ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်

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      <text bytes="12551" sha1="53204b7z8i7zlqj1isia05u1g6pypj0" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:gaduliya.jpg|right|250px|thumb|သၟတ်ဗြဴ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂါဒဳယျာ လောဟာရ် နူမာရ်ဝါရ် (Marwar) မဍုန်ဒၟံင်စၞ မ္ၚးကွာန်မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ခရိုင်ရာတ်လာမ် (Ratlam district)]]
'''ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်'''(Gadia Lohars) (လဆောဝ်ကော်စ ''ဂဒုလဳယ လောဟာရ် (Gaduliya Lohars)'' ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး ''ရာဇ်ပုတ်လောဟာရ် (Rajput Lohar)'') ဂှ် ဒှ်ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ကမၠင် (nomadic community) ပ္ဍဲတွဵုရးရာဇသတာန် (Rajasthan) ကၟိန်ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယ ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသမလွ (Malwa region) တွဵုရးမဓျပြဒေသ် (Madhya Pradesh) လေဝ် ဂွံဆဵုကေတ် ကီုရ။ ညးတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်သၟာလောဟာရ် ''lohar'' (ဓမာတ်ပသဲ) တုဲ မကြင်အာ ကြင်ကၠုင် နကဵုကွဳဂၠဴညးတအ် မွဲဒၞာဲတုဲ မွဲဒၞာဲရ။ ဟိုတ်ဂှ်ရ ညးကော်စ ညးတအ် ဂါဒဳယျာ နကဵုအရေဝ်ဟိန္ဒဳ ဂါဒဳ မဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ကွဳ၊ လောဟာရ် ဂှ် ဓမာတ် ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ် သၟာဓမာတ်ကွဳ (ဝါ) ရဲဓမာတ် မမံင် ပ္ဍဲကွဳရ။ အဓိက ညးတအ် မကၠောန်ဂှ် ကပေါတ်ကမၠောန်ဗ္ၚ ကေုာံ ကပေါတ်လွပ်သ္ၚိ မပ္တံကဵု ၜုန်မြ ခၜံက်တအ်ရ။

ဇုဇဗဴလညးတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်သၟာပါန်သဲ (ဝါ) သၟာဓမာတ် ပ္ဍဲဒပ်ပၞာန် တၠညးမဟာရန ပြတပ် မဒှ်ဨကရာဇ်ဍုင်မေဝါရ်။ အခိင်ကာလ ဍုင်မေဝါရ် မကျအာ ကု မုဃလ် (Mughals) ဂှ် ညးတအ် ဒုင်လဝ် ဂတိပါင် လုကဴ သၟိင်တၠညးတအ် တၠညးမဟာရန မဟွံဇၞးကေတ် စိတ္တောဂြိုဟ် (Chittorgarh) မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ဆလအ်လေဝ် ဟွံကလေင်စဴ ဍုင်မိတိမဇကု၊ ဆလအ်လေဝ် ဟွံပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲမွဲမွဲ တုဲပၠန် ဆလအ်လေဝ် ဟွံပဒတဴ သၟဝ်ကၟဳ။ တၠညးမဟာရန ဟွံကလိဂွံ စိတ္တောဂြးတုဲ ညးတအ်လေဝ် အတိုင်ဂတိပါင်ဂှ် ဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက်ဒၟံင် စဵုကဵုတ္ၚဲဏအ်ရ။

