ် ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ကမ္ပဏဳ တအ် ဒးပြံင်လှာဲ အာ စကာ "ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် သၚ်္ဂေက်" (Green Manufacturing / Sustainable manufacturing) ရ။
ကမၠောန် ဏအ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု ပရေင်ယှောတ်ဖအောန် ပတိတ် ဓါတ် ဂျိ ကု ကျာ၊ ပရေင်စကာ ဒြဟတ် လလဳ မကလေင် စကာ ဂွံ (Renewable energy)၊ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ကလေင် စကာ ကပေါတ် တြေံ (Recycling) ရ။ တၠပညာ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လမျီု ကပေါတ် (Life-cycle assessment) သွက်ဂွံ တီ ၜိုတ်လဵု ကပေါတ် မွဲမွဲ ကဵု ဖဵု ပရေအ် လတူ သဘာဝ နူ စတမ် စဵုကဵု လအိတ် ရ။<ref name="degarmo">{{cite book |last=DeGarmo |first=E. P. |author2=Black, J. T. |author3=Kohser, R. A. |title=Materials and Processes in Manufacturing |publisher=Wiley |year=2003 |pages=55-60}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် (Future of Manufacturing) ==
အနာဂတ် ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ အလဵုအလဵု (Hyper-customization) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် မ္ဂး၊ စက်ရုံ တအ် ဟွံဒး ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ကပေါတ် မတုပ် ရေင်သကအ် သၟး ပုဟ်။ နကဵု ရီုဗင် ဉာဏ်စက် ကေုာံ 3D Printing ဂှ်၊ ညးရာန် တအ် မာန် ဖန်ဇန် ဒီဇိုင်း အလဵုဇကု ညးတအ် ပ္ဍဲ အင်တာနက်၊ တုဲ စက်ရုံ မာန် ကၠောန် ပတိတ် ကဵု ကပေါတ် မတၟေင် သွက် ညးမွဲ တၠ ဓဝ် နကဵု ၚုဟ်မး သက်သာ မာန် ရ (Mass Customization)။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် လတူ အကာသ (Space manufacturing) သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကပေါတ် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဓါတ် ဓရိုဟ် တိ (Zero gravity) လေဝ် ဒှ် ကၠုင် ကဏ္ဍ သုတေသန ခေတ်တၟိ မွဲ ကီု ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတး ကွတ်စက်ယန္တရာ]] (Industrial Revolution)
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial intelligence)
* [[ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]] (Economy)
* [[သဳမဳကောန်ဒတ်တာ]] (Semiconductor)
{{Navbox
| name = Industry and Manufacturing
| title = စက်ယန္တရာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် (Industry and Manufacturing)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သၞောတ် ကေုာံ နဲကဲ
| list1 =
* [[ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ်]] (Manufacturing)
* [[သၞောတ် လိန်]] (Lean manufacturing)
* [[ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်]] (Mass production)
* [[စက်မှုဇၞော် မရနုက်ကဵု ပန်]] (Industry 4.0)
| group2 = နဲပညာ ကေုာံ စက်
| list2 =
* [[စက် ရဝ်ဗတ်]] (Industrial robot)
* [[စက် တက် ၃-ဒဳ]] (3D printing)
* [[CNC]] (Computer numerical control)
* [[CAD/CAM]] (Computer-aided design and manufacturing)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]] (Economics)
* [[ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ]] (Environment)
* [[ကပေါတ်သဇိုင်]] (Raw materials)
* [[ပရေင်ပလံင် ကပေါတ်]] (Supply chain)
}}
[[Category:ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ်]]
[[Category:စက်ယန္တရာ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]]
[[Category:နဲပညာ]]
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'''ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''လညာတ် လဳဗရေဝ် ခေတ်တၟိ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Neoliberalism'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဝါဒ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မွဲ မကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ တုဲ ဍေဟ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဗွိုက်လဒက် သၠးပွး (Free-market capitalism) ရ။ ဝါဒ ဏအ်ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ယှောတ်ဖအောန် အဝဵု ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပါလုပ် အလဵုအသဳ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ထံက်ဂလာန် လတူ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ကမၠောန် အလဵုအသဳ ဇရေင် ပုဂ္ဂလိက (Privatization)၊ ပရေင်ဖအောန် သၞောဝ် ထိင်ဒဝ် (Deregulation)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗၞိက် သၠးပွး (Free trade) ဂၠးတိ ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=D. |title=A Brief History of Neoliberalism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |pages=2-10}}</ref>
ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လညာတ် လ္ၚတ် ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ တၠပညာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် တအ် သၟး ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လပါ် သၞာံ ၁၉၇၀ ကဵု ၁၉၈၀ တအ် ဂှ် ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ကၠုင် သၞောတ် အဓိက မထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးတိ၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် လက်ထက် သမ္မတ ရဝ်နယ် ရေဂေန် (Ronald Reagan) ပ္ဍဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် မာဂရက် သက်ချာ (Margaret Thatcher) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဗြိတိန် တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ၊ ပရေင်စကာ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပါ်ပါဲ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Reagan_and_Thatcher.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ရဝ်နယ် ရေဂေန် (Ronald Reagan) ကေုာံ သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် ဍုင်ဗြိတိန် မာဂရက် သက်ချာ (Margaret Thatcher) မဒှ် ပူဂိုလ် အဓိက မဖန်ဗဒှ် ညံင် ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် ဂွံ ပြာကတ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၀ တအ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ်" (Neoliberalism) ဝွံ မလေပ် စကာ နဒဒှ် မလိက် မကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပရေင်ကလေင် ကတဵုမောဝ် တိုန် ဝါဒ လဳဗရေဝ် တြေံ (Classical liberalism) ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၁၉ မထံက်ဂလာန် လတူ "လေတ်သေ-ဖဲ" (Laissez-faire) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မဟွံမဲ ကဵု အလဵုအသဳ လုပ် ပထုဲ ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် တၠပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ မ္ဂး၊ ဝါဒ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လညာတ် မစၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပကာန် လတူ ဗွိုက်လဒက် (Market competition) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ကု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် အိုတ် ရ။ အလဵုအသဳ ညးတအ် နွံ တာလျိုင် ဆ သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ၊ စဵုဒၞာ ပရေင်ပိုင်ပြဳ ပုဂ္ဂလိက (Private property)၊ ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ် သြန် ညံင် ဂွံ တန်တဴ ညိင်ညိင် သၟး ရ၊ ဆဂး ဟွံဒး လုပ် ပထုဲ ပ္ဍဲ ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စတင် (History and Origins) ==
ဝေါဟာရ ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၃၈ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပေါဲသဳကၠဳ တၠပညာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ပါရဳ (Walter Lippmann Colloquium) ရ။ အခိင် ဂှ် ဒှ် အခိင် ကြဴနူ ကပ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဇၞော် (Great Depression) တုဲ တၠပညာ တအ် ဖေက် လဒိုက် သၞောတ် မထိင်ဒဝ် အလုံစုံ မပ္တံကဵု ဝါဒ ကောန်မျူနေတ် (Communism) ကေုာံ ဝါဒ ဖက်သေတ် (Fascism) တအ် ရ။
တၠပညာ တအ် မိက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် "ဂၠံင်တရဴ လဒေါဝ်" မွဲ မဟွံသေင် ကု သၞောတ် လေတ်သေ-ဖဲ မဟွံမဲ သၞောဝ် အလုံစုံ (မဒှ် ဟိုတ် ကပ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်) ကေုာံ ဟွံသေင် ကု သၞောတ် အလဵုအသဳ ပိုင်ပြဳ အလုံစုံ ရ။ ဆဂး၊ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ ဒုတိယ ဂှ်၊ ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စကာ သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကိန်သဳယာန် (Keynesian economics) မကဵု အခေါင် အလဵုအသဳ လုပ် ပထုဲ တုဲ ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် ဂှ် ဇြဟတ် ဍိုန် အာ ယာယဳ ရ။
== ၃။ လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economic Theories) ==
ဝါဒ ဏအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ သဇိုင် သဳအိုရဳ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇရေင် ပုဂ္ဂလိက (Privatization):''' ရုင် ကမၠောန် အလဵုအသဳ မပ္တံကဵု ရုင် ပလံင် လလဳ၊ ဍာ်၊ ဘာတန်၊ ကေုာံ ရုင်ဂဥုဲ တအ် ဂှ် သ္ဒး သွံ ကဵု ကမ္ပဏဳ ပုဂ္ဂလိက ရောင်။ (လညာတ် ဏအ် ထေင် ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပုဂ္ဂလိက တအ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ခိုဟ် နူ အလဵုအသဳ)။
* '''ပရေင်ဖအောန် သၞောဝ် (Deregulation):''' ပရေင်ယှောတ်ဖအောန် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် ကမ္ပဏဳ တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ အောန် စှ်ေ အာ၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ ဘဏ် ကေုာံ သြန်ဗွဝ် (Financial deregulation)။
* '''ပရေင်ယှောတ် အခေါန် (Tax Cuts):''' ယှောတ် ဖျေဟ် အခေါန် လတူ ကမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ် သိုက် တအ် နကဵု လညာတ် မဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "သြန် တအ် ဂှ် ညးတအ် မလေပ် ကလေင် သြိုင်ခၞံ ကမၠောန် တုဲ စိုပ် အာ ဇရေင် မၞိဟ် သၟဝ် တအ် ရ" (Trickle-down economics)။<ref name="friedman">{{cite book |last=Friedman |first=M. |title=Capitalism and Freedom |url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismfreedo0000frie |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1962 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/capitalismfreedo0000frie/page/20 20]-35}}</ref>
== ၄။ တၠပညာ အဓိက ကေုာံ ဂကောံ မန်ပဝ်လရေန် (Key Thinkers and Mont Pelerin Society) ==
ပူဂိုလ် မစိစောန် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် လဝ် ဝါဒ ဏအ် အဓိက ဂှ် ဒှ် တၠပညာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် '''[[ဖရဳဒရစ် ဟာယေက်]]''' (Friedrich Hayek) ကေုာံ '''[[မဳလ်တန် ဖရဳဒမာန်]]''' (Milton Friedman) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၇ ဂှ် ဟာယေက် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဂကောံ "မန်ပဝ်လရေန်" (Mont Pelerin Society) မဒှ် ဂကောံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် (Think tank) သွက် တၠပညာ တအ် ဂွံ ပြးဇး လညာတ် ဗွိုက်လဒက် သၠးပွး အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ မဳလ်တန် ဖရဳဒမာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် တၠပညာ နူ တက္ကသိုလ် ချဳကာဂဝ် (Chicago School of Economics) တုဲ၊ ညးတေအ် ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပြသၞာ ငွေကြေးဖောင်းပွ (Inflation) ဂှ် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ပရေင်ပတိတ် သြန် အလဵုအသဳ သၟး ရ (Monetarism)။<ref name="hayek">{{cite book |last=Hayek |first=F. A. |title=The Road to Serfdom |url=https://archive.org/details/roadtoserfdom00haye |publisher=Routledge |year=1944 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/roadtoserfdom00haye/page/50 50]-65}}</ref>
== ၅။ လွပ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၀ တအ် (Political Implementation - Thatcher and Reagan) ==
ကြဴနူ ကပ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၇၀ တအ် (Stagflation) ကတဵုဒှ် တုဲ၊ ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် ဂွံ အခေါင် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် ရ။
* '''ဍုင်ဗြိတိန်:''' သကိုပ်ဝန်ဇၞော် မာဂရက် သက်ချာ (Margaret Thatcher) မာန် ပၞာန် ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၇၉ တုဲ ညး ဖအောန် ထောအ် ဒြဟတ် သမဂ္ဂ သၟာကမၠောန် (Trade unions) ကေုာံ သွံ ထောအ် ကမ္ပဏဳ အလဵုအသဳ မပ္တံကဵု ဓါတ်လလဳ ကေုာံ က္ၜင်ကျာ ဇရေင် ပုဂ္ဂလိက ရ။
* '''ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန်:''' သမ္မတ ရဝ်နယ် ရေဂေန် (Ronald Reagan) လုပ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၁ တုဲ၊ ညး ယှောတ် ဖျေဟ် အခေါန် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကေုာံ ဖအောန် သၞောဝ် ထိင်ဒဝ် လတူ ကမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ရ (Reaganomics)။
* '''ဍုင်ချဳလဳ:''' ကိုပ်ကၠာ နူ ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၇၃၊ အလဵုအသဳ ပၞာန် သကိုပ်ဗိုလ် ပဳနဝ်ချေ (Augusto Pinochet) စကာ သၞောတ် ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ချဳလဳ နကဵု ပရေင်ရီုဗင် နူ ဂကောံ တၠပညာ "Chicago Boys" ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ သၞောတ် ကိန်သဳယာန် ကဵု နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ်
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! သၞောတ် ကိန်သဳယာန် (Keynesianism)
! ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် (Neoliberalism)
|-
| '''တာလျိုင် အလဵုအသဳ'''
| လုပ် ပထုဲ ဇၞော် (ထိင်ဒဝ် ဗွိုက်လဒက်)
| အောန် အိုတ် (လတူ ဗွိုက်လဒက်)
|-
| '''ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၟာကမၠောန်'''
| သၠုင် (ထံက်ဂလာန် သမဂ္ဂ)
| ဍိုန်လျ (ဖအောန် အခေါင် သၟာကမၠောန်)
|-
| '''ပိုင်ပြဳ ရုင်ကမၠောန်'''
| အလဵုအသဳ ပိုင်ပြဳ ဂၠိုင် (Public)
| ပုဂ္ဂလိက ပိုင်ပြဳ (Privatization)
|-
| '''အခေါန် (Taxes)'''
| အခေါန် သၠုင် သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် ညးဍုင်
| အခေါန် အောန် သွက် ကမ္ပဏဳ သြိုင်ခၞံ
|}
== ၆။ ဍုင် မဇၞော်မောဝ် ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဝါရှင်တန် (Developing Countries and Washington Consensus) ==
ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် သၞာံ ၁၉၈၀ ကဵု ၁၉၉၀ တအ် ဂှ်၊ ဝါဒ ဏအ် ပြးဇး စိုပ် အာ ဍုင် မဇၞော်မောဝ် (Developing countries) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဂကောံ ငွေကြေး အလုံ ဂၠးတိ မပ္တံကဵု IMF (International Monetary Fund) ကေုာံ ဘဏ် ဂၠးတိ (World Bank) ရ။
ဂကောံ တအ် ဏအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် ပညုင် မကော်စ '''"သၞောတ် ဝါရှင်တန်"''' (Washington Consensus) ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ဍုင် လ္ၚဵု မိက်ဂွံ အာတ် ရာန် သြန် နူ ဂကောံ ဏအ် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် သ္ဒး ပြံင်လှာဲ သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ညးတအ် အတိုင် ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် (Structural Adjustment Programs) ရ။ အရာ ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ အာဖရိက ကေုာံ သမၠုင်ကျာ အမေရိက ဒး သွံ ထောအ် ရုင် ကမၠောန် အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ယှောတ် ဖျေဟ် သြန် ထံက်ပင် ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာ ရ။
== ၇။ ပရေင်ပလီုပလာ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Social Impacts and Inequality) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးတိ ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ဇယျာသြန် (GDP) ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် လေဝ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပြသၞာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကီု ရ။
ပြသၞာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ဟွံညဳသၟဟ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economic Inequality) ရ။ သြန် ယောန် တအ် ပြံင် အာ စိုပ် ပ္ဍဲ တဲ ကမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ် သိုက် မွဲက္ဍိုပ် (၁%) တုဲ၊ သၟာကမၠောန် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ် ဒိုက်ဂတ် တအ် ဒးဆဵုဂဗ လဟိုင် သြန် လုပ် အောန် ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ ဂီုကၠီု ကမၠောန် (Job insecurity) ရ။ တုဲပၠန် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇရေင် ပုဂ္ဂလိက ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ကပေါတ် သဇိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ဍာ်၊ လလဳ၊ ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ တအ် ၚုဟ် က္ဍင် တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။<ref name="stiglitz">{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=J. E. |title=Globalization and Its Discontents |url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationits0000stig_q5z4 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/globalizationits0000stig_q5z4/page/15 15]-30}}</ref>
== ၈။ ပရေင်ပါ်ပါဲ ကေုာံ ဒစးဒုင် (Criticisms and Opposition) ==
လညာတ် ဏအ် ဒးဒုင် ပါ်ပါဲ ဗွဲမဇၞော် နူကဵု တၠပညာ ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် နာနာ သာ် ရ။
* '''ပါ်ပါဲ နူ လပါ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်:''' တၠပညာ မပ္တံကဵု ဂျဝ်သေပ် သတဳဂလစ် (Joseph Stiglitz) ဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ဝါဒ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵု ဖဵု ဆ ကု ဍုင် မသိုက် ကေုာံ ကမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် သၟး တုဲ ဍေဟ် ပလီု လဝ် လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဒိုက်ဂတ် ရ။
* '''ပါ်ပါဲ နူ လပါ် ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ:''' ပရေင်ဖအောန် သၞောဝ် ထိင်ဒဝ် ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ကမ္ပဏဳ တအ် ဂွံ ပလီုပလာ် ဂြိုပ် ဆု၊ ပတိတ် ဓါတ် ဂျိ၊ ကေုာံ ပလီု သဘာဝ (Environmental degradation) ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ အလဵုအသဳ ရ။
* '''နာအဝ်မဳ ကလာင် (Naomi Klein):''' ပ္ဍဲ လိက် "The Shock Doctrine" ဂှ် ညး ချူ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် ဝွံ စကာ အခိင် ကပ် ဘဲ (ဥပမာ - ပၞာန်၊ ဘဲသဘာဝ) သွက်ဂွံ စုတ် သၞောဝ် ဍေဟ်တအ် ဇရေင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် နကဵု အဓမ္မ ရ။<ref name="klein">{{cite book |last=Klein |first=N. |title=The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism |publisher=Metropolitan Books |year=2007 |pages=5-15}}</ref>
== ၉။ ကပ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးတိ (၂၀၀၈) (Global Financial Crisis 2008) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၀၈ ဂှ်၊ ကပ် ဘဲ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဇၞော် ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ (Great Recession) ရ။ ဟိုတ် အဓိက သွက် ကပ် ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ဖအောန် သၞောဝ် ထိင်ဒဝ် (Deregulation) လတူ ကဏ္ဍ ဘဏ် ကေုာံ သြန်ဗွဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် ရ။
ဘဏ် တအ် ကဵု လဝ် ဇမၠိက် သြန် (Loans) ကု မၞိဟ် မဟွံမာန် ကလေင် ကဵု တအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ရာန် သ္ၚိ၊ တုဲ ကာလ သၞောတ် သ္ၚိ (Housing bubble) သရိုဟ် စှ်ေ အာ ဂှ် ဘဏ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒး လီုလာ် ရ။ ပြသၞာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု ဍာံဍာံ ဒဒှ်ရ ဗွိုက်လဒက် သၠးပွး အလုံစုံ ဝွံ ဟွံမာန် တန်တဴ ညိင်ညိင် တုဲ၊ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် အလဵုအသဳ ဒး ကလေင် စကာ သြန် ဍုင် (Bailouts) သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ဟံင်ပြာ် ကမ္ပဏဳ ပုဂ္ဂလိက တအ် ရ (မဒှ် အရာ မဒစးဒုင် ကု သဳအိုရဳ ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် အလဵုဇကု ရ)။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ခေတ်တၟိ (Future and Modern Context) ==
ကြဴနူ ကပ် သၞာံ ၂၀၀၈ ကေုာံ ယဲ ကပ် ကိုဝ်ဗစ်-၁၉ (COVID-19) တုဲ၊ လညာတ် ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ် ဝွံ ဍိုန်လျ ကၠုင် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ ဂၠးတိ ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် ဆဵု ကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ ယဝ်ရ အလဵုအသဳ ဟွံမဲ ဇြဟတ် မ္ဂး ဟွံမာန် ဒစးဒုင် ကု ပြသၞာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မပ္တံကဵု ယဲ ကပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဥတု (Climate change) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် (အလဵုအသဳ ဂျဝ် ဘာင်ဒေန်) တအ် ကလေင် စကာ သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မကဵု အခေါင် အလဵုအသဳ လုပ် ပထုဲ ဂၠိုင် တိုန် (State interventionism)၊ ကလေင် သြိုင်ခၞံ ရုင်ကမၠောန် အလဵုအသဳ၊ ကေုာံ ဖအောန် ထောအ် ပရေင်ဗၞိက် သၠးပွး နကဵု လညာတ် ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ ကပေါတ် ဍုင်ဇကု (Protectionism) ရ။ ၜိုန်ဂှ်လေဝ် လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ သြဇာ ဝါဒ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ဂၠးတိ ခေတ်တၟိ ဏီ ဖိုဟ် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗွိုက်လဒက် သၠးပွး]] (Free market)
* [[ပရေင်ဟွံညဳသၟဟ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]] (Economic inequality)
* [[သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကိန်သဳယာန်]] (Keynesian economics)
* [[ဝါဒ လဳဗရေဝ်]] (Liberalism)
{{Navbox
| name = Political and Economic Ideologies
| title = ဝါဒ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Political and Economic Ideologies)
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* [[ဝါဒ လဳဗရေဝ်]] (Liberalism)
* [[ဝါဒ နဳအဝ်လဳဗရေဝ်]] (Neoliberalism)
* [[ဝါဒ ကောန်သဗေတိတ်]] (Conservatism)
* [[ဝါဒ သဵုရှေလစ်]] (Socialism)
* [[ဝါဒ ကောန်မျူနေတ်]] (Communism)
| group2 = သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်
| list2 =
* [[သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကိန်သဳယာန်]] (Keynesianism)
* [[လေတ်သေ-ဖဲ]] (Laissez-faire)
* [[သၞောတ် ဝါရှင်တန်]] (Washington Consensus)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
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* [[ဗွိုက်လဒက် သၠးပွး]] (Free market)
* [[ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇရေင် ပုဂ္ဂလိက]] (Privatization)
* [[ဖရဳဒရစ် ဟာယေက်]] (Friedrich Hayek)
* [[မဳလ်တန် ဖရဳဒမာန်]] (Milton Friedman)
}}
[[Category:ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]]
[[Category:ဝါဒ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ဝင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]]
[[Category:သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]]
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'''ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မဟာယာန''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Mahayana Buddhism'', သံသကြိုတ်: महायान, ရမ္သာင်: ''မဟာယာန''၊ အဓိပ္ပါယ်: "က္ၜင် ဇၞော်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ယာန် ဇၞော်") ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဂိုဏ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လညာတ် တရဴ အဓိက အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မပြးဇး ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂိုဏ် မနွံ လၟိဟ် ညးလျိုင်ပတှ်ေ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် (ၜိုတ် ၅၃% နူကဵု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ သီုဖအိုတ်) တုဲ၊ ဗွဲတၟေင် ပြာကတ် လောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ရးအာရှ ဗမံက် မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ ဂျပေန်၊ ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာ၊ တိုင်ဝါန်၊ ကေုာံ ဗဳယေတ်နာမ် တအ် ရ။<ref name="williams">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=P. |title=Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations |url=https://archive.org/details/mahynabuddhismdo0000will |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mahynabuddhismdo0000will/page/1 1]-10}}</ref>
အရာ မတၞဟ်ခြာ အဓိက နူကဵု လညာတ် [[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada) ဂှ်၊ မဟာယာန ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ လညာတ် "ဗောဓိသတ်" (Bodhisattva ideal) မဒှ် ပရေင်ရာဒၞာ မိက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ကျာ် သွက်ဂွံ ဟံင်ပြာ် သတ္တဝါ သီုဖအိုတ် ညံင် ဂွံ တိတ် ဗၠး နူ သံသာ ဒဒိုက် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မဟာယာန နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန် ဒဿန၊ လိက်သုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင် တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Daibutsu_Kamakura.JPG|thumb|right|300px|ကျာ်ဇၞော် အမိတာဘ (Amitabha Buddha) ပ္ဍဲ ကမာကူရ၊ ဍုင်ဂျပေန် မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ ဒဿန မဟာယာန အဓိက မွဲ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "မဟာယာန" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် သံသကြိုတ် မာဟာ (ဇၞော်) ကေုာံ ယာန (က္ၜင်၊ ကွဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ယာန်) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ယာန် မဇၞော်" ရ။ ယၟု ဏအ်ဝွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နကဵု လညာတ် မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ဒဿန ဏအ် မာန် ယိုက် ပလံင် ကေတ် သတ္တဝါ သီုဖအိုတ် (ဟွံသေင် ဆ ခမဳ သၟး) ညံင် ဂွံ စိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန် ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် မဟာယာန မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ကော်စ လညာတ် တြေံ (မပ္တံကဵု ထေရဝါဒ) ဂှ် "ဟဳနယာန" (Hinayana - ယာန် ဍောတ်) မဒှ် လညာတ် မအာရီုစွံ ဆ သွက် ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ဇကု မွဲ တၠ ဓဝ် (အရဟတ္တမဂ် / Arhatship) ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဝေါဟာရ "ဟဳနယာန" ဝွံ ဒှ် အရေဝ် မပလီုပလာ် ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာ တုဲ တၠပညာ တအ် ဟွံစကာ အာ ရ၊ ညးတအ် စကာ ဝေါဟာရ "ထေရဝါဒ" စၞး ဂှ် ရ။ မဟာယာန ဝွံ ပံက် လဝ် တြင် သွက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဓမ္မတာ (Laypeople) ညံင် ဂွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ကျာ်ဇၞော် သၠုင်အိုတ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Origins) ==
ဝင် တမ်မူလ မဟာယာန ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ပထမ ဘဳသဳ (1st century BCE) ကဵု ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ပထမ သဳအဳ (1st century CE) ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နဒဒှ် ဂိုဏ် မပါ်တိတ် မွဲ စွံ ဓဝ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ဒဿန (Philosophical movement) မကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် အပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ မဟာသံဃိက (Mahāsāṃghika) ကေုာံ သရဗာသတဳဝါဒ (Sarvāstivāda) တအ် ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=P. |title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |pages=108-112}}</ref>
ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အဓိက ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် သၟိင် ကုရှာန် (Kushan Empire) ကေုာံ သၟိင် ဂုပ္ပတ (Gupta Empire) မဒှ် အခိင် တၠပညာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မပ္တံကဵု နာဂဇုန (Nagarjuna)၊ အသင်္ဂ (Asanga)၊ ကေုာံ ဝသုဗန္ဓု (Vasubandhu) တအ် ခၞံဗဒှ် လိက်ကျာ် သံသကြိုတ် ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳ ဒဿန တၟိ တၟိ ရ။ နူကဵု အိန္ဒိယ လပါ်သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ်၊ ဒဿန ဏအ် ပြးဇး အာ စိုပ် လဒေါဝ် အာရှ နူကဵု ဂၠံင် ဍာန် သုတ် (Silk Road) တုဲ စိုပ် အာ ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ တုဲမ္ဂး ဆက် ပြး အာ ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာ ကေုာံ ဂျပေန် ရ။
== ၃။ လညာတ် ဒဿန ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳ အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Core Philosophy and Theories) ==
ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မဟာယာန နွံကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿန မဇြိုဟ်နက် ဗွဲမလောန် မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''သုညတ (Śūnyatā / Emptiness):''' ဒှ် လညာတ် အဓိက မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ အရာ သီုဖအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ လောက ဏအ် ဝွံ ဟွံမဲ ကု ဇကု အတ္တ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သဘာဝ မတန်တဴ လၟိုန် (Inherent existence) ရ။ သရာဲ ဒဿန ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် မာဇ္ဇျိမက (Madhyamaka) မခၞံ လဝ် နကဵု နာဂဇုန ရ။
* '''ဗုဒ္ဓသဘာဝ (Tathāgatagarbha / Buddha-nature):''' ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ သတ္တဝါ သီုဖအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ လောက ဏအ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဓါတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မ ကျာ် (Buddha seed) ပ္ဍဲ သန္ထာန် ဍေဟ်တအ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် မၞိဟ် ဝွံ မာန် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဒှ် ကျာ် မာန် အလုံအိုတ် ရ။
* '''သစ္စ ၜါ (Two Truths Doctrine):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ အကြာ သမ္မုတိ သစ္စ (Conventional truth - လညာတ် လောက မထေင် ကေတ်) ကေုာံ ပရမတ္ထ သစ္စ (Ultimate truth - လညာတ် ဓဝ် မဍာံပြ မဒှ် သုညတ) ရ။
== ၄။ လညာတ် ဗောဓိသတ် (The Bodhisattva Ideal) ==
အရာ မပကဵု ညံင် မဟာယာန ဂွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် "ဗောဓိသတ်" ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ထေရဝါဒ မ္ဂး တင်ရန်တၟအ် သၠုင်အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂွံ အာစိုပ် အရဟတ္တဖိုလ် (Arhat) တုဲ တိတ် ဗၠး နူ သံသာ ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ မဟာယာန မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ညာတ် ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ဇကု မွဲ တၠ ဓဝ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ ဟွံဍိုက်ပေင် (Selfish) ရ။<ref name="gethin">{{cite book |last=Gethin |first=R. |title=The Foundations of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |pages=224-230}}</ref>
ဗောဓိသတ် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပူဂိုလ် မရာဒၞာ မိက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ကျာ် (Buddhahood) တုဲ ညးတအ် ပတိတ် လဝ် ဂတိ သစ္စာ (Bodhisattva vow) ဒဒှ်ရ "သတ္တဝါ သီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံတိတ် ဗၠး နူ ဒဒိုက် သံသာ ဏီ မ္ဂး၊ အဲ လေဝ် ဟွံလုပ် စိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန် ဏီ ရ"။ သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ဗောဓိသတ် ဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် ဒး ဍိုက်ပေင် ကု '''ပါရမဳ ၆ သာ်''' (Six Pāramitās) -
# ဒါန (Generosity)
# သဳလ (Morality)
# ခန္တဳ (Patience)
# ဝဳရိယ (Energy/Effort)
# ဇျာန် / သမာဓိ (Meditation)
# ပညာ (Wisdom)
== ၅။ ကျာ် ကေုာံ အလံင်ကျာ် ပ္ဍဲ မဟာယာန (Buddhas and Bodhisattvas) ==
ပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် မဟာယာန မ္ဂး၊ ကျာ် ဂေါတမ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဆ ကျာ် မွဲ ဇကု ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ကျာ် မနွံ မဂၠိုင် ကဵု လ္ၚီ သောဲ သၟး ရ (Trikaya doctrine)။ ညးတအ် ရှ်ေသှ်ေ ရဴဂဴ လတူ ကျာ် ကေုာံ ဗောဓိသတ် နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''ကျာ် အမိတာဘ (Amitābha Buddha):''' ဒှ် ကျာ် မပိုင်ပြဳ လဝ် ဌာန် တိသ္အး (Pure Land) ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ပလိုတ်။
* '''ကျာ် ဂဥုဲ (Bhaisajyaguru / Medicine Buddha):''' ကျာ် မကဵု ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ လွဳလွတ် ယဲဘဲ။
* '''ဗောဓိသတ် အဝလောကိတေသွရ (Avalokiteśvara):''' မပြာကတ် နကဵု ယၟု '''ဂွါန်ယေန်''' (Guanyin) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ကြုက်။ ဒှ် ဗောဓိသတ် မစၞောန် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်မေတ္တာ ကရုဏာ လတူ သတ္တဝါ သီုဖအိုတ်။
* '''ဗောဓိသတ် မဉ္ဇူသရဳ (Mañjuśrī):''' ဒှ် ဗောဓိသတ် မစၞောန် ထ္ၜး ပရေင် ဉာဏ် ပညာ မသ္ကေက်သ္ကာ။
== ၆။ လိက်သုတ် မဟာယာနဂမၠိုင် (Mahayana Sutras and Texts) ==
မဟာယာန ဝွံ နွံကဵု လိက်ကျာ် ကေုာံ သုတ် အလဵုဇကု ဍေဟ် မချူ လဝ် နကဵု ဘာသာ သံသကြိုတ် ကေုာံ ဘာသာ ကြုက် မတၞဟ်ခြာ နူ ပိဋကတ် ပိ ဘာသာ ပါဠိ ရ။<ref name="suzuki">{{cite book |last=Suzuki |first=D. T. |title=Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Luzac and Company |year=1907 |pages=15-20}}</ref>
လိက်သုတ် အဓိက တအ်ဂှ် -
* '''သဒ္ဓရ်မပုဏ္ဍရဳက သုတ် (Lotus Sutra):''' ဒှ် သုတ် မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် မွဲ မဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ယာန် သီုဖအိုတ် ဝွံ ကၞောတ် တဲ ဒှ် အာ မွဲ ယာန် ဓဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ကျာ် (Ekayana)။
* '''ပညာပါရမဳ ဟဒယ သုတ် (Heart Sutra):''' လိက်သုတ် မဟီုတွံ လဝ် ပရူ ဒဿန သုညတ ဗွဲမဂၠေအ် ဍိုတ် (ဥပမာ - ရုပ် ဂှ် ဒှ် သုညတ၊ သုညတ ဂှ် ဒှ် ရုပ်)။
* '''ဝဇဳရ သုတ် (Diamond Sutra):''' လိက်သုတ် သွက် ပရေင်ထေက် ပညာ ကေုာံ လညာတ် သဘာဝ ဟွံမဲ ကု အတ္တ။
* '''ဝိမလကိတ္တိ သုတ် (Vimalakirti Sutra):''' လိက်သုတ် မထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဓမ္မတာ မွဲ လေဝ် မာန် ကလိဂွံ ပညာ ဓဝ် ဇြိုဟ်နက် နူကဵု ခမဳ တအ် မာန် ကီု ရ။
== ၇။ ဂိုဏ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံ ပါ်တိတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Major Schools and Sects) ==
ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မဟာယာန ဝွံ ဟွံဒှ် ဂကောံ မွဲ ဓဝ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ပါ်တိတ် အာ နဒဒှ် ဂိုဏ် နာနာ လတူ ပရေင်ကျင့်သုံး မတၞဟ်ခြာ -
* '''ချာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇေန် (Chan / Zen Buddhism):''' ပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ကြုက် ကေုာံ ဂျပေန်။ ညးတအ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ဂဇအ် ဓဝ် (Zazen) ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လညာတ် ပရမတ္ထ တပ်တပ် ဟွံဒး စကာ လိက်ပတ် (Mind-to-mind transmission)။
* '''တိသ္အး (Pure Land Buddhism):''' ဒှ် ဂိုဏ် မနွံ မၞိဟ် ရှ်ေသှ်ေ ဂၠိုင်အိုတ်။ ညးတအ် ပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ ယဝ်ရ ရာဒၞာ ဂဇပ် ယၟု ကျာ် အမိတာဘ လၟိုန် မ္ဂး၊ ကာလ စုတိ မ္ဂး မာန် စိုပ် ဌာန် တိသ္အး ပလိုတ် (Sukhavati) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မာန် ကလိဂွံ နိဗ္ဗာန် လောဲသွာ ရ။
* '''နိချိရေန် (Nichiren Buddhism):''' ပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂျပေန်၊ ညးတအ် အာရီုစွံ ဆ လတူ လိက် Lotus Sutra သၟး ရ။
* '''ဝဇိရယာန (Vajrayana):''' ၜိုန်ရ ပါ်တိတ် နဒဒှ် ယာန် မွဲ တၞဟ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ တၠပညာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ညာတ် ကေတ် ဝဇိရယာန (ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တိဗေတ်) ဝွံ ဒှ် လဒက်ပတန် နူကဵု မဟာယာန မွဲ ကီု ရ။
== ၈။ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မဟာယာန ကေုာံ ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင် (Mahayana Buddhism and Culture) ==
မဟာယာန ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် ယေန်သၞာင် ရးအာရှ ဗမံက် ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင် မ္ဂး -
* '''ပရေင်စၞ ဟွံမဲ ဖျုန် (Vegetarianism):''' ဟိုတ်နူ လညာတ် မေတ္တာ ကရုဏာ လတူ သတ္တဝါ (ဗောဓိသတ်) ဂှ်ရ၊ ခမဳ ကေုာံ ညးလျိုင်ပတှ်ေ မဟာယာန ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် ပရေင်စၞ ဟွံမဲ ဖျုန် (စ သၞေဝ် ကေုာံ ပဲ) ရ။
* '''ပါန်ကွတ် (Art and Architecture):''' ဗီုရုပ် ပါန်ခဳ ကေုာံ ရုပ်စှ်ေ ကျာ် ဗောဓိသတ် နာနာ မပ္တံကဵု ဂွါန်ယေန် တအ် ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဘာကျာ် မဟာယာန။ ဘာကျာ် ပေဂဝ်ဒါ (Pagodas) တအ် လေဝ် ဒှ် သြဇာ နူ မဟာယာန ကီု ရ။
* '''လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ (Social Integration):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဂျပေန် မ္ဂး၊ ခမဳ တအ် မာန် ဖျေဟ် သ္ၚိကၟိန် (Marriage) တုဲ မင်မဲ ဘာကျာ် နဒဒှ် ပရေင်အာဲကၟာဲ မိမ လေဝ် နွံ ရ။
== ၉။ အကာဲအရာ မဟာယာန ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တ္ၚဲဏအ် (Mahayana in the Modern World) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ၂၀ ကေုာံ ၂၁ ဏအ်၊ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မဟာယာန ဝွံ ပြးဇး အာ စိုပ် ဍုင် ပလိုတ် (ဥရောပ ကေုာံ အမေရိကာန်) ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ ဗွဲတၟေင် ဂိုဏ် ဇေန် (Zen) ကေုာံ ဝဇိရယာန (Vajrayana - ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တိဗေတ်) ဂှ် ဒှ် မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ရ။<ref name="keown">{{cite book |last=Keown |first=D. |title=Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |pages=55-62}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ အာရှ လေဝ်၊ မဟာယာန ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် "ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်" (Humanistic Buddhism / Engaged Buddhism) မဒှ် လညာတ် မအာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ရီုဗင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟံင်ပြာ် ဘဲအန္တရာယ် ပ္ဍဲ လောက ဏအ် (စၞး မအာရီုစွံ ဆ သွက် ဘဝ အနာဂတ် ဓဝ်)။ ဂကောံ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မပ္တံကဵု Tzu Chi ပ္ဍဲ တိုင်ဝါန် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဥပမာ သွက် ပရေင်ဏအ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ တင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ မဟာယာန ကဵု ထေရဝါဒ (Differences between Mahayana and Theravada) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဂိုဏ် ၜါ ဏအ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ဓဝ် ကျာ် မပ္တံကဵု သစ္စပန် ကေုာံ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံ ကီုလေဝ်၊ နွံ တင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး တင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ ထေရဝါဒ ကေုာံ မဟာယာန
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ
! [[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada)
! ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မဟာယာန (Mahayana)
|-
| '''တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက'''
| ဒှ် အရဟတ္တဖိုလ် (Arhat) ကေုာံ လုပ် စိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန်။
| ဒှ် ကျာ် (Buddhahood) နကဵု လညာတ် ဗောဓိသတ် (Bodhisattva)။
|-
| '''လိက်ပတ် အဓိက'''
| ပိဋကတ် ပိ (Pali Canon) နကဵု ဘာသာ ပါဠိ။
| သုတ် မဟာယာန နကဵု ဘာသာ သံသကြိုတ်၊ ကြုက် (Sanskrit/Chinese)။
|-
| '''လညာတ် လတူ ကျာ်'''
| ညာတ် ကျာ် ဂေါတမ နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ် သမိုင်း မလ္ၚတ် ဓဝ် တုဲဒှ်။
| ညာတ် ကျာ် ဂေါတမ နဒဒှ် မွဲ ဗီုပြင် (Nirmanakaya) ပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် Trikaya (ကျာ် နွံ လၟိုန် အလုံ စက္ကဝါ)။
|-
| '''အာရီုစွံ လတူ'''
| ပရေင်ဇကု မွဲ တၠ မင်မဲ သဳလ ကေုာံ ဂဇအ် ဓဝ် (Vipassana)။
| ပရေင်မေတ္တာ ကရုဏာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟံင်ပြာ် သတ္တဝါ တၞဟ် (Compassion)။
|-
| '''ဒေသ ပြာကတ်'''
| ဗၟာ၊ သေံ၊ သဳရိလင်္ကာ၊ ကမ္ဗောဒဳယျာ (အာရှ သၠုင်ကျာ)။
| ကြုက်၊ ဂျပေန်၊ ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာ၊ တိုင်ဝါန် (အာရှ ဗမံက်)။
|}
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada)
* [[ဗောဓိသတ်]] (Bodhisattva)
* [[နာဂဇုန]] (Nagarjuna)
* [[သုညတ]] (Sunyata)
{{Navbox
| name = Buddhism
| title = ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကေုာံ ဂိုဏ် အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် (Buddhism and Major Traditions)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ယာန် ကေုာံ ဂိုဏ်
| list1 =
* [[ထေရဝါဒ]] (Theravada)
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မဟာယာန]] (Mahayana)
* [[ဝဇိရယာန]] (Vajrayana)
* [[ဟဳနယာန]] (Hinayana)
| group2 = လညာတ် မဟာယာန
| list2 =
* [[ဗောဓိသတ်]] (Bodhisattva)
* [[သုညတ]] (Emptiness)
* [[ပါရမဳ တြဴသာ်]] (Six Paramitas)
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓသဘာဝ]] (Buddha-nature)
| group3 = ကျာ် ကေုာံ သုတ်
| list3 =
* [[ကျာ် အမိတာဘ]] (Amitabha)
* [[ဂွါန်ယေန်]] (Avalokiteshvara)
* [[သဒ္ဓရ်မပုဏ္ဍရဳက သုတ်]] (Lotus Sutra)
* [[ပညာပါရမဳ ဟဒယ သုတ်]] (Heart Sutra)
}}
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မဟာယာန]]
[[Category:ဒဿန]]
[[Category:ဘာသာဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ရးအာရှ]]
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'''အနတ္တ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Anatta'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Anatman'' ပ္ဍဲ သံသကြိုတ်) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး ဒှ် လညာတ် ဒဿန အဓိက မွဲ မဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သတ္တဝါ ကေုာံ အရာဝတ္ထု သီုဖအိုတ် တအ်ဝွံ "အတ္တ" (Self ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Soul) မဒှ် ဇကုဇကု ဍာံပြ၊ မဟွံလေပ် ပြံင်လှာဲ၊ မတန်တဴ လအ်လ ဂှ် ဟွံမဲ ပုဟ် ရ။ လညာတ် အနတ္တ ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် လညာတ် အဓိက မပါ်ခြာ ထောအ် [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] နူကဵု ဘာသာ ဟိန္ဒူ (Hinduism) ကေုာံ ဘာသာ ပတှ်ေ ကျာ်ဂမၠိုင် တၞဟ် တအ် ရ။<ref name="rahula">{{cite book |last=Rahula |first=W. |title=What the Buddha Taught |url=https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp |publisher=Grove Press |year=1974 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp/page/51 51]-66}}</ref>
အနတ္တ ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံ '''[[တိလက္ခဏ]]''' (Three Marks of Existence) မပ္တံကဵု [[အနိစ္စ]] (Impermanence - ဟွံဗိုန်)၊ [[ဒုက္ခ]] (Suffering - ဆဵုဂဗ ဒဒိုက်)၊ ကေုာံ အနတ္တ (Non-self - ဇကုဇကု ဟွံသေင်) ရ။ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ တွဟ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်စွဲလာံ (Attachment) လတူ လညာတ် "အဲ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "အတ္တ" ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ် တမ်မူလ မပကဵု ညံင် သတ္တဝါ တအ် ဂွံ ဆဵုဂဗ ဒုက္ခ ပ္ဍဲ သံသရာ ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ အနတ္တ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ ခန္ဓ မသုန်၊ လညာတ် ဒဿန၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ဝိပဿနာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Buddha_in_Sarnath_Museum_(Dhamma_Chakka_Mudra).jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ တွဟ် ဓရ် အနတ္တ ကေုာံ ဓမ္မစက် လတူ ပဉ္စဝဂ္ဂဳ မသုန် တၠ ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန် သာရနာထ (Sarnath)။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "အနတ္တ" (Anatta) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် ပါဠိ မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု မလိက် "အ" (An- မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် 'ဟွံသေင်' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး 'ဟွံမဲ') ကေုာံ "အတ္တ" (Atta- မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် 'ဇကု' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး 'ဝိညာဏ် ဇကု' / Soul) ရ။ နကဵု သံသကြိုတ် မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ကော်စ အနာတမာန် (Anatman) ရ။
နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ အနတ္တ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် အကာဲအရာ သဘာဝ မဟွံမဲ ကဵု သတ္တဝါ ပူဂိုလ်၊ ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဇကုဇကု (Essencelessness) ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဟွံသေင် မဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ "မၞိဟ် ဏအ် ဟွံမဲ"၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် ဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ "မၞိဟ်" ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ရုပ် ကေုာံ နာမ် (Physical and mental processes) မပြံင်လှာဲ ဒၟံင် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် စက္က သၟး တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် ဂှ် အရာ မဗိုန်ခိုင် မကော်စ "အဲ" ဂှ် ဟွံမဲ ပုဟ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ အခိင် ဗုဒ္ဓ (Historical Context and the Time of the Buddha) ==
ကိုပ်ကၠာ အခိင် ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ကတဵုဒှ် ကျာ် ဂှ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ တေအ် နွံ လညာတ် ဒဿန အဓိက ၜါ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး -
* '''သဿတ ဒိဋ္ဌိ (Eternalism):''' လညာတ် မပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ သတ္တဝါ တအ် နွံကဵု "အတ္တ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဝိညာဏ် (Soul) မဟွံလေပ် ချိုတ်၊ မတန်တဴ အာ လအ်လ အဆက်ဆက် သံသရာ ရ (လညာတ် ဥပနိသျှဒ် သာသနာ ဟိန္ဒူ)။
* '''ဥစ္ဆေဒ ဒိဋ္ဌိ (Annihilationism):''' လညာတ် မပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ သတ္တဝါ တအ် ချိုတ် အာ မ္ဂး သီုဖအိုတ် အိုတ် အာ၊ ဝိညာဏ် လေဝ် ကၠေအ် အာ၊ ဘဝ ဂတ ဟွံမဲ ရ (လညာတ် ဂိုဏ် စာရဝါက - Charvaka)။
ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဝွံ ဟွံဒုင်ကေတ် လညာတ် ၜါ သာ် ဏအ် တုဲ၊ ညး ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လညာတ် "မဇ္ဇျိမပဋိပဒါ" (Middle Way) မတွဟ်ဂး '''အနတ္တ''' ရ။ ညး တွဟ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သုတ် [[အနတ္တလက္ခဏသုတ်]] (Anattalakkhana Sutta) ဒဒှ်ရ ယဝ်ရ ခန္ဓ ပိုယ် ဏအ် ဒှ် "အတ္တ" ဇကုဇကု ဍာံ မ္ဂး၊ ပိုယ် မာန် ဗကိန် ကဵု ဍေဟ် ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ဗျု၊ ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ယဲ မာန် ရ။ ဆဂး ပိုယ် ထိင်ဒဝ် ဍေဟ် ဟွံမာန် ဂှ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အနတ္တ ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=P. |title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |pages=57-62}}</ref>
== ၃။ သဇိုင် လညာတ် အနတ္တ ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Core Concept of Anatta in Buddhism) ==
သဇိုင် လညာတ် အနတ္တ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် လညာတ် မပလီုပလာ် (Nihilism) ပုဟ်။ ဍေဟ် ဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ အရာ မကော်စ "အဲ" "နာဲဂှ်" "မိဂှ်" တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဆ ဝေါဟာရ ပညပ် (Conventional truth - Sammuti sacca) သွက်ဂွံ စကာ ပ္ဍဲ လောက သၟး ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် ပရမတ် (Ultimate truth - Paramattha sacca) မ္ဂး၊ အရာ သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်လီုလာ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵု (Causes and conditions) သၟး ရ။ ဥပမာ - "ကွဳ" (Chariot) မွဲ ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု စက်၊ သၞေင်၊ တိုင် ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ ဂဇအ် ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ပိုယ် သရိုဟ် ထောအ် ကပေါတ် တအ် ဏအ် မွဲ မ မွဲ မ မ္ဂး၊ "ကွဳ" ဟီုဂှ် ဟွံမဲ ရ။ တုပ် တဴ သာ်ဂှ် ကီု၊ "သတ္တဝါ" ဝွံ လေဝ် ဒှ် ဆ ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ခန္ဓ မသုန် ပြကာ သၟး ရ။
== ၄။ ခန္ဓ မသုန် ကေုာံ အနတ္တ (The Five Aggregates and Non-self) ==
ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ကေုာံ စိုတ် ပိုယ် ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံ (Aggregates) ၅ သာ် မကော်စ '''[[ခန္ဓ]]''' ရ။ ခန္ဓ မသုန် ဏအ် လေဝ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒၟံင် လၟိုန် တုဲ ဒှ် အနတ္တ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ခန္ဓ ၅ ပြကာ (The Five Khandhas)
|-
! ခန္ဓ (ပါဠိ)
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် (မန်)
! ပွံက်
! လက္ခဏာ
|-
| '''ရူပ (Rupa)'''
| ရုပ် ခန္ဓာ
| အရာ မနွံကဵု ဗီုပြင်၊ မဒက်ပတန် နကဵု ဓါတ် ၄ (တိ၊ ဍာ်၊ ကျာ၊ ပၟတ်)။
| ပြံင်လှာဲ၊ လီုလာ်၊ ယဲ ဇွဟ် မာန် (အနတ္တ)။
|-
| '''ဝေဒနာ (Vedana)'''
| ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင်
| ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် သုခ (ခိုဟ်)၊ ဒုက္ခ (ပရေအ်)၊ ကေုာံ ဥပေက္ခာ (လဒေါဝ်)။
| ကတဵုဒှ် တုဲ ကၠေအ် အာ ပြဟ် (အနတ္တ)။
|-
| '''သညာ (Sanna)'''
| ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ
| ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ အသာ်၊ ရမ္သာင်၊ ယၟု၊ ကေုာံ တင်ဂၞင် တြေံ။
| စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဍာံ လေဝ် နွံ၊ မှာ လေဝ် နွံ၊ ပြံင်လှာဲ လောဲ (အနတ္တ)။
|-
| '''သင်္ခါရ (Sankhara)'''
| ပရေင်ဖန်ဇန် စိုတ်
| ပရေင်ချပ်၊ စေတနာ၊ ပရေင်ထေဲ၊ ပရေင်ဆာန်၊ ကေုာံ လစွံစိုတ် (Volition)။
| ကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ အာရီု မ္ၚး တုဲ ဒေါအ် အာ (အနတ္တ)။
|-
| '''ဝိညာဏ (Vinnana)'''
| စိုတ် / ဝိညာဏ်
| ပရေင်တီ လတူ အာရီု (မတ် ညာတ်၊ ကတောဝ် မိင်)။
| ကတဵုဒှ် ယာယဳ သၟး၊ ဗိုန်ခိုင် ဟွံမဲ (အနတ္တ)။
|}
== ၅။ အနိစ္စ၊ ဒုက္ခ၊ ကေုာံ အနတ္တ (Anicca, Dukkha, and Anatta) ==
အနတ္တ ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု အနိစ္စ ကေုာံ ဒုက္ခ ညံင်ရဴ ခ္ဍိုင် ပိ ဇိုင် ရ။ ကျာ်တြဲ တွဟ် လဝ် "ယံ ကိဉ္စိ သမုဒယဓမ္မံ သဗ္ဗန္တံ နိရောဓဓမ္မံ" (အရာ မကတဵုဒှ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ်၊ ဒး လီုလာ် အိုတ် ရ)။<ref name="gethin">{{cite book |last=Gethin |first=R. |title=The Foundations of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |pages=133-140}}</ref>
* '''အနိစ္စ (Impermanence):''' ခန္ဓ မသုန် ပြကာ တအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် တုဲ လီုလာ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ မွဲ ခဏ ဍောတ် ဓဝ် ရ။
* '''ဒုက္ခ (Suffering):''' ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ဟွံဗိုန်ခိုင် တုဲ၊ ယဝ်ရ ပိုယ် စွဲလာံ ထေင် ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သာယျာ ပိုယ် မ္ဂး၊ ကာလ ဍေဟ် လီုလာ် အာ မ္ဂး ပိုယ် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ဒဒိုက် စိုတ် ရ။
* '''အနတ္တ (Non-self):''' ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ဟွံဗိုန် (အနိစ္စ)၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ် ဒုက္ခ (ဒုက္ခ)၊ ဍေဟ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပိုယ် ကော်စ "အဲ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ဇကု ပိုယ်" (အတ္တ) ဟွံထေက် ရ။
== ၆။ ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ် ကေုာံ ဆက်စပ် လညာတ် (Dependent Origination and Anatta) ==
ယဝ်ရ အတ္တ ဟွံမဲ၊ ဝိညာဏ် မတန်တဴ လအ်လ ဟွံမဲ မ္ဂး၊ ဗီုလဵု ကတဵုဒှ် ဘဝ ဂတ (Rebirth) ရော? ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ပြသၞာ မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မလေပ် သၟာန် ရ။
သွဟ် သွက် အရာ ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် '''[[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]]''' (Dependent Origination) ရ။ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တွဟ် လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဘဝ မွဲ ကဵု ဘဝ မွဲ ဂှ် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု ဝိညာဏ် မပြံင် လုပ် အာ (No transmigrating soul) ပုဟ်။ ဆဂး ဟိုတ်နူကဵု "ကံ" (Kamma - ကမၠောန် ဟိုတ်) ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ ဏအ် ဂှ်၊ ဍေဟ် ကဵု ဖဵု ညံင် စိုတ် တၟိ ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ ဂတ (Rebirth without transmigration) ရ။ ဍေဟ် တုပ် ညံင်ရဴ ပၟတ် မွဲ တိုင် ဂှ် ကေတ် အာ စုတ် ပၟတ် တိုင် မွဲ တၞဟ် ကီု ရ။ ပၟတ် တြေံ ဂှ် ပြံင် အာ ဟွံသေင်၊ ဆဂး ဟိုတ်နူ ပၟတ် တြေံ ဂှ်ရ ပၟတ် တၟိ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။
== ၇။ တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ လညာတ် အတ္တ ကေုာံ အနတ္တ (Hindu Atman vs. Buddhist Anatta) ==
လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ကဵု ဘာသာ ဟိန္ဒူ ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ ပရူ ဏအ် ရ။
* '''ဟိန္ဒူ (Hinduism):''' ပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ သတ္တဝါ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် တၠ နွံကဵု "အတ္တ" (Atman - Individual soul) မဟွံလေပ် ချိုတ် ရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ညံင် အတ္တ ပူဂိုလ် ဏအ် ဂွံ အာ ပံင်ကောံ ကု "ဗြဟ္မာ" (Brahman - Universal soul) မဒှ် ကျာ် ထာဝရ ရ (မောက္ခ)။
* '''ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Buddhism):''' တွဟ် လဝ် အနတ္တ တုဲ၊ ပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်စွဲလာံ လတူ အတ္တ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ် ဒဒိုက် (အဝိဇ္ဇာ) ရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ပိုတ်ကုတ် ထောအ် ပရေင်စွဲလာံ ဏအ် တုဲ လုပ် စိုပ် '''[[နိဗ္ဗာန်]]''' (Nirvana) မဒှ် ဌာန် ဒဒိုက် သီုဖအိုတ် အိုတ် အာ ရ။<ref name="gombrich">{{cite book |last=Gombrich |first=R. |title=Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo |url=https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis0000gomb |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis0000gomb/page/45 45]-48}}</ref>
== ၈။ အနတ္တ ပ္ဍဲ ဂိုဏ် ထေရဝါဒ ကေုာံ မဟာယာန (Anatta in Theravada and Mahayana Traditions) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဂိုဏ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ သီုဖအိုတ် ဒုင်ကေတ် အနတ္တ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ ဍေဟ် နွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ ညိည ရ။
* '''ထေရဝါဒ (Theravada):''' လ္ၚတ် အနတ္တ အဓိက လတူ ပူဂိုလ် ကေုာံ ခန္ဓ ၅ (Puggala-nairatmya) ရ။ ညးတအ် အာရီုစွံ သွက်ဂွံ ပါ်ခြာ ရုပ် ကဵု နာမ် ညံင်ဂွံ ညာတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဇကုဇကု ဟွံမဲ တုဲ ဖန် ညံင် ဂွံ အာ စိုပ် နိဗ္ဗာန် ရ။
* '''မဟာယာန (Mahayana):''' ဂိုဏ် မဟာယာန (ဗွဲတၟေင် ဒဿန မာဓျမက - Madhyamaka) တအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် လညာတ် ဏအ် စိုပ် အာ လညာတ် '''သုညတ''' (Sunyata - Emptiness) ရ။ ညးတအ် တွဟ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပူဂိုလ် သၟး ဟွံမဲ အတ္တ ပုဟ်၊ ဓရ် သီုဖအိုတ် (Dharma-nairatmya - All phenomena) လေဝ် သုည (Emptiness) ဟွံမဲ ကဵု အစောံသတ္တိ သဘာဝ အလဵုဇကု ရ။<ref name="williams">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=P. |title=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhistthoughtc0000will |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhistthoughtc0000will/page/130 130]-138}}</ref>
== ၉။ ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ဝိပဿနာ ကေုာံ အနတ္တ (Vipassana Meditation and Anatta) ==
အနတ္တ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ဒဿန သွက်ဂွံ ချပ် သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အရာ သွက်ဂွံ ကတ်လ္ၚတ် နကဵု ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် (Experiential understanding) ရ။ ပရေင်ဏအ် ဂှ် ကၠောန် ဂွံ နကဵု ပရေင်ဘာဝနာ '''[[ဝိပဿနာ]]''' (Vipassana Meditation) ရ။
ကာလ ညးမကတ်လ္ၚတ် (Yogi) မွဲ ဂဇအ် ဓရ် တုဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ရံင် ဝင် ယီု ကေုာံ ဝေဒနာ ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ဂွံ ညာတ် ကေတ် ဇကု အလဵုဇကု ဒဒှ်ရ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် (ဥပမာ - ဂိ၊ ကတဴ၊ မိပ်) ကေုာံ စိုတ် တအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူ အာရီု တုဲ ကၠေအ် လီု အာ ပြဟ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ ကာလ ညာတ် ကၠး မ္ဂး၊ လညာတ် "အဲ ဂိ ဒၟံင်" ဂှ် ကၠေအ် အာ တုဲ၊ ဒှ် အာ လညာတ် "ပရေင်ဂိ ကတဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် ယာယဳ သၟး" ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် မၞိဟ် ဂှ် ဂွံ တိတ် ဗၠး နူကဵု ဒဒိုက် စိုတ် (Detachment) ရ။
== ၁၀။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဒဿန ကေုာံ ဘဝ ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern Philosophical Impact and Science) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ စိုတ်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern Neuroscience and Psychology)၊ လညာတ် အနတ္တ ဝွံ ဂွံ ဒုင် တုပ်စိုတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
တၠပညာ က္ဍဟ် (Neuroscientists) တအ် စမ်ၜတ် ဂွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် ပိုယ် ဏအ် ဒၞာဲ ဗဟဵု မကော်စ "အဲ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ဝိညာဏ်" (Central self) ချိုတ်ချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ဟွံမဲ ပုဟ်။ အရာ မကော်စ "အဲ" ဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ ပရေင်ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် နူကဵု ကွန်ရက် က္ဍဟ် နာနာ (Default Mode Network) သၟး ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကွန်ရက် ဏအ် ရပ်စပ် အာ (ဥပမာ - နကဵု ပရေင်ဘာဝနာ) မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်စွဲလာံ လတူ "အဲ" ဂှ် အောန် စှ်ေ အာ တုဲ မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂွံ ဒုင်စသိုင် ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။ လညာတ် အနတ္တ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ယှောတ် ဖအောန် ပရေင်လောဘ၊ ဒေါသ၊ ကေုာံ မာန်မာန ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ခေတ်တၟိ ဏအ် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[တိလက္ခဏ]] (Three marks of existence)
* [[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]] (Dependent Origination)
* [[ခန္ဓ]] (Five aggregates)
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] (Nirvana)
{{Navbox
| name = Buddhism
| title = လညာတ် ဒဿန ကေုာံ သဇိုင် ဓရ် [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhist Philosophy and Core Concepts)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သစ္စာ ၄ ပြကာ
| list1 =
* [[ဒုက္ခ]] (Dukkha)
* [[သမုဒယ]] (Samudaya)
* [[နိရောဓ]] (Nirodha)
* [[မဂ္ဂ]] (Magga)
| group2 = တိလက္ခဏ (လက္ခဏာ ၃)
| list2 =
* [[အနိစ္စ]] (Impermanence)
* [[ဒုက္ခ (လက္ခဏာ)]] (Suffering)
* '''[[အနတ္တ]]''' (Non-self)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ခန္ဓ]] (Aggregates)
* [[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]] (Dependent Origination)
* [[ကံ]] (Karma)
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] (Nirvana)
* [[ဝိပဿနာ]] (Vipassana)
* [[သုညတ]] (Emptiness)
}}
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဒဿန ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဓရ် ကျာ်]]
[[Category:လညာတ် ဝိညာဏ်]]
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'''ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ၁၉၉၄''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''1994 Gambian coup d'état'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ပၞာန် ဆီ ဟွံဒး ဇွောဝ် (Bloodless coup) မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် [[ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ]] (The Gambia) ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၂၂ ဂျူလာင် သၞာံ ၁၉၉၄ ရ။ ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဏအ်ဝွံ က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် လဝ် နကဵု ဂကောံ သၟတ် အရာရှိ ပၞာန် (Junior military officers) မအာက္ဍိုပ် နကဵု သၟိင်တၠ ပၞာန် (Lieutenant) ယၟု ပြာကတ် '''[[ယာယာ ဂျာမာ]]''' (Yahya Jammeh) ရ။ ပရေင်ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် အလဵုအသဳ သမ္မတ '''[[ဒါဝဒါ ဂျာဝါရာ]]''' (Dawda Jawara) မအုပ်ဓုပ် ကၠုင် လဝ် ဍုင် နူကဵု ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ကလိဂွံ သၠးပွး ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၅ ဂှ် ဒးဒတုံ ပြဟ် အာ ရ။<ref name="saine">{{cite book |last=Saine |first=A. |title=The Paradox of Third-Wave Democratization in Africa: The Gambia under AFPRC-APRC Rule, 1994-2008 |url=https://archive.org/details/paradoxofthirdwa0000sain |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/paradoxofthirdwa0000sain/page/15 15]-30}}</ref>
ကြဴနူ မသီ ကေတ် အဝဵု အံင်ဇၞး တုဲ၊ ဂျာမာ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ကံင်သဳ အုပ်ဓုပ် ယာယဳ ဒပ်ပၞာန် (Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council - AFPRC) တုဲ ပလီုထောအ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေလဒက်ပတန် (Constitution)၊ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ထောအ် ဗော် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ၁၉၉၄ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ အကာဲအရာ ကိုပ်ကၠာ၊ လၟေင် ကမၠောန်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဍုင် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Yahya_Jammeh_2014.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ယာယာ ဂျာမာ (Yahya Jammeh) ညးမက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၄ ကေုာံ ဒှ် သမ္မတ ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၂၀၁၇။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Context) ==
ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဝင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ မွဲ အလန် ဇၞော်အိုတ် ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဟွံဒှ် ပရေင်သီအဝဵု တေအ်၊ ဍုင် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ဝွံ ဂွံ ဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် နဒဒှ် ဍုင် မနွံကဵု သၞောတ် [[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy) ဗွဲမခိုင်ကၠိုက် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရးအာဖရိက (Africa) ရ။ သမ္မတ ဂျာဝါရာ ဝွံ ဇၞး ကၠုင် လဝ် ပေါဲရုဲမာဲ လၟေင်င် တုဲ အုပ်ဓုပ် ကၠုင် လဝ် ဍုင် ပွိုင် ၜိုတ် ၃၀ သၞာံ ရ။
ဆဂး နကဵု လညာတ် ဂကောံ သၟတ် အရာရှိ ပၞာန် တအ် မ္ဂး၊ အလဵုအသဳ ဂျာဝါရာ ဝွံ ပရေအ် ကၠုင် လဝ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်စရိတ် လာဘ် (Corruption)၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍိုန်လျ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံမင်မဲ လတူ ဒပ်ပၞာန် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဏအ်ဝွံ ညးတအ် ထ္ၜး ဟိုတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဒှ် "ပရေင်ကလေင် ပလေဝ်" ဍုင် ညံင်ဂွံ တိတ် ဗၠး နူကဵု အလဵုအသဳ မကေတ် အခေါင်အရေး တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ကိုပ်ကၠာ (Background and Prior Situation) ==
စတမ် နူ ဍုင် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ကလိဂွံ သၠးပွး နူကဵု ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၅ တေအ်၊ ဒါဝဒါ ဂျာဝါရာ ကေုာံ ဗော် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ညး (People's Progressive Party - PPP) အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် ဍုင် အလုံစုံ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၁ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ဂစာန် သီအဝဵု မွဲ အလန် ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဂျာဝါရာ အာတ် ရီုဗင် နူကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန် [[သေနဳဂေါလ်]] (Senegal) တုဲ နှိမ်နှင်း (Suppress) မာန် လဝ် ရ။<ref name="hughes">{{cite journal |last=Hughes |first=A. |title='Democratisation' under the military in The Gambia: 1994–2000 |journal=Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=35-52 |year=2000}}</ref>
ကြဴနူ ပြသၞာ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၁ တုဲ၊ ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ စ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကောန်ဂကူ (Gambia National Army) ရ။ ဆဂး ဒပ်ပၞာန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် နကဵု အရာရှိ ပၞာန် နူ ဍုင် [[နာင်ဂျဳရဳယျာ]] (Nigeria) မကော်စ NATAG (Nigerian Army Training Assistance Group) ရ။ အရာ ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် အရာရှိ ပၞာန် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ (ဂကူဇေတ်တ်) တအ် စိုတ် ဟွံပြေ တုဲ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပရေင်ပါ်ပါဲ လတူ အလဵုအသဳ ရ။
== ၃။ ဟိုတ် မကတဵုဒှ် သီအဝဵု (Causes of the Coup) ==
ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ၁၉၉၄ ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူ တင် အဓိက ၄ သာ် ရ -
# '''ပရေင်စရိတ် လာဘ် (Corruption):''' ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ဒပ်ပၞာန် တအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဝန်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ အလဵုအသဳ ဂျာဝါရာ တအ် ကေတ် ဒၟံင် သြန် ဍုင် သွက် အကျိုး ဇကု သၟး ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍိုန်လျ (Economic Decline):''' သြန် လုပ် အဓိက ဍုင် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ဂှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ထၜိုတ် (Peanuts) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တရဴ (Tourism) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် သၞာံ ၁၉၉၀ တအ် ဂှ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍိုန်လျ တုဲ ကောန်ဍုင် တအ် ဒိုက်ဂတ် ကၠုင် ရ။
# '''အခက်အခုဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဒပ်ပၞာန် (Military Grievances):''' ကောန်ပၞာန် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ မပါလုပ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် လိုက်ဗဳရဳယျာ (Liberia - ECOMOG) ဂှ် ဟွံကလိဂွံ သြန် ဂိတု ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရေး မထေက်တန်။
# '''သြဇာ နာင်ဂျဳရဳယျာ (Nigerian Influence):''' အရာရှိ ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ တအ် ဒးဒုင် ဍဵုဍိုက် လဝ် သၟဝ် သြဇာ အရာရှိ ပၞာန် နာင်ဂျဳရဳယျာ (NATAG) တုဲ ညးတအ် ဒးဂၞပ် မိက်ဂွံ အုပ်ဓုပ် ဒပ် ညးတအ် နကဵု ဇကု အလဵုဇကု ရ။
== ၄။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် တ္ၚဲသီအဝဵု (Events of the Coup Day) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဂယး စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၂၂ ဂျူလာင် သၞာံ ၁၉၉၄ ဂှ်၊ ဂကောံ ကောန်ပၞာန် အကြာ ၄၀ ကဵု ၅၀ တၠ မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် နကဵု ယာယာ ဂျာမာ (Yahya Jammeh)၊ ဆာနာ သာဘာလဳ (Sana Sabally)၊ သာဒဳဗူ ဟိုက်ဒါရာ (Sadibou Hydara) ကေုာံ အေဒ်ဝါတ် သင်ဂါတေဝ် (Edward Singhatey) တအ် စတိတ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု တိုက် ပၞာန် ယောန်ဒောမ် (Yundum Barracks) ရ။<ref name="perfect">{{cite book |last=Perfect |first=D. |title=Historical Dictionary of The Gambia |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2016 |pages=105-110}}</ref>
ညးတအ် လုပ် သီ ကေတ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် '''[[ဗာန်ဂျူလာ]]''' (Banjul)၊ ပလီုထောအ် သၞောတ် ဆက်စပ် သြဇာ လတူ ဌာန် ရေဒဳယဝ် ဍုင် ကေုာံ က္ၜင်ကျာ ဌာန် ရ။ ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် အာ ဗွဲမၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် တုဲ ဟွံမဲ ကု ပရေင်ပန် တက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဆီ ဒး ဇွောဝ် ရ။ ဒပ်ပၞာန် နာင်ဂျဳရဳယျာ မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဂှ် လေဝ် ဟွံပါလုပ် ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် တုဲ မံင် ထောအ် သ္ၚိတ်တ် ရ။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပါ်တိတ် သမ္မတ ဂျာဝါရာ (Ousting of President Jawara) ==
အခိင် ကာလ ဒပ်ပၞာန် တအ် သီ လုပ် ကၠုင် ဍုင်ဇၞော် ဂှ်၊ သမ္မတ ဒါဝဒါ ဂျာဝါရာ ကေုာံ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ညးတအ် အာ ကေတ် ဌာန် စဵုဒၞာ (Asylum) ပ္ဍဲကဵု က္ၜင် ပၞာန် အမေရိကာန် (USS La Moure County) မစိုပ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ သြင် ဍုင် ဗာန်ဂျူလာ အခိင် ဂှ် ရ။
က္ၜင် ပၞာန် အမေရိကာန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပလံင် ဗစိုပ် ဂျာဝါရာ စိုပ် ဍုင် သေနဳဂေါလ် (Senegal) လပါ် ဍုင် ဒါကာ (Dakar) တုဲ၊ နူဂှ် ညး ပြံင် အာ မံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အင်္ဂလာန် (London) နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ် မဒးဒုင် ဒြေပ်ဒဴ (Exile) ရ။ ဂျာဝါရာ ဝွံ အာတ် ရီုဗင် နူကဵု ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ အင်္ဂလာန် သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ဗတိုက် ဒပ်ပၞာန် ဂှ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍုင် သ္အာင် တအ် ဟွံပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဏအ် ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ဒက်ပတန် အလဵုအသဳ ပၞာန် တၟိ (Formation of the AFPRC) ==
ကြဴနူ သီအဝဵု တုဲဒှ် အာ၊ ယာယာ ဂျာမာ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် '''ကံင်သဳ အုပ်ဓုပ် ယာယဳ ဒပ်ပၞာန်''' (AFPRC) ပ္ဍဲ စၟတ်တ္ၚဲ ၂၃ ဂျူလာင် ရ။ ကံင်သဳ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အလဵုအသဳ အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် တုဲ -
* ယာယာ ဂျာမာ (Yahya Jammeh) - ဥက္ကဌ ကံင်သဳ ကေုာံ သၟိင်တၠ ဍုင်။
* ဆာနာ သာဘာလဳ (Sana Sabally) - ဒု-ဥက္ကဌ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး မၞိဟ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ
|-
! ယၟု
! တာလျိုင် (ကိုပ်ကၠာ)
! လဒက်ပတန် တၟိ (AFPRC)
|-
| '''ယာယာ ဂျာမာ'''
| သၟိင်တၠ ပၞာန် (Lieutenant)
| ဥက္ကဌ (Chairman)
|-
| '''ဒါဝဒါ ဂျာဝါရာ'''
| သမ္မတ ဍုင် (President)
| ဒးဒုင် ဒြေပ်ဒဴ လတူ ဍုင် သ္အာင် (Exiled)
|-
| '''ဆာနာ သာဘာလဳ'''
| သၟိင်တၠ ပၞာန်
| ဒု-ဥက္ကဌ (Vice Chairman)
|-
| '''အေဒ်ဝါတ် သင်ဂါတေဝ်'''
| သၟိင်တၠ ပၞာန်
| ဝန်ဇၞော် ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ
|}
ဂျာမာ ပလီုထောအ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေလဒက်ပတန် (Suspension of the constitution)၊ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ထောအ် အခေါင်အရေး ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ တုဲ ကၟာတ် ထောအ် ဗော် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ညး လလောင်တြး ဒဒှ်ရ အလဵုအသဳ ပၞာန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် "အလဵုအသဳ ယာယဳ" သွက်ဂွံ သ္အးဇ္ၚး ပရေင်စရိတ် လာဘ် သၟး ရောင်။<ref name="wiseman">{{cite book |last=Wiseman |first=J. A. |title=Military rule in The Gambia: An interview with Captain Yahya Jammeh |publisher=African Affairs |year=1996 |pages=717-727}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဍုင် ကေုာံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Impact on the Country and Citizens) ==
ကိုပ်ကၠာ အိုတ် ဂှ်၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ထံက်ပင် ကေုာံ ဒုင်တၠုင် လဝ် ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဏအ် ရ။ ညးတအ် ညာတ် ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဂကောံ သၟတ် အရာရှိ ပၞာန် ဏအ်ဝွံ မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ တၟိ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဴတက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် မာန် ရ။
ဆဂး ဟွံလအ် မွဲသာ်၊ အလဵုအသဳ AFPRC ဏအ်ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကၠုင် ပရေင်ဓရိုဟ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Political repression) ရ။ ညး မဟွံထံက်ပင် အလဵုအသဳ တအ် ဒးဒုင် ဖျေဟ် ထံင်၊ သၞောတ် ပရိုင် (Press) တအ် ဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု၊ ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရေး ကောန်မၞိဟ် လေဝ် ဍိုန်လျ ကၠုင် ရ။ ပရေင်လဟဵု သြန် ဂိတု ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် တိုက် တၟိ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ သၞောတ် တၠအဝဵု (Dictatorship) စတန် ကၠုင် ရ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်တုန့်ပြန် နူ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ရးနိဂီု သ္အာင် (International Reaction) ==
ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ပါ်ပါဲ ကေုာံ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု နူကဵု ဂကောံ ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
* '''ကၟိန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ အင်္ဂလာန်:''' ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ထောအ် ပရေင်ရီုဗင် သြန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထံက်ပင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကု ဍုင် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ အလုံစုံ။
* '''ဂကောံ ဥရောပ (European Union):''' လေဝ် ပိုတ် ထောအ် ပရေင်ထံက်ပင် နာနာ သာ် တုဲ အာတ်မိက် ညံင်ဂွံ ကလေင် ပြံင်လှာဲ အုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵု ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ရ။<ref name="touray">{{cite book |last=Touray |first=O. A. |title=The Gambia and the World: A History of the Foreign Policy of Africa's Smallest State |publisher=Institut für Afrika-Kunde |year=2000 |pages=85-95}}</ref>
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဒဏ် (Sanctions) နူ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ်၊ ယာယာ ဂျာမာ ဒး ပြံင်လှာဲ နဲကဲ ဆက်ဆံ ရးနိဂီု သ္အာင် တုဲ ညး အာ ဆက်ဆံ ကု ဍုင် မပ္တံကဵု လဳဗျာ (Libya)၊ ထာဲဝါန် (Taiwan) ကေုာံ အဳရန် (Iran) သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သြန် ထံက်ပင် တၟိ ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Legal and Political Changes) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၆၊ ကြဴနူ ဒးဒုင် ဓရိုဟ် နူကဵု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ်ရ၊ ယာယာ ဂျာမာ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေလဒက်ပတန် တၟိ သွက် ဍုင် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ရ။ ညး ဒေါအ် ဇူ နူကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန် တုဲ ဒက်ပတန် ဗော် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် တၟိ မကော်စ APRC (Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲရုဲမာဲ သမ္မတ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၆ ဂှ်၊ ယာယာ ဂျာမာ ဇၞး ကေတ် ပေါဲရုဲမာဲ (ၜိုန်ရ ပေါဲရုဲမာဲ ဂှ် ဟွံမဲ ကု ဗဗွဲဓဝ် ဍိုက်ဍိုက်ပေင်ပေင် ကီုလေဝ်) တုဲ ညး ပြံင်လှာဲ ဘဝ နူကဵု "သၟိင်တၠ ပၞာန်" စိုပ် အာ အဆံင် "သမ္မတ အရပ်အစပ် သာမည" (Civilian President) ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် အခိုက်အလိုက် ညးမသီအဝဵု ပ္ဍဲ ရးအာဖရိက ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မလေပ် ကၠောန် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သြဇာ နူ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၁၀။ အာဲကၟာဲ ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ကြဴနူ သီအဝဵု (Legacy and Future) ==
ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ၁၉၉၄ ဂှ် ဒှ် စတမ် အလဵုအသဳ တၠအဝဵု (Dictatorship) ယာယာ ဂျာမာ မအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ပွိုင် ၂၂ သၞာံ စဵုကဵု သၞာံ ၂၀၁၇ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ညး အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် ဂှ်၊ ဍုင် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ဝွံ ဒးဆဵုဂဗ ကု ပရေင်ဖံက်ပလီု အခေါင်အရေး ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ဖျေဟ် ထံင်၊ ပရေင်ဂစိုတ် မၞိဟ် ပရိုင် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ် ဒစးဒုင် (Assassinations and torture) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲရုဲမာဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၁၆၊ ယာယာ ဂျာမာ ကျ အာ ကု '''အာဒါမာ ဘာရဝ်''' (Adama Barrow)။ ကိုပ်ကၠာ ဂှ် ဂျာမာ ဟွံဒုင် တဲ စှ်ေ နူ အဝဵု ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ဒပ်ပၞာန် နူကဵု ဂကောံ ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) လုပ် ကၠုင် ထိင်ဒဝ် ဂှ်ရ ညး ဒး ဒြေပ်ဒဴ တိတ် အာ နူ ဍုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဇာန်နဝါရဳ ၂၀၁၇ ရ။ လၟုဟ် ဍုင် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ဝွံ ကလေင် ဒက်ပတန် ဒၟံင် သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ တၟိ ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ကမ္မရှေန် ဍာံပြ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကလေင် ညဳသၟဟ် (Truth, Reconciliation and Reparations Commission) သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်ၜတ် ပြသၞာ မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ လက်ထက် ဂျာမာ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ယာယာ ဂျာမာ]] (Yahya Jammeh)
* [[ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ]] (The Gambia)
* [[ဒါဝဒါ ဂျာဝါရာ]] (Dawda Jawara)
* [[ပရေင်သီအဝဵု]] (Coup d'état)
{{Navbox
| name = History of The Gambia
| title = ပရူပရာ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဍုင်ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ (History and Politics of The Gambia)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[သၠးပွး ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ]] (1965)
* [[ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ ၁၉၈၁]] (1981 failed coup)
* [[ပရေင်သီအဝဵု ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ]] (1994)
* [[ECOWAS လဟဵု ပၞာန် ပ္ဍဲ ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ]] (2017)
| group2 = ပူဂိုလ် အဓိက
| list2 =
* [[ဒါဝဒါ ဂျာဝါရာ]] (Dawda Jawara)
* [[ယာယာ ဂျာမာ]] (Yahya Jammeh)
* [[အာဒါမာ ဘာရဝ်]] (Adama Barrow)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ရးအာဖရိက ပလိုတ်]] (West Africa)
* [[ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကောန်ဂကူ ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ]] (Gambia National Army)
* [[ပရေင်သီအဝဵု]] (Coup d'état)
* [[AFPRC]] (Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council)
}}
[[Category:ဝင် ဂမ္ဗဳယျာ]]
[[Category:၁၉၉၄ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်သီအဝဵုဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ အာဖရိက]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် အာဖရိက]]
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'''ရုက္ခဗေဒ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Botany'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Plant Science'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် သိပ္ပံ မလ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူပရာ တၞံဆု၊ တၞံရာပ်၊ ပ္ကဴ၊ ကေုာံ ဇဳဝဗေဒ တၞံ (Plant biology) နာနာ သာ် ရ။ ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာ [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology) တုဲ ဍေဟ် လ္ၚတ် ပရူ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်၊ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ၊ ပရေင်ယဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ တၞံ တအ် ကု ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ ရ။<ref name="raven">{{cite book |last=Raven |first=P. H. |author2=Evert, R. F. |author3=Eichhorn, S. E. |title=Biology of Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants70000pete |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants70000pete/page/n29 10]-15}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ တၠပညာ ရုက္ခဗေဒ တအ် လ္ၚတ် တၞံ မနွံ ၜိုတ် ၄၁၀,၀၀၀ ဂကူ ပြင်င် မပ္တံကဵု တၞံ မနွံကဵု ပ္ကဴ (Angiosperms)၊ တၞံ မဟွံမဲ ပ္ကဴ (Gymnosperms)၊ ကေုာံ မေက် (Algae) တအ် ရ။ ရုက္ခဗေဒ ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက် ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ် သီုကဵု တိရစ္ဆာန် တအ် ဟိုတ်နူ တၞံ တအ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပတိတ် ဓါတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် (Oxygen) ကေုာံ စၞစ ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ရုက္ခဗေဒ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ၊ ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ ဂကူ၊ ကေုာံ ဂေဟဗေဒ တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Koehler 1887 Amygdalus communis.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး လဒက်ပတန် တၞံဗာဒံင် (Almond) မကၠာဲလဝ် နူကဵု လိက်ဝင် ရုက္ခဗေဒ ကာလ ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ နကဵု တၠပညာ ကာလ် အေန်တန် (Karl Anton)။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ဝေါဟာရ အင်္ဂလိက် "Botany" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ "botanē" (βοτάνη) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ချောဲ"၊ "တၞံ သွက် တိရစ္ဆာန် စ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "တၞံရာပ်" ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အရေဝ် မန် ဂှ်၊ ပိုယ် ကော်စ "ရုက္ခဗေဒ" မကၠုင် နူ သက္ကတ "ရုက္ခ" (တၞံဆု) ကေုာံ "ဗေဒ" (ပညာ/ဘာသာလ္ၚတ်) ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် သိပ္ပံ မ္ဂး၊ ရုက္ခဗေဒ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပညာ မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ တၞံ (Plants)၊ ဖြင်ဂါင် (Fungi) ကေုာံ မေက် (Algae) တအ် နကဵု နဲကဲ သုတေသန ရ။ ရုက္ခဗေဒ ဏအ် လ္ၚတ် နူကဵု အဆံင် သဲလ် ဍောတ်တ် (Cellular level) စဵုကဵု စိုပ် အဆံင် ဂေဟသၞောတ် (Ecosystem level) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ တၞံ တအ် မဂျိုင် လမျီု ကေုာံ ပံင်ဖက် ကု သတ္တဝါ တၞဟ် တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် လတူ တၞံ ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင်လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် စ ပတန် ကမၠောန် ဗ္ၚ (Agriculture) ပ္ဍဲ လွန် ၜိုတ် ၁၀,၀၀၀ သၞာံ တေအ် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ:''' တၠပညာ ဂရိတ် ဓဳယဝ်ဖရာတ်သတတ် (Theophrastus) ဂှ် ညးတအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် "မအံက် ရုက္ခဗေဒ" (Father of Botany) ရ။ ညး ချူ လဝ် လိက်ပြကိုဟ် "Historia Plantarum" မဒှ် လိက် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ပရူ တၞံ ပထမအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဂၠးတိ။
* '''ခေတ် လဒေါဝ်:''' တၠပညာ အေဿလာမ် မပ္တံကဵု အဳဗေန် သဳနာ (Ibn Sina) တအ် လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ သမ္တီ လဝ် ဂုဏ်ဖိုလ် ဂဥုဲ နူကဵု တၞံ တအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။
* '''ခေတ် တၟိ စတင်:''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၁၈ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ တၠပညာ သွဳဒေန် '''[[ကာလ် လဳနဳယတ်]]''' (Carl Linnaeus) ခၞံဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် ကဵု ယၟု ၜါ မလိက် (Binomial nomenclature) မဒှ် သၞောတ် သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု ယၟု တၞံ ကေုာံ တိရစ္ဆာန် မစကာ စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။<ref name="mauseth">{{cite book |last=Mauseth |first=J. D. |title=Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/botanyintroducti0000maus_c9i1 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |year=2014 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/botanyintroducti0000maus_c9i1/page/5 5]-12}}</ref>
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ရုပ်သာ် တၞံ (Plant Anatomy and Morphology) ==
ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် လဒက်ပတန် တၞံ (Plant Anatomy) ဝွံ လ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဒြပ် မနွံ အပ္ဍဲ တၞံ မပ္တံကဵု သဲလ် (Cells) ကေုာံ ဖျုန် (Tissues)၊ တုဲ ရုပ်သာ် တၞံ (Plant Morphology) ဝွံ လ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဗီုပြင် မ္ၚး ရ။
အင်္ဂါ အဓိက သွက် တၞံ မွဲ နွံ -
* '''ရိုဟ် (Roots):''' ဒၞာဲ မဇြောတ် ကေတ် ဍာ် ကေုာံ ဓါတ် နူ တိ။ ရိုဟ် လေဝ် ကဵု အထံက်အပင် သွက် တၞံ ညံင် ဂွံ တန်ကြန် လတူ တိ ကီု ရ။
* '''တမ် / တၞံ (Stems):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မထံက်ပင် လဝ် တၞး ကေုာံ ပ္ကဴ။ ပ္ဍဲ တမ် ဂှ် နွံ ပလိုင် ''Xylem'' (မပလံင် ဍာ် နူ ရိုဟ်) ကေုာံ ''Phloem'' (မပလံင် စၞ နူ တၞး) ရ။
* '''တၞး (Leaves):''' ဒှ် ဌာန် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ (Photosynthesis) ရ။
* '''ပ္ကဴ ကေုာံ သတ် (Flowers and Fruits):''' ဒှ် အင်္ဂါ သွက် ပရေင်မိတ်ဆက် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် မ (Seeds) သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် မင်မဲ တၞောဝ် ဂကူ ရ။
== ၄။ ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ တၞံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ (Plant Physiology and Photosynthesis) ==
ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ တၞံ (Plant Physiology) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် လ္ၚတ် ပရူ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မကတဵုဒှ် အပ္ဍဲ တၞံ ညံင် ဂွံ ဂျိုင် လမျီု မာန် ရ။
လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် '''ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ''' (Photosynthesis) ရ။ တၞံ တအ် စကာ ဓါတ် ကာဗောန်ဒိုင်အံက်သိုက် (CO2) နူ ကျာ၊ ဍာ် နူ တိ၊ ကေုာံ လျးတ္ၚဲ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ဓါတ် သဂြာ (Glucose - ဒြဟတ်) ကေုာံ ဓါတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် (Oxygen) ရ။ လၟေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ''Chloroplasts'' မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ တၞး သၚေက် ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပရေင်ယိုက်ယီု (Respiration) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပတိတ် ဍာ် (Transpiration) လေဝ် ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက သွက် ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ တၞံ ကီု ရ။<ref name="taiz">{{cite book |last=Taiz |first=L. |author2=Zeiger, E. |title=Plant Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/plantphysiology0000taiz |publisher=Sinauer Associates |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plantphysiology0000taiz/page/120 120]-135}}</ref>
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ ဂကူ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (Plant Taxonomy and Phylogeny) ==
ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ ဂကူ တၞံ (Plant Taxonomy) ဂှ် ဒှ် ကမၠောန် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ ပါ် ဂကောံ တၞံ အတိုင် ရုပ်သာ် ကေုာံ ဂဳဇီု (Genetics) ဍေဟ်တအ် ရ။ တၞံ သီုဖအိုတ် ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် တၞံ (Kingdom Plantae) ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ ဂကောံ တၞံ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကောံ အဓိက
! ယၟု သိပ္ပံ (English)
! လက္ချဏ် ကေုာံ ဥပမာ
|-
| '''တၞံ ဟွံမဲ ပလိုင် (Non-vascular)'''
| Bryophytes
| ဟွံမဲ ရိုဟ် ဇေတ်တ် ကေုာံ ဟွံမဲ ပလိုင် ပလံင် ဍာ် (ဥပမာ - မောစ် / Mosses)။
|-
| '''တၞံ နွံ ပလိုင် ဟွံမဲ မ (Seedless vascular)'''
| Pteridophytes
| နွံ ပလိုင် ပလံင် ဍာ် ဆဂး ပတိတ် ကောန် နကဵု သပဝ် (Spores) (ဥပမာ - တၞံ ဖာန် / Ferns)။
|-
| '''တၞံ နွံ မ ဟွံမဲ ပ္ကဴ (Gymnosperms)'''
| Gymnosperms
| နွံ မ ဆဂး မ ဂှ် ဟွံဒးဒုင် ဂြောပ် လဝ် နကဵု သတ် (ဥပမာ - တၞံ အိုင် / Pines)။
|-
| '''တၞံ နွံ ပ္ကဴ (Angiosperms)'''
| Angiosperms
| နွံ ပ္ကဴ ကေုာံ နွံ သတ် မဂြောပ် လဝ် မ (ဥပမာ - တၞံ သတ်ဗြဴ၊ တၞံ ရာပ်၊ ပ္ကဴ လ္ၚီ)။
|}
== ၆။ ဂေဟဗေဒ တၞံ ကေုာံ ပထဝဳဒေသ (Plant Ecology and Phytogeography) ==
ဂေဟဗေဒ တၞံ (Plant Ecology) ဝွံ လ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဗီုလဵု တၞံ တအ် ဆက်ဆံ ကု ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (တိ၊ ဍာ်၊ ကျာ) ကေုာံ သတ္တဝါ တၞဟ် တအ် ရ။ ဥပမာ - တၞံ ပ္ကဴ တအ် နွံ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ ကု စၟစၟောန် သွက်ဂွံ ယာတ် ပ္ကဴ (Pollination) ရ။
ပထဝဳ ရုက္ခဗေဒ (Phytogeography) ဂှ် လ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဒၞာဲ ဝါသ တၞံ တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ နာနာ လတူ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဥပမာ - တၞံ ခတောတ် (Cactus) ဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် လဝ် လဒက်ပတန် ညံင် ဂွံ ဂျိုင် လမျီု ပ္ဍဲ ကန္တရ မဟွံမဲ ဍာ် ရ။ တၞံ လ္ၚဵု တအ် မာန် ဂျိုင် ဆ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဂံက် (Tundra) သၟး ရ။<ref name="judd">{{cite book |last=Judd |first=W. S. |author2=Campbell, C. S. |title=Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach |publisher=Sinauer Associates |year=2002 |pages=65-80}}</ref>
== ၇။ ရုက္ခဗေဒ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ စၞစ (Economic Botany and Agriculture) ==
ရုက္ခဗေဒ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economic Botany) လ္ၚတ် ပရူ တၞံ မကဵု ဖိုလ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ရ။ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ကဏ္ဍ ဗ္ၚ (Agriculture) ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
* '''စၞစ:''' ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် မှဳခိုဟ် ဒၟံင် လတူ တၞံ သွက် စၞစ မပ္တံကဵု သြောအ်၊ ကၠင်ကၠိုက်၊ သတ်ဆု၊ ကေုာံ သၞေဝ် ကၞပ် တအ် ရ။
* '''ဂဥုဲ:''' ၜိုတ် ၂၅% နူကဵု ဂဥုဲ ခေတ်တၟိ (Modern medicines) တအ်ဂှ် ပတိတ် လဝ် နူကဵု တၞံ ရ (ဥပမာ - Aspirin နူကဵု တၞံ ဝဳလောဝ် / Willow bark)။
* '''ကပေါတ် သြိုင်ခၞံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စက်:''' ဆု သွက် သ္ၚိ၊ ဝါ်၊ ကေုာံ ဍာ် ကရေက် (Rubber) တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ထောပတ် အဓိက နူ တၞံ ရ။
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု ဂကူမၞိဟ် တြေံ တအ် စကာ တၞံ (Ethnobotany) လေဝ် ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် ဏအ် ရ။
== ၈။ ဂဳဇီုဗေဒ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ တၞံ (Plant Genetics and Evolution) ==
ဂဳဇီုဗေဒ တၞံ (Plant Genetics) လ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဓါတ် အာဲကၟာဲ (DNA) ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု ဍေဟ်တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ စှ်ေ ကၠုင် နူ မွဲ တၞောဝ် စိုပ် မွဲ တၞောဝ် ရ။
တၠပညာ '''[[ဂရေဂေါ် မေန်ဒဲ]]''' (Gregor Mendel) ဂှ် စကာ လဝ် တၞံ ဗရာတ် (Pea plants) သွက်ဂွံ စမ်ၜတ် လ္ၚတ် သၞောဝ် ဂဳဇီုဗေဒ ပထမအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ နကဵု နည်းပညာ ဂဳဇီုဗေဒ တအ် ဂှ်၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် တၞံ မနွံကဵု ဒြဟတ် ဒစးဒုင် စၟ ကေုာံ ယဲ မကော်စ တၞံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဂဳဇီု (Genetically Modified Organisms - GMOs) သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သြောအ် ဂၠိုင်ဂၠိုင် ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ (Evolution) မ္ဂး၊ တၞံ သီုဖအိုတ် လတူ တိ ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု မေက် သၚေက် (Green algae) ပ္ဍဲ ၜိုတ် ၅၀၀ မဳလဳယာန် သၞာံ ကိုပ်ကၠာ တေအ် ရ။<ref name="simpson">{{cite book |last=Simpson |first=M. G. |title=Plant Systematics |url=https://archive.org/details/plantsystematics0000simp |publisher=Academic Press |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plantsystematics0000simp/page/250 250]-265}}</ref>
== ၉။ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ယဲ တၞံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ (Plant Pathology and Conservation) ==
ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ယဲ တၞံ (Plant Pathology) ဂှ် ဒှ် ပညာ မလ္ၚတ် ယဲ မကတဵုဒှ် လတူ တၞံ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု စၟ ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ (Bacteria)၊ ဗဳရတ် (Viruses)၊ ကေုာံ ဖြင်ဂါင် (Fungi) တအ် ရ။ ယဲ တၞံ တအ်ဝွံ မာန် ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍုင် ကေုာံ စၞစ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဂွံ လီုလာ် (ဥပမာ - ယဲ တၞံ ကွာန် ဗြာတ် ပ္ဍဲ အာဲယာလာန် ပ္ဍဲ ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ) ရ။
ပရေင်မင်မဲ တၞံ (Plant Conservation) ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် လၟုဟ် ဟိုတ်နူ တၞံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မဒး ဆောမ်လေင် ဒၟံင် ဒေသ ဝါသ ဍေဟ်တအ် ရ။ တၠပညာ တအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် "တိုက် သြန် မ (Seed Banks)" မပ္တံကဵု သဗာလဗာတ် (Svalbard Global Seed Vault) သွက်ဂွံ ဂိုင် သိပ် လဝ် မ တၞံ နူ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ကၠေအ်ကၠက် အာ ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ နည်းပညာ တၟိ ပ္ဍဲ ရုက္ခဗေဒ (Future and Modern Technologies in Botany) ==
အနာဂတ် ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် ရုက္ခဗေဒ ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု နည်းပညာ တၟိ (Biotechnology) ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ရာသဳဥတု ပြံင်လှာဲ (Climate Change) ရ။
* '''နည်းပညာ ကရေက် ဂဳဇီု (CRISPR):''' တၠပညာ တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ CRISPR သွက်ဂွံ ပလေဝ် ဂဳဇီု တၞံ ညံင် ဂွံ ဒစးဒုင် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ကေုာံ ဍာ် အောန် မာန်။
* '''ရုက္ခဗေဒ အကာသ (Astrobotany):''' သုတေသန မလ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု တၞံ တအ် မာန် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂြိုဟ် အင်္ဂါ (Mars) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဌာန် အကာသ သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် လမျီု ကောန်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ရာသဳဥတု:''' တၞံ တအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ကိရိယာ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဇြောတ် ကေတ် ဓါတ် ကာဗောန် (Carbon sink) တုဲ၊ ရုက္ခဗေဒ ဝွံ ဆက် ဒှ် ဒၟံင် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ရီုဗင် ကယ် ဟံင် ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် နူကဵု ဘဲ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ရောင်။<ref name="smith">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=A. M. |author2=Coupland, G. |author3=Dolan, L. |title=Plant Biology |publisher=Garland Science |year=2009 |pages=400-415}}</ref>
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
* [[ဂေဟဗေဒ]] (Ecology)
* [[တၞံဆု]] (Tree)
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ]] (Photosynthesis)
{{Navbox
| name = Biology
| title = ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကေုာံ ရုက္ခဗေဒ (Biology and Botany)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ရုက္ခဗေဒ]] (Botany)
* [[သတ္တဗေဒ]] (Zoology)
* [[ဂေဟဗေဒ]] (Ecology)
* [[ဂဳဇီုဗေဒ]] (Genetics)
* [[ခန္ဓာဗေဒ]] (Anatomy)
| group2 = ပရူပရာ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ တၞံ
| list2 =
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ]] (Photosynthesis)
* [[ပ္ကဴ]] (Flower)
* [[မ]] (Seed)
* [[ရိုဟ်]] (Root)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ ဂကူ]] (Taxonomy)
* [[ယဲ တၞံ]] (Plant pathology)
* [[ပရေင်မင်မဲ သဘာဝ]] (Conservation)
* [[GMOs]] (Genetically modified organisms)
}}
[[Category:ရုက္ခဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဇဳဝဗေဒ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ]]
[[Category:သဘာဝ]]
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'''တၞး''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''တၞးဆု''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Leaf'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် အင်္ဂါ ကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် မွဲ မနွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒက်ပတန် တၞံ မနွံကဵု သၞောတ် ပလံင် ဍာ် (Vascular plant) ရ။ တၞး ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ (Photosynthesis) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တိတ် ဍာ် (Transpiration) ပ္ဍဲ တၞံ တအ် ရ။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တၞး တအ်ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဗီုပြင် ဓလး (Flat) တုဲ တိုန် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ လတူ တၞုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ၝောအ် တၞံ ရ။<ref name="esau">{{cite book |last=Esau |first=K. |title=Anatomy of Seed Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/anatomyofseedpla0002esau |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=1977 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofseedpla0002esau/page/321 321]-330}}</ref>
တၞး တအ်ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ကၠုင် လဝ် ဗီုပြင် နာနာ သာ် သွက်ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ မပ္တံကဵု ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ၊ လျးတ္ၚဲ၊ ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ဍာ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ တၞး နကဵု လညာတ် ရုက္ခဗေဒ (Botany) မပ္တံကဵု ခန္ဓာဗေဒ၊ မဝ်ဖဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ၊ ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵု လတူ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Leaf_anatomy.svg|thumb|right|350px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး လဒက်ပတန် ခန္ဓာဗေဒ အပ္ဍဲ တၞး မွဲ ကေုာံ ကလာပ်ရုပ် သၞောတ် ပလံင် (Vascular tissue) ကေုာံ သတဝ်မာတာ (Stomata)။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ရုက္ခဗေဒ မ္ဂး၊ တၞး ဝွံ ဒှ် ကိရိယာ အဓိက မတိုန် တိတ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု တမ် ၝောအ် (Stem) မနွံ လတူ တိ ရ။ တၞး ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နွံ အသာ် သၚေက် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဍေဟ်တအ် နွံကဵု ဓါတ် '''ကလဝ်ရဝ်ဖဳလ်''' (Chlorophyll) မဒှ် ဓါတ် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဇြောတ် ကေတ် ဒြဟတ် လျးတ္ၚဲ ရ။
တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက အိုတ် သွက် တၞး မွဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ကၠောန် စၞ (Photosynthesis) မဒှ် ကမၠောန် ပြံင်လှာဲ လျးတ္ၚဲ၊ ဓါတ် ကာဗောန်ဒိုင်အံက်သိုက် (Carbon dioxide)၊ ကေုာံ ဍာ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် သဂြာ (Sugars/Glucose) သွက် တၞံ ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ရ။ ပါဲနူ ဂှ် တၞး ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ယီု (Respiration) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ တၞံ ကီု ရ။
== ၂။ လဒက်ပတန် ခန္ဓာဗေဒ အပ္ဍဲ (Internal Anatomy) ==
လဒက်ပတန် အပ္ဍဲ တၞး ဝွံ ဍိုက်ပေင် ဒၟံင် နကဵု သၞောတ် ကလာပ်ရုပ် မဖန်ဇန် လဝ် သွက် ပရေင်ကၠောန် စၞ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထိင် ဍာ် ရ။<ref name="raven">{{cite book |last=Raven |first=P. H. |author2=Evert, R. F. |author3=Eichhorn, S. E. |title=Biology of Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants70000pete |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants70000pete/page/415 415]-425}}</ref>
* '''အဳပဳဒါမစ် (Epidermis):''' ဒှ် လေယျာ စၞာံ လပါ် မ္ၚး အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် လတူ ကေုာံ လပါ် သၟဝ် တၞး ရ။ လေယျာ ဏအ်ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဓါတ် ဖယံက် မကော်စ "ကျူတဳကယ်" (Cuticle) သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ညံင် ဍာ် ဟွံဂွံ ဇွောဝ် တိတ် အာ ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ရ။
* '''သတဝ်မာတာ (Stomata):''' ဒှ် ပထောင် ဍောတ်တ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် သၟဝ် တၞး ရ။ ဍေဟ်တအ် ပံက် ကေုာံ ကၟာတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပၠောပ် ကာဗောန်ဒိုင်အံက်သိုက် ကေုာံ ပတိတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် (Oxygen) ကဵု ဍာ် ရ။
* '''မဳသဝ်ဖဳလ် (Mesophyll):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ အဒေါဝ် တၞး တုဲ ပါ်လဝ် ၜါ လေယျာ -
** ''Palisade mesophyll'': နွံ လပါ် လတူ၊ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ကြပ်ကြပ် တုဲ နွံ ကလဝ်ရဝ်ပလာသ် (Chloroplast) ဂၠိုင်အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ တွက် လျးတ္ၚဲ။
** ''Spongy mesophyll'': နွံ လပါ် သၟဝ်၊ နွံကဵု လဟိုင် ကျာ ဂၠိုင် သွက် လၟေင် ဓါတ်ကျာ ဂွံ ချဳဓရာင်။
* '''သၞောတ် ပလံင် (Vascular bundle / Veins):''' ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု -
** ''Xylem'' (ဇိုင်လာမ်): ပလံင် ဍာ် ကေုာံ ဓါတ်တိ နူ ရိုဟ် စိုပ် တၞး။
** ''Phloem'' (ဖလဝ်အေမ်): ပလံင် စၞ သဂြာ နူ တၞး စိုပ် သၞာ် တၞံ တၞဟ်။
== ၃။ မဝ်ဖဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ ကေုာံ ဗီုပြင် မ္ၚး (Morphology and External Shape) ==
တၞး မွဲဝွံ ဗွဲဓမ္မတာ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု အင်္ဂါ အဓိက ပိ သာ် -
# '''လာမဳနာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ခန္ဓာ တၞး (Lamina/Blade):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဓလး ဇၞော် အိုတ် မကၠောန် ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ။
# '''ပဝ်တဳအဝ် / ၝောအ် တၞး (Petiole):''' ဒှ် တဝ် မဆက် အကြာ ခန္ဓာ တၞး ကဵု ၝောအ် တၞံ။
# '''သတဳပူလ် (Stipules):''' ဒှ် တၞး ဍောတ်ဍောတ် ၜါ မတိုန် ပ္ဍဲ သၟဝ် တဝ် တၞး (တၞံ လ္ၚဵု ဟွံမဲ)။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ တၞး အတိုင် ဗီုပြင်
|-
! ဂကူ တၞး (Leaf Type)
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! ဥပမာ တၞံ
|-
| '''တၞး အတိုင် (Simple leaf)'''
| ခန္ဓာ တၞး ဂှ် ဒှ် မွဲ ဓလး ဓဝ်၊ ဟွံပါ် ဒကုတ်။
| တၞံ ဗပိုန်၊ တၞံ သတ်ဗြဴ၊ တၞံ မင်ဂုတ်။
|-
| '''တၞး ကဝါင် (Compound leaf)'''
| ခန္ဓာ တၞး ဂှ် ပါ်တိတ် ဒှ် အာ တၞး ဍောတ်ဍောတ် ဂမၠိုင် (Leaflets)။
| တၞံ မအူ၊ တၞံ ကဝ်ပဳ၊ တၞံ မန်လာ်။
|-
| '''တၞး တၞုင် (Needle-like)'''
| တၞး ဂှ် ကေက် တုဲ တုပ် ညံင် တၞုင် တၞ။
| တၞံ ထင်းရှူး (Pine)။
|}
== ၄။ ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ (Physiological Functions) ==
ကမၠောန် အဓိက အိုတ် သွက် တၞး ဂှ် ဒှ် '''ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ (Photosynthesis)''' ရ။<ref name="taiz">{{cite book |last=Taiz |first=L. |author2=Zeiger, E. |title=Plant Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/plantphysiology0000taiz |publisher=Sinauer Associates |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plantphysiology0000taiz/page/150 150]-165}}</ref>
နကဵု ဥပမာ သဳအိုရဳ ဓါတုဗေဒ မ္ဂး -
<pre>
6 CO2 (ကာဗောန်ဒိုင်အံက်သိုက်) + 6 H2O (ဍာ်) + လျးတ္ၚဲ → C6H12O6 (သဂြာ Glucose) + 6 O2 (အံက်သဳဂျေန်)
</pre>
ပါဲနူ ဂှ်၊ တၞး ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင် '''တိတ် ဍာ် (Transpiration)''' ရ။ ဍာ် မဇြောတ် ကေတ် နူ ရိုဟ် တအ် ဂှ် ပလံင် တိုန် စိုပ် တၞး တုဲ ဒှ် အာ အခိုး ဍာ် ကေုာံ တိတ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ လဟိုင် သတဝ်မာတာ ရ။ ပရေင်ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် တၞံ ဂွံ ဂံက် ကေုာံ သၠုင် ပတိုန် ဒြဟတ် ဇြောတ် ဍာ် နူ တိ ရ။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ တၞး သွက်ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု သဘာဝ (Evolutionary Adaptations) ==
ဟိုတ်နူ ပွဳပွူသဘာဝ တၞဟ်ခြာ ဂှ်ရ၊ တၞး ပ္ဍဲ တၞံ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗီုပြင် သွက်ဂွံ ဂျိုင် လမျီု မာန် ရ -
* '''ဇလ (Spines):''' တၞံ ပ္ဍဲ ကန္တာရ (ဥပမာ - တၞံ လေဝ်စင် Cactus) တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ တၞး ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ဇလ သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန် ပရေင်ဍာ်တိတ် ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ သတ္တဝါ မစ တၞံ။
* '''တၞး စၟ (Carnivorous leaves):''' တၞံ လ္ၚဵု မပ္တံကဵု ဓဂိုဟ်စၟ (Pitcher plant) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဗဳနတ် သဖလာင် (Venus flytrap) တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ တၞး ဍေဟ်တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ ရပ် စ စၟစၟောန် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ဓါတ် နိုက်ထရဝ်ဂျေန် နူ တိ မဟွံမဲ ဓါတ်။
* '''တၞး ထိုင် ဍာ် (Succulent leaves):''' တၞံ မပ္တံကဵု အာလဝ်ဗေရာ (Aloe vera) တအ် နွံ တၞး တောမ်တောမ် သွက်ဂွံ တန်သိပ် ဍာ် အခိင် ကညင်။
* '''တၞး ဗကေပ် (Tendrils):''' တၞံ ဇုက် လ္ၚဵု တအ် ပြံင် တၞး ဒှ် လေဝ်ဗကေပ် သွက်ဂွံ ဂေတ် ကွာ် တိုန် တၞံ တၞဟ်။
== ၆။ ဗီုပြင် သၞောတ် တၞး ပ္ဍဲ ၝောအ် (Phyllotaxis and Arrangement) ==
'''ဖဳလဝ်ထက်သစ်''' (Phyllotaxis) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဗီုပြင် မဖျေဟ် လၟေင် တၞး လတူ ၝောအ် တၞံ ရ။<ref name="gifford">{{cite book |last=Gifford |first=E. M. |author2=Foster, A. S. |title=Morphology and Evolution of Vascular Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/morphologyevolut0000giff |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1989 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/morphologyevolut0000giff/page/250 250]-255}}</ref> သၞောတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု တၞး ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် တၞး ကလိဂွံ လျးတ္ၚဲ ဍိုက်ဍိုက်ပေင်ပေင် တုဲ ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ဂြောပ် ဒၞာ ရေင်သကအ် ရ။
ဗီုပြင် အဓိက ပိ သာ် ဂှ် -
# '''သၞောတ် ရေင် (Alternate):''' ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် က္ဍိုပ် (Node) မွဲ ဂှ် နွံ ဆ တၞး မွဲ ဓဝ်။
# '''သၞောတ် တပ် (Opposite):''' ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် က္ဍိုပ် မွဲ ဂှ် နွံ တၞး ၜါ ဓဝ် မတိုန် ဂၠံင် ဒစး ရေင်သကအ်။
# '''သၞောတ် ဂေတ် (Whorled):''' ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍိုပ် မွဲ ဂှ် နွံ တၞး ပိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠိုင် နူ ဂှ် မတိုန် ဂေတ် ဒၟံင် ရ။
== ၇။ ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (Development and Growth) ==
တၞး ဝွံ စတင် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ကလာပ်ရုပ် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် ပ္ဍဲ တၞုင် ၝောအ် တၞံ မကော်စ '''Shoot apical meristem''' ရ။ ကလာပ်ရုပ် တအ်ဏအ် ဇၞော် တိုန် တုဲ ဒက်ပတန် အာ နဒဒှ် "Leaf primordia" (တမ် တၞး) ရ။<ref name="cutter">{{cite book |last=Cutter |first=E. G. |title=Plant Anatomy: Experiment and Interpretation |url=https://archive.org/details/plantanatomy0000cutt_f2n0 |publisher=Edward Arnold |year=1978 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plantanatomy0000cutt_f2n0/page/100 100]-112}}</ref>
ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် တၞး ဂှ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် လဝ် နကဵု ဗဳဇ (Genetics) ကေုာံ ဓါတ် ဟဝ်မုန်း ပ္ဍဲ တၞံ မပ္တံကဵု "အံက်သေန်" (Auxin) ရ။ တၞး ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မလေပ် ဇၞော် တိုန် စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ဇမၞော် မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် မွဲ တုဲ မလေပ် ဒေါအ် အာ (Determinate growth)၊ အရာ ဏအ် တၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု ရိုဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ၝောအ် မဇၞော် ဒၟံင် လၟိုန် ရ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ပြဟ် စှ်ေ ကေုာံ အာယုက် တၞး (Senescence and Leaf Fall) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ မနွံ ဥတု ၜိုဟ်၊ တၞံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မလေပ် ပြဟ် စှ်ေ တၞး ဍေဟ်တအ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကညင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အခိင် တၞး ပြဟ် (Autumn) ရ။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကော်စ "Abscission" ရ။
ကာလ အခိင် ၜိုဟ် တိုန် မ္ဂး၊ တၞံ တအ် ဒေါအ် ထောအ် ပရေင်ကၠောန် ဓါတ် ကလဝ်ရဝ်ဖဳလ် (အသာ် သၚေက်) ရ။ ကာလ အသာ် သၚေက် လီုလာ် အာ မ္ဂး၊ ဓါတ် အသာ် တၞဟ် မပ္တံကဵု '''Carotenoids''' (အသာ် ဍီု/မိတ်) ကေုာံ '''Anthocyanins''' (အသာ် ဗကေတ်) မနွံ ဓလုက် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ တၞး ဂှ် ပြာကတ် တိတ် ကၠုင် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ် တၞးဆု တအ် ဂွံ ပြံင် အသာ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဥတု သီ (Autumn) ရ။
ကြဴနူ ဂှ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ တမ် တဝ် တၞး ဂှ် ကလာပ်ရုပ် တအ် ဒက်ပတန် လေယျာ ကုတ် (Abscission zone) တုဲ တၞး ဂှ် ပြဟ် စှ်ေ အာ သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ညံင် ဍာ် ဟွံဂွံ အောန် အာ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မုက် ဂံက် ရ။
== ၉။ ဖဵု ဂေဟဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဆက်စပ် ကု သတ္တဝါ (Ecological Importance) ==
တၞး ဝွံ နွံ ဖဵု ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ဂေဟဗေဒ (Ecosystem) အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''သဇိုင် စၞ (Food web base):''' တၞး ဝွံ ဒှ် စၞ အဓိက သွက် သတ္တဝါ မစ ချောဲ (Herbivores) မပ္တံကဵု စၟစၟောန်၊ ဂၠဴ၊ ကေုာံ သတ်ဂြိုပ် နာနာ သာ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ (Defense mechanisms):''' ဟိုတ်နူ သတ္တဝါ တအ် စ ဂၠိုင် ဂှ်ရ၊ တၞး လ္ၚဵု ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဓါတ် ဂျိ၊ အသာ် မပရေအ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သော် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် လတူ စၞာံ သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ အန္တရာယ် ရ။
* '''ဗွဝ် ကာဗောန် ကေုာံ ဓါတ်တိ (Carbon and Soil nutrients):''' တၞး ဇြောတ် ကေတ် ဓါတ် ကာဗောန် နူ ကျာ တုဲ၊ ကာလ ဍေဟ်တအ် ပြဟ် စှ်ေ လတူ တိ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ်တအ် သရိုဟ် အာ တုဲ ကလေင် ဒှ် အာ ဓါတ် သြဇာ လတူ တိ မပကဵု ညံင် ဂြိုပ် ဂွံ ဂျိုင် မာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် - စၞစ၊ ဂဥုဲ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Human Uses) ==
ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် စကာ တၞး သွက် ဘဝ လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ နကဵု ဗီုပြင် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
* '''စၞစ:''' ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် စ တၞး နဒဒှ် သၞေဝ် (Vegetables) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ကဝ်ပဳ (Cabbage)၊ ဟလောဝ် (Spinach)၊ ကေုာံ တၞး ကၞိ (Mint) ရ။
* '''အရက် ကေုာံ ဍာ်:''' တၞး လက်ဖက် (Tea leaves / ''Camellia sinensis'') ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ဍာ်လက်ဖက် မဒှ် ဍာ် မၞိဟ် သုင် ဂၠိုင် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''ဂဥုဲ (Medicine):''' တၞး နူကဵု တၞံ ဂဥုဲ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု တၞး ယူကာလေစ် (Eucalyptus) ကေုာံ အာလဝ်ဗေရာ (Aloe vera) တအ် စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်လွဳလွတ် ယဲ ရ။
* '''ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ လွပ် ဓမ္မတာ:''' ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ အာရှ ကေုာံ ရးမန်၊ တၞး ဗြာတ် (Banana leaf) ဂှ် စကာ သွက်ဂွံ ထုပ် စၞစ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကၠောန် ကပေါတ် ယေန်သၞာင် မပ္တံကဵု ခၟာဲ၊ ကေုာံ ပ္ဍဲ သာသနာ။ တၞး ဇဗၠု (Betel leaf) လေဝ် နွံ ဖဵု အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ယေန်သၞာင် မန် ကေုာံ ဒေသ အာရှ အဂၞဲ ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[တၞံ]] (Plant)
* [[ရိုဟ်]] (Root)
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ]] (Photosynthesis)
* [[ရုက္ခဗေဒ]] (Botany)
{{Navbox
| name = Botany and Plant Anatomy
| title = ရုက္ခဗေဒ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် ခန္ဓာ တၞံ (Botany and Plant Anatomy)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = အင်္ဂါ အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[တၞး]] (Leaf)
* [[ၝောအ် တၞံ]] (Stem)
* [[ရိုဟ်]] (Root)
* [[ပ္ကဴ]] (Flower)
* [[သတ်]] (Fruit)
* [[မ]] (Seed)
| group2 = ခန္ဓာဗေဒ အပ္ဍဲ
| list2 =
* [[ဇိုင်လာမ်]] (Xylem)
* [[ဖလဝ်အေမ်]] (Phloem)
* [[သတဝ်မာတာ]] (Stomata)
* [[အဳပဳဒါမစ်]] (Epidermis)
* [[ကလဝ်ရဝ်ပလာသ်]] (Chloroplast)
| group3 = ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ]] (Photosynthesis)
* [[ပရေင်တိတ် ဍာ်]] (Transpiration)
* [[ဟဝ်မုန်း တၞံ]] (Plant hormone)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[ရုက္ခဗေဒ]] (Botany)
* [[ဂေဟဗေဒ]] (Ecology)
* [[သၞေဝ်]] (Vegetable)
}}
[[Category:ရုက္ခဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ခန္ဓာဗေဒ တၞံ]]
[[Category:တၞံဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:မဝ်ဖဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]]
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ၝောအ် တၞံ
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'''ၝောအ် တၞံ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Stem'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် [[ရုက္ခဗေဒ]] (Botany) မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် အင်္ဂါ အဓိက ၜါ သာ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တၞံဆု ကေုာံ တၞံ မနွံကဵု ပလိုင် ဇွောဝ် (Vascular plants) တအ် အကြာ ၝောအ် တၞံ ကဵု ရိုဟ် (Root) ရ။ ၝောအ် တၞံ ဝွံ ဒှ် အင်္ဂါ မယိုက်ဂၠေင် လဝ် သၠ (Leaves)၊ ပ္ကဴ (Flowers) ကေုာံ သတ် (Fruits) တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ဒုင် ကေတ် လျးတ္ၚဲ ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မပလံင် ဗစိုပ် ဍာ်၊ ဓါတ် တိ (Minerals)၊ ကေုာံ စၞစ အကြာ ရိုဟ် ကဵု သၠ တအ် ရ။<ref name="raven">{{cite book |last=Raven |first=P. H. |author2=Evert, R. F. |author3=Eichhorn, S. E. |title=Biology of Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants70000pete |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=2005 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants70000pete/page/430 430]-445}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် တၞံဆု တအ် ဂှ်၊ ၝောအ် တၞံ ဝွံ ဒှ် လဒက်ပတန် မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ဘဲအန္တရာယ် ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ စၞစ ရ။ ၝောအ် တၞံ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ဗီုပြင် သွက်ဂွံ တန်သိပ် စၞစ ကေုာံ ဍာ် မပ္တံကဵု ခဒမ် တိ (Tubers) တအ် ကီု ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ၝောအ် တၞံ နကဵု လညာတ် လဒက်ပတန်၊ ခန္ဓာဗေဒ၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ်၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Woody_stem_anatomy_en.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး လဒက်ပတန် အပ္ဍဲ ၝောအ် တၞံ ဆု မနွံကဵု လေယျာ တၞဟ်ဟ် (Woody stem anatomy)။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ၝောအ် တၞံ (Stem) ဝွံ နကဵု လညာတ် သိပ္ပံ ရုက္ခဗေဒ မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် ဝင်ရိုး (Axis) အဓိက မတိုန် လပါ် လတူ အာ ဇရေင် လျးတ္ၚဲ (Phototropism) ရ။ အရာ မတၞဟ်ခြာ အိုတ် အကြာ ၝောအ် တၞံ ကဵု ရိုဟ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၝောအ် တၞံ ဝွံ နွံကဵု '''က္ဍတ်''' (Nodes) ကေုာံ '''အကြာ က္ဍတ်''' (Internodes) ရ။
* '''က္ဍတ် (Nodes):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မတိုန် တိတ် သၠ၊ ဓါင် (Branches)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပ္ကဴ။
* '''အကြာ က္ဍတ် (Internodes):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ လဒေါဝ် အကြာ က္ဍတ် ၜါ မဆက်စပ် လဝ် ရေင်သကအ်။
ၝောအ် တၞံ တအ်ဝွံ မလေပ် နွံ လတူ တိ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ၝောအ် တၞံ လ္ၚဵု ဂှ် နွံ သၟဝ် တိ မပ္တံကဵု တၞံ ခါင် ကဵု မဗြာတ် (Rhizomes and bulbs) တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ရုက္ခဗေဒ (History and Botanical Studies) ==
ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် လတူ ၝောအ် တၞံ ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ (Ancient Greece) လက်ထက် တၠပညာ သဳအဝ်ဖရာတ်တပ် (Theophrastus) မဒှ် ညးမခၞံဗဒှ် ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် ရုက္ခဗေဒ ပထမအိုတ် ရ။ ညး ပါ်ခြာ လဝ် ဂကူ တၞံဆု တအ် နကဵု ဗီုပြင် ၝောအ် တၞံ မပ္တံကဵု တၞံဆု ဇၞော် (Trees)၊ တၞံဆု ဍောတ် (Shrubs) ကေုာံ တၞံ ယောမ် (Herbs) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ကြဴနူ မာန် ခၞံဗဒှ် မိုက်ခရဝ်သကုပ် (Microscope) တုဲ၊ တၠပညာ မပ္တံကဵု Marcello Malpighi ကေုာံ Nehemiah Grew တအ် လ္ၚတ် ဆဵု လဒက်ပတန် အပ္ဍဲ ၝောအ် တၞံ မပ္တံကဵု ပလိုင် ဍာ် ကေုာံ ပလိုင် စၞ တအ် ရ။<ref name="esau">{{cite book |last=Esau |first=K. |title=Anatomy of Seed Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/anatomyofseedpla0002esau |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=1977 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyofseedpla0002esau/page/150 150]-165}}</ref>
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် ခန္ဓာဗေဒ (Anatomy and Structure) ==
လဒက်ပတန် ၝောအ် တၞံ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု လေယျာ တိရှူး (Tissues) အဓိက ပိ သာ် ရ -
# '''လေယျာမ္ၚး (Epidermis):''' ဒှ် လေယျာ စၞာံ မ္ၚး အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ဍာ် ဇကဟ် (Water loss) ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ စၟယဲ တအ်။
# '''လေယျာလဒေါဝ် (Cortex):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မတန်သိပ် စၞစ (Starch) ကေုာံ ကဵု ဒြဟတ် ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ကု တၞံ။
# '''လေယျာပလိုင် (Vascular Tissue):''' ဏအ်ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် တုဲ ပါ်လဝ် ၜါ -
* '''ဇိုင်လာမ် (Xylem):''' ဒှ် ပလိုင် မဇွောဝ် ဍာ် ကေုာံ ဓါတ်တိ နူ ရိုဟ် တိုန် အာ စိုပ် သၠ။
* '''ဖလဝ်အေမ် (Phloem):''' ဒှ် ပလိုင် မဇွောဝ် စၞစ (သဂြာ) မကၠောန် လဝ် နူ သၠ စှ်ေ အာ ဇရေင် ရိုဟ် ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ တၞဟ် တအ်။
== ၄။ ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ တာလျိုင် အဓိက (Functions and Primary Roles) ==
ၝောအ် တၞံ နွံကဵု တာလျိုင် ဇၞော် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လမျီု တၞံဆု ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ထံက်ပင် (Support):''' ယိုက်ဂၠေင် သၠ ညံင် ဂွံ ဒုင် ကေတ် လျးတ္ၚဲ ဍိုက်ဍိုက်ပေင်ပေင် သွက် ပရေင်ကၠောန်စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ (Photosynthesis)။
* '''ပရေင်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် (Transport):''' ပလံင် ဍာ် ကေုာံ စၞစ အကြာ ရိုဟ် ကဵု သၠ။
* '''ပရေင်တန်သိပ် (Storage):''' တၞံ လ္ၚဵု တအ် (ဥပမာ - တၞံ တ္ၜဴ) တန်သိပ် လဝ် ဍာ် ကေုာံ ဓါတ် သဂြာ ပ္ဍဲ ၝောအ် တၞံ ညံင် ဂွံ ဂျိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဥတု ကသီု။
* '''ပရေင်ကၠောန်စၞ (Photosynthesis):''' ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၝောအ် တၞံ သၚေက် (ဥပမာ - တၞံ ခတဵုကၟာ်) တအ် ဂှ်၊ ၝောအ် တၞံ သီု ကၠောန် စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ မာန် ကီု ရ။
== ၅။ ဂကူ ၝောအ် တၞံ ဂမၠိုင် (Types of Stems) ==
ၝောအ် တၞံ တအ်ဝွံ နွံ နကဵု ဂကူ နာနာ သာ် အတိုင် အကာဲအရာ မတန်တဴ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ၝောအ် တၞံ နာနာ
|-
! ဂကူ ၝောအ် တၞံ
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ ဗီုပြင်
! ဥပမာ တၞံ
|-
| '''ၝောအ် တၞံ လတူ ကျာ (Aerial stems)'''
| ၝောအ် တၞံ မတိုန် လတူ တိ တပ်တပ်၊ နွံကဵု ၝောအ်ဆု ကေုာံ ၝောအ် ယောမ်။
| တၞံ ဆု၊ တၞံ သြောအ်၊ တၞံ က္ၜဴ။
|-
| '''ၝောအ် တၞံ သၟဝ် တိ (Underground stems)'''
| ၝောအ် တၞံ မတိုန် သၟဝ် တိ သွက်ဂွံ တန်သိပ် စၞ တုဲ မလေပ် ကလေင် တိုန် ၝောအ် တၟိ မာန်။
| တၞံ ခါင် (Rhizome)၊ တၞံ ကဥ (Tuber)၊ မဗြာတ် (Bulb)။
|-
| '''ၝောအ် တၞံ ခမောံ (Creeping stems)'''
| ၝောအ် တၞံ မလာမ် အာ လတူ တိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တၞံ မတိုန် လတူ တၞံ တၞဟ်။
| တၞံ ဖရုံ၊ တၞံ ဗင်ယာ (Strawberry)၊ တၞံ တသုန်။
|}
== ၆။ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ (Growth and Modifications) ==
ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ၝောအ် တၞံ ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် ၜါ သာ် -
# '''ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပထမ (Primary Growth):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်တိုန် သၠုင် ဇမၠိင် ၝောအ် တၞံ နူကဵု ကၞောတ် တၞံ (Apical meristem) ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် တၞံ ဂွံ သၠုင် တိုန်။
# '''ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဒုတိယ (Secondary Growth):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်ဇၞော် တိုန် ဇမၞော် ၝောအ် တၞံ လပါ် ဇမၠိင် အနာံ နကဵု လေယျာ ကေမ်ဗဳယောမ် (Cambium) ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် တၞံဆု တအ် ဂွံ ဇၞော် တုဲ ကတဵုဒှ် သၞောဝ် လဝိုင် ဆု (Tree rings) ဇၟာပ် သၞာံ ရ။<ref name="mauseth">{{cite book |last=Mauseth |first=J. D. |title=Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/botanyintroducti0000maus_c9i1 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |year=2014 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/botanyintroducti0000maus_c9i1/page/180 180]-195}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဇဳဝကမ္မဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဓါတ် (Physiology and Nutrients Transport) ==
ပရေင်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ် ဍာ် အပ္ဍဲ ၝောအ် တၞံ ဂှ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ '''သဳအိုရဳ ဓရိုဟ် ပရေင်တံင် (Cohesion-Tension Theory)''' ရ။ ကာလ ဍာ် ဇကဟ် တိတ် နူ သၠ (Transpiration) မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ဒြဟတ် မတံင် ကေတ် ဍာ် နူကဵု ရိုဟ် တိုန် အာ လပါ် လတူ နူကဵု ပလိုင် ဇိုင်လာမ် ရ။
သွက် ပရေင်ပလံင် စၞစ (သဂြာ) ဂှ်၊ ပလိုင် ဖလဝ်အေမ် စကာ ဒြဟတ် ဖိအား (Pressure Flow Hypothesis) သွက်ဂွံ ပလံင် သဂြာ နူကဵု သၠ (ဒၞာဲ မကၠောန်) အာ စိုပ် ဇရေင် ခဒမ်၊ ရိုဟ်၊ ကေုာံ သတ် (ဒၞာဲ မတန်သိပ်) ရ။<ref name="taiz">{{cite book |last=Taiz |first=L. |author2=Zeiger, E. |title=Plant Physiology |url=https://archive.org/details/plantphysiology0000taiz |publisher=Sinauer Associates |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plantphysiology0000taiz/page/250 250]-265}}</ref>
== ၈။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economic and Human Uses) ==
ၝောအ် တၞံ ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဖဵု ဇၞော်မောဝ် သွက် ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ် နာနာ သာ် ရ -
* '''ဆု ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် သြိုင်ခၞံ (Timber and Construction):''' ၝောအ် တၞံ ဆု ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် ကပေါတ် သြိုင် သ္ၚိ ကေုာံ ကၠောန် ကပေါတ် သ္ၚိဌာန် (Furniture)။
* '''စၞစ (Food):''' ၝောအ် တၞံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု တၞံ ကဥ (Potato)၊ တၞံ က္ၜဴ (Sugarcane)၊ ကေုာံ တၞံ ခါင် တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် စၞစ အဓိက သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ရ။
* '''ဇုက် ကေုာံ လေယျာ (Fibers):''' တၞံ လ္ၚဵု မပ္တံကဵု တၞံ နှာဲ (Jute) ကေုာံ ပိုက် (Flax) တအ်ဝွံ ကဵု ဇုက် ခိုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ယာတ် ကေုာံ တိုင် ဇုက်။
* '''ဂဥုဲ (Medicine):''' ၝောအ် တၞံ လ္ၚဵု (ဥပမာ - ၝောအ် ဆု သဳနချောနာ / Cinchona) တအ်ဝွံ ပတိတ် ဂဥုဲ သွက်ဂွံ လွဳ ယဲ ဇဳဖျူ (Malaria) ရ။
== ၉။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (Ecological Importance) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ဂေဟဗေဒ (Ecosystem) မ္ဂး၊ ၝောအ် တၞံ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဌာန် တန်တဴ သွက် တိရစ္ဆာန် နာနာ သာ် ရ (ဥပမာ - ကဝေင် ဂစေမ်၊ တိရစ္ဆာန် မမံင် လတူ ဆု)။
တုဲပၠန် ၝောအ် တၞံ ဆု (Woody stems) တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မတန်သိပ် လဝ် ဓါတ် ကာဗောန် (Carbon sink) အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ပရေင်တန်သိပ် ကာဗောန် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ယှောတ်ဖအောန် ဓါတ် ဂျိ ပ္ဍဲ လတူ အကာသ ကေုာံ ရီုဗင် ထိင်ဒဝ် ပြသၞာ ရာသဳဥတု ပြံင်လှာဲ (Climate change) မာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်သုတေသန (Future and Research) ==
သုတေသန ခေတ်တၟိ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရုက္ခဗေဒ ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗဳဇ ၝောအ် တၞံ (Genetic engineering of stems) သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် တၞံ မမာန် ဒစးဒုင် ယဲ ကေုာံ အခိင် ကသီု ဍာ် အောန် (Drought resistance) ရ။
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပရေင်စကာ ၝောအ် တၞံ တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် ဒြဟတ် ပၟတ် ဇဳဝ (Biofuels) မပ္တံကဵု Ethanol နူ တၞံ က္ၜဴ ကေုာံ သြောအ် လေဝ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် ဒၟံင် ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် အနာဂတ် မ္ဂး၊ ၝောအ် တၞံ ဝွံ ဆက် ဒှ် ဒၟံင် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် မကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက် ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် သဘာဝ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ရောင်။<ref name="simpson">{{cite book |last=Simpson |first=M. G. |title=Plant Systematics |url=https://archive.org/details/plantsystematics0000simp |publisher=Academic Press |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plantsystematics0000simp/page/85 85]-98}}</ref>
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ရုက္ခဗေဒ]] (Botany)
* [[သၠ]] (Leaf)
* [[ရိုဟ်]] (Root)
* [[ပရေင်ကၠောန်စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ]] (Photosynthesis)
{{Navbox
| name = Plant anatomy
| title = ခန္ဓာဗေဒ တၞံ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် (Plant Anatomy and Structure)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = အင်္ဂါ အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ရိုဟ်]] (Root)
* [[ၝောအ် တၞံ]] (Stem)
* [[သၠ]] (Leaf)
* [[ပ္ကဴ]] (Flower)
* [[သတ်]] (Fruit)
| group2 = လေယျာ တိရှူး အပ္ဍဲ
| list2 =
* [[ဇိုင်လာမ်]] (Xylem)
* [[ဖလဝ်အေမ်]] (Phloem)
* [[လေယျာမ္ၚး]] (Epidermis)
* [[ကေမ်ဗဳယောမ်]] (Cambium)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ရုက္ခဗေဒ]] (Botany)
* [[ပရေင်ကၠောန်စၞ နကဵု လျးတ္ၚဲ]] (Photosynthesis)
* [[တၞံ မနွံကဵု ပလိုင် ဇွောဝ်]] (Vascular plant)
}}
[[Category:ရုက္ခဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ခန္ဓာဗေဒ တၞံဆု]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သဘာဝ]]
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'''တိလက္ခဏ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''လက္ခဏ ပိသာ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Three marks of existence'', ပါဠိ: Ti-lakkhaṇa, သံသကြိုတ်: Trilakṣaṇa) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒဿန ကေုာံ သာသနာ [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် သဘဴဓရ် အဓိက မထ္ၜးကဵု အကာဲအရာ ဍာံပြ သွက် အလုံ ရုပ်နာမ် သၚ်္ခါရ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ တိလက္ခဏ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု လက္ခဏ ပိ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး - '''အနိစ္စ''' (ဟွံဗိုန်)၊ '''ဒုက္ခ''' (ဒဒိုက်)၊ ကေုာံ '''အနတ္တ''' (ဟွံသေင် ဇကုဇကောဝ် ဟွံသေင် အတ္တ) ရ။
အရာ မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵု (သၚ်္ခါရ) သီုဖအိုတ် ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် စဳရင် လဝ် နကဵု လက္ခဏ ပိ သာ် ဏအ် လၟိုန် ရ။ ညးမလျိုင်ပတှ်ေ သာသနာကျာ် တအ် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် လတူ တိလက္ခဏ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞးကေတ် လတူ အဝိဇ္ဇာ (Avijja) တုဲ သွက်ဂွံ စိုပ် ဌာန် ဒတန် နိဗ္ဗာန် (Nirvana) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မဟွံမဲ ကု ဒဒိုက် ရ။<ref name="rahula">{{cite book |last=Rahula |first=W. |title=What the Buddha Taught |url=https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp |publisher=Grove Press |year=1974 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp/page/51 51]-65}}</ref>
လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ တိလက္ခဏ နကဵု လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ၊ ဒဿန၊ သြဇာ လတူ လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ဝိပဿနာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Dharmacakra.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဓမ္မစက် (Dharmachakra) မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ သာသနာကျာ် မထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဂေတ် အာ သံသာ ကေုာံ သဘဴဓရ် တိလက္ခဏ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "တိလက္ခဏ" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် ပါဠိ "တိ" (ပိ) ကေုာံ "လက္ခဏ" (စၟတ်သမ္တီ / အရာမထ္ၜးပျး) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသနာ ကျာ်တြဲ ဂေါတမ ဂှ်၊ တိလက္ခဏ ဝွံ ဒှ် သဘဴဓရ် သဘာဝ မကတဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် အလဵုအလဵု ဍေဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဇကဝလာ (Universe) ဏအ် ရ။
အတိုင် လိက် ဓမ္မပဒ (Dhammapada) မ္ဂး ကျာ်တြဲ ဟီုတွံ လဝ် -
* "သဗ္ဗေ သၚ်္ခါရာ အနိစ္စာ" (အရာမဒက်ပတန်လဝ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံဗိုန်)
* "သဗ္ဗေ သၚ်္ခါရာ ဒုက္ခာ" (အရာမဒက်ပတန်လဝ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒှ် ဒဒိုက်)
* "သဗ္ဗေ ဓမ္မာ အနတ္တာ" (သဘဴဓရ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဟွံသေင် အတ္တ)
တင်သမ္တီ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ ဏအ် ဂှ် သွက် အနတ္တ မ္ဂး ကျာ် စကာ လဝ် ဝေါဟာရ "ဓမ္မာ" (Dhamma) မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် သီုကဵု အရာ မဟွံဒက်ပတန်လဝ် (အသၚ်္ခတ - မပ္တံကဵု နိဗ္ဗာန်) ရ။ နိဗ္ဗာန် ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ တိတ်ဗၠး နူ အနိစ္စ ကဵု ဒုက္ခ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် လေဝ် ဒှ် အနတ္တ သၟး ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=P. |title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |pages=52-57}}</ref>
== ၂။ အနိစ္စ: အရာဟွံဗိုန် (Anicca: Impermanence) ==
အနိစ္စ (Anicca) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သဘဴဓရ် "ဟွံဗိုန်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "မပြံင်လှာဲ ဒၟံင် လၟိုန်" ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ အရာ မနွံ လတူ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် သီုဖအိုတ် — စတမ် နူကဵု ကလာပ်ရုပ် ဍောတ်အိုတ် (Atoms) စဵုကဵု ဂြိုဟ် ဇကဝလာ ဇၞော်အိုတ် — တအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ်၊ တန်တဴ တုဲမ္ဂး လီုလာ် အာ လၟိုန် ရ (ဥပ္ပါဒ၊ ဌိ၊ ဘၚ်)။
ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ပိုယ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် လေဝ် ကလာပ်ရုပ် သဲလ် တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒၟံင် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် စက္က ရ။ အာရီု၊ စိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် တအ် လေဝ် ကတဵုဒှ် တုဲ လီု အာ ပြဟ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု မၞိဟ် တအ် ဟွံကၠိုဟ် သဘဴ အနိစ္စ ဏအ် တုဲ မာန် ၜက် စောဲလာမ် (Upadana) လတူ အရာ မလီုလာ် မာန် တအ် ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍေဟ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ဒဒိုက် ရ။
== ၃။ ဒုက္ခ: အရာဒဒိုက် (Dukkha: Suffering or Dissatisfactoriness) ==
ဒုက္ခ (Dukkha) ဝွံ နကဵု ဝေါဟာရ ဓမ္မတာ မ္ဂး ကၠာဲ လဝ် "ဒဒိုက်" (Suffering) ကီုလေဝ်၊ အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဍေဟ် မဇြိုဟ်နက် ဂှ် ဒှ် "အရာ မဟွံဍိုက်ပေင်" (Dissatisfactoriness) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "အရာ မဟွံဂွံ ဗီု စိုတ်" ရ။
ဒုက္ခ နွံ ပိ သာ် အဓိက -
# '''ဒုက္ခဒုက္ခ (Dukkha-dukkha):''' ဒဒိုက် ပကတိ မပ္တံကဵု ယဲ၊ ဇရာ၊ စုတိ၊ ကေုာံ ဂိသကေဝ် လတူ ခန္ဓာ။
# '''ဝိပရိဏာမဒုက္ခ (Viparinama-dukkha):''' ဒဒိုက် မကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ။ တသိုက် မပိုယ် ကလိဂွံ လၟုဟ် ဝွံ ဟိုတ်နူ ဟွံဗိုန် (အနိစ္စ) တုဲ ကာလ ဍေဟ် လီု အာ မ္ဂး ဒှ် ကၠုင် ဒဒိုက် ရ။
# '''သၚ်္ခါရဒုက္ခ (Sankhara-dukkha):''' ဒဒိုက် မကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ဒက်ပတန်။ ခန္ဓာ မသုန် (Rupa, Vedana, Sanna, Sankhara, Vinnana) ဝွံ အလဵုအလဵု ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဒၟံင် ဒၞာဲ ဒတန် ဒဒိုက် ရ။<ref name="bodhi">{{cite book |last=Bodhi |first=Bhikkhu |title=The Connected Discourses of the Buddha |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year=2000 |pages=840-845}}</ref>
== ၄။ အနတ္တ: အရာဟွံသေင်ဇကု (Anatta: Non-self) ==
အနတ္တ (Anatta) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သဘဴဓရ် မထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ "အရာ မဒှ် အတ္တ၊ ဝိညာဏ် မဗိုန်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဇကုဇကောဝ် မဍာံပြ ဂှ် ဟွံမဲ" ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် လညာတ် မတၞဟ်ခြာ အိုတ် အကြာ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ ကဵု သာသနာ ဟိန္ဒူ (မပတှ်ေ လတူ အတ္တ - Atman) ရ။
ကျာ်တြဲ ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် ကေုာံ စိုတ် ပိုယ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဆ ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ခန္ဓာ မသုန် ပြကာ သၟး ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာ မသုန် ဂှ် အရာလဵု မွဲ လေဝ် ပိုယ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေတ် "ဏအ်ဂှ် အဲ ရ၊ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဇကု အဲ ရ" သာ်ဏအ် ဟွံမာန် ပုဟ်။ ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ်တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒၟံင် တုဲ ပိုယ် ထိင်ဒဝ် ကေတ် အတိုင် ပၟိက် စိုတ် ပိုယ် ဟွံဂွံ (ဥပမာ - ထိင် ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ဗျု ဟွံမာန်)။ ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်စောဲလာမ် လတူ "အဲ" (Ego / Self-illusion) ဏအ် ဂှ်ရ ကတဵုဗဒှ် လဝ် လောဘ၊ ဒေါသ ကေုာံ ဒဒိုက် ဂမၠိုင် ရ။
== ၅။ ဆက်စပ် ကု ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ် (Connection to Dependent Origination) ==
တိလက္ခဏ ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ဍိုက်ဍိုက်ပေင်ပေင် ကု သဘဴဓရ် '''[[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]]''' (Paticcasamuppada - Dependent Origination) ရ။ ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ် ဂှ် ထ္ၜးကဵု ဗီုလဵု အရာ သီုဖအိုတ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူ ဟိုတ် (Causes) ကေုာံ ဖဵု (Conditions) မဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု အရာ သီုဖအိုတ် တန်တဴ လတူ ဟိုတ် တၞဟ် တုဲ (ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်)၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဟွံမာန် တန်တဴ နကဵု အလဵုအလဵု ဍေဟ် (အနတ္တ)၊ ကာလ ဟိုတ် တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ မ္ဂး ဖဵု လေဝ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဗက် အာ ကီု ရ (အနိစ္စ)။ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ကေုာံ ဟွံဗိုန် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ဒဒိုက် ကု ညးမစောဲလာမ် တအ် ရ (ဒုက္ခ)။<ref name="gombrich">{{cite book |last=Gombrich |first=R. F. |title=Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo |url=https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis0000gomb |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis0000gomb/page/47 47]-50}}</ref>
== ၆။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဝိပဿနာ (Application in Vipassana Meditation) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်ကတ်လ္ၚတ် ဓဝ် '''[[ဝိပဿနာ]]''' (Vipassana Meditation) မ္ဂး၊ အာရီု အဓိက ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ကေုာံ ဆဵု ဂွံ တိလက္ခဏ ပ္ဍဲ ခန္ဓာ ဇကု နကဵု ညာဏ် ရ။
* ကာလ သမ္တီ (Sati) တန်တဴ လတူ ဓါတ်ကျာ ယီု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် (Vedana) မ္ဂး၊ ညးမကၠောန် ဓဝ် တအ် ဆဵု ကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ အရာ တအ်ဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ် တုဲ လီု အာ ပြဟ် ဗွဲမလောန် (ဆဵု အနိစ္စ)။
* ကာလ ဆဵု အရာ မလီုလာ် ပြဟ် ဏအ် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ကၠိုဟ် ကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ ဏအ်ဂှ် အရာ မကဵု တသိုက် ဟွံသေင် (ဆဵု ဒုက္ခ)။
* တုဲမ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ဆဵု ကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ အရာ တအ်ဏအ် ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် အတိုင် သဘာဝ ဍေဟ် တုဲ "အဲ" မထိင်ဒဝ် ဒၟံင် ဂှ် ဟွံမဲ (ဆဵု အနတ္တ)။
ပရေင်ဆဵုညာတ် နကဵု ဝိပဿနာ ညာဏ် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် စိုတ် ဂွံ ဖျေဟ် လွပ် (Detachment) တုဲ မာန် စိုပ် အာ နိဗ္ဗာန် ရ။
== ၇။ လညာတ် ထေရဝါဒ ကေုာံ မဟာယာန (Theravada and Mahayana Perspectives) ==
တိလက္ခဏ ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ဂိုဏ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ သီုဖအိုတ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်အာရီုစွံ ဍေဟ် နွံ လညာတ် တၞဟ်ခြာ ညိည ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ ထေရဝါဒ ကဵု မဟာယာန လတူ တိလက္ခဏ
|-
! ဂိုဏ် (Tradition)
! ပရေင်အာရီုစွံ (Focus)
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Interpretation)
|-
| '''ထေရဝါဒ''' (Theravada)
| လ္ၚတ် လက္ခဏ ပိ သာ် သွက်ဂွံ တိတ်ဗၠး နူ သံသာ။
| အနတ္တ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ လညာတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပါ်ကရေက် ခန္ဓာ မသုန် ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ စောဲလာမ် လတူ "အဲ"။
|-
| '''မဟာယာန''' (Mahayana)
| လ္ၚတ် အနတ္တ ကေုာံ သုညတ (Sunyata - Emptiness)။
| အနတ္တ ဂှ် လှဲလး အာ စဵုကဵု "သုညတ" မဒှ် သဘဴဓရ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဓမ္မ သီုဖအိုတ် ဝွံ အလဵုအလဵု ဍေဟ် သၠး (Empty of inherent existence) ဒၟံင် ရ။
|}
== ၈။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဒဿန ကေုာံ စိုတ်ဗေဒ (Impact on Philosophy and Psychology) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ လညာတ် တိလက္ခဏ ဝွံ သြဇာ လုပ် စိုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒဿန ရးပလိုတ် ကေုာံ စိုတ်ဗေဒ (Psychology) ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ တၠပညာ စိုတ်ဗေဒ မပ္တံကဵု ဝဳလဳယောမ် ဂျိမ်း (William James) တအ် လ္ၚတ် လဝ် သၞောတ် "Stream of consciousness" မတုပ် ကဵု လညာတ် အနိစ္စ ကေုာံ ဝိညာဏ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ ရ။
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပရေင်လွဳလွတ် ယဲ စိုတ် ခေတ်တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) တအ် လေဝ် စကာ သဇိုင် ဝိပဿနာ သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု မၞိဟ်ယဲ တအ် ကၠိုဟ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဝေဒနာ ကေုာံ စိုတ်ဍိုန်လျ (Depression) တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မဟွံဗိုန် (အနိစ္စ) တုဲ ဟွံသေင် ကဵု ဇကု ဍာံ (အနတ္တ) ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ညးတအ် ဂွံ တိတ်ဗၠး နူ ဒဒိုက် စိုတ် (ဒုက္ခ) ပြဟ် ရ။<ref name="nyanaponika">{{cite book |last=Nyanaponika Thera |title=The Heart of Buddhist Meditation |publisher=Weiser Books |year=1998 |pages=35-42}}</ref>
== ၉။ တိလက္ခဏ ပ္ဍဲ လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Ti-lakkhana in Literature and Culture) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ယေန်သၞာင် ဂကူမန် ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် မန် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ မ္ဂး၊ သဘဴဓရ် တိလက္ခဏ ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပြာကတ် ဒၟံင် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။ လိက် ကဗျ မန် တြေံ (ဥပမာ - လိက် လၟေတ်၊ လိက် သုတ်ဇာတ်) တအ် ဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ချူ လဝ် ဇမန် ကဗျ မကဵု သတိ လတူ အနိစ္စ သၚ်္ခါရ ဂမၠိုင် ရ။
ကာလ နွံ ပရေင်စုတိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပေါဲ ကမ္မဋ္ဌာန် (Funerals) ပ္ဍဲ ကွာန် မန် တအ် မ္ဂး၊ ခမဳ သၚ် တအ် မလေပ် ဖ္ဍောတ် "အနိစ္စာ ဝတ သၚ်္ခါရာ" (သၚ်္ခါရ တအ် ဟွံဗိုန် ဍာံစၟတ် ရ) သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု သတိ ကု ညးမဂျိုင် ဒၟံင် တအ် ဒဒှ်ရ လမျီု ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မလီုလာ် ပြဟ် ရ။ ယေန်သၞာင် ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တအ် ဂွံ နွံကဵု စိုတ် ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ကေုာံ ဂံင် ဒုင် ကေတ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ မာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ တင်သရုပ် ကေုာံ သြဇာ လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Conclusion and Societal Influence) ==
တိလက္ခဏ ဝွံ ဒှ် ကောန်သော့ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ပံက် တြင် ဓဝ် ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် (Enlightenment) ပ္ဍဲ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓ ရ။ သဘဴဓရ် အနိစ္စ၊ ဒုက္ခ၊ ကေုာံ အနတ္တ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ လညာတ် ဒဿန သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အကာဲအရာ ဍာံပြ မကတဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ လမျီု ပိုယ် လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ ရ။
နကဵု ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လတူ လက္ခဏ ပိ သာ် ဏအ်၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် မာန် ဖျေဟ် ထောအ် ပရေင်စောဲလာမ် လတူ ခန္ဓာ၊ လတူ ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ကေုာံ လတူ အတ္တ ဇကု တုဲ မာန် ကလိဂွံ ဓဝ် တသိုက် စိုတ် မၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် (Peace of mind) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် မပြံင်လှာဲ ပြဟ် ဒၟံင် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဒေသနာ တိလက္ခဏ ဝွံ ဆက် ဒှ် ဒၟံင် ဂဥုဲ မလွဳလွတ် ဒဒိုက် စိုတ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] (Buddhism)
* [[ဝိပဿနာ]] (Vipassana)
* [[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]] (Dependent Origination)
* [[သၚ်္ခါရ]] (Sankhara)
{{Navbox
| name = Buddhism
| title = လညာတ် ကေုာံ ဒဿန အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Core Concepts in Buddhism)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = တိလက္ခဏ (Three Marks)
| list1 =
* [[အနိစ္စ]] (Anicca)
* [[ဒုက္ခ]] (Dukkha)
* [[အနတ္တ]] (Anatta)
| group2 = သစ္စ ပန် (Four Noble Truths)
| list2 =
* [[ဒုက္ခ သစ္စ]] (Dukkha)
* [[သမုဒယ သစ္စ]] (Samudaya)
* [[နိရောဓ သစ္စ]] (Nirodha)
* [[မဂ္ဂ သစ္စ]] (Magga)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ပဋိစ္စသမုပ္ပါဒ်]] (Dependent Origination)
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] (Nirvana)
* [[ခန္ဓာ မသုန်]] (Five Skandhas)
* [[ဝိပဿနာ]] (Vipassana)
}}
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဒဿန ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:ဓဝ် ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
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သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ
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'''သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Right Action'', ပါဠိ: Sammā-kammanta) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် [[ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]] မ္ဂး၊ ဒှ် "ပွမကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မဒးရး" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ မစိုပ်တရဴ" မွဲ ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အင်္ဂ မရနုက်ကဵု ပန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု '''[[မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ်]]''' (Noble Eightfold Path) မဒှ် ဂၠံင်တရဴ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ တိတ် ဗၠး နူကဵု ဒဒိုက် သံသာ ကေုာံ ဇက်ဂၠောဲ အာ ဇရေင် [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] (Nirvana) ရ။ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ "သဳလ" (Sīla - Morality/Ethical conduct) တုဲ ဍေဟ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ကာယ ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် သွက် ဇကု ကေုာံ ညးတၞဟ် ရ။<ref name="bodhi">{{cite book |last=Bodhi |first=Bhikkhu |title=The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |year=1999 |pages=45-52}}</ref>
အဓိက တင်ရန်တၟအ် သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး ပွမကၠောန် အကုသိုလ် နကဵု ကာယ ပိ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး - ပွမဂစိုတ် လမျီု၊ ပွမကၠတ် ဂြပ်ညး၊ ကေုာံ ပွမဒ္ဂေတ် မေထုန် ဟွံဗဗွဲဓဝ် တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ နကဵု လညာတ် ပါဠိ၊ လဒက်ပတန် သဳလ၊ အကြောင်းအရာ အဓိက၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ လၟေင်တ္ၚဲ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Dharma_Wheel.svg|thumb|right|300px|စက်ဓရ် (Dharma Wheel) မနွံကဵု ခဍောင် ဒစာံ မစၞောန်ထ္ၜး ကု မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ် ပ္ဍဲ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ၊ မတွဟ်ဂး သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ကဏ္ဍ သဳလ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ" ဝွံ ဒှ် မလိက် ပါဠိ မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် အကြာ မလိက် ၜါ မတွဟ်ဂး "သမ္မာ" (Sammā) ကေုာံ "ကမ္မန္တ" (Kammanta) ရ။
* '''သမ္မာ (Sammā):''' မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "မဒးရး"၊ "မဍိုက်ပေင်"၊ "မဍာံပြ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "မစိုပ်တရဴ"။
* '''ကမ္မန္တ (Kammanta):''' မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ကမၠောန်"၊ "ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ကာယ"။
ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ကာယ မဒးရး၊ မဟွံကဵု ဘဲအန္တရာယ် ကု ညးတၞဟ် တုဲ မဒှ် ဟိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။ ဗုဒ္ဓမြတ် တြဲ ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ မဒးရး ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် စိုတ် ညံင် ဂွံ တန်ကြန် (Samadhi) ကေုာံ ကလိဂွံ ညာဏ် ပညာ (Panna) မာန် ရ။<ref name="rahula">{{cite book |last=Rahula |first=Walpola |title=What the Buddha Taught |url=https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp |publisher=Grove Press |year=1974 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whatbuddhataught00walp/page/47 47]-49}}</ref>
== ၂။ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ပ္ဍဲ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ် (Samma Kammanta in the Noble Eightfold Path) ==
မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ် (Noble Eightfold Path) ဝွံ ဒှ် တရဴ မစၞောန်ထ္ၜး လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ '''[[ဓမ္မစက္ကပဝတ္တနသုတ်]]''' (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta) တုဲ ဍေဟ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ကဏ္ဍ ဇၞော် ပိ သာ် ရ။ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ သဳလ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ် ကေုာံ ကဏ္ဍ သဳလ
|-
! ကဏ္ဍ (Division)
! မဂ္ဂင် (Path Factor)
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Meaning)
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''ပညာ (Paññā)'''
| ၁။ သမ္မာဒိဋ္ဌိ (Sammā-diṭṭhi)
| လညာတ် မဒးရး
|-
| ၂။ သမ္မာသင်္ကပ္ပ (Sammā-saṅkappa)
| ကသပ် မဒးရး
|-
| rowspan="3" style="background-color: #eaf3ff;" | '''သဳလ (Sīla)'''
| ၃။ သမ္မာဝါစာ (Sammā-vācā)
| လဟီု မဒးရး
|-
| style="background-color: #cce5ff;" | '''၄။ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ (Sammā-kammanta)'''
| style="background-color: #cce5ff;" | '''ကမၠောန်/ဒ္ဂေတ် မဒးရး'''
|-
| ၅။ သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ (Sammā-ājīva)
| ဂယိုင်လမျီု မဒးရး
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''သမာဓိ (Samādhi)'''
| ၆။ သမ္မာဝါယာမ (Sammā-vāyāma)
| ပရေင်လွဳ မဒးရး
|-
| ၇။ သမ္မာသတိ (Sammā-sati)
| သတိ မဒးရး
|-
| ၈။ သမ္မာသမာဓိ (Sammā-samādhi)
| စိုတ်တန်ကြန် မဒးရး
|}
အတိုင် သ္ၚိအင် လတူ ဏအ် မ္ဂး၊ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ မံင် အကြာ သမ္မာဝါစာ ကဵု သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ ရ။ အရာ ပိ ဏအ်ဝွံ ပံင်ကောံ တုဲ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် "သဳလ" မဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ မူလ သွက် မၞိဟ် မလျိုင်ပတှ်ေ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
== ၃။ အင်္ဂ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ပိသာ် (Three Components of Right Action) ==
အတိုင် လိက် ပိဋကတ် ပါဠိ မ္ဂး၊ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး (Abstinence) ပွမကၠောန် ဟွံခိုဟ် နကဵု ကာယ ပိ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး -
# '''ပါဏာတိပါတာ ဝေရမဏိ:''' ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး ပွမဂစိုတ် လမျီု (Abstaining from taking life)။
# '''အဒိန္နာဒါနာ ဝေရမဏိ:''' ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး ပွမကၠတ် ဂြပ်ညး (Abstaining from taking what is not given)။
# '''ကာမေသု မိစ္ဆာစာရာ ဝေရမဏိ:''' ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး ပွမဒ္ဂေတ် မေထုန် ဟွံဗဗွဲဓဝ် (Abstaining from sexual misconduct)။
အရာ ပိ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် သကုတ် သဳလ မသုန် (Pancasila) မဒှ် သၞောဝ် ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ အဓိက သွက် ခရှ် (Laypeople) တအ် လၟေင်တ္ၚဲ ရ။ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် သီုကဵု လဟဵု ပတိုန် ညံင် ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မကဵု ဖဵုခိုဟ် ဥပမာ - ပရေင်ဆာန်ဍူ (Metta)၊ ပရေင်ရီုဗင်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ရှေ်သှေ် ရဴဂဴ လတူ ညးတၞဟ် တအ် ရ။
== ၄။ ပါဏာတိပါတာ ဝေရမဏိ - ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး ပွမဂစိုတ် လမျီု (Abstaining from Killing) ==
အင်္ဂ ပထမ အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး နူကဵု ပွမပလီုပလာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂစိုတ် လမျီု ညးတၞဟ် ရ။ တင် ဏအ်ဝွံ လဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ လညာတ် အဟိံသ (Ahimsa - Non-violence) ကေုာံ မေတ္တာ ကရုဏာ (Loving-kindness and Compassion) ရ။
* '''တင်ရန်တၟအ်:''' သတ် မဂျိုင် လမျီု သီုဖအိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ တိရစ္ဆာန် တအ် ဂှ် ဖေက် ဘဲ ဂစိုတ် ကေုာံ နွံ ပၟိက် မိက်ဂွံ ဂျိုင် အာ လမျီု သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ယဝ်ရ ပိုယ် ဟွံဒးဂၞပ် ဘဲ ဂစိုတ် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတၞဟ် လေဝ် ဟွံဒးဂၞပ် ကီု ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လပါ် ခိုဟ်:''' ပါဲနူ ပရေင်ဟွံဂစိုတ် တုဲ၊ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ ဗတောန် ကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ မင်မဲ လမျီု ညးတၞဟ်၊ ညံင် ဂွံ ရီုဗင် သတ် မဒးဒုင် ဍဵုဍိုက် ကေုာံ လွဳလွတ် ညး ယဲဒိုက် တအ် ရ။<ref name="keown">{{cite book |last=Keown |first=Damien |title=The Nature of Buddhist Ethics |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=1992 |pages=65-70}}</ref>
== ၅။ အဒိန္နာဒါနာ ဝေရမဏိ - ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး ပွမကၠတ် ဂြပ်ညး (Abstaining from Stealing) ==
အင်္ဂ မရနုက်ကဵု ၜါ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး ပွမကေတ် ကပေါတ်၊ ဂြပ်ရတ် မဟွံသေင် ကဵု ဒြပ် ဇကု မဟွံမဲ ကဵု အခေါင် (Abstaining from taking what is not given) ရ။ အရာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ရှေ်သှေ် အခေါင်အရာ ကေုာံ ဒြပ် ညးတၞဟ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ကၠတ် နာနာ:''' လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ကၠတ် သြန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ထဝ် သြန် ဓဝ် ပုဟ်။ ဍေဟ် သီု ပါလုပ် ပရေင်လှေက်လှန် လတူ ကမၠောန် (Fraud)၊ ပရေင်စ ကံက် (Corruption)၊ ပရေင်ဟွံကဵု အခေါင် (Copyright infringement) ကေုာံ ပရေင်စကာ အခိင် ရုင် သွက် အကျိုး ဇကု တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လပါ် ခိုဟ်:''' ပွမကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဍာံစၟတ် (Honesty)၊ ပွမကဵု ဒါန ကေုာံ ပွမရီုဗင် ညးမနွံ ပၟိက် တအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မဆန်စး ကု လောဘ တုဲ ဒှ် ဒ္ဂေတ် သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ရ။
== ၆။ ကာမေသု မိစ္ဆာစာရာ ဝေရမဏိ - ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး ပွမဒ္ဂေတ် မေထုန် ဟွံဗဗွဲဓဝ် (Abstaining from Sexual Misconduct) ==
အင်္ဂ မရနုက်ကဵု ပိ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် စိုတ် လောဘ ကာမဂုဏ် တုဲ ဝေင်ဒစး ပွမဒ္ဂေတ် မေထုန် မဟွံဗဗွဲဓဝ် (Abstaining from sexual misconduct) ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်မင်မဲ သစ္စာ အကြာ မၞိဟ် ၜါ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဝေင်ဒစး ပွမကဵု ဒဒိုက် စိုတ် ကု ညးတၞဟ် ရ။