==ဒတန် ကေုာံ ဂကူ ==
ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်တအ်ဂှ် တမ်မူလ ကၠုင်နူ တွဵုရးရာဇာသတာန်တုဲ အခိင်လၟုဟ်မ္ဂး ပြးဇးအာ အလုံမွဲ ဍုင်အိန္ဒိယရ။ အခိင်လၟုဟ် ညးတအ် ပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲကဵု တွဵုရး မပ္တံ ဥတ္တာရ်ပြဒေသ်၊ မဓျပြဒေသ်၊ ဟာရ်ယာန၊ မဟာရသတြ၊ ပုန်ဇာဗ်၊ ဂုဇရာဇ်၊ ဒေလဳ။ မၞိဟ်မွဲတွဵုရး ကုတွဵုရး ကော်ယၟု ညးတအ် ဟွံတုပ်ရ။ ဥပမာ မၞိဟ်တွဵုရး မဓျပြဒေသ် ကဵု တွဵုရးဒေလဳဂှ် ကော်ညးတအ် ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်၊ ပ္ဍဲ မဟာရာဇသတြ ဂှ် ကော်စညးတအ် ဂဒ္ဒဳလောဟာရ်၊ ပ္ဍဲဥတ္တာရ်ပြဒေသ်ဂှ် ကော်စ ညးတအ် ဘုရ်ကုတိယျာ။ &lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite book |last=Singh |first=K. S. |author-link= |date=1998 |title=India's Communities A-G Anthropological Survey of India. Volume 1 |url= |location= |publisher=New Delhi: Oxford University Press |page=922-923 |isbn=}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

အရေဝ်ဘာသာမိ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်တအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်ဂကောံအရေဝ် အေန်ဒဝ်-အာရဳယာန် မကော်ဂး အရေဝ် မေဝရဳ၊ ဆဂး ညးတအ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင်ဂှ် ဟီုအရေဝ် ဟိန္ဒဳလေဝ်နွံကီုရ။ လိက်ညးတအ်ဂှ် ချူ နကဵုအက္ခရ်ဒေဝနဂရဳ။&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Rahela |first=Satyapal |author-link= |date=1975 |title=The Gadulia Lohars of Rajasthan, A Study in the Sociology of Nomadism |url= |location= |publisher=New Delhi |page= |isbn=}}&lt;/ref&gt; ယၟုမ္ဂး ဂါဒဳယျာ (ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး) ဂါဒူလဳယျာ ဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ကွဳဂၠဴတုဲ လောဟာရ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် ပသဲ ကေုာံ ဓမာတ်ပသဲ/ပါန်သဲ&lt;ref name=Singh/&gt;

==ဝင်==
တမ်မူလ ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်ဏအ်ဂှ် ကၠုင်နူ ဍုင်တြေံ စိတ္တောဂြိုဟ် (Chittorgarh) မဒှ်ရာဇဌာနဳ မေဝါရ် ကေုာံ ဍုင်သၟိင် ဨကရာဇ်သိသောဒဳယာ ရာဇ်ပုတ် (King Sisodia Rajput)။ ဍုင်စိတ္တောဂြိုဟ်ဂှ် နွံဇိုင်ကြုင်ဂါမ်ဘိရဳ၊ ဍုင်ဂှ် နွံလတူဒဵု မနွံကဵု ကၟာင်ဗွဲမဇၞော်ရ။ သၟိင်ဍုင်မုဃလ် ကၠုင်ဗတိုက်ဍုင်ဂှ် အလန်ကိုပ်ကၠာအိုတ် ပ္ဍဲသၞာံအေဒဳ ၁၃၀၃ တုဲ ဆက်ကၠုင်ဗတိုက်ဒၟံင် ဟွံဒေါအ်ဇူရ။ စိုပ်သၞာံ ၁၅၆၈ ဂှ် မုဃလ် သီဂွံအာ ဍုင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ဍုင်မကျအာ ကုသၟိင်ဍုင်မုဃသ်ဂှ် ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်ဂှ် ဒဴတိတ်နူဍုင်စိတ္တောဂှ်ရ။ ကိုပ်ကၠာဟွံဂွံတိတ် နူဍုင်စိတ္တောဂြိုဟ်ဍင်ဂှ် ရာဇ်ပုတ် ကဵု ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်တအ် ပလဝ် သစ္စ ဒုင်လဝ် ဂတိပါင် ဒဒှ်ရ လုကဴ ဍုင်စိတ္တော ဟွံဗၠးၜးမ္ဂး ဆလအ်လေဝ် ဟွံကလေင်လုပ်ဍုင်၊ ဆလအ်လေဝ် ဟွံမံင် ပ္ဍဲသ္ၚိ