* '''အဓိပ္ပါယ် မလှဲလး:''' လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ မေထုန် ကု မၞိဟ် မနွံကဵု တၠသ္ၚိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သမ္ဘာ၊ မၞိဟ် မနွံ သၟဝ် အုပ်ဓုပ် မိမ၊ မၞိဟ် မနွံ သၟဝ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (ဥပမာ - ကောန်ၚာ် အာယုက် ဟွံပေင်)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ မဟွံမဲ ကဵု သဘောၤ တုပ် (Rape/Coercion) တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လပါ် ခိုဟ်:''' ပွမမင် သစ္စာ လတူ ကောန်သ္ၚိ ဇကု (Fidelity)၊ ပရေင်ရှေ်သှေ် လတူ လညာတ် သဘောၤ တုပ် (Consent) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် အာရီု ကာမဂုဏ် ဇကု ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မကတဵုဗဒှ် ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် မၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ရ။<ref name="harvey">{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Peter |title=An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontobu0000harv |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontobu0000harv/page/72 72]-85}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဆက်စပ် ကု သဳလ ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ကေုာံ သမာဓိ (Connection to Sila and Samadhi) ==
သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ ဟွံဒတူ တန်တဴ နကဵု အလဵုဇကု ဍေဟ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု အင်္ဂ တၞဟ် ပ္ဍဲ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ် ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ရ။ ဗွဲတၟေင် ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် သမာဓိ (Samadhi - Concentration) ရ။
ယဝ်ရ ပူဂိုလ် မွဲမွဲ ကၠောန် ဒၟံင် ဒုစရိုတ် ကာယ မပ္တံကဵု ဂစိုတ်၊ ကၠတ်၊ လှေက်လှန် မ္ဂး၊ ပူဂိုလ် ဂှ် ဒး ကတဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် စိုတ် ထုဲကြာန်၊ စိုတ် ဖေက်၊ ကေုာံ စိုတ် ဒး လေင် (Remorse/Guilt) လၟိုန် ရ။ ကာလ စိုတ် ဟွံၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် မ္ဂး၊ မၞိဟ် ဂှ် ဟွံမာန် ပတန် သမာဓိ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ဓမ္မ ကမ္မဋ္ဌာန် (Meditation) ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ (သဳလ) ဂှ် ဒှ် လဒက်ပတန် အဓိက ညံင် စိုတ် ဂွံ တန်ကြန် တုဲ သမာဓိ ဂှ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ပညာ (Paññā) သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် သစ္စာ ပန် သာ် ရ။
== ၈။ ဖဵုခိုဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဘဝ (Benefits and Personal Development) ==
ပရေင်ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ ကဵု ဖဵုခိုဟ် နာနာ သာ် သွက် ဘဝ လၟေင်တ္ၚဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် -
* '''ဖဵုခိုဟ် သွက် ပူဂိုလ်:''' ဂွံ မံင် နကဵု စိုတ် မၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်၊ ဟွံဒး ဖေက် ဘဲ ဒုဟ် ရာဇဝတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒုဟ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်။ ဂွံ ဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ် ခိုဟ်၊ မၞိဟ် မနွံကဵု သစ္စာ။
* '''ဖဵုခိုဟ် သွက် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်:''' ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ မ္ဂး၊ ပြသၞာ ရာဇဝတ် မပ္တံကဵု ဂစိုတ်၊ ကၠတ်၊ ပလီု ကောန်ဗြဴ ညး တအ် ဟွံကတဵုဒှ် တုဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂှ် တန်တဴ နကဵု ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် (Social harmony) ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု (Security) ရ။
* '''ဖဵုခိုဟ် လပါ် ဓမ္မ:''' ဒှ် ဟိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ဝေင်ပါဲ နူ အပါယ် ပန် တုဲ ကလိဂွံ ဘဝ မပြဲ (သုဂတိ) ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် သံသာ ရ။<ref name="payutto">{{cite book |last=Payutto |first=P. A. |title=Buddhadhamma: The Law of Natures and Their Benefits to Life |publisher=Buddhadhamma Foundation |year=1995 |pages=210-215}}</ref>
== ၉။ လညာတ် လတူ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တ္ၚဲဏအ် (Perspective of Right Action in the Modern World) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ကေုာံ ဂၠးတိ ခေတ်တၟိ ဏအ်၊ လညာတ် သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ တုဲ နွံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် လှဲလး တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်မင်မဲ သဘာဝ (Environmentalism):''' ပါဏာတိပါတာ ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ဂစိုတ် တိရစ္ဆာန် သက်သက် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် သီု ပါလုပ် ပရေင်မင်မဲ ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (Ecology)၊ ပွမဝေင်ဒစး ကမၠောန် ပလီုပလာ် ဂြိုပ်ဆု မပကဵု ညံင် သတ် တအ် ဂွံ အိုတ်သကုတ် အာ တအ် ရ။
* '''ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Business Ethics):''' အဒိန္နာဒါနာ ဂှ် ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ကမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော် (Corporate ethics)၊ ပရေင်ဟွံကၠတ် အခေါင် Intellectual Property လတူ အင်တာနက်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံလှေက်လှန် ညးရာန် ကပေါတ် တအ် ရ။
* '''အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် (Human Rights):''' သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ဝွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ဒၟံင် ကု လညာတ် သၞောဝ် အခေါင်အရာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ (UDHR) မစဵုဒၞာ အခေါင် ဂျိုင် လမျီု၊ အခေါင် ဒြပ်ရတ် ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သရောပ် ကေုာံ တင်ရန်တၟအ် လက္ကရဴအိုတ် (Conclusion and Ultimate Goal) ==
သရောပ် အာ မ္ဂး၊ သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ (Right Action) ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ကာယ ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ဒ္ဂေတ် မဒးရး တုဲ ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် သွက် ပရေင်ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် ပူဂိုလ် ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ကဵု သတိ ကု ပိုယ် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် တၠ ဒဒှ်ရ အရာ ပိုယ် မကၠောန် (Karma) ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဖဵု (Vipaka) သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
တင်ရန်တၟအ် လက္ကရဴအိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ ကေုာံ မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ် အလုံအစင် ဂှ် ဒှ် သွက်ဂွံ ကုတ်ဗပိုတ် ထောအ် ကြိယာ မကတဵုဗဒှ် ဒဒိုက် (ဟိုတ်နူ လောဘ၊ ဒေါသ၊ မောဟ) တုဲ သွက်ဂွံ စိုပ် ဌာန် '''နိဗ္ဗာန်''' (Nirvana) မဒှ် ဌာန် မဗၠး နူ သံသာ ဇာတိ၊ ဇရာ၊ မရဏ တအ် အလုံစုံ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ်]] (Noble Eightfold Path)
* [[သဳလ]] (Sila - Morality)
* [[သမ္မာဝါစာ]] (Right Speech)
* [[သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ]] (Right Livelihood)
{{Navbox
| name = Buddhism Topics
| title = လညာတ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ သာသနာ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (Core Concepts in Buddhism)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သစ္စာ ပန် သာ်
| list1 =
* [[ဒုက္ခသစ္စာ]] (Dukkha)
* [[သမုဒယသစ္စာ]] (Samudaya)
* [[နိရောဓသစ္စာ]] (Nirodha)
* [[မဂ္ဂသစ္စာ]] (Magga)
| group2 = မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ် (ပညာ ကဵု သဳလ)
| list2 =
* [[သမ္မာဒိဋ္ဌိ]] (Right View)
* [[သမ္မာသင်္ကပ္ပ]] (Right Resolve)
* [[သမ္မာဝါစာ]] (Right Speech)
* [[သမ္မာကမ္မန္တ]] (Right Action)
* [[သမ္မာအာဇဳဝ]] (Right Livelihood)
| group3 = မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ် (သမာဓိ)
| list3 =
* [[သမ္မာဝါယာမ]] (Right Effort)
* [[သမ္မာသတိ]] (Right Mindfulness)
* [[သမ္မာသမာဓိ]] (Right Concentration)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[နိဗ္ဗာန်]] (Nirvana)
* [[ကမ္မ]] (Karma)
* [[ပါရမဳ]] (Paramita)
* [[မေတ္တာ]] (Metta)
}}
[[Category:ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ]]
[[Category:မဂ္ဂင် ဒစာံပါ်]]
[[Category:သဳလ]]
[[Category:ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ]]
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ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်
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'''ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''သောသဳယဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Sociology'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Social science) မွဲ မလ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Society)၊ အခိုက်အလိုက် ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ ကောန်မၞိဟ် (Social relationships)၊ လဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Social structure)၊ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် (Culture) မကတဵုဒှ် လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ ရ။ ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ်ဝွံ စကာ နဲကဲ သုတေသန သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ လညာတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဗီုလဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မတန်တဴ ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ အတိုင် လၟေင် အခိင် ရ။<ref name="giddens">{{cite book |last=Giddens |first=A. |title=Sociology |url=https://archive.org/details/sociology0005gidd |publisher=Polity Press |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sociology0005gidd/page/n29 2]-10}}</ref>
ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဗွိုက် လ္ၚတ် မလှဲလး ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ စတမ် နူကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ အကြာ ပူဂိုလ် ၜါ (Micro-level) စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် (Macro-level) ဂမၠိုင် ပါလုပ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ၊ အဆံင် လ္ၚတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Sociology_collage.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ပံင်ကောံ မထ္ၜး ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ ကောန်မၞိဟ်၊ လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်၊ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် နာနာ သာ် မဒှ် ဗွိုက် လ္ၚတ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "သောသဳယဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ" (Sociology) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ မလိက် လာတ္တေန် (Latin) "socius" မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ရဲမကောံသၟဟ်၊ ဂကောံ" ကေုာံ မလိက် ဂရိတ် (Greek) "-λογία" (logia) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ပညာ လ္ၚတ်" ရ။ ယၟု ဏအ်ဂှ် တၠပညာ ပြင်သေတ် '''အဝ်ဂတ် ကောမ်''' (Auguste Comte) ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ပထမအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၈၃၈ ရ။
နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် မ္ဂး၊ ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပညာ မလ္ၚတ် သဘာဝ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် အလုံစုံ (Holistic approach) ရ။ အရာ မတၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု ပညာ စိုတ်ဗေဒ (Psychology) ဂှ်၊ ပညာ စိုတ်ဗေဒ အာရီုစွံ လတူ က္ဍဟ် ကေုာံ စိုတ် ပူဂိုလ် မွဲမွဲ ရ၊ ဆဂး ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဂှ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ အခိုက်အလိုက် ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ မကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ အကြာ ပူဂိုလ် ဂမၠိုင်၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Origins) ==
ဘာသာရပ် ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥရောပ အခိင် ကာလ မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ ၁၈ ကဵု ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ (Industrial Revolution ကေုာံ French Revolution) ရ။ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် သၞောတ် တြေံ တအ် လီုလာ် အာ တုဲ၊ တၠပညာ တအ် စ ဂၠာဲ နဲကဲ သိပ္ပံ သွက်ဂွံ ဖြေစှ် ပြသၞာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် တၟိ ရ။
တၠပညာ အဓိက မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဘာသာရပ် ဏအ် နွံ ပိ တၠ ရ -
* '''ကားလ် မာက် (Karl Marx) (၁၈၁၈-၁၈၈၃):''' ညး အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Capitalism) ကေုာံ ပေါဲဗတိုက် အကြာ ကဆံင် မၞိဟ် (Class struggle)။<ref name="marx">{{cite book |last=Marx |first=K. |author2=Engels, F. |title=The Communist Manifesto |publisher=Progress Publishers |year=1848 |pages=14-20}}</ref>
* '''အဳမဳလ် ဒါခါမ် (Émile Durkheim) (၁၈၅၈-၁၉၁၇):''' ညး ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် နဒဒှ် ဘာသာရပ် အကယ်ဒမစ် ဍာံပြ မွဲ။ ညး လ္ၚတ် လဝ် ပရူ ပရေင်ညဳသၟဟ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Social solidarity) ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် လတူ ပရေင်ဂစိုတ် ဇကု (Suicide) ရ။<ref name="durkheim">{{cite book |last=Durkheim |first=É. |title=Suicide: A Study in Sociology |publisher=Free Press |year=1897 |pages=45-55}}</ref>
* '''မက်စ် ဝေဗာ (Max Weber) (၁၈၆၄-၁၉၂၀):''' ညး အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ လညာတ် စိုတ် (Rationalization)၊ သာသနာ၊ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဗျူရဝ်ကရေသဳ (Bureaucracy) မဒှ် သဇိုင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။<ref name="weber">{{cite book |last=Weber |first=M. |title=Economy and Society |publisher=University of California Press |year=1922 |pages=212-225}}</ref>
== ၃။ လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Major Theoretical Perspectives) ==
ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု [[သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်ဂမၠိုင်]] အဓိက ၃ သာ် သွက်ဂွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်
|-
! လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ (Theoretical Perspective)
! အဆံင် လ္ၚတ် (Level)
! တင်ရန်တၟအ် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Core Concept)
|-
| '''သၞောတ် လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ကမၠောန်''' (Structural Functionalism)
| အဆံင် ဇၞော် (Macro)
| ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဝွံ တုပ် ညံင် ခန္ဓာကိုယ် မွဲ ရ။ လဒက်ပတန် သီုဖအိုတ် (ဘာသာ၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ သ္ၚိကၟိန်) နွံကဵု တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ညံင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂွံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ကေုာံ ညဳသၟဟ် ရ။
|-
| '''သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန်''' (Conflict Theory)
| အဆံင် ဇၞော် (Macro)
| ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပေါဲပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် အကြာ ကဆံင် မၞိဟ် (ညးနွံ အဝဵု ကဵု ညးဒိုက်ဂတ်) သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သယံဇာတ ရ။ သၞောတ် တအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ အဝဵု ညးသိုက် တအ် ရ။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ သင်္ကေတ''' (Symbolic Interactionism)
| အဆံင် ဍောတ် (Micro)
| ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် နူကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ အကြာ ပူဂိုလ် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် တ္ၚဲ ရ။ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် နကဵု သင်္ကေတ၊ အရေဝ်၊ ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ရ။
|}
== ၄။ အဆံင် လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် (Levels of Analysis and Structure) ==
ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် အဆံင် လ္ၚတ် အဓိက ၜါ သာ် ရ -
* '''ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် အဆံင် ဇၞော် (Macrosociology):''' လ္ၚတ် လဒက်ပတန် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် အလုံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။ ဥပမာ - ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဂၠးတိ၊ သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ ကၟိန်ဍုင်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဖဵုသက်ရောက် နူကဵု ကပ်ယဲ ဇၞော် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်။ သဳအိုရဳ ကမၠောန် (Functionalism) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် (Conflict theory) တအ် စကာ အဆံင် ဏအ် ရ။
* '''ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် အဆံင် ဍောတ် (Microsociology):''' လ္ၚတ် ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ အကြာ ပူဂိုလ် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် ဂမၠိုင် ရ။ ဥပမာ - ဗီုလဵု ကွးဘာ တအ် ဆက်ဆောံ ကု အစာ ပ္ဍဲ ခဒမ် ဗတောန် လိက်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဗီုလဵု သ္ၚိကၟိန် မွဲ ပါ်ခြာ ကမၠောန် သ္ၚိ။ သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ သင်္ကေတ (Symbolic interactionism) စကာ အဆံင် ဏအ် ရ။
== ၅။ နဲကဲ သုတေသနဂမၠိုင် (Research Methods) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ တင်ဂၞင် ဍာံပြ (Empirical data) ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ သုတေသန နာနာ သာ် ရ။
# '''နဲကဲ လၟိဟ် (Quantitative Methods):''' ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ဂၞန် သင်္ချာ ကေုာံ စရင်အင် ရ။ နဲကဲ အဓိက ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်သၟာန်သွဟ် လၟိဟ် (Surveys / Questionnaires) မာန် ပကောံ တင်ဂၞင် နူ မၞိဟ် မဂၠိုင် (ဥပမာ မၞိဟ် လ္ၚီ) တုဲ တွက် ထ္ၜး ကဵု မျဉ်းကွေး (Trends) ရ။
# '''နဲကဲ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် (Qualitative Methods):''' ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ အရေဝ်၊ လညာတ်၊ ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဇြိုဟ်နက် ရ။ နဲကဲ ဂမၠိုင် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု သၟာန်သွဟ် ဇြိုဟ်နက် (In-depth interviews)၊ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ပါလုပ် (Participant observation)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ယေန်သၞာင် (Ethnography) ရ။
# '''နဲကဲ ပံင်ကောံ (Mixed Methods):''' စကာ သီု လၟိဟ် ကေုာံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် မွဲစွံ သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သွဟ် မဍိုက်ပေင် အိုတ် ရ။<ref name="macionis">{{cite book |last=Macionis |first=J. J. |title=Sociology |url=https://archive.org/details/sociology0013maci |publisher=Pearson |year=2012 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sociology0013maci/page/32 32]-48}}</ref>
== ၆။ ကဏ္ဍ ဘာသာရပ် ပါ်တိတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Subfields and Branches) ==
ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဘာသာရပ် ပါ်တိတ် (Subfields) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မာန် လ္ၚတ် ဇၟာပ် ကဏ္ဍ ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ -
* '''ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် သာသနာ (Sociology of Religion):''' လ္ၚတ် လဒက်ပတန် ဘာသာရေင်၊ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် သာသနာ လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်။
* '''ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ပရေင်ပညာ (Sociology of Education):''' လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု သၞောတ် ပညာ ဖန်ဇန် လညာတ် ပူဂိုလ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘာလ္ၚတ်။
* '''ခရေတ်မဳနဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ (Criminology):''' လ္ၚတ် ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵု ပြသၞာ ရာဇဝတ် (Crime) ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု သၞောဝ် (Deviance)။
* '''ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Sociology of Health):''' လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု ကဆံင် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်၊ သြန်၊ ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ယဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လွဳလွတ် ဂဥုဲ။
== ၇။ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Culture and Society) ==
'''[[ယေန်သၞာင်]]''' (Culture) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ရ။ ယေန်သၞာင် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု လညာတ် ပတှ်ေ (Beliefs)၊ ၚုဟ်မး (Values)၊ ဒ္ဂေတ် လၟေင် (Norms)၊ အရေဝ် (Language)၊ ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု (Material culture) မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မွဲ ရ။
ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် တီ ကၠိုဟ် ယေန်သၞာင် ဏအ် နကဵု လၟေင် ကမၠောန် '''ပရေင်လွဳလွတ် ဒ္ဂေတ်မၞိဟ်''' (Socialization) ရ။ ပရေင်ဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ် နူ အခိင် ကောန်ၚာ် စဵုကဵု စုတိ တုဲ၊ မိမ၊ ဘာလ္ၚတ်၊ ကေုာံ မဳဒဳယာ (Media) တအ် ဒှ် ညးမပလံင် ဗစိုပ် ယေန်သၞာင် တအ် ဏအ် ရ။
== ၈။ သၞောတ် ပါ်ခြာ ကဆံင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် (Social Stratification and Inequality) ==
'''[[သၞောတ် ပါ်ခြာ ကဆံင်မၞိဟ်]]''' (Social stratification) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မွဲ နကဵု ကဆံင် (Layers) မဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် (Inequality) ရ။ လဒက်ပတန် ဏအ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ -
* '''သြန် ကေုာံ ဒြပ်ရတ် (Wealth/Class):''' ပါ်ခြာ ညးသိုက်၊ ညးလဒေါဝ်၊ ညးဒိုက်။
* '''အဝဵု ကေုာံ စရာဲ (Power and Prestige):''' ညးလ္ၚဵု နွံကဵု သြဇာ ဂၠိုင် နူ ညးတၞဟ် (ဥပမာ - အမာတ် ကဵု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဓမ္မတာ)။
* '''ဂကူ၊ လိင်၊ ကေုာံ အာယုက် (Race, Gender, and Age):''' ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဂကူ ဟွံတုပ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် ကဵု ဗြဴ ဟွံတုပ်။
ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဗီုလဵု သၞောတ် တအ် ဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင်၊ ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု ဍေဟ်တအ် ဆက် တန်တဴ အာ နကဵု ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ ဒစးဒုင် ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဂလဝ်ဗယ်လာ်ဇြေယှေန် (Social Change and Globalization) ==
ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဝွံ ဟွံတန်တဴ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ မွဲ ဓဝ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒၟံင် လၟိုန် ရ။ တၠပညာ တအ် လ္ၚတ် '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်''' (Social Change) မကတဵုဒှ် ဟိုတ်နူ -
* '''နည်းပညာ ကေုာံ တီထွင် (Technology and Invention):''' ဥပမာ - အင်တာနက် ပလီုပလာ် ထောအ် သၞောတ် ဆက်ဆောံ တြေံ။
* '''ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Social Movements):''' ဂကောံ မၞိဟ် မကောံသၟဟ် တုဲ အာတ်မိက် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ (ဥပမာ - ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် သွက် အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ)။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဏအ်၊ '''[[ဂလဝ်ဗယ်လာ်ဇြေယှေန်]]''' (Globalization) မဒှ် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် နာနာ ဂွံ တုပ် ကၠုင် ရေင်သကအ်၊ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် လေဝ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပြသၞာ တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ဆောမ်လေင် ယေန်သၞာင် ဒေသ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၁၀။ အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ခေတ်တၟိ (Future and Impact on Modern Era) ==
အနာဂတ် ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု အကာဲအရာ ပြံင်လှာဲ မကတဵုဒှ် ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ရ။
* '''ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital Sociology):''' လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု မဳဒဳယာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Social media) ကေုာံ အင်တာနက် ပြံင်လှာဲ လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်။
* '''ဉာဏ်စက် (Artificial Intelligence):''' လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု AI သၠာဲ ထောအ် ကမၠောန် မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ဍေဟ် လတူ ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ။
* '''ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (Environmental Sociology):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အဆက်အစပ် အကြာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ရာသဳဥတု ပြံင်လှာဲ (Climate change) ရ။
သ္ၚောပ် မ္ဂး၊ ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဝွံ ကဵု လညာတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် အကာဲအရာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ခေတ်တၟိ တုဲ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် လွဟ် ဉာဏ် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မနွံကဵု တရားမျှတ (Social justice) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် မတန်တဴ (Sustainable development) အနာဂတ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[လဒက်ပ္တန် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်]] (Social structure)
* [[ယေန်သၞာင်]] (Culture)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်ဂမၠိုင်]] (Sociological theories)
* [[ဂလဝ်ဗယ်လာ်ဇြေယှေန်]] (Globalization)
* [[ပညာ စိုတ်ဗေဒ]] (Psychology)
{{Navbox
| name = Social Sciences
| title = ဘာသာရပ် သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ သောသဳယဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ (Social Sciences and Sociology)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဘာသာရပ် အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်]] (Sociology)
* [[ပညာ စိုတ်ဗေဒ]] (Psychology)
* [[မနုဿဗေဒ]] (Anthropology)
* [[ပညာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]] (Political science)
* [[ပညာ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်]] (Economics)
| group2 = လညာတ် ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳ
| list2 =
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန်]] (Conflict theory)
* [[သၞောတ် လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ကမၠောန်]] (Structural functionalism)
* [[ပရေင်ဆက်ဆောံ သင်္ကေတ]] (Symbolic interactionism)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်ဂမၠိုင်]] (Sociological theories)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[လဒက်ပ္တန် ပရေင်မၞိဟ်]] (Social structure)
* [[ယေန်သၞာင်]] (Culture)
* [[သၞောတ် ပါ်ခြာ ကဆံင်မၞိဟ်]] (Social stratification)
* [[ဂကောံမၞိဟ်]] (Society)
| group4 = တၠပညာ အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[အဝ်ဂတ် ကောမ်]] (Auguste Comte)
* [[ကားလ် မာက်]] (Karl Marx)
* [[အဳမဳလ် ဒါခါမ်]] (Émile Durkheim)
* [[မက်စ် ဝေဗာ]] (Max Weber)
}}
[[Category:ပညာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ဂကောံမၞိဟ်]]
[[Category:ဘာသာရပ် လ္ၚတ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
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'''ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Friction'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် [[ရူပဗေဒ]] (Physics) ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် မဒစးဒုင် (Resisting force) ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် အကြာ မျက်နှာပြင် (Surfaces) ၜါ မစုက်လုက် တုဲ မဂစာန် သြောတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ချဳဓရာင် အာ ရေင်သကအ် ရ။ ဒြဟတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဟွံညဳသၟဟ် (Roughness) လတူ မျက်နှာပြင် ဝတ္ထု တအ် ကေုာံ ဓါတ် ပရေင်တံင်ဂြဲ အကြာ မဝ်လဳကျူ (Intermolecular forces) ရ။<ref name="serway">{{cite book |last=Serway |first=R. A. |author2=Jewett, J. W. |title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2018 |pages=130-135}}</ref>
ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် သဘာဝ မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် မွဲ သွက် ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ဓရောတ် ဟွံမဲ မ္ဂး ပိုယ်တအ် ကွာ် ဟွံမာန်၊ ကွဳစက် တအ် ရပ် ဟွံမာန် တုဲ ကပေါတ် နာနာ သာ် လေဝ် ရပ်စပ် ဟွံဂွံ ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု စက်ယန္တရား တအ် မ္ဂး ဓရောတ် ဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် ဒြဟတ်ဇြဟတ် ဂွံ လေင် အာ နဒဒှ် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ (Heat) တုဲ ကပေါတ် တအ် လီုလာ် ပြဟ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ ကေုာံ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Friction.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် (Friction) မဒစးဒုင် ဒြဟတ် မတံင်ဂြဲ (Applied Force) ကာလ ဝတ္ထု မွဲ ချဳဓရာင် လတူ မျက်နှာပြင်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ်" (Friction force) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် မတိတ် ကၠုင် ဒစးဒုင် အာ ဂၠံင်တရဴ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် (Direction of motion) ကာလ ဝတ္ထု ၜါ စုက်လုက် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။
ဒြဟတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဒြဟတ် သဇိုင် ဇေတ်တ် (Fundamental force) မပ္တံကဵု ဒြဟတ် ဓါတ်လလဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ်တံင်ဂြဲ ဂၠးတိ (Gravity) ပုဟ်။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် မကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဓါတ်လလဳ-သံလိုက် (Electromagnetic interaction) အကြာ အက်တမ် (Atoms) ကေုာံ မဝ်လဳကျူ (Molecules) မနွံ လတူ မျက်နှာပြင် ဝတ္ထု တအ် ရ။ ကာလ မျက်နှာပြင် ၜါ သြောတ် ရေင်သကအ် မ္ဂး၊ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဒြဟတ် ချဳဓရာင် (Kinetic energy) ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် အာ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ (Thermal energy) ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် (History and Study of Friction) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် သိပ္ပံ ပရူ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ် တၠပညာ လဳယဝ်နာဒဝ် ဒါ ဗိန်ချဳ (Leonardo da Vinci) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၄၉၃ တေအ် ရ။ ညး ဂၠာဲဆဵု ညာတ် သၞောဝ် သဇိုင် သွက် ဓရောတ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ညး ဟွံဂွံ တြးပတိတ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ပုဟ်။<ref name="dowson">{{cite book |last=Dowson |first=D. |title=History of Tribology |publisher=Professional Engineering Publishing |year=1997 |pages=50-65}}</ref>
လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၆၉၉၊ တၠပညာ ပြင်သေတ် ဂဳယုမ် အာမောန်တောန် (Guillaume Amontons) ကလေင် ဂၠာဲဆဵု ညာတ် သၞောဝ် ဓရောတ် ဏအ် တုဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။ စိုပ် သၞာံ ၁၇၈၅ ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ ချာလ် အဝ်ဂတ်သတေန် ဒဳ ကူလောမ် (Charles-Augustin de Coulomb) ထပ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောဝ် အဓိက သွက် ဓရောတ် ချဳဓရာင် (Kinetic friction) ရ။ ဘာသာရပ် မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဓရောတ်၊ ပရေင်စောဲ (Wear)၊ ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် ကၠိ (Lubrication) ဏအ် ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ် ကော်စ '''တြာဲဗဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ''' (Tribology) ရ။
== ၃။ သၞောဝ် ဓရောတ် ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳ (Laws of Friction and Theory) ==
အတိုင် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် Amontons ကေုာံ Coulomb မ္ဂး၊ သၞောဝ် သဇိုင် သွက် ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် နွံ ၃ သာ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
# ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဝွံ တုပ်သၟဟ် တိုက်ရိုက် (Directly proportional) ကု ဒြဟတ် ဍဵု ဒေါင်လိုက် (Normal force) မဍဵု လဝ် မျက်နှာပြင် ၜါ ဂှ် ရ။
# ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဝွံ ဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု ဇမၞော် မျက်နှာပြင် မစုက်လုက် (Apparent area of contact) ရ။
# ဓရောတ် ချဳဓရာင် (Kinetic friction) ဝွံ ဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု လဟိုင် မချဳဓရာင် (Sliding velocity) ရ။
နကဵု နဲကဲ သင်္ချာ မ္ဂး၊ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဝွံ ဂၠာဲ ကေတ် မာန် နကဵု တွက်ဂၞန် -
$F_f = \mu F_n$
ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ ဏအ် -
* $F_f$ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် (Friction force)။
* $\mu$ ဂှ် ဒှ် မကိန်းသေ ဓရောတ် (Coefficient of friction) မတန်တဴ အတိုင် သဘာဝ ကပေါတ် မျက်နှာပြင်။
* $F_n$ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် ဒေါင်လိုက် (Normal force) မဍဵု လဝ် လတူ မျက်နှာပြင်။
== ၄။ ဂကူ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Types of Friction) ==
ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဂကူ အဓိက ၄ သာ် အတိုင် အကာဲအရာ မချဳဓရာင် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ ဓရောတ် (Type)
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! ဥပမာ
|-
| '''ဓရောတ် တန်ကြန်''' (Static Friction)
| ဒြဟတ် မဒစးဒုင် အခိင် ဝတ္ထု ၜါ ဟွံချဳဓရာင် ဏီ (မတန်ကြန် ဒၟံင်)။
| ပရေင်ဍဵု ခဒိုင် ဇၞော် မွဲ ညံင် ဂွံ ချဳ။
|-
| '''ဓရောတ် ချဳဓရာင်''' (Kinetic/Sliding Friction)
| ဒြဟတ် မဒစးဒုင် အခိင် ဝတ္ထု မွဲ သြောတ် ချဳဓရာင် အာ လတူ မျက်နှာပြင် မွဲ။
| ကွဳစက် ဓဇက် လတူ ဂၠံင် ကာလ ဘရိတ် (Brake)။
|-
| '''ဓရောတ် လှိင်''' (Rolling Friction)
| ဒြဟတ် မဒစးဒုင် အခိင် ဝတ္ထု မွဲ လှိင် (Roll) အာ လတူ မျက်နှာပြင်။ ဍေဟ် အောန် နူကဵု ဓရောတ် ချဳဓရာင်။
| ကလေင် ကွဳစက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မဝ် ပသဲ လှိင်။
|-
| '''ဓရောတ် အရည်''' (Fluid Friction / Drag)
| ဒြဟတ် မဒစးဒုင် ကာလ ဝတ္ထု မွဲ ဖြတ် အာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကျာ။
| ပရေင်ဂိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍာ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး က္ၜင်ကျာ ဖြတ် ကျာ။
|}
== ၅။ ဓရောတ် တန်ကြန် ကေုာံ ဓရောတ် ချဳဓရာင် (Static and Kinetic Friction) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ရူပဗေဒ၊ မကိန်းသေ ဓရောတ် တန်ကြန် ($\mu_s$) ဂှ် ဇၞော် နူကဵု မကိန်းသေ ဓရောတ် ချဳဓရာင် ($\mu_k$) လၟိုန် ရ။<ref name="halliday">{{cite book |last=Halliday |first=D. |author2=Resnick, R. |author3=Walker, J. |title=Fundamentals of Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofph0000davi_s9n5 |publisher=Wiley |year=2013 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofph0000davi_s9n5/page/118 118]-124}}</ref>
အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဍေဟ် ဂှ်၊ သွက်ဂွံ စ ဍဵု ဝတ္ထု မွဲ ညံင် ဂွံ ချဳဓရာင် ဂှ် ဒး စကာ ဒြဟတ် ဂၠိုင် နူကဵု သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် ဍဵု ညံင် ဍေဟ် ဂွံ ဆက် ချဳဓရာင် ရ။ ဟိုတ် ဂှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ကာလ ဝတ္ထု တအ် တန်ကြန် ဒၟံင် မ္ဂး၊ မဝ်လဳကျူ လတူ မျက်နှာပြင် ၜါ ဂှ် နွံ အခိင် သွက်ဂွံ စုက်လုက် ကေုာံ ပံင်ကောံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် (Cold welding) ရ။ ကာလ ဝတ္ထု ဂှ် စ ချဳဓရာင် အာ တုဲ မ္ဂး၊ မဝ်လဳကျူ တအ် ဟွံမဲ အခိင် သွက်ဂွံ ပံင်ကောံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် တုဲ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဂှ် ဍိုန် စှ်ေ အာ ရ။
== ၆။ ဓရောတ် အရည် ကေုာံ အကာသ (Fluid Friction and Air Resistance) ==
ဓရောတ် အရည် (Fluid friction) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် မဒစးဒုင် ကာလ ဝတ္ထု မွဲ ဖြတ် အာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အရည် (ဍာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကျာ) ရ။ ဒြဟတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု လဟိုင် ဝတ္ထု (Velocity)၊ ဗီုပြင် ရုပ် (Shape)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပေက်ဍေက် အရည် (Viscosity) ရ။
* '''ဒြဟတ် ဒစးဒုင် ကျာ (Air resistance):''' ကာလ က္ၜင်ကျာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကွဳစက် ဇြဟတ် ပြဟ် ဖြတ် အာ ကျာ မ္ဂး၊ ကျာ တအ် ဒစးဒုင် ညံင် ဝတ္ထု ဂွံ သဇိုင် စှ်ေ ရ။ သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန် ဓရောတ် ဏအ်၊ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ဒီဇိုင်း "အေရဝ်ဒါင်နာမစ်" (Aerodynamic design) မနွံကဵု ဗီုပြင် ကလိတ် ညံင် ကျာ ဂွံ ဖြတ် အာ လောဲသွာ ရ။
== ၇။ ဖဵု ကေုာံ အကျောဝ် ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် (Advantages and Benefits of Friction) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဓရောတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် မဒစးဒုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် သွက် ဘဝ လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ ရ -
# '''ပရေင်ကွာ်:''' ကာလ ပိုယ် ကွာ်၊ ဓရောတ် အကြာ ဇိုင် ကဵု တိ ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ပိုယ် ဟွံဂွံ လောတ် စှ်ေ ရ။ යဝ်ရ ဓရောတ် ဟွံမဲ (ဥပမာ လတူ ဍာ်ကလိတ်) မ္ဂး ကွာ် ဟွံမာန် ပုဟ်။
# '''ပရေင်ထိင် ကွဳစက် (Braking):''' သၞောတ် ဘရိတ် ပ္ဍဲ ကွဳစက် တအ် စကာ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် အကြာ ပသဲ ဘရိတ် ကဵု ကလေင် သွက်ဂွံ ဒေါအ် ကွဳစက် ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ရပ်စပ် ကပေါတ်:''' ဓရောတ် လတူ လပှ် တဲ (Fingerprints) ပကဵု ညံင် ပိုယ် ဂွံ ရပ် ကပေါတ် ဗိုန်ဗိုန် မာန် ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပၟတ်:''' ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တမၠာ၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် သြောတ် ဆု ၜါ တၞုင် ရေင်သကအ် တုဲ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ နူ ဓရောတ် ဂှ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပၟတ် ရ။<ref name="bowden">{{cite book |last=Bowden |first=F. P. |author2=Tabor, D. |title=The Friction and Lubrication of Solids |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |pages=85-92}}</ref>
== ၈။ အရာမဟွံခိုဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ယှောတ်ဖအောန် ဓရောတ် (Disadvantages and Reducing Friction) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် စက်ယန္တရား တအ် မ္ဂး၊ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဝွံ ကဵု ဖဵု ပရေအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်လေင် ဇြဟတ် (Energy loss):''' ဓရောတ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဒြဟတ် ချဳဓရာင် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ တုဲ၊ စက် တအ် ဒး စကာ ဒြဟတ် (ကၠေင် ဓါတ်) ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်လီုလာ် (Wear and tear):''' ကပေါတ် မစုက်လုက် ရေင်သကအ် တအ် သြောတ် လအ် မ္ဂး စောဲ လီုလာ် အာ ရ။
သွက်ဂွံ ယှောတ်ဖအောန် ဓရောတ် ဂှ်၊ ပိုယ် စကာ နဲကဲ မပ္တံကဵု -
* '''ကပေါတ် ကၠိ (Lubricants):''' စုတ် ကၠေင် (Oil) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂရိတ် (Grease) အကြာ မျက်နှာပြင် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လွှာ အရည် မဖအောန် ပရေင်စုက်လုက် တိုက်ရိုက်။
* '''မဝ် လှိင် (Ball bearings):''' စကာ ပသဲ မဝ် သောဲသောဲ သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓရောတ် ချဳဓရာင် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ဓရောတ် လှိင် မနွံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ဓရောတ် အောန် အာ ဗွဲမလောန်။
== ၉။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ (Applications in Engineering) ==
ပညာ ပရေင်အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ဝွံ ဒး တွက်ဂၞန် ကေုာံ ဖန်ဇန် လတူ ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် လၟိုန် ရ။
* '''ဒီဇိုင်း ကလေင် (Tire Design):''' အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ရုပ် ကလေင် ကွဳစက် ညံင် ဂွံ နွံကဵု ဓရောတ် ခိုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ဆက်စပ် ကု ဂၠံင် ဗိုန်ဗိုန် (Traction) ကေုာံ ညံင် ဍာ် ဂွံ တိတ် အာ လောဲသွာ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဗြဲ ဂူ ရ။
* '''စက် အေန်ဂျေန် (Engines):''' ပ္ဍဲ အေန်ဂျေန် ကွဳစက်၊ ပလိုင် (Pistons) တအ် ဒး ချဳဓရာင် ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ရ။ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် ဖန်ဇန် လဝ် သၞောတ် ပလံင် ကၠေင် (Lubrication system) ညံင် စက် ဟွံဂွံ တူ ဟိုတ်နူ ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ဓရောတ် ရ။
* '''က္ၜင်ကျာ ကေုာံ ရထာ (Aerospace and Trains):''' သွက် ရထာ မပြဟ် ဗွဲမလောန် (Maglev)၊ ညးတအ် စကာ သံလိုက် သွက်ဂွံ ယာ လဝ် ရထာ ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ စုက် လတူ ပသဲ ဂၠံင် တုဲ ဓရောတ် ချဳဓရာင် ဟွံမဲ သၟး ရ (သှ်ေ ဆ ဓရောတ် ကျာ)။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Developments) ==
ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် အဓိက မဖန်ဇန် ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လတူ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် သီု ကဵု ဖဵု ခိုဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေအ် အတိုင် အကာဲအရာ မကတဵုဒှ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အနာဂတ်၊ ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် တြာဲဗဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ ဒၟံင် လတူ ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် ကပေါတ် တၟိ (New materials) မပ္တံကဵု ကပေါတ် နာနဝ် (Nanomaterials) ကေုာံ မျက်နှာပြင် မဟွံမဲ ကု ဓရောတ် (Superlubricity) ရ။ နည်းပညာ ဏအ်ဝွံ မာန် ပကဵု ညံင် စက်ယန္တရား တအ် ဂွံ စကာ ဇြဟတ် အောန် စှ်ေ ကေုာံ မင်မဲ သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ (Energy efficiency) မာန် ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရောင်။<ref name="persson">{{cite book |last=Persson |first=B. N. J. |title=Sliding Friction: Physical Principles and Applications |publisher=Springer |year=2000 |pages=105-115}}</ref>
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဒြဟတ် (ရူပဗေဒ)]] (Force)
* [[ဒြဟတ်ဇြဟတ်]] (Energy)
* [[တြာဲဗဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Tribology)
* [[ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ်တံင်ဂြဲ ဂၠးတိ]] (Gravity)
{{Navbox
| name = Physics Forces
| title = ဒြဟတ် ကေုာံ ရူပဗေဒ သဇိုင် (Forces and Basic Physics)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဒြဟတ် သဇိုင်
| list1 =
* [[ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ်တံင်ဂြဲ ဂၠးတိ]] (Gravity)
* [[ဒြဟတ် ဓါတ်လလဳ-သံလိုက်]] (Electromagnetism)
* [[ဒြဟတ် ညူကလဳယာ သြဇာ]] (Strong nuclear force)
* [[ဒြဟတ် ညူကလဳယာ ဍိုန်]] (Weak nuclear force)
| group2 = ဒြဟတ် ဓမ္မတာဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[ဒြဟတ် ဓရောတ်]] (Friction)
* [[ဒြဟတ် ဒေါင်လိုက်]] (Normal force)
* [[ဒြဟတ် တင်ယှေန်]] (Tension)
* [[ဒြဟတ် ဍဵုဍိုက်]] (Pressure)
| group3 = သၞောဝ် ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳ
| list3 =
* [[သၞောဝ် နယူတန်]] (Newton's laws of motion)
* [[တြာဲဗဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Tribology)
* [[ဇြဟတ်]] (Energy)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[မကိန်းသေ ဓရောတ်]] (Coefficient of friction)
* [[ပရေင်အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ]] (Engineering)
* [[ကပေါတ် ကၠိ]] (Lubricant)
}}
[[Category:ရူပဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဒြဟတ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ]]
[[Category:သိပ္ပံ သဘာဝ]]
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'''ဂကူမန် အလိုက်ဍုင်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Mon diaspora / Mon people by country'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ပြးဇး ကေုာံ ပရေင်တန်တဴ ဂကူမန် တအ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်နာနာ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဂကူမန် တအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂကူတမ်မူလ မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ရးအာရှအဂၞဲ (Southeast Asia) ဗွဲတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ (Myanmar) ကေုာံ ဍုင်သေံ (Thailand) တုဲ၊ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်ပၞာန်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် တအ် ဟွံခိုင်ကၠိုက် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဌာန်တမ်မူလ ဇကု ဂှ်ရ၊ ကောန်ဂကူမန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပြံင်ဆုဲ အာ တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင်သၟာင် ဂမၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်၊ အဝ်သတြေလျ၊ ကနေဒါ၊ ဥရောပ၊ မလေရှာ၊ ကေုာံ သေင်ကာပူ တအ် ရ။<ref name="south">{{cite book|last=South|first=Ashley|title=Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: The Golden Sheldrake|url=https://archive.org/details/monnationalismci0000sout|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|pages=[https://archive.org/details/monnationalismci0000sout/page/15 15]-30}}</ref>
လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဂကူမန် မပြံင်ဆုဲ အာ တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်နာနာ၊ ဝင် ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆုဲ၊ လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်၊ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ အနာဂတ် ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[ဝှာင်:Flag_of_Mon_State.svg|right|thumb|300x300px|အလာံ ဂကူမန် (Mon National Flag) မဒှ် သင်္ကေတ အဓိက သွက် ကောန်ဂကူမန် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ဂကူမန် အလိုက်ဍုင်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ဂကောံမၞိဟ်မန် မပြးဇး" (Mon diaspora) ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် စၞောန်ပညုင် ကု ပူဂိုလ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မဆေင်စပ် ကု တၞောဝ်ဒတောဝ် ဂကူမန် မတန်တဴ ဒၟံင် မ္ၚး ဒေသ ဌာန်တမ်မူလ (Mon State ကေုာံ သၟဝ်ကျာ ဍုင်သေံ) ရ။
ဂကူမန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂကူ မဟီု အရေဝ် ဂကောံ သြသထရဝ်အေရှာတေတ် (Austroasiatic language family) တုဲ နွံ ဝင် ယေန်သၞာင် မဇၞော်မောဝ် ပြာကတ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ သုဝဏ္ဏဘူမိ ကေုာံ ဒွါရဝတဳ ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ဍုင်မန် (ဟံသာဝတဳ) ဒးဒုင် ပလီုပလာ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၇၅၇ ကီုလေဝ်၊ စိုတ်ဓါတ် ဆာန်ဂကူ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ယေန်သၞာင် တအ် ဂှ် ဆက် ဂျိုင် တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကောန်ဂကူမန် တအ် လၟိုန် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဂလဝ်ဗယ်လာ်ဇြေယှေန် (Globalization) ဏအ်၊ ဂကူမန် တအ် ပြးဇး အာ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ဆဂး ညးတအ် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် နကဵု ကွန်ရက် မဳဒဳယာ၊ ဘာသာရေင် (ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ကောန်ဂကူ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+[[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး လၟိဟ် ဂကူမန် မတန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်နာနာ (ခန့်မှန်းခြေ)
!ဍုင် (Country)
!လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် (Estimated Population)
!ဒေသ အဓိက (Major Settlements)
|-
|'''[[ဍုင်ဗၟာ]]''' (Myanmar)
|ၜိုတ် ၁.၅ - ၂ မဳလဳယောန်
|[[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]]၊ ရးဇၞော် ပဲခူး၊ ရးဇၞော် လ္ဂုင်၊ တွဵုရးကရေင်၊ တွဵုရးတၞင်သဳ
|-
|'''[[ဍုင်သေံ]]''' (Thailand)
|ၜိုတ် ၁၀၀,၀၀၀ - ၁ မဳလဳယောန် (ပံင် သေံရာမည)
|နောန်ထဗူရဳ၊ သမုတ်သာခေါန်၊ ပါထုမ်ဌာနဳ၊ ဍုင်က္ၜင်ကံက်
|-
|'''[[ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]]''' (USA)
|ၜိုတ် ၁၀,၀၀၀ - ၁၅,၀၀၀
|ဖေါတ်ဝဵု (Fort Wayne)၊ အာက်ကရွန် (Akron)
|-
|'''[[အဝ်သတြေလျ]]''' (Australia)
|ၜိုတ် ၂,၀၀၀ - ၅,၀၀၀
|ကာန်ဗေရာ (Canberra)၊ မဲဗောန် (Melbourne)၊ ဗရိတ်သဗိန် (Brisbane)
|-
|'''[[ဍုင်မလေရှာ]]''' (Malaysia)
|ၜိုတ် ၁၀,၀၀၀ - ၂၀,၀၀၀ (ကောန်လုပ်ကမၠောန်)
|ကွာလာလာမ်ပူ (Kuala Lumpur)၊ ဂျိုဟဝ် (Johor)
|}
== ၂။ ဝင် ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆုဲ ဂကူမန် (History of Mon Migration) ==
ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆုဲ ဂကူမန် ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ဂၠိုင်ကဵု အလန် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင်၊ တုဲ ဍေဟ် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု အကာဲအရာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆုဲ ခေတ်တြေံ (Historical Migrations):''' ကြဴနူ ဍုင်ဟံသာဝတဳ ဒးဒုင် သီကေတ် ပလီုပလာ် နကဵု သၟိင်ဗၟာ အလံင်ဘုရား ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၇၅၇ ဂှ်၊ ကောန်ဂကူမန် ကိုတ် ကဵု ပြဲ ဒးဒုင် ဍဵုဍိုက်၊ ဂစိုတ် ပဠက် ဂကူ တုဲ ပြံင်ဆုဲ ဒြေပ် ဒဴ လုပ် အာ ဍုင်သေံ (အယုဒ္ဓယ) ရ။ ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆုဲ ဂကောံဇၞော် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဗဒှ် လဝ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် '''သေံရာမည''' (Thai-Raman) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။<ref name="guillon">{{cite book|last=Guillon|first=E.|title=The Mons: A Civilization of Southeast Asia|publisher=Siam Society|year=1999|pages=180-195}}</ref>
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆုဲ ခေတ်လၟုဟ် (Modern Migrations):''' ကြဴနူ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကလိဂွံ ဍုင်သၠးပွး ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၈ တုဲ၊ ပၞာန် အပ္ဍဲဍုင် စ ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၀ ဂမၠိုင် ကေုာံ ကြဴနူဂှ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ဍဵုဍိုက် နူကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန် ဗၟာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် စှ်ေ သဝ် ဂှ်ရ၊ ကောန်ဂကူမန် မဂၠိုင် လုပ် အာ ဍုင်သေံ နဒဒှ် ညးလဒဴ (Refugees) ကေုာံ ကောန်လုပ်ကမၠောန် ဍုင်သၟာင် (Migrant workers) ရ။ နူကဵု ဒစိုင် ညးလဒဴ (Refugee camps) ပ္ဍဲ ပယျဵု သေံ-ဗၟာ ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဆက် ပြံင်ဆုဲ အာ ဍုင် တတိယ (Third countries) မပ္တံကဵု အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ အဝ်သတြေလျ ရ။
== ၃။ ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ (Mon People in Myanmar) ==
ဍုင်ဗၟာ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဌာန်တမ်မူလ အဓိက သွက် ဂကူမန် တအ် ရ။ လၟိဟ် ကောန်ဂကူမန် အပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ဂှ် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ စရင်အင် (Census) မဟွံချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ အရေဝ် ကေုာံ အခိုက် ယေန်သၞာင် မ္ဂး နွံ ၜိုတ် ၁.၅ နူ ၂ မဳလဳယောန် မာန် ရ (ယဝ် ရံင် ကောန်တၞောဝ် မန် မ္ဂး နွံ ဂၠိုင် နူဏအ် မာန်)။
ဒေသ အဓိက ဂကူမန် တအ် တန်တဴ ဂှ် ဒှ် -
* '''[[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]] (Mon State):''' မပ္တံကဵု ပွိုင်ဍုင် မတ်မလီု၊ မုဟ်ဍုင်၊ ဇြပ်ဗု၊ ရေး၊ သဓီု၊ ပံင် ကေုာံ ကျာ်မြဟ်။ ဒေသ ဏအ် ဒှ် ဗဟဵု ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အရေဝ် မန် ရ။
* '''ရးဇၞော် ပဲခူး ကေုာံ လ္ဂုင် (Bago and Yangon Regions):''' ဍုင်ဟံသာဝတဳ တြေံ ကေုာံ ဒေသ လ္ဂုင် တအ် ဂှ် နွံ ဂကူမန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပြံင်ဆုဲ ကၠုင် သွက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပညာ။
* '''တွဵုရးကရေင် ကေုာံ တၞင်သဳ (Kayin and Tanintharyi):''' ဒေသ မပ္တံကဵု ကအ်ကြိက်၊ ဖာအံင် ကေုာံ ရေဗျူ တအ် လေဝ် နွံ ကွာန် မန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
== ၄။ ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ (Mon People in Thailand) ==
ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် ၜါ ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက - မန် ညးမပြံင်ဆုဲ ခေတ်တြေံ (Thai-Raman) ကေုာံ မန် ညးမပြံင်ဆုဲ ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။<ref name="foster">{{cite journal|last=Foster|first=B. L.|title=Ethnic Identity of the Mons in Thailand|journal=Journal of the Siam Society|volume=61|issue=1|year=1973|pages=48-72}}</ref>
* '''မန် သေံရာမည (Thai-Mon):''' ညးတအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် တၞောဝ်ဒတောဝ် မန် မပြံင်ဆုဲ လဝ် နူ ၃၀၀ သၞာံ ပြင်င် တေအ် ရ။ ညးတအ် တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ခရိုင် နောန်ထဗူရဳ (Nonthaburi) ဗွဲတၟေင် ကအ် ပက်ကရေတ် (Ko Kret)၊ ခရိုင် သမုတ်သာခေါန် (Samut Sakhon) - ဍုင်မဟာချာဲ၊ ခရိုင် ပါထုမ်ဌာနဳ (Pathum Thani)၊ ကေုာံ ရာတ်ချ်ဗူရဳ (Ratchaburi) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ညးတအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကၠိုဟ် အရေဝ် သေံ တုဲ ပံင်နှဴ အာ ကု ဂကူသေံ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ယေန်သၞာင် မန် ဥပမာ ကျာ်ပလီု မန် ကေုာံ တ္ၚဲ သြင်္ကန် (Songkran) အခိုက် မန် ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဆက် မင်မဲ လဝ် ဏီ ရ။
* '''မန် ခေတ်တၟိ (Recent Migrants):''' မန် မပြံင်ဆုဲ နူ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ကြဴနူ သၞာံ ၁၉၉၀ တအ် ဂှ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ ရုင်စက်၊ ကမၠောန် သြိုင်ခၞံ ကေုာံ တမ္ၚာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်မဟာချာဲ (Mahachai)၊ က္ၜင်ကံက် ကေုာံ ဒေသ ဖူကေတ် (Phuket) ရ။ ညးတအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍုင်သေံ ကေုာံ ထံက်ပင် မိမ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဗၟာ ရ။
== ၅။ ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (Mon People in the United States) ==
ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ဝွံ စတင် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် အိုတ် ၁၉၈၀ ကေုာံ ၁၉၉၀ တအ်၊ အခိင် ကာလ ညးလဒဴ (Refugees) နူ ပယျဵု သေံ-ဗၟာ ဂွံ အခေါင် တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် တတိယ ရ။
* '''ဖေါတ်ဝဵု (Fort Wayne, Indiana):''' ဒေသ ဏအ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဌာန်တန်တဴ ဂကူမန် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ (မ္ၚး အာရှ) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဖေါတ်ဝဵု ဝွံ နွံ ကျာ်ပလီု (Mon Temples)၊ ဂကောံ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ကေုာံ ဆေင် သွံရာန် ကပေါတ် မန် ဂမၠိုင် ရ။ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မန် ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ ဏအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် တုဲ စိုပ် ကဆံင် မာန် ကၠောန် သဘင် တ္ၚဲ ကောန်ဂကူမန် နကဵု လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် လ္ၚီ ပြင်င် ရ။
* '''အာက်ကရွန် (Akron, Ohio):''' ဒှ် ဒေသ မွဲပၠန် မနွံ လၟိဟ် ကောန်ဂကူမန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မတန်တဴ။
ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မန် ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကာန် ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် အေန်ဂျဳအဝ် (NGOs) ကေုာံ ဂကောံ မပ္တံကဵု '''Mon American Association (MAA)''' သွက်ဂွံ အရီုအဗင် ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ မင်မဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂကူ ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ကၠေအ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ တၞောဝ် အနာဂတ် ရ။
== ၆။ ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အဝ်သတြေလျ (Mon People in Australia) ==
ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆုဲ ဂကူမန် ဇရေင် ဍုင်အဝ်သတြေလျ ဝွံ စတင် ပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ၜိုတ် သၞာံ ၂၀၀၀ တအ်၊ နကဵု အစီအစဉ် ဒုင်တဲ ညးလဒဴ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (UNHCR) ရ။ လၟိဟ် ကောန်ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ အဝ်သတြေလျ နွံ ၜိုတ် ၂,၀၀၀ နူ ၅,၀၀၀ တၠ ရ။<ref name="lang">{{cite book|last=Lang|first=H. J.|title=Fear and Sanctuary: Burmese Refugees in Thailand|publisher=Cornell Southeast Asia Program|year=2002|pages=120-135}}</ref>
ဒေသ အဓိက ညးတအ် မတန်တဴ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင်ဇၞော် ဂမၠိုင် -
* '''ကာန်ဗေရာ (Canberra):''' ဒှ် ဗဟဵု အဓိက သွက် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မန် ပ္ဍဲ အဝ်သတြေလျ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဏအ် နွံ ဘာလကျာ် မန် မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဗဟဵု သွက် ပရေင်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Community Center) ရ။
* '''မဲဗောန် (Melbourne) ကေုာံ ဗရိတ်သဗိန် (Brisbane):''' ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ဌာန်တန်တဴ လက္ကရဴ ဂမၠိုင် မနွံကဵု ဂကောံသၟတ် မန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ကောန်ဂကူ မထတ်စောမ်။
ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မန် ပ္ဍဲ အဝ်သတြေလျ ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ၊ ညးတအ် ပံင်ကောံ ကု ဂကောံ မၞိဟ် နူ ဍုင်ဗၟာ တၞဟ် တအ် တုဲ ချဳဓရာင် အာတ်မိက် ပရေင်ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် သွက် ဌာန်တမ်မူလ ဇကု ရ။
== ၇။ ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ကနေဒါ ကေုာံ ဥရောပ (Mon People in Canada and Europe) ==
လၟိဟ် ကောန်ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ကနေဒါ ကေုာံ ဍုင် ဥရောပ တအ် ဂှ် အောန် နူကဵု အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ အဝ်သတြေလျ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ညးတအ် နွံကဵု ဂကောံ မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ရ။
* '''ကနေဒါ (Canada):''' ဂကူမန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ကာလ်ဂါရဳ (Calgary) ကေုာံ တဝ်ရဝ်တဝ် (Toronto)။ ညးတအ် ကၠောန် သဘင် တ္ၚဲ ကောန်ဂကူမန် ကေုာံ ပံင်ကောံ ကု ဂကောံ ရးအာရှ တၞဟ်ဟ် ရ။
* '''ဥရောပ (Europe):''' ဂကူမန် တအ် တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဥရောပ သၟဝ်ကျာ ကေုာံ ပလိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်နဝ်ဝေ (Norway)၊ ဍုင်နေတာလာန် (Netherlands) ကေုာံ ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန် (United Kingdom) ရ။ ဂကောံ မန် ပ္ဍဲ ဥရောပ တအ် ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ထံက်ပင် ပညာ ကေုာံ မဳဒဳယာ ဂကူမန် (Mon Media) သွက်ဂွံ ပလံင် ဗစိုပ် ပရိုင် ဍာံ ကု ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၈။ ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်မလေရှာ ကေုာံ သေင်ကာပူ (Mon People in Malaysia and Singapore) ==
ပရေင်ပြံင်ဆုဲ ဇရေင် ဍုင်မလေရှာ ကေုာံ သေင်ကာပူ ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု ရးပလိုတ် တအ် ရ။ ဒေသ ဏအ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ သွက် ကောန်လုပ်ကမၠောန် ယာယဳ (Migrant workers) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
* '''မလေရှာ (Malaysia):''' ဂကူမန် ၜိုတ် ၁၀,၀၀၀ နူ ၂၀,၀၀၀ တၠ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ ရုင်စက်၊ ကမၠောန် ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ၊ ကေုာံ စၞစ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ကွာလာလာမ်ပူ (Kuala Lumpur)၊ သလင်ဂေါ (Selangor) ကေုာံ ဂျိုဟဝ် (Johor) ရ။ ညးလ္ၚဵု ဝွံ ဟွံမဲ ကု လိက်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Undocumented) တုဲ တန်တဴ နကဵု စၟတ်သမ္တီ ညးလဒဴ (UNHCR cards) ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပ္ဍဲ မလေရှာ နွံ "ဂကောံ ထံက်ပင် ကောန်ဂကူမန်" မာန် ကဵု အရီုအဗင် ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကု ကောန်ကမၠောန် တအ် ရ။<ref name="hall">{{cite book|last=Hall|first=D. G. E.|title=A History of South-East Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsouthea0000hall|publisher=Macmillan|year=1981|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofsouthea0000hall/page/350 350]-365}}</ref>
* '''သေင်ကာပူ (Singapore):''' လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် အောန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဂကူမန် မတန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ သေင်ကာပူ ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒှ် တၠပညာ (Professionals)၊ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ၊ ကေုာံ သၟာကမၠောန် ပညာ သၠုင် (Skilled workers) ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အရေဝ် (Cultural and Language Preservation) ==
ဂကူမန် အလိုက်ဍုင် တအ် ဂစာန် မင်မဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အရေဝ် ဇကု ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ကၠေအ် အာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပွဳပွူ ဍုင်သၟာင် ရ။
* '''တ္ၚဲ ကောန်ဂကူမန် (Mon National Day):''' ဒှ် သဘင် ကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် မကၠောန် ဗဒှ် လၟိုန် သၞာံ ပ္ဍဲ ဂိတု မာ် ၁ စွေက် (February) သွက်ဂွံ ဗှ်သၞာ တ္ၚဲ မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဍုင်ဟံသာဝတဳ ပထမ (သၞာံ ၅၇၃ အေဒဳ)။ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မန် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ကၠောန် သဘင် ဏအ် နကဵု ပရေင်ကျိုင်ကယျဝ် ကယျဝ်မန် (Mon traditional dress - ဝတ်စုံ အသာ် ဗကေတ် ကဵု ဗတာင်) ကေုာံ လှ်ေ ဒွက် မန် ရ။
* '''ကျာ်ပလီု ကေုာံ သာသနာ (Temples and Religion):''' ဂကူမန် တအ် ဒှ် ဂကူ မလျိုင်ပတှ်ေ ဗုဒ္ဓဘာသာ (ထေရဝါဒ) ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ရ။ ဘာလကျာ် မန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သၟာင် တအ် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ဒၞာဲ သွက် ပရေင်ဘာသာ သၟး၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ် ဗဟဵု မဗတောန် လိက်မန် ကု ကောန်ၚာ် တအ်၊ ဒၞာဲ ပံင်ကောံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ်၊ ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ မင်မဲ အခိုက်အလိုက် ရ။
* '''အရေဝ် ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ် (Language and Literature):''' သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ အရေဝ် မန် ပ္ဍဲ တၞောဝ် အနာဂတ် (Second generation) ဂှ်၊ ဂကောံ မန် တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ဘာကညင် (Summer classes) သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် လိက် မန် ကေုာံ အရေဝ် မန် ကု ကောန်ၚာ် ညးတအ် မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သၟာင် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future) ==
ဂကူမန် အလိုက်ဍုင် ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ တန်တဴ ပြးဇး ဒၟံင် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ကီုလေဝ်၊ စိုတ်ဓါတ် ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု ဌာန်တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ဆာန်ဂကူ (Mon Identity) ဂှ် ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ဒၟံင် ဏီ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် မဳဒဳယာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဏအ်၊ ကောန်ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကာန်၊ ဥရောပ၊ ဍုင်သေံ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဗၟာ တအ် မာန် ဆက်စပ် ရေင်သကအ် လောဲသွာ တုဲ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်ထံက်ပင် ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ရီုဗင် ကပ်ဘဲ တအ် ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် လောဲသွာ တိုန် ရ။
အနာဂတ် ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သၟာင် ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ အစောံသတ္တိ ဗီုလဵု ညးတအ် မာန် လွဳလွတ် တၞောဝ် အနာဂတ် ညံင် ဂွံ တီ ဝင် ဂကူ ဇကု တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တုပ် ဂှ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် တိုန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။ ကောန်ဂကူမန် ညးမပြးဇး တအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် အဓိက မွဲ သွက်ဂွံ ရီုဗင် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဌာန်တမ်မူလ ဍုင်မန် ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂကူ ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ကၠေအ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ရောင်။<ref name="ocha">{{cite book|last=Ocha|first=N.|title=Transnational Identity and Mon Diaspora in the Modern World|publisher=Asian Studies Review|year=2014|pages=45-60}}</ref>
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဂကူမန်]] (Mon people)
* [[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]] (Mon State)
* [[ဍုင်ဟံသာဝတဳ]] (Hanthawaddy Kingdom)
* [[အရေဝ် မန်]] (Mon language)
{{Navbox|name=Mon People|title=ဂကူမန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင် (Mon People and Culture)|listclass=hlist|state=autocollapse|group1=ဌာန်တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ဒေသ|list1=* [[တွဵုရးဍုင်မန်]] (Mon State)
* [[ဍုင်သဓီု]] (Thaton)
* [[ဍုင်ဟံသာဝတဳ]] (Bago / Hanthawaddy)
* [[သေံရာမည]] (Thai-Raman)|group2=ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အရေဝ်|list2=* [[အရေဝ် မန်]] (Mon language)
* [[လိက်မန်]] (Mon script)
* [[တ္ၚဲ ကောန်ဂကူမန်]] (Mon National Day)
* [[ကယျဝ်မန်]] (Mon traditional dress)|group3=ဂကူမန် အလိုက်ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင်|list3=* [[ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်သေံ]] (Mon in Thailand)
* [[ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (Mon in USA)
* [[ဂကူမန် ပ္ဍဲ အဝ်သတြေလျ]] (Mon in Australia)|group4=ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်|list4=* [[ဗော်ဍုင်မန်တၟိ]] (New Mon State Party)
* [[ဝင် ဂကူမန်]] (History of Mon)
* [[ရာဇာဓိရာဇ်]] (Razadarit)}}
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'''ဥတ္တရ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Uttara'', သက္ကတ: उत्तर) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် သၟတ်တြုဟ် ကေုာံ သၟိင်သၟတ် (Prince) မပြာကတ် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပြကိုဟ် ဝင် အိန္ဒိယ တြေံ မကော်ဂး [[မဟာဘာရတ]] (Mahabharata) ရ။ ညးဝွံ ဒှ် ကောန်တြုဟ် သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် ဝိရာဋ (King Virata) ကေုာံ မိဂၞကျာ် သုဒေရှနာ (Queen Sudeshna) မအုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် မတ္သျ (Matsya Kingdom) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် မဟာဘာရတ မ္ဂး၊ ဥတ္တရ ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက မကော်စ "ဝိရာဋ ပရဝ" (Virata Parva) မဒှ် အခိင် ကောန်ကၟိန် ပဏ္ဍဝ (Pandavas) မသုန် တၠ တအ် ဒး အာ စိုပ် ဍုင် ဝိရာဋ နကဵု ဗီုပြင် မပၞုက် လဝ် ဇကု (Agyatavasa) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်ဒးဒုင် ကဵု ဒဏ် ပြဝေင် ဒဴ ဍုင် ရ။<ref name="ganguli">{{cite book |last=Ganguli |first=Kisari Mohan |title=The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |year=1883 |pages=Vol. 4, Virata Parva}}</ref>
လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ သၟိင်သၟတ် ဥတ္တရ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင် မဟာဘာရတ၊ တၞောဝ်ဒတောဝ် မိမ၊ ပေါဲဗတိုက် မွဲစွံ ကု အဇုန (Arjuna)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စုတိ ညး ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲပၞာန် ဇၞော် ကုရုက္ၑေတြ (Kurukshetra War) ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Arjuna_and_Uttara_on_Chariot.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး သၟိင်သၟတ် ဥတ္တရ ကေုာံ အဇုန (နကဵု ဗီုပြင် ဗြိဟန္နလာ) မနွံ လတူ ကွဳပၞာန် ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ဍုင်ဝိရာဋ။]]
{| class="infobox vcard" style="width: 22em; text-align: left; font-size: 90%;"
|+ <span class="fn" style="font-size: 1.25em;">'''ဥတ္တရ (Uttara)'''</span>
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | [[File:Kurukshetra.jpg|200px|alt=Uttara in Mahabharata]]<br/>''သၟိင်သၟတ် ဍုင်မတ္သျ ပ္ဍဲ ပြကိုဟ် မဟာဘာရတ''
|-
! ယၟု တၞဟ်
| ဘူမိဉ္စယ (Bhuminjaya)
|-
! သာသနာ
| [[ဟိန္ဒူ]] (Hinduism)
|-
! ဍုင်/ဒေသ
| ဍုင် မတ္သျ (Matsya Kingdom)
|-
! မအံက်
| သၟိင် ဝိရာဋ (King Virata)
|-
! မိအံက်
| မိဂၞကျာ် သုဒေရှနာ (Sudeshna)
|-
! ကောဒေအ်
| ဥတ္တရာ (Uttarā), သွေတ (Shveta), သျင်ခ (Shankha)
|-
! ပေါဲပၞာန်
| ပေါဲပၞာန် ကုရုက္ၑေတြ (Kurukshetra War)
|}
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ဥတ္တရ" (Uttara) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် သက္ကတ ကေုာံ ပါဠိ တုဲ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ဒိုဟ်သၟဝ်ကျာ" (North)၊ "သၠုင်ပြဲ" (Higher)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "လက္ကရဴ" (Latter) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပြကိုဟ် မဟာဘာရတ မ္ဂး၊ ယၟု ဏအ်ဝွံ ကဵု လဝ် သွက် ကောန်တြုဟ် သၟိင် ဝိရာဋ တုဲ၊ သွက် ကောန်ဗြဴ ညး ဂှ် ကဵု လဝ် ယၟု "ဥတ္တရာ" (Uttarā) ရ။
ဥတ္တရ ဝွံ နွံ ယၟု မွဲပၠန် မကော်စ '''ဘူမိဉ္စယ''' (Bhuminjaya) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ညးမအံင်ဇၞး လတူ ဂၠးတိ" ရ။ သၟိင်သၟတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ပြာကတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကောန် ပဏ္ဍဝ တအ် မအာ ဓလီု ပၞုက် ဇကု ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ညးတအ် တုဲ၊ ဥတ္တရ ဝွံ ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မထ္ၜးကဵု လက္ခဏာ မၞိဟ် မနွံကဵု စိုတ် ထိုင်သး ဇကု (Boasting) ဆဂး လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒှ် အာ သၟာပၞာန် မနွံကဵု သတ္တိ ရ။
== ၂။ တၞောဝ်ဒတောဝ် ကေုာံ သ္ၚိကၟိန် (Lineage and Family) ==
ဥတ္တရ ဝွံ ဒှ် ကောန်တြုဟ် သၟိင် ဝိရာဋ မဒှ် သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် ဍုင် မတ္သျ (Matsya) ကေုာံ မိဂၞကျာ် သုဒေရှနာ ရ။ ဍုင် မတ္သျ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် မနွံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ကေုာံ နွံကဵု ဂၠဴ ကေုာံ တိရစ္ဆာန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ကောဒေအ် ကေုာံ သ္ၚိကၟိန် ဥတ္တရ
|-
! ယၟု
! ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် (Relationship)
! တင်စၟတ် ကေုာံ တာလျိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင်
|-
| '''ဝိရာဋ''' (Virata)
| မအံက် (Father)
| သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် ဍုင်မတ္သျ။ ညးမကဵု ဒၞာဲ သွက် ပဏ္ဍဝ တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ပၞုက် ဇကု။
|-
| '''သုဒေရှနာ''' (Sudeshna)
| မိအံက် (Mother)
| မိဂၞကျာ် ဇၞော် ကေုာံ ဒေအ်ဗြဴ သေနာပတိ ကဳစက (Kichaka)။
|-
| '''ဥတ္တရာ''' (Uttarā)
| ဒေအ်ဗြဴ (Sister)
| သၟတ်ဗြဴ မဒှ် ကွး လှ်ေဒွက် ဗြိဟန္နလာ (အဇုန) တုဲ မဒှ် တၠသ္ၚိ အဘိမနျု (Abhimanyu)။
|-
| '''သွေတ ကေုာံ သျင်ခ''' (Shveta & Shankha)
| ကော (Brothers)
| သၟာပၞာန် အဓိက မပါဝင် ဗတိုက် ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲပၞာန် ကုရုက္ၑေတြ တုဲ မဒး စုတိ။
|}
ဥတ္တရ ဝွံ နဒဒှ် သၟိင်သၟတ် ဍောတ် မွဲ ဂှ်၊ ညး မင်မဲ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ နန် ကေုာံ ဟွံဂွံ ဒုင် လဝ် ပေါဲဗတိုက် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ ညး ဏီ ရ။<ref name="buitenen">{{cite book |last=van Buitenen |first=J.A.B. |title=The Mahabharata, Volume 3: The Book of Virata |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1978 |pages=15-20}}</ref>
== ၃။ ပဏ္ဍဝ တအ် မအာစိုပ် ဍုင်ဝိရာဋ (The Pandavas in Disguise at Matsya) ==
အတိုင် တင်လတုပ်စိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲ လံင် ဝိုင် (Game of Dice) မ္ဂး၊ ကောန် ပဏ္ဍဝ မသုန် တၠ (ယုဓိၑ္ဌိရ၊ ဘဳမ၊ အဇုန၊ နကုလ၊ သဟဒေဝ) ကေုာံ မိဂၞကျာ် ဒြောပဒဳ (Draupadi) တအ် သ္ဒး အာ နေရဉ္စရ (Exile) ပ္ဍဲ ဂြိုပ် ပွိုင် ၁၂ သၞာံ တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ မရနုက်ကဵု ၁၃ ဂှ် သ္ဒး ပၞုက် လဝ် ဇကု (Agyatavasa) ယဝ်ရ ညးတၞဟ် ဂၠာဲ ဆဵု မ္ဂး သ္ဒး ကလေင် အာ ဂြိုပ် ၁၂ သၞာံ ပၠန် ရ။
သွက် သၞာံ လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် ဏအ်၊ ညးတအ် ရုဲစှ် ကေတ် ဍုင် ဝိရာဋ သွက်ဂွံ ပၞုက် ဇကု ရ။ အဇုန (Arjuna) မဒှ် သၟာတ္ၚ ဇၞော် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဖန် ဗီုပြင် ဇကု နဒဒှ် မၞိဟ် ဂမုဟ် (Eunuch) မနွံ ယၟု '''ဗြိဟန္နလာ''' (Brihannala) တုဲ လုပ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် နဒဒှ် အစာ လှ်ေဒွက် သွက် သၟတ်ဗြဴ ဥတ္တရာ မဒှ် ဒေအ်ဗြဴ ဥတ္တရ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဏအ်၊ ဥတ္တရ ဟွံတီ ဒဒှ်ရ အစာ ဗြိဟန္နလာ ဝွံ ဒှ် အဇုန ဇေတ်တ် ရ။
== ၄။ ဒပ်ကရဝ တအ် မလုပ်ဗတိုက် ဍုင် (The Kaurava Invasion) ==
ကာလ ကောန် ကရဝ (Kauravas) တအ် မက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် နကဵု ဒုရယောဓန (Duryodhana) ဂွံ တီ ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ သေနာပတိ ဇၞော် ဍုင် ဝိရာဋ (ကဳစက) ဒးဒုင် ဂစိုတ် ထောအ် (နကဵု ဘဳမ) တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် ထေင် ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပဏ္ဍဝ တအ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဏအ် ရ။
သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ထ္ၜး ပဏ္ဍဝ တအ် တုဲ သွက်ဂွံ သီ ကေတ် ဂၠဴ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် မတ္သျ ဂှ်၊ ဒုရယောဓန ဖန်ဇန် လဝ် ပရေင်လုပ် ဗတိုက် ဍုင် နကဵု ဂၠံင် ၜါ လပါ် ရ။
* လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ: သၟိင် သုရှာမာ (Susharma) မဒှ် သၟိင် ဍုင် တြိဂတာ (Trigarta) လုပ် ဗတိုက် တုဲ တံင် ဓဇက် ဏာ သၟိင် ဝိရာဋ ကေုာံ ဒပ်ပၞာန် အဓိက သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
* လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ: ဒပ်ပၞာန် ဇၞော် ကရဝ မပါလုပ် သီု ဘဳၑၟ (Bhishma)၊ ဒြောဏ (Drona)၊ ကရဏ (Karna)၊ ကေုာံ ဒုရယောဓန တအ် လုပ် ဗတိုက် သီ ကေတ် ဂၠဴ တအ် ရ။
အခိင် ဏအ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ နန် ဍုင် ဝိရာဋ ဂှ် သှ်ေ ဒၟံင် ဆ သၟိင်သၟတ် ဥတ္တရ ကေုာံ ညးဗြဴ တအ် သၟး ရ။<ref name="doniger">{{cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |title=The Hindus: An Alternative History |url=https://archive.org/details/hindusalternativ0000doni |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindusalternativ0000doni/page/240 240]-245}}</ref>
== ၅။ ဥတ္တရ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် (Uttara's Boast and the Battle Setup) ==
ကာလ ပရိုင် စိုပ် ကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကရဝ တအ် သီ ကေတ် ဏာ ဂၠဴ သီုဖအိုတ် လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ်၊ ညးမင် ဂၠဴ တအ် ကၠုင် အာတ် အရီုအဗင် နူ ဥတ္တရ ရ။
ဥတ္တရ ဝွံ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု မိက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး သတ္တိ လတူ ညးဗြဴ တအ် ဂှ်ရ ညး ဟီု ထိုင်သး ဇကု ဒဒှ်ရ - "ယဝ်ရ အဲ ဂွံ လဝ် သၟာဒြေပ် ကွဳပၞာန် (Charioteer) မစိုန်သကီု မွဲ မ္ဂး၊ အဲ ဗတိုက် ဇၞး ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကရဝ တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် မာန် ရ"။ ကာလ ဂှ် ဒြောပဒဳ (မပၞုက် လဝ် ဇကု နဒဒှ် သဲရန္ဒြဳ) ဟီု ကဵု သၟတ်ဗြဴ ဥတ္တရာ ညံင် ဂွံ အာတ်မိက် အစာ ဗြိဟန္နလာ (အဇုန) သွက်ဂွံ ဒြေပ် ကွဳ ကဵု ဥတ္တရ ရ။ ဥတ္တရ လေဝ် ဒုင်တဲ တုဲ ကေတ် ဏာ ဗြိဟန္နလာ နဒဒှ် သၟာဒြေပ် ကွဳ ညးတုဲ တိတ် အာ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ဒြေပ်ဒဴ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထ္ၜး ဇကုဍာံ (The Flight and Revelation of Arjuna) ==
ကာလ ကွဳပၞာန် ဥတ္တရ စိုပ် အာ ဇိုင် ပေါဲဗတိုက် တုဲ ဂွံ ဆဵု ညာတ် ကေတ် ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကရဝ မဇၞော် လှဲလး မနွံကဵု သၟာပၞာန် ဒယှ် တအ် ဂှ်၊ ဥတ္တရ ဖေက် လောတ် အာ တုဲ ဟီု ကု ဗြိဟန္နလာ ညံင် ဂွံ ကလေင် ကွဳ စဴ ဍုင် ရ။
ဗြိဟန္နလာ ဟွံဒုင်တဲ တုဲ ဆက် ဒြေပ် ကွဳ ဂတ ဂှ်၊ ဥတ္တရ ဒြေပ် စှ်ေ နူ ကွဳ တုဲ ဒြေပ် ဒဴ ရ။ ဗြိဟန္နလာ ဒြေပ် ဗက် အာ တုဲ ရပ် ကေတ် ဥတ္တရ ရ။ တုဲမ္ဂး ဗြိဟန္နလာ ကဵု သတိ ဥတ္တရ ဒဒှ်ရ ဒြေပ် ဒဴ နူ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ ဟွံမဲ ကု စရာဲ သွက် ကောန် သၟိင် (Kshatriya) ရ။
သွက်ဂွံ ဗတိုက် ပၞာန် ဏအ်၊ ဗြိဟန္နလာ တံင် ဏာ ဥတ္တရ ဇရေင် တၞံ ဆု ရှာမဳ (Shami tree) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ညးတအ် ပၞုက် လဝ် လွဟ် ပၞာန် ညးတအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ ဂှ် ဗြိဟန္နလာ ထ္ၜး ကဵု တ္ၚ ဂဏ္ဍဳဝ (Gandiva bow) ကေုာံ လလောင်တြး ထ္ၜး ဇကုဍာံ ဒဒှ်ရ ညးဂှ် ဒှ် အဇုန မဒှ် သၟာတ္ၚ ဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဥတ္တရ ဂွံ တီ ကေတ် တုဲ စိုတ် ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် အာ ကေုာံ ဒုင် ကေတ် တာလျိုင် နဒဒှ် သၟာဒြေပ် ကွဳ သွက် အဇုန ရ။<ref name="smith">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=John D. |title=The Mahabharata: An Abridged Translation |publisher=Penguin Classics |year=2009 |pages=310-318}}</ref>
== ၇။ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ကုရု မွဲစွံ ကု အဇုန (The Battle against the Kurus) ==
လၟုဟ် မ္ဂး တာလျိုင် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ တုဲ၊ အဇုန ဒှ် မၞိဟ် ဗတိုက် ကေုာံ ဥတ္တရ ဒှ် မၞိဟ် ဒြေပ် ကွဳပၞာန် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ဏအ် မကော်စ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ဝိရာဋ (Battle of Virata)၊ အဇုန ညးမွဲ ဓဝ် ဗတိုက် အလုံ မွဲ ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကရဝ ရ။
အဇုန ဗတိုက် ဇၞး ကေတ် ကရဏ (Karna)၊ ဒြောဏ (Drona)၊ ကေုာံ ဒုရယောဓန (Duryodhana) တအ် တုဲ သီ ကလေင် ဂွံ ဂၠဴ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ဥတ္တရ ဂွံ ဆဵု ညာတ် ကေတ် ဣဒ္ဓိဗလ ကေုာံ ကွတ် တ္ၚ အဇုန နကဵု မတ် ဇကု တုဲ စိုတ် ထိုင်သး ကေုာံ ဇြဟတ် သတ္တိ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ထပ်တဲ သၟတ်ဗြဴ ဥတ္တရာ (Marriage of Princess Uttarā) ==
ကာလ ညးတအ် ကလေင် စိုပ် ဍုင် တုဲ၊ သၟိင် ဝိရာဋ ဂွံ တီ ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးမင် မွဲ လဝ် ဍုင် ညးတအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ကောန် ပဏ္ဍဝ တအ် ရ (ဟိုတ်နူ အခိင် ပၞုက် ဇကု ၁၃ သၞာံ လေဝ် အာစိုပ် ဒတုဲ တုဲ ရ)။
သၟိင် ဝိရာဋ အိုတ်တၟိုဟ် စိုတ် ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ပရေင်လျိုင်ပတှ်ေ မိတ်သဟာယ ဂှ်၊ ညး ကဵု ဒါန် ကောန်ဗြဴ ညး ဥတ္တရာ သွက်ဂွံ ထပ်တဲ ကု အဇုန ရ။ ဆဂး အဇုန ဟွံဒုင်တဲ ဥတ္တရာ နဒဒှ် သမ္ဘာ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ညး ဒှ် လဝ် အစာ လှ်ေဒွက် သွက် ဥတ္တရာ တုဲ ညး ဆာန် ဥတ္တရာ တုပ် ညံင် ကောန် ဇကု မွဲ ရ။ ဆဂး အဇုန ဒုင်တဲ ဥတ္တရာ နဒဒှ် ကောန်ဗြဴ ခမာ (Daughter-in-law) တုဲ ဖန်ဇန် ကဵု ပရေင်ထပ်တဲ ဥတ္တရာ မွဲစွံ ကု ကောန်တြုဟ် ညး '''အဘိမနျု''' (Abhimanyu) ရ။ ပရေင်ထပ်တဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် မိတ်သဟာယ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် အကြာ ပဏ္ဍဝ တအ် ကေုာံ ဍုင် မတ္သျ သွက် ပေါဲပၞာန် အနာဂတ် ရ။
== ၉။ ပေါဲပၞာန် ကုရုက္ၑေတြ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စုတိ ဥတ္တရ (The Kurukshetra War and Uttara's Death) ==
ကာလ ပေါဲပၞာန် ဇၞော် ကုရုက္ၑေတြ (Kurukshetra War) စကတဵုဒှ်၊ သၟိင် ဝိရာဋ၊ ဥတ္တရ ကေုာံ ကောဒေအ် ညး သီုဖအိုတ် ပါဝင် ဗတိုက် လပါ် ဒပ် ပဏ္ဍဝ တအ် ရ။ ဥတ္တရ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် သၟိင်သၟတ် မဖေက်ဂၟံက် မွဲ ရ၊ ညး ဒှ် သၟာပၞာန် မနွံကဵု သတ္တိ တုဲ ဍိုက် ကေတ် စိင် ပၞာန် မွဲ (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကွဳပၞာန်) တုဲ လုပ် ဗတိုက် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲ ပထမ အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲပၞာန် ဂှ်၊ ဥတ္တရ ဆဵုဂဗ ပေါဲဗတိုက် မွဲစွံ ကု သၟိင် ရှလျ (Shalya) မဒှ် သၟိင် ဍုင် မဒြ (Madra) ကေုာံ သေနာပတိ ဇၞော် လပါ် ကရဝ ရ။ ဥတ္တရ ဗတိုက် ကဵု ရှလျ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကဵု ဇြဟတ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ သၟိင် ရှလျ ပန် ဏာ ဗၞုဟ် မွဲ တုဲ ဒး အာ ဥတ္တရ တုဲ ဥတ္တရ ဒး စုတိ အာ လတူ ပေါဲဗတိုက် နဒဒှ် သၟာပၞာန် မွဲ ရ။ ပရေင်စုတိ ညးဝွံ ပကဵု ညံင် ကော ညး သွေတ (Shveta) ဂွံ ထေဲပၞတ် တုဲ လုပ် ဗတိုက် သၟိင် ရှလျ ဆက် အာ ရ။<ref name="hiltebeitel">{{cite book |last=Hiltebeitel |first=Alf |title=The Ritual of Battle: Krishna in the Mahabharata |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1990 |pages=180-185}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ သင်္ကေတ ကေုာံ သြဇာ လက္ကရဴ (Symbolism and Legacy) ==
သၟိင်သၟတ် ဥတ္တရ ဝွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် မဟာဘာရတ မ္ဂး ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ "မၞိဟ်သၟတ် မထိုင်သး ဇကု ဆဂး ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ခိုဟ် ဟိုတ်နူ အစာ ခိုဟ်" ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အစ ဂှ် ညး နွံကဵု မာန ကေုာံ စိုတ် ဖေက်ဂၟံက် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ကာလ ညး ဂွံ စုက်လုက် မွဲစွံ ကု အဇုန တုဲ ညး ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် အာ တာလျိုင် ဍာံပြ သွက် ကောန် သၟိင် (Kshatriya dharma) ရ။
ပရေင်စုတိ ညး ပ္ဍဲ တ္ၚဲ ပထမ ဏအ်ဝွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ ပေါဲပၞာန် ဝွံ ဟွံရုဲစှ် မၞိဟ် သၟတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မၞိဟ် ဇၞော် တုဲ ကဵု သမ္တီ ကု ပရေင်သၠး လမျီု (Sacrifice) ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ၜိုန်ရ ဥတ္တရ စုတိ အာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဒေအ်ဗြဴ ညး ဥတ္တရာ ဂှ် ဒှ် မိအံက် သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် ပရိက္ၑိတ (Parikshit) မဒှ် တၞောဝ်ဒတောဝ် လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် သွက် ဂကူ ပဏ္ဍဝ မဆက် အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် ဟသ္တိနပူရ (Hastinapura) ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[မဟာဘာရတ]] (Mahabharata)
* [[အဇုန]] (Arjuna)
* [[အဘိမနျု]] (Abhimanyu)
* [[ကုရုက္ၑေတြ]] (Kurukshetra War)
{{Navbox
| name = Mahabharata
| title = မဟာဘာရတ ကေုာံ တၞောဝ်ဒတောဝ် ဍုင် ဝိရာဋ (Mahabharata and Matsya Kingdom)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သ္ၚိကၟိန် ဝိရာဋ
| list1 =
* [[သၟိင် ဝိရာဋ]] (Virata)
* [[သုဒေရှနာ]] (Sudeshna)
* [[ဥတ္တရ]] (Uttara)
* [[ဥတ္တရာ]] (Uttarā)
* [[ကဳစက]] (Kichaka)
| group2 = ပဏ္ဍဝ ပ္ဍဲ ဝိရာဋ (Disguises)
| list2 =
* [[ကင်္က]] (Kanka - Yudhishthira)
* [[ဝလ္လဘ]] (Vallabha - Bhima)
* [[ဗြိဟန္နလာ]] (Brihannala - Arjuna)
* [[ဂြန္ထိက]] (Granthika - Nakula)
* [[တန္တိပါလ]] (Tantipala - Sahadeva)
* [[သဲရန္ဒြဳ]] (Sairandhri - Draupadi)
| group3 = ဝင် ကေုာံ ပေါဲဗတိုက်
| list3 =
* [[ဝိရာဋ ပရဝ]] (Virata Parva)
* [[ပေါဲဗတိုက် ဝိရာဋ]] (Battle of Virata)
* [[ပေါဲပၞာန် ကုရုက္ၑေတြ]] (Kurukshetra War)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[အဘိမနျု]] (Abhimanyu)
* [[ပရိက္ၑိတ]] (Parikshit)
* [[ဒုရယောဓန]] (Duryodhana)
* [[ရှလျ]] (Shalya)
}}
[[Category:မဟာဘာရတ]]
[[Category:ဟိန္ဒူ]]
[[Category:ဝင် အိန္ဒိယ တြေံ]]
[[Category:သၟာပၞာန် ဒယှ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
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'''ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ရုပ်လၟေင်ချဳဓရာင်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Animation'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ကွတ်ပြညာ ကေုာံ အနုသုခုမ မဗဒှ် ပတိုန် ရုပ်ဗီုဏာဏာ ကေုာံ ကပေါတ်နာနာ ညံင် ဂွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် (Motion) ပ္ဍဲ ဖန်သ္ၚိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဖျာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ရ။ နကဵု လၟေင် ပတိုန် ရုပ်ဗီု မဂၠိုင်င် အလန် (Frames) မချဳဓရာင် မွဲတုဲ မွဲ မွဲ ကဆံင် နကဵု လဟိုင် မပြဟ်ပြဟ် ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် မတ်မၞိဟ် ဂွံ ညာတ် ကေတ် ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဒဒှ်ရ ရုပ်ချဳဓရာင် ဍာံပြ မွဲ ရ။<ref name="wells">{{cite book |last=Wells |first=P. |title=Understanding Animation |url=https://archive.org/details/understandingani00well |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/understandingani00well/page/10 10]-15}}</ref>
ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဝွံ ဒှ် ကွတ်အနုသုခုမ မဇၞော်မောဝ် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တ္ၚဲဏအ် တုဲ ဍေဟ် ပါလုပ် သီု ပ္ဍဲ ကမၠောန်ဇာတ်၊ ဖျာ တာန်စိင် (Television)၊ ဗွဟ်လိက် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်၊ ကေုာံ ကာတေန် နာနာ သာ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ နဲကဲခၞံဗဒှ်၊ ကွတ်အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Zoetrope_animation.gif|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး နဲကဲ စတမ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် မချဳဓရာင် (Zoetrope) မစကာ ကၠာ ကေုာံ ကၠာ တေအ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်" (Animation) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် လာတ္တေန် "animare" မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ပလံင် ပၞာန်လမျီု၊ ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် လမျီု" ရ။ နကဵု သွဟ် သိပ္ပံ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဗီုပြင် မပကေတ် မတ်မၞိဟ် (Persistence of vision) ညံင် ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ကဵု ရုပ်တြေံ ကေုာံ ရုပ်တၟိ မဗက် မွဲ ကြဴ မွဲ မစှ်ေလဝ် ပ္ဍဲ တင်အခိင် မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ ညာတ် ဒှ် ရုပ် မချဳဓရာင် အလုံစုံ ရ။
ခေတ်တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ရုပ်ကလာက် (Cartoons) ဓမ္မတာ ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု 3D CGI (Computer-Generated Imagery) မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ ဗီုဇာတ် Hollywood ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ကေုာံ ဗဒှ် သတ္တဝါ၊ တၞံ၊ ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် နာနာ ညံင် ဂွံ ဍာံပြ မာန် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Origins) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဝွံ စတင် လဝ် နူ ဍာံပြ ကၠာ အခိင် ကာလ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် မချူ ရုပ် တိရစ္ဆာန် မနွံ ကဵု ပထောင် ပေင် ပ္ဍဲ ထီု (Cave paintings) မဂစာန် ထ္ၜး ကဵု အဝဲ မဂၠိုင် (ဥပမာ ရုပ် သိင်္ဃ မြေပ် ပန် ဇိုင်) မထ္ၜး ကဵု ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ရ။
* '''Magic Lantern (၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ):''' ကပေါတ် မစကာ လျး ပၟတ် သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ရုပ်ဗီု လတူ စက္ခော ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဖျာ။
* '''Zoetrope (၁၈၃၄):''' ကပေါတ် မလည် မစကာ ရုပ် ဗီု မကၠေင် မွဲ စွံ သွက် မၞိဟ် ဂွံ ညာတ် ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ရုပ် မချဳဓရာင်။
* '''Emile Cohl (၁၉၀8):''' တၠပညာ ပြင်သေတ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် ဗီုဇာတ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ပထမအိုတ် မဟိုတ် မချူ လဝ် နကဵု စက္ခော ''Fantasmagorie'' ရ။<ref name="crafton">{{cite book |last=Crafton |first=D. |title=Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898-1934 |url=https://archive.org/details/beforemickeyanim0000craf_m1u9 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1993 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/beforemickeyanim0000craf_m1u9/page/40 40]-55}}</ref>
== ၃။ ဓမံက်ပတိုတ် ဝေါဟာရ ကေုာံ ဝင် ဒုသ်ဝေယ် (The Walt Disney Era) ==
စိုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ၂၀ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဒေါဝ် ဒေသ တေအ်၊ ကုမ္ပဏဳ ဝေါလ် ဒုသ်ဝေယ် (Walt Disney) ဒှ် ညးမက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ကေုာံ ဖန်ဇန် လဝ် ပရူ ဗီုပြေင် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''Steamboat Willie (၁၉၂၈):''' ဗီုဇာတ် မစကာ ရမ္သာင် (Sound synchronized animation) ပထမအိုတ် မနွံကဵု မာင်ဝေါတ် (Mickey Mouse) ပါလုပ် ရ။
* '''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (၁၉၃၇):''' ဒှ် ဗီုဇာတ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် အလုံ မွဲ တိုင် (Feature-length animated film) ပထမအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ တုဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ကွတ် အနုသုခုမ မဍိုက်ပေင် အိုတ် ရ။
== ၄။ နဲကဲ ကေုာံ ဂကူ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်ဂမၠိုင် (Types and Techniques of Animation) ==
ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု နဲကဲ ကေုာံ ဂကူ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် (Type)
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ နဲကဲ (Description)
! ဥပမာ
|-
| '''စက္ခော ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်''' (Traditional / Cel Animation)
| ချူ ကေုာံ ခၞံ ရုပ် ဗီု တဲ လတူ စက္ခော သၠာဲ မွဲ ကဆံင် ကဵု မွဲ ကဆံင်။
| ဒုသ်ဝေယ် တြေံ (Pinocchio, Cinderella)။
|-
| '''၃ဒဳ ကွန်ပျူတာ''' (3D Computer Animation)
| စကာ ဆော့ဝဲ (Software) ကွန်ပျူတာ သွက်ဂွံ ဗဒှ် လဒက်ပတန် ၃ ဒဳမေန်ရှေန်။
| Pixar (Toy Story, Frozen)။
|-
| '''စတောပ် မဝ်ရှေန်''' (Stop-Motion Animation)
| စကာ ရုပ်ဗီု ပသဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပလါတ်သတိက် တုဲ ပၠံင် ဗီု တုဲ ကလေင် ဍိုက် (Frame by frame)။
| Wallace and Gromit, Coraline။
|-
| '''မဝ်ရှေန် ကေပ်စာ (Motion Capture)'''
| စကာ တၠပညာ သၟာဇာတ် မကေတ် လဒက်ပတန် စိုတ် ကဵု ရုပ် တုဲ ပြံင် ဒှ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်။
| Avatar, Lord of the Rings (Gollum)။
|}
== ၅။ ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ သၞောဝ် ပိဋကတ် ၁၂ သာ် (The 12 Principles of Animation) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၈၁၊ တၠပညာ ဇၞော် အပါဲ ဒုသ်ဝေယ် ၜါ တၠ (Ollie Johnston ကေုာံ Frank Thomas) ဖန်ဗဒှ် ထ္ၜး လဝ် '''သၞောဝ် ၁၂ သာ် သွက် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် မဇၞော်အိုတ်''' (12 Basic Principles of Animation) သွက်ဂွံ ပကဵု ညံင် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် တအ် ဂွံ ထ္ၜးကဵု သဘာဝ ဍာံပြ မာန် <ref name="thomas">{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=F. |author2=Johnston, O. |title=The Illusion of Life: Disney Animation |publisher=Disney Editions |year=1981 |pages=45-60}}</ref> -
1. '''Squash and Stretch (ပသၠိတ် ကေုာံ ပဇောင်း):''' ထ္ၜး ကဵု ဓါတ် ရုပ် မယေန် မနွံကဵု လလဳ (Elasticity)။
2. '''Anticipation (ပရေင်စွံ သတိ ကိုပ်ကၠာ):''' ဖန် ရုပ် မကၠောန် ကိုပ်ကၠာ စ ကမၠောန် အဓိက (ဥပမာ - တိုန် မာင် ကိုပ်ကၠာ ခဍေဝ်)။
3. '''Staging (ပရေင်ဖန် ဒၞာဲ):''' ထ္ၜး တင်အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဖျာ ညံင် မၞိဟ် ဂွံ ညာတ် ကၠးကၠး။
4. '''Straight Ahead Action and Pose to Pose (နဲကဲ ချူ):''' နဲကဲ ချူ ရုပ် နူ စတမ် စဵု လအိတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဖန် ဗီု အဓိက ကိုပ်ကၠာ။
5. '''Follow Through and Overlapping Action (ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဓရာင်):''' အဝဲ မတၞဟ် တအ် (စေန်၊ ဆီ၊ မာန်) ဆက် ချဳဓရာင် ကြဴနူ ရုပ် ဒေါအ် အာ။
6. '''Slow In and Slow Out (ပရေင်ပလံင် ပြဟ်-မွဲမွဲ):''' ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ စတမ် ဇိုန် စဵု လအိတ် ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ပြဟ် ဗၠတ် ထေက်။
7. '''Arcs (ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် လပါ် ကွေက်):''' ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ဒၞာဲ ဒး ချဳဓရာင် နကဵု လၟေင် ကွေက် (Arcs) ဟွံသေင် ပသတိ မတပ်တပ် ပုဟ်။
8. '''Secondary Action (ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ဆက်စပ်):''' ပ္တိတ် ရုပ် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် ဆက်စပ် သွက်ဂွံ ပဒါ် ဒစးဒုင် ဇၞော်။
9. '''Timing (လၟေင် အခိင်):''' စွံ စရင်အင် လၟိဟ် ရုပ် (Frames) သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ဓါတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒြဟတ် မဇၞော်။
10. '''Exaggeration (ပရေင်ပ္တိုန် တၟေင်):''' ပ္တိုန် တၟေင် ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ သွက်ဂွံ ပရး ကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Comedy/Drama)။
11. '''Solid Drawing (ပရေင်တန်တဴ ၃ဒဳ):''' တၠပညာ ဒး တီ ကၠိုဟ် ဓါတ် အဝဲ တုဲ ဒက်ပတန် ဍေဟ် ပ္ဍဲ တင် ဒၞာဲ ဍာံ။
12. '''Appeal (ပရေင်ဆာန်ဍူ ကဵု ကျေဝ်ဂေါဝ်):''' ဖန်ဇန် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ညံင် မၞိဟ် မင် မွဲ သ္ၚေဝ် မအိုတ်တၟိုဟ်။
== ၆။ ကွတ် အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ကေုာံ ဆော့ဝဲ (Engineering and Software) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဒှ် ကမၠောန် အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ မဇၞော်ကဵု ဒြဟတ် မွဲ ရ။ ဆော့ဝဲ အဓိက မစကာ သွက်ဂွံ ခၞံ ဗဒှ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ပါလုပ် -
* '''Blender ကေုာံ Maya:''' သွက်ဂွံ ခၞံ 3D Modelling, Rigging, ကေုာံ Animation ရ။
* '''Adobe After Effects:''' သွက် Motion Graphics ကေုာံ Visual Effects (VFX) ရ။
* '''Unreal Engine:''' ကွတ် အေန်ဂျေန် ဂိမဝ် (Game Engine) မစကာ သွက်ဂွံ ပ္တိတ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် နကဵု အခိင် ဇေတ်တ် (Real-time rendering)။
== ၇။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Impact on Culture and Economy) ==
ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဖဵုသက်ရောက် မဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် လတူ ယေန်သၞာင် ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အလုံစုံ -
* '''အေန်တတာတေန်မေန် (Entertainment Industry):''' ဟဝ်လဳဝုဒ် (Hollywood) ကေုာံ ဂျပေန် (Anime Industry) တအ် ပ္တိတ် ဗီုဇာတ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် မနွံကဵု သြန်ဖအိုတ် ဘဳလဳယာန် မဂၠိုင် ကေုာံ ကလိဂွံ လၟိဟ် သြန်ဝင် ပလံင် ပၞာန် တၟာဇၞော် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပညာ (Education):''' စကာ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် ပရူ သိပ္ပံ၊ ဝင်၊ ကေုာံ ကပေါတ် ဇြိုဟ်နက် (Animation in e-learning) လေဝ် နွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။<ref name="pixar">{{cite book |last=Catmull |first=E. |title=Creativity, Inc.: Overcoming the Unseen Forces That Stand in the Way of True Inspiration |url=https://archive.org/details/creativityincove0000edca |publisher=Random House |year=2014 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/creativityincove0000edca/page/100 100]-115}}</ref>
== ၈။ အေန်ဒသတြဳ အာနဳမေ (Japanese Anime) ==
လပါ် ဍုင်ဂျပေန် မ္ဂး၊ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဍေဟ်တအ် မကော်စ '''အာနဳမေ''' (Anime) ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အနုသုခုမ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ အာနဳမေ တအ် ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ နူ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် အမေရိကာန် (ဇကု ဍောတ်တ်)၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ လညာတ် ဒဿန၊ ပရူပရာ သၠုင် (Mature themes)၊ ကေုာံ ဝတ္ထု ဇြိုဟ်နက် မတုပ် ကု ဇာတ် မၞိဟ် ဍာံ (Live-action) တုဲ ဍေဟ် ပ္တိတ် လဝ် ဖဵု ယေန်သၞာင် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၉။ နဲကဲ သုတေသန ကေုာံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် (Research and Analysis Methods) ==
တၠပညာ တအ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် နကဵု လညာတ် လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ဝင် -
* '''ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဆီမေဝ်တေက် (Semiotic Analysis):''' သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် သင်္ကေတ၊ အသာ်၊ ကေုာံ ရမ္သာင် မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ညံင် ဂွံ ပလံင် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကု မၞိဟ် မဗှ်/မဗဵု တအ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ပရေင်စိုတ် (Psychological Impact):''' လ္ၚတ် ဗီုလဵု ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Empathy) အကြာ မၞိဟ် မဗဵု ကဵု ဇာတ် ပ္ဍဲ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် တအ် ရ။<ref name="pendez">{{cite book |last=Pendez |first=J. |title=Animation: Art and Industry |publisher=John Libbey Publishing |year=2007 |pages=70-85}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပလံင် အနုသုခုမ ကေုာံ ကွတ် သိပ္ပံ မဆက်စပ် ရေင်သကအ် မစတမ် နူကဵု ရုပ် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် စဵုကဵု စိုပ် 3D AI Animation ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ ကွတ် ဉာဏ်စက် (Artificial Intelligence - AI Animation) တအ် လုပ် ပြံက် ဓရိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ကမၠောန် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် တုဲ ဖန် ပကဵု ညံင် တၠပညာ တအ် ဂွံ ခၞံ ဗဒှ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် မပြဟ် ကေုာံ ဍိုန်ဍိုန်သ္အးသ္အး မာန် ရ။ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဝွံ ဆက် ဒှ် ဒၟံင် ပၞောန် မလဟိင် စိုတ်၊ ဗတောန် ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပလံင် လညာတ် မဇၞော်အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဗီုဇာတ်]] (Film)
* [[အာနဳမေ]] (Anime)
* [[ကာတေန်]] (Cartoon)
* [[ကွန်ပျူတာ ဂရပ်ဖိစ်]] (Computer graphics)
{{Navbox
| name = Animation
| title = ကွတ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ကေုာံ အနုသုခုမ (Animation Arts and Technology)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = နဲကဲ အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်]] (Animation)
* [[စတောပ် မဝ်ရှေန်]] (Stop-motion)
* [[အာနဳမေ]] (Anime)
* [[မဝ်ရှေန် ကေပ်စာ]] (Motion capture)
| group2 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[ဗီုဇာတ်]] (Film)
* [[ကာတေန်]] (Cartoon)
* [[ကွတ်ချူလိက်]] (Calligraphy)
* [[အနုသုခုမ]] (Art)
| group3 = တၠပညာ / ကုမ္ပဏဳ
| list3 =
* [[ဝေါလ် ဒုသ်ဝေယ်]] (Walt Disney)
* [[ပဳဇာရ်]] (Pixar)
* [[ဂိဗလဳ]] (Studio Ghibli)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ပါ်တိတ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[သၞောဝ် ၁၂ သာ် သွက် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်]] (12 principles of animation)
* [[3D ကွန်ပျူတာ]] (3D computer graphics)
* [[ဗီုဇာတ် ဇမၠေအ်]] (Short film)
* [[ဆော့ဝဲ]] (Software)
}}
[[Category:ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်]]
[[Category:ဗီုဇာတ် ကေုာံ တင်လဟိင်]]
[[Category:အနုသုခုမ]]
[[Category:ကွတ်ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်]]
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'''ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Rule of law'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လညာတ် ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မစၟတ်သမ္တီ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ်၊ ဂကောံ၊ အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန်၊ ကေုာံ အလဵုအသဳ တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် သ္ဒး ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် အတိုင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဍုင် ကေုာံ သ္ဒး ဒုင် အာတ်မိက် တာလျိုင် သၟဝ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မတုပ်သၟဟ် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။ ဓရ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒစးဒုင် ကု လညာတ် "သၞောတ် မအုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵု ပူဂိုလ်" (Rule by man) မဒှ် သၞောတ် သၟိင်တၠ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တၠအာဏာ တအ် မဖန်ဇန် အုပ်ဓုပ် အတိုင် ပၟိက် စိုတ် ညးတအ် အလဵုဇကု ရ။<ref name="bingham">{{cite book |last=Bingham |first=T. |title=The Rule of Law |url=https://archive.org/details/ruleoflaw0000bing |publisher=Allen Lane |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ruleoflaw0000bing/page/3 3]-15}}</ref>
ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက အိုတ် သွက် သၞောတ် '''[[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]]''' (Democracy)၊ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ '''[[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]]''' (Human rights)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဍုင် မွဲ ရ။ သၞောတ် ဏအ် မင်မဲ လဝ် ညံင် သၞောဝ် ဂွံ နွံ ကဵု တရားမျှတ (Justice)၊ ဂွံ လလောင်တြး ပြာကတ် ကေုာံ ညံင် ရုင်ဗစာ (Judiciary) ဂွံ တန်တဴ ဗၠးၜး (Independent) ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဇိုင် ဓရ်၊ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Statue of Lady Justice front.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး မိသၞောဝ်ဓဝ် (Lady Justice) မစွံ လဝ် ယာတ် ဂြောပ် မတ် (ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ဟွံပါ်ခြာ မုက်မတ်)၊ ရပ် လဝ် ဇုက် ချိန် (ထ္ၜး ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ်)၊ ကေုာံ သၞာ် (ထ္ၜး အာဏာ ဥပဒေ)။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ" (Rule of law) ဝွံ နကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် သာမည မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အကာဲအရာ "ဥပဒေ ဓဝ် ဟေင် ဒှ် သၟိင်" ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မနွံ ကု ဓရ် ဏအ်၊ ဟွံမဲ ကု မၞိဟ် မွဲမွဲ - သမ္မတ၊ ဝန်ဇၞော်၊ သေဋ္ဌဳ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သကိုပ်ပၞာန် ကီုလေဝ် - မနွံ သၠုင် နူ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ပုဟ်။
နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကံင်သဳ ဥရောပ (Council of Europe) ကေုာံ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (UN) မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ဝွံ နွံကဵု အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ အဓိက မပ္တံကဵု:
* '''ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် ဂတ သၞောဝ် (Equality before the law):''' မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒး ဒုင် စဳရေင် အတိုင် သၞောဝ် တုပ်တုပ်။
* '''ပရေင်မနွံ ကု သၞောဝ် မပြာကတ် (Legal certainty):''' သၞောဝ် တအ် ဒး ချူ ဓမံက် လဝ် ကၠးကၠး တုဲ၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် တီ မာန် ဒဒှ်ရ မု ကၠောန် ဂွံ၊ မု ကၠောန် ဟွံဂွံ။
* '''ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ အခေါင် (Protection of rights):''' သၞောဝ် ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဒှ် သၞောဝ် မစဵုဒၞာ အခေါင် သဇိုင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Evolution) ==
လညာတ် ပရူ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မနွံ သြဇာ လတူ ကောန်မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဏအ် ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် တမၠာ တေအ် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ:''' တၠပညာ ဒဿန '''[[အရိသ်တဝ်တယ်]]''' (Aristotle) ချူ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဓဝ် ဟေင် မထေက် ကု ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် မွဲ၊ ဟွံသေင် ကု ပူဂိုလ် မွဲမွဲ" ရ။
* '''ခေတ် လဒေါဝ် (Magna Carta - 1215):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန်၊ သၟိင် ဂျောန် (King John) သ္ဒး ထပက် စၟတ်တဲ လိက်ကသုက် ''[[မာဂ်နာ ကာတာ]]'' မဒှ် လိက် မပိုင်ခြာ အာဏာ သၟိင် ဨကရာဇ် ကေုာံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ သၟိင် လေဝ် သ္ဒး တန်တဴ သၟဝ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကီု ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ပညာ လျး (၁၈-၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ):''' တၠပညာ အင်္ဂလာန် အေ.ဗဳ. ဒါင်သဳ (A.V. Dicey) ဖန်ဗဒှ် ယၟု ဝေါဟာရ "Rule of law" ဏအ် ဗွဲမပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ညး "Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution" (1885) ရ။ ညး ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ သၞောတ် ဏအ် ဝွံ ကာကွယ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် နူကဵု ပရေင်စကာ အာဏာ အတိုင် ပၟိက် စိုတ် အလဵုအသဳ ရ။<ref name="dicey">{{cite book |last=Dicey |first=A. V. |title=Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.237245 |publisher=Macmillan |year=1885 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.237245/page/105 105]-120}}</ref>
== ၃။ သဇိုင် သၞောဝ် ကေုာံ တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Core Principles and Objectives) ==
ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု သဇိုင် တင် အဓိက ၄ သာ် အတိုင် လညာတ် ဂကောံ ပရဝ်ဂျေတ် သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးတိ (World Justice Project - WJP) ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး သဇိုင် ဓရ် ၄ သာ် သွက် ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ (WJP Principles)
|-
! လၟေင်
! သဇိုင် ဓရ်
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် အဓိက
|-
| ၁
| '''ပရေင်ဒုင်အာတ်မိက် တာလျိုင်''' (Accountability)
| အလဵုအသဳ၊ ဂကောံ ပုဂ္ဂလိက ကေုာံ ပူဂိုလ် သီုဖအိုတ် သ္ဒး ဒုင် အာတ်မိက် တာလျိုင် သၟဝ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ တုပ်တုပ်။ အလဵုအသဳ ဟွံမဲ အခေါင် လုပ် ဗၠးဒုဟ် (Impunity)။
|-
| ၂
| '''သၞောဝ် မဍာံပြ ကေုာံ မျှတ''' (Just Laws)
| သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဂှ် သ္ဒး ကၠးဖ္ဍး၊ ညးဂမၠိုင် တီ မာန်၊ တန်တဴ ဗိုန်ဗတ်၊ ကေုာံ သ္ဒး စဵုဒၞာ အခေါင်အရာ သဇိုင် မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ညးဍုင်ကွာန်။
|-
| ၃
| '''အလဵုအသဳ ပံက်လး''' (Open Government)
| လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မဖျေဟ် သၞောဝ် ကေုာံ ရပ်စပ် သၞောဝ် တအ် ဂှ် သ္ဒး ပံက်လး၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ပါလုပ် သဳကၠဳ မာန် ကေုာံ တပ်တး။
|-
| ၄
| '''သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် မစိုပ် လောဲ''' (Accessible Justice)
| ပရေင်ဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဝွံ သ္ဒး ကၠောန် နကဵု မၞိဟ် မနွံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ်၊ ဗၠးၜး နူ လညာတ် စွဲ၊ ကေုာံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် အာ စိုပ် လောဲသွာ။
|}
<ref name="wjp">{{cite book |author=World Justice Project |title=WJP Rule of Law Index 2020 |publisher=World Justice Project |year=2020 |pages=10-18}}</ref>
== ၄။ အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန် ကေုာံ လဒက်ပတန် (Institutions and Structure) ==
သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ဏအ် မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင် မွဲ သ္ဒး နွံ ကဵု လဒက်ပတန် အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် ရ။
အဓိက အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် '''[[ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ အာဏာ]]''' (Separation of powers) မဒှ် လညာတ် မောန်တက်သကယူ မပါ် လဝ် -
* '''[[အာဏာ ပတန်သၞောဝ်]] (Legislature):''' ပါလဳမာန် မဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောဝ် ညံင် ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပၟိက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန်။
* '''[[အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ်]] (Executive):''' အလဵုအသဳ၊ ဗၠာဲရဲ တအ် မရပ်စပ် သၞောဝ် အတိုင် ဥပဒေ မဖျေဟ် လဝ် သၟး။
* '''[[အာဏာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ်]] (Judiciary):''' ရုင်ဗစာ မတန်တဴ ဗၠးၜး (Independent judiciary) ရ။
ယဝ်ရ တၠသၞောဝ် (Judges) တအ် ဒး ဒုင် ဓရိုဟ် အဝဵု နူကဵု အလဵုအသဳ မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ဝွံ လီုလာ် အာ ပြဟ် အိုတ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပရေင်ဗၠးၜး ရုင်ဗစာ (Judicial independence) ဂှ် ဒှ် လမျီု သွက် ဓရ် ဏအ် ရ။
== ၅။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် (Relationship with Human Rights) ==
ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ '''[[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]]''' ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ညံင် ကောန် ၜါ မာတ် ရ။
သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဓမ္မတာ မွဲ ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမဲ ကု တင်ရန်တၟအ် မင်မဲ အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် မ္ဂး၊ သၞောဝ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အာ လွဟ် သွက် တၠအာဏာ တအ် မာန် ရ (ဥပမာ - သၞောဝ် ပါ်ခြာ ဂကူ ညးလမ္စံက် ပ္ဍဲ အာဖရိက သၠုင်ကျာ - Apartheid laws)။
ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ဥပဒေ မဍာံပြ မ္ဂး သ္ဒး ကဵု အခေါင် သၠးပွး မဟီုတွံ (Freedom of speech)၊ အခေါင် ကောံသၟဟ် (Freedom of assembly) ကေုာံ အခေါင် ဂွံ ဒုင် စဳရေင် ဗွဲမတပ်တး (Right to a fair trial) ရ။<ref name="tamanaha">{{cite book |last=Tamanaha |first=B. Z. |title=On the Rule of Law: History, Politics, Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/onruleoflawhisto0000tama |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/onruleoflawhisto0000tama/page/114 114]-122}}</ref>
== ၆။ သြဇာ လတူ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Impact on Economy and Society) ==
ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ တၠပညာ ဂမၠိုင် (ဥပမာ F.A. Hayek) တအ် ထံက်ထ္ၜး လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economic development) ရ။
* '''အခေါင်ပိုင်ပြဳ ဒြပ်ရတ် (Property Rights):''' ယဝ်ရ သၞောဝ် မင်မဲ လဝ် ဒြပ်ရတ် မၞိဟ် မွဲမွဲ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ဂံင် ဓလုက် သြန် ကေုာံ ပံက် ကုမ္ပဏဳ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်မင်မဲ လိက်ကသုက် (Enforcement of Contracts):''' ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ကတဵုဒှ် မာန် ယဝ်ရ နွံ ရုင်ဗစာ မာန် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ညံင် လိက်ကသုက် အကြာ ညးသွံ ကဵု ညးရာန် ဂွံ ဒှ် ကမၠောန် ဍာံပြ ရ။
ယဝ်ရ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ လီုလာ် ဒၟံင်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အလဵုအသဳ သီ ကေတ် ဒြပ်ရတ် အတိုင် ပၟိက် စိုတ် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ဓလုက် သြန် ဍုင်သ္အာင် (FDI) တအ် ဟွံလုပ် ကၠုင် တုဲ ဍုင် ဂှ် ဒး ဒိုက်ဂတ် ရ။<ref name="hayek">{{cite book |last=Hayek |first=F. A. |title=The Road to Serfdom |url=https://archive.org/details/roadtoserfdom00haye |publisher=Routledge |year=1944 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/roadtoserfdom00haye/page/72 72]-85}}</ref>
== ၇။ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ (International Rule of Law) ==
ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပ္ဍဲ အပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် မွဲ ဓဝ် ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် သီု ဆက်စပ် ကု အဆံင် ဂၠးတိ (International law) ရ。
ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ ဒုတိယ တုဲ၊ ကုလသမဂ္ဂ (UN) ပတိတ် လဝ် '''[[လိက်ပဋိညာဉ် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]]''' (UN Charter) သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ဂၠးတိ၊ မပကဵု ညံင် ဍုင် တအ် ဟွံဂွံ ဗတိုက် ရေင်သကအ် အတိုင် ပၟိက် စိုတ် ရ။ အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန် မပ္တံကဵု '''ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးတိ''' (International Court of Justice - ICJ) ကေုာံ '''ရုင်ဗစာ ရာဇဝတ် ဂၠးတိ''' (International Criminal Court - ICC) တအ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မစၟတ်သမ္တီ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ၊ မာန် ဖျေဟ် ဒုဟ် လတူ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ဍုင် မကလိလောန် ရာဇဝတ် ပၞာန် တအ် ရ။
== ၈။ ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ အန္တရာယ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တၟိ (Challenges and Threats in the Modern Era) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ ဓရ် ဏအ် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကု အန္တရာယ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်စသိုင် သြန်လာဘ် (Corruption):''' မၞိဟ် မနွံ အဝဵု ကေုာံ သြန် တအ် ကဵု လာဘ် ကု ဗၠာဲရဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တၠသၞောဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ဗၠး ဒုဟ် တုဲ ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် ဂတ သၞောဝ် လီုလာ် ရ။
* '''ဝါဒ တၠအာဏာ (Authoritarianism):''' က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် လ္ၚဵု စကာ "သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ" နဒဒှ် လွဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ရပ် ကြိုင် မၞိဟ် ဒစးဒုင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Rule *by* law အစား Rule *of* law) ရ။
* '''သၞောဝ် အရေးပေါ် (State of Emergency):''' အလဵုအသဳ လ္ၚဵု စကာ ဟိုတ် ကပ်ယဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု တုဲ ပလီု ထောအ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် တုဲ စကာ အာဏာ ပြဟ်ပြဟ် ရ။
== ၉။ နဲကဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ကေုာံ စရင်အင် ဂၠးတိ (Measurement and Global Indexes) ==
သွက်ဂွံ တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ဍုင် မွဲမွဲ နွံ ကု ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ မူစိ ဂှ်၊ ဂကောံ WJP ပတိတ် လဝ် '''စရင်အင် ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ''' (WJP Rule of Law Index) ရိုဟ်ရိုဟ် သၞာံ ရ။
စရင် ဏအ် တွက်ဂၞန် လတူ တင် ၈ သာ် -
# ပရေင်ပိုင်ခြာ လတူ အာဏာ အလဵုအသဳ
# ပရေင်ဟွံမဲ ကု စသိုင် သြန်လာဘ်
# အလဵုအသဳ ပံက်လး
# အခေါင်အရာ သဇိုင်
# သၞောတ် စၟတ်မင် ဂီုကၠီု ကေုာံ ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ်
# ပရေင်ရပ်စပ် သၞောဝ် မတပ်တး
# သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် တၠဒြပ် (Civil Justice)
# သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ရာဇဝတ် (Criminal Justice)
ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ ဍုင် ရးဥရောပ သၟဝ်ကျာ (ဥပမာ - ဒိန်မက်၊ နဝ်ဝေ၊ ဖေန်လာန်) တအ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ အဆံင် သၠုင် အိုတ် တုဲ၊ ဍုင် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် (ဥပမာ - ဗေနဳဇွဲလာ၊ ကမ္ဘောဒီးယား၊ ဍုင်ဗၟာ) တအ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ အဆံင် သၟဝ် အိုတ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ဝွံ ဒှ် "ဇုတ်ဒကောင်" သွက် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မနွံကဵု တသိုက် ကေုာံ ဗၠးၜး ရ။ ယဝ်ရ သၞောတ် ဏအ် ဟွံမဲ မ္ဂး၊ အဝဵု ဂှ် ဒှ် အာ ဆ "ညးမနွံ ဒြဟတ် မပိုင်" ရ တုဲ အခေါင်အရာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဓမ္မတာ တအ် လီုလာ် အာ ရောင်။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် သ္ဒး ဆက် ဂစာန် ကာကွယ် ဓရ် ဏအ် နူကဵု ပရေင်ဓရိုဟ် တၠအာဏာ ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ တၟိ (ဥပမာ - သၞောဝ် ဆေင် ကု အင်တာနက် ကေုာံ ဉာဏ်စက် AI) ရ။ ပရေင်ပညာ သၞောဝ် (Legal literacy) သွက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ မဳဒဳယာ မဗၠးၜး တအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်မင် ကေုာံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ညံင် သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ဂွံ တန်တဴ လၟိုန် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်]] (Constitution)
* [[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy)
* [[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human Rights)
* [[ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ အာဏာ]] (Separation of Powers)
* [[မာဂ်နာ ကာတာ]] (Magna Carta)
{{Navbox
| name = Rule of Law and Justice
| title = ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ တရားမျှတ (Rule of Law and Justice)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင် ဓရ်
| list1 =
* [[ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၞောတ် ဥပဒေ]] (Rule of Law)
* [[ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် ဂတ သၞောဝ်]] (Equality before the law)
* [[ပရေင်ဒုင်အာတ်မိက် တာလျိုင်]] (Accountability)
* [[အလဵုအသဳ ပံက်လး]] (Open government)
| group2 = အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန်
| list2 =
* [[ရုင်ဗစာ]] (Court)
* [[အာဏာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ်]] (Judiciary)
* [[အာဏာ ပတန်သၞောဝ်]] (Legislature)
* [[အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ်]] (Executive)
| group3 = ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ လညာတ်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်စသိုင် သြန်လာဘ်]] (Corruption)
* [[တၠအာဏာ]] (Authoritarianism)
* [[ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ အာဏာ]] (Separation of powers)
* [[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human rights)
| group4 = အဆံင် ဂၠးတိ
| list4 =
* [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations)
* [[ရုင်ဗစာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် ဂၠးတိ]] (International Court of Justice)
* [[ရုင်ဗစာ ရာဇဝတ် ဂၠးတိ]] (International Criminal Court)
}}
[[Category:သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
[[Category:အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]]
[[Category:ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]]
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'''ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ နကဵု လျး''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Photosynthesis'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဇဳဝဓါတု (Biochemical process) မွဲ မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တၞံ၊ စၟဍာ် (Algae)၊ ကေုာံ ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ လ္ၚဵု တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒြဟတ် လျး (Light energy) နူ တ္ၚဲ ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် အာ ဒြဟတ် ဓါတု (Chemical energy) မာန် ရ။ ဒြဟတ် ဓါတု ဏအ် ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် သီဂိုင် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု မဝ်လဳကျူ သဂြာ မပ္တံကဵု ဂလူကုတ် (Glucose) မကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ကာဗောန်ဒါင်အံက်သိုက် (Carbon dioxide) ကေုာံ ဍာ် (Water) ရ။<ref name="taiz">{{cite book |last=Taiz |first=L. |author2=Zeiger, E. |title=Plant Physiology and Development |publisher=Sinauer Associates |year=2015 |pages=171-180}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သဘာဝ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ်၊ ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက အိုတ် သွက် ဂကောံ ဇဳဝ သီုဖအိုတ် ဂွံ ဂျိုင်တန်တဴ မာန် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ပတိတ် ကဵု ဓါတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် (Oxygen) သွက် သတ္တဝါ တအ် ဂွံ ယီု တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် တမ်မူလ ဒြဟတ် စၞ သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ တိရစ္ဆာန် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဇဳဝဗေဒ ကလာပ်ရုပ်၊ ဓါတုဗေဒ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Photosynthesis_en.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး လၟေင် ကမၠောန် သဇိုင် ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တၞံ။ လျး တ္ၚဲ၊ ဍာ်၊ ကေုာံ ကာဗောန်ဒါင်အံက်သိုက် လုပ် အာ တုဲ အံက်သဳဂျေန် ကဵု သဂြာ တိတ် ကၠုင်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ်" (Photosynthesis) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ မလိက် ဂရိတ် ၜါ မတွဟ်ဂး $photo$ (ဖဝ်တဝ် - လျး) ကေုာံ $synthesis$ (သေန်ထေသိတ် - ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ်) ရ။ နကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် တိုက်ရိုက် မ္ဂး "ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် နကဵု လျး" ရ။
ဇဳဝဗေဒ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ထ္ၜး ဒဒှ်ရ တၞံ တအ် ဒှ် ညးပတိတ် (Producers / Autotrophs) မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ အလဵုဇကု ညးတအ် နူကဵု ကပေါတ် ဟွံမဲ ကု လမျီု (Inorganic substances) ရ။ လၟေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲကဵု တၞး ဆု (Leaves) မနွံကဵု ဓါတ် အသာ် သာ်ၚေက် မကော်စ '''ကလိုရဝ်ဖဳလ်''' (Chlorophyll) ရ။ ကလိုရဝ်ဖဳလ် ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မသီကေတ် ဒြဟတ် လျး တ္ၚဲ တုဲ စကာ ဍေဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ပါ် ထကး မဝ်လဳကျူ ဍာ် ကေုာံ ပံင်ကောံ ကု ကာဗောန်ဒါင်အံက်သိုက် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု (History and Discovery) ==
ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ပရူ ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် ဝွံ ဟွံကတဵုဒှ် မွဲ ဗ္တံ ဓဝ် ပုဟ်။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု သိပ္ပံ မလအ်ကာလ ပွိုင် ကၠံ သၞာံ ပြင် ရ -
* '''၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ (Jan Baptista van Helmont):''' ညး စမ်ၜတ် လဝ် တၞံ ဆု မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ထၟာဲ တုဲ ဂၠာဲဆဵု ညာတ် ဒဒှ်ရ လယိုင် တၞံ ဆု မဇၞော် တိုန် ဂှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ဍာ် မလံင် စုတ် လဝ် သၟး တုဲ ဟွံသေင် ကၠုင် နူ တိ ပုဟ်။
* '''၁၇၇၀ တအ် (Joseph Priestley):''' တၠပညာ ဓါတုဗေဒ အင်္ဂလာန် ဏအ် ဂၠာဲဆဵု ညာတ် ဒဒှ်ရ တၞံ ဆု တအ် မာန် ကလေင် "ပသအး" ကျာ မလီုလာ် လဝ် ဟိုတ်နူ ပၟတ် ကေုာံ ယီု တိရစ္ဆာန် တအ် ရ (လက္ကရဴ ဏအ် တီ ကၠုင် ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဓါတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန်)။
* '''၁၇၇၉ (Jan Ingenhousz):''' ညး ဂၠာဲဆဵု ညာတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ပသအး ကျာ မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ တၞံ ဆု ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် မာန် ဆ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မနွံကဵု လျး တ္ၚဲ သၟး ရ။ ကေုာံ အကွက် သာ်ၚေက် (Green parts) သၟး ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဏအ် မာန် ရ။<ref name="blankenship">{{cite book |last=Blankenship |first=R. E. |title=Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2014 |pages=15-22}}</ref>
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် သဇိုင် ကေုာံ ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Basic Structure and Cellular Components) ==
ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Cell) တၞံ မနွံကဵု အင်္ဂါ သာ်ၚေက် မကော်စ '''ကလိုရဝ်ပလာတ်''' (Chloroplast) ရ。
* '''ကလိုရဝ်ပလာတ် (Chloroplast):''' ဒှ် အင်္ဂါ ကလာပ်ရုပ် (Organelle) မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ဒက်ပတန် လွှာ အပ္ဍဲ ကေုာံ လွှာ မ္ၚး။
* '''တာဲလာကွိုက် (Thylakoid):''' ဒှ် ကလာပ်ရုပ် တုပ် ညံင် ခပေတ် မစွံ ထပ် လဝ် ရေင်သကအ် ပ္ဍဲ အပ္ဍဲ ကလိုရဝ်ပလာတ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လွှာ တာဲလာကွိုက် ဏအ် ဂှ် ဓါတ် ကလိုရဝ်ဖဳလ် (Chlorophyll) နွံ တုဲ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် မဆက်စပ် ကု လျး ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဏအ် ရ။
* '''သတရဝ်မာ (Stroma):''' ဒှ် ဍာ် အရည် မနွံ ပ္ဍဲ အပ္ဍဲ ကလိုရဝ်ပလာတ် မပွဳပွူ လဝ် တာဲလာကွိုက် တအ် ရ။ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် မဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု လျး (Calvin Cycle) ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဏအ် ရ။
== ၄။ လၟေင် ဓါတ် ကေုာံ တွက်ဂၞန် (Chemical Process and Equations) ==
ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ နကဵု လျး ဝွံ နကဵု လညာတ် ဓါတုဗေဒ မ္ဂး ဒှ် ပရေင်ကတဵုဒှ် မပြံင်လှာဲ ကာဗောန်ဒါင်အံက်သိုက် ($\text{CO}_2$) ကေုာံ ဍာ် ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$) သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် သဂြာ (Glucose) ကေုာံ အံက်သဳဂျေန် ($\text{O}_2$) ရ။ တွက်ဂၞန် ဓါတု အလုံစုံ (Overall chemical equation) ဂှ် ဒှ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ရ -
$$6\text{CO}_2 + 6\text{H}_2\text{O} \xrightarrow{\text{Light Energy}} \text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2$$
ပ္ဍဲ တွက်ဂၞန် ဏအ် -
* $6\text{CO}_2$ = ကာဗောန်ဒါင်အံက်သိုက် ၆ မဝ်လဳကျူ
* $6\text{H}_2\text{O}$ = ဍာ် ၆ မဝ်လဳကျူ
* $\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6$ = ဂလူကုတ် (သဂြာ) ၁ မဝ်လဳကျူ
* $6\text{O}_2$ = အံက်သဳဂျေန် ၆ မဝ်လဳကျူ
လၟေင် ဓါတ် ဏအ် ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ကဏ္ဍ ဇၞော် ၜါ သာ် မတွဟ်ဂး '''ကမၠောန် မဆက်စပ် ကု လျး''' (Light-dependent reactions) ကေုာံ '''ကမၠောန် မဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု လျး''' (Light-independent reactions) ရ။<ref name="campbell">{{cite book |last=Urry |first=L. A. |author2=Cain, M. L. |author3=Wasserman, S. A. |author4=Minorsky, P. V. |author5=Reece, J. B. |title=Campbell Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781323642047 |publisher=Pearson |year=2017 |pages=188-195}}</ref>
== ၅။ ကမၠောန် မဆက်စပ် ကု လျး (Light-dependent Reactions) ==
ကမၠောန် ဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ လွှာ '''တာဲလာကွိုက်''' (Thylakoid membrane) တုဲ သ္ဒး နွံကဵု လျး တ္ၚဲ တိုက်ရိုက် သွက်ဂွံ ချဳဓရာင် ရ။
# '''ပရေင်သီ လျး:''' ဓါတ် ကလိုရဝ်ဖဳလ် (Photosystems I and II) တအ် သီကေတ် ဒြဟတ် ဖဝ်တောန် (Photons) နူကဵု လျး တ္ၚဲ။
# '''ပရေင်ပါ် ဍာ် (Photolysis):''' ဒြဟတ် လျး ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် မဝ်လဳကျူ ဍာ် ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$) ဂွံ ထကး အာ ဒှ် အီလက်ထရွန် (Electrons)၊ ပရဝ်တောန် (Protons - $\text{H}^+$)၊ ကေုာံ ဓါတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် ($\text{O}_2$) ရ။ အံက်သဳဂျေန် ဏအ် ဂှ် တိတ် အာ မ္ၚး ညံင် ပိုယ် ဂွံ ယီု ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဒြဟတ်:''' အီလက်ထရွန် မတိတ် ကၠုင် တအ် ဂှ် ဖြတ် အာ လၟေင် ပလံင် အီလက်ထရွန် (Electron Transport Chain) တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကဵု မဝ်လဳကျူ မဂိုင်သိပ် ဒြဟတ် အဓိက ၜါ မတွဟ်ဂး '''ATP''' (Adenosine triphosphate) ကေုာံ '''NADPH''' ရ။
== ၆။ ကမၠောန် မဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု လျး / စက်ဝိုင် ကေလ်ဗိန် (Light-independent Reactions / Calvin Cycle) ==
ကမၠောန် ဏအ် ၜိုန်ရ ကော်စ မဟွံဆက်စပ် ကု လျး ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် စကာ ဒြဟတ် ATP ကေုာံ NADPH မကလိဂွံ နူကဵု ကဏ္ဍ မဆက်စပ် ကု လျး ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ရ။ လၟေင် ဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍာ် '''သတရဝ်မာ''' (Stroma) ရ။
စက်ဝိုင် ကေလ်ဗိန် (Calvin cycle) နွံကဵု အဆံင် အဓိက ပိ သာ် -
# '''ပရေင်စွံ ဗိုန် ကာဗောန် (Carbon Fixation):''' အေန်ဇိုင်း RuBisCO (เอนไซม์รูบิสโก) ရပ် ကေတ် ဓါတ် $\text{CO}_2$ နူကဵု ကျာ တုဲ ပံင်ကောံ ကု မဝ်လဳကျူ RuBP (Ribulose bisphosphate) ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ဖျေဟ် လျိုင် (Reduction):''' စကာ ဒြဟတ် နူ ATP ကေုာံ NADPH သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ မဝ်လဳကျူ ကာဗောန် ဂှ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် မဝ်လဳကျူ သဂြာ သဇိုင် မကော်စ G3P (Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ကလေင် ဖန်ဗဒှ် (Regeneration):''' မဝ်လဳကျူ G3P လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဂှ် တိတ် အာ သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် ဂလူကုတ် တုဲ၊ သှ်ေ ဒၟံင် တအ် ဂှ် ကလေင် ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒှ် RuBP ပၠန် သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် ကၠောန် စက်ဝိုင် ဏအ် ရ။
== ၇။ ဂကူ ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် ပ္ဍဲ တၞံ (Types of Photosynthesis in Plants) ==
တၞံ နာနာ သာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် နဲကဲ ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် တၞဟ်ခြာ သွက်ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ရာသဳဥတု မနွံ ရ။ ဍေဟ် ပါ်လဝ် ၃ ဂကူ အဓိက ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ တၞံဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ (Type)
! ဗီုပြင် အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Characteristics)
! ဒေသ မစှ်ေ သဘာဝ
! ဥပမာ တၞံ
|-
| '''$C_3$ Photosynthesis'''
| နဲကဲ သဇိုင် ဓမ္မတာ။ ဖန်ဗဒှ် သဂြာ တိုက်ရိုက် နကဵု စက်ဝိုင် ကေလ်ဗိန်။
| ဒေသ ဥတု ၜိုဟ် ကေုာံ မနွံ ဍာ် ရုံဂပ်။
| သြောအ်၊ ဂျာင်၊ တၞံ ဆု ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်။
|-
| '''$C_4$ Photosynthesis'''
| ပါ်ခြာ လဝ် ဒၞာဲ မရပ် ကာဗောန် ကေုာံ စက်ဝိုင် ကေလ်ဗိန် ပ္ဍဲ ကလာပ်ရုပ် တၞဟ်ခြာ သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန် ပရေင်လေင် ဍာ်။
| ဒေသ ဂမ္တဴ ကေုာံ လျး တ္ၚဲ သ္ကာတ်မြဟ်။
| တၞံ သတ္တဵု၊ တၞံ တ္ၚေက်။
|-
| '''CAM Photosynthesis'''
| ရပ် ကေတ် $\text{CO}_2$ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဗ္တံ သၟး တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တ္ၚဲ ကၟာတ် ထောအ် ပါင် တၞး (Stomata) သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ဍာ်။
| ဒေသ ကန္တာရ (Desert) မကှ် သြာဲ ဗွဲမလောန်။
| တၞံ နာတ် (Cactus)၊ ဇမ္ဗု သာန်။
|}
<ref name="ehleringer">{{cite journal |last=Ehleringer |first=J. R. |author2=Cerling, T. E. |title=C4 photosynthesis, atmospheric CO2, and climate |journal=Oecologia |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=285-299 |year=1995}}</ref>
== ၈။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် နူ သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ (Environmental Factors Affecting Photosynthesis) ==
လဟိုင် (Rate) ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ ဏအ် ဝွံ တန်တဴ ဒၟံင် လတူ သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
* '''သ္ကာတ် လျး (Light Intensity):''' ယဝ်ရ လျး ဇၞော် တိုန် မ္ဂး၊ လဟိုင် ဏအ် လေဝ် ပြဟ် တိုန် ကီု ရ။ ဆဂး စိုပ် အဆံင် မွဲ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် တန်ကြန် အာ တုဲ ဟွံဆက် ပြဟ် တိုန် ရ (Light saturation point)။
* '''ဓါတ် ကာဗောန်ဒါင်အံက်သိုက် ($\text{CO}_2$ Concentration):''' ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ကပေါတ် တမ် သွက် ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ်၊ $\text{CO}_2$ ဂၠိုင် မ္ဂး တၞံ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် စၞ ဂွံ ဂၠိုင် ရ။
* '''ဂမ္တဴ (Temperature):''' ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် စကာ အေန်ဇိုင်း (Enzymes) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တုဲ အေန်ဇိုင်း တအ် ဏအ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ခိုဟ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အဆံင် ဂမ္တဴ မချိုတ်ပၠိုတ် (Optimum temperature) ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကတဴ လောန် အာ မ္ဂး အေန်ဇိုင်း လီုလာ် (Denature) တုဲ ကမၠောန် ဒေါအ် အာ မာန် ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု ဇဳဝဗေဒ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Global Biosphere and Climate) ==
ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် ဝွံ မင်မဲ လဝ် လဒက်ပတန် ဂၠးတိ ပိုယ် ညံင် ဂွံ နွံကဵု လမျီု ရ။
* '''စက်ဝိုင် အံက်သဳဂျေန် (Oxygen Cycle):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဂၠးတိ တြေံ (Great Oxidation Event)၊ ဆာင်ယျာနဝ်ဗက်တဳရဳယျာ (Cyanobacteria) တအ် စ ကၠောန် ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် တုဲ ဓါတ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် တိတ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ လတူ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ရ။ လၟုဟ် လေဝ် တၞံ ဆု ကေုာံ ပလာန်တောန် ပ္ဍဲ မှာသမုဒ္ဒရာ တအ် ထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် လၟိဟ် အံက်သဳဂျေန် ဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ကာဗောန် (Carbon Sink):''' တၞံ ဆု တအ် သီ ဂိုင် ကေတ် $\text{CO}_2$ နူကဵု ကျာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တုဲ ဍေဟ် ရီု ထိင်ဒဝ် ညံင် ဂၠးတိ ဟွံဂွံ ကတဴ လောန် အာ (Global warming) ရ။ ပရေင်ရိုဟ် ပလီု ဂြိုပ် ဆု မ္ဂး ဖအောန် ထောအ် ဒြဟတ် ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် တုဲ ပြသၞာ ရာသဳဥတု ပြံင်လှာဲ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။<ref name="falkowski">{{cite journal |last=Falkowski |first=P. |author2=Raven, J. A. |title=Aquatic Photosynthesis |journal=Princeton University Press |year=2013 |pages=102-115}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် တမ်မူလ ဒြဟတ် မသၠုင်ပြဲ အိုတ် မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဇဳဝ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ရ။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဏအ် ၜိုန်ရ ဆဵု ဒၟံင် လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ဓါတု မသၠဲလး ကေုာံ ဍိုက်ပေင် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ သဘာဝ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အနာဂတ်၊ တၠပညာ သိပ္ပံ တအ် လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဒၟံင် ပရူ '''ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ကၠောန် (Artificial Photosynthesis)''' ရ။ နဲကဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ ရန်တၟအ် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ စကာ ဒြဟတ် လျး တ္ၚဲ သွက်ဂွံ ပါ် ဍာ် တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဓါတ် ဟိုက်ဒရဝ်ဂျေန် (Hydrogen fuel) မဒှ် ဒြဟတ် လျး စက် သ္အးဇ္ၚး သွက် အနာဂတ် ရောင်။ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဏအ် မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် အကာဲအရာ စွမ်းအင် ဂၠးတိ ဗွဲမဇၞော် မာန် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
* [[ကလာပ်ရုပ်]] (Cell)
* [[ကာဗောန်ဒါင်အံက်သိုက်]] (Carbon dioxide)
* [[ဂလူကုတ်]] (Glucose)
{{Navbox
| name = Photosynthesis and Biology
| title = လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ် ကေုာံ ဇဳဝဗေဒ သဇိုင် (Photosynthesis and Basic Biology)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လဒက်ပတန် ကလာပ်ရုပ်
| list1 =
* [[ကလိုရဝ်ပလာတ်]] (Chloroplast)
* [[တာဲလာကွိုက်]] (Thylakoid)
* [[သတရဝ်မာ]] (Stroma)
* [[ကလိုရဝ်ဖဳလ်]] (Chlorophyll)
| group2 = လၟေင် ဓါတ်
| list2 =
* [[ကမၠောန် မဆက်စပ် ကု လျး]] (Light-dependent reactions)
* [[စက်ဝိုင် ကေလ်ဗိန်]] (Calvin cycle)
* [[ATP]] (Adenosine triphosphate)
* [[အီလက်ထရွန်]] (Electron)
| group3 = ကပေါတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵု
| list3 =
* [[ကာဗောန်ဒါင်အံက်သိုက်]] (Carbon dioxide)
* [[ဍာ်]] (Water)
* [[ဂလူကုတ်]] (Glucose)
* [[အံက်သဳဂျေန်]] (Oxygen)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[သတ္တဗေဒ]] (Botany)
* [[ဇဳဝဗေဒ]] (Biology)
* [[စက်ဝိုင် ကာဗောန်]] (Carbon cycle)
}}
[[Category:ဇဳဝဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဖဝ်တဝ်သေန်ထေသိတ်]]
[[Category:တၞံ]]
[[Category:ဓါတုဗေဒ ဇဳဝ]]
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'''သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''အာဲသဳ''' ကေုာံ '''မာ်ခရဝ်ချေတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Integrated circuit - IC'', ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Microchip'', ''Chip'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု နဲပညာ အဳလက်ထရဝ်နစ် (Electronics) ဒှ် သၞောတ် လဝေင် ဓါတ်လလဳ (Electronic circuits) မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် လတူ ကရေက် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် မွဲ မကၠောန် လဝ် နူကဵု ကပေါတ် '''[[သေမဳကောန်ဒတ်တာ]]''' (Semiconductor) မပ္တံကဵု '''[[သဳလဳကောန်]]''' (Silicon) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ချေတ် မွဲမွဲ မ္ဂး နွံကဵု ထရန်သေတ်သတာ (Transistors)၊ ရဳသေတ်သတာ (Resistors) ကေုာံ ကာပါသဳတာ (Capacitors) မဂၠိုင်ကဵု ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် မဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။<ref name="sedra">{{cite book |last=Sedra |first=A. S. |author2=Smith, K. C. |title=Microelectronic Circuits |edition=7th |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |pages=10-15}}</ref>
သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ ဝွံ ဒှ် "က္ဍဟ်" အဓိက သွက် ကပေါတ် အဳလက်ထရဝ်နစ် ခေတ်တၟိ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ နူကဵု ကွန်ပျူတာ (Computers)၊ စက်ဖုန် (Smartphones)၊ ကွဳစက်၊ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ကပေါတ် သ္ၚိ ဓမ္မတာ တအ် ဂှ် ဒး သုင်စောဲ IC သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ ဏအ် တုဲ၊ ကပေါတ် စက်ယန္တရား တအ် ဍောတ် စှ်ေ၊ ၚုဟ်မး သဝ် စှ်ေ၊ ကေုာံ စောမ်သတ္တိ ခိုဟ် တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂၠးတိ နဲပညာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Integrated_Circuit_('Chip')_-_macro_2_(23689456575).jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ (Integrated circuit) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မာ်ခရဝ်ချေတ် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် မွဲ မစကာ လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ကပေါတ် အဳလက်ထရဝ်နစ် နာနာ သာ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ" (Integrated Circuit) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ (Integrate) ကပေါတ် လဝေင် ဓါတ်လလဳ (Components) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပ္တံကဵု ထရန်သေတ်သတာ (Transistors) ညံင် ဂွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ သဇိုင် သေမဳကောန်ဒတ်တာ (Substrate) မွဲ ဓဝ် ရ။
ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ခၞံဗဒှ် IC ဂှ်၊ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် သ္ဒး ဇိင် ဆက် ဝါယာ (Wiring) အကြာ ထရန်သေတ်သတာ မွဲ ကဵု မွဲ နကဵု တဲ တုဲ၊ သၞောတ်စက် တအ် ဇၞော်၊ လဇုဲ ကေုာံ လီုလာ် လောဲသွာ ရ။ နကဵု ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် IC ဂှ်၊ အလုံ သၞောတ်စက် မွဲ မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လတူ ကရေက် သဳလဳကောန် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် မွဲ မာန် တုဲ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဝင် နဲပညာ ဂၠးတိ ဍာံဍာံပြပြ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် (History and Invention) ==
ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် IC ဂှ် ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ လက္ကရဴ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၀ တအ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု တၠပညာ ၜါ တၠ မကၠောန် ကမၠောန် တၞဟ်ခြာ ရေင်သကအ် -
# '''ဂျက် ကဳလ်ဗဳ (Jack Kilby):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၈၊ ဂျက် ကဳလ်ဗဳ မကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ ကုမ္ပဏဳ Texas Instruments ဂှ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် IC ပထမအိုတ် မာန် အံင်ဇၞး လဝ် ရ။ ညး စကာ ကပေါတ် ဂျာမေနဳယောမ် (Germanium) သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝေင် ဓါတ်လလဳ ပံင်ကောံ ရ။ ညး ကလိဂွံ လာပ် နဝ်ဘဴ (Nobel Prize in Physics) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၀၀ သွက် သုတေသန ဏအ် ရ။
# '''ရဝ်ဘတ် နောိုက်သ် (Robert Noyce):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၉၊ ရဝ်ဘတ် နောိုက်သ် (ညးမပါလုပ် ဒက်ပတန် ကုမ္ပဏဳ Intel) နူ ကုမ္ပဏဳ Fairchild Semiconductor လေဝ် ခၞံဗဒှ် ညာတ် IC မွဲ ကီု ရ။ အရာ မတၟေင် နူ ကဳလ်ဗဳ ဂှ် ညး စကာ သဳလဳကောန် (Silicon) တုဲ ညး ဖန်ဗဒှ် နဲကဲ သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် လဝေင် ဓါတ်လလဳ နကဵု ကွပ် လောဟာ (Metallization) မာန် ရ။ ဒြပ် ဏအ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ချေတ် ခေတ်တၟိ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။<ref name="basset">{{cite book |last=Bassett |first=R. K. |title=To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology |url=https://archive.org/details/todigitalagerese0000bass |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/todigitalagerese0000bass/page/25 25]-32}}</ref>
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ (Structure and Characteristics) ==
သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ကွပ် နာနာ သာ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ရ -
* '''သဇိုင် (Substrate / Wafer):''' ဒှ် ကရေက် သဳလဳကောန် မသၟး ကၠး (Silicon wafer) မဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ချေတ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။
* '''ထရန်သေတ်သတာ (Transistors):''' ဒှ် "ခလုတ်" (Switches) ဍောတ်ဍောတ် ပ္ဍဲ ချေတ်။ ချေတ် လၟုဟ် မွဲမွဲ မ္ဂး နွံကဵု ထရန်သေတ်သတာ ဗၞတ် ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် ကဵု ပြကောဋိကိုဋ် ရ။
* '''ကွပ် အဆက် (Interconnects):''' ဒှ် ကွပ် လောဟာ (ဥပမာ - ကောပ်ပါ Copper ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အာလူမဳနဳယောမ်) မဆက်စပ် ထရန်သေတ်သတာ တအ် ရေင်သကအ် ညံင် လဝေင် ဓါတ်လလဳ ဂွံ ချဳဓရာင်။
* '''ပါက်ကေတ် (Packaging):''' ချေတ် သဳလဳကောန် ဂှ် သ္ဒး စုတ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ခရံက် ပလာသတစ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သေရာမစ် (Ceramic) သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ နူ ပွဳပွူ ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် ကု ဗုတ် ပရေင် (Printed Circuit Board - PCB) ရ။
== ၄။ ဂကူ သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံဂမၠိုင် (Types of Integrated Circuits) ==
IC တအ် ဂှ် ပါ်လဝ် ဂကူ အဓိက ၃ သာ် အတိုင် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဍေဟ်တအ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ (IC) အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ IC (Type)
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! ဥပမာ လွပ်
|-
| '''ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital ICs)'''
| စကာ သၞောတ် ဂၞန် ဘိုင်နရဳ (Binary - 0 ကဵု 1) သၟး။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ပရေင်တွက်ဂၞန် ကေုာံ ကွန်ပျူတာ သီုဖအိုတ်။
| မာ်ခရဝ်ပရဝ်သေတ်သာ (Microprocessors), မေမ်မဝ်ရဳ (RAM/ROM)။
|-
| '''အာန်နာလံက် (Analog ICs)'''
| စကာ ရမ္သာင် ဓါတ်လလဳ မဆက်စပ် (Continuous signals) မာန် ဒုင်စသိုင် ပြံင်လှာဲ ရမ္သာင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပၟတ်။
| အောပ်-အာမ် (Op-amps), ဆေန်သာ (Sensors), ရေဒဳယဝ် (Radio frequency chips)။
|-
| '''ပံင်ကောံ (Mixed-Signal ICs)'''
| နွံ သီု လဝေင် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ကေုာံ အာန်နာလံက် ပ္ဍဲ ချေတ် မွဲ ဓဝ်။ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဓါတ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ကဵု အာန်နာလံက်။
| အေဒဳသဳ (Analog-to-Digital Converters - ADC), ဒဳအေသဳ (DAC)။
|}
== ၅။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မကၠောန်ပတိတ် (Manufacturing Process / Fabrication) ==
ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ ဝွံ ဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မစိစောန် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဒး ကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ "ခဒမ် သၟးကၠး" (Cleanroom) မဟွံမဲ ကု ခမောန် ធូលဳ လုံးဝ ရ။<ref name="sze">{{cite book |last=Sze |first=S. M. |author2=Lee, M. K. |title=Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology |edition=3rd |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2012 |pages=415-430}}</ref>
# '''ဖဝ်တဝ်လဳထဝ်ဂရာဖဳ (Photolithography):''' စကာ လျး အာလ်တရာ-ဗိုင်အဝ်လက် (UV light) သွက်ဂွံ ဓဇက် ရုပ် ဗီုပြင် လဝေင် ဓါတ်လလဳ လတူ ကွပ် သဳလဳကောန်။
# '''ပရေင်စံင် (Etching):''' ဓါတ် ဓါတုဗေဒ စံင် ပလီု ထောအ် ဒၞာဲ မဟွံမဲ ပၟိက် ညံင် ဂွံ သှ်ေ ဆ လဝေင် မဓဇက် လဝ်။
# '''ပရေင်ဗပေင် ဓါတ် (Doping):''' ထပ် စုတ် ဒြပ်စင် (ဥပမာ ဘဝ်ရွန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဖဝ်သဖရတ်) ညိည သွက်ဂွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ ဓါတ်လလဳ သဳလဳကောန် ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ထရန်သေတ်သတာ။
# '''ပရေင်ဆက် လောဟာ (Metallization):''' စုတ် ကွပ် ကောပ်ပါ (Copper) သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် ထရန်သေတ်သတာ တအ် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။
== ၆။ သၞောဝ် မောရ် (Moore's Law) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၅ ဂှ်၊ '''ဂေါ်ဒန် မောရ်''' (Gordon Moore) မဒှ် ညးမပါလုပ် ဒက်ပတန် Intel ဂှ် ဖျေဟ် လဝ် သၞောဝ် မွဲ မကော်စ '''သၞောဝ် မောရ်''' (Moore's Law) ရ။
ညး ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "လၟိဟ် ထရန်သေတ်သတာ လတူ မာ်ခရဝ်ချေတ် မွဲ မွဲ ဂှ် ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ၜါ ဆ ဇၟာပ် ဇၟာပ် ၜါ သၞာံ ရောင်" ရ။ သၞောဝ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍာံပြ ကၠုင် ပွိုင် ၅၀ သၞာံ ပြင် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ပကဵု ညံင် ကွန်ပျူတာ တအ် ဂွံ ပြဟ် တိုန် ကေုာံ ၚုဟ်မး သဝ် စှ်ေ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ်၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ထရန်သေတ်သတာ တအ် ဍောတ် လောန် အာ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် အဆံင် အက်တမ် တုဲ၊ သၞောဝ် မောရ် ဏအ် စ ဍိုန်လျ ကၠုင် ရ။<ref name="moore">{{cite journal |last=Moore |first=G. E. |title=Cramming more components onto integrated circuits |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_electronics_1965-04-19_38_8/page/114 |journal=Electronics |volume=38 |issue=8 |pages=114-117 |year=1965}}</ref>
== ၇။ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ နဲပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ (Applications in Modern Technology) ==
သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ ဝွံ ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် နဲပညာ ဇၟာပ် ကဏ္ဍ ရ -
* '''စက် ကွန်ပျူတာ ကေုာံ ဖုန် (Computers and Smartphones):''' ပရဝ်သေတ်သာ (CPU) ကေုာံ ဂရဖစ် ချေတ် (GPU) တအ် ဒှ် IC မတွက်ဂၞန် ပြဟ် အိုတ်။
* '''ကွဳစက် (Automotive):''' ကွဳစက် ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် စကာ ချေတ် ဟွံအောန် နူကဵု မသုန် ကၠံ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင် အေန်ဂျေန်၊ ဘရိတ် ကေုာံ သၞောတ် နဗဳဂေရှေန် (Navigation)။
* '''စက် ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Medical Devices):''' ပရေင်စၟတ်ယဲ (MRI) ကေုာံ စက် ထိင် ဂၠံင်ဆီ (Pacemakers) တအ် စကာ ချေတ် မနွံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် သၠုင်။
* '''ဉာဏ်စက် ကေုာံ AI (Artificial Intelligence):''' ဂကောံ ချေတ် တၟေင် (ဥပမာ TPU ကေုာံ AI Accelerators) တအ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လညာတ် ဉာဏ်စက် ရ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် (Development and Competition) ==
စက်ယန္တရား မကၠောန်ပတိတ် သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အဓိက အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''ကုမ္ပဏဳ မကၠောန်ပတိတ် အဓိက:''' ကုမ္ပဏဳ TSMC (Taiwan)၊ Samsung (South Korea) ကေုာံ Intel (USA) တအ် ဒှ် ကုမ္ပဏဳ အဓိက မဖန်ဗဒှ် ချေတ် ခေတ်တၟိ အိုတ် (ဥပမာ အဆံင် 3nm ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး 2nm) ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂၠးတိ (Geopolitics):''' ဟိုတ်နူ ချေတ် ဒှ် အရာ မကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက် ဂီုကၠီု ဍုင်၊ ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်၊ ကြုက်၊ ကေုာံ ရးဥရောပ တအ် ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် သွက်ဂွံ ပိုင်ပြဳ နဲပညာ ဏအ် (Chip War) တုဲ ပတိတ် ဒၟံင် သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ သြိုင် ရုင် စက်ချေတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဇကု ရ။<ref name="miller">{{cite book |last=Miller |first=C. |title=Chip War: The Fight for the World's Most Critical Technology |url=https://archive.org/details/chipwarfightforw0000mill |publisher=Scribner |year=2022 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/chipwarfightforw0000mill/page/105 105]-120}}</ref>
== ၉။ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ (Challenges and Problems) ==
ၜိုန်ရ နဲပညာ IC ဇၞော်မောဝ် အာ ဗွဲမလောန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကု ပြသၞာ ရူပဗေဒ ကေုာံ စက်ယန္တရား -
* '''ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ (Heat Dissipation):''' ကာလ ထရန်သေတ်သတာ တအ် ဍောတ် လောန် တုဲ စုတ် ပံင်ကောံ လဝ် ဂၠိုင် လောန် မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ပတိတ် ဓါတ်ဂမ္တဴ ဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ ချေတ် မာန် တူ လီု အာ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ကၠောတ် ဓါတ် ကွမ်တမ် (Quantum Tunneling):''' ကာလ ကွပ် ထရန်သေတ်သတာ ဍောတ် စှ်ေ စဵုကဵု ၜိုတ် အက်တမ် ညိည (ဥပမာ 2-3 nanometers) မ္ဂး၊ အီလက်ထရွန် တအ် မာန် ကၠောတ် အာ နကဵု သဘာဝ ကွမ်တမ် တုဲ၊ ထရန်သေတ်သတာ တအ် ဟွံမာန် ကၟာတ် (Off state) လုံခြုံ ပုဟ်။
* '''ပြသၞာ သၞောတ် ပလံင်ကပေါတ် (Supply Chain Issues):''' ပရေင်ကၠောန်ပတိတ် ချေတ် ဝွံ ဒး ပတှ်ေ ဒၟံင် လတူ ကပေါတ် ဓါတုဗေဒ အထူး ကေုာံ စက် ကၠောန် ချေတ် (ASML) နူ ဍုင် အောန်အောန် တုဲ ယဝ်ရ ကတဵုဒှ် ပြသၞာ ဂၠးတိ (ဥပမာ ကပ်ယဲ ကဝ်ဗေတ်) မ္ဂး ချေတ် ဟွံလုံခြုံ မာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ (IC) ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် အဓိက အိုတ် မွဲ မပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် ဘဝ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ၂၀ ကေုာံ ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဍာံဍာံပြပြ ရ။ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital world) ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် လတူ ကရေက် သဳလဳကောန် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် တအ် ဏအ် ရ။
သွက် အနာဂတ် ဂှ်၊ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် ဂၠာဲ ဒၟံင် နဲကဲ တၟိ သွက်ဂွံ စၞး သဳလဳကောန် မပ္တံကဵု '''ဂရာဖိန် (Graphene)'''၊ '''ကွန်ပျူတာ ကွမ်တမ် (Quantum computing)''' ကေုာံ ချေတ် မကၠောန် လဝ် တုပ် ညံင် က္ဍဟ် မၞိဟ် '''(Neuromorphic computing)''' တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် ဇၞော်မောဝ် အာ နဲပညာ ဏအ် ရောင်။<ref name="markoff">{{cite news |last=Markoff |first=J. |title=As Moore's Law Slows, the Tech World Looks for New Engines of Growth |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2016-05-04 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/05/technology/as-moores-law-slows-the-tech-world-looks-for-new-engines-of-growth.html |access-date=July 30, 2026}}</ref>
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ထရန်သေတ်သတာ]] (Transistor)
* [[သေမဳကောန်ဒတ်တာ]] (Semiconductor)
* [[သဳလဳကောန်]] (Silicon)
* [[ကွန်ပျူတာ]] (Computer)
* [[သၞောဝ် မောရ်]] (Moore's Law)
{{Navbox
| name = Electronics
| title = အဳလက်ထရဝ်နစ် ကေုာံ သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ (Electronics and Integrated Circuits)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ကပေါတ် သဇိုင် (Components)
| list1 =
* [[ထရန်သေတ်သတာ]] (Transistor)
* [[ရဳသေတ်သတာ]] (Resistor)
* [[ကာပါသဳတာ]] (Capacitor)
* [[ဒိုင်အုတ်]] (Diode)
| group2 = ကပေါတ် မပံင်ကောံ (IC Types)
| list2 =
* [[မာ်ခရဝ်ပရဝ်သေတ်သာ]] (Microprocessor / CPU)
* [[မေမ်မဝ်ရဳ]] (RAM / ROM)
* [[မာ်ခရဝ်ကောန်ထရဝ်လာ]] (Microcontroller)
* [[GPU]] (Graphics Processing Unit)
| group3 = လၟေင် ကမၠောန် (Fabrication)
| list3 =
* [[သေမဳကောန်ဒတ်တာ]] (Semiconductor)
* [[ဖဝ်တဝ်လဳထဝ်ဂရာဖဳ]] (Photolithography)
* [[သဳလဳကောန်]] (Silicon)
* [[ဝေဖာ]] (Wafer)
| group4 = မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳ
| list4 =
* [[ဂျက် ကဳလ်ဗဳ]] (Jack Kilby)
* [[ရဝ်ဘတ် နောိုက်သ်]] (Robert Noyce)
* [[သၞောဝ် မောရ်]] (Moore's Law)
}}
[[Category:အဳလက်ထရဝ်နစ်]]
[[Category:နဲပညာ]]
[[Category:သေမဳကောန်ဒတ်တာ]]
[[Category:သၞောတ်စက် ပံင်ကောံ]]
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ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင်
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'''ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Understanding'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် စိုတ်ဗေဒ (Psychology) ကေုာံ ပရေင်စိုတ်ညာဏ် (Cognitive science) မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် အပ္ဍဲ စိုတ် (Mental process) မဆက်စပ် ကု ပူဂိုလ် မွဲမွဲ သွက်ဂွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်၊ တီကၠိုဟ် ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် လတူ အရာဝတ္ထု၊ အကာဲအရာ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တင်ဂၞင် မွဲမွဲ ရ။
ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ (Memorization) သၟး ပုဟ်။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အကာဲအရာ မာန် ဆက်စပ် တင်ဂၞင် တၟိ ကု လညာတ် တြေံ မနွံ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် မဝ်ဒယ် အပ္ဍဲ စိုတ် (Mental model) မွဲ ရ။ ဥပမာ - ကာလ ပိုယ် ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဗီုလဵု စက် မွဲ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မ္ဂး၊ ပိုယ် တီ ဆ ယၟု ကပေါတ် သၟး ဟွံသေင်၊ ပိုယ် သီု တီ ဗီုလဵု ကပေါတ် တအ် ဆက်စပ် ချဳဓရာင် ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။<ref name="bereiter">{{cite book |last=Bereiter |first=C. |title=Education and Mind in the Knowledge Age |url=https://archive.org/details/educationmindink0000bere |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/educationmindink0000bere/page/105 105]-112}}</ref>
လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် နကဵု လညာတ် စိုတ်ဗေဒ၊ ဒဿန၊ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍေဟ် ကု ဉာဏ်စက် (Artificial Intelligence) ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Head_with_gears.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် သင်္ကေတ ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စိုတ်ညာဏ် မတုပ် ညံင် စက်ယန္တရား မကၠောန် ကမၠောန် အပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင်" ဝွံ ဒှ် တင်သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ဉာဏ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မဖန်ဗဒှ် လညာတ် ညာဏ် (Cognition) မာန် ပကဵု ညံင် ပူဂိုလ် မွဲ ဂွံ ဖြေစှ် ပြသၞာ (Problem solving) ကေုာံ ဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် (Decision making) ဍာံဍာံပြပြ မာန် ရ။
နကဵု လညာတ် သိပ္ပံ ပရေင်စိုတ်ညာဏ် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ခၞံဗဒှ် အဆက်အစပ် (Connections) အကြာ တင်ဂၞင် (Data)၊ လညာတ် (Concepts)၊ ကေုာံ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် (Processes) ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကောန်မၞိဟ် မွဲ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် အရာ မွဲမွဲ အလုံစုံ မ္ဂး၊ ညး မာန် သောင်ကလး (Explain) ပြသၞာ ဂှ် ကု ညးတၞဟ် မာန်၊ မာန် ဟီု ကြိုတင် (Predict) အရာ မမာန် ကတဵုဒှ် မာန်၊ ကေုာံ မာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ စကာ (Apply) လညာတ် ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ အကာဲအရာ တၟိ မာန် ရ။
== ၂။ လညာတ် စိုတ်ဗေဒ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စိုတ်ညာဏ် (Psychological and Cognitive Perspectives) ==
ပညာရှင် စိုတ်ဗေဒ တအ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် နကဵု လညာတ် သဳအိုရဳ နာနာ သာ် ရ။
* '''လညာတ် ပဳယာဂေတ် (Jean Piaget):''' တၠပညာ စိုတ်ဗေဒ ဍုင်သွိတ်ဇြာလာန် ဂျောန် ပဳယာဂေတ် ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု လၟေင် ကမၠောန် '''Assimilation''' (ပရေင်ပံင်နှဴ လညာတ် တၟိ ကု လညာတ် တြေံ) ကေုာံ '''Accommodation''' (ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ လညာတ် တြေံ သွက်ဂွံ ဒုင်ကေတ် လညာတ် တၟိ) ရ။<ref name="piaget">{{cite book |last=Piaget |first=J. |title=The Development of Thought: Equilibration of Cognitive Structures |url=https://archive.org/details/developmentoftho00piag |publisher=Viking Press |year=1977 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/developmentoftho00piag/page/45 45]-58}}</ref>
* '''လညာတ် ဗဳဂေါတ်သကဳ (Lev Vygotsky):''' ညး အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ မၞိဟ် (Social interaction) ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ညး မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် မွဲစွံ ကု ညးတၞဟ် မနွံ ဉာဏ် ဂၠိုင် နူ ဇကု (More Knowledgeable Other) ရ။
== ၃။ ယုတ္တိဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဒဿန (Epistemology and Philosophy) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် ဒဿန (Philosophy) ကေုာံ ယုတ္တိဗေဒ (Epistemology - ပညာ မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ လညာတ် တီ) မ္ဂး၊ တၠပညာ တအ် ပါ်ခြာ လဝ် "ပရေင်တီ" (Knowledge) ကေုာံ "ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင်" (Understanding) ရ။
ပရေင်တီ (Knowledge) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ ပရေင်တီ တင်ဂၞင် သၟး ရ (ဥပမာ - တီ ဒဒှ်ရ တ္ၚဲ ကတဴ)။ ဆဂး ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် (Understanding) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မတီ "ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ ဖဵု" (Cause and effect) ဍေဟ် ရ (ဥပမာ - ကၠိုဟ် ဟိုတ်မု တ္ၚဲ ဂွံ ကတဴ - ဟိုတ်နူ ဓါတ် ညူကလဳယာ ဖျူယှေန်)။ တၠပညာ ဣမာန်နျူအဲ ကာန် (Immanuel Kant) ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဝွံ ဒှ် အစောံသတ္တိ စိုတ် မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ်ဝ် (Categories) လတူ အာရုံ မဒုင်စသိုင် (Sensory experiences) တအ် ရ။
== ၄။ အဆံင် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင်ဂမၠိုင် (Levels of Understanding) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပညာ၊ သွက်ဂွံ ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အဆံင် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ ဘေန်ဂျာမေန် ဘလုမ် (Benjamin Bloom) ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် '''ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ ဘလုမ်''' (Bloom's Taxonomy) ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၅၆ ရ။<ref name="bloom">{{cite book |last=Bloom |first=B. S. |title=Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain |publisher=David McKay Co Inc. |year=1956 |pages=18-25}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး အဆံင် လညာတ် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ပ္ဍဲ Bloom's Taxonomy
|-
! အဆံင် (Level)
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Definition)
! ဥပမာ ကမၠောန် (Action Verbs)
|-
| ၁. '''စၟတ်သမ္တီ''' (Remembering)
| ကလေင် သမ္တီ ဒး တင်ဂၞင် ကေုာံ ယၟု။ (ဟွံဒှ် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဍာံပြ ဏီ)
| ပံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ်၊ စရင်ယၟု၊ ကလေင်ဟီု။
|-
| ၂. '''ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင်''' (Understanding)
| သောင်ကလး အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ ညာတ် အဆက်အစပ် တင်ဂၞင်။
| သောင်ကလး၊ ခမၞောန်၊ ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး။
|-
| ၃. '''စကာ''' (Applying)
| စကာ လညာတ် ပ္ဍဲ အကာဲအရာ တၟိ ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ဍာံပြ။
| ဖြေစှ်၊ စကာ၊ တြးပတိတ်။
|-
| ၄. '''သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်''' (Analyzing)
| ပါ်ခြာ လညာတ် ဇၞော် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် အပိုင်းအခြာ ဍောတ်ဍောတ်။
| သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်၊ ၜတ်ကၞာတ်၊ ပါ်ခြာ။
|-
| ၅. '''ဖျေဟ်ၚုဟ်မး''' (Evaluating)
| ဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် လတူ လညာတ် နကဵု သဇိုင် ခိုင်ကၠိုက်။
| ပတိုန်ဒုဟ်၊ ဖျေဟ်ၚုဟ်မး၊ စဵုဒၞာ။
|-
| ၆. '''ခၞံဗဒှ်''' (Creating)
| ပံင်ကောံ လညာတ် သီုဖအိုတ် တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လညာတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကပေါတ် တၟိ။
| ခၞံဗဒှ်၊ ဖန်ဇန်၊ ချူ။
|}
== ၅။ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပညာ (Understanding in Education) ==
တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု ကွးဘာ တအ် ကျက် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လိက် (Rote learning) ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် '''ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဇြိုဟ်နက်''' (Deep understanding) ရ။
နဲကဲ အစာဘာ တအ် စကာ သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞောတ် '''လဒက်ပတန် လညာတ်''' (Constructivism) ရ။ နဲကဲ ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ကွးဘာ တအ် ဂွံ ကၠောန် သုတေသန နကဵု ဇကု၊ ဖြေစှ် ပြသၞာ ဍာံပြ (Project-based learning)၊ ကေုာံ သဳကၠဳ ရေင်သကအ် ညံင် လညာတ် ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် ဂွံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် တိုန် ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ ကေုာံ အရေဝ်ဘာသာ (Communication and Language) ==
ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ကု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ (Communication) ရ။
ကာလ ပိုယ် ဟီု အရေဝ် ကု ညးတၞဟ် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ကၠိုဟ် မလိက် သၟး ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု -
* '''သေမာန်တစ် (Semantics):''' ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် မလိက် ကေုာံ ဝါကျ။
* '''ပရက်မာတစ် (Pragmatics):''' ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ် တင်ရန်တၟအ်၊ ရမ္သာင်၊ ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ မကတဵုဒှ် လက္ကရဴ အရေဝ် (Context) ရ။
ယဝ်ရ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ပ္ဍဲ အဆံင် ပရက်မာတစ် ဟွံမဲ မ္ဂး၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် မာန် မှာရာ ကၠိုဟ် ဗၠေတ် (Misunderstanding) ရေင်သကအ် လောဲသွာ ရ။
== ၇။ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ကေုာံ ဉာဏ်စက် (Understanding and Artificial Intelligence) ==
ပြသၞာ ဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် '''[[ဉာဏ်စက်]]''' (Artificial Intelligence - AI) တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပြသၞာ မသၟာန် ဒဒှ်ရ "စက် တအ် ဍာံဍာံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဒၟံင် ဟာ؟" ရ။
တၠပညာ ဂျောန် သာလ် (John Searle) ပတိုန် ထ္ၜး လဝ် လညာတ် ဒစးဒုင် မကော်စ '''ပြသၞာ ခဒမ် ဍုင်ကြုက်''' (Chinese Room Argument) ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ညး မ္ဂး၊ ကွန်ပျူတာ မွဲ မာန် တြာဲ ဘာသာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကဵု သွဟ် မတုပ် ညံင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဆ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မရပ်စပ် သင်္ကေတ (Symbol manipulation) အတိုင် ပရဝ်ဂရာမ် သၟး တုဲ ဍေဟ် ဟွံမဲ ကု ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဍာံပြ (True understanding/Intentionality) ပုဟ်။<ref name="searle">{{cite journal |last=Searle |first=J. R. |title=Minds, Brains, and Programs |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-and-brain-sciences_1980-09_3_3/page/417 |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=417-457 |year=1980}}</ref>
ၜိုန်ရ AI ခေတ်တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု ChatGPT တအ် မာန် ချူ လိက် ခိုဟ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဟွံမဲ ကု "မဝ်ဒယ် အပ္ဍဲ စိုတ်" ညံင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တုဲ ဟွံကၠိုဟ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဍာံဍာံပြပြ ရ။
== ၈။ မဝ်ဒယ် ကေုာံ သဳအိုရဳဂမၠိုင် (Models and Theories) ==
သွက်ဂွံ သောင်ကလး ဗီုလဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဂှ်၊ တၠပညာ စိုတ်ဗေဒ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သဳအိုရဳ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
* '''မဝ်ဒယ် အပ္ဍဲစိုတ် (Mental Models):''' တၠပညာ ကေန်နက် ခရိတ် (Kenneth Craik) ပတိုန် ထ္ၜး လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၃ ဒဒှ်ရ က္ဍဟ် ပိုယ် ဂှ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် မဝ်ဒယ် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် သွက် လေဟာပြင် ဂၠးတိ အပ္ဍဲ စိုတ် ပိုယ် သွက်ဂွံ ဟီု ကြိုတင် အကာဲအရာ မမာန် ကတဵုဒှ် မာန် ရ။<ref name="craik">{{cite book |last=Craik |first=K. J. W. |title=The Nature of Explanation |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1943 |pages=50-61}}</ref>
* '''သဳအိုရဳ သကဳမာ (Schema Theory):''' လညာတ် တအ် ဝွံ ဂိုင်သမ္တီ လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် နကဵု ဒၞာဲ မကော်စ "သကဳမာ" ရ။ ကာလ ပိုယ် ဆဵု အရာ တၟိ၊ ပိုယ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဍေဟ် ကု သကဳမာ တြေံ တုဲ ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် မာန် ရ။
== ၉။ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မှာရာ (Challenges and Misunderstanding) ==
ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဍာံပြ ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် မလေပ် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကု ပရေင်မှာရာ ကေုာံ ဓလုက် စိုတ် (Cognitive bias) ရ -
* '''ဓလုက် စိုတ် မစၟတ်သမ္တီ ဍာံ (Confirmation bias):''' ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဒုင်ကေတ် ဆ လညာတ် မကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ဇကု တြေံ သၟး တုဲ တးပါဲ တင်ဂၞင် တၟိ မဟွံကိတ်ညဳ။
* '''ပရေင်လဵုလာ် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် (Illusion of explanatory depth):''' မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညးတအ် ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် အရာ မွဲမွဲ (ဥပမာ - ဗီုလဵု ခလံက် ဍာ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန်)၊ ဆဂး ကာလ အာတ်မိက် ညံင် သောင်ကလး ဍာံဍာံ မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ဟွံမာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဝွံ ဒှ် အစောံသတ္တိ အဓိက အိုတ် မပါ်ခြာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် နူကဵု တိရစ္ဆာန် ကေုာံ စက်ယန္တရား တအ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မကတဵုဒှ် နူ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် လညာတ်၊ ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ၊ ကေုာံ ယုတ္တိဗေဒ အပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ ဘာသာရပ် သုတေသန စိုတ်ဗေဒ ကေုာံ ဉာဏ်စက် ဝွံ သ္ဒး ဆက် လ္ၚတ် ဇြိုဟ်နက် ညံင် ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် လဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ပ္ဍဲ နှင် က္ဍဟ် (Neural networks) ရောင်။ ယဝ်ရ ပိုယ် မာန် ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဗီုလဵု ပိုယ် ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် မ္ဂး၊ ပိုယ် မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ မခိုဟ် အိုတ် ကေုာံ AI မနွံ ဉာဏ် ဍာံပြ မာန် ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ပရေင်စိုတ်ညာဏ်]] (Cognition)
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence)
* [[ပညာဗေဒ]] (Epistemology)
* [[စိုတ်ဗေဒ]] (Psychology)
* [[ပရေင်ပညာ]] (Education)
{{Navbox
| name = Cognitive Psychology
| title = ပရေင်စိုတ်ညာဏ် ကေုာံ စိုတ်ဗေဒ (Cognition and Cognitive Psychology)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = လၟေင် ကမၠောန် သဇိုင်
| list1 =
* [[ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင်]] (Understanding)
* [[ပရေင်တီ]] (Knowledge)
* [[ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ]] (Memory)
* [[ပရေင်စွံအာရီု]] (Attention)
* [[ပရေင်ဖျေဟ်သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ်]] (Decision making)
| group2 = သဳအိုရဳ ကေုာံ လညာတ်
| list2 =
* [[လဒက်ပတန် လညာတ်]] (Constructivism)
* [[မဝ်ဒယ် အပ္ဍဲစိုတ်]] (Mental model)
* [[သကဳမာ]] (Schema)
* [[ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ ဘလုမ်]] (Bloom's Taxonomy)
| group3 = တၠပညာ အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[ဂျောန် ပဳယာဂေတ်]] (Jean Piaget)
* [[လဳ ဗဳဂေါတ်သကဳ]] (Lev Vygotsky)
* [[ဘေန်ဂျာမေန် ဘလုမ်]] (Benjamin Bloom)
* [[ဂျောန် သာလ်]] (John Searle)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[ဉာဏ်စက်]] (Artificial Intelligence)
* [[ယုတ္တိဗေဒ]] (Epistemology)
* [[ဒဿန စိုတ်]] (Philosophy of mind)
}}
[[Category:စိုတ်ဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဒဿန]]
[[Category:ယုတ္တိဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ပညာ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်စိုတ်ညာဏ်]]
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'''ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Justification'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာလ္ၚတ် ဣပိသတဳမဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ (Epistemology) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပညာ လ္ၚတ် ညာဏ် ကေုာံ ဒဿနိကဗေဒ (Philosophy) ဂှ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အရာ မကဵု သဇိုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အခေါင်အရာ သွက်ဂွံ ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် အရာ မွဲမွဲ ဒဒှ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဍာံပြ (True) ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဝွံ ဒှ် တင် ကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် မွဲ သွက်ဂွံ ပါ်ခြာ အကြာ "ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ဓမ္မတာ" (Mere belief) ကေုာံ "ညာဏ်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လညာတ် (Knowledge) ရ။<ref name="alston">{{cite book |last=Alston |first=W. P. |title=Epistemic Justification: Essays in the Theory of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/epistemicjustifi0000alst |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1989 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/epistemicjustifi0000alst/page/15 15]-25}}</ref>
နကဵု လညာတ် ဒဿနိက တမၠာ မ္ဂး၊ ညာဏ် ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် '''ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ မနွံကဵု ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ကေုာံ ဓဝ်ဍာံ''' (Justified True Belief - JTB) ရ။ ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ် မွဲ ပတှ်ေ ကေတ် အရာ မွဲမွဲ တုဲ အရာ ဂှ် လေဝ် ဍာံပြ ဒၟံင် ကီု လေဝ်၊ ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမဲ ကု ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် (Justification) မခိုင်ကၠိုက် မ္ဂး အရာ ဂှ် ဟွံဒှ် ညာဏ် ပုဟ် (ဥပမာ - ထေင် ကေတ် နကဵု ကံကုသိုလ် တုဲ ဒး အာ)။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သဳအိုရဳ အဓိကဂမၠိုင်၊ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ကေုာံ လွပ် ပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် သိပ္ပံ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Euler_diagram_of_beliefs.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ဓဝ်ဍာံ (Truth)၊ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ (Belief) ကေုာံ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် (Justification) မဖန်ဗဒှ် ညာဏ် (Knowledge) နကဵု လညာတ် JTB။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ်" ဝွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လညာတ် ပညာ လ္ၚတ် ညာဏ် မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ မွဲမွဲ ရ။ နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် မ္ဂး၊ မၞိဟ် မွဲ နွံကဵု ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် သွက်ဂွံ ပတှ်ေ အရာ မွဲမွဲ (Justified in believing 'p') ယဝ်ရ မၞိဟ် ဂှ် နွံကဵု သက်သဳ، လညာတ် ရူပဗေဒ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လၟေင် တွက်ဂၞန် မဍာံပြ သွက် အရာ ဂှ် ရ။
ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ သၟာန် မပ္တံကဵု - "ဗီုလဵု ပိုယ် ဂွံ တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ပိုယ် တီ အရာ မွဲမွဲ ဍာံ?", "သက်သဳ ဗီုလဵု မဒှ် သက်သဳ မခိုင်ကၠိုက်?", ကေုာံ "ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ပိုယ် တအ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ဒး နွံကဵု သဇိုင် သီုဖအိုတ် ဟာ?" ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ဒဿနိက (History and Philosophical Origins) ==
လညာတ် ပရူ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဝွံ စတင် ပြာကတ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ ရ။ တၠပညာ ဒဿနိက '''[[ပလေတဝ်]]''' (Plato) ဂှ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူ ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ညး မနွံ ယၟု ''Theaetetus'' ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ဂှ် ညး ပတိုန် ထ္ၜး လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ညာဏ် (Knowledge) ဂှ် ဒှ် "ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ မဍာံပြ မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ပသောင်ထ္ၜး" (True belief with an account) ရ။<ref name="plato">{{cite book |last=Chisholm |first=R. M. |title=Theory of Knowledge |edition=3rd |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1989 |pages=90-95}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ပညာ လျး (Enlightenment)၊ တၠပညာ ဗီုကဵု '''[[ရေနဳ ဒေကာတ်]]''' (René Descartes) တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ သံသယ (Methodological skepticism) သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ သဇိုင် ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် မဟွံမာန် ဒးဒုင် သံသယ ရ (ဥပမာ - "အဲ ချပ်၊ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ အဲ နွံ တန်တဴ" - ''Cogito, ergo sum'')။
== ၃။ သဳအိုရဳ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် သဇိုင် (Foundationalism) ==
'''သဳအိုရဳ သဇိုင်''' (Foundationalism) ဝွံ ဒှ် သဳအိုရဳ အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ဏအ် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ပိုယ် တအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် တုပ် ညံင် သ္ၚိ မွဲ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ သဇိုင် (Basic beliefs):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ မဟွံဒး နွံပၟိက် ကု ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် နူ အရာ တၞဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် ဍေဟ် ရ (ဥပမာ - အာရီု မဆဵုညာတ် လၟုဟ် "အဲ ဆဵု ညာတ် အသာ် ဗကေတ်")။
* '''ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ဟွံသေင် သဇိုင် (Non-basic beliefs):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ မဒး ဒုင်သဇိုင် ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် လတူ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ သဇိုင် တအ် ရ။
ဒေကာတ် (Descartes) ဝွံ ဒှ် တၠပညာ မစကာ လညာတ် ဏအ် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ဓဝ်ဍာံ မဟွံမာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ ရ။
== ၄။ သဳအိုရဳ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဆက်စပ် (Coherentism) ==
'''သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ်''' (Coherentism) ဝွံ ဒှ် လညာတ် မဒစးဒုင် ကု သဳအိုရဳ သဇိုင် ရ။ နကဵု လညာတ် ဏအ် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် သာ် ဂှ် ဒး ဆက်စပ် ကေုာံ ထံက်ပင် ရေင်သကအ် အလုံ မွဲ သၞောတ် ရ (တုပ် ညံင် ဇာဇၞိက် ဃံင်)။
ဟွံမဲ ကု "ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ သဇိုင်" မတန်တဴ နကဵု အလဵုအလဵု ပုဟ်။ အရာ မွဲ ဒှ် ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် သ္ဒး ကိတ်ညဳ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ အလုံစုံ မွဲ (Coherent web of beliefs) ရ။ တၠပညာ ဥပမာ - W.V.O. Quine တအ် ထံက်ဂလာန် လညာတ် ဏအ် ရ。<ref name="bonjour">{{cite book |last=Bonjour |first=L. |title=The Structure of Empirical Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/structureofempir00bonj |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1985 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/structureofempir00bonj/page/87 87]-110}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ သဳအိုရဳ သဇိုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ်
|-
! လက္ခဏာ
! သဳအိုရဳ သဇိုင် (Foundationalism)
! သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် (Coherentism)
|-
| '''ဗီုပြင် လဒက်ပတန်''' || တုပ် ညံင် သ္ၚိ၊ နွံ ရိုဟ်ကၞက် ကေုာံ လတူ || တုပ် ညံင် ဇာဇၞိက် (Web) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပဟ် ဃံင်
|-
| '''ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ သဇိုင်''' || နွံ (Basic beliefs) || ဟွံမဲ (ဇၟာပ် အရာ ဆက်စပ် ရေင်သကအ်)
|-
| '''လညာတ် ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ်''' || ဂွံ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် နူ သဇိုင် မဗိုန်ဗတ် || ဂွံ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် နူ ပရေင်ကိတ်ညဳ လတူ ဇကု
|-
| '''ပြသၞာ အဓိက''' || ဗီုလဵု သဇိုင် တအ် ဂှ် ဂွံ ဍာံပြ ဇေတ်တ်? || ပေါမ် အာဂီု လေဝ် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကီု (ဟွံဍာံပြ လေဝ် ဒှ် မာန်)
|}
== ၅။ သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ (Reliabilism) ==
'''သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ''' (Reliabilism) ဝွံ ဒှ် လညာတ် မွဲ မဟီုတွံ ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ မွဲ နွံကဵု ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ယဝ်ရ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု လၟေင် ကမၠောန် စိုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အာရီု မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ မာန် (Reliable cognitive process) ရ။
ဥပမာ - ယဝ်ရ မတ် ပိုယ် ခိုဟ် ဒၟံင် တုဲ ပိုယ် ဆဵု ညာတ် ကွဳစက် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠံင် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ "ကွဳစက် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠံင်" ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ရ၊ ဟိုတ်နူ ဍေဟ် ကၠုင် နူ အာရီု မတ် မာန် ပတှ်ေ လဝ် ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ် ဂှ် တၠပညာ Alvin Goldman ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ရ။<ref name="goldman">{{cite journal |last=Goldman |first=A. I. |title=What is Justified Belief? |journal=Justification and Knowledge |pages=1-23 |year=1979 |publisher=D. Reidel Publishing Company}}</ref>
== ၆။ ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ အပ္ဍဲ ကေုာံ မ္ၚး (Internalism and Externalism) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဝွံ နွံ ပေါဲပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် အဓိက မွဲ အကြာ လညာတ် '''အပ္ဍဲ (Internalism)''' ကေုာံ လညာတ် '''မ္ၚး (Externalism)''' ရ။
* '''Internalism:''' နကဵု လညာတ် ဏအ်၊ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် သာ် သ္ဒး နွံ ပ္ဍဲ က္ဍဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စိုတ် ပူဂိုလ် ဂှ် ရ။ မၞိဟ် ဂှ် သ္ဒး တီ ကၠိုဟ် ဒဒှ်ရ မုဟိုတ် ညး ဂွံ ပတှ်ေ အရာ ဂှ် ရ (Accessibilty to reasons)။
* '''Externalism:''' (ဥပမာ - Reliabilism) နကဵု လညာတ် ဏအ်၊ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဝွံ ဟွံဒး နွံ ပ္ဍဲ စိုတ် ပူဂိုလ် ဂှ် လၟိုန် ပုဟ်။ ဍေဟ် မာန် တန်တဴ လတူ အကာဲအရာ မ္ၚး (ဥပမာ လၟေင် အာရီု) မဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ဂှ် ရ။
== ၇။ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ဂေတ်တဳယာ (Justification and the Gettier Problem) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၃၊ တၠပညာ ဒဿနိက '''[[အက်မောန် ဂေတ်တဳယာ]]''' (Edmund Gettier) ချူ ပတိတ် လိက်ပရေင် ဇမၠေအ် မွဲ မပလီု ထောအ် လညာတ် ညာဏ် မဒှ် JTB (Justified True Belief) မနွံ ကၠုင် လဝ် ၂၀၀၀ သၞာံ ပြင် ဂှ် ရ。<ref name="gettier">{{cite journal |last=Gettier |first=E. L. |title=Is Justified True Belief Knowledge? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_analysis_1963-06_23_6/page/121 |journal=Analysis |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=121-123 |year=1963}}</ref>
ညး ပတိုန် ထ္ၜး လဝ် ဥပမာ (Gettier cases) မထ္ၜး ကဵု ဒဒှ်ရ၊ ၜိုန်ရ မၞိဟ် မွဲ နွံကဵု ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် မခိုင်ကၠိုက်၊ တုဲ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ညး လေဝ် ဍာံပြ ဒၟံင် ကီု လေဝ်၊ အရာ ဂှ် ဟွံမာန် ကော် စ "ညာဏ်" ဏီ ရ။
(ဥပမာ - မၞိဟ် မွဲ ရံင် နာဍဳ လဒေါဝ် ဍုင် တုဲ ညာတ် ဒဒှ်ရ အခိင် ၁၂ နာဍဳ။ ညး ပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ လၟုဟ် ၁၂ နာဍဳ။ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ညး ခိုဟ် ဒၟံင်၊ တုဲ အခိင် အဝဲ ဂှ် လေဝ် ဍာံပြ ဒၟံင် ၁၂ နာဍဳ ဇေတ်တ် ကီု ရ။ ဆဂး နာဍဳ ဇၞော် ဂှ် လီု ဒၟံင် တုဲ ဒေါအ် ဒၟံင် လတူ ၁၂ နာဍဳ ဂှ် ၂၄ နာဍဳ ပြင် ယာံရ ညး ရံင် ဒး အခိင် ဍာံ တန်တဴ ဓမ္မတာ ရ။ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ညး ဂှ် ဍာံ ဟိုတ်နူ ကံကုသိုလ် သၟး ရ၊ ဟွံသေင် ညာဏ် ဍာံပြ ပုဟ်)။
== ၈။ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် အဂရစ်ပါ (Agrippa's Trilemma) ==
ပြသၞာ ဇၞော် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပြသၞာ မကော်စ '''Agrippa's Trilemma''' (ပြသၞာ ပိ သာ် အဂရစ်ပါ) ရ။ သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ မွဲမွဲ၊ ပိုယ် သ္ဒး ကဵု ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ရ။ ဆဂး ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဏအ် လေဝ် သ္ဒး နွံကဵု ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် မွဲ ပၠန် ရ။ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် အကာဲအရာ ပိ သာ် -
# '''Infinite Regress:''' ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဆက် ဂၠာဲ အာ လၟိုန် ကာလ ဟွံမဲ ကု ဒတုဲ။
# '''Circularity:''' ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဂှ် ဆက်စပ် ဂေတ် ကလေင် အာ ဒၞာဲ တမ် မွဲ ပၠန် (တုပ် ကု Coherentism)။
# '''Dogmatic Assumption:''' ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဂှ် ဒေါအ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ တင်သဇိုင် မွဲ မဟွံမဲ ကု သက်သဳ ပရိုင် (တုပ် ကု Foundationalism)။
== ၉။ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Justification in Law and Society) ==
ပါဲနူကဵု ဒဿနိကဗေဒ၊ ဝေါဟာရ '''ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ်''' ဝွံ သီု စကာ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Legal Justification):''' ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အခေါင်အရာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အကာဲအရာ မကဵု အခေါင် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် မဒှ် ဒုဟ် မွဲမွဲ ရ (ဥပမာ - ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ ဇကု - Self-defense)။ ၜိုန်ရ ဂစိုတ် မၞိဟ် ဒှ် ဒုဟ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ယဝ်ရ ဒး ဂစိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ လမျီု ဇကု မ္ဂး၊ အရာ ဂှ် နွံကဵု ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် (Justified) တုဲ ဟွံဒး ဒုင် ရာဇဝတ် ရ။
* '''ပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် ကိုပ်ကရိုင် (Moral Justification):''' ဒှ် ပရေင်ပသောင်ထ္ၜး ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ဓဝ်ဍာံ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ မွဲမွဲ အတိုင် စံပၞောန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ သုတေသန အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Research) ==
ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ တီ ညာတ် ဓဝ်ဍာံ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ အကြာ လညာတ် အလဵုဇကု ကေုာံ ညာဏ် မဍာံပြ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု အနာဂတ်၊ သုတေသန ပရူ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဝွံ လ္ၚတ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု '''Formal Epistemology''' မစကာ ဂၞန် သင်္ချာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တွက်ဂၞန် ယုတ္တိ (Logic) ကီု၊ ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု ဉာဏ်စက် (Artificial Intelligence) တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် သွက် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဍေဟ်တအ် (Explainable AI) ရောင်။ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် လတူ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဆက် ဇၞော်မောဝ် အာ ညံင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂွံ ဂၠာဲ ညာဏ် မဍာံပြ မာန် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဣပိသတဳမဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]] (Epistemology)
* [[ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]] (Philosophy)
* [[ပလေတဝ်]] (Plato)
* [[ရေနဳ ဒေကာတ်]] (René Descartes)
* [[ဓဝ်ဍာံ]] (Truth)
{{Navbox
| name = Epistemology
| title = ဣပိသတဳမဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ ကေုာံ ပညာ လ္ၚတ် ညာဏ် (Epistemology and Theory of Knowledge)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[ညာဏ်]] (Knowledge)
* [[ဓဝ်ဍာံ]] (Truth)
* [[ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ]] (Belief)
* [[ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ် (ဒဿနိက)]] (Justification)
| group2 = သဳအိုရဳ ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ်
| list2 =
* [[သဳအိုရဳ သဇိုင်]] (Foundationalism)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ်]] (Coherentism)
* [[သဳအိုရဳ ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ]] (Reliabilism)
* [[ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ အပ္ဍဲ ကေုာံ မ္ၚး]] (Internalism and Externalism)
| group3 = ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ လညာတ်
| list3 =
* [[ပြသၞာ ဂေတ်တဳယာ]] (Gettier problem)
* [[တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် အဂရစ်ပါ]] (Agrippa's trilemma)
* [[လညာတ် ဒစးဒုင် (ဒဿနိက)]] (Skepticism)
| group4 = တၠပညာ အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[ပလေတဝ်]] (Plato)
* [[ရေနဳ ဒေကာတ်]] (René Descartes)
* [[ဂျောန် လံက်]] (John Locke)
* [[အက်မောန် ဂေတ်တဳယာ]] (Edmund Gettier)
}}
[[Category:ဣပိသတဳမဝ်လဝ်ဂျဳ]]
[[Category:ဒဿနိကဗေဒ]]
[[Category:ဟိုတ်ဖိုလ်]]
[[Category:လညာတ် ဒဿနိကဂမၠိုင်]]
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'''ပါမောက္ခ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Professor'', လာတ္တေန်: ''professor'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ အကယ်ဒမစ် မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အရာဝုတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကဆံင် ပညာ (Academic rank) မသၠုင် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု [[တက္ကသိုလ်]] ကေုာံ အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန် သုတေသန ဂမၠိုင် ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ "ပါမောက္ခ" ဏအ်ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ မလိက် လာတ္တေန် မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ညးမလလောင်တြး အလုံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ညးမနွံကဵု ပညာ ဗွဲမလှဲလး" ရ။<ref name="altbach">{{cite book |last=Altbach |first=P. G. |title=Comparative Higher Education: Knowledge, the University, and Development |publisher=Springer |year=1998 |pages=45-50}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မ္ဂး၊ ပါမောက္ခ တအ် ဝွံ နွံ တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် လိက် ကု ကွးဘာ အဆံင် သၠုင် (ဘွဲ့လွန် ကေုာံ ဒံက်တာ)၊ ကၠောန် ပရေင်သုတေသန ဇြိုဟ်နက်၊ ကေုာံ ယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန တက္ကသိုလ် ရ။ ပါမောက္ခ မွဲ ဂွံ ဒှ် မာန် ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဖြတ် အာ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် အကယ်ဒမစ် အဆံင်ဆံင် မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ပတိတ် လိက်အုပ်၊ လိက်ပရေင် သုတေသန (Peer-reviewed journals)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး ပ္ဍဲ ကဏ္ဍ ပညာ ဇကု မလ္ၚတ် လဝ် ဂှ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပါမောက္ခ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန် အကယ်ဒမစ်၊ တာလျိုင် အဓိက၊ ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Laurentius_de_Voltolina_01.jpg|thumb|right|350px|ဗီုရုပ် ခေတ် လဒေါဝ် ဥရောပ (၁၄ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ) မထ္ၜး ပါမောက္ခ ဟေန်နရဳကတ် (Henricus de Alamania) မဗတောန် လိက် ကု ကွးဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အဳတလဳ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ပါမောက္ခ" ဝွံ ဒှ် ယၟု ဂုဏ်ထူးဆောင် ကေုာံ ကဆံင် ကမၠောန် (Title and Rank) မွဲ မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန် ပညာ သၠုင် (Higher education institutions) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ ယၟု ဏအ် ဂွံ စကာ အခေါင် နွံ ဆ မၞိဟ် မကလိဂွံ လဝ် အရာဝုတ် သၠုင် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန ဓဝ် သၟး ရ။
နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် အကယ်ဒမစ် မ္ဂး၊ ပါမောက္ခ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် တၠပညာ မနွံကဵု ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် သုတေသန မလှဲလး အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် မွဲမွဲ ရ။ ညးတအ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် တင်ဂၞင် ပညာ တၟိ (Knowledge creators) တုဲ ပလံင် ဗစိုပ် လညာတ် တအ် ဂှ် ကု ညးမသ္အာင် ကေုာံ ကွးဘာ အနာဂတ် တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ (History and Origins) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ဒက်ပတန် ကဆံင် ပါမောက္ခ ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် လဒေါဝ် ဥရောပ (Middle Ages) အခိင် ကာလ မဒက်ပတန် တက္ကသိုလ် ပထမ အိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် ဘဝ်လဝ်ညာ (University of Bologna)၊ တက္ကသိုလ် ပါရဳ (University of Paris) ကေုာံ တက္ကသိုလ် အံက်သဖောတ် (Oxford University) ပ္ဍဲ ၁၁-၁၂ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ တေအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် တေအ်၊ ပါမောက္ခ ဂှ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မနွံ အခေါင် သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် ဘာသာရပ် ဘာသာရေင် (Theology)၊ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Law) ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ (Medicine) ရ။ လညာတ် "Chair" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ဒၞာဲ ပါမောက္ခ" ဂှ် စ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပ္ဍဲ ခဒမ် ဗတောန် လိက် ဂှ် ပါမောက္ခ မွဲဓဝ် ဟေင် နွံ အခေါင် ဂဇအ် လတူ ခုင် ဇၞော် (Chair) ရ။<ref name="clark">{{cite book |last=Clark |first=B. R. |title=The Academic Life: Small Worlds, Different Worlds |url=https://archive.org/details/academiclifesmal0000clar |publisher=Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching |year=1987 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/academiclifesmal0000clar/page/25 25]-32}}</ref>
== ၃။ တာလျိုင် ကေုာံ ကမၠောန် အဓိက (Roles and Main Functions) ==
ပါမောက္ခ မွဲ နွံကဵု တာလျိုင် အဓိက ၃ သာ် (The Three Pillars of Academic Duty) မပ္တံကဵု -
# '''ပရေင်ဗတောန် လိက် (Teaching):''' ပါမောက္ခ တအ် ဒး ဗတောန် လိက် ကု ကွးဘာ အဆံင် တက္ကသိုလ် (Undergraduate) ကေုာံ အဆံင် ဘွဲ့လွန် (Postgraduate) ရ။ ညးတအ် သီု ဒး ကဵု လိက် ကေုာံ မင်မဲ ဒံက်တာ (Ph.D. supervision) သွက် ကွးဘာ မလ္ၚတ် သုတေသန ရ။
# '''ပရေင်သုတေသန (Research):''' ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် တာလျိုင် အဓိက အိုတ် သွက် ပါမောက္ခ ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။ ညးတအ် ဒး ဂၠာဲ သြန် ထံက်ပင် သုတေသန (Research grants)၊ ကၠောန် စမ်ၜတ် ကေုာံ ပတိတ် လိက်ပရေင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂျာနယ် အကယ်ဒမစ် ဂၠးတိ ရ။
# '''ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ ဝန်ဆောင်မှု (Service and Administration):''' ပါမောက္ခ တအ် သ္ဒး ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ ကမ္မတဳ တက္ကသိုလ်၊ ဒှ် ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ ဌာန (Department Chair)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကဵု အရီုအဗင် ပညာ ကု အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။
== ၄။ ကဆံင် အကယ်ဒမစ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (Academic Ranks and Progression) ==
သွက်ဂွံ စိုပ် ကဆံင် ပါမောက္ခ မ္ဂး၊ အစာ ဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် တအ် သ္ဒး ဖြတ် အာ လၟေင် အဆံင်ဆံင် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ ဍုင် မွဲ ကဵု မွဲ ဟွံတုပ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ သၞောတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဂှ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ရ -
* '''အစာ လိက် / အစာ ထံက်ပင် (Lecturer / Assistant Professor):''' ကဆံင် စတမ် ကြဴနူ ကလိဂွံ ဗြမဟိမု ဒံက်တာ (Ph.D.) တုဲ။ ညးတအ် ဒး ဗတောန် လိက် ကေုာံ စ ကၠောန် သုတေသန ရ။
* '''ပါမောက္ခ တွိုက် (Associate Professor):''' ကဆံင် လဒေါဝ် မကလိဂွံ လဝ် ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး ပ္ဍဲ သုတေသန ကေုာံ မလေပ် ကလိဂွံ '''အခေါင် ကမၠောန် တန်တဴ''' (Tenure) ရ။
* '''ပါမောက္ခ အလုံ (Full Professor / Professor):''' ကဆံင် သၠုင် အိုတ် မကလိဂွံ လဝ် ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် ညးတအ် ရ။
== ၅။ သၞောတ် ပါမောက္ခ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်နာနာ (Professor Systems in Different Countries) ==
သၞောတ် အကယ်ဒမစ် ဂှ် တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ အတိုင် ဍုင် ကေုာံ ဒေသ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ ကဆံင် ပါမောက္ခ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! သၞောတ် အမေရိကာန် (US System)
! သၞောတ် အင်္ဂလာန် (UK System)
! သၞောတ် ဥရောပ (European / German System)
|-
| Assistant Professor
| Lecturer
| Junior Professor / Akademischer Rat
|-
| Associate Professor (Tenured)
| Senior Lecturer / Reader
| Professor (W2)
|-
| '''Full Professor'''
| '''Professor'''
| '''Professor (W3 / Chair)'''
|}
<ref name="weber">{{cite book |last=Weber |first=M. |title=The Academic Profession in Europe: New Tasks and New Challenges |publisher=Springer |year=2008 |pages=112-118}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် အင်္ဂလာန် (UK) ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဥရောပ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ ယၟု "ပါမောက္ခ" ဂှ် စကာ ဆ သွက် မၞိဟ် မနွံ ကဆံင် သၠုင် အိုတ် (Chair) သၟး ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (US) ဂှ်၊ အစာဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် သီုဖအိုတ် ကိုပ်ကော် စ "Professor" ၜိုန်ရ ဒှ် ကဆံင် Assistant ကီုလေဝ် ရ။
== ၆။ ပါမောက္ခ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သုတေသန (Professors and Research) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် သုတေသန (Research Universities) မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်သုတေသန ဝွံ ဒှ် ဇုတ် အဓိက သွက် ပါမောက္ခ တအ် ရ。
ညးတအ် သ္ဒး က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ဌာန စမ်ၜတ် (Laboratories) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ သုတေသန တုဲ ဒး ဂၠာဲ သြန် ဘဏ္ဍာ နူကဵု အလဵုအသဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကုမ္ပဏဳ တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဏအ် ရ။ လညာတ် မကော်စ "Publish or Perish" (ပတိတ် လိက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒး တိတ် နူ ကမၠောန်) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒြဟတ် ဓရိုဟ် အဓိက လတူ ပါမောက္ခ ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ဆက် ပတိတ် သုတေသန ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် သၠုင် လၟိုန် ရ။
== ၇။ ကဏ္ဍ ပါမောက္ခ တၞဟ်ဟ် (Other Professor Types) ==
ပါမောက္ခ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ အစာဘာ ဓမ္မတာ မွဲ သၟး ပုဟ်၊ ဍေဟ် နွံကဵု ဂကူ နာနာ သာ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ရ -
* '''ပါမောက္ခ သုတေသန (Research Professor):''' မၞိဟ် မအာရီုစွံ လတူ သုတေသန သၟး တုဲ ဟွံဒး ဗတောန် လိက် (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဗတောန် အောန်)။
* '''ပါမောက္ခ ဆေင်စပ် ဂဥုဲ (Clinical Professor):''' အစာဂဥုဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တၠပညာ မဗတောန် လိက် ပ္ဍဲ ရုံဂဥုဲ (Hospitals) ကေုာံ တက္ကသိုလ် ဆေင်စပ် ဂဥုဲ။
* '''ပါမောက္ခ ကၟုဲ (Visiting Professor):''' ပါမောက္ခ နူ တက္ကသိုလ် တၞဟ် မကၠုင် ဗတောန် လိက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကၠောန် သုတေသန ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် မွဲမွဲ နကဵု လၟေင် အခိင် ယာယဳ။
* '''ပါမောက္ခ ယာယဳ (Adjunct Professor):''' အစာဘာ မဗတောန် လိက် နကဵု အခိင် ညိည (Part-time) တုဲ ဟွံမဲ ကု အခေါင်အရာ ကမၠောန် တန်တဴ ရ။<ref name="boyer">{{cite book |last=Boyer |first=E. L. |title=Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate |url=https://archive.org/details/scholarshiprecon0000boye |publisher=Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scholarshiprecon0000boye/page/15 15]-24}}</ref>
== ၈။ ပါမောက္ခ ဂုဏ်ထူးဆောင် ကေုာံ အာယုက်ဇၞော် (Emeritus and Honorary Professors) ==
ကာလ ပါမောက္ခ မွဲ စိုပ် အာယုက် မဇူ နူ ကမၠောန် (Retirement) မ္ဂး၊ တက္ကသိုလ် တအ် မလေပ် ဇိုန် နှင် ကဵု ယၟု '''ပါမောက္ခ အာယုက်ဇၞော်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ပါမောက္ခ အဳမေရဳတတ်သ်''' (Professor Emeritus / Emerita) ရ။ ယၟု ဏအ်ဝွံ ဂွံ စကာ ဆ မၞိဟ် မနွံကဵု ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာ ကေုာံ ကမၠောန် ခိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ညးတအ် ကၠောန် လဝ် ကမၠောန် သၟး ရ။
ပါမောက္ခ အဳမေရဳတတ်သ် တအ် ၜိုန်ရ ဟွံဒး ဗတောန် လိက် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ညးတအ် နွံ အခေါင် ဆက် စကာ ရုင်၊ ဒေသ္ၚာင် တက္ကသိုလ်၊ ကေုာံ ဆက် ကၠောန် သုတေသန မာန် ရ။ တက္ကသိုလ် တအ် လေဝ် မလေပ် ကဵု ယၟု '''ပါမောက္ခ ဂုဏ်ထူးဆောင်''' (Honorary Professor) ကု တၠပညာ မ္ၚး (ဥပမာ - သၟာပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ သၟာပိုန်ဒြပ်) မနွံကဵု ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် တၟေင် တအ် ကီု ရ။
== ၉။ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ (Challenges in the 21st Century) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဏအ်၊ ပါမောက္ခ ကေုာံ အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန် အကယ်ဒမစ် တအ် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကု တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် နာနာ သာ် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ဖအောန် သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ (Funding Cuts):''' အလဵုအသဳ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဖအောန် ဖျေဟ် သြန် ထံက်ပင် တက္ကသိုလ် တုဲ ပါမောက္ခ တအ် ဒး ဂစာန် ဂၠာဲ သြန် နူ ကုမ္ပဏဳ မ္ၚး ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်စကာ အစာ ယာယဳ (Adjunctification):''' တက္ကသိုလ် တအ် စကာ အစာ ယာယဳ (Adjuncts) မဟွံမဲ ကု လာပ်သြန် ခိုဟ် ကေုာံ အခေါင် ကမၠောန် တန်တဴ စၞး မခါန်ကၞက် ပါမောက္ခ အလုံ ဂၠိုင် ကၠုင် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် သုတေသန (Research Pressure):''' ဒြဟတ် ဓရိုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် လိက်ပရေင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂျာနယ် ယၟုဒယှ် (High-impact journals) ဂှ် ဇၞော် လောန် တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် အကာဲအရာ စိုတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Mental health) ပါမောက္ခ တအ် ဂွံ လီုလာ် အာ မာန် ရ။<ref name="ginsberg">{{cite book |last=Ginsberg |first=B. |title=The Fall of the Faculty: The Rise of the All-Administrative University and Why It Matters |url=https://archive.org/details/falloffacultyris0000gins |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/falloffacultyris0000gins/page/35 35]-42}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် (Conclusion) ==
ပါမောက္ခ ဝွံ ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အဓိက အိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပညာ ကေုာံ နည်းပညာ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ရ။ ညးတအ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ အစာ မဗတောန် လိက် သၟး ပုဟ်၊ ဆဂး ညးတအ် ဒှ် တၠပညာ မဖန်ဗဒှ် တင်ဂၞင် တၟိ၊ မဂၠာဲဆဵု လညာတ် သိပ္ပံ တၟိ၊ ကေုာံ မပလံင် ဗစိုပ် လညာတ် တအ် ဂှ် ကု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။
ၜိုန်ရ အခိင် ကေုာံ သၞောတ် တက္ကသိုလ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ကီုလေဝ်၊ တာလျိုင် ပါမောက္ခ သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ ပရေင်သၠးပွး အကယ်ဒမစ် (Academic freedom) ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ စၞောန် ထ္ၜး ဂၠံင်တရဴ ကု တၞောဝ် တၟိ ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဆက် တန်တဴ အာ လၟိုန် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[တက္ကသိုလ်]] (University)
* [[သုတေသန]] (Research)
* [[ဒံက်တာ (ဗြမဟိမု)]] (Doctorate)
* [[အစာဘာ]] (Teacher)
{{Navbox
| name = Academic Ranks
| title = ကဆံင် အကယ်ဒမစ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာ တက္ကသိုလ် (Academic Ranks and Higher Education)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ကဆံင် ပါမောက္ခ (Professorial Ranks)
| list1 =
* [[ပါမောက္ခ]] (Full Professor)
* [[ပါမောက္ခ တွိုက်]] (Associate Professor)
* [[အစာ ထံက်ပင်]] (Assistant Professor)
* [[ပါမောက္ခ အာယုက်ဇၞော်]] (Professor Emeritus)
| group2 = ကဆံင် အစာဘာ (Teaching Ranks)
| list2 =
* [[အစာ လိက်]] (Lecturer / Senior Lecturer)
* [[အစာ ယာယဳ]] (Adjunct Professor)
* [[ညးစၞောန်ထ္ၜး]] (Instructor / Tutor)
| group3 = ကဆံင် သုတေသန (Research Roles)
| list3 =
* [[သုတေသဳ ပိုတ်သဒံက်]] (Postdoctoral Researcher)
* [[ညးထံက်ပင် သုတေသန]] (Research Assistant)
* [[ပါမောက္ခ သုတေသန]] (Research Professor)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင် (Related Topics)
| list4 =
* [[တက္ကသိုလ်]] (University)
* [[အခေါင် ကမၠောန် တန်တဴ]] (Tenure)
* [[ပရေင်သၠးပွး အကယ်ဒမစ်]] (Academic freedom)
* [[ပါမောက္ခချုပ်]] (Rector / Chancellor)
}}
[[Category:အကယ်ဒမစ်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ပညာ]]
[[Category:ပါမောက္ခဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:တက္ကသိုလ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
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'''ကထိက''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Lecturer'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ သၠုင် (Higher education) ကေုာံ တက္ကသိုလ် ဂမၠိုင် မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ကဆံင် အစာဘာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တၠပညာ အကယ်ဒမစ် (Academic rank) မနွံ တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် လိက်၊ ကဵု ပရေင်ဟီုတွံ၊ ကေုာံ ကၠောန် သုတေသန ပ္ဍဲ ဘာသာရပ် မဆေင်စပ် ကု ညးတအ် ရ။
အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ ကဆံင် တာလျိုင် "ကထိက" ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် အတိုင် သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ ဍုင် မွဲ ကဵု မွဲ ရ။ ဥပမာ - ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန် (UK) ကေုာံ ဍုင် ဓနသဟာယ (Commonwealth) မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်အဝ်သတေလျာ ကေုာံ ဍုင်သိန်ကာပူ တအ် မ္ဂး၊ "ကထိက" ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဆံင် လၟိုန် (Tenured position) မတုပ်သၟဟ် ကု ကဆံင် ပါမောက္ခ အရီု (Assistant Professor) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (USA) မ္ဂး၊ "ကထိက" ဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒှ် အစာဘာ ယာယဳ (Non-tenure track) မအာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ဗတောန် လိက် သၟး တုဲ တာလျိုင် သုတေသန ဟွံမဲ ရ။<ref name="altbach">{{cite book |last=Altbach |first=P. G. |title=The International Academic Profession: Portraits of Fourteen Countries |publisher=Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching |year=1996 |pages=15-28}}</ref>
လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ကဆံင် ကထိက နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ တာလျိုင် ကမၠောန်၊ ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ သၞောတ် ဂၠးတိ၊ သဇိုင် ဍာ်ဒကေဝ်၊ ကေုာံ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Lecture_at_the_University_of_Helsinki.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ကထိက မွဲ တၠ မဟီုတွံ ဗတောန် လိက် ပ္ဍဲ ခဒမ် ဟီုတွံ လိက် ဇၞော် (Lecture hall) ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် ဟေလ်သိန်ကဳ (University of Helsinki)။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ အၚ်္ဂလိက် "Lecturer" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ မလိက် လာတ္တေန် "lector" မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ညးမဗှ် လိက်" ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လဒေါဝ် တေအ်၊ အစာဘာ တအ် ဗှ် ထ္ၜး လိက် ပြကိုဟ် တြေံ တအ် ကု ကွးဘာ တအ် ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ မန် "ကထိက" ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ မလိက် ပါဠိ (Kathika) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ညးမဟီုတွံ၊ ညးမတွံဓရ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ညးမကဵု လညာတ်" ရ။
နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ခေတ်တၟိ မ္ဂး၊ ကထိက ဂှ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မနွံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ပညာ သၠုင် (ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် အံင်လဝ် ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ - PhD) တုဲ မယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကဝ်လိက် ရ။ တာလျိုင် ညးတအ် ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ဗတောန် လိက် ပ္ဍဲ ခဒမ် သၟး ပုဟ်၊ ညးတအ် သ္ဒး ဖန်ဗဒှ် လညာတ် တၟိ နကဵု ပရေင်သုတေသန (Research) ကေုာံ ပ္တိတ် လိက်ကၞပ် အကယ်ဒမစ် (Academic publications) တအ် ကီု ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Origins) ==
ဝင် ကဆံင် ကထိက ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဝင် ပရေင်ဒက်ပတန် တက္ကသိုလ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''ခေတ် လဒေါဝ် ဥရောပ (Medieval Europe):''' ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကာလ မဒက်ပတန် တက္ကသိုလ် ၜဝ်လဝ်ဂနာ (Bologna) ကေုာံ ပဴရဳသ် (Paris) ပ္ဍဲ ၁၁ ကဵု ၁၂ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ဗတောန် လိက် အဓိက ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ဗှ် ပြကိုဟ် (Lectio) တုဲ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ရ။ အစာ မဗှ် လိက် တအ် ဂှ် ညးကော်စ Lector ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ:''' ကာလ တက္ကသိုလ် တအ် စ ပြံင်လှာဲ နူကဵု ဒၞာဲ မဗတောန် လိက် သၟး ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မဖန်ဗဒှ် သုတေသန (Humboldtian model of higher education) ဂှ်၊ တာလျိုင် ကထိက ဝွံ လှဲလး တိုန် တုဲ သ္ဒး ကၠောန် သီု သုတေသန သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပညာ ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ဓနသဟာယ ကေုာံ အာရှ:''' ဍုင် မဒးဒုင် အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် နကဵု အင်္ဂလာန် (ဥပမာ - အိန္ဒိယ၊ ဍုင်ဗၟာ၊ မလေရှာ) တအ် ဝွံ ဒုင်ကေတ် သၞောတ် ကဆံင် အင်္ဂလာန် တုဲ သၞောတ် "ကထိက အရီု (Assistant Lecturer) -> ကထိက (Lecturer) -> ကထိက ဇၞော် (Senior Lecturer)" တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။<ref name="tight">{{cite book |last=Tight |first=M. |title=The Development of Higher Education in the United Kingdom |publisher=Open University Press |year=2009 |pages=45-55}}</ref>
== ၃။ တာလျိုင် ကေုာံ ကမၠောန် အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Roles and Main Responsibilities) ==
ကထိက မွဲ တၠ ဝွံ နွံကဵု တာလျိုင် အဓိက ပိ သာ် မကော်စ "တာလျိုင် ပိ ပြကာ" (Tripartite mission) ရ -
# '''ပရေင်ဗတောန် လိက် (Teaching):'''
#* ဖန်ဇန် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဗတောန် (Syllabus) ကေုာံ လိက် သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန်။
#* ကဵု ပရေင်ဟီုတွံ ဇၞော် (Lectures) ကေုာံ သဳကၠဳ ဂကောံ ဍောတ် (Seminars/Tutorials)။
#* ဖျေဟ် စၟတ် သွဟ် (Grading) လိက် စမ်ၜတ် ကေုာံ ပရဝ်ဂျေတ် ကွးဘာ တအ်။
# '''ပရေင်သုတေသန (Research):'''
#* ကၠောန် သုတေသန ပ္ဍဲ ဘာသာရပ် ဇကု မစိုန်သကီု။
#* ပတိတ် လိက်ပရေင် သုတေသန ပ္ဍဲ ဂျာနယ် အကယ်ဒမစ် (Peer-reviewed journals)။
#* ဂၠာဲ သြန် ထံက်ပင် သုတေသန (Research grants) နူ အလဵုအသဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ တၞဟ်။
# '''ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကေုာံ ထံက်ပင် (Administration and Service):'''
#* ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ကမ္မတဳ တက္ကသိုလ် နာနာ သာ်။
#* ကဵု ကသပ် လပါ် ပညာ (Academic advising) ကု ကွးဘာ တအ်။
== ၄။ သၞောတ် ကဆံင် ပညာ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ (Global Academic Ranking Systems) ==
သၞောတ် ကဆံင် အစာဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ အတိုင် ဒေသ ရ။ ဇယား ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ထ္ၜး ကဵု ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် အကြာ သၞောတ် အဓိက ၃ သာ် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်တုပ်သၟဟ် ကဆံင် အကယ်ဒမစ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် နာနာ
|-
! သၞောတ် ယူကေ / ဓနသဟာယ (UK System)
! သၞောတ် အမေရိကာန် (US System)
! သၞောတ် ဍုင်ဗၟာ / မန် (Myanmar System)
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ တာလျိုင်
|-
| '''ပါမောက္ခ''' (Professor)
| '''ပါမောက္ခ''' (Professor)
| '''ပါမောက္ခ''' (Professor)
| ကဆံင် သၠုင် အိုတ်၊ ညးမက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ဌာန ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကဏ္ဍ သုတေသန။
|-
| '''ဗှ် လိက် / ကထိက ဇၞော်''' (Reader / Senior Lecturer)
| '''ပါမောက္ခ တွက်ဖက်''' (Associate Professor)
| '''ပါမောက္ခ တွက်ဖက် / ကထိက ဇၞော်''' (Associate Professor)
| ကဆံင် လၟိုန် မနွံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် သုတေသန သၠုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ ဂၠိုင်။
|-
| '''ကထိက''' (Lecturer)
| '''ပါမောက္ခ အရီု''' (Assistant Professor)
| '''ကထိက''' (Lecturer)
| ကဆံင် လၟိုန် (တန်တဴ လတူ ဍုင်) မစ ယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် ဗတောန် ကေုာံ သုတေသန။
|-
| '''ကထိက အရီု / အစာစမ်''' (Assistant Lecturer / Tutor)
| '''ကထိက / အစာဗတောန်''' (Lecturer / Instructor)
| '''ကထိက အရီု / နိဒါန် အစာ''' (Assistant Lecturer / Tutor)
| ကဆံင် စလုပ် ကမၠောန်၊ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟွံမဲ ကဵု တာလျိုင် သုတေသန အဓိက ဏီ။
|}
<ref name="shattock">{{cite book |last=Shattock |first=M. |title=The Academic Profession in Britain |publisher=Higher Education Agency |year=2001 |pages=80-95}}</ref>
== ၅။ အဆံင် ကထိက ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ယူကေ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဓနသဟာယ (Lecturer in UK and Commonwealth Systems) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် အင်္ဂလာန်၊ အဝ်သတေလျာ၊ နျူဇြဳလာန် ကေုာံ သိန်ကာပူ တအ် မ္ဂး၊ အဆံင် '''ကထိက (Lecturer)''' ဝွံ ဒှ် အဆံင် အဓိက မွဲ မနွံကဵု တာလျိုင် သုတေသန ရ။
* ဍေဟ် တုပ်သၟဟ် ကု "Assistant Professor" ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကာန် ရ။
* ညးမကလိဂွံ ကဆံင် ဏအ် ဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကလိဂွံ ကသုက် ကမၠောန် လၟိုန် (Open-ended contract) ရ။
* သွက်ဂွံ ဂွံ ကဆံင် ဏအ်၊ ညးတအ် သ္ဒး အံင် လဝ် ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ (PhD) ကေုာံ သ္ဒး နွံ ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ သုတေသန ဒက်ပတန် (Postdoctoral experience) ရ။
* ကြဴနူ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ၅-၇ သၞာံ တုဲ ပရေင်သုတေသန အံင်ဇၞး မ္ဂး၊ ညးတအ် ဂွံ ဒုင် ပတိုန် ကဆံင် သၠုင် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် '''ကထိက ဇၞော်''' (Senior Lecturer) ရ။
== ၆။ အဆံင် ကထိက ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် အမေရိကာန် (Lecturer in the US System) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ ကနေဒါ မ္ဂး၊ ဝေါဟာရ "Lecturer" ဝွံ နွံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ သြာဲသြာဲ ရ။
* ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကာန်၊ ကဆံင် မာန် ကလိဂွံ အလဵု လၟိုန် (Tenure-track) ဂှ် ညးကော်စ Assistant Professor -> Associate Professor -> Professor ရ။
* "Lecturer" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "Instructor" ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် အစာဘာ ယာယဳ (Non-tenure track) ရ။ ညးတအ် နွံ တာလျိုင် ဆ သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် လိက် သၟး တုဲ၊ တက္ကသိုလ် ဟွံအာတ်မိက် တာလျိုင် သုတေသန နူ ညးတအ် ပုဟ်။
* ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ညးတအ် ဒး ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် နကဵု လိက်ကသုက် အခိင် ပိုင်ခြာ (Short-term contracts) မပ္တံကဵု ၁ သၞာံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ၃ သၞာံ ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ကမၠောန် (Job security) အောန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။<ref name="finkelstein">{{cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=M. J. |title=The American Academic Profession: A Synthesis of Social Scientific Inquiry Since World War II |url=https://archive.org/details/americanacademic0000fink |publisher=Ohio State University Press |year=1984 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanacademic0000fink/page/105 105]-118}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ကေုာံ အဆံင် ပညာ မနွံပၟိက် (Qualifications and Educational Requirements) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ကထိက မွဲ တၠ ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် ခိုဟ်ဟ် မ္ဂး၊ လၟေင် ပညာ ကေုာံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် မနွံပၟိက် တအ် ဂှ် သၠုင် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ -
# '''ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ (PhD):''' ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ် မ္ဂး ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မဒး နွံ ဟွံမဲ ဟွံတုဲ (Minimum requirement) သွက် ကဆံင် ကထိက ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။ (ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ ဘာသာရပ် လ္ၚဵု မပ္တံကဵု သုခုမ၊ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ တအ် မ္ဂး ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ ကမၠောန် ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် နူ PhD မာန် ရ)။
# '''ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ ပရေင်သုတေသန (Postdoctoral Research):''' ကြဴနူ အံင် PhD တုဲ၊ တၠပညာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သ္ဒး ဆက် ကၠောန် သုတေသန ၂-၅ သၞာံ (Postdoc) ညံင် ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ပရေင်ဆဵုဂဗ ကေုာံ လိက်ပရေင် မဂၠိုင်။
# '''လိက်ပရေင် သုတေသန (Publications):''' သ္ဒး နွံ လိက်ပရေင် မပတိတ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂျာနယ် မနွံ အဆံင် သၠုင် (High-impact journals)။
# '''ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ဗတောန် လိက် (Teaching Portfolio):''' သ္ဒး နွံ အစောံသတ္တိ သွက်ဂွံ ဟီုတွံ ကေုာံ ရှင်းလင်း ထ္ၜး ပရူပရာ မဝါတ်ဂါတ် ကု ကွးဘာ တအ်။
== ၈။ ပရေင်သုတေသန ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗတောန် (Research vs. Teaching Balance) ==
ပြသၞာ အဓိက မွဲ သွက် ကထိက တအ် ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်မဒး ညှိနှိုင်း (Balance) အကြာ အခိင် ဗတောန် လိက် ကေုာံ အခိင် ကၠောန် သုတေသန ရ။
တက္ကသိုလ် တအ် ဝွံ အာရီုစွံ လတူ အဆံင် ဂၠးတိ (University Rankings) တုဲ၊ အဆံင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု လၟိဟ် ကေုာံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် သုတေသန မပတိတ် နူ တက္ကသိုလ် ဂှ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ကထိက တအ် ဒးဒုင် ဓရိုဟ် (Pressure) ညံင် ဂွံ ပတိတ် လိက်ပရေင် သုတေသန လၟိုန် ရ (လညာတ် ဏအ် ညးကော်စ "Publish or Perish" - ပတိတ် လိက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဘဝ အစာ လီု)။
ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဒး ကဵု အခိင် ကု သုတေသန ဂၠိုင် တုဲ၊ အခိင် သွက်ဂွံ ပြင်ဆင် လိက် ဗတောန် ကေုာံ ဆက်ဆံ ကု ကွးဘာ တအ် ဂှ် အောန် စှ်ေ အာ မာန် ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ်ဝွံ တၠပညာ ညးမလ္ၚတ် ပရေင်ပညာ Ernest Boyer သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ညး "Scholarship Reconsidered" ရ။<ref name="boyer">{{cite book |last=Boyer |first=E. L. |title=Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate |url=https://archive.org/details/scholarshiprecon0000boye |publisher=Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scholarshiprecon0000boye/page/25 25]-36}}</ref>
== ၉။ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တၟိ (Challenges and Issues in the Modern Era) ==
ကထိက တအ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဏအ် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကု တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် တၟိ တၟိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ကသုက် ကမၠောန် (Casualization / Adjunctification):''' တက္ကသိုလ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန် စရိတ် ဂှ်၊ ညးတအ် ဟွံ ခါန်ကၞက် ကထိက လၟိုန် တုဲ စၞး ဂှ် ညးတအ် စကာ အစာ ယာယဳ (Adjuncts / Hourly-paid lecturers) မနွံကဵု သြန်ဂိတု အောန် ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု ကမၠောန် ဟွံမဲ ရ။
* '''တာလျိုင် မဂၠိုင်လောန် (Workload and Mental Health):''' ကထိက တအ် သ္ဒး ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် လတူ နူ ၄၀ နာဍဳ ပ္ဍဲ မွဲ သတ္တာဟ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု တာလျိုင် ဗတောန်၊ သုတေသန ကေုာံ အုပ်ဓုပ် ပံင်ကောံ လဝ် မွဲစွံ ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် စိုတ် ဍောင်ၜိုတ် (Burnout) လောဲသွာ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital Transformation):''' ကြဴနူ ကပ်ယဲ COVID-19 တုဲ၊ ကထိက တအ် သ္ဒး လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ စကာ နဲကဲ ဗတောန် လိက် လတူ အင်တာနက် (Online teaching) ကေုာံ သ္ဒး တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု ပြသၞာ ကွးဘာ တအ် စကာ ဉာဏ်စက် (AI) မပ္တံကဵု ChatGPT သွက်ဂွံ ချူ လိက် သွဟ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
ကထိက ဝွံ ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပညာ သၠုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် တီခၠင် တၟိ (Knowledge creation) ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ。ညးတအ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မပလံင် ဗစိုပ် ပညာ ကု တၞောဝ် တၟိ ကေုာံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် နဲကဲ ဖြေစှ် ပြသၞာ သွက် ဂၠးတိ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ အခန်အနင် ကထိက ဝွံ သ္ဒး ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ နူကဵု "ညးမဟီုတွံ ပရူပရာ" သၟး ဂှ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် "ညးမဖန်ဇန် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ်" (Facilitator of learning) ရောင်။ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု တင်ဂၞင် သီုဖအိုတ် ကလိဂွံ လောဲသွာ လတူ အင်တာနက် ဂှ်ရ၊ တာလျိုင် ကထိက ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မဒး ဗတောန် ကွးဘာ တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ စကာ လညာတ် ပါ်ပဲါ (Critical thinking) ကေုာံ ဗီုလဵု ဂွံ သုင်စောဲ တင်ဂၞင် တအ် ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ ဍာံ ဍာံပြပြ ရောင်။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ကဆံင် ဘဝ အစာဘာ တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ဂှ် လေဝ် ဒှ် တင် အဓိက သွက် အနာဂတ် တက္ကသိုလ် တအ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ပါမောက္ခ]] (Professor)
* [[တက္ကသိုလ်]] (University)
* [[သုတေသန]] (Research)
* [[ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ]] (Doctorate / PhD)
{{Navbox
| name = Academic Ranks
| title = ကဆံင် အကယ်ဒမစ် ကေုာံ အစာဘာ တက္ကသိုလ်ဂမၠိုင် (Academic Ranks)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ကဆံင် သၠုင်
| list1 =
* [[ပါမောက္ခ ဂုဏ်ထူးဆောင်]] (Professor Emeritus)
* [[ပါမောက္ခ]] (Professor)
* [[ပါမောက္ခ တွက်ဖက်]] (Associate Professor)
| group2 = ကဆံင် လဒေါဝ် ကေုာံ သဇိုင်
| list2 =
* [[ကထိက ဇၞော်]] (Senior Lecturer)
* [[ပါမောက္ခ အရီု]] (Assistant Professor)
* [[ကထိက]] (Lecturer)
* [[ကထိက အရီု]] (Assistant Lecturer)
* [[အစာစမ်]] (Tutor)
| group3 = ကဆံင် သုတေသန
| list3 =
* [[သုတေသဳ ဇၞော်]] (Senior Researcher)
* [[သုတေသဳ ဒက်ပတန်]] (Postdoctoral Researcher)
* [[ကွးဘာ ပါရဂူ]] (PhD Candidate)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[တက္ကသိုလ်]] (University)
* [[သုတေသန]] (Research)
* [[ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ]] (PhD)
* [[အစာဘာ]] (Teacher)
}}
[[Category:ကဆံင် ပညာ]]
[[Category:တက္ကသိုလ်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ပညာ]]
[[Category:ကမၠောန်]]
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'''ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ဒဳဂရဳ ဒံက်တာ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Doctorate'', နူကဵု လာတ္တေန် ''doceō'' မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "အဲ ဗတောန်") ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဒဳဂရဳ အကယ်ဒမစ် (Academic degree) မသၠုင် အိုတ် မကဵု နူကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန် ပရေင်ပညာ သၠုင်ဂမၠိုင် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ ပရေင်ကလိဂွံ ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မကဵု အခေါင် သွက်ဂွံ ဗတောန် လိက် ပ္ဍဲ အဆံင် တက္ကသိုလ် (University level) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် သုတေသန အဆင့်သၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် မဆေင်စပ် တအ် ရ။<ref name="noble">{{cite book |last=Noble |first=K. A. |title=Changing Doctoral Degrees: An International Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/changingdoctoral0000nobl |publisher=Society for Research into Higher Education |year=1994 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/changingdoctoral0000nobl/page/15 15]-22}}</ref>
ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် '''ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ဒဿန''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''Ph.D.''' (Doctor of Philosophy) မဒှ် ဒဳဂရဳ မဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ပရေင်သုတေသန (Research doctorate) ရ။ ဆဂး ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ သွက် ကမၠောန် ပရဝ်ဖေတ်ရှေန်နယ် (Professional doctorates) မပ္တံကဵု ဒံက်တာ ဂဥုဲ (M.D.)၊ ဒံက်တာ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (J.D.) ကေုာံ ဒံက်တာ ပရေင်ပညာ (Ed.D.) တအ် လေဝ် နွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကီု ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဂကူ ဒဳဂရဳ နာနာ၊ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် သုတေသန၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် အနာဂတ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:University_of_Bologna_Rectorate.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး တက္ကသိုလ် ဗဝ်လဝ်ညာ (University of Bologna) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အဳတလဳ မဒှ် တက္ကသိုလ် တြေံ အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ မကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ပထမအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လဒေါဝ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ဒံက်တာ" (Doctor) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ မလိက် လာတ္တေန် "doctor" မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "အစာ" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ညးမဗတောန်" (Teacher) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ ဥရောပ ခေတ် လဒေါဝ် ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်ကလိဂွံ ဒဳဂရဳ ဏအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ဒုင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ပူဂိုလ် မွဲ နွံကဵု ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ဍိုက်ပေင် သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် အစာ မာန် ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် ရ။
နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် ခေတ်တၟိ မ္ဂး၊ ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒဳဂရဳ မစၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ ပူဂိုလ် မွဲဝွံ ကလိဂွံ လညာတ် ပညာ ဇြိုဟ်နက် ပ္ဍဲ ဘာသာရပ် မွဲမွဲ၊ ကေုာံ မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် တင်ဂၞင် တၟိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လညာတ် သုတေသန တၟိ (Original contribution to knowledge) မာန် ဍာံပြ ရ။ ပူဂိုလ် မကလိဂွံ ဒဳဂရဳ ဏအ် ဝွံ ဂွံ ဒုင် ကော်စ နကဵု ဂုဏ်ဒုင် ယၟု "ဒံက်တာ" (Dr.) သွက်ဂွံ စၞောန်ထ္ၜး ကဆံင် ပညာ ညးတအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Origins) ==
ဝင် ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် နူကဵု တက္ကသိုလ် ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဥရောပ အခိင် ခေတ် လဒေါဝ် (Middle Ages) ၜိုတ် ၁၂ ကဵု ၁၃ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ရ။
* '''ခေတ် လဒေါဝ်:''' တက္ကသိုလ် ပထမအိုတ် မကဵု ဒဳဂရဳ ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် တက္ကသိုလ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ပါရဳ (University of Paris) ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဗဝ်လဝ်ညာ (University of Bologna) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဂှ် ဒဳဂရဳ ဏအ် ကဵု ဆ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဘာသာရပ် ပညာ သာသနာ (Theology)၊ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (Law) ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ (Medicine) သၟး ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ခေတ် တၟိ:''' ဒဳဂရဳ Ph.D. ခေတ်တၟိ မဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ပရေင်သုတေသန သၟးသၟး (Research-based Ph.D.) ဂှ် စ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဂျာမနဳ (Germany) ပ္ဍဲ ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ နကဵု သၞောတ် တက္ကသိုလ် ဟမ်ဗိုလ် (Humboldtian model of higher education) ရ။ လညာတ် ဏအ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု ညာတ် တၟိ (Discovery) အဓိက တုဲ လက္ကရဴ ဂှ် ဍေဟ် ပြးဇး အာ ဇရေင် ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။<ref name="wellington">{{cite book |last=Wellington |first=J. |author2=Bathmaker, A. M. |author3=Hunt, C. |title=Navigating the Doctoral Journey: A Handbook of Strategies for Success |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |pages=45-52}}</ref>
== ၃။ ဂကူ ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Types of Doctorates) ==
ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဂကူ အဓိက နာနာ သာ် အတိုင် တင်ရန်တၟအ် ကေုာံ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ ဒဳဂရဳ (Type)
! တင်ဂၞင် အဓိက ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! ဥပမာ ဂမၠိုင်
|-
| '''ပါရဂူ သုတေသန''' (Research Doctorate)
| ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ ပရေင်သုတေသန တၟိ ကေုာံ ပြကိုဟ် ဇၞော် (Dissertation)။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဒဳဂရဳ အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်အကယ်ဒမစ်။
| Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy), D.Phil., D.Sc.
|-
| '''ပါရဂူ ပရဝ်ဖေတ်ရှေန်နယ်''' (Professional Doctorate)
| သွက်ဂွံ စကာ လညာတ် သုတေသန ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကမၠောန် လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ တုဲ ဖန်ဇန် လဝ် သွက် ညးမကၠောန် ကမၠောန် အဓိက (Practitioners)။
| Ed.D. (Education), D.B.A. (Business), Psy.D. (Psychology).
|-
| '''ပါရဂူ လွဳလွတ် ဂဥုဲ/သၞောဝ်''' (Clinical/First-professional)
| ဒဳဂရဳ မဒး ကလိဂွံ သွက်ဂွံ လုပ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဂဥုဲ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (ဟွံဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ သုတေသန အလုံစုံ)။
| M.D. (Medicine), J.D. (Law), D.D.S. (Dentistry).
|-
| '''ပါရဂူ အဆင့်သၠုင်''' (Higher Doctorate)
| ဒဳဂရဳ မကဵု ကု တၠပညာ မနွံကဵု လိက်ပရေင် ကေုာံ သုတေသန ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ပွိုင် ဘဝ ညးတအ် (ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ယူကေ UK)။
| D.Litt. (Letters), LL.D. (Laws), D.D. (Divinity).
|}
== ၄။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ဒဳဂရဳ (Process of Earning a Doctorate) ==
သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ သုတေသန (Ph.D.) ဂှ် ညးလ္ၚတ် တအ် သ္ဒး ဖြတ် အာ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မာန် ကေတ် အခိင် နူ ၃ သၞာံ စဵုကဵု ၇ သၞာံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂၠိုင် နူ ဂှ် ရ -
# '''ပရေင်ဗတောန် လိက် (Coursework):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် အမေရိကာန် (US) ကေုာံ အာရှ လ္ၚဵု၊ ကွးဘာ တအ် သ္ဒး တိုန် ဘာ ပွိုင် ၁-၂ သၞာံ သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သဇိုင် သဳအိုရဳ ခိုင်ကၠိုက်။
# '''သၟာန်သွဟ် အလုံစုံ (Comprehensive Examinations):''' သ္ဒး ဖြေ သၟာန်သွဟ် ဇၞော် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဒဒှ်ရ တီ ကၠိုဟ် ဘာသာရပ် ဍိုက်ပေင် ရ။ ယဝ် ဖြေ အံင် မ္ဂး ဒှ် အာ ကဆံင် "Ph.D. Candidate" ရ။
# '''ပတိုန် ထ္ၜး လိက်အဆိုပြု (Research Proposal Defense):''' ကွးဘာ သ္ဒး ပတိုန် ထ္ၜး တင်ရန်တၟအ်၊ သၟာန် သုတေသန၊ ကေုာံ နဲကဲ သုတေသန ကု ကမ္မတဳ အစာ တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ အခေါင် စ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ကၠောန် သုတေသန (Data Collection & Analysis):''' ကၠောန် သုတေသန ဍာံပြ နကဵု ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ပ္ဍဲ ရုင်စမ် (Lab)၊ ဌာန် ဒေသ (Fieldwork) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နူ စရင်အင် (Data) ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ချူ ပြကိုဟ် (Dissertation Writing):''' ချူ ပကောံ တင်ဂၞင် သီုဖအိုတ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် လိက် ပြကိုဟ် ဇၞော် မွဲ ရ။<ref name="simpson">{{cite book |last=Simpson |first=R. |title=How to get a PhD: A handbook for students and their supervisors |publisher=Open University Press |year=1983 |pages=50-65}}</ref>
== ၅။ နဲကဲ သုတေသန ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချူ ပြကိုဟ် (Research Methods and Dissertation) ==
အရာ မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် Ph.D. ဂှ် ဒှ် '''ပြကိုဟ်''' (Dissertation/Thesis) ရ။ ပြကိုဟ် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ဒး ဒှ် အရာ မကတဵုဗဒှ် လညာတ် တၟိ (Original contribution) သွက် ဘာသာရပ် ဂှ် ရ။
ပြကိုဟ် မွဲဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် နွံ လၟိဟ် မလိက် အကြာ ၈၀,၀၀၀ ကဵု ၁၀၀,၀၀၀ မလိက် ရ (တန်တဴ ကု ဘာသာရပ်)။ ဍေဟ် သ္ဒး ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လိက်တြေံ (Literature review)၊ နဲကဲ သုတေသန (Methodology) - မပ္တံကဵု နဲကဲ လၟိဟ် (Quantitative) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နဲကဲ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် (Qualitative)၊ တင်ဂၠာဲဆဵု (Findings) ကေုာံ တင်သ္ၚောပ် (Conclusion) ရ။
ကြဴနူ ချူ တုဲ၊ ကွးဘာ သ္ဒး ဖြတ် '''ပေါဲ စၟတ်မင် ပါင်''' (Viva Voce ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး Oral Defense) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲ ဏအ်၊ တၠပညာ (Examiners) မကၠုင် နူ အပ္ဍဲ ကေုာံ မ္ၚး တက္ကသိုလ် သၟာန် သွဟ် သ္ကာတ်သ္ကာတ်မြဟ်မြဟ် သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်မင် ဒဒှ်ရ ကွးဘာ ဂှ် ဍိုက်ပေင် ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ပါရဂူ ဍာံပြ ရ။
== ၆။ ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ ဒေသနာနာ (Doctorates in Different Educational Systems) ==
လၟေင် ကမၠောန် သွက် ပါရဂူ ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ အတိုင် ဒေသ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ -
* '''သၞောတ် အမေရိကာန် (US System):''' သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ Ph.D. မ္ဂး ဒး တိုန် ဘာ ပွိုင် ၂ သၞာံ ကၠာ၊ တုဲ ဖြေ သၟာန်သွဟ် အလုံစုံ (Comps)၊ တုဲ ဍောတ် ၃-၄ သၞာံ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠောန် ပြကိုဟ် ရ။ သီုဖအိုတ် ကေတ် အခိင် ၅ နူ ၇ သၞာံ ရ။
* '''သၞောတ် ဥရောပ ကေုာံ ယူကေ (UK/European System):''' ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟွံမဲ ကု ပရေင်ဗတောန် လိက် (Coursework) ပုဟ်။ ကွးဘာ တအ် လုပ် စ ကၠောန် သုတေသန တိုက်ရိုက် နူ သၞာံ ပထမ ရ။ သီုဖအိုတ် ကေတ် အခိင် ၃ နူ ၄ သၞာံ သၟး ရ၊ ဆဂး ညးတအ် ဒး နွံ ဒဳဂရဳ မဟာဝိဇ္ဇာ (Master's degree) ခိုင်ကၠိုက် မွဲ ကၠာ ရ။<ref name="bogle">{{cite book |last=Bogle |first=D. |title=The Doctoral Degree in Europe: A Perspective on the Current State |publisher=EUA Publications |year=2018 |pages=25-33}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဖဵု ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ကြဴနူ ကလိဂွံ ဒဳဂရဳ (Benefits and Career Path After Doctorate) ==
ကလိဂွံ ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ဂှ် ဍေဟ် ပံက် ကဵု ဂၠံင်တရဴ သွက် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် အဆံင်သၠုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
# '''ပရေင်အကယ်ဒမစ် (Academia):''' ဒှ် တင်အာတ်မိက် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် အစာဘာ တက္ကသိုလ် (Lecturer/Professor) ကေုာံ သၟာသုတေသန (Post-doctoral researcher) ရ။
# '''ကမၠောန် အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Government & Policy):''' ညးမကလိဂွံ ပါရဂူ တအ် လုပ် ကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန သုတေသန အလဵုအသဳ သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ် မဟာဗျူဟာ ကေုာံ ပဝ်လသဳ (Policy making) ဍုင် ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ပုဂ္ဂလိက (Industry & R&D):''' ကုမ္ပဏဳ နည်းပညာ၊ ဓါတုဗေဒ၊ ကေုာံ ဂဥုဲ (Pharmaceuticals) တအ် နွံ ပၟိက် သၟာသုတေသန အဆင့်သၠုင် သွက်ဂွံ ခၞံဗဒှ် ကပေါတ် တၟိ တၟိ ရ။
== ၈။ ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ဂုဏ်တၟေင် (Honorary Doctorates) ==
"ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ဂုဏ်တၟေင်" (Honorary Doctorate / Doctor Honoris Causa) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဒဳဂရဳ တက္ကသိုလ် မွဲ ဇိုန်နှင်း ကဵု ကု ပူဂိုလ် မွဲမွဲ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ဂုဏ်တၟေင် ညးတအ် မကၠောန် လဝ် သွက် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်၊ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ယေန်သၞာင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အနုသုခုမ ရ။
ဒဳဂရဳ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဟွံဒး တိုန် ဘာ ကေုာံ ဟွံဒး ချူ ပြကိုဟ် ပုဟ်။ ပူဂိုလ် မကလိဂွံ ဒဳဂရဳ ဂုဏ်တၟေင် ဏအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟွံစကာ ဂုဏ်ဒုင် ယၟု "ဒံက်တာ" (Dr.) ပ္ဍဲ ကမၠောန် လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဆ သင်္ကေတ ပရေင်ရှ်ေသှ်ေ ရဴဂဴ မွဲ သၟး ရ။
== ၉။ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ပါရဂူ (Challenges and Issues in Doctoral Studies) ==
ပရေင်ကတ် လ္ၚတ် ပါရဂူ ဝွံ ဒှ် တရဴ မဂၠိင်သ္ၚောဲ ကေုာံ ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ဗွဲမလောန် တုဲ ကွးဘာ တအ် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ပြသၞာ နာနာ သာ် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် စိုတ် (Mental Health):''' ကွးဘာ ပါရဂူ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒး ဒုင် ဓရိုဟ် (Stress)၊ စံင်တူ (Anxiety) ကေုာံ အထီးကျန် (Isolation) ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ကမၠောန် သုတေသန မဝါတ်ဂါတ် ရ။
* '''ပြသၞာ သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ (Funding Issues):''' ကွးဘာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒး ဂၠာဲ သြန်ထံက်ပင် (Scholarships / Grants) သွက်ဂွံ တိုန် ဘာ ကေုာံ ဂျိုင်တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် လ္ၚတ် လိက် မာန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ ကု အစာ (Supervisor Relationship):''' ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ အကြာ ကွးဘာ ကေုာံ အစာ ကဵု ကသပ် (Advisor) ဂှ် ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန်။ ယဝ်ရ ဟွံညဳသၟဟ် မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ပကဵု ညံင် ပြကိုဟ် ဂွံ လအ် အာ မာန် ရ။
* '''ပြသၞာ ကမၠောန် (Job Market):''' လၟိဟ် ညးမကလိဂွံ Ph.D. ဂှ် ဂၠိုင် နူကဵု ဒၞာဲ ကမၠောန် အစာဘာ (Tenure-track positions) တုဲ ကွးဘာ တအ် ဒး ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် ရေင်သကအ် သ္ကာတ်မြဟ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။<ref name="park">{{cite book |last=Park |first=C. |title=Redefining the Doctorate |publisher=Higher Education Academy |year=2007 |pages=10-18}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ ဝွံ ဆက် တန်တဴ နဒဒှ် ကဆံင် ပညာ အကယ်ဒမစ် မသၠုင် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် သင်္ကေတ လညာတ် ဉာဏ်၊ ပရေင်အေင်ဒုင်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် တင်ဂၞင် တၟိ သွက် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ လၟေင် ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် ပါရဂူ ဝွံ သ္ဒး ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ညံင် ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပရေင်နွံပၟိက် ကမၠောန် မ္ၚး တက္ကသိုလ် (Industry needs) ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။ တက္ကသိုလ် တအ် စ ဖန်ဇန် ကၠုင် ပါရဂူ မပံင်ကောံ ဘာသာရပ် နာနာ (Interdisciplinary Ph.D.) ကေုာံ ပရေင်လ္ၚတ် နကဵု အင်တာနက် (Online doctorates) သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု အခေါင် ကု ကွးဘာ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ဒေသ မာန် ရောင်။ ၜိုန်ရ ပြသၞာ နွံ ဂၠိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်ကတ် လ္ၚတ် ပါရဂူ ဝွံ ဒှ် ဇြဟတ် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပရေင်သိပ္ပံ၊ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ကေုာံ နည်းပညာ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ဍာံဍာံပြပြ ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[တက္ကသိုလ်]] (University)
* [[သုတေသန]] (Research)
* [[ဒဳဂရဳ မဟာဝိဇ္ဇာ]] (Master's degree)
* [[ပရေင်ပညာ သၠုင်]] (Higher education)
{{Navbox
| name = Academic Degrees
| title = ဒဳဂရဳ အကယ်ဒမစ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာ သၠုင် (Academic Degrees and Higher Education)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ကဆံင် ဒဳဂရဳ အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[ဒဳဂရဳ ဗာတ်ချ်လာ]] (Bachelor's degree)
* [[ဒဳဂရဳ မဟာဝိဇ္ဇာ]] (Master's degree)
* [[ဒဳဂရဳ ပါရဂူ]] (Doctorate / Ph.D.)
* [[ပါရဂူ ပရဝ်ဖေတ်ရှေန်နယ်]] (Professional doctorate)
| group2 = လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ကေုာံ သုတေသန
| list2 =
* [[သုတေသန]] (Research)
* [[ပြကိုဟ်]] (Dissertation / Thesis)
* [[ပရေင်စၟတ်မင် ပါင်]] (Viva Voce)
* [[ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လိက်တြေံ]] (Literature review)
| group3 = မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန်
| list3 =
* [[တက္ကသိုလ်]] (University)
* [[ပါမောက္ခ]] (Professor)
* [[သၟာသုတေသန]] (Researcher)
* [[ကွးဘာ]] (Student)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[ဒဳဂရဳ ဂုဏ်တၟေင်]] (Honorary degree)
* [[သြန်ထံက်ပင် ပညာ]] (Scholarship)
* [[ပရေင်ပညာ သၠုင်]] (Higher education)
}}
[[Category:ဒဳဂရဳဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ပညာ သၠုင်]]
[[Category:သုတေသန]]
[[Category:အကယ်ဒမစ်]]
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'''ဟက်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ပရေင်ဟက် ကွန်ပျူတာ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Hack'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Hacking'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ကဏ္ဍ နည်းပညာ သၞောတ် တင်ဂၞင် (Information Technology) ကေုာံ ကွန်ပျူတာ ဂှ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မဂၠာဲ ဇိုင်ခလံက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ဍိုန်လျ (Vulnerabilities) ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် ကွန်ပျူတာ၊ ကွန်ရက် (Network)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဆော့ဖ်ဝဲလ် (Software) တုဲ လုပ် ပြံက် သုင်စောဲ အခေါင်အရာ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကလိဂွံ တင်ဂၞင် မဟွံမဲ ကု ပရေင်ကဵု အခေါင် ရ။<ref name="erickson">{{cite book |last=Erickson |first=J. |title=Hacking: The Art of Exploitation |url=https://archive.org/details/hackingartofexpl0000eric_g6n4 |edition=2nd |publisher=No Starch Press |year=2008 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hackingartofexpl0000eric_g6n4/page/1 1]-10}}</ref>
မၞိဟ် မကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဏအ် ဂှ် ညးကော်စ '''ဟက်ကာ''' (Hacker) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဓမ္မတာ မ္ဂး၊ "ဟက်ကာ" ဝွံ ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မပလီုပလာ် ကေုာံ ကမၠတ် တင်ဂၞင် လတူ အင်တာနက် ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ လညာတ် အကယ်ဒမစ် ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Cybersecurity) မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ဟက် ဝွံ သီု ပါလုပ် ပရေင်စၟတ်မင် ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ဂီုကၠီု (Ethical hacking) ညံင် သၞောတ် တအ် ဂွံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် နူကဵု အန္တရာယ် ပရေင်တဝ်ပလိုဝ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်ဟက် ကွန်ပျူတာ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဂကူ ဟက်ကာ၊ နဲကဲ လွဟ်၊ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ၊ ကေုာံ သြဇာ လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Hacker silhouette.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် သင်္ကေတ ထ္ၜး ဟက်ကာ (Hacker) မဒှ် မၞိဟ် မလုပ် ပြံက် သၞောတ် ကွန်ပျူတာ နကဵု နဲကဲ လိက်ကုဒ် ကေုာံ နည်းပညာ တၟေင်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "ဟက်" (Hack) ဝွံ ပ္ဍဲ တမ်မူလ ဍေဟ် ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် အရေဝ် မဆက်စပ် ကု ရာဇဝတ် ပုဟ်။ ဍေဟ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ယေန်သၞာင် တၠပညာ ကွန်ပျူတာ တအ် မဂၠာဲ နဲကဲ တၟိ တၟိ သွက်ဂွံ ပလေဝ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပြံင်လှာဲ စက်ယန္တရား မွဲမွဲ ညံင် ဂွံ ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ခိုဟ် နူ တြေံ (Optimization and creativity) ရ။
ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် အင်တာနက် ဏအ်၊ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် "ဟက်" ဂှ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ နဒဒှ် ပရေင်လုပ် ပြံက် သၞောတ် (Unauthorized access) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်တဝ်ပလိုဝ် ဆေင် ကု တေဝ်ပလိုဝ် (Cyberattack) ရ။ ပရေင်ဟက် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပေါဲပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် အကြာ ညးမစဵုဒၞာ သၞောတ် (Defenders) ကေုာံ ညးမတဝ်ပလိုဝ် (Attackers) မာန် ပကဵု ညံင် တင်ဂၞင် ပူဂိုလ် (Personal data)၊ သြန်၊ ကေုာံ ဒြပ်ရတ် ဍုင် တအ် ဂွံ လီုလာ် အာ မာန် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Evolution of Hacking) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ဟက် ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် လဝ် နူကဵု ခေတ် ၁၉၆၀ တေအ် ပ္ဍဲ တက္ကသိုလ် MIT ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ၁၉၆၀ - ၁၉၇၀:''' ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဂှ် ကွးဘာ MIT နူကဵု ဂကောံ Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) တအ် စကာ ဝေါဟာရ "ဟက်" သွက်ဂွံ ကော် ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကေုာံ ပြံင်လှာဲ သၞောတ် ကွန်ပျူတာ Mainframe တြေံ တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ ချဳဓရာင် ခိုဟ် တိုန်။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဏအ် ဟက်ကာ တအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် တၠပညာ (Innovators) သၟး ရ။<ref name="levy">{{cite book |last=Levy |first=S. |title=Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/hackersheroesofc0000levy_r9y1 |publisher=Anchor Books |year=1984 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hackersheroesofc0000levy_r9y1/page/15 15]-30}}</ref>
* '''ခေတ် ၁၉၈၀:''' ကွန်ပျူတာ သ္ၚိ (Personal Computers) ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် တုဲ၊ မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စ လ္ၚတ် သၞောတ် ဆက်သွယ်ရေး (Telecommunications)။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဏအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် "ဖရိတ်ကာ" (Phreakers) မဒှ် မၞိဟ် ဟက် သၞောတ် ဇုတ် ဖုန် သွက်ဂွံ ဟီု ဖုန် သက်ကု ၚုဟ်မး ရ။
* '''ခေတ် ၁၉၉၀ စဵုကဵု လၟုဟ်:''' အင်တာနက် စ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် တုဲ၊ ပရေင်ဟက် ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် အာ လွဟ် သွက် ရာဇဝတ် (Cybercrime)၊ ပရေင်စန်ဒက် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထံင်ပရိုင် အလဵုအသဳ ဍုင် (State-sponsored hacking) ရ။
== ၃။ ဂကူ ဟက်ကာ အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Types of Hackers) ==
ဟက်ကာ တအ် ဂှ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ တင်ရန်တၟအ် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ တုဲ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဂကူ အရံင် ဒုပ် (Hat colors) အဓိက ၃ သာ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ဟက်ကာ အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ ဟက်ကာ (Type)
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Definition & Motive)
! သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ဥပမာ
|-
| '''ဟက်ကာ ဒုပ်ဗု''' (White Hat Hacker)
| မၞိဟ် မလ္ၚတ် ပရေင်ဍိုန်လျ သၞောတ် နကဵု အခေါင် နူ တၠဒြပ် ညံင် ဂွံ ကလေင် ပလေဝ် ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ (Ethical hackers)။ ညးတအ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် သွက် ဂီုကၠီု ရ။
| ကိတ်ညဳ ကု သၞောဝ်။ ဥပမာ - မၞိဟ် စၟတ်မင် ဂီုကၠီု ကုမ္ပဏဳ (Security Analyst)။
|-
| '''ဟက်ကာ ဒုပ်လမ္စံက်''' (Black Hat Hacker)
| မၞိဟ် မလုပ် ပြံက် သၞောတ် သက်ကု အခေါင် သွက်ဂွံ ပလီုပလာ်၊ ကၠတ် သြန်၊ ကေုာံ ကၠတ် တင်ဂၞင် ပူဂိုလ်။
| ဒှ် ရာဇဝတ် ဍာံပြ။ ဥပမာ - ဂကောံ ရာဇဝတ် အင်တာနက် (Cybercriminals)။
|-
| '''ဟက်ကာ ဒုပ်ပတေင်''' (Grey Hat Hacker)
| မၞိဟ် မလုပ် ပြံက် သၞောတ် သက်ကု အခေါင် ကီုလေဝ် ဟွံမဲ တင်ရန်တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံ ပလီုပလာ်။ ညးတအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟီု ပရိုင် ကု တၠဒြပ် ပရူ ပရေင်ဍိုန်လျ ဂှ် တုဲ အာတ် လာပ်ဗဇဴ ညိည။
| ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု သၞောဝ် အလုံစုံ။
|}
<ref name="singer">{{cite book |last=Singer |first=P. W. |author2=Friedman, A. |title=Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know |url=https://archive.org/details/cybersecuritycyb0000sing |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cybersecuritycyb0000sing/page/45 45]-52}}</ref>
== ၄။ နဲကဲ ကေုာံ လွဟ် ဟက်ဂမၠိုင် (Common Hacking Techniques) ==
ဟက်ကာ တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ ကေုာံ လွဟ် (Tools) နာနာ သာ် သွက်ဂွံ လုပ် ပြံက် သၞောတ် မွဲ ရ။ နဲကဲ မပြာကတ် အိုတ် တအ် ဂှ် -
* '''ပရေင်ပြံက်စိုတ် မၞိဟ် (Social Engineering & Phishing):''' စၞး မဟက် စက် ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဟက် စိုတ် မၞိဟ် ရ။ နဲကဲ ဖေတ်ယှေန် (Phishing) ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဗလး လိက် အဳမေလ် (Email) ပတောအ် ညံင် ဂွံ တုပ် ကု ဘဏ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကုမ္ပဏဳ သွက်ဂွံ ကော် ညံင် မၞိဟ် ဂွံ စုတ် မုက်ပါင် (Passwords) ဇကု ရ။
* '''မာလ်ဝဲလ် ကေုာံ ရမ်ဆမ်ဝဲလ် (Malware and Ransomware):''' ပလံင် ဗစိုပ် ပရဝ်ဂရမ် ဟွံခိုဟ် သွက်ဂွံ ကၠတ် တင်ဂၞင်။ ရမ်ဆမ်ဝဲလ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဝဲလ် မပိုင် ကၟာတ် ထောအ် တင်ဂၞင် သီုဖအိုတ် တုဲ အာတ် သြန် လာပ် (Ransom) သွက်ဂွံ ကလေင် ပံက် ကဵု ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ထပက် ကုဒ် (SQL Injection):''' စုတ် လိက်ကုဒ် ဟွံခိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ဒေတာဘေ့စ် (Database) သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ စရင် မၞိဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တင်ဂၞင် ဝှက် လဝ် တအ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်တဝ်ပလိုဝ် DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service):''' ဖန်ဇန် ညံင် တင်ဂၞင် တအ် ဂွံ လုပ် ကၠုင် ဂၠိုင်လောန် အာ လတူ ဝပ်သာ် မွဲ (Website) ညံင် ဝပ်သာ် ဂှ် ဂွံ လီု ကေုာံ ပံက် ဟွံဂွံ ရ။<ref name="mitnick">{{cite book |last=Mitnick |first=K. D. |author2=Simon, W. L. |title=The Art of Deception: Controlling the Human Element of Security |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965713467 |publisher=Wiley |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965713467/page/112 112]-120}}</ref>
== ၅။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် ကေုာံ ဟိုတ် မဟက် (Motivations for Hacking) ==
ဟိုတ် မကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဟက် ဏအ် နွံ နာနာ သာ် အတိုင် တင်ရန်တၟအ် ညးမဟက် ရ -
# '''သွက် သြန် (Financial Gain):''' ဟက်ကာ ဒုပ်လမ္စံက် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကၠတ် လိက်ကဒ် ဘဏ် (Credit cards) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အာတ် သြန် လာပ် ဓဇန်ဓဇန် ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ဝါဒ (Hacktivism):''' ဂကောံ မပ္တံကဵု ညးမဟွံမဲ ယၟု (Anonymous) တအ် ဟက် ဝပ်သာ် အလဵုအသဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကုမ္ပဏဳ သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ဆန္ဒ ကေုာံ တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု ပရေင်ဟွံမဲ တရား ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ထံင်ပရိုင် အလဵုအသဳ (State-Sponsored Espionage):''' ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ ဌာန ထံင်ပရိုင် (Intelligence agencies) နူ ဍုင် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် စကာ ဟက်ကာ သွက်ဂွံ ကၠတ် တင်ဂၞင် ပၞာန်၊ နည်းပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ပလီု သၞောတ် စက်ယန္တရား ဍုင် သတြု ရ။
# '''သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်မင် ဂီုကၠီု (Security Testing):''' သွက် ကုမ္ပဏဳ တအ် ဂွံ တီ ဒၞာဲ ဍိုန်လျ ကေုာံ ပလေဝ် လဝ် ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ ဒးဒုင် ဟက် ဍာံဍာံ (Bug bounty programs) ရ။
== ၆။ ဂီုကၠီု အင်တာနက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ (Cybersecurity and Defense) ==
ဟိုတ်နူ ပရေင်ဟက် ဂၠိုင် ကၠုင် တုဲ၊ ဘာသာရပ် '''ဂီုကၠီု အင်တာနက်''' (Cybersecurity) ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဏအ် ရ။ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ အဓိက တအ် ပါလုပ် -
* '''ဗင်ပၟတ် (Firewalls):''' ဒှ် သၞောတ် မစဵုဒၞာ ကေုာံ စၟတ်မင် အရာ မလုပ် တိတ် ပ္ဍဲ ကွန်ရက် (Network traffic) ရ။
* '''ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ လိက်တမ် (Encryption):''' ပြံင်လှာဲ တင်ဂၞင် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် လိက်ကုဒ် (Ciphertext) တုဲ ၜိုန်ရ ဟက်ကာ ကၠတ် ဂွံ ကီုလေဝ် ဗှ် ဟွံကၠိုဟ် ပုဟ်။
* '''ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ၜါ အဆံင် (Two-Factor Authentication - 2FA):''' သွက်ဂွံ လုပ် အကံက် မွဲမွဲ သ္ဒး စကာ မုက်ပါင် (Password) ကေုာံ မလိက် လျှို့ဝှက် မလုပ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဖုန် (OTP) မွဲစွံ ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် စဵုဒၞာ ဟက်ကာ မာန် ၜိုတ် ၉၉% ရ။<ref name="schneier">{{cite book |last=Schneier |first=B. |title=Data and Goliath: The Hidden Battles to Collect Your Data and Control Your World |url=https://archive.org/details/datagoliathhidde0000schn_i9a0 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2015 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/datagoliathhidde0000schn_i9a0/page/78 78]-95}}</ref>
== ၇။ ပရေင်ဟက် မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် (Famous Hacks in History) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် အင်တာနက်၊ ပရေင်တဝ်ပလိုဝ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ကတဵုဒှ် လဝ် ဂၠိုင်ကဵု အလန် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်တဝ်ပလိုဝ် သတက်သနက် (Stuxnet - 2010):''' မာလ်ဝဲလ် (Malware) ဏအ်ဂှ် အမေရိကာန် ကဵု အေတ်သရေ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ပလီုပလာ် စက် ပတိတ် နျူကလဳယျာ ဍုင်အဳရာန် (Iran) ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် လွဟ် ပၞာန် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Cyber weapon) အဓိက ပထမအိုတ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ဟက် ယာဟူ (Yahoo Hack - 2013/2014):''' ဟက်ကာ တအ် ကၠတ် ဂွံ တင်ဂၞင် အကံက် (Accounts) မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် ၃ ဗဳလဳယောန် မဒှ် ပရေင်ကၠတ် တင်ဂၞင် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ရ။
* '''ရမ်ဆမ်ဝဲလ် ဝါနာခရုင် (WannaCry Ransomware - 2017):''' ဟက်ကာ တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ သွက်ဂွံ ကၟာတ် ထောအ် ကွန်ပျူတာ အလုံ ဂၠးတိ (သီုကဵု ရုင်ဂဥုဲ ပ္ဍဲ အင်္ဂလာန်) တုဲ အာတ် လာပ် နကဵု သြန် ဘစ်ကွိုင် (Bitcoin) ရ။
== ၈။ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရာ (Legal and Ethical Aspects) ==
ပရေင်လုပ် ပြံက် သၞောတ် သက်ကု အခေါင် (Unauthorized access) ဝွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် (သီုကဵု ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ ဍုင်ရးဥရောပ) ဒှ် ရာဇဝတ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မာန် ဒးဒုင် ဖျေဟ် ထံင် ပွိုင် မဂၠိုင်ကဵု သၞာံ ရ။ သၞောဝ် မပ္တံကဵု Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) ပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကာန် ဂှ် ကဵု ဒုဟ် ဇၞော် လတူ ဟက်ကာ ဒုပ်လမ္စံက် တအ် ရ။
ဆဂး သွက် ဟက်ကာ ဒုပ်ဗု (Ethical hackers) တအ် ဂှ်၊ ကုမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မပ္တံကဵု Google, Facebook ကေုာံ Apple တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် အစဳအဇန် '''လာပ် ဂၠာဲ ဇိုင်ခလံက်''' (Bug Bounty Programs) တုဲ ယဝ်ရ ဟက်ကာ မွဲ ဂၠာဲ ဆဵု ဒၞာဲ ဍိုန်လျ ပ္ဍဲ ဝပ်သာ် ညးတအ် မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ကဵု လာပ်ဗဇဴ သြန် ဒေါ်လာ နူ ကိုတ် စဵုကဵု ပြကောဋိကိုတ် ရ။
== ၉။ ယေန်သၞာင် ဟက်ကာ ကေုာံ ဂကောံ (Hacker Culture and Communities) ==
ယေန်သၞာင် ဟက်ကာ (Hacker culture) ဝွံ နွံကဵု ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ ဒဒှ်ရ "တင်ဂၞင် သီုဖအိုတ် သ္ဒး သၠးပွး" (Information should be free) ရ။ ညးတအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဂကောံ လတူ အင်တာနက် (Forums) သွက်ဂွံ ရေင်တၠုင် တင်ဂၞင်၊ ဖျေဟ် လိက်ကုဒ် ကေုာံ ကဵု ကသပ် ပညာ ရေင်သကအ် ရ。
ပ္ဍဲ လၟေင် သၞာံ တအ်၊ နွံ ပေါဲကောံသၟဟ် ဟက်ကာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မပ္တံကဵု '''DEF CON''' ကေုာံ '''Black Hat''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်လာတ်သ် ဗေဂါတ်သ် (Las Vegas) မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ တၠပညာ ဂီုကၠီု ကေုာံ ဟက်ကာ တအ် ကောံသၟဟ် သဳကၠဳ ပရူ နည်းပညာ တၟိ အိုတ် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ အန္တရာယ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Risks) ==
ပရေင်ဟက် ဝွံ ဒှ် လွဟ် ၜါ ဓါတ် (Double-edged sword) ရ။ လပါ် မွဲ မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ပကဵု ညံင် သၞောတ် နည်းပညာ ဂွံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် တိုန် နကဵု ပရေင်စၟတ်မင် ဂီုကၠီု။ လပါ် မွဲ ပၠန် မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အန္တရာယ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် ပူဂိုလ်၊ ကုမ္ပဏဳ၊ ကေုာံ ဍုင် တအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ ကပေါတ် အင်တာနက် (Internet of Things - IoT) မပ္တံကဵု ကွဳစက်၊ ရုင်စက်၊ ကေုာံ သ္ၚိ ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ဒၞာဲ ဆက်စပ် အာ ကု အင်တာနက် မ္ဂး၊ အန္တရာယ် နူကဵု ပရေင်ဟက် လေဝ် သၠုင် တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပရေင်စကာ ဉာဏ်စက် (Artificial Intelligence - AI) ပ္ဍဲ ကမၠောန် ဟက် ဂှ် မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လွဟ် ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် မပြဟ် ကေုာံ စောန် သၠုင် နူ ခေတ် လၟုဟ် ရောင်။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပညာ ဂီုကၠီု အင်တာနက် ဂှ် ဒှ် အရာ မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် မၞိဟ် ခေတ် တၟိ ဏအ် ရ။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ဂီုကၠီု]] (Security)
* [[ဂီုကၠီု အင်တာနက်]] (Cybersecurity)
* [[မာလ်ဝဲလ်]] (Malware)
* [[အင်တာနက်]] (Internet)
* [[ကွန်ပျူတာ]] (Computer)
{{Navbox
| name = Cybersecurity
| title = ဂီုကၠီု အင်တာနက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟက် ကွန်ပျူတာ (Cybersecurity and Hacking)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဂကူ ဟက်ကာ (Types of Hackers)
| list1 =
* [[ဟက်ကာ ဒုပ်ဗု]] (White hat)
* [[ဟက်ကာ ဒုပ်လမ္စံက်]] (Black hat)
* [[ဟက်ကာ ဒုပ်ပတေင်]] (Grey hat)
* [[ညးမစန်ဒက် ဟက်]] (Hacktivist)
| group2 = နဲကဲ ပရေင်ဟက် (Attack Methods)
| list2 =
* [[မာလ်ဝဲလ်]] (Malware)
* [[ရမ်ဆမ်ဝဲလ်]] (Ransomware)
* [[ဖေတ်ယှေန်]] (Phishing)
* [[ပရေင်တဝ်ပလိုဝ် ဍဳဒေါ့တ်သ်]] (DDoS attack)
* [[ပရေင်ထပက် ကုဒ် အေတ်သ်-ခယူ-အေဝ်]] (SQL injection)
| group3 = ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ (Defense & Security)
| list3 =
* [[ဂီုကၠီု အင်တာနက်]] (Cybersecurity)
* [[ဗင်ပၟတ် ကွန်ရက်]] (Firewall)
* [[ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ လိက်တမ်]] (Encryption)
* [[အာန်တဳ ဗာဲရပ်သ်]] (Antivirus)
* [[ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ၜါ အဆံင်]] (Multi-factor authentication)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ် (Related Concepts)
| list4 =
* [[ရာဇဝတ် အင်တာနက်]] (Cybercrime)
* [[ပရေင်လုပ် ပြံက် သက်ကု အခေါင်]] (Unauthorized access)
* [[ယေန်သၞာင် ဟက်ကာ]] (Hacker culture)
* [[ဒါက် ဝပ်]] (Dark web)
}}
[[Category:ဟက်ကာ]]
[[Category:ဂီုကၠီု အင်တာနက်]]
[[Category:ရာဇဝတ် ကွန်ပျူတာ]]
[[Category:နည်းပညာ သၞောတ် တင်ဂၞင်]]
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အစာလိက်ဇာတ်
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'''အစာလိက်ဇာတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Playwright'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Dramatist'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပူဂိုလ် မချူ ခၞံဗဒှ် လိက်ဇာတ် (Plays) သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ပ္ဍဲ စင်ဇာတ် (Theatre stage)၊ ရေဒဳယဝ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ အၚ်္ဂလိက် "Playwright" ဝွံ မလိက် "wright" ဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ အင်္ဂလာန် တြေံ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ညးမသြိုင်ခၞံ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ညးမကၠောန်" (Builder or Maker) ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ဆ ညးမချူ လိက် သၟး ပုဟ်၊ ညးတအ် ဒှ် ညးမသြိုင်ခၞံ လဒက်ပတန် ပေါဲဇာတ် မွဲ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။<ref name="edgar">{{cite book |last=Edgar |first=David |title=How Plays Work |url=https://archive.org/details/howplayswork0000edga |publisher=Nick Hern Books |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/howplayswork0000edga/page/15 15]-20}}</ref>
အစာလိက်ဇာတ် တအ် ဝွံ နွံ တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဇာတ်လမ်း၊ ညးပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဇာတ် (Characters)၊ ကေုာံ လဟီု (Dialogue) မဒှ် အရာ အဓိက သွက် သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဂွံ ဟီု ကေုာံ ထ္ၜး ရုပ်သာ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ အစာလိက်ဇာတ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လၟေင် ကမၠောန်၊ ဗီုပြင် လိက်ဇာတ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍေဟ် ကု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:William_Shakespeare_1609_restored.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဝဳလဳယောမ် ရှိတ်သပီးယား (William Shakespeare) မဒှ် အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန် မပြာကတ်အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဂၠးတိ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"အစာလိက်ဇာတ်" (Playwright) ဝွံ ဒှ် ပူဂိုလ် မချူ လိက် သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ပေါဲထ္ၜး ရုပ်သာ် ရ။ ဍေဟ် တၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု အစာချူလိက် ဝတ္ထု (Novelist) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အစာကဗျ (Poet) တအ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။ လိက်ဝတ္ထု ဂှ် ချူ လဝ် သွက် ညးမဗှ် လိက် တအ် ဂွံ ဗှ် နကဵု မတ် ဇကု ရ။ ဆဂး လိက်ဇာတ် ဂှ် ချူ လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် လမျီု လတူ စင်၊ မနွံကဵု ရမ္သာင်၊ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်၊ လျး ကေုာံ ပွဳပွူ မပြံင်လှာဲ မာန် ရ။
အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဝွံ သ္ဒး တီ ကၠိုဟ် အခိုက်အလိုက် စင်ဇာတ် (Theatrical conventions) ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ရ။ ညးတအ် သ္ဒး ဖန်ဇန် လဟီု (Dialogue) ကေုာံ လိက်ညွှန် စင် (Stage directions) ညံင် သၟာဇာတ် (Actors) ကေုာံ အစာပကောံပကေဝ် (Directors) တအ် ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် တုဲ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပေါဲထ္ၜး မာန် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ (History and Origins) ==
ဝင် အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဝွံ စတင် ပြာကတ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဂရိတ် တြေံ (Ancient Greece) ၜိုတ် ၅ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဘဳသဳ (BCE) တေအ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဂှ် ပေါဲဇာတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မဆက်စပ် ကု ပရေင်ဘာသာ ကေုာံ သာသနာ မပူဇဴ ကျာ် ဒဳယဝ်နဳသတ် (Dionysus) ရ။
* '''အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဂရိတ်ဂမၠိုင်:''' ညးမပြာကတ် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် အက်သကဳလတ် (Aeschylus)၊ သဝ်ဖဝ်ကလဳတ် (Sophocles) ကေုာံ ယူရဳပဳဒဳတ် (Euripides) တအ် ရ။ ညးတအ် ချူ လဝ် ဇာတ်လောတ်/ဇာတ်ဟောံ (Tragedies) မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ အခေါင်အရာ ကျာ်၊ ကံကုသိုလ် ကေုာံ ဒုဟ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ။<ref name="brockett">{{cite book |last=Brockett |first=Oscar G. |author2=Hildy, Franklin J. |title=History of the Theatre |url=https://archive.org/details/historyoftheatre0000broc_v1l5 |edition=10th |publisher=Pearson |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyoftheatre0000broc_v1l5/page/20 20]-35}}</ref>
* '''ခေတ် ရဝ်မ (Rome):''' ကြဴနူ ဂရိတ် တုဲ ဍုင်ရဝ်မ လေဝ် ဆက် ဇၞော်မောဝ် လိက်ဇာတ် ကီု ရ။ အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ပလဝ်တေတ် (Plautus) ကေုာံ တေရေန် (Terence) တအ် ချူ လဝ် ဇာတ်ဂြိုင် (Comedies) မစကာ လဟီု ဓမ္မတာ ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။
== ၃။ ခေတ် ဥရောပ လဒေါဝ် ကေုာံ ခေတ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် (Middle Ages and Renaissance) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဥရောပ လဒေါဝ် (Middle Ages) ဂှ် လိက်ဇာတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု သာသနာ ခရေတ် ရ (Mystery plays)။ ဆဂး စိုပ် ခေတ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကလေင် ဂျိုင် တိုန် (Renaissance) ပ္ဍဲ ၁၆ ကဵု ၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဂှ် လိက်ဇာတ် ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် အလဳဇြဗေတ် (Elizabethan Theatre):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန်၊ '''ဝဳလဳယောမ် ရှိတ်သပီးယား''' (William Shakespeare) ကေုာံ ခရစ်သတဝ်ဖာ မာလဝ် (Christopher Marlowe) တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် လိက်ဇာတ် မနွံကဵု လညာတ် လမျီု ကောန်မၞိဟ် နာနာ သာ် ရ။ ရှိတ်သပီးယား ဂှ် ချူ လဝ် လိက်ဇာတ် ၃၉ ဇာတ် (Tragedy, Comedy, History) တုဲ ဍေဟ်တအ် ဒှ် လိက်ဇာတ် မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ လိက်ပတ် အင်္ဂလိက် စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။<ref name="carlson">{{cite book |last=Carlson |first=Marvin |title=Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey |url=https://archive.org/details/theoriesoftheatr0000carl |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=1993 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/theoriesoftheatr0000carl/page/85 85]-92}}</ref>
== ၄။ ခေတ် တၟိ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ လိက်ဇာတ် (Modern Era and Changes in Playwriting) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ၁၉ ကဵု ၂၀ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဂှ် အစာလိက်ဇာတ် တအ် စ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လိက်ဇာတ် မကော်စ '''ပရေင်ဍာံပြ''' (Realism) ကေုာံ '''သဘာဝ''' (Naturalism) ရ။
* '''ဟေန်ရစ် အိပ်သေန် (Henrik Ibsen):''' အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဍုင်နဝ်ဝေ ညးမဂွံ ဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် "မအံက် လိက်ဇာတ် ခေတ်တၟိ" (Father of modern drama)။ ညး ချူ လဝ် လိက်ဇာတ် မပ္တံကဵု ''A Doll's House'' မသ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပြသၞာ သ္ၚိကၟိန် ကေုာံ အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဍာံဍာံပြပြ ရ။
* '''အာန်တွန် ချေကံက် (Anton Chekhov):''' အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဍုင်ရုရှာ ညးမချူ လဝ် ဇာတ် မအာရီုစွံ လတူ အကာဲအရာ စိုတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဟီုဂး လၟိုန် တ္ၚဲ (Subtext) ရ။
* '''ခေတ် လက္ကရဴ (Post-War):''' ကြဴနူ ပၞာန်ဂၠးတိ အလန်ဒုတိယ၊ အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဗီုကဵု အာသာ မဳလာ (Arthur Miller) ကေုာံ သာမြူရယ် ဗက်ကေတ် (Samuel Beckett) တအ် ချူ လဝ် ဇာတ် မလ္ၚတ် ပရူ ဒဒှ် လမျီု မသၠးပွး ကေုာံ ဒဒှ် မဟွံမဲ အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Theatre of the Absurd) ရ။<ref name="innes">{{cite book |last=Innes |first=Christopher |title=Modern British Drama: The Twentieth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |pages=150-165}}</ref>
== ၅။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် အစာလိက်ဇာတ် (The Playwriting Process) ==
လၟေင် ကမၠောန် သွက်ဂွံ ချူ လိက်ဇာတ် မွဲ ဂှ် တၞဟ်ခြာ အာ အတိုင် အစာ မွဲ ကု မွဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ပါလုပ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ရ -
# '''လညာတ် တမ် (Concept and Premise):''' စတမ် နူကဵု ကသပ်၊ တင်သၟာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရူပရာ မွဲမွဲ (ဥပမာ - မု ကတဵုဒှ် ယဝ်ရ ညးမွဲ မွဲ သ္ဒး ရုဲစှ် အကြာ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန် ကဵု ဍုင်)။
# '''လဒက်ပတန် (Outlining/Structuring):''' ဖျေဟ် လဒက်ပတန် ဇာတ် နကဵု ခဏ် (Acts) ကေုာံ ဒတန် (Scenes)။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စကာ လဒက်ပတန် ပိ ခဏ် (Three-act structure - စ, လဒေါဝ်, ကၞောတ်)။
# '''ချူ လိက်မူကြမ်း (Drafting):''' စ ချူ လဟီု (Dialogue) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင်။ ပ္ဍဲ အဆံင် ဏအ် အစာ လိက်ဇာတ် သ္ဒး ဖန် ညံင် ရမ္သာင် ညးပါလုပ် (Character voices) ဂွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ ရေင်သကအ်။
# '''ကလေင် ပလေဝ် (Rewriting and Revision):''' အစာ လိက်ဇာတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ "ပရေင်ချူ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ကလေင်ချူ ရ" (Writing is rewriting)။ ညးတအ် ပလေဝ် ညံင် ဇာတ် ဂွံ တပ် ကေုာံ ဟွံဂွံ ဂၠိင် လောန် အာ။
# '''ပရေင်ဗှ် လိက် (Read-through and Workshop):''' အစာ လိက်ဇာတ် ကော် သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဗှ် ထ္ၜး လိက်ဇာတ် ဂှ် တုဲ ကလင် ရမ္သာင် ဍာံဍာံ ညံင် ဂွံ တီ ဒဒှ်ရ လဟီု တအ် ဂှ် ဍိုတ် သၟဟ် မာန် ဟွံမာန် ရ။<ref name="wright">{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Michael |title=Playwriting in Process: Thinking and Working Theatrically |url=https://archive.org/details/playwritinginpro0000wrig |publisher=Heinemann |year=1997 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/playwritinginpro0000wrig/page/45 45]-60}}</ref>
== ၆။ ဗီုပြင် ကေုာံ ဂကူ လိက်ဇာတ်ဂမၠိုင် (Forms and Types of Plays) ==
အစာလိက်ဇာတ် တအ် ချူ လိက်ဇာတ် နကဵု ဂကူ (Genres) နာနာ သာ် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ လိက်ဇာတ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ ဇာတ် (Genre)
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ လက္ခဏာ
! ဥပမာ လိက်ဇာတ်
|-
| '''ဇာတ်လောတ်/ဇာတ်ဟောံ''' (Tragedy)
| ဇာတ် မနွံကဵု တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော်၊ မလေပ် အုပ်ကၠေအ် နကဵု ပရေင်ဟောံဗြမ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂစိုတ်။ အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ဓရ်ဍာံ လမျီု။
| ''Hamlet'' (Shakespeare), ''Death of a Salesman'' (Miller)
|-
| '''ဇာတ်ဂြိုင်''' (Comedy)
| ဇာတ် မဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် ညံင် ညးမဗဵု ဂွံ ဂြိုင်၊ မလေပ် အုပ်ကၠေအ် နကဵု ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ကေုာံ သ္ၚိမင်္ဂလ။
| ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' (Shakespeare), ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' (Wilde)
|-
| '''ဇာတ် မဳလဝ်ဒရာမာ''' (Melodrama)
| ဇာတ် မနွံကဵု စိုတ်ဓါတ် သ္ကာတ်မြဟ်၊ မပါ်ခြာ မၞိဟ်ခိုဟ် ကဵု မၞိဟ်ပရေအ် ဍာံဍာံပြပြ၊ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မၞိဟ်ခိုဟ် ကလိဂွံ ဇမၞး ပ္ဍဲ ကၞောတ်။
| ''The Drunkard'' (W.H. Smith)
|-
| '''ဇာတ် လောတ်-ဂြိုင်''' (Tragicomedy)
| ဇာတ် မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် ပရေင်ဟောံဗြမ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဂြိုင်၊ ထ္ၜး ဘဝ ဍာံပြ မနွံ သီု ၜါ သာ်။
| ''Waiting for Godot'' (Beckett)
|}
== ၇။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ အစာလိက်ဇာတ်၊ သၟာဇာတ် ကေုာံ အစာပကောံပကေဝ် (Relationships in Theatre) ==
လိက်ဇာတ် မွဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ လိက် ပ္ဍဲ လတူ စက္ခော သၟး ရ ယဝ်ရ ဟွံမဲ ကု ဂကောံ ပေါဲဇာတ် တအ်။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် အရာ မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် ရ။
* '''ကု ညးပကောံပကေဝ် (Director):''' အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ကဵု လိက်ဇာတ် ကု ညးပကောံပကေဝ်။ ညးပကောံပကေဝ် ဂှ် သ္ဒး ကၠိုဟ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် တုဲ ဖန်ဇန် ဗီုပြင် စင်၊ လျး၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ညံင် ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု လိက်ဇာတ် ဂှ် ရ။
* '''ကု သၟာဇာတ် (Actors):''' သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ညးမကဵု လမျီု ကု လိက်ဇာတ် ရ။ အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် တက်ကျာ ကု သၟာဇာတ် တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ပလေဝ် လဟီု ညံင် ဂွံ ကိတ်ညဳ ကု ရမ္သာင် ဍာံဍာံ ရ။
* '''ကု ညးမဗဵု (Audience):''' တင်ရန်တၟအ် အလုံစုံ ဂှ် ဒှ် ညးမဗဵု ရ။ အစာလိက်ဇာတ် သ္ဒး ချူ ညံင် ညးမဗဵု တအ် ဂွံ ပါလုပ် လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ဒုင်စသိုင် (Empathy) ပရူပရာ ဂှ် မာန် ရ။
== ၈။ အစာလိက်ဇာတ် မပြာကတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိဂမၠိုင် (Famous Playwrights in the World) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် နွံ အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် လိက်ပတ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ရ။
* '''မဝ်လဳယျာ (Molière):''' အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် (17th Century) မပြာကတ် နကဵု ဇာတ်ဂြိုင် မစုတ်စောဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗီုကဵု ''Tartuffe'' ရ။
* '''တေန်နက်သဳ ဝဳလဳယောမ် (Tennessee Williams):''' အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (20th Century) မပြာကတ် နကဵု ဇာတ် မနွံကဵု စိုတ်ဓါတ် ဇြိုဟ်နက် ဗီုကဵု ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' ရ။
* '''သဝ်ယေန်ကာ (Wole Soyinka):''' အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဍုင်နိုင်ဂျဳရီးယား ညးမကလိဂွံ လာပ် နဝ်ဘဴ (Nobel Prize in Literature) ပထမအိုတ် နူ အာဖရိက၊ မချူ လဝ် ဇာတ် မပံင်ကောံ ယေန်သၞာင် အာဖရိက ကေုာံ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၉။ ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တ္ၚဲဏအ် (Challenges in the Modern Era) ==
အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကု တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် နာနာ သာ် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ သြန် (Financial Challenges):''' ပရေင်ကၠောန် ပေါဲဇာတ် လတူ စင် ဂှ် စကာ သြန် ဂၠိုင် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ညးပတိတ် ဇာတ် (Producers) တအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရုဲစှ် လိက်ဇာတ် နူကဵု အစာ မပြာကတ် တုဲ တုဲ တအ် သၟး တုဲ၊ သွက် အစာလိက်ဇာတ် တၟိ တအ် ဂွံ ဂွံ ဒၞာဲ စင် ဂှ် ဝါတ်ဂါတ် လောန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် ကု ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ကေုာံ တဳဗဳ (Competition with Film/TV):''' ခေတ် လၟုဟ် ညးမဗဵု တအ် ဒးစိုတ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် (Movies) ကေုာံ တဳဗဳ (Netflix, etc.) ဂၠိုင် နူကဵု ပေါဲဇာတ် လတူ စင် ရ။ အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် လေဝ် ပြံင် အာ ချူ လိက်ဇာတ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် (Screenwriting) သွက်ဂွံ ကလိဂွံ သြန် ဂၠိုင် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် လိက်ဇာတ် (Conclusion and Future of Playwriting) ==
အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပူဂိုလ် မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် ယေန်သၞာင် ပေါဲဇာတ် ရ။ ညးတအ် ဒှ် ညးမဖန်ဗဒှ် ဒ္ၚောဝ် သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ညာတ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ်၊ သွက်ဂွံ ဟီု စၞး ညးမဒးဒုင် ဍဵုဍိုက် တအ်၊ ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ဓရ် လမျီု ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ လိက်ဇာတ် ဝွံ သ္ဒး ဆက် ဇၞော်မောဝ် အာ ကရောမ် နည်းပညာ တၟိ (ဥပမာ Digital theatre) မာန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ သဇိုင် ဍာံပြ မဒှ် ပရေင်ဟီု ဇာတ်လမ်း အကြာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ကဵု ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဍာံဍာံ (Live storytelling) ဂှ် ဆက် တန်တဴ အာ လၟိုန် ရောင်။ အစာလိက်ဇာတ် ဂှ် ဆက် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မသြိုင်ခၞံ ဘုံ လမျီု လတူ စင် မွဲ သာ် ပၠန် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[လိက်ပတ်]] (Literature)
* [[ဝဳလဳယောမ် ရှိတ်သပီးယား]] (William Shakespeare)
* [[ပေါဲဇာတ်]] (Theatre)
* [[သၟာဇာတ်]] (Actor)
* [[ညးပကောံပကေဝ်]] (Director)
{{Navbox
| name = Theatre
| title = ပေါဲဇာတ် ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ထ္ၜးရုပ်သာ် (Theatre and Performing Arts)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ညးပါလုပ် အဓိက
| list1 =
* [[အစာလိက်ဇာတ်]] (Playwright)
* [[ညးပကောံပကေဝ်]] (Director)
* [[သၟာဇာတ်]] (Actor)
* [[ညးဖန်ဇန် စင်]] (Stage designer)
| group2 = ဂကူ လိက်ဇာတ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list2 =
* [[ဇာတ်လောတ်]] (Tragedy)
* [[ဇာတ်ဂြိုင်]] (Comedy)
* [[ဇာတ် မဳလဝ်ဒရာမာ]] (Melodrama)
* [[ဇာတ် သမိုင်း]] (History play)
| group3 = ခေတ် ဝင် ပေါဲဇာတ်
| list3 =
* [[ပေါဲဇာတ် ဂရိတ်]] (Greek theatre)
* [[ပေါဲဇာတ် ရဝ်မ]] (Roman theatre)
* [[ပေါဲဇာတ် အလဳဇြဗေတ်]] (Elizabethan theatre)
* [[ပေါဲဇာတ် ခေတ်တၟိ]] (Modern theatre)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[စင်ဇာတ်]] (Stage)
* [[လိက်ဇာတ်]] (Script / Play)
* [[ဒတန်]] (Scene)
* [[လဟီု]] (Dialogue)
}}
[[Category:အစာချူလိက်]]
[[Category:ပေါဲဇာတ်]]
[[Category:အစာလိက်ဇာတ်]]
[[Category:လိက်ပတ်]]
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'''သၟာဇာတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Actor'' (တြုဟ်) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Actress'' (ဗြဴ)) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ပူဂိုလ် မကၠောန် ကမၠောန် အနုသုခုမ မကတဵုဗဒှ် ရုပ်သာ်၊ စိုတ်ဓါတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ်ပြဝ ကာရိုက်တာ (Character) မွဲမွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ပေါဲပြိုင်၊ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် (Film)၊ ရုပ်သံ (Television)၊ လပါ် ရမ္သာင် (Radio) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရုင်ဇာတ် (Theatre) ရ။ သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ညးမပလံင် ဗစိုပ် လိက်ဇာတ် (Script) ကေုာံ လညာတ် ဒါရိုက်တာ ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် အာ လမျီု ဍာံဍာံပြပြ လတူ စင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂတ မတ် ကမ္မရာ ရ။<ref name="brockett">{{cite book |last=Brockett |first=O. G. |author2=Hildy, F. J. |title=History of the Theatre |url=https://archive.org/details/historyoftheatre0000broc_e4r9 |edition=10th |publisher=Allyn and Bacon |year=2008 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyoftheatre0000broc_e4r9/page/15 15]-22}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဝင် မၞိဟ်၊ ကမၠောန် သၟာဇာတ် ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ တေအ် တုဲ၊ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဍေဟ် ဒှ် အာ ကမၠောန် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ယေန်သၞာင် မဇၞော် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဝွံ နွံ ပၟိက် ကု ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ရမ္သာင်၊ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ခန္ဓာကိုယ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် လညာတ် စိုတ်ဗေဒ မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇြိုဟ်နက် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ သၟာဇာတ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ နဲကဲ လ္ၚတ်၊ ဂကူ သၟာဇာတ် နာနာ သာ်၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Sarah_Bernhardt_by_Nadar.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး သာရာ ဘာန်ဟတ် (Sarah Bernhardt)၊ မဒှ် သၟာဇာတ် ပြင်သေတ် မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ညး မဂွံ ဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် သၟာဇာတ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် ဥရောပ။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဝေါဟာရ "သၟာဇာတ်" ပ္ဍဲ ၜါသာ မန် ဝွံ ကၠုင် နူ မလိက် "သၟာ" (ညးမကၠောန်) ကေုာံ "ဇာတ်" (ပေါဲ၊ ဇာတ်သၟတ်) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ညးမကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဇာတ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဘာသာ အၚ်္ဂလိက်၊ ဝေါဟာရ "Actor" ဝွံ ကၠုင် နူ မလိက် လာတ္တေန် မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ညးမချဳဓရာင်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "ညးမကၠောန် ကမၠောန်" ရ။
နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် အနုသုခုမ မ္ဂး၊ သၟာဇာတ် ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် ဆ ညးမဗှ် လိက် အတိုင် ညးတၞဟ် မချူ လဝ် သၟး ပုဟ်။ သၟာဇာတ် ဒှ် ညးမစကာ ခန္ဓာကိုယ်၊ ရမ္သာင်၊ ကေုာံ စိုတ်ဝိညာဏ် ဇကု သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လမျီု ကာရိုက်တာ တၟိ မွဲ ရ။ ကမၠောန် ဏအ်ဝွံ အာတ်မိက် ပရေင်ပံင်ကောံ အကြာ ကွတ် ဉာဏ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် (Emotion) မဍာံပြ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ (History, Origin, and Ancient Greece) ==
ဝင် ကမၠောန် သၟာဇာတ် ဝွံ စတင် ပြာကတ် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ (Ancient Greece) ၜိုတ် ဘဳသဳ (BC) ၅၃၄ တေအ် ရ။
အတိုင် ဝင် မ္ဂး၊ သၟာဇာတ် ပထမအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ဂှ် နွံ ယၟု '''သက်သပိသ်''' (Thespis) ရ。 ညးဝွံ ဒှ် မၞိဟ် ပထမအိုတ် မပါ်တိတ် နူကဵု ဂကောံ ဒယှ်ေဒွက် (Chorus) တုဲ ဟီု အရေဝ် စၞး ကာရိုက်တာ မွဲ လတူ စင် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဂှ် ညးတအ် ကော်စ လဆောဝ် လဆောဝ် နကဵု ယၟု "Thespians" ရ။<ref name="csapo">{{cite book |last=Csapo |first=E. |author2=Slater, W. J. |title=The Context of Ancient Drama |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=1994 |pages=25-30}}</ref>
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဂရိတ် ကေုာံ ရဝ်မ ဂှ်၊ ကမၠောန် သၟာဇာတ် ဝွံ မၞိဟ်တြုဟ် သၟး ဟေင် ကၠောန် ဂွံ ရ။ ညးတအ် စကာ မုက်ဖျာ (Masks) သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ကာရိုက်တာ နာနာ သာ် သီုကဵု ကာရိုက်တာ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ ကေုာံ သွက်ဂွံ ညံင် ရမ္သာင် ဂွံ တိတ် ဇၞော် ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ ရုင်ဇာတ် (Amphitheatre) မဇၞော် တအ် ရ။
== ၃။ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်လဒေါဝ် ကေုာံ ရေနေသှန် (Middle Ages and Renaissance) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ခေတ် လဒေါဝ် (Middle Ages) ပ္ဍဲ ဥရောပ၊ ပေါဲဇာတ် တအ် ဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု သာသနာ ခရေတ် ရ။ သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ခမဳ သង្ဃ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဓမ္မတာ မထ္ၜး ပေါဲ ပရူ ဓဝ် (Morality plays) ကေုာံ ဝင် သာသနာ ရ။
စိုပ် ခေတ် ရေနေသှန် (Renaissance) တုဲ တၟေင်တၟဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် အဳလဳဇြာဗေတ် (Elizabethan era) ဍုင်အင်္ဂလာန် မ္ဂး၊ သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဂွံ ဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နဒဒှ် ဂကောံ ကမၠောန် (Profession) မွဲ ဍာံဍာံပြပြ ရ။ ဇာတ် မချူ လဝ် နကဵု '''[[ဝဳလဳယောမ် ရှိတ်သပီးယယျာ]]''' (William Shakespeare) တအ် ဝွံ ကဵု လဝ် ဒၞာဲ သွက် သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဂွံ ထ္ၜး ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် လပါ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် ကေုာံ ရမ္သာင် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ဂှ် လေဝ် မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ တအ် ဟွံဂွံ အခေါင် တိုန် စင် ဏီ တုဲ ကာရိုက်တာ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ကောန်ၚာ် တြုဟ် သၟတ် တအ် သ္ဒး ထ္ၜး ရုပ်သာ် ရ။ မၞိဟ်ဗြဴ တအ် စ ဂွံ အခေါင် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ဏအ် ပ္ဍဲ ၁၇ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ (Restoration era) ရ။
== ၄။ ခေတ်တၟိ ကေုာံ လညာတ် သတာနိသလာဗ်သကဳ (Modern Era and Stanislavski's System) ==
ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် တွိုက် ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ကေုာံ ၂၀ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ စ၊ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဝင် သၟာဇာတ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ရ။
တၠပညာ ကေုာံ ဒါရိုက်တာ ရုရှာ '''ကောန်သတာန်တေန် သတာနိသလာဗ်သကဳ''' (Constantin Stanislavski) ဖန်ဗဒှ် လဝ် သၞောတ် နဲကဲ ထ္ၜး ရုပ်သာ် တၟိ မကော်စ "Stanislavski's system" ရ။
နဲကဲ ဏအ်ဝွံ အာတ်မိက် ညံင် သၟာဇာတ် ဂွံ ဒှ် ကာရိုက်တာ ဂှ် ဍာံဍာံ နကဵု ပရေင်စိုတ် (Psychological realism) စၞး မထ္ၜး ရုပ်သာ် လပါ် မ္ၚး (Overacting) သၟး ရ။ သၟာဇာတ် သ္ဒး သၟာန် ဇကု ဇကု မပ္တံကဵု "မုဟိုတ် ကာရိုက်တာ ဏအ် မိက်ဂွံ ဂွံ အရာ ဏအ် ရဝ်؟" (What is my objective?) ကေုာံ ဒး ဂၠာဲ ဓရ် ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် ဇကု မတုပ် ကု ကာရိုက်တာ (Emotional memory) ရ။ နဲကဲ ဏအ် ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် သွက် အနုသုခုမ သၟာဇာတ် ခေတ်တၟိ သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။<ref name="stanislavski">{{cite book |last=Stanislavski |first=C. |title=An Actor Prepares |url=https://archive.org/details/actorprepares0000cons_i3x3 |publisher=Theatre Arts Books |year=1936 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/actorprepares0000cons_i3x3/page/12 12]-25}}</ref>
== ၅။ နဲကဲ အနုသုခုမ မကတဵုဗဒှ် ရုပ်သာ်ဂမၠိုင် (Acting Techniques) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ်၊ သၟာဇာတ် တအ် လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ စကာ နဲကဲ အနုသုခုမ (Acting techniques) နာနာ သာ် သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် လမျီု ပ္ဍဲ ဇာတ် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး နဲကဲ အနုသုခုမ သၟာဇာတ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ နဲကဲ (Technique)
! တၠပညာ မဖန်ဗဒှ်
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
|-
| '''သၞောတ် သတာနိသလာဗ်သကဳ''' (Stanislavski's System)
| ကောန်သတာန်တေန် သတာနိသလာဗ်သကဳ
| ဂၠာဲ တင်ရန်တၟအ် အပ္ဍဲ စိုတ် ကာရိုက်တာ ကေုာံ စကာ ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် အတိတ် ဇကု သွက်ဂွံ ဒှ် ဍာံ။
|-
| '''မက်သက် အက်တေန်''' (Method Acting)
| လဳ သထရာတ်သဗာတ် (Lee Strasberg)
| သၟာဇာတ် ဒး ဂျိုင်တန်တဴ နဒဒှ် ကာရိုက်တာ ဂှ် ပ္ဍဲ ဘဝ ဓမ္မတာ ကာလ လ္ၚတ် ဇာတ်။ ဇြိုဟ်နက် ကေုာံ လဆောဝ် လဆောဝ် အန္တရာယ် နွံ လပါ် စိုတ်။
|-
| '''နဲကဲ မာက်သနာ''' (Meisner Technique)
| သာန်ဖို့ဒ် မာက်သနာ (Sanford Meisner)
| အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ ကေုာံ ကလင် ရမ္သာင် သၟာဇာတ် မွဲ သာ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ပြဟ်ပြဟ် (Living truthfully under imaginary circumstances)။
|-
| '''နဲကဲ ကလာပ်သဳကယ်''' (Classical Acting)
| ဗြိတိန် / ရှိတ်သပီးယယျာ
| အာရီုစွံ လတူ ရမ္သာင် (Voice)၊ ပရေင်ထိင် ခန္ဓာကိုယ် (Body control)၊ ကေုာံ ဗှ် လိက်ဇာတ် ညံင် ဂွံ ကျေဝ်ဂေါဝ်။
|}
<ref name="carnicke">{{cite book |last=Carnicke |first=S. M. |title=Stanislavsky in Focus: An Acting Master for the Twenty-First Century |url=https://archive.org/details/stanislavskyinfo0000carn_d9d0 |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/stanislavskyinfo0000carn_d9d0/page/105 105]-115}}</ref>
== ၆။ ဂကူ သၟာဇာတ် နာနာ သာ် (Types of Actors) ==
ကမၠောန် သၟာဇာတ် ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် ဂကူ နာနာ သာ် အတိုင် ဒၞာဲ ညးတအ် မထ္ၜး ပေါဲ ရ -
* '''သၟာဇာတ် လတူ စင် (Stage Actor):''' ကၠောန် လတူ ရုင်ဇာတ် ဍာံဍာံ (Theatre) ဂတ မတ် ပူရိသာတ်။ ညးတအ် သ္ဒး နွံ ရမ္သာင် ဇၞော်၊ ကေုာံ ဒး ကၠောန် စဵုကဵု ဇာတ် အာစိုပ် ဒတုဲ ဟွံမဲ ကု ပရေင်ကုတ် (No retakes) ရ။
* '''သၟာဇာတ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် (Film Actor):''' ကၠောန် ဂတ မတ် ကမ္မရာ။ ဟိုတ်နူ ကမ္မရာ မာန် တံင် ဇြူး (Zoom) တုဲ၊ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် မုက်မတ် တအ် သ္ဒး အောန်၊ သၟတ် တုဲ ဍာံပြ (Subtle expressions) ရ။
* '''သၟာဇာတ် ရုပ်သံ (Television Actor):''' တုပ် ကု ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ညးတအ် သ္ဒး ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် ပြဟ် နူ ကေုာံ ဒး မင်မဲ ကာရိုက်တာ မွဲ လၟေင် သၞာံ (Series) ရ။
* '''သၟာဇာတ် ရမ္သာင် (Voice Actor):''' စကာ ဆ ရမ္သာင် သၟး သွက် ပရေင်ကာတွန်း (Animation)၊ ဂိမ်း (Video games)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗှ် လိက် ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ရေဒဳယဝ် ရ။
== ၇။ သၟာဇာတ် ကေုာံ လွပ် နည်းပညာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Actors and Digital Technology) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ကမၠောန် သၟာဇာတ် ဝွံ ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကေုာံ ပြံင်လှာဲ အတိုင် ခေတ် နည်းပညာ CGI (Computer-Generated Imagery) ရ။
'''မဝ်ရှေန် ကာပ်ချာ (Motion Capture):''' ဒှ် နဲကဲ မစုတ် လဝ် သေန်သာ (Sensors) လတူ ခန္ဓာကိုယ် သၟာဇာတ် တုဲ၊ ကွန်ပျူတာ တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ရုပ် သတ္တဝါ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကာရိုက်တာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ရ။ သၟာဇာတ် မပြာကတ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် '''အာန်ဒဳ သာကိသ်''' (Andy Serkis) မထ္ၜး လဝ် ရုပ် Gollum ပ္ဍဲ ဇာတ် Lord of the Rings ရ။
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ် ပြသၞာ '''ဉာဏ်စက်''' (AI) မမာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ရုပ် ကေုာံ ရမ္သာင် သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ပြသၞာ အခေါင်အရာ အဓိက မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် သၟာဇာတ် (Economics and Social Status of Actors) ==
ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် အကြာ သၟာဇာတ် တအ် ဝွံ ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် ရေင်သကအ် ဗွဲမလောန် (High inequality) ရ။
* '''သၟာဇာတ် ကဆံင် A (A-list Actors):''' ဒှ် သၟာဇာတ် မပြာကတ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ၊ မာန် ကလိဂွံ သြန် ကိုတ် ဒဝ်လာ သွက် ဇာတ် မွဲမွဲ တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် နွံကဵု သြဇာ လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
* '''သၟာဇာတ် ဓမ္မတာ (Working Actors):''' သၟာဇာတ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဂှ် ဒး ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် တၞဟ် (ဥပမာ - စားပွဲထိုး Waiter) သွက်ဂွံ ဂျိုင်တန်တဴ အခိင် ဟွံမဲ ကု ပေါဲဇာတ် ရ။
သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ အခေါင်အရာ ကေုာံ လာပ် သၟာဇာတ် တအ်၊ ညးတအ် ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဂကောံ သမဂ္ဂ (Unions) မပ္တံကဵု SAG-AFTRA (Screen Actors Guild) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် မာန် အာတ်မိက် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ နကဵု ပရေင်ဒေါအ် ကမၠောန် (Strike) ရ။<ref name="sag">{{cite web |url=https://www.sagaftra.org/about |title=About SAG-AFTRA |publisher=SAG-AFTRA |year=2023 |access-date=July 29, 2026}}</ref>
== ၉။ လာပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ဂမၠိုင် (Awards and Recognitions) ==
ပရေင်အံင်ဇၞး ပ္ဍဲ ကမၠောန် သၟာဇာတ် ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ညးတအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီ နကဵု လာပ် (Awards) ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ -
* '''လာပ် အဝ်သကာ (Academy Awards / Oscars):''' ဒှ် လာပ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် သၟာဇာတ် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်။
* '''လာပ် အေမ္မဳ (Emmy Awards):''' ဒှ် လာပ် သွက် သၟာဇာတ် ရုပ်သံ (Television)။
* '''လာပ် တဝ်နဳ (Tony Awards):''' ဒှ် လာပ် သွက် သၟာဇာတ် လတူ စင် (Theatre/Broadway)။
* '''လာပ် ဂေါလ်ဒေန် ဂလာပ် (Golden Globe Awards):''' ကဵု လာပ် သွက် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ကေုာံ ရုပ်သံ။
* '''လာပ် ပြသတ္တိ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ကာန် (Cannes Film Festival):''' ကဵု လာပ် သၟာဇာတ် ခိုဟ် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ဂၠးတိ (International films)။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
သၟာဇာတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ညးမပလံင် ဗစိုပ် ဝင် (Storyteller) သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ နည်းပညာ မပ္တံကဵု ဉာဏ်စက် (AI) ကေုာံ CGI တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ကၠုင် ဗီုပြင် ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် မဍာံပြ (Human emotion and vulnerability) မတိတ် ကၠုင် နူ သၟာဇာတ် မွဲ ဂှ် အရာ မသ္အာင် စၞး စွံ ဟွံမာန် ဏီ ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ သၟာဇာတ် တအ် သ္ဒး ဆက် လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ အတိုင် ခေတ် နည်းပညာ တၟိ တၟိ တအ် ရောင်။ ဆဂး တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက - မဒှ် အရာ မကဵု ဓရ် ဗ္တောန်၊ ပရေင်ကၠိုဟ်ခၠင် ဘဝ ကေုာံ ပရေင်မိပ်မြဟ် ကု ပူရိသာတ် ဂှ် - သ္ဒး ဆက် တန်တဴ အာ အတိုင် ဝင် သၟာဇာတ် မနွံ ကၠုင် သၞာံ ၜါလ္ၚီ ပြင် တေအ် ရောင်။<ref name="benedetti">{{cite book |last=Benedetti |first=J. |title=The Art of the Actor: The Essential History of Acting from Classical Times to the Present Day |url=https://archive.org/details/artofactoressent0000bene |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/artofactoressent0000bene/page/150 150]-160}}</ref>
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်]] (Film)
* [[ဒါရိုက်တာ]] (Director)
* [[ဝဳလဳယောမ် ရှိတ်သပီးယယျာ]] (William Shakespeare)
* [[ရုင်ဇာတ်]] (Theatre)
{{Navbox
| name = Performing Arts
| title = အနုသုခုမ ပေါဲထ္ၜး ကေုာံ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် (Performing Arts and Film)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ကမၠောန် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[သၟာဇာတ်]] (Actor)
* [[ဒါရိုက်တာ]] (Director)
* [[ညးချူ လိက်ဇာတ်]] (Screenwriter)
* [[ညးဖန်ဗဒှ် ကပေါတ်]] (Producer)
| group2 = ဂကူ ပေါဲထ္ၜး
| list2 =
* [[ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်]] (Film)
* [[ရုပ်သံ]] (Television)
* [[ရုင်ဇာတ်]] (Theatre)
* [[ရေဒဳယဝ်]] (Radio)
| group3 = နဲကဲ လ္ၚတ် ကေုာံ အနုသုခုမ
| list3 =
* [[သၞောတ် သတာနိသလာဗ်သကဳ]] (Stanislavski's system)
* [[မက်သက် အက်တေန်]] (Method acting)
* [[မာက်သနာ နဲကဲ]] (Meisner technique)
| group4 = လာပ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[အဝ်သကာ]] (Academy Awards)
* [[အေမ္မဳ]] (Emmy Awards)
* [[တဝ်နဳ]] (Tony Awards)
* [[ဂေါလ်ဒေန် ဂလာပ်]] (Golden Globes)
}}
[[Category:သၟာဇာတ်]]
[[Category:အနုသုခုမ]]
[[Category:ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်]]
[[Category:ရုင်ဇာတ်]]
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'''အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''အခေါင် သၠးပွး မဟီုတွံ ကေုာံ ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Freedom of speech'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''Freedom of expression'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် အခေါင်အရာ သဇိုင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် (Fundamental human right) မွဲ မကဵု အခေါင် ကု ပူဂိုလ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ မွဲ သွက်ဂွံ ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လညာတ်၊ စိုတ်ဓါတ်၊ ကေုာံ တင်ဂၞင် သီု ဟွံမဲ ကု ပရေင်ဖေက်လကိုတ်၊ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု (Censorship) ကေုာံ ပရေင်တက်ဒဏ် နူကဵု အလဵုအသဳ တအ် ရ။<ref name="barendt">{{cite book |last=Barendt |first=E. |title=Freedom of Speech |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |pages=1-12}}</ref>
အခေါင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် ရိုဟ်ကၞက် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မွဲ မာန် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ (Universal Declaration of Human Rights - UDHR) ပိုဒ် ၁၉ ဂှ် လလောင်တြး လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ကောန်မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် နွံ အခေါင် သၠးပွး သွက်ဂွံ ဟီုတွံ ကေုာံ ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လညာတ် ရ။ ဆဂး အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ဝွံ ဟွံသေင် အခေါင် မဟွံမဲ ကု ပယျဵု အလုံစုံ (Absolute right) ပုဟ်။ ဍေဟ် ဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လဝ် နကဵု သၞောဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ကိစ္စ လ္ၚဵု မပ္တံကဵု အရေဝ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်က္ဍုဟ်မၠေအ် (Hate speech)၊ ပရေင်ပလီုပလာ် ယၟု (Defamation)၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် အန္တရာယ် ဂီုကၠီု ဍုင် ရ။
လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ သၞောဝ် ဂၠးတိ၊ ပယျဵု အခေါင်အရာ၊ ကေုာံ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ခေတ် မဳဒဳယာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Article 19 UDHR.svg|thumb|right|300px|သင်္ကေတ ပိုဒ် ၁၉ နူကဵု လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ မထ္ၜး လဝ် အခေါင် သၠးပွး မဟီုတွံ ကေုာံ ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ" (Freedom of speech) ဂှ် ဒှ် အခေါင် မဟီု၊ မချူ၊ မပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လညာတ် ဇကု နကဵု ရုပ်၊ ရမ္သာင်၊ လိက်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကွတ်ပညာ နာနာ သာ် သီု ဟွံဒး ဒုင် ဆေဝ်ဒဝ် နူကဵု ညးတၞဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး အလဵုအသဳ ရ။
ဝေါဟာရ မွဲပၠန် မဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ဂှ် ဒှ် "အခေါင် သၠးပွး မပတိုန်ထ္ၜး" (Freedom of expression) ရ။ ဝေါဟာရ ဏအ် နွံ အဓိပ္ပါယ် လှဲလး နူကဵု အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ဓမ္မတာ တုဲ ဍေဟ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု ပရေင်ဂၠာဲ၊ ပရေင်ဒုင်ကေတ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပလံင် ဗစိုပ် တင်ဂၞင် ကေုာံ လညာတ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောဝ် ဂၠးတိ မ္ဂး၊ အခေါင် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒှ် အခေါင် မဒး နွံ လၟိုန် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် သၟေဟ် တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Origins) ==
လညာတ် ပရူ အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ဝွံ စတင် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် ဂရိတ် တြေံ (Ancient Greece) ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် အေတိန် (Athens)၊ ညးတအ် စကာ ဝေါဟာရ "ပါရေသဳယျာ" (Parrhesia) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ဟီုတွံ သီုဖအိုတ် သီု ဟွံမဲ ကု ပရေင်ဖေက်လကိုတ်" နဒဒှ် သဇိုင် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ဍုင် ညးတအ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဥရောပ ခေတ် ပညာ လျး (Enlightenment Age)၊ လညာတ် ဏအ် ထပ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ရ။
* '''ဂျောန် မဳလ်တောန် (John Milton):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၆၄၄ ညး ချူ လိက် ''Areopagitica'' မဒစးဒုင် သၞောဝ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လိက် (Licensing) ပ္ဍဲ အင်္ဂလာန်။
* '''[[ဂျောန် သတူးအာတ် မဳလ်]] (John Stuart Mill):''' ပ္ဍဲ လိက် ''On Liberty'' (၁၈၅၉) ညး ဟီုတွံ လဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လညာတ် မွဲမွဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပရေင်ပၠံင်ၜး အခေါင် မၞိဟ် သီုဖအိုတ် ရ၊ မုဟိုတ်ရောမ္ဂး လညာတ် မဒး ဒုင် ကၟာတ် ဂှ် မာန် ဒှ် လညာတ် ဍာံ (Truth) ရ။<ref name="mill">{{cite book |last=Mill |first=J. S. |title=On Liberty |publisher=John W. Parker and Son |year=1859 |pages=20-35}}</ref>
== ၃။ သၞောဝ် အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ (International Human Rights Law) ==
အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ လဝ် နကဵု လိက်ကသုက် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ် ဂၠးတိ အဓိက ဂမၠိုင် ရ။
# '''လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ (UDHR - 1948):''' ပိုဒ် ၁၉ ဟီုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ "ဇၟာပ် မၞိဟ် နွံ အခေါင် သၠးပွး မဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ကေုာံ ပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လညာတ်။"
# '''လိက်ကသုက် အခေါင်အရာ ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (ICCPR - 1966):''' ပိုဒ် ၁၉ (၂) ဂှ် ထပ် ပခိုင် ကဵု အခေါင် သၠးပွး မပတိုန်ထ္ၜး လညာတ် (Freedom of expression) တုဲ သီု ဟီုလဝ် ဒဒှ်ရ အခေါင် ဏအ် ဖြတ် ကၠောမ် ပယျဵု ဍုင် မာန် ရ။<ref name="udhr">{{cite web |author=United Nations |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |year=1948 |access-date=July 31, 2026}}</ref>
သၞောဝ် တအ် ဏအ် ဒှ် သဇိုင် သွက် ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ သွက်ဂွံ ချူ စုတ် အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် (Constitution) ဍုင် ညးတအ် ရ။
== ၄။ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ကေုာံ ပယျဵု အခေါင်အရာ (Limitations and Boundaries) ==
ၜိုန်ရ အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဟွံသေင် အခေါင် အလုံစုံ (Not absolute) ရ။ သၞောဝ် ဂၠးတိ (ICCPR ပိုဒ် ၁၉ (၃)) ကဵု အခေါင် ကု အလဵုအသဳ သွက်ဂွံ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အခေါင် ဏအ် ယဝ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဒး ကာကွယ် အခေါင်အရာ ညးတၞဟ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂီုကၠီု ဍုင် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ အရေဝ် မဒး ဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ပယျဵု
|-
! ဂကူ အရေဝ် (Type of Speech)
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ ဟိုတ် မဒး ကၟာတ်
! ဥပမာ
|-
| '''အရေဝ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်က္ဍုဟ်မၠေအ်''' (Hate Speech)
| အရေဝ် မဍဵုဍိုက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ဒးဒုင် က္ဍုဟ်မၠေအ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဂကူ၊ ဘာသာ၊ လိင်။
| ဟီုတွံ ညံင် ဂွံ ဂစိုတ် ဂကူ မွဲမွဲ။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ပလီုပလာ် ယၟု''' (Defamation/Libel)
| အရေဝ် ဍာံဟွံသေင် မပကဵု ညံင် စရာဲ ကေုာံ ယၟု ညးတၞဟ် ဂွံ လီုလာ်။
| ချူ လိက် မုသာ လတူ သတင်းစာ ညံင် ပူဂိုလ် မွဲ ဂွံ ဒးဒုင် ဍဵုဍိုက်။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် အန္တရာယ်''' (Incitement to Violence)
| အရေဝ် မစန်ဒက် ညံင် မၞိဟ် တအ် ဂွံ ကၠောန် ပရေင်ပကီုပရာပ် ဓမ္မတာ (Imminent lawless action)။
| ကော် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ညံင် ဂွံ စံင် ရုင် အလဵုအသဳ လၟုဟ်။
|-
| '''ဂီုကၠီု ဍုင်''' (National Security)
| တင်ဂၞင် ဓလုက် ဍုင် မယဝ်ရ တိတ် အာ မ္ဂး မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် အန္တရာယ် ကု ဍုင်။
| ပတိတ် စရင် ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ လွဟ် ဓလုက် ဍုင် ကု သၞ။
|}
<ref name="feldman">{{cite book |last=Feldman |first=D. |title=Civil Liberties and Human Rights in England and Wales |url=https://archive.org/details/civillibertieshu02ed00feld |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/civillibertieshu02ed00feld/page/750 750]-760}}</ref>
== ၅။ အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Freedom of Speech and Politics) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု သၞောတ် '''[[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]]''' (Democracy) မ္ဂး၊ အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ဝွံ ဒှ် "ကျာ လမျီု" ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဟွံမဲ အခေါင် ဟီု ပါ်ပဲါ အလဵုအသဳ မ္ဂး၊ သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မာန် လီုလာ် အာ ပြဟ် ရ။
* '''အခေါင် ပါ်ပဲါ (Right to Criticize):''' ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဒး နွံ အခေါင် ပါ်ပဲါ ကမၠောန် အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် သီု ဟွံဒး ဒုင် ဖျေဟ် ထံင်။
* '''အခေါင် ဒစးဒုင် (Right to Dissent):''' ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် (Peaceful protest) ဂှ် ဒှ် အခေါင် သၠးပွး မပတိုန်ထ္ၜး မွဲ ဂကူ ရ။ သၞောတ် တၠအာဏာ (Authoritarianism) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အခေါင် ဏအ် သွက်ဂွံ မင်မဲ အဝဵု ဇကု ရ။
== ၆။ အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ကေုာံ မဳဒဳယာ (Freedom of Speech and Media) ==
အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ကေုာံ '''အခေါင် မဳဒဳယာ''' (Freedom of the press) ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ရေင်သကအ် ဇြိုဟ်နက် ရ။ မဳဒဳယာ ကေုာံ ညးပရိုင် တအ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မစၟတ်မင် (Watchdog) အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ကုမ္ပဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် ရ။
ယဝ်ရ အလဵုအသဳ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု မဳဒဳယာ (Censorship of the press) မ္ဂး၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဟွံဂွံ တီ တင်ဂၞင် ဍာံ ကေုာံ ပရေင်အဂတိ (Corruption) မကတဵုဒှ် ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ရ။ ဂကောံ မပ္တံကဵု ရဲပရိုင် ဟွံမဲ ကု ပယျဵု (Reporters Without Borders) တအ် ပတိတ် ဒၟံင် စရင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ အခေါင် မဳဒဳယာ ဂၠးတိ (World Press Freedom Index) ဇၟာပ် သၞာံ သွက်ဂွံ ထ္ၜး အကာဲအရာ အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် နာနာ သာ် ရ။
== ၇။ ခေတ် အင်တာနက် ကေုာံ မဳဒဳယာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Internet Age and Social Media) ==
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ '''[[အင်တာနက်]]''' (Internet) ကေုာံ '''ဆိုရှယ် မဳဒဳယာ''' (Social media) မပ္တံကဵု ဖေ့စ်ဘုတ် (Facebook)၊ တွစ်တာ/X (Twitter/X) တအ် ပြံင်လှာဲ ထောအ် ဗီုပြင် ပရေင်ဟီုတွံ အလုံစုံ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်လောဲသွာ (Accessibility):''' မၞိဟ် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် တၠ မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ကေုာံ တြး ပတိတ် လညာတ် ဇကု ကု ဂၠးတိ ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် မွဲ ခဏ ဓဝ်။
* '''ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု တၟိ (New Censorship):''' အလဵုအသဳ လ္ၚဵု စကာ နည်းပညာ သွက်ဂွံ ကၟာတ် အင်တာနက် (Internet blackout) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဝပ်သာ် မဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု ညးတအ် (ဥပမာ - သၞောတ် Great Firewall ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ကြုက်)။
* '''အဝဵု ကုမ္ပဏဳ (Corporate Power):''' ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ဏအ်၊ ကုမ္ပဏဳ ပုဂ္ဂလိက ဇၞော်ဇၞော် (Tech giants) တအ် နွံ အာဏာ ဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ဒဒှ်ရ အရေဝ် လဵု ဟီု ဂွံ၊ အရေဝ် လဵု ဒး ဒုင် ပလီု ထောအ် (Content moderation) ရ။<ref name="ash">{{cite book |last=Ash |first=T. G. |title=Free Speech: Ten Principles for a Connected World |url=https://archive.org/details/freespeechtenpri0000gart |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2016 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/freespeechtenpri0000gart/page/105 105]-120}}</ref>
== ၈။ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တ္ၚဲဏအ် (Challenges and Issues in the Modern Era) ==
ၜိုန်ရ အင်တာနက် ကဵု အခေါင် လှဲလး ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပြသၞာ တၟိ တၟိ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် -
# '''ပရိုင် ဍာံဟွံသေင် (Fake News / Disinformation):''' ပရေင်တြး ပရိုင် မုသာ သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်ကလိုက်ကမဵု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပြံင်လှာဲ ပရေင်မဲ ရုဲစှ်။
# '''Cancel Culture (ယေန်သၞာင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပူဂိုလ်):''' ယဝ်ရ ပူဂိုလ် မွဲ ဟီု အရေဝ် ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု လညာတ် ဂကောံ မၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မ္ဂး၊ ညးဂှ် မာန် ဒး ဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု နူကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Ostracism) ကေုာံ ဒး ဒတုံ လာ် ကမၠောန် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ပြသၞာ သွက် အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ပ္ဍဲ အဆံင် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ရ။
# '''Deepfakes (ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် မုသာ):''' စကာ ဉာဏ်စက် (AI) သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ရုပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရမ္သာင် ပူဂိုလ် မွဲ ညံင် ဂွံ တုပ် ဍာံဍာံ တုဲ ပလီုပလာ် ယၟု ညးတအ်။
== ၉။ အကာဲအရာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်နာနာ (Situation in Different Countries/Regions) ==
အကာဲအရာ အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ဝွံ ဟွံတုပ် ရေင်သကအ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ -
* '''ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်:''' နွံကဵု သၞောဝ် ပလေဝ်ပလေတ် ပထမ (First Amendment) မကဵု အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ဗွဲမလှဲလး အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ။ အရေဝ် က္ဍုဟ်မၠေအ် (Hate speech) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် လေဝ် ဂွံ ဒုင် စဵုဒၞာ လဝ် နကဵု သၞောဝ် ဏအ် ရ (ယဝ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဟွံဖန်ဗဒှ် အန္တရာယ် ဓမ္မတာ)။
* '''ရးဥရောပ:''' ကဵု အခေါင် သၠးပွး ကီုလေဝ်၊ ညးတအ် နွံ သၞောဝ် မတဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု အရေဝ် က္ဍုဟ်မၠေအ် တေင်တေင် ကြပ်ကြပ် ရ (ဥပမာ - ဍုင်ဂျာမနဳ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လညာတ် မထံက်ဂလာန် နာဇြဳ)။
* '''ဍုင်တၠအာဏာ:''' မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ ရုရှာ၊ မြန်မာ၊ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာ သၟဝ်ကျာ တအ် ဂှ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ဇြိုဟ်နက် တုဲ၊ မၞိဟ် မပါ်ပဲါ အလဵုအသဳ တအ် ဒး ဒုင် ဖျေဟ် ထံင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒး ဒုင် ဂစိုတ် မာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ဝွံ ဒှ် "ဇုတ်" သွက် လညာတ် သၠးပွး၊ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် တီထွင်၊ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မွဲ ရ။ သီု ဟွံမဲ ကု အခေါင် ဏအ် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ခိုဟ်ဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် ဟွံမာန် ပုဟ်။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ ပေါဲဗတိုက် သွက် အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ ဝွံ သ္ဒး ဆက် အာ လတူ လေဟာပြင် အင်တာနက် (Digital space) ရောင်။ ပရေင်ပညဳပညပ် အကြာ ပရေင်မင်မဲ သၠးပွး လညာတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် နူကဵု ပရိုင် မုသာ ကေုာံ အရေဝ် က္ဍုဟ်မၠေအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ပြသၞာ အဓိက သွက် အလဵုအသဳ၊ ကုမ္ပဏဳ နည်းပညာ၊ ကေုာံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် သ္ဒး ဖြေစှ် မွဲစွံ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human rights)
* [[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy)
* [[ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု]] (Censorship)
* [[ဆိုရှယ် မဳဒဳယာ]] (Social media)
* [[လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ]] (Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
{{Navbox
| name = Human Rights
| title = အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်သၠးပွး (Human Rights and Civil Liberties)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = အခေါင်အရာ သဇိုင်ဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[အခေါင် ဟီုတွံ]] (Freedom of speech)
* [[အခေါင် လျိုင်ပတှ်ေ]] (Freedom of religion)
* [[အခေါင် ကောံသၟဟ်]] (Freedom of assembly)
* [[အခေါင် မဳဒဳယာ]] (Freedom of the press)
| group2 = လိက်ကသုက် ကေုာံ သၞောဝ်
| list2 =
* [[လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ]] (UDHR)
* [[လိက်ကသုက် အခေါင်အရာ ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်]] (ICCPR)
* [[သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင်]] (Constitution)
| group3 = ပြသၞာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆေဝ်ဒဝ်
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု]] (Censorship)
* [[အရေဝ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်က္ဍုဟ်မၠေအ်]] (Hate speech)
* [[ပရေင်ပလီုပလာ် ယၟု]] (Defamation)
* [[ပရိုင် ဍာံဟွံသေင်]] (Fake news)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy)
* [[ကုလသမဂ္ဂ]] (United Nations)
* [[ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]] (Politics)
}}
[[Category:အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]]
[[Category:ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]]
[[Category:သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
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ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု
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'''ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Censorship'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၞောတ် မပလီုပလာ်၊ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု၊ ထိင်ဒဝ်၊ ကေုာံ လ္ၚတ် သ္ၚေဝ်စၟတ် လတူ လိက်ပတ်၊ ရမ္သာင် ဟီုဂး၊ ပရေင်စၞောန်ထ္ၜး ကေုာံ တင်ဂၞင် ပရိုင် နာနာ မပတိတ် ထ္ၜး ကု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ရ။ ပရေင်ဏအ်ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူ လညာတ် ဒဒှ်ရ တင်ဂၞင် လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဂှ် မာန် ကဵု အန္တရာယ် (Harmful)၊ ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု စံပၞောန် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Objectionable)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု ဒ္ဂေတ် လၟေင် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကေုာံ သာသနာ တအ် ရ။
ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မလေပ် ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် နူကဵု အလဵုအသဳ ဍုင်၊ အေန်သတဳကျူရှေန် သာသနာ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ ကမ္မဏဳ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် လညာတ် ကေုာံ စိုတ်ဓါတ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မ္ဂး '''[[အခေါင်ဟီုဂး ဗၠးၜး]]''' (Freedom of speech) ဂှ် ဒှ် အခေါင်အရာ သဇိုင် မွဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အပိုင်အခြာ (ဥပမာ - ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လိက် ရာဇဝတ် ကောန်ၚာ်၊ တင်ဂၞင် ကေက်သကာ) ဂှ် ဆက် နွံ ဒၟံင် ဏီ ရ။<ref name="newth">{{cite book |last=Newth |first=M. |title=The Long History of Censorship |publisher=Beacon Press |year=2010 |pages=15-28}}</ref>
လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ တင်ရန်တၟအ်၊ နဲကဲ မစကာ၊ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် အင်တာနက် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Censorship_symbol.svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် သင်္ကေတ မထ္ၜး ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ရမ္သာင် ကေုာံ အခေါင်ဟီုဂး မဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လဝ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု" (Censorship) ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ မလိက် လာတ္တေန် "censor" မဒှ် ယၟု အရာဝုတ် ရဝ်မ တြေံ ညးမနွံ တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ စရင် မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ မင်မဲ ဒ္ဂေတ် သိက္ခာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Public morality) ရ။
နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ခေတ်တၟိ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မကၟာတ် ပလီု ထောအ် ပရိုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကပေါတ် ရုပ်ဝတ္ထု မပ္တံကဵု လိက်အုပ်၊ ပရိုင် ဂျာနေဝ်၊ ရုပ်ဒမျိုင်၊ ကေုာံ လိက် လတူ အင်တာနက် မဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု ပၟိက်ဆန္ဒ တၠအာဏာ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၞောတ် အုပ်ဓုပ် မွဲမွဲ ရ။ တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက ဂှ် သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ညံင် လညာတ် မဒစးဒုင် (Dissenting views) တအ် ဟွံဂွံ ပြးဇး အာ ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Evolution) ==
ဝင် ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် မွဲစွံ ကု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဍုင် ကွာန် ရ -
* '''ခေတ် တမၠာ (Ancient Times):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဂရိတ် (Greece)၊ တၠပညာ သဝ်ကရေတ် (Socrates) ဒးဒုင် ဖျေဟ် ဒုဟ် ဂစိုတ် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ညး ဟီုဂး လညာတ် ဒဿန မပလီုပလာ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် သၟတ် တအ် ရ (၃၉၉ ဘဳသဳ)။
* '''ခေတ် လဒေါဝ် ကေုာံ ခေတ် စက် ပတိတ် လိက် (Middle Ages and Printing Press):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၄၄၀၊ ကြဴနူ ယဝ်ဟာန် ဂူတေန်ဗာက် (Johannes Gutenberg) ခၞံဗဒှ် စက် ပတိတ် လိက် (Printing press) တုဲ၊ လိက်ပတ် တအ် ပြးဇး အာ ပြဟ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ သာသနာ ကာတ္တလေတ် ရဝ်မ (Catholic Church) တအ် ဖေက် အာဏာ ညးတအ် လီု တုဲ ပတိတ် လိက်စရင် '''အေန်ဒက် လဳဗရဝ်ရမ် ပရဝ်ဟဳဗဳတဝ်ရမ်''' (Index Librorum Prohibitorum) မဒှ် စရင် လိက် မဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ရ။<ref name="oboler">{{cite book |last=Oboler |first=E. M. |title=Defending Intellectual Freedom: The Library and the Censor |url=https://archive.org/details/defendingintelle00elim |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1981 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/defendingintelle00elim/page/45 45]-56}}</ref>
* '''ခေတ် ၜါစှ် ဗွဝ်ကၠံ (20th Century):''' သၞောတ် တၠအာဏာ မပ္တံကဵု နာဇြဳ ဂျာမနဳ (Nazi Germany) ကေုာံ သဵုဗိယေတ် (Soviet Union) တအ် စကာ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု နဒဒှ် လွဟ် မဟာဗျူဟာ သွက်ဂွံ ထိင် လညာတ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် အလုံ ဍုင် (Totalitarianism) ရ။ ညးတအ် စံင် ပလီု လိက်၊ ဖျေဟ် ထံင် အစာ ချူ လိက် တအ် ရ။
== ၃။ ဟိုတ် ကေုာံ တင်ရန်တၟအ် (Motivations and Objectives) ==
ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူ တင်ရန်တၟအ် အဓိက နာနာ သာ် ရ -
# '''ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ဍုင် (National Security):''' ဍုင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု တင်ဂၞင် ပၞာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရေင်တၠုင် လိက် ပရိုင် မဆက်စပ် ကု ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ သွက်ဂွံ ဝေင်ပါဲ ပရေင်ထကးပြး ကေုာံ ဘဲ သၞ။
# '''ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် စိုတ်ဓါတ် (Moral Control):''' သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ကောန်ၚာ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် နူကဵု တင်ဂၞင် မပ္တံကဵု ဒ္ဂေတ် လိင် (Pornography)၊ ပရေင်ပကီုပရာပ် (Violence)၊ ကေုာံ ရာဇဝတ်။
# '''ပရေင်မင်မဲ သာသနာ (Religious Protection):''' ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ဟီု ပလီုပလာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒစးဒုင် ကု သာသနာ (Blasphemy)။
# '''ပရေင်မင်မွဲ အာဏာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Political Power):''' ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် ဟိုတ် မစကာ ဂၠိုင် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် အလဵုအသဳ တၠအာဏာ သွက်ဂွံ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လညာတ် မဒစးဒုင် (Opposition) တုဲ မင်မဲ အာဏာ ဇကု လအ်လ ရ။
== ၄။ ဂကူ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵုဂမၠိုင် (Types of Censorship) ==
ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် နကဵု ဂကူ အဓိက ၄ သာ် အတိုင် ဗွဲသၟဝ် ဏအ် ရ -
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ (Type)
! ပွံက် ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်
! ဥပမာ
|-
| '''ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်''' (Political Censorship)
| အလဵုအသဳ မကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပရိုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လညာတ် မမာန် ပကဵု ညံင် အာဏာ ညးတအ် ဂွံ ဍိုန်လျ။ လညာတ် မဒစးဒုင် သီုဖအိုတ် ဒးဒုင် ပလီု။
| ကၟာတ် မဳဒဳယာ၊ ဖျေဟ် ထံင် အစာ ပရိုင် မဟီု ဒုဟ် အလဵုအသဳ (ဥပမာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ကြုက်၊ ဍုင်ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာ သၟဝ်ကျာ)။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု သာသနာ''' (Religious Censorship)
| ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ကပေါတ် မဒစးဒုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟွံရှ်ေသှ်ေ ကု လညာတ် သာသနာ မွဲမွဲ။
| လိက် စရင် ပလီု သာသနာ (Index Librorum Prohibitorum)၊ ပရေင်ဖျေဟ် ဒုဟ် မၞိဟ် မဟီု ပလီု ကျာ်။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု သိက္ခာ''' (Moral Censorship)
| ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ရုပ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လိက် မဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု စံပၞောန် သိက္ခာ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် မွဲမွဲ။
| ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လိက် ရုပ် အဝဲ လိင် (Pornography)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရုပ်ဒမျိုင် မနွံကဵု ဆီ စှ်ေ သ္ကာတ်မြဟ်။
|-
| '''ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ကမ္မဏဳ''' (Corporate Censorship)
| ဂကောံ ကမ္မဏဳ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ညးမပိုင် မဳဒဳယာ တအ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပရိုင် မမာန် ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ညးတအ် ဂွံ လီုလာ်။
| ကုမ္ပဏဳ ပရိုင် ဟွံချူ လိက် ပရိုင် မဒစးဒုင် ကု ကုမ္ပဏဳ မကဵု သြန် သွက် ကြော်ငြာ (Advertisers)။
|}
== ၅။ နဲကဲ ကေုာံ လၟေင်ကမၠောန် (Methods and Mechanisms) ==
နဲကဲ မစကာ ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဝွံ နွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်၊ တုဲ ဍေဟ် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ အတိုင် ခေတ် နည်းပညာ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်သ္ၚေဝ်စၟတ် ကၠာ ဟွံပတိတ် (Pre-publication Censorship):''' လိက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရိုင် သီုဖအိုတ် သ္ဒး ဒုင် သ္ၚေဝ်စၟတ် နူ ဌာန အလဵုအသဳ ကၠာ ဟွံဂွံ တက် တြး။
* '''ပရေင်ဖျေဟ် ဒုဟ် လက္ကရဴ (Post-publication Punishment):''' ပတိတ် လိက် အခေါင် နွံ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ယဝ်ရ လိက် ဂှ် ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ မ္ဂး ညးမချူ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ညးမပတိတ် ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် ဖျေဟ် ထံင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒး ကဵု သြန် ဒဏ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အလဵုဇကု (Self-Censorship):''' ဏအ်ဂှ် ဒှ် နဲကဲ မဖေက်ဂၟံက် အိုတ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဖေက် ဘဲ ဒဏ် အလဵုအသဳ၊ အစာ ချူ လိက်၊ အစာ ပရိုင်၊ ကေုာံ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် အလဵုဇကု ညးတအ် ထိင်ဒဝ် ထောအ် ဟွံချူ ဟွံဟီု ပရူ မဆက်စပ် ကု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရူ မသ္ကာတ်မြဟ် ရ။<ref name="pech">{{cite journal |last=Pech |first=G. |title=Censorship and Freedom of Expression in the Modern Era |journal=Journal of Political Philosophy |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=301-320 |year=2020}}</ref>
== ၆။ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် အင်တာနက် (Internet Censorship) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဏအ်၊ အင်တာနက် (Internet) ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မပြးဇး လညာတ် ပြဟ် အိုတ် တုဲ၊ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု လတူ အင်တာနက် လေဝ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကီု ရ။
* '''မဟာ တိုင် ဍုင်ကြုက် (Great Firewall of China):''' ဍုင်ကြုက် ဒှ် ဍုင် မနွံကဵု သၞောတ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အင်တာနက် မခိုင်ကၠိုက် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ညးတအ် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဝက်ပ်သာက် (Websites) ညးဍုင်သ္အာင် မပ္တံကဵု Facebook, Google, YouTube ကေုာံ Wikipedia လ္ၚဵု တအ် ရ။
* '''နဲကဲ အင်တာနက်:''' အလဵုအသဳ တအ် စကာ နဲကဲ မပ္တံကဵု IP Blocking, DNS filtering, ကေုာံ Deep Packet Inspection သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်မင် ကေုာံ ကၟာတ် ထောအ် မလိက် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး လိက်ပရိုင် မဒစးဒုင် ညးတအ် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပလီု အဆက် (Internet Shutdowns):''' ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ပရေင်ကလိုက်ကမဵု ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပရေင်ထ္ၜးဆန္ဒ၊ အလဵုအသဳ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဖြတ် ထောအ် လာင် အင်တာနက် အလုံ ဍုင် သွက်ဂွံ ဝေင်ပါဲ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ရ။<ref name="deibert">{{cite book |last=Deibert |first=R. |author2=Palfrey, J. |author3=Rohozinski, R. |author4=Zittrain, J. |title=Access Controlled: The Shaping of Power, Rights, and Rule in Cyberspace |publisher=MIT Press |year=2010 |pages=105-120}}</ref>
== ၇။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Impact on Society and Politics) ==
ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဝွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ဆောမ်လေင် သုတ (Loss of Knowledge):''' ကာလ လိက် ကေုာံ လညာတ် တအ် ဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု မ္ဂး၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဟွံကလိဂွံ တင်ဂၞင် မဍာံပြ တုဲ လညာတ် ဗ္တောန် ပညာ ညးတအ် က္ဍန် အာ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ထိင် ပရိုင် ဍုင် (Control of Narrative):''' အလဵုအသဳ တၠအာဏာ တအ် စကာ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု တုဲ ပတိတ် ဆ ပရိုင် မခိုဟ် သွက် ညးတအ် သၟး (Propaganda) ရ။ ဏအ် ပကဵု ညံင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဂွံ ကၠိုဟ် ဗၠေတ် လတူ အကာဲအရာ ဂၠးတိ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် ဟွံမဲ (Lack of Accountability):''' ကာလ မဳဒဳယာ တအ် စၟတ်စောဲ ဟွံမာန် မ္ဂး၊ ပရေင်အဂတိ (Corruption) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ရပ်စပ် အာဏာ ဗၠေတ်ဗၠေတ် တအ် ကတဵုဒှ် ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ။
== ၈။ အခေါင်အရာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ် (Human Rights and Resistance) ==
အတိုင် လိက်လလောင်တြး အခေါင်အရာ ကောန်မၞိဟ် ဂၠးတိ (Universal Declaration of Human Rights) ပိုဒ် ၁၉ မ္ဂး၊ '''"ဇၟာပ် မၞိဟ် နွံ အခေါင် သၠးပွး သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ် လညာတ် ကေုာံ ဟီုဂး ဗၠးၜး"''' ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု (ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်) ဝွံ ဒှ် ပရေင်ပလီုပလာ် အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ် သဇိုင် ရ။
သွက်ဂွံ တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဂှ်၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် နဲကဲ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
* '''VPN ကေုာံ Tor:''' ပ္ဍဲ အင်တာနက်၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် စကာ VPN (Virtual Private Network) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သၞောတ် Tor သွက်ဂွံ အောပ်ဗလး ဒၞာဲ ဇကု တုဲ တတ် ကၠောမ် အာ မဟာ တိုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု တအ် မာန် ရ။
* '''သာဲမီဒတ် (Samizdat):''' ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် သဵုဗိယေတ်၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ကၠတ် တက် လိက် မဒးဒုင် ကၟာတ်လဒဵု တုဲ တြး အကြာ ညးမွဲ ကု ညးမွဲ ဗွဲမဓလုက် ရ။
== ၉။ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသနာနာ (Censorship Around the World) ==
အကာဲအရာ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဝွံ ဟွံတုပ် ရေင်သကအ် အတိုင် ဒေသ ကေုာံ သၞောတ် ဍုင် တအ် ရ -
* '''ဍုင် တၠအာဏာဂမၠိုင် (Authoritarian Regimes):''' မပ္တံကဵု ဍုင်ကိုဝ်ရဳယျာ သၟဝ်ကျာ (North Korea)၊ ဍုင်အဳရာန် (Iran)၊ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ကြုက် တအ် ဂှ် ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု နွံ သၠုင် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ အလဵုအသဳ ပိုင်ပြဳ မဳဒဳယာ သီုဖအိုတ် တုဲ ကၟာတ် လာင် အင်တာနက် နူ ဂၠးတိမ္ၚး ရ။
* '''ဍုင် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳဂမၠိုင် (Democratic Regimes):''' ဍုင် မပ္တံကဵု အမေရိကာန်၊ ရးဥရောပ တအ် ဂှ် အခေါင်ဟီုဂး ဗၠးၜး နွံ သၠုင် ရ။ ဆဂး ညးတအ် လေဝ် နွံ ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အပိုင်အခြာ သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ ရာဇဝတ် မပ္တံကဵု လိက် ဟီု ပကဵု ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ပေါဲဗတိုက် (Hate speech) ကေုာံ ပရေင်လီုလာ် ကောန်ၚာ် တအ် ရ။<ref name="macam">{{cite book |last=Macam |first=J. |title=Internet Censorship and Freedom of Speech |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |pages=150-165}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဝွံ ဒှ် ပေါဲပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် အကြာ လညာတ် မဒး လွဳလွတ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဗၠးၜး (Freedom of information) ကေုာံ အာဏာ မမိက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ် (Control) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ နကဵု နည်းပညာ ဉာဏ်စက် (AI)၊ အလဵုအသဳ တအ် မာန် ကၠောန် ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု မပြဟ် ကေုာံ တီ ကၠိုဟ် ဇြိုဟ်နက် (Automated censorship) လတူ မဳဒဳယာ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် မာန် ရ။ ဆဂး ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် ပြန် မ္ဂး လညာတ် တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု ဗလံက်ချေန် (Blockchain) ကေုာံ ဝက်ပ် ၃.၀ (Web 3.0) တအ် လေဝ် မာန် ဖန်ဗဒှ် သၞောတ် မဟွံမဲ ကု တၠအာဏာ လဒေါဝ် (Decentralization) တုဲ ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ဂွံ ဝါတ်ဂါတ် တိုန် ဗွဲမလောန် မာန် ရောင်။ ၜိုန်ရ နည်းပညာ ပြံင်လှာဲ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပေါဲဗတိုက် သွက် အခေါင်ဟီုဂး ဗၠးၜး ဂှ် သ္ဒး ဆက် တန်တဴ အာ ဒၟံင် လၟိုန် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human rights)
* [[ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ]] (Democracy)
* [[ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]] (Politics)
* [[ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အင်တာနက်]] (Internet censorship)
* [[အခေါင်ဟီုဂး ဗၠးၜး]] (Freedom of speech)
{{Navbox
| name = Censorship and Freedom
| title = ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ကေုာံ အခေါင်ဟီုဂး ဗၠးၜး (Censorship and Freedom of Speech)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သဇိုင် လညာတ်
| list1 =
* [[ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု]] (Censorship)
* [[အခေါင်ဟီုဂး ဗၠးၜး]] (Freedom of speech)
* [[အခေါင်အရာ မၞိဟ်]] (Human rights)
* [[ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အလဵုဇကု]] (Self-censorship)
| group2 = နဲကဲ ကေုာံ လၟေင်ကမၠောန်
| list2 =
* [[ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု အင်တာနက်]] (Internet censorship)
* [[မဟာ တိုင် ဍုင်ကြုက်]] (Great Firewall)
* [[ပရေင်ပလီု အဆက်]] (Internet shutdown)
* [[ပရေင်ထိင် ပရိုင် ဍုင်]] (Propaganda)
| group3 = ဂကူ မကၟာတ်လဒဵု
| list3 =
* [[ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]] (Political censorship)
* [[ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု သာသနာ]] (Religious censorship)
* [[ပရေင်ကၟာတ်လဒဵု ကမ္မဏဳ]] (Corporate censorship)
* [[ရုပ် အဝဲ လိင်]] (Pornography)
| group4 = ပရေင်တဝ်စၞေဟ်
| list4 =
* [[ဗွဳပဳအေန်]] (VPN)
* [[သၞောတ် တောရ်]] (Tor network)
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ကောန်ဂရေတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်
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'''ကောန်ဂရေတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''United States Congress'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အာဏာ ပတန်သၞောဝ် (Legislature) မသၠုင် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု အလဵုအသဳ ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ရ။ ဍေဟ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု သၞောတ် စၠတ်ဓရ် ၜါ (Bicameral legislature) မပါလုပ် သီုကဵု '''စၠတ်ဓရ် သၟဝ်''' မကော်စ စၠတ်ဓရ် မၞိဟ်စၞး (House of Representatives) ကေုာံ '''စၠတ်ဓရ် သၠုင်''' မကော်စ သဳနိတ် (Senate) ရ။ ကောန်ဂရေတ် ဝွံ ကောံသၟဟ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ရုင် ကပ်ပဳတဝ် (United States Capitol) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဝါရှင်တန် ဒဳသဳ (Washington, D.C.) ရ။<ref name="constitution">{{cite book |author=Founding Fathers |title=United States Constitution, Article I |publisher=National Archives |year=1787 |pages=1-5}}</ref>
အတိုင် ပိုဒ် (၁) သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် အမေရိကာန် မ္ဂး၊ အာဏာ ပတန်သၞောဝ် အလုံစုံ ပ္ဍဲ အလဵုအသဳ ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် ဂှ် သ္ဒး ပြာပ် ကဵု လဝ် ကောန်ဂရေတ် ဏအ် ရ။ ကောန်ဂရေတ် နွံ တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ချူ ဖျေဟ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဍုင်၊ ပတန် စရင်သြန် ကံက် အခေါန် (Power of the purse)၊ လလောင်တြး ပၞာန်၊ ကေုာံ စၟတ်မင် ထိင်ဒဝ် ကမၠောန် အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ် မဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ သမ္မတ တအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ကောန်ဂရေတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန် စၠတ်ဓရ် ၜါ၊ လၟေင် ကမၠောန်၊ သၞောတ် ကမ္မတဳ ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:United States Capitol west front edit2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ရုင် ကပ်ပဳတဝ် (United States Capitol) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဝါရှင်တန် ဒဳသဳ၊ မဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ကောန်ဂရေတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ကောံသၟဟ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ကောန်ဂရေတ်" ဝွံ ဒှ် ဗဟဵု အာဏာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ အမေရိကာန် ရ။ မၞိဟ်စၞး ပ္ဍဲ ကောန်ဂရေတ် သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ရုဲစှ် တိုက်ရိုက် နကဵု မဲ ရ။ စၠတ်ဓရ် မၞိဟ်စၞး (House) ဂှ် နွံ မၞိဟ် ၄၃၅ တၠ တုဲ၊ ရုဲစှ် လဝ် အတိုင် လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် ပ္ဍဲ တွဵုရး (State) ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် တွဵုရး ရ။ သဳနိတ် (Senate) ဂှ် နွံ မၞိဟ် ၁၀၀ တၠ တုဲ၊ ရုဲစှ် လဝ် နကဵု မၞိဟ်စၞး ၂ တၠ သွက် မွဲ တွဵုရး အတိုင် သၞောတ် မတုပ်သၟဟ် ရ။
နကဵု ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ်၊ ကောန်ဂရေတ် ဏအ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ သဳကၠဳ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် မဇၞော် အိုတ် မွဲ မာန် ဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် ပရူ မဆက်စပ် ကု ဘဝ ကောန်ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် သီုဖအိုတ် မပ္တံကဵု ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ၊ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက်၊ ကေုာံ သၞောဝ် ရာဇဝတ် တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Origins) ==
လဒက်ပတန် ကောန်ဂရေတ် အမေရိကာန် ဝွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ် ပရေင်ပၠန်ဂတး အမေရိကာန် (American Revolution) တေအ် ရ။
* '''ကောန်ဂရေတ် ကောန်တဳနိန်တယ် (Continental Congress):''' ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၇၇၄ ကဵု ၁၇၇၅၊ မၞိဟ်စၞး နူကဵု ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ၁၃ တအ် ကောံသၟဟ် တုဲ လလောင်တြး သၠးပွး နူ အင်္ဂလာန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ကောန်နက်တဳကတ် (The Great Compromise / Connecticut Compromise - 1787):''' ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲကောံသၟဟ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် (Constitutional Convention) ဂှ်၊ တွဵုရး ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် မိက်ဂွံ ဂွံ မၞိဟ်စၞး ဂၠိုင် အတိုင် လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် ဍုင် ညးတအ် ရ။ တွဵုရး ဍောတ်ဍောတ် တအ် မိက်ဂွံ ဂွံ မၞိဟ်စၞး တုပ်သၟဟ် ရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ၊ ညးတအ် ပသောင် ပြသၞာ နကဵု သၞောတ် စၠတ်ဓရ် ၜါ - စၠတ်ဓရ် သၟဝ် ဂှ် သွက် လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ်၊ တုဲ စၠတ်ဓရ် သၠုင် ဂှ် သွက် တွဵုရး သီုဖအိုတ် ဂွံ အခေါင် တုပ်သၟဟ် ရ။<ref name="baker">{{cite book |last=Baker |first=R. K. |title=House and Senate |url=https://archive.org/details/housesenate0000bake |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2008 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/housesenate0000bake/page/45 45]-60}}</ref>
== ၃။ လဒက်ပတန် စၠတ်ဓရ် ၜါ (Bicameral Structure: Senate and House) ==
ကောန်ဂရေတ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု စၠတ်ဓရ် ၜါ မနွံ လဒက်ပတန်၊ အာယုက် ကေုာံ တာလျိုင် တၞဟ်ခြာ ရေင်သကအ် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ အကြာ စၠတ်ဓရ် မၞိဟ်စၞး ကေုာံ သဳနိတ်
|-
! အင်္ဂလက္ခဏာ (Feature)
! စၠတ်ဓရ် မၞိဟ်စၞး (House of Representatives)
! သဳနိတ် / စၠတ်ဓရ် သၠုင် (Senate)
|-
| '''လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ်စၞး'''
| ၄၃၅ တၠ (အတိုင် လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် တွဵုရး)
| ၁၀၀ တၠ (၂ တၠ သွက် ၁ တွဵုရး)
|-
| '''အာယုက် (Term length)'''
| ၂ သၞာံ
| ၆ သၞာံ (ဇၟာပ် ၂ သၞာံ ရုဲစှ် တၟိ ၃ ပုံ ၁ ပုံ)
|-
| '''အာယုက် အောန်အိုတ်'''
| ၂၅ သၞာံ
| ၃၀ သၞာံ
|-
| '''တာလျိုင် တၟေင် (Special powers)'''
| စတင် လိက်ကသုက် ဆေင်ကဵု သြန်အခေါန် (Revenue bills)၊ ပတိုန် ဒုဟ် (Impeach) အရာဝုတ် ဍုင်။
| စၟတ်သမ္တီ ပရေင်ခါန်ကၞက် သမ္မတ (Confirm appointments)၊ စၟတ်သမ္တီ လိက်ကသုက် (Treaties)၊ ရုံးတင် ဖျေဟ်ဒုဟ် မၞိဟ်ဒးဒုင် ပတိုန် ဒုဟ်။
|}
== ၄။ အာဏာ ကေုာံ တာလျိုင် အဓိကဂမၠိုင် (Powers and Main Functions) ==
အတိုင် ပိုဒ် (၁) အပိုဒ် (၈) ဍုင် အမေရိကာန် မ္ဂး၊ ကောန်ဂရေတ် နွံကဵု အာဏာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မကော်စ "Enumerated powers" ရ -
# '''ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ သြန် (Power of the Purse):''' ကောန်ဂရေတ် ဓဝ် ဟေင် နွံ အခေါင် ကံက် အခေါန် ကေုာံ ပတန် စရင်သြန် အလဵုအသဳ (Budget) ရ။ သမ္မတ သ္ဒး အာတ် အခေါင် နူ ကောန်ဂရေတ် သွက်ဂွံ စကာ သြန် ဍုင်။
# '''ပရေင်လလောင်တြး ပၞာန် (Declaration of War):''' ၜိုန်ရ သမ္မတ ဒှ် ဂဥုပ် ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ကောန်ဂရေတ် ဓဝ် ဟေင် နွံ အာဏာ လလောင်တြး ပၞာန် ဍာံဍာံပြပြ ကု ဍုင်သ္အာင် ရ။
# '''ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ကမၠောန် သွံရာန် (Commerce Clause):''' ဖန်ဇန် သၞောဝ် ပရေင်သွံရာန် အကြာ တွဵုရး ကေုာံ ကု ဍုင်သ္အာင်။
# '''ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ကေုာံ စၟတ်စောဲ (Oversight and Investigation):''' ကောန်ဂရေတ် မာန် ကော် သၟာန်၊ စၟတ်စောဲ ကမၠောန် အလဵုအသဳ ညံင် ဟွံဂွံ ဗၠေတ် အာ နူ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ရ။<ref name="davidson">{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=R. H. |author2=Oleszek, W. J. |title=Congress and Its Members |url=https://archive.org/details/congressitsmembe0000davi_f4r3 |edition=16th |publisher=CQ Press |year=2017 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/congressitsmembe0000davi_f4r3/page/n42 15]-30}}</ref>
== ၅။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မဖျေဟ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ (The Legislative Process) ==
သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ သၞောဝ် မွဲ (From Bill to Law) ဂှ် ဍေဟ် သ္ဒး ဖြတ် အာ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် မဇြိုင်င် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
# '''ပရေင်ပတိုန် လိက်ကသုက် (Introduction):''' မၞိဟ်စၞး ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး သဳနိတ်တာ မွဲ ပတိုန် လိက်ကသုက် (Bill) ပ္ဍဲ စၠတ်ဓရ် ဇကု။
# '''အဆံင် ကမ္မတဳ (Committee Action):''' လိက်ကသုက် ဂှ် ပလံင် ဏာ ဇရေင် ကမ္မတဳ မဆေင်စပ် ရ။ ကမ္မတဳ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ်၊ ပလေဝ်ပလေတ် ကေုာံ ကဵု မဲ။ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် လိက်ကသုက် တအ် လီု အာ ပ္ဍဲ အဆံင် ဏအ် ရ။
# '''သဳကၠဳ ကေုာံ ကဵု မဲ (Floor Debate and Vote):''' စၠတ်ဓရ် အလုံစုံ သဳကၠဳ တုဲ ကဵု မဲ။ ယဝ်ရ အံင်ဇၞး မ္ဂး၊ ပလံင် ဏာ စၠတ်ဓရ် မွဲ လပါ် (ဥပမာ - နူ စၠတ်ဓရ် မၞိဟ်စၞး ပလံင် ဏာ သဳနိတ်)။
# '''ကမ္မတဳ ပံင်ကောံ (Conference Committee):''' ယဝ်ရ စၠတ်ဓရ် ၜါ ဖျေဟ် မူ (Version) ဟွံတုပ် မ္ဂး၊ ကမ္မတဳ ဏအ် ပံင်ကောံ တုဲ ပလေဝ် ညံင် ဂွံ တုပ် ရေင်သကအ် ရ။
# '''အာဏာ သမ္မတ (Presidential Action):''' သမ္မတ မာန် ထပက် စၟတ်တဲ (Sign) ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် သၞောဝ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး စကာ အာဏာ တးပါဲ (Veto) မာန် ရ။ (ယဝ်ရ သမ္မတ တးပါဲ မ္ဂး၊ ကောန်ဂရေတ် မာန် ကလေင် ပလီု ဝဳတဝ် ဂှ် ယဝ်ရ ကလိဂွံ မဲ ၃ ပုံ ၂ ပုံ ပ္ဍဲ စၠတ်ဓရ် ၜါ)။
== ၆။ သၞောတ် ကမ္မတဳဂမၠိုင် (The Committee System) ==
တၠပညာ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဂမၠိုင် ဟီု လဝ် "ကောန်ဂရေတ် ပ္ဍဲ စၠတ်ဓရ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ကောန်ဂရေတ် ထ္ၜး ပေါဲ၊ ဆဂး ကောန်ဂရေတ် ပ္ဍဲ ကမ္မတဳ ဂှ် ဒှ် ကောန်ဂရေတ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန်" ရ။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် အဓိက သီုဖအိုတ် ဂှ် ကၠောန် ပ္ဍဲ ကမ္မတဳ ရ။
* '''ကမ္မတဳ လၟိုန် (Standing Committees):''' ဒှ် ကမ္မတဳ မနွံ လၟိုန် ကာလ (ဥပမာ - ကမ္မတဳ ပရေင်စဵုဒၞာ၊ ကမ္မတဳ သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ)။
* '''ကမ္မတဳ အထူး (Select/Special Committees):''' ဒက်ပတန် ယာယဳ သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်စောဲ ပြသၞာ အထူး (ဥပမာ - ကမ္မတဳ စၟတ်စောဲ ပြသၞာ ဝါတာဂိတ် Watergate)။
* '''ကမ္မတဳ ပံင်ကောံ (Joint Committees):''' ပါလုပ် မၞိဟ် နူ စၠတ်ဓရ် ၜါ သွက်ဂွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် ပြသၞာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော်။<ref name="fenno">{{cite book |last=Fenno |first=R. F. |title=Congressmen in Committees |url=https://archive.org/details/congressmenincom0000fenn |publisher=Little, Brown |year=1973 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/congressmenincom0000fenn/page/1 1]-15}}</ref>
== ၇။ ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်စၞး (Elections and Representation) ==
ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် သွက် ကောန်ဂရေတ် ဝွံ ကၠောန် ဗဒှ် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ၂ သၞာံ လၟိုန် ရ။
* '''ရုဲစှ် လဒေါဝ် အာယုက် (Midterm Elections):''' ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် မကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ လဒေါဝ် အာယုက် ၄ သၞာံ သမ္မတ။ ပေါဲရုဲစှ် ဏအ်ဝွံ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဒှ် ပေါဲ မၜတ်ကၞာတ် အစောံသတ္တိ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဒုင်စသိုင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် လတူ အလဵုအသဳ သမ္မတ ရ။
* '''ပြသၞာ ဂျေရဳမာန်ဒါရိင် (Gerrymandering):''' ပ္ဍဲ စၠတ်ဓရ် မၞိဟ်စၞး၊ အလဵုအသဳ တွဵုရး တအ် နွံ အခေါင် ဓဇက် မျဉ်း ပယျဵု မဲ (Redistricting) ဇၟာပ် ၁၀ သၞာံ။ အခိင်လ္ၚဵု ဗော် မနွံ အဝဵု တအ် ဓဇက် ပယျဵု မဲ ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် ဖဵု သွက် ဗော် ဇကု မာန် ဇၞး မဲ လောဲသွာ၊ မကော်စ ဂျေရဳမာန်ဒါရိင် ရ။<ref name="mayhew">{{cite book |last=Mayhew |first=D. R. |title=Congress: The Electoral Connection |url=https://archive.org/details/vidr00davi |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1974 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/vidr00davi/page/10 10]-25}}</ref>
== ၈။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု သမ္မတ ကေုာံ ရုင်ဗစာ ဇၞော် (Relationship with President and Supreme Court) ==
ကောန်ဂရေတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ကဏ္ဍ အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် '''ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်''' (Checks and balances) ရ။
* '''ကု သမ္မတ (Executive):''' ကောန်ဂရေတ် နွံ အခေါင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ လိက်ကသုက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ခါန်ကၞက် ဝန်ဇၞော် (သဳနိတ် ဓဝ်)။ အရာ ဇၞော် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဍေဟ် နွံ အာဏာ '''ပတိုန် ဒုဟ်''' (Impeachment) ရ။ စၠတ်ဓရ် မၞိဟ်စၞး မာန် စောဲ ဒုဟ် သမ္မတ ယဝ်ရ ကလိလောန် ဒုဟ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော်၊ တုဲ သဳနိတ် မာန် စီရင် ရုံးတင် ဖျေဟ်ဒုဟ် တုဲ ပတိတ် ထောအ် သမ္မတ နူ ရုင် မာန် ရ။
* '''ကု ရုင်ဗစာ (Judiciary):''' ကောန်ဂရေတ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် ရုင်ဗစာ သၟဝ် တအ် တုဲ သဳနိတ် နွံ အခေါင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ တၠသၞောဝ် (Judges) မခါန်ကၞက် နူ သမ္မတ ရ။ လပါ် ပြန် မ္ဂး၊ ရုင်ဗစာ ဇၞော် (Supreme Court) နွံ အာဏာ ပလီု သၞောဝ် ကောန်ဂရေတ် ယဝ်ရ ဍေဟ် ဟွံကိတ်ညဳ ကု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် (Judicial review) ရ။
== ၉။ တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ကေုာံ ပြသၞာ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ်တ္ၚဲဏအ် (Challenges and Controversies in the Modern Era) ==
ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် လၟုဟ် ဏအ်၊ ကောန်ဂရေတ် အမေရိကာန် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကု ပြသၞာ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် ဗော် အလောန် (Polarization and Gridlock):''' ဗော် ဒဳမဝ်ကရက် (Democratic) ကဵု ဗော် ရဳပတ်ဗလဳကာန် (Republican) တအ် နွံ လညာတ် သ္ကာတ်မြဟ် လောန် တုဲ သဳကၠဳ ပံင်ကောံ ရေင်သကအ် ဟွံမာန် (Gridlock) မကတဵုဒှ် ညံင် သၞောဝ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် ဟွံဂွံ ဖြတ် အာ မာန်။
* '''သြဇာ လဝ်ဗဳ ကေုာံ သြန် (Lobbying and Campaign Finance):''' ဂကောံ သြန်ဇၞော်၊ ကုမ္ပဏဳ ကေုာံ ဂကောံ Super PACs တအ် စကာ သြန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ထံက်ပင် မဲ ကေုာံ စန်ဒက် (Lobby) မၞိဟ်စၞး တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဖျေဟ် သၞောဝ် မခိုဟ် သွက် ညးတအ်။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ရမ္သာင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဓမ္မတာ ဂွံ ဍိုန်လျ အာ ရ။
* '''ပြသၞာ ဖဳလဳဗတ်သတာ (Filibuster):''' ပ္ဍဲ သဳနိတ် ဂှ်၊ မၞိဟ်စၞး တအ် မာန် စကာ အခေါင် ဟီု ဂလာန် ဟွံမဲ ပယျဵု (Filibuster) သွက်ဂွံ ကၟာတ်လဒဵု သၞောဝ် ရ။ သွက်ဂွံ ပသောင် ဖဳလဳဗတ်သတာ ဏအ် ဂှ် ဒး နွံပၟိက် မဲ ၆၀ တၠ (နူ ၁၀၀) တုဲ ဍေဟ် ပကဵု ညံင် သၞောဝ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဂွံ ကတဵုဒှ် ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။<ref name="mann">{{cite book |last=Mann |first=T. E. |author2=Ornstein, N. J. |title=It's Even Worse Than It Looks: How the American Constitutional System Collided with the New Politics of Extremism |url=https://archive.org/details/itsevenworsethan0000mann_i0i9 |publisher=Basic Books |year=2012 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/itsevenworsethan0000mann_i0i9/page/100 100]-115}}</ref>
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
ကောန်ဂရေတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် နှလုံးသား အဓိက သွက် သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ အမေရိကာန် ရ။ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ မပံင်ကောံ လဝ် ရမ္သာင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် နူကဵု တွဵုရး ၅၀ တုဲ ပြံင်လှာဲ ဍေဟ်တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ ဒှ် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် သွက် ဍုင် ရ။
ၜိုန်ရ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တ္ၚဲဏအ် ဍေဟ် ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကု ပြသၞာ ပရေင်ပြိုင်ပ္ကာန် ဗော် ကေုာံ သြဇာ သြန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ လဒက်ပတန် စၠတ်ဓရ် ၜါ မနွံကဵု ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် အာဏာ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဆက် တန်တဴ ညံင် အလဵုအသဳ ဟွံဂွံ ဇၞော်လောန် အာ ကေုာံ စဵုဒၞာ အခေါင်အရာ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဍာံဍာံပြပြ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ ကောန်ဂရေတ် သ္ဒး ဂၠာဲ နဲကဲ သွက်ဂွံ ပသောင် ပြသၞာ လညာတ် သ္ကာတ်မြဟ် ကေုာံ ကလေင် ပခိုင် ကၠုင် ပရေင်ပတှ်ေ နူ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် (Public trust) ညံင် သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ ဂွံ ဆက် တန်တဴ ဗိုန်ဗတ် အာ ပ္ဍဲ ၂၁ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ ဏအ် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (Constitution of the United States)
* [[သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (President of the United States)
* [[ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ အာဏာ]] (Separation of powers)
* [[စၠတ်ဓရ် မၞိဟ်စၞး ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (United States House of Representatives)
* [[သဳနိတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (United States Senate)
{{Navbox
| name = US Federal Government
| title = အလဵုအသဳ ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (Federal Government of the United States)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = အာဏာ ပတန်သၞောဝ် (Legislative)
| list1 =
* [[ကောန်ဂရေတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (Congress)
* [[စၠတ်ဓရ် မၞိဟ်စၞး ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (House of Representatives)
* [[သဳနိတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (Senate)
| group2 = အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ် (Executive)
| list2 =
* [[သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (President)
* [[ဒုတိယ သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (Vice President)
* [[ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် အမေရိကာန်]] (Cabinet)
| group3 = အာဏာ သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် (Judicial)
| list3 =
* [[ရုင်ဗစာ ဇၞော် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (Supreme Court)
* [[ရုင်ဗစာ ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ်]] (Federal Courts)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list4 =
* [[သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (Constitution)
* [[မဲ ရုဲစှ်]] (Elections)
* [[ပရေင်ထိင်ဒဝ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ်]] (Checks and balances)
}}
[[Category:ကောန်ဂရေတ် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]]
[[Category:အာဏာ ပတန်သၞောဝ်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]]
[[Category:သၞောတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်]]
[[Category:စၠတ်ဓရ်ဂမၠိုင်]]
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'''ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Cabinet of the United States'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကောံ အလဵုအသဳ မွဲ မနွံကဵု တာလျိုင် သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု ကသပ် ကု သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (President of the United States) ကေုာံ က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ဌာန အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ် (Executive departments) ဂမၠိုင် ရ။ ဂကောံ ဏအ်ဝွံ ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် နကဵု ဒု-သမ္မတ (Vice President) ကေုာံ ညးက္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် (Secretaries) နူကဵု ဌာန အလဵုအသဳ ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် (Federal government) စှ်မသုန် ဌာန၊ သီုကဵု အရာဝုတ် အဆံင်-ဝန်ဇၞော် တၞဟ်ဂမၠိုင် (Cabinet-level officials) မဂွံ ဒုင် ရုဲစှ် ခါန်ကၞက် နူကဵု သမ္မတ ရ။<ref name="bennett">{{cite book |last=Bennett |first=A. J. |title=The American President's Cabinet: From Kennedy to Bush |url=https://archive.org/details/americanpresiden0000benn |publisher=Macmillan Press |year=1996 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanpresiden0000benn/page/12 12]-18}}</ref>
ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် ဏအ်ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ ဟွံမဲ ဗွဲမကၠးသ္ဍး ပ္ဍဲ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် အမေရိကာန် (U.S. Constitution) ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဒှ် ကၠုင် နူကဵု အခိုက်အလိုက် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် နူ ခေတ် သမ္မတ ပထမ ဂျောတ် ဝါရှေန်တောန် (George Washington) တေအ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ လဒက်ပတန်၊ တာလျိုင်၊ လၟေင် ပရေင်ခါန်ကၞက်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဍေဟ် ကု ကဏ္ဍ အာဏာ တၞဟ် တအ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:President Joe Biden's Cabinet, 2021.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ပေါဲကောံသၟဟ် ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် အမေရိကာန် သၟဝ် အလဵုအသဳ သမ္မတ ဂျဝ် ဗာင်ဒေန် (Joe Biden) ပ္ဍဲ သ္ၚိဗု (The White House)။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂကောံ မနွံ သြဇာ သၠုင် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ကဏ္ဍ အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ် (Executive branch) အမေရိကာန် ရ။ ညးတအ် ဒှ် မၞိဟ် မရေင်တၠုင် ကမၠောန် အဓိက သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ ဒ္ဂေတ် ဗက် အတိုင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ ဍုင် ရ။
ဝေါဟာရ "Cabinet" (ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော်) ဏအ်ဝွံ ကၠုင်နူ အရေဝ် အင်္ဂလာန် (British origin) မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ခဒမ် ဍောတ်" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဂကောံ မၞိဟ် ညးမကဵု ကသပ် ပၞုက် သွက် သၟိင်ဨကရာဇ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞောတ် အမေရိကာန်၊ ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် ဂှ် ဟွံသေင် ကောန်ဂကောံ နူ ပါလဳမာန် (Congress) ပုဟ်။ အတိုင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ပိုဒ် ၁၊ ညးမလုပ် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ကောန်ဂရေတ် တအ် ဟွံမဲ အခေါင် ယိုက်ဂၠေင် အရာဝုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ကဏ္ဍ အုပ်ဓုပ် (Ineligibility Clause) တုဲ သၞောတ် ဏအ် ပါ်ခြာ လဝ် အာဏာ ဍာံဍာံပြပြ ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမ်မူလ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Origins) ==
ဝင် ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် ဏအ် စတင် ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၇၈၉ အခိင် ကာလ သမ္မတ ဂျောတ် ဝါရှေန်တောန် (George Washington) ဒက်ပတန် အလဵုအသဳ ပထမ အိုတ် ရ။ ညး ဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဌာန အဓိက ပန် ဌာန ကေုာံ ခါန်ကၞက် လဝ် မၞိဟ် ပန် တၠ သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု ကသပ် -
* ညးအုပ်ကာ တွဵုရး (Secretary of State) - သဝ်မာတ် ဂျက်ဖာသောန် (Thomas Jefferson)
* ဝန်ဇၞော် ဘဏ္ဍာ (Secretary of the Treasury) - အာလေတ်ဇြာန်ဒါ ဟာမဳလ်တောန် (Alexander Hamilton)
* ဝန်ဇၞော် ပၞာန် (Secretary of War) - ဟေန်ရဳ နံက် (Henry Knox)
* တၠသၞောဝ် ဇၞော် (Attorney General) - အေတ်မောန် ရာန်ဒေါပ် (Edmund Randolph)
နူကဵု ဌာန ၄ ဌာန ဂှ်၊ အတိုင် လၟေင် အခိင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဍုင် မ္ဂး ဌာန တအ် ဂၠိုင် တိုန် လၟိုန် ရ။ ဌာန လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဌာန ဂီုကၠီု အပ္ဍဲဍုင် (Department of Homeland Security) မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၀၂ ကြဴနူ ပရေင်ဗတိုက် ကတဵုဒှ် ၉/၁၁ ရ။<ref name="farnsworth">{{cite book |last=Farnsworth |first=D. N. |title=The President's Cabinet |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1992 |pages=45-53}}</ref>
== ၃။ သဇိုင် သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ကေုာံ ဥပဒေ (Constitutional and Legal Basis) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (U.S. Constitution) ဝွံ မလိက် "Cabinet" ဟွံမဲ ပုဟ်။ ဆဂး ဍေဟ် ဒုင်သဇိုင် လတူ -
* '''ပိုဒ် ၂၊ ဒကုတ် ၂ (Article II, Section 2):''' သမ္မတ "မာန် အာတ်မိက် လညာတ်၊ နကဵု လိက်၊ နူကဵု အရာဝုတ် အဓိက ပ္ဍဲ ဌာန အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ် ဇၟာပ်ဇၟာပ် ဌာန... ရ"။
* '''ပိုဒ် ၂၊ ဒကုတ် ၂ (Appointments Clause):''' သမ္မတ နွံ အာဏာ ရုဲစှ် မၞိဟ်၊ ဆဂး သ္ဒး ဒုင် အာတ်မိက် ပရေင်တုပ်စိုတ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် ထံက်ဂလာန် (Advice and Consent) နူကဵု စၠတ်ဓရ် သၠုင် (Senate) ရ။
သာ်ဂှ် ဟွံသေင်၊ အတိုင် '''ပလေဝ်ပလေတ် ၂၅''' (25th Amendment) မ္ဂး၊ ဒု-သမ္မတ ကေုာံ မဲ လပါ် ဂၠိုင် နူကဵု ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် မာန် ပတိုန် လိက် လလောင်တြး ကု ကောန်ဂရေတ် ဒဒှ်ရ သမ္မတ ဝွံ ဟွံမာန် ယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် (Unable to discharge the powers) တုဲ ဒု-သမ္မတ သ္ဒး ကေတ် အာဏာ ယာယဳ ရ။
== ၄။ တာလျိုင် ကေုာံ ကမၠောန် အဓိက (Role and Functions) ==
ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် အမေရိကာန် ဝွံ နွံ တာလျိုင် အဓိက ၜါ သာ် -
# '''ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဌာန (Departmental Leadership):''' ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် သကိုပ် က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ဌာန အလဵုအသဳ ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် ဂမၠိုင် ရ။ ညးတအ် ဒး ဖန်ဇန် စရင်သြန် (Budget) ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဘဳလဳယာန် ဒဝ်လာ၊ ဒး အုပ်ဓုပ် ဝန်ထမ်း အလဵုအသဳ (Civil servants) မဂၠိုင်ကဵု ကိုတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဒး ရေင်တၠုင် ကမၠောန် ဍုင် အလုံ မွဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင် ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ကဵု ကသပ် (Advisory Role):''' ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် ဒး ကဵု ကသပ် ကု သမ္မတ ပရူ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်ဂီုကၠီု ကေုာံ မဟာဗျူဟာ နာနာ သာ် ရ။ ပေါဲကောံသၟဟ် ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် (Cabinet meetings) ဝွံ သမ္မတ ကော် သဳကၠဳ အတိုင် ပၟိက် ညး မနွံ ရ။<ref name="polsby">{{cite book |last=Polsby |first=N. W. |title=Presidential Cabinet Making: Lessons for the Political System |publisher=Political Science Quarterly |year=1978 |pages=15-25}}</ref>
== ၅။ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ပရေင်စၟတ်သမ္တီ ကေုာံ ခါန်ကၞက် (Confirmation Process) ==
လၟေင် ကမၠောန် ခါန်ကၞက် ဝန်ဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ဝွံ နွံကဵု လၟေင် တာလျိုင် ပိ သာ် -
# '''ပရေင်ရုဲစှ် (Nomination):''' သမ္မတ ရုဲစှ် မၞိဟ် မနွံ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ် ကေုာံ ပတှ်ေ စှ်ေ စိုတ် (ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် မၞိဟ် နူ ဗော် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဇကု)။
# '''ပရေင်သၟာန်သွဟ် (Senate Hearings):''' ကမ္မတဳ ဆေင်စပ် ပ္ဍဲ စၠတ်ဓရ် သၠုင် (Senate committees) တအ် ကော် သၟာန်သွဟ် မၞိဟ် မဂွံ ဒုင် ရုဲစှ် တအ် ပရူ ဍာ်ဒကေဝ်၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (ဟွံဂွံ နှဴရဴ ကု ကမၠောန် အလဵုအသဳ - Conflict of interest)၊ ကေုာံ လညာတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ညးတအ် ရ။
# '''ပရေင်ကဵု မဲ (Senate Confirmation):''' စၠတ်ဓရ် သၠုင် အလုံ မွဲ ကဵု မဲ ရ။ ယဝ်ရ ကလိဂွံ မဲ လပါ် ဂၠိုင် (Simple majority - ၅၁ မဲ) မ္ဂး၊ မၞိဟ် ဂှ် ကလိဂွံ အရာဝုတ် ဝန်ဇၞော် ရ။ (တင်စၟတ် - ဒု-သမ္မတ ကေုာံ သကိုပ် ရုင် သ္ၚိဗု တအ် ဟွံဒး ဒုင် အာတ် မဲ နူ စၠတ်ဓရ် သၠုင် ပုဟ်)။
== ၆။ လၟေင် အာဲကၟာဲ သမ္မတ (Line of Succession) ==
ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် ဝွံ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ဗွဲမလောန် ပ္ဍဲ လၟေင် အာဲကၟာဲ သမ္မတ (Presidential line of succession) ရ။ အတိုင် သၞောဝ် အာဲကၟာဲ သမ္မတ သၞာံ ၁၉၄၇ (Presidential Succession Act of 1947)၊ ယဝ်ရ သမ္မတ ကေုာံ ဒု-သမ္မတ သီု ၜါ တၠ စုတိ၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဟွံမာန် ယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် မ္ဂး၊ အာဏာ ဂှ် ပြံင် အာ ဇရေင် ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ စၠတ်ဓရ် သၟဝ် (Speaker of the House) ကေုာံ ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ ယာယဳ စၠတ်ဓရ် သၠုင် (President pro tempore) ရ။
ယဝ်ရ ညးတအ် လေဝ် ဟွံမာန် မ္ဂး၊ လၟေင် အာဲကၟာဲ ဝွံ စှ်ေ အာ ဇရေင် ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် အတိုင် လၟေင် အခိင် ဌာန တအ် မဒက်ပတန် လဝ် ရ -
၁။ ညးအုပ်ကာ တွဵုရး (State)
၂။ ဝန်ဇၞော် ဘဏ္ဍာ (Treasury)
၃။ ဝန်ဇၞော် စဵုဒၞာ (Defense)
၄။ တၠသၞောဝ် ဇၞော် (Attorney General / Justice) ...
ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ကောံသၟဟ် ဍုင် ဇၞော်ဇၞော် မပ္တံကဵု State of the Union address၊ ဝန်ဇၞော် မွဲ တၠ သ္ဒး စွံ လဝ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒၞာဲ မပၞုက် လဝ် (Designated survivor) သွက်ဂွံ စဵုဒၞာ အလဵုအသဳ ယဝ်ရ နွံ အန္တရာယ် ဇၞော် ရ။
== ၇။ ဌာန အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ် လၟုဟ်ဂမၠိုင် (Current Executive Departments) ==
ပ္ဍဲ လၟုဟ်၊ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် နွံကဵု ဌာန အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ် (Executive departments) အဓိက ၁၅ ဌာန မပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဌာန အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ် (၁၅) ဌာန ပ္ဍဲ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်
|-
! ဌာန (Department)
! သၞာံ မဒက်ပတန်
! တာလျိုင် အဓိက
|-
| '''ဌာန တွဵုရး''' (State) || ၁၇၈၉ || ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ ဍုင်သ္အာင် (Foreign affairs)
|-
| '''ဌာန ဘဏ္ဍာ''' (Treasury) || ၁၇၈၉ || ပရေင်သြန်၊ အခေါန် (IRS) ကေုာံ ပိုန်ဒြပ်
|-
| '''ဌာန စဵုဒၞာ''' (Defense) || ၁၉၄၇ (၁၇၈၉ War) || ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု ရးနိဂီု
|-
| '''ဌာန သၞောဝ်ဓဝ်''' (Justice) || ၁၈၇၀ (၁၇၈၉ AG) || ပရေင်ဥပဒေ၊ FBI ကေုာံ စၟတ်သမ္တီ သၞောဝ်
|-
| '''ဌာန အပ္ဍဲ (သဘာဝ)''' (Interior) || ၁၈၄၉ || မင်မဲ တိ သဘာဝ ကေုာံ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် အမေရိကာန်
|-
| '''ဌာန တဵုလွဳ''' (Agriculture) || ၁၈၈၉ || ကမၠောန် ဗ္ၚ၊ ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကွာန် ကေုာံ စၞစ
|-
| '''ဌာန ဗၞိက်''' (Commerce) || ၁၉၀၃ || ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ စရင်အင် ဍုင်
|-
| '''ဌာန ကမၠောန်''' (Labor) || ၁၉၁၃ || အခေါင်အရာ သၟာကမၠောန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်လၟုဟ်
|-
| '''ဌာန ထတ်ယုက် ကေုာံ ဝန်ဆောင်မှု''' (HHS) || ၁၉၅၃ || ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ညးဍုင်ကွာန်၊ Medicare, FDA
|-
| '''ဌာန သြိုင်ခၞံ ကေုာံ ဍုင်ဇၞော်''' (HUD) || ၁၉၆၅ || ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဍုင် ကေုာံ သ္ၚိ ညးဒိုက်ဂတ်
|-
| '''ဌာန သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေး''' (Transportation) || ၁၉၆၆ || ပရေင်ဂၠံင်တရဴ၊ ကွဳစက်၊ က္ၜင်ကျာ (FAA)
|-
| '''ဌာန စွမ်းအင်''' (Energy) || ၁၉၇၇ || ဓါတ်လလဳ၊ ဒြဟတ် ညူကလဳယာ ကေုာံ သုတေသန
|-
| '''ဌာန ပရေင်ပညာ''' (Education) || ၁၉၇၉ || ပရေင်ဗတောန် လိက်၊ ထံက်ပင် ဘာလ္ၚတ်
|-
| '''ဌာန စောဲပၞာန် တြေံ''' (Veterans Affairs) || ၁၉၈၉ || ဝန်ဆောင်မှု သွက် ဂကောံ ပၞာန် တြေံ
|-
| '''ဌာန ဂီုကၠီု အပ္ဍဲဍုင်''' (Homeland Security) || ၂၀၀၂ || စဵုဒၞာ ရာဇဝတ် ပၞာန်၊ ပယျဵု၊ FEMA, Coast Guard
|}
== ၈။ အရာဝုတ် အဆံင်-ဝန်ဇၞော် တၞဟ်ဂမၠိုင် (Cabinet-level Officers) ==
ပါဲနူကဵု ဝန်ဇၞော် ၁၅ ဌာန ဂှ် တုဲ၊ သမ္မတ နွံ အခေါင် စၟတ်သမ္တီ အရာဝုတ် အလဵုအသဳ တၞဟ် တအ် ညံင် ဂွံ နွံ ပ္ဍဲ '''အဆံင်-ဝန်ဇၞော်''' (Cabinet-level rank) ကီု ရ။ မၞိဟ် ဏအ်ဝွံ မာန် တိုန် စိုပ် ပေါဲကောံသၟဟ် ဝန်ဇၞော် ကီု ရ။
ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဍေဟ် ပါလုပ် သီုကဵု -
* '''သကိုပ် ရုင် သ္ၚိဗု''' (White House Chief of Staff) - မၞိဟ် ယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် ဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် သမ္မတ
* '''ညးစၞး ဗၞိက် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်''' (U.S. Trade Representative)
* '''ဥက္ကဋ္ဌ စၟတ်မင် သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ''' (EPA Administrator)
* '''ဒါရိုက်တာ ဌာန အုပ်ဓုပ် စရင်သြန်''' (OMB Director)
* '''ကလုတ် ကုလသမဂ္ဂ''' (Ambassador to the UN)
* '''ဒါရိုက်တာ စၟတ်မင် တင်ဂၞင် ပၞုက် ဍုင်''' (Director of National Intelligence - DNI)<ref name="cohen">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=J. E. |title=The Politics of the U.S. Cabinet: Representation in the Executive Branch |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofuscabi0000cohe |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |year=1988 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofuscabi0000cohe/page/70 70]-82}}</ref>
== ၉။ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကု သမ္မတ ကေုာံ ကောန်ဂရေတ် (Relationship with President and Congress) ==
ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် ဝွံ ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု အာဏာ ၜါ လပါ် -
* '''ကု သမ္မတ:''' ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် ဝွံ ယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် အတိုင် ပၟိက် သမ္မတ (Serve at the pleasure of the President) ရ။ သမ္မတ နွံ အခေါင် ပတိတ် ထောအ် (Fire) ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် အခိင် ဟွံရုဲ ဟွံဒး အာတ် အခေါင် နူ ကောန်ဂရေတ် ပုဟ်။ သမ္မတ လ္ၚဵု စကာ ဂကောံ ဏအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် သွက်ဂွံ သဳကၠဳ တုဲ၊ သမ္မတ လ္ၚဵု တအ် ဂှ် ဖျေဟ် သ္ဂုတ်သွာတ် နကဵု ဂကောံ သ္ၚိဗု ဍောတ်ဍောတ် (Kitchen cabinet) ရ။
* '''ကု ကောန်ဂရေတ်:''' ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် ဒး ဒုင် အာတ်မိက် မဲ နူ စၠတ်ဓရ် သၠုင် တုဲ၊ ညးတအ် ဒး တိုန် ပေါဲသဳကၠဳ ပ္ဍဲ ကောန်ဂရေတ် (Congressional hearings) သွက်ဂွံ သှ် ပြသၞာ၊ အာတ် သြန် ဘဏ္ဍာ (Budget requests)၊ ကေုာံ ဒး ဒုင် စၟတ်စောဲ (Oversight) နူကဵု ပါလဳမာန် ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ လညာတ် အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Outlook) ==
ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဂကောံ မကိစ္စဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပကဵု ညံင် အလဵုအသဳ ဖေတ်ဒရေဝ် ဂွံ ချဳဓရာင် အာ မာန် ရ။ ညးတအ် ဒှ် တဲ ကေုာံ ဇိုင် သမ္မတ သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ် ကမၠောန် အလုံ မွဲ ဍုင် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ လဒက်ပတန် ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် ဏအ် မာန် ဆက် ပြံင်လှာဲ အာ အတိုင် အကာဲအရာ ခေတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်နွံပၟိက် ဍုင် ရ။ ဥပမာ - လညာတ် မိက်ဂွံ ဒက်ပတန် ဌာန တၟိ မပ္တံကဵု ဌာန ရာသဳဥတု (Department of Climate) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဌာန နည်းပညာ (Department of Technology) တအ် ဝွံ ဒှ် လညာတ် မသဳကၠဳ ဒၟံင် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ခေတ်တၟိ ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ သြဇာ သ္ၚိဗု (White House staff) ဇၞော် တိုန် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဝန်ဇၞော် တအ် ဝွံ ဆက် ဒှ် မုက်ပါင် အဓိက သွက် အလဵုအသဳ အမေရိကာန် လၟိုန် ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (President of the United States)
* [[ဒု-သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]] (Vice President of the United States)
* [[ကောန်ဂရေတ် အမေရိကာန်]] (United States Congress)
* [[အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ်]] (Executive branch)
{{Navbox
| name = US Cabinet
| title = ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော် ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် (Cabinet of the United States)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = မၞိဟ် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
| list1 =
* [[သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်|သမ္မတ]] (President)
* [[ဒု-သမ္မတ ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်|ဒု-သမ္မတ]] (Vice President)
* [[သကိုပ် ရုင် သ္ၚိဗု]] (Chief of Staff)
| group2 = ဌာန အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ် (Departments)
| list2 =
* [[ဌာန တွဵုရး အမေရိကာန်|တွဵုရး]] (State)
* [[ဌာန ဘဏ္ဍာ အမေရိကာန်|ဘဏ္ဍာ]] (Treasury)
* [[ဌာန စဵုဒၞာ အမေရိကာန်|စဵုဒၞာ]] (Defense)
* [[ဌာန သၞောဝ်ဓဝ် အမေရိကာန်|သၞောဝ်ဓဝ်]] (Justice)
* [[ဌာန အပ္ဍဲ အမေရိကာန်|အပ္ဍဲ]] (Interior)
* [[ဌာန တဵုလွဳ အမေရိကာန်|တဵုလွဳ]] (Agriculture)
* [[ဌာန ဗၞိက် အမေရိကာန်|ဗၞိက်]] (Commerce)
* [[ဌာန ကမၠောန် အမေရိကာန်|ကမၠောန်]] (Labor)
* [[ဌာန ထတ်ယုက် အမေရိကာန်|ထတ်ယုက်]] (Health and Human Services)
* [[ဌာန သြိုင်ခၞံ အမေရိကာန်|သြိုင်ခၞံ]] (Housing and Urban Development)
* [[ဌာန သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေး အမေရိကာန်|သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေး]] (Transportation)
* [[ဌာန စွမ်းအင် အမေရိကာန်|စွမ်းအင်]] (Energy)
* [[ဌာန ပရေင်ပညာ အမေရိကာန်|ပရေင်ပညာ]] (Education)
* [[ဌာန စောဲပၞာန် တြေံ အမေရိကာန်|စောဲပၞာန် တြေံ]] (Veterans Affairs)
* [[ဌာန ဂီုကၠီု အပ္ဍဲဍုင် အမေရိကာန်|ဂီုကၠီု အပ္ဍဲဍုင်]] (Homeland Security)
| group3 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ်ဂမၠိုင်
| list3 =
* [[သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေသဇိုင် အမေရိကာန်]] (U.S. Constitution)
* [[လၟေင် အာဲကၟာဲ သမ္မတ အမေရိကာန်]] (Line of succession)
* [[စၠတ်ဓရ် သၠုင် အမေရိကာန်]] (U.S. Senate)
}}
[[Category:ကၟိန်ဍုင်အမေရိကာန်]]
[[Category:အာဏာ အုပ်ဓုပ်]]
[[Category:ဂကောံ ဝန်ဇၞော်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:အလဵုအသဳ အမေရိကာန်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် အမေရိကာန်]]
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'''ဂၠံင်''' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး '''ဂၠံင်တရဴ''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Road'') ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လဒက်ပတန် သဇိုင် (Infrastructure) မွဲ မကၠောန် လဝ် လတူ တိ သွက်ဂွံ ဆက်စပ် ကဵု ဒၞာဲ မွဲ ကဵု မွဲ တုဲ၊ သွက် ကောန်မၞိဟ်၊ တိရစ္ဆာန်၊ ကေုာံ ကွဳစက် တအ် ဂွံ အာကၠုင် လောဲသွာ ရ။ ဂၠံင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ဂှ် ကၠောန် လဝ် နကဵု ကပေါတ် မကြံင်မ္ၚိုဟ် မပ္တံကဵု ကတ္တရာ (Asphalt)၊ ကောန်ကရစ် (Concrete)၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တၟအ် သွက်ဂွံ ခံင် ကု ဒြဟတ် ဍဵု ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု ရ။<ref name="lay">{{cite book |last=Lay |first=M. G. |title=Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles That Used Them |url=https://archive.org/details/waysofworldhisto00laym |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1992 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/waysofworldhisto00laym/page/2 2]-10}}</ref>
ဂၠံင် ဝွံ ဒှ် "ဇုတ်" အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ဍုင် မွဲ ရ။ သၞောတ် ဂၠံင် မခိုဟ် ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ဂွံ ချဳဓရာင် ပြဟ်၊ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဂွံ ဆက်စပ် ရေင်သကအ်၊ ကေုာံ ရေင်တၠုင် ဌာန အလဵုအသဳ တအ် ဂွံ စိုပ် ပြဟ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဂၠံင် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ နဲကဲ သြိုင်ခၞံ၊ ဂကူ ဂၠံင်، ဖဵုသက်ရောက် လတူ ပွဳပွူ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် အနာဂတ် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Autobahn A2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဂၠံင် ဟာဲဝေ (Autobahn) ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဂျာမနဳ မဒှ် ဂၠံင် မနွံကဵု လဒက်ပတန် အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ သၠုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ချဳဓရာင် ကွဳစက် ဇြဟတ် ပြဟ်။]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ ပွံက်အဓိပ္ပါယ် (Introduction and Definition) ==
"ဂၠံင်" (Road) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် လၟေင် တရဴ (Route) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပယျဵု တိ မဖန်ဇန် လဝ် သွက်ဂွံ အာကၠုင် (Travel) နကဵု ဇိုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကွဳစက် ရ။ နကဵု သၞောဝ်ဥပဒေ မ္ဂး၊ ဂၠံင် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် သီုဖအိုတ် (Public right of way) နွံ အခေါင် သုင်စောဲ သွက်ဂွံ တတ်ကၠောမ် ရ။
ဂၠံင် ဝွံ တၞဟ်ခြာ နူကဵု '''[[ဂၠံင်ဍောတ်]]''' (Street) ရ။ ဂၠံင် (Road) ဂှ် အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် အကြာ ဍုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဒေသ မွဲ ကဵု မွဲ တုဲ၊ ဂၠံင်ဍောတ် (Street) ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂၠံင် မနွံ အပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကွာန် မနွံကဵု သ္ၚိ ကေုာံ ရုင် ဗၞိက် တအ် ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် ကေုာံ ခေတ်တမၠာ (History and Antiquity) ==
ပရေင်ကၠောန် ဂၠံင် ဝွံ စတင် ကၠုင် နူကဵု အခိင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် စ တန်တဴ ဒက်ပတန် ကွာန် ကေုာံ ဖန်ဇန် ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် သဇိုင်:''' ပထမအိုတ် ဂၠံင် တအ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဆ ဂၠံင် ဇိုင် တိရစ္ဆာန် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ် (Trails) သၟး ရ။ ကာလ စကာ လောတ် (Wheel) ပ္ဍဲ ၜိုတ် ၄၀၀၀ သၞာံ ဘဳသဳ၊ ကောန်မၞိဟ် တအ် စ ပလေဝ် ဂၠံင် ညံင် ဂွံ တပ် ကေုာံ ညဳ ရ။
* '''ဂၠံင် ရဝ်မ (Roman Roads):''' အေန်ပါယာ ရဝ်မ (Roman Empire) ဂှ် ဒှ် တၠအစောန် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ဂၠံင် ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် တမၠာ ရ။ ညးတအ် သြိုင်ခၞံ ဂၠံင် တၟအ် (Stone-paved roads) မပ္တံကဵု Via Appia သွက်ဂွံ ပလံင် ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ လိက် ပြဟ်ပြဟ် လတူ အလုံ အေန်ပါယာ ညးတအ် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် မက်အာဒါမ် (Macadam):''' ပ္ဍဲ ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ သကတ်လာန် ဂျောန် မက်အာဒါမ် (John McAdam) ဖန်ဗဒှ် နဲကဲ သြိုင် ဂၠံင် နကဵု တၟအ် ကလေတ် မကော်စ "Macadam" မပကဵု ညံင် ဍာ် ဂွံ ဇွောဝ် တိတ် လောဲသွာ တုဲ ဂၠံင် ဟွံလီု ကာလ ဗြဲ ဂူ ရ။<ref name="oflaherty">{{cite book |last=O'Flaherty |first=C. A. |title=Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and Maintenance of Road Pavements |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |year=2002 |pages=12-25}}</ref>
== ၃။ ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ကေုာံ အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ (Road Construction and Engineering) ==
ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ဂၠံင် ခေတ်တၟိ ဝွံ သ္ဒး ဖြတ် အာ လၟေင် ကမၠောန် အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ -
# '''ပရေင်ဆာဗေ ကေုာံ ဖျေဟ် ဒီဇိုင်း (Surveying and Design):''' အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ တအ် သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အကာဲအရာ တိ (Topography)၊ အခိုက် ဍာ် ဇွောဝ်၊ ကေုာံ လၟိဟ် ကွဳစက် (Traffic volume) သွက်ဂွံ ဖျေဟ် ပယျဵု ဂၠံင်။
# '''ပရေင်ခါဲ တိ (Earthwork):''' ခါဲ ပတိတ် တိ ပရေအ် ကေုာံ ဖျေဟ် သဇိုင် တိ မခိုင်ကၠိုက် (Subgrade)။
# '''ပရေင်ဖျေဟ် သဇိုင် (Base Course):''' ဖျေဟ် တၟအ် ကလေတ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ဗတဳ သွက်ဂွံ ဒုင် လျိုင် ကွဳစက် ကေုာံ ညံင် ဍာ် ဂွံ ဇွောဝ် တိတ်။
# '''ပရေင်ဖျေဟ် လတူ မျက်နှာပြင် (Paving):''' လွှာ လက္ကရဴ အိုတ် ဂှ် ကၠောန် နကဵု ကတ္တရာ (Asphalt concrete) ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ကောန်ကရစ် သမေတ် (Portland cement concrete) ညံင် ဂွံ ကလိတ် ကေုာံ ခိုင်ကၠိုက် ရ။<ref name="wright">{{cite book |last=Wright |first=P. H. |author2=Dixon, K. K. |title=Highway Engineering |url=https://archive.org/details/wiehighwayengine0000paul |edition=7th |publisher=Wiley |year=2004 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/wiehighwayengine0000paul/page/340 340]-355}}</ref>
== ၄။ ဂကူ ဂၠံင်ဂမၠိုင် (Types of Roads) ==
ဂၠံင် တအ် ဝွံ ပါ်လဝ် ဂကူ အတိုင် ဗီုပြင် လဒက်ပတန် ကေုာံ ပရေင်သုင်စောဲ ရ။
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[သ္ၚိအင်]] ထ္ၜး ဂကူ ဂၠံင် အဓိကဂမၠိုင်
|-
! ဂကူ ဂၠံင် (Type)
! လက္ခဏာ ကေုာံ ပွံက်
! ဥပမာ
|-
| '''ဟာဲဝေ / ဂၠံင်ဇၞော်''' (Highway / Expressway)
| ဂၠံင် မနွံကဵု လဒက်ပတန် ဇၞော်၊ ကွဳစက် ဒြေပ် ဇြဟတ် ပြဟ်၊ ဟွံမဲ ကု ပၟတ် စၞောန် ဂၠံင်။
| Interstate Highway (USA), Autobahn (Germany)
|-
| '''ဂၠံင် အဓိက''' (Arterial Road)
| ဂၠံင် မဆက်စပ် အကြာ ဍုင် ဇၞော် ကေုာံ ဒေသ၊ နွံ ပၟတ် စၞောန် ကေုာံ လၟိဟ် ကွဳစက် ဂၠိုင်။
| ဂၠံင် လဒေါဝ် ဍုင်၊ ဂၠံင် ပြည်ထောင်စု
|-
| '''ဂၠံင် ပံင်ကောံ''' (Collector Road)
| ဂၠံင် လဒေါဝ် မပကောံ ကွဳစက် နူကဵု ဂၠံင် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် တုဲ ပလံင် ဏာ ဇရေင် ဂၠံင် အဓိက။
| ဂၠံင် အကြာ ရပ်ကွက် ကေုာံ ဘာ
|-
| '''ဂၠံင် ဒေသ''' (Local Road / Street)
| ဂၠံင် ဍောတ်တ် မနွံ အပ္ဍဲ ကွာန် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ရပ်ကွက်၊ သွက်ဂွံ စိုပ် သ္ၚိ ညးဍုင်ကွာန်။
| ဂၠံင် အပ္ဍဲ ကွာန်၊ ဂၠံင် သ္ၚိ
|}
== ၅။ ပရေင်မင်မဲ ကေုာံ လွဳလွတ် (Road Maintenance) ==
ဂၠံင် မွဲ သြိုင် တုဲ မ္ဂး၊ ဍေဟ် သ္ဒး နွံကဵု ပရေင်မင်မဲ လၟိုန် ညံင် ဂွံ ဆက် သုင်စောဲ မာန် ကေုာံ ဗၠးဘဲ ရ။
* '''ပရေင်လီုလာ် ဓမ္မတာ (Wear and Tear):''' ဟိုတ်နူ လျိုင် ကွဳစက် (အထူးသဖြင့် ကွဳစက် ဇၞော်ဇၞော်) ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (ဍာ် ဗြဲ၊ ဂမ္တဴ) တုဲ မျက်နှာပြင် ဂၠံင် တအ် မလေပ် ပါ် ထကး (Cracks) ကေုာံ ဒှ် ခရိုင် (Potholes) ရ။
* '''ပရေင်လွဳလွတ် (Resurfacing):''' အလဵုအသဳ တအ် သ္ဒး ကလေင် ဖျေဟ် ကတ္တရာ တၟိ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ပလေဝ် ဒၞာဲ မထကး တအ် ဇၟာပ် ၅-၁၀ သၞာံ မွဲ ဝါ ရ။
* '''ရာသဳ ဆီု (Winter Maintenance):''' ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် မနွံ မာတ် (Snow)၊ သ္ဒး နွံ သၞောတ် တွိဟ် မာတ် ကေုာံ ဖျေဟ် ၜဵု သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန် ပရေင်ကလိတ် (Ice) လတူ ဂၠံင် ရ။
== ၆။ ပရေင်စၞောန်ဂၠံင် ကေုာံ ဂီုကၠီု (Traffic and Safety) ==
ဂီုကၠီု လတူ ဂၠံင် (Road safety) ဝွံ ဒှ် ပြသၞာ သုခ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် ဇၞော် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ အတိုင် စရင် နူ WHO မ္ဂး၊ မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် ၁.၃၅ မဳလဳယောန် ချိုတ် ဒၟံင် ဇၟာပ် သၞာံ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု အက်သဳဒေန် (Accidents) လတူ ဂၠံင် ရ။<ref name="who">{{cite report |author=World Health Organization |title=Global Status Report on Road Safety |publisher=WHO Press |year=2018 |pages=1-15}}</ref>
သွက်ဂွံ ဖအောန် အန္တရာယ် ဂှ်၊ ပိုယ် စကာ -
* '''ပၟတ် လလဳ ကေုာံ သင်္ကေတ (Traffic Lights and Signs):''' သွက်ဂွံ ကဵု သတိ၊ ထိင် လဟိုင် (Speed limits) ကေုာံ စၞောန် ဂၠံင်။
* '''ဒီဇိုင်း ဂီုကၠီု (Safety Design):''' ပရေင်ဖန်ဗဒှ် ဂၠံင် ညံင် ဂွံ နွံ ပယျဵု ကၠး (Lane markings)၊ ခရိုင် စဵုဒၞာ (Guardrails) ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ ဇိုင် ကွာ် (Sidewalks) သွက် မၞိဟ် ဓမ္မတာ။
== ၇။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Economic and Social Impact) ==
ဂၠံင် ဝွံ ကဵု ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ဗွဲမဇၞော် လတူ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ဍုင် မွဲ -
* '''ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် (Economic Impact):''' ဂၠံင် မခိုဟ် ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပလံင် ကပေါတ် (Logistics) ဂွံ လောဲသွာ တုဲ ၚုဟ်မး ကပေါတ် လေဝ် အောန် စှ်ေ ရ။ ဍေဟ် သီု ပံက် အခေါင် သွက် ပရေင်ကမၠောန် တၟိ တအ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ညာတ် ဍုင် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်မၞိဟ် (Social Impact):''' သၞောတ် ဂၠံင် ပကဵု ညံင် ညးဍုင်ကွာန် နူ ကွာန် ဍောတ်ဍောတ် တအ် ဂွံ အာ စိုပ် ရုင်ဂဥုဲ၊ ဘာလ္ၚတ်၊ ကေုာံ ဒၞာဲ ကမၠောန် လောဲသွာ မာန် ရ။ ဆဂး ဂၠံင် ဇၞော်လောန် မ္ဂး ဍေဟ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပရေင်ပြးချာဲ ဍုင် (Urban sprawl) တုဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဒး စကာ အခိင် ဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ ပရေင်အာကၠုင် ရ။
== ၈။ ဖဵုသက်ရောက် သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ (Environmental Impact) ==
ၜိုန်ရ ဂၠံင် ကဵု ဖဵု ခိုဟ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဖန်ဗဒှ် အန္တရာယ် လတူ သဘာဝ ပွဳပွူ ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကီု ရ -
* '''ပရေင်ပါ်ခြာ တိရစ္ဆာန် (Habitat Fragmentation):''' ဟာဲဝေ ဇၞော်ဇၞော် တအ် တတ်ကၠောမ် ဂြိုပ် တုဲ၊ ပကဵု ညံင် တိရစ္ဆာန် တအ် ကွာ် တတ် ဝါတ် ကေုာံ ဒးဒုင် ဇီု ကု ကွဳစက် ချိုတ် ပြဟ် ရ (Roadkill)။
* '''ပရေင်ကၠိခ္ဍက် (Pollution):''' ဂၠံင် တအ် ပကောံ ရမ္သာင် (Noise pollution) ကေုာံ ယက် ကွဳစက် မကဵု အန္တရာယ် ကု ဂမ္တဴ ဂၠးတိ (Air pollution)။
* '''ဍာ် ဇွောဝ် လီု (Water Runoff):''' မျက်နှာပြင် ကတ္တရာ တအ် ဟွံကဵု အခေါင် ဍာ် စှ်ေ ပ္ဍဲ တိ တုဲ၊ ဍာ် ဗြဲ မနှဴ ကု ကၠေင် ကွဳစက် တအ် ဇွောဝ် စှ်ေ အာ ပ္ဍဲ ကြုင် ကေုာံ ကတဵုဗဒှ် ယဲ ဍာ် ရ။<ref name="forman">{{cite book |last=Forman |first=R. T. T. |title=Road Ecology: Science and Solutions |publisher=Island Press |year=2003 |pages=45-60}}</ref>
== ၉။ နည်းပညာ ခေတ်တၟိ ကေုာံ ဂၠံင် ဉာဏ်စက် (Modern Technology and Smart Roads) ==
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ ဂၠံင် တအ် ဂှ် ဆက်စပ် ကု နည်းပညာ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital technology) ဂၠိုင် တိုန် ရ -
* '''ဂၠံင် ဉာဏ်စက် (Smart Roads):''' ဂၠံင် မစုတ် လဝ် သေန်သာ (Sensors) သွက်ဂွံ စၟတ်မင် လၟိဟ် ကွဳစက်၊ ရာသဳဥတု၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထကး လီုလာ် လတူ ဂၠံင် ရ။ တင်ဂၞင် ဏအ် ပလံင် ဏာ ဇရေင် ကွဳစက် ဉာဏ်စက် (Autonomous vehicles) မာန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်စုတ် ဓါတ် ကွဳစက် လလဳ (EV Charging):''' ဍုင် လ္ၚဵု တအ် စံၜတ် ဒၟံင် နဲကဲ မစုတ် ဓါတ်လလဳ ကု ကွဳစက် အခိင် မဒြေပ် ဒၟံင် လတူ ဂၠံင် ဍာံဍာံပြပြ (Dynamic wireless charging) ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future) ==
ဂၠံင် ဝွံ ဒှ် လဒက်ပတန် မပြံင်လှာဲ လဝ် ဂၠးတိ ဏအ် ဗွဲမဇၞော် တုဲ၊ ဍေဟ် တအ် သှ်ေ တန်တဴ နဒဒှ် သဇိုင် အဓိက သွက် ပရေင်အာကၠုင် ကောန်မၞိဟ် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ဂၠံင် သ္ဒး အာရီုစွံ လတူ ပရေင်တန်တဴ လအ် (Sustainability) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဖအောန် ဖဵုသက်ရောက် ပွဳပွူ သဘာဝ (Eco-friendly) ရောင်။ ဂၠံင် ခေတ်တၟိ တအ် သ္ဒး ဆက်စပ် ကု သၞောတ် ကွဳစက် ဟွံမဲ သၟာဒဳ (Self-driving cars) ကေုာံ ဒး နွံကဵု ဒီဇိုင်း မကိတ်ညဳ ကု လညာတ် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် စိင် (Green economy) သွက် အနာဂတ် မဍာံပြ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[ပရေင်သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေး]] (Transport)
* [[ဟာဲဝေ]] (Highway)
* [[ကွဳစက်]] (Vehicle)
* [[ဒဒန်]] (Bridge)
{{Navbox
| name = Transport Infrastructure
| title = လဒက်ပတန် ပရေင်သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေးဂမၠိုင် (Transport Infrastructure)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = သၞောတ် တိ (Land)
| list1 =
* [[ဂၠံင်]] (Road)
* [[ဟာဲဝေ]] (Highway)
* [[ဂၠံင်ဍောတ်]] (Street)
* [[ပသဲ ဂၠံင်]] (Railway)
* [[ဒဒန်]] (Bridge)
* [[ဥမင်]] (Tunnel)
| group2 = သၞောတ် ဍာ် (Water)
| list2 =
* [[ဂၠံင် ဍာ်]] (Waterway)
* [[ပြံင်ဍာ်]] (Canal)
* [[သၞေဟ် က္ၜင်]] (Port / Harbor)
| group3 = သၞောတ် ကျာ (Air)
| list3 =
* [[သၞေဟ် က္ၜင်ကျာ]] (Airport)
* [[ဒၞာဲ ဖျေဟ် ဟယ်လဳကော်ပတာ]] (Heliport)
| group4 = ကဏ္ဍ ဆက်စပ် (Related)
| list4 =
* [[အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ သြိုင်ခၞံ]] (Civil engineering)
* [[ကတ္တရာ]] (Asphalt)
* [[ပရေင်စၞောန်ဂၠံင်]] (Traffic)
}}
[[Category:ဂၠံင်ဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ပရေင်သယ်ယူပို့ဆောင်ရေး]]
[[Category:အေန်ဂျေန်နဳယာ]]
[[Category:လဒက်ပတန် သဇိုင်]]
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ဝဳကဳပဳဒဳယာ:ကာဒ် တ္ၚဲ ပွိုင်မွဲသၞာံ/၁၁. အဝ်ဂေတ်
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Aue Nai
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ခၞံကၠောန်လဝ် မုက်လိက် နကု "<noinclude> {{Wikipedia:On this day/Header}} </noinclude> '''[[၁၁ အဝ်ဂေတ်]]''': * ၁၉၆၀ – ဍုင်'''[[ဆာတ်]]''' (Chad) လလောင်တြး သၠးပွး နူကဵု ပြင်သေတ် (France)။ * ၁၉၉၉ – ပရေင် တ္ၚဲ ဒးဒုင် စ (Total solar eclipse) မာန် ဆဵုကေတ် လဝ် ဗွဲမကၠး..."
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<noinclude>
{{Wikipedia:On this day/Header}}
</noinclude>
'''[[၁၁ အဝ်ဂေတ်]]''':
* ၁၉၆၀ – ဍုင်'''[[ဆာတ်]]''' (Chad) လလောင်တြး သၠးပွး နူကဵု ပြင်သေတ် (France)။
* ၁၉၉၉ – ပရေင် တ္ၚဲ ဒးဒုင် စ (Total solar eclipse) မာန် ဆဵုကေတ် လဝ် ဗွဲမကၠးသ္ဇုင် ပ္ဍဲ ရးဥရောပ ကေုာံ အာရှ။
* ၂၀၀၃ – ဂကောံ မဟာမိတ် အတ္တလာန်တိတ် သၟဝ်ကျာ '''[[နေတဝ်]]''' (NATO) စ ယိုက်ဂၠေင် တာလျိုင် မင်မဲ ၜိုဟ်သြိုဟ် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်အာဖဂါန်နဳသတာန် (Afghanistan)၊ မဒှ် ကမၠောန် ပၞာန် အဓိက ပထမအိုတ် မ္ၚး ရးဥရောပ။
'''တ္ၚဲဒှ်ဂမၠိုင်''':
* ၁၉၅၀ – '''[[သတဳဗ် ဝေါ့ဇ်နဳယက်]]''' (Steve Wozniak) တၠပညာ ကွန်ပျူတာ ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ်မပါလုပ် ဒက်ပတန် ကုမ္ပဏဳ အေပ်ပဲ (Apple Inc.)။
'''တ္ၚဲစုတိဂမၠိုင်''':
* ၁၉၅၆ – '''[[ဂျက်သေန် ပဝ်လံက်]]''' (Jackson Pollock) သၟာပါန်ခဳ ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် မပြာကတ် နကဵု နဲကဲ စဝ် ဆာဲ ကၠောန် ပါန်ခဳ။
* ၂၀၁၄ – '''[[ရဝ်ဗိန် ဝဳလဳယာမ်]]''' (Robin Williams) သၟာဇာတ် ကေုာံ ညးမကတဵုဗဒှ် ဓရ်ဂြိုင် (Comedian) မပြာကတ် ဍုင်အမေရိကာန် မကလိဂွံ လာပ် အဝ်သကာ။
<noinclude>
{{Wikipedia:On this day/Footer}}
</noinclude>
6pm6ds84kfsj2v1yu0ybmn3gbyabe58
ဗွဝ်ဖျာပိုန်ဒြပ် ၇.၀ ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် မုရော?
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Ven Moneyyadhika
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ခၞံကၠောန်လဝ် မုက်လိက် နကု "{{Infobox concepts | name = ဗွဝ်ဖျာပိုန်ဒြပ် ၇.၀ (Marketing 7.0) | image = Philip Kotler at The Growth Faculty (cropped).jpg | alt = Philip Kotler | caption = ဖိလိပ် ကောတ္တလာ (Philip Kotler)၊ ညးမဗဒှ်ပတိုန် သဘဴအာရီု ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ကေုာံ ဇၟောဝ်ခေတ်..."
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{{Infobox concepts
| name = ဗွဝ်ဖျာပိုန်ဒြပ် ၇.၀ (Marketing 7.0)
| image = Philip Kotler at The Growth Faculty (cropped).jpg
| alt = Philip Kotler
| caption = ဖိလိပ် ကောတ္တလာ (Philip Kotler)၊ ညးမဗဒှ်ပတိုန် သဘဴအာရီု ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ကေုာံ ဇၟောဝ်ခေတ် ဗွဝ်ဖျာနာနာ။
| sector = [[ပိုန်ဒြပ်]]၊ [[သၞောတ်ဗွဝ်ဖျာ]]
| key_people = [[ဖိလိပ် ကောတ္တလာ]] (Philip Kotler)
| origin_year = ၂၀၂၀-၂၀၃၀
| derivatives = [[ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၅.၀]]၊ [[ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၆.၀]]၊ [[အေအိုင်]] (AI)
}}
'''ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၇.၀''' ({{lang-en|Marketing 7.0}}) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ်သဘဴအရီု ကေုာံ မဝ်ဒေလ် [[ဗွဝ်ဖျာ]] ခေတ်တၟိ မစိုပ်ကၠုင် ပ္ဍဲခေတ်စက်ယာန်ဒရာ ပဍဲသၞောတ်အရီုမတ် ကေုာံ အေအိုင် ([[Artificial Intelligence]] - AI) မပ္တုဲကဵုအစောံသတ္တိဉာဏ်ဗဒှ် (Generative AI) မလုပ်နှဴရဴစုတ် ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ်ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ဗွက်ညးလောကပိုဲတံရ။ သဘဴဓဝ်ဗွဝ်ဖျာပိုန်ဒြပ်ဏံဝွံ ဇၞော်မောဝ်တိတ်ကၠုင် နူကဵုလညာတ် [[ဖိလိပ် ကောတ္တလာ]] (Philip Kotler) အရာမဆေင်စပ်ကဵု သၞောတ်ဗွဝ်ဖျာ မပြံင်လှာဲကၠုင် နူကဵု ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၁.၀ စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၆.၀တအ် မဒှ်ရ။
ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၇.၀ ဝွံ ကေတ်ဆကဵု ဂုဏ်ဖိုလ်ပူဂိုလ်သၟးဟွံသေင် မကေတ်ဆကဵုဂုဏ်ဖိုလ် အလုံလိုက်ဇၞော်ပိုဲတံရ၊ ဆဂး ညးစကာသၞောတ် [[Artificial Intelligence|အေအိုင်]] ကေုာံ [[Quantum Computing|ကွန်တမ် ကွန်ပျူတာ]] သွက်ဂှ် ဖန်ဗဒှ်ကဵု ဒေတာဇၞော် (Big Data) မၞုံကဵု ဍာ်ဒကေတ်သၠုင်သၠုင် သွက်ဂွံရပ်အာရီုစိုတ် ကေုာံ မပၠောပ်စုတ်စိုတ် ကုညးမရာန်တံ ညံင်ဂွံစိုပ်ကၠုင် အပ္ဍဲဗွက်ဗွဝ်ဖျာကမၠောန်တဴတံ ဗွဲမပြဟ်ပြေဟ်မာန်ရ။
== ဝင် ကေုာံ အပြံင်အလှာဲ ခေတ်ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ==
သဘဴဓဝ် သၞောတ်ဗွဝ်ဖျာဂှ် တန်တဴကၠုင် နူကဵု ခေတ်စက်ပတိတ်ကပေါတ် စဵုကဵု စိုပ် ခေတ်မေတာဝေရ်သ် ကေုာံ အေအိုင် အတိုင်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! ခေတ်ဗွဝ်ဖျာ !! သဟဇာတ ညးရာန်တံ !! နဲကဲပညာ မဒှ်အဓိက !! တိုင်ပ္ကဴ
|-
| '''ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၁.၀''' || ဒုင်သ္ဇိုင်ဗဟဵု ကၠောန်ပတိတ်ကပေါတ် (Product-centric) || စက်ဂဟတ် (Industrial Tech) || ကၠောန်ပ္တိတ်ကပေါတ်ဂၠိုင်ဂၠိုင်
|-
| '''ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၂.၀''' || ဒုင်သ္ဇိုင်ဗဟဵု ညးမရာန် (Customer-centric) || တင်နင်ပရိုင် (IT) || ပံက်တဴစိုတ် ကုညးမရာန်ကပေါတ်
|-
| '''ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၃.၀''' || ဒုင်သ္ဇိုင်ဗဟဵု မၞိဟ်ပူဂိုလ် (Human-centric) || အင်တာနက် (Web 1.0) || စိတ္တဗေဒ ကေုာံ စိုတ်ဓါတ်မၞိဟ်
|-
| '''ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၄.၀''' || ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ် (Digital Marketing) || သၞောတ်မဝ်ဗာင် (Web 2.0) || ပံင်ကောံ ဇြဟတ်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဒဳဂျဳတေဝ်
|-
| '''ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၅.၀''' || နဲကဲပညာ သွက်မၞိဟ် (Tech for Humanity) || AI, Big Data, IoT || ဖန်ဗဒှ် တံင်ဂြဲအာရီု
|-
| '''ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၆.၀''' || မေတာဝေရ်သ် (Meta marketing) || VR, AR, Metaverse || ဗွဝ်ဖျာရုပ်အရီု (Immersive)
|-
| '''ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၇.၀''' || သၞောတ်သတ္တိဉာဏ်ပလံင်ဗစိုပ်အရီု (Autonomous & Hyper-intelligent) || Generative AI, Quantum Computing || ဒက်ပ္တိုန်စိုတ်စောဲစပ် ကုမၞိဟ် ကေုာံ စက်စိစောန်
|}
== သဘဴဓဝ် မဒှ်အဓိက ပ္ဍဲဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၇.၀ ==
=== Hyper-Personalization ===
ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၇.၀ ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာမၜတ်ကၞာတ်ကဵု ကုဂကောံမၞိဟ်တံရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵုဇၟောဝ်ခေတ် သၞောတ်အေအိုင် (AI) သကာတ်မြဟ်မံင်ဏံဂှ် ဂၠာဲသ္ၚေဝ်တဴကဵု အကာဲအရာ၊ စိုတ်ဓါတ်၊ ကေုာံ အာရီုစိုတ် ပူဂိုလ်မွဲမွဲ ဗွဲမတာပ်အခိင် (Real-time) သွက်ဂှ် ဖန်ဗဒှ်ကဵု ကပေါတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကေင်ကာ မကိတ်ညဳကဵု ကုပူဂိုလ်ဂှ် ဗွဲမချိုတ်ပၠိုတ်မာန်ရ။
=== Predictive & Autonomous Marketing ===
ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၇.၀ဝွံ စကာတဴ နကဵုနဲကဲ [[Predictive Analytics]] သွက်ဂွံဗဒှ်တဴ ကိုပ်ကၠာနူ ညးမရာန်တံ ဟွံဂွံတီ ဒြဟတ်ပၟိက်ဇကုဏီတံရ။ သၞောတ်စက်ယန်တရာဏံဂှ်ပံက်ကဵုစိုတ် ကေုာံ ကၠောန်ဗဒှ် ကမၠောန်ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ဗွဲမဗၠးၜး (Autonomous) ဒုင်သဇိုင်ကဵု ဒေတာ နတဲသဘာဝတအ်ရ။
=== Decentralized Marketing Ecosystem ===
ဒုင်သဇိုင်ကဵု နဲကဲပညာ [[Blockchain]] ကေုာံ Web3 တုဲ သၞောတ်ဗွဝ်ဖျာ ၇.၀ ဂှ် ဒှ်သၞောတ်ဗွဝ်ဖျာ မဟွံမွဲကဵု ဒေါဝ် (Decentralized)ရ။ ညးမရာန်တံ ဒှ်တၠဒေတာ ဇကုကေတ်တုဲ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်တြးပ္တိတ်ကပေါတ်တံဂှ် က္တဵုဒှ်ဒၟံင် ဗွဲမပြဟ်ပြေဟ် ပ္ဍဲအကြာ မၞိဟ်ကဵုမၞိဟ် (P2P)ရ။
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist|refs=
{{cite book |last=Kotler |first=Philip |title=Marketing 5.0: Technology for Humanity |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-119-70765-3}}
{{cite journal |last=Davenport |first=T. H. |title=How Generative AI Is Changing Marketing |journal=[[Harvard Business Review]] |year=2023 |url=[https://hbr.org](https://hbr.org)}}
{{cite web |title=The Future of Autonomous Marketing |publisher=[[MIT Sloan Management Review]] |year=2024 |url=[https://sloanreview.mit.edu](https://sloanreview.mit.edu)}}
}}
== လေန်မ္ၚး ==
* [[https://www.kotlerimpact.com](https://www.kotlerimpact.com) Kotler Impact - Official Platform]
* [[https://www.wiley.com](https://www.wiley.com) Wiley Marketing and Management Books]
{{Commons category|Marketing}}
[[Category:ဗွဝ်ဖျာ]]
[[Category:ပိုန်ဒြပ်]]
[[Category:နဲကဲပညာ]]
[[Category:သုတေသန]]
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{{Infobox
| title = အက္ခရ် (ခ) ဂှ် မုအဓိပ္ပါယ်ရော
| image = [[File:Brahmi_aksharas.svg|100px|center|အက္ခရ်ဗြဟ္မီ ကေုာံ ဗျည်ဝဂ်က]]
| caption = ဗီုပြင် တမ်ဗဳဇ အက္ခရ် "ခ" (Aspirated Velar Plosive / Kha) မဒှ်သင်္ကေတဗျည်ဒုတိယ ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ်မလိက်အိန္ဒိယခေတ်တြေံ
| label1 = က္ဍိုပ်လိက်
| data1 = အက္ခရ် "ခ" (The Second Consonant 'Kha')
| label2 = ဗီုပြင်ရမျာင်
| data2 = ရမျာင်ဗျည်ဒုတိယ/ရမျာင်ထ္ၜးကျာ [kʰa]
| label3 = ဗဳဇမလိက်
| data3 = [[အက္ခရ်ဗြဟ္မီ]] → [[အက္ခရ်ပလ္လဝ]] → [[အက္ခရ်မန်ခေတ်တြေံ]]
| label4 = ကဆံင်သဒ္ဒါ
| data4 = ဗျည်ဂကောံဒုတိယ (Voiceless Aspirated Velar Stop)၊ ဗျည်ဝဂ်က
| label5 = ယူနဳကုဒ် (Unicode)
| data5 = U+1001 (Myanmar Letter Kha)
}}
'''အက္ခရ် (ခ) ဂှ် မုအဓိပ္ပါယ်ရော''' (အၚ်လိက်: ''Linguistic and Structural Significations of the Mon Second Consonant 'Kha''') ဝွံ ဒှ်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အခန်ကဏ္ဍ သဒ္ဒါ၊ ဝင်၊ ရမျာင်ဗေဒ ကေုာံ လူမၞိဟ်ဗေဒ မဆေင်ကဵု အက္ခရ် "ခ" (Aspirated Velar Plosive / Kha) မဒှ် ဗျည်ဒုတိယ ပ္ဍဲဝဂ်က တုဲ ထ္ၜးလဝ် မုက်မတ် ရမျာင်ကျာထ္ၜး ပ္ဍဲ [[မလိက်မန်]] (Mon Script) ကေုာံ [[အရေဝ်မန်]] (Mon Language) ရ။ အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ စကာနဒဒှ် ဗျည်ဝဂ်ဒုတိယ သွက်ဂွံ ဗဒှ်ရမျာင် ဇြိုဟ်/ကျာထ္ၜး `[kʰa]` ပ္ဍဲအရေဝ်မန် ကေုာံ ဝေါဟာရ ပါဠိ-သံသာကြိုတ် ရ။ လိက်ပရေင်ဝွံ ပ္တိုန်ထ္ၜးလဝ် လညာတ်သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် အလုံကဏ္ဍနာနာ အတိုင်သၞောတ် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် အက္ခရ်ဗေဒ၊ သဒ္ဒါ ကေုာံ ဝင်ခေတ်အဆက်ဆက်ရ။
== ပွံက် ကေုာံ ဗဟိရ်အာရီု (Definition and Overview) ==
နကဵုသၞောတ်ဗေဒအရေဝ်ဝေါဟာ ([[Linguistics]])၊ အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ မနွံကဵု တာလျိုင်ၜါကဏ္ဍ အဓိကရ။
# နဒဒှ် '''ဗျည်ဝဂ်ဒုတိယ (Voiceless Aspirated Velar Stop)''' မပစၞးကဵု ရမျာင်ကျာထ္ၜး ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ်မလိက် ဂကောံဗြဟ္မီ။
# နဒဒှ် '''သရတမ်စရင် ကေုာံ ဝေါဟာရပဓာန်''' (Aspirated Root Consonant) မသုင်စောအ် သွက်ဂွံ ဗဒှ်ရမျာင် "ခ" ပ္ဍဲအရေဝ်မန် ကေုာံ ဝေါဟာရ မကၠုင်နူ ပါဠိ ကေုာံ သံသာကြိုတ်။
နကဵုသၞောတ်သဒ္ဒါမန် ကေုာံ ပါဠိ၊ အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ ဒှ်ဗျည်ဇကုပူဂိုလ် သက္ကုမှီမှဲ၊ ဒှ်အရာ မဒတန် နဒဒှ် ဒုတိယဝဂ် ကေုာံ သီုစကာ နဒဒှ် တမ်တြေံ ဝေါဟာမန်ဇေတ်ဇေတ် မဒှ်အရာ ကိစ္စဇၞော် ပ္ဍဲပရေင်ဗ္တောန် လိက်မန် ခေတ်တြေံ ကေုာံ ခေတ်လၟုဟ် ရ။
== ဝင် ကေုာံ ဇၞော်မောဝ် (History and Development) ==
ဝင်အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ ဆက်စပ်ကၠုင်နူ [[အက္ခရ်ဗြဟ္မီ]] (Brahmi script) မဒှ်သင်္ကေတ ဗျည်ပါင်က္ဍိုပ် ကျာထ္ၜး တမ်ဗဳဇ ဂကောံအိန္ဒိယတြေံရ။ ပ္ဍဲခေတ်အက္ခရ်ဗြဟ္မီ၊ သင်္ကေတဏအ် ဒှ်အရာ မဆေင်ကဵု ပွမဗြုတိတ် ရမျာင်ကျာထ္ၜး ပါင်က္ဍိုပ်ဇြိုဟ်ရ။
ကာလစိုပ် ခေတ်အက္ခရ်ပလ္လဝ ([[Pallava script]]) ပ္ဍဲအိန္ဒိယသၠုင်ကျာ မဒှ်တမ်ဗဳဇ မလိက်မန်၊ သင်္ကေတ ခ ဝွံ ပြံင်လှာဲအာ နကဵုဗီုပြင် ခၠိုဟ်သ္အး ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ်မလိက်သၠုင်ကျာ။ ကာလမန်တအ် ကေတ်စကာ ပ္ဍဲခေတ်ဒွါရဝတဳ ကေုာံ ခေတ်သထုံ၊ မန်တအ် ဖန်ဇန်ကေတ် ဗီုပြင် အက္ခရ် "ခ" တုဲ ဒှ်ကၠုင် အက္ခရ် "ခ" မနွံကဵု လက္ခဏာတၟေင် ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ်မလိက်မန် ခေတ်အဆက်ဆက်ရ။
== သဇိုင် ရမျာင်ဗေဒ (Fundamental Phonetic Concepts) ==
နကဵုရမျာင်ဗေဒ ([[Phonetics]])၊ အက္ခရ် "ခ" ပစၞးကဵု ရမျာင်ဗျည်ကျာထ္ၜး ပါင်က္ဍိုပ် (Aspirated Velar Plosive) မစက္တဵုဒှ် နူပွမကၟာတ် ပါင်က္ဍိုပ် တုဲ ပဒတိတ် ကျာထ္ၜးပြဟ်ပြဟ် မက္တဵုဒှ် ရမျာင် `[kʰa]` ရ။
ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ် ရမျာင်တၟေင်မန် (Mon Register System):
* '''ရမျာင်ကောန်တၟအ် (Clear/Head Register):''' ကာလစကာ ဗျည်အက္ခရ် ဒုတိယဝဂ် ဇြိုဟ် (ဥပမာ - ခ [kʰa], ခါ [kʰaː]) ဗြုတိတ် ရမျာင်ဇြိုဟ်၊ သိုၚ်ကျာထ္ၜး တုဲ ဒှ်ရမျာင် ဗျည်ဒုတိယ။
* '''ရမျာင်ဇြိုဟ် (Chest/Breathy Register):''' ကာလစကာ ဗျည်အက္ခရ် ဒုတိယဝဂ် မနွံကဵု ရမျာင်ဇြိုဟ် တုဲ နွံကဵု ရမျာင်ကျာကၟာတ်လဒေါမ် ရ။
== ကဆံင် ကေုာံ ဗီုပြင်စကာ (Major Branches / Classification) ==
အက္ခရ် "ခ" ကေုာံ သၞောတ်စကာ ဍေံ ပါ်ခြာ လဝ် ၃ သၞောန် အဓိက:
# '''နဒဒှ် ဗျည်ဝဂ်ဒုတိယ (Aspirated Velar Stop):''' စကာနဒဒှ် တမ်စရင်ဝဂ်က မရနုက်ကဵု ၂ ပ္ဍဲဗျည် ၃၅ မ သွက်ဂွံ ဗဒှ် ရမျာင်မလိက် (ဥပမာ- က, ခ, ဂ, ဃ, ၚ)။
# '''နဒဒှ် တမ်တြေံဝေါဟာရ (Root Character):''' ချူနကဵု မလိက် "ခ" သွက်ဂွံ ပစၞးကဵု မလိက်နာမ်၊ ကိရိယာ တမ်ပိုဒ် ပ္ဍဲအရေဝ်မန် (ဥပမာ- ခဍာ်, ခၟာဲ)။
# '''နဒဒှ် သင်္ကေတပလန် သို့မဟုတ် ပွမဆက်စပ် (Grammatical Prefix/Initial):''' သုင်စောအ် နဒဒှ် တမ်ဗျည် မဆက်စပ် ကုသရနာနာ ပ္ဍဲကဏ္ဍ သဒ္ဒါမန်။
== ပရေင်ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ကုအက္ခရ်ဂကောံဗြဟ္မီ (Comparative Analysis) ==
ပရေင်ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဗီုပြင် ကေုာံ သၞောတ်ရမျာင် အက္ခရ် 'Kha' ပ္ဍဲအက္ခရ် ဂကောံဗြဟ္မီ အာရှအគ្នေဲ ဂမၠိုင် ထ္ၜးလဝ် ပ္ဍဲဇယံက် ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဝွံရ။
{| class="wikitable"
|+ ဇယံက် ၜတ်ကၞာတ် ဗျည် Kha/ခ ပ္ဍဲအက္ခရ်နာနာ
! အက္ခရ် (Script)
! ဗီုပြင်အက္ခရ် (Character)
! ဗီုပြင်ဝဂ် (Group)
! ရမျာင်သဇိုင် (IPA)
|-
| '''မန် (Mon)''' || ခ || ဝဂ်က (ဒုတိယ) || [kʰa]
|-
| '''ဗၟာ (Burmese)''' || ခ || ဝဂ်က (ဒုတိယ) || [kʰa]
|-
| '''ထာဲ (Thai)''' || ข || Aksora Sung || [kʰɔː]
|-
| '''ခမေန် (Khmer)''' || ខ || Akhar Kha || [kʰɑː]
|-
| '''ပါဠိ/သံသာကြိုတ် (Devanagari)''' || ख || Aspirated Velar Stop || [kʰɐ]
|}
== အခန်ကဏ္ဍ ပ္ဍဲဝေါဟာပါဠိ ကေုာံ သံသာကြိုတ် (Role in Pali and Sanskrit Loanwords) ==
ဝေါဟာမန် မစကာ ဗျည်ခ ဝွံ ဆက်စပ်ကဵု ဝေါဟာရ ပါဠိ-သံသာကြိုတ် ကဏ္ဍဇၞော်ဇၞော်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။
{| class="wikitable"
|+ ဇယံက် ဝေါဟာစကာ အက္ခရ် "ခ" ပ္ဍဲလိက်ပတ်မန်
! ဝေါဟာ (Word)
! တမ်ဗဳဇ (Origin)
! အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပ္ဍဲအရေဝ်မန် (Meaning in Mon)
|-
| '''ခန္ဓ''' || ပါဠိ: ''Khandha'' || ခန္ဓ၊ ကောန်ဇاتيကာယ။
|-
| '''ခန္တီ''' || ပါဠိ: ''Khanti'' || ခန္တီ၊ ပွမဆက်ဒုင်သၠေဟ်ပတှ်ေ။
|-
| '''ခေတ်''' || ပါဠိ: ''Khetta'' || ခေတ်၊ အခိင်ကာလ၊ မေဒနဳ။
|-
| '''္သ္ၚာ''' || မန်တၞောဝ်: ''Kha'' (သ္ၚာ) || တၞံခ၊ စၞးတမ်။
|-
| '''ခမဳ''' || ပါဠိ: ''Samaṇa / Mon term'' || ခမဳ၊ တၠအဇ္ဈာသယ။
|}
== ပွမဆဵုညာတ် ပ္ဍဲလိက်တၟအ်တြေံ (Epigraphic Representations and Discoveries) ==
[[File:Mon Inscription Detail Bago.jpg|thumb|250px|left|လိက်တၟအ်မန် ခေတ်ဟံသာဝတဳ မထ္ၜးလဝ် ဗီုပြင်အက္ခရ် ခ ကေုာံ မလိက်မန်တြေံ]]
ပ္ဍဲကဏ္ဍ သုတေသန လိက်တၟအ်မန် ([[Epigraphy]])၊ အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ ဆဵုညာတ်လဝ် ပ္ဍဲလိက်တၟအ် မန်ခေတ်သထုံ၊ ခေတ်ဗုကာံ ကေုာံ ခေတ်ဟံသာဝတဳ (ဥပမာ လိက်တၟအ် ကလျာဏဳ / Kalyani Mon Inscriptions) ရ။
ပ္ဍဲလိက်တၟအ် ခေတ်မန်တြေံတအ်ဂှ် အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ ချူစကာ နဒဒှ် တမ်ဗျည်ကျာထ္ၜး ပ္ဍဲဝေါဟာရ မန်ဇေတ်ဇေတ် (ဥပမာ- ခဍာ်, ခၟာဲ, ခၟိုင်) မဒှ်အရာ ထ္ၜးကဵု ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် မလိက်မန် ခိုင်ကၠိုက်ရ။
== ပရေင်ဆက်စပ် ကုယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ ပရေၚ်ပညာ (Sociocultural and Educational Significance) ==
ပ္ဍဲယေန်သၞာင် မၞိဟ်မန်၊ အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ နွံကဵု ၚုဟ်မး သဒ္ဒါ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ပညာ ဘာသာဇၞော်အိုတ်ရ။
* '''ပွမဗ္တောန် ဖတွဲမလိက်မန်:''' ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ ဘာလကျာ်မန် ([[Mon Monastic Education System]])၊ ပွမဖဍောတ် "က ခ ဂ ဃ ၚ" ဂှ် အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် နဒဒှ် ဗျည်ဒုတိယ မရနုက်ကဵု ၂ မဒးလ္ၚတ် တမ်စရင်ရ။
* '''ကဏ္ဍသာသနာ ကေုာံ ဓရ်ဂမၠိုင်:''' ပွမဗ္တောန် ဝေါဟာမန် တမ်မူလဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲလိက်ပရိယတ္တိ မန်ဂှ် ပွမစကာ "ခ" သွက်ဂွံ သောၚ်က္လး အဓိပ္ပါယ် ဝဂ်ဒုတိယ ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ မဟွံမဲ ဟွံဂွံရ။
== ခေတ်ကွန်ပျူတာ ကေုာံ နဲကဲပညာ (Modern Digital Representation and Technology) ==
[[File:Unicode Logo.svg|thumb|150px|right|သၞောတ်ယူနဳကုဒ် သွက် မလိက်မန် ကေုာံ အက္ခရ်အာရှဂမၠိုင်]]
ပ္ဍဲခေတ် နဲကဲပညာသၟာဲလပှ် (Digital Age)၊ အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ ပါတ်လုပ် ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ်ယူနဳကုဒ် ([[Unicode Standard]]) မြန်မာ-မန် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် အတိုင်ဗွဲသၟဝ်ဏအ်ရ:
* ကုဒ်မလိက် "ခ" = `U+1001`
ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ် Font Keyboard မန် (ဥပမာ Mon3 Keyboard, Pyidaungsu Keyboard)၊ ပွမနှေတ် "ခ" ဂှ် ဗဒှ်ကဵု မလိက် "ခ" နကဵုသၞောတ် ရေန်ဒါရိန် (Rendering Engine) စိုပ်ဒတုောံ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ရောမ်ဂၠောဲကဵု ပွမစကာ မလိက်မန် ပ္ဍဲကွန်ပျူတာ ကေုာံ ဖုန်းတအ် နကဵု စရာဲသဒ္ဒါ မဒးရးရ။
== အနာဂတ် ကေုာံ တင်ကသဳ (Future Trends / Challenges) ==
ပ္ဍဲခေတ်အနာဂတ်၊ တင်ကသဳ သွက် အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ ဒှ်ပွမ ပြံင်လှာဲအာ နဲကဲစကာ အရေဝ်စကာ ကေုာံ ပွမဗ္တောန် သဒ္ဒါ ပ္ဍဲကောန်သၟတ်ခေတ်တၟိရ။
* ပ္ဍဲစိုတ် ကောန်သၟတ် လ္ၚဵုတအ်၊ ပွမစကာ ဗျည်ဝဂ် ကေုာံ ဗျည်မန်တြေံ တအ် ထုဲကြာန်အာ ရေင်သကအ် ဟိုတ်နူ ရမျာင် ကျာထ္ၜး ပ္ဍဲအရေဝ်စကာ ဇၟာပ်တ္ၚဲ။
* ပွမနွံပၟိက် ကဵု ပရေင်စှ်ေစိုတ် သုတေသန ဗေဒအရေဝ် ပ္ဍဲကဏ္ဍ ရမျာင်ဗေဒ (Phonetics) သွက်ဂွံ မၚ်မွဲလဝ် စရာဲ ဗျည်ဒုတိယ ပ္ဍဲအရေဝ်မန်။
နကဵု နဲကဲမၚ်မွဲ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ လိက်ပတ်၊ ပွမပလုက်စောန် ကဵုပညာ စကာ မလိက် "ခ" ပ္ဍဲသၞောတ် ပရေင်ပညာ၊ လိက်ကၞောတ်၊ ကေုာံ သၟာဲလပှ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်အရာ ကိစ္စဇၞော် သွက်ဂွံ ထိင်ဒဝ်လဝ် အဓိပ္ပါယ် ကေုာံ စရာဲ အက္ခရ် "ခ" ဝွံ လၟိုန်ကာလရ။
== နိဿဲ ==
{{Reflist|refs=
{{cite book
|last=Shorto
|first=H. L.
|title=A Dictionary of Modern Spoken Mon
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=1962
|isbn=978-0197135242
}}
{{cite book
|last=Bauer
|first=Christian
|title=Inscriptions of Mon-Khmer Studies
|publisher=Mahidol University
|year=1984
}}
{{cite journal
|last=Jenny
|first=Mathias
|title=The Mon Language in Myanmar and Thailand: Narrative and Grammar
|journal=University of Zurich
|year=2011
}}
{{cite book
|last=Daniels
|first=Peter T.
|title=The World's Writing Systems
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=1996
|isbn=978-0195079937
}}
{{cite web
|title=Unicode Consortium Code Charts: Myanmar (U1000)
|url=[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1000.pdf](https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1000.pdf)
|website=Unicode Consortium
|access-date=2026-08-11
}}
{{cite book
|last=Rhys Davids
|first=T. W.
|title=Pali-English Dictionary
|publisher=Pali Text Society
|year=1921
}}
{{cite book
|last=Mon Chit Thaung
|first=U
|title=Old Mon Inscriptions and Mon Culture
|publisher=Mon Culture Department
|year=1975
}}
{{cite journal
|last=Diffloth
|first=Gérard
|title=The Austroasiatic Linguistic Family and Mon Monography
|journal=Mon-Khmer Studies
|year=1989
}}
{{cite book
|last=Salomon
|first=Richard
|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and other Indo-Aryan Languages
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=1998
|isbn=978-0195099843
}}
{{cite book
|last=Tun Way
|first=U
|title=The Academic Grammar of Mon Language
|publisher=Mawlamyine University Press
|year=2005
}}
}}
== လိက်ပတိုန်စပ် ==
* [[https://www.unicode.org](https://www.unicode.org) Unicode Official Website]
* [[https://sealang.net/monkhmer](https://sealang.net/monkhmer) SEAlang Mon-Khmer Languages Repository]
* [[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=example](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=example) Mon Language Grammar Tutorial]
{{Commons category|Mon alphabet}}
[[Category:မလိက်မန်]]
[[Category:ဗေဒအရေဝ်ဝေါဟာ]]
[[Category:အက္ခရ်ဗြဟ္မီ]]
[[Category:သဒ္ဒါပါဠိ]]
[[Category:သုတေသန]]
[[Category:နဲကဲပညာ]]
{{Navbox
| name = အက္ခရ် (ခ) ဂှ် မုအဓိပ္ပါယ်ရော
| title = [[မလိက်မန်]] ကေုာံ [[ဗေဒအရေဝ်ဝေါဟာ]]
| listclass = hlist
| list1 =
* [[အက္ခရ်ဗြဟ္မီ]]
* [[အက္ခရ်ပလ္လဝ]]
* [[မလိက်မန်ခေတ်တြေံ]]
* [[သရမန်]]
* [[ဗျည်မန်]]
* [[ယူနဳကုဒ်]]
* [[သဒ္ဒါပါဠိ]]
* [[ရမျာင်ဗေဒ]]
}}
svswiwb8fguuqqnwfb4f6qxt9mz6paw
ဍုင်ဆာတ်
0
11918
57276
2026-08-11T09:07:34Z
Aue Nai
24
ခၞံကၠောန်လဝ် မုက်လိက် နကု "'''ဍုင်ဆာတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Chad'', ပြင်သေတ်: ''Tchad'', အာရပ်: تشاد), ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု ယၟု သၞောဝ် '''သမ္မတ ဍုင်ဆာတ်''' (Republic of Chad) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မဟွံမဲ ကု သြင်ၜဳ (Landlocked country) မနွံ ပ္ဍ..."
57276
wikitext
text/x-wiki
'''ဍုင်ဆာတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Chad'', ပြင်သေတ်: ''Tchad'', အာရပ်: تشاد), ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု ယၟု သၞောဝ် '''သမ္မတ ဍုင်ဆာတ်''' (Republic of Chad) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မဟွံမဲ ကု သြင်ၜဳ (Landlocked country) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒေါဝ် ကေုာံ သၟဝ်ကျာ တိုက်အာဖရိက (Africa) ရ。 ဍုင်ဏအ်ဝွံ ပယျဵု ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဍုင်လဳဗျာ (Libya) လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ၊ ဍုင်သုဒါန် (Sudan) လပါ် ဗၟံက်၊ သမ္မတ ဍုင်လဒေါဝ် အာဖရိက (Central African Republic) လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ၊ ဍုင်ကေမာရိုန် (Cameroon) ကဵု ဍုင်နုဲဂျဳရဳယျာ (Nigeria) လပါ် နေရတိ၊ ကေုာံ ဍုင်နဳဂျာ (Niger) လပါ် ပလိုတ် ရ。 ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဍေဟ် သ္ၚောဲ နူကဵု ၜဳ တုဲ နွံကဵု ရာသဳဥတု ကန္တရ လတူ တိ ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ကော်စ နကဵု ယၟု ကၞေဟ် "ကသိုပ် ဂမ္တဴ အာဖရိက" (Dead Heart of Africa) ရ။<ref name="decalo">{{cite book |last=Decalo |first=S. |title=Historical Dictionary of Chad |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=1997 |pages=15-22}}</ref>
ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် ဇၞော် အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု မသုန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တိုက်အာဖရိက တုဲ နွံကဵု ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ ယေန်သၞာင် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။ ဍုင်ဇၞော် အိုတ် ကေုာံ ဌာန်ဂဥုပ် ဍုင် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် အေန်ဂျာမေနာ (N'Djamena) ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဍုင်ဆာတ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ပထဝဳ၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။
[[File:Chad (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဒၞာဲဒတန် ဍုင်ဆာတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တိုက်အာဖရိက (အသာ် သၚေက်)]]
== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ ယၟု (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ယၟု ဍုင် "ဆာတ်" ဝွံ ကၠုင် နူကဵု ယၟု '''[[ကၟာဆာတ်]]''' (Lake Chad) မဒှ် ကၟာ ဍာ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ ဂှ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် ဒေသ (ဥပမာ အရေဝ် ကာနူရဳ Kanuri language) မ္ဂး၊ မလိက် "Tsade" ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး "Chad" ဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် "ကၟာ ဍာ် ဇၞော်" (Large expanse of water) ရ။
ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု သယံဇာတ မပ္တံကဵု ကၠေင်ရေနံ (Oil) ကေုာံ ထဝ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မဒိုက်ဂတ် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးတိ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဟွံညိင်ဝတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပေါဲဗတိုက် အပ္ဍဲဍုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကပ်ဘဲ သဘာဝ တအ် ရ။ ဍုင် ဏအ် နွံကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ရုံး (Official languages) ၜါ ဂှ် - ပြင်သေတ် (French) ကေုာံ အာရပ် (Arabic) ရ။
== ၂။ ဝင် တမၠာ ကေုာံ အေန်ပါယာဂမၠိုင် (Ancient History and Empires) ==
တိဍာ် ဍုင်ဆာတ် လၟုဟ် ဝွံ နွံ ဝင် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် မတန်တဴ ကၠုင် လဝ် နူကဵု သၞာံ မဂၠိုင်ကဵု လ္ၚီ တေအ် ရ။
* '''ခေတ် သမိုင်း တြေံ (Prehistoric):''' ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ကန္တရ သာဟာရာ (Sahara)၊ သုတေသန ဂၠာဲဆဵု ညာတ် ဇုတ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တြေံ အိုတ် ဥပမာ ''Toumaï'' (Sahelanthropus tchadensis) မနွံ အာယုက် ၜိုတ် ၇ ပြကောဋိ သၞာံ ရ။
* '''အေန်ပါယာ ကာနင်-ဗဝ်နူ (Kanem-Bornu Empire):''' ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ စဵုကဵု ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ဒေသ ကၟာဆာတ် ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် အုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵု အေန်ပါယာ ကာနင် မဒှ် အေန်ပါယာ အေတ်သလာမ် (Islamic empire) ဇၞော် မွဲ မထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ကန္တရ (Trans-Saharan trade) ရ။
* အေန်ပါယာ တအ် ဏအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ဍိက် (Slave trade) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ၜဵု ကေုာံ ထဝ် ရ။<ref name="azevedo">{{cite book |last=Azevedo |first=M. J. |title=Roots of Violence: A History of War in Chad |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |pages=35-50}}</ref>
== ၃။ ခေတ် ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ပြင်သေတ် (French Colonial Era) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၀၀ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်လုပ် သီ တိဍာ် နူကဵု ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် (France) စတင် ကၠုင် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ကူသေရဳ (Battle of Kousséri) ပြင်သေတ် တအ် အံင်ဇၞး အာ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ရာဗေတ် အာဇြူဘေ (Rabih az-Zubayr) တုဲ ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဂှ် စိုပ် အာ သၟဝ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ပြင်သေတ် ရ။
* သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀ ဂှ်၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဒှ် အာ ကဏ္ဍ မွဲ နူကဵု ဒေသ ပြင်သေတ် အာဖရိက အဳကွေတာ (French Equatorial Africa) ရ。
* အုပ်ဓုပ် ပြင်သေတ် တအ် အာရီုစွံ အဓိက လတူ လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ သွက်ဂွံ တဵုလွဳ တဵု ဗြိ (Cotton) တုဲ လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ် ညးတအ် ပလပ် ထောအ် သီု ဟွံမဲ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် ဇၞော် (North-South divide) မဆက် ကတဵုဒှ် ပြသၞာ စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။
== ၄။ ဍုင်သၠးပွး ကေုာံ ပေါဲဗတိုက် အပ္ဍဲဍုင် (Independence and Civil Wars) ==
ပ္ဍဲ '''၁၁ အဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၉၆၀'''၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် ကလိဂွံ သၠးပွး နူကဵု ပြင်သေတ် တုဲ '''[[ဖရန်သွာ တောမ်ဗလ်ဘာယေ]]''' (François Tombalbaye) ဒှ် သမ္မတ ပထမအိုတ် ရ။ ဆဂး အလဵုအသဳ ညး မနွံ လညာတ် သၠုင်ကျာ ဂှ် ဍဵုဍိုက် လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ တုဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် အပ္ဍဲဍုင် ပထမ စ ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၅ ရ။
* သၞာံ ၁၉၇၅: သမ္မတ တောမ်ဗလ်ဘာယေ ဒးဒုင် ဂစိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲသီအဝဵု ပၞာန်။
* သၞာံ ၁၉၈၂: ဟစ်သေန် ហាဗရီ (Hissène Habré) လုပ် သီ အဝဵု ဍုင်။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ညးဂှ် ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဒး တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု ပရေင်လုပ် သီ နူကဵု လဳဗျာ (Libya - Toyota War)။ ហាဗရီ ဒးဒုင် စောဲ ဒုဟ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဂစိုတ် မၞိဟ် ၄၀,၀၀၀ ပြင်င် ရ။
* သၞာံ ၁၉၉၀: ဂဥုပ်ဗိုလ် '''[[အဳဒရစ် ဒေဗဳ]]''' (Idriss Déby) သီ ကေတ် အဝဵု နူ ហាဗရီ တုဲ ဒှ် သမ္မတ စဵုကဵု ညး စုတိ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် သၞာံ ၂၀၂၁ ရ။<ref name="burr">{{cite book |last=Burr |first=J. M. |author2=Collins, R. O. |title=Africa's Thirty Years War: Chad, Libya, and the Sudan, 1963–1993 |publisher=Westview Press |year=1999 |pages=150-165}}</ref>
== ၅။ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Geography and Climate) ==
ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဇမၞော် တိဍာ် ၁,၂၈၄,၀၀၀ စတုရန်း ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (၄၉၆,၀၀၀ စတုရန်း မိုင်) တုဲ ဒှ် ဍုင် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ၅ ပ္ဍဲ အာဖရိက ရ။ ဍေဟ် ပါ်လဝ် ဒေသ အဓိက ၃ သာ် -
{| class="wikitable"
|+ ဒေသ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဆာတ်
|-
! ဒေသ (Zone)
! တန်တဴ (Location)
! ရာသဳဥတု ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ
|-
| '''ကန္တရ သာဟာရာ''' (Sahara) || လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ || ကန္တရ ကှ်ကှ်၊ ဗြဲ အောန် နူ ၅၀ မဳလဳမဳတာ ပ္ဍဲ မွဲ သၞာံ။ နွံကဵု ဒဵု တဳဗေသတဳ (Tibesti Mountains) ကေုာံ က္ဍဟ် ဒဵု အေမဳ ကူသဳ (Emi Koussi - ၃,၄၄၅ မဳတာ) မသၠုင် အိုတ်။
|-
| '''ဇြောန် သာဟေလ်''' (Sahel) || လဒေါဝ် ဍုင် || တိ မကှ် ကဝက် (Semi-arid)၊ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ အဓိက သွက် ကမၠောန် လွဳလွတ် တိရစ္ဆာန် (Pastoralism)။ ကၟာဆာတ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဏအ် ရ။
|-
| '''ဇြောန် သုဒါန်နဳယျာ''' (Sudanian Savanna) || လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ || ဗြဲ ဂူ ခိုဟ် (၆၀၀ - ၁၀၀၀ မဳလဳမဳတာ)၊ ဒှ် တိ မသန်တဴ သွက် ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ နွံ ဂြိုပ်ဆု ရ။
|}
'''ကၟာဆာတ်''' (Lake Chad) ဝွံ မွဲ အခိင် တေအ် ဒှ် ကၟာ ဍာ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ၜါ ပ္ဍဲ အာဖရိက၊ ဆဂး ဟိုတ်နူ ရာသဳဥတု ပြံင်လှာဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စကာ ဍာ် မလောန် က္ဍင်၊ လၟုဟ် ဍေဟ် ယှောတ် စှ်ေ အာ ၉၀% နူကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၆၀ တေအ် ရ။
== ၆။ အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Government and Politics) ==
ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် သမ္မတ (Republic)၊ ဆဂး ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် နကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။
* သမ္မတ အဳဒရစ် ဒေဗဳ (Idriss Déby) ဂှ် အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် ဍုင် နူ ၁၉၉၀ စဵုကဵု ၂၀၂၁ ရ။ ညး ဒးဒုင် ပန် ဂစိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ညး အာ ဇရေင် မုက် ပၞာန် သွက်ဂွံ ဗတိုက် ကု ဂကောံ ပၠန်ဂတး FACTS (Front for Change and Concord in Chad) ရ။
* ကြဴနူ ဂှ်၊ ကောန် ညး '''[[မာဟာမတ် ဒေဗဳ]]''' (Mahamat Déby) က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ကံင်သဳ ပၞာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ (Transitional Military Council) တုဲ သီ ကေတ် အဝဵု ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၄၊ မာဟာမတ် ဒေဗဳ ဂွံ ဒုင် ရုဲစှ် နဒဒှ် သမ္မတ တၟိ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲရုဲစှ် မနွံကဵု ပြသၞာ သံသယ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။<ref name="nolutshungu">{{cite book |last=Nolutshungu |first=S. C. |title=Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad |publisher=University of Virginia Press |year=1995 |pages=102-115}}</ref>
== ၇။ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Demographics and Society) ==
အတိုင် စရင် ၂၀၂၃၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် နွံ လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် ၁၇ ပြကောဋိ ရ။ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဂကူ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် -
* '''ဂကူ (Ethnic Groups):''' နွံ ဂကူ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် ပြင် ၂၀၀ ဂကူ ရ။ ဂကူ ဇၞော် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကူ သာရာ (Sara - ၃၀%) မနွံ လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ၊ ကေုာံ ဂကူ အာရပ် (Arabs - ၁၂%) မနွံ လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ကဵု လဒေါဝ် ရ။ ဂကူ တၞဟ် တအ် မပ္တံကဵု Kanembu, Wadai, ကေုာံ Gorane တအ် ပါလုပ် ရ။
* '''ဘာသာ (Religion):'''
* ဘာသာ အေတ်သလာမ် (Islam): ၜိုတ် ၅၅% - ၅၈% (ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ကဵု လဒေါဝ်)။
* ဘာသာ ခရေတ်ယာန် (Christianity): ၜိုတ် ၄၀% (ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ)။
* ဘာသာ သဘာဝ တြေံ (Animism): ၜိုတ် ၂%။
== ၈။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ သယံဇာတ (Economy and Resources) ==
ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ ဍုင် မဇၞော်မောဝ် အောန် အိုတ် (Least Developed Countries) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု သယံဇာတ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ပရေအ်၊ တိဍာ် ဟွံမဲ ကု ၜဳ၊ ကေုာံ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဟွံဇၞော်မောဝ် ရ။
* '''ကၠေင်ရေနံ (Oil):''' စတမ် နူ သၞာံ ၂၀ဝ၃ ဂှ်၊ ကၠေင်ရေနံ ဒှ် အာ ထုတ်ကုန် တိတ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် ဍုင်ဆာတ် ရ။ ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ပိုက်လိုင်း ဆာတ်-ကေမာရိုန် (Chad-Cameroon pipeline) ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ညးတအ် ပလံင် ကၠေင် စိုပ် ၜဳ မာန် ရ။ ဆဂး သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ နူ ကၠေင် ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ် ဇၞော် တအ် သၟး တုဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဟွံဂွံ ဒုင်စသိုင် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ (Agriculture):''' မၞိဟ် ၈၀% ပြင်င် ဂှ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ လွဳလွတ် တိရစ္ဆာန် ရ။ ကပေါတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် (Export) အဓိက သၟေဟ် ဂှ် ဒှ် တဵု ဗြိ (Cotton)၊ သဵု (Sesame) ကေုာံ ဂၠဴ/သဵု ရ။<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/chad/ |title=Chad |publisher=CIA World Factbook |year=2024 |access-date=August 11, 2026}}</ref>
== ၉။ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Culture, Education, and Health) ==
ယေန်သၞာင် ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ နှဴရဴ ဒၟံင် အကြာ ယေန်သၞာင် အာရပ် ကေုာံ အာဖရိက ရ။
* '''အရေဝ်ဘာသာ (Languages):''' ၜိုန်ရ ပြင်သေတ် ကဵု အာရပ် ဒှ် အရေဝ် ရုံး ကီုလေဝ်၊ အရေဝ် ဆာတ်-အာရပ် (Chadian Arabic) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရေဝ် မစကာ ဂၠိုင် အိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ (Lingua franca) ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပညာ (Education):''' ပရေင်ပညာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဂှ် ဍိုန်လျ ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် မလေပ် လိက် (Literacy rate) နွံ ဆ ၜိုတ် ၃၁% သၟး တုဲ၊ ဒှ် လၟိဟ် အောန် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ကောန်ၚာ် ဗြဴ တအ် အခေါင် အာ ဘာ အောန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Health):''' သၞောတ် ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ဝွံ ဟွံခိုင်ကၠိုက် တုဲ ပြသၞာ ယဲ ဂမ္တဴ (Malaria)၊ HIV/AIDS ကေုာံ ဍာ် သန့်ရှင်း ဟွံမဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပြသၞာ ဇၞော် အိုတ် ရ။ အာယုက် မဂျိုင်တန်တဴ (Life expectancy) ဂှ် နွံ ဆ ၜိုတ် ၅၄ သၞာံ သၟး ရ။
== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် မနွံကဵု ပြသၞာ ထပ်တိုန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒေါဝ် တိုက်အာဖရိက ရ။ သြဇာ နူ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဆက်စပ် မပ္တံကဵု သုဒါန် ကေုာံ လဳဗျာ ဂှ် လေဝ် ကဵု ဖဵု ပရေအ် လတူ ဂီုကၠီု ဍုင်ဆာတ် လၟိုန် ရ။
ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် သ္ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကု တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ၜါ သာ် - မွဲ ဂှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate change) မပကဵု ညံင် ကန္တရ သာဟာရာ ဂွံ ဇၞော် တိုန် ကေုာံ ကၟာဆာတ် ဂွံ ကှ် အာ။ ၜါ ဂှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မဍာံပြ သွက်ဂွံ သၠး နူကဵု အုပ်ဓုပ် တၠအာဏာ ပၞာန် ကေုာံ သုင်စောဲ သြန် ကၠေင်ရေနံ သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ခိုဟ် ကု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ရောင်။ ယဝ်ရ ပြသၞာ တအ် ဏအ် ဖြေစှ် ဟွံမာန် မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် သ္ဒး ဆက် တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ ဍုင် မဒိုက်ဂတ် အိုတ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရောင်။
== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
<references />
== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[တိုက် အာဖရိက]] (Africa)
* [[ကန္တရ သာဟာရာ]] (Sahara)
* [[ကၟာဆာတ်]] (Lake Chad)
* [[အေန်ဂျာမေနာ]] (N'Djamena)
* [[ကၠေင်ရေနံ]] (Petroleum)
{{Navbox
| name = Chad topics
| title = ပရူပရာ ဆက်စပ် ကု ဍုင်ဆာတ် (Chad Topics)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်
| list1 =
* [[အေန်ပါယာ ကာနင်-ဗဝ်နူ]] (Kanem-Bornu)
* [[ဖရန်သွာ တောမ်ဗလ်ဘာယေ]] (François Tombalbaye)
* [[အဳဒရစ် ဒေဗဳ]] (Idriss Déby)
* [[မာဟာမတ် ဒေဗဳ]] (Mahamat Déby)
| group2 = ပထဝဳ
| list2 =
* [[ကၟာဆာတ်]] (Lake Chad)
* [[ကန္တရ သာဟာရာ]] (Sahara Desert)
* [[သာဟေလ်]] (Sahel)
* [[အေန်ဂျာမေနာ]] (N'Djamena)
| group3 = ဍုင် ဆက်စပ် ပယျဵု
| list3 =
* [[လဳဗျာ]] (Libya)
* [[သုဒါန်]] (Sudan)
* [[ကေမာရိုန်]] (Cameroon)
* [[နုဲဂျဳရဳယျာ]] (Nigeria)
* [[နဳဂျာ]] (Niger)
* [[သမ္မတ ဍုင်လဒေါဝ် အာဖရိက]] (Central African Republic)
| group4 = ဂကူ ကေုာံ ဘာသာ
| list4 =
* [[ဂကူ သာရာ]] (Sara people)
* [[ဘာသာ အေတ်သလာမ်]] (Islam)
* [[ဘာသာ ခရေတ်ယာန်]] (Christianity)
}}
[[Category:ဍုင်ဆာတ်]]
[[Category:ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ အာဖရိက]]
[[Category:ဍုင်သၠးပွးဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ဒေသ သာဟာရာ]]
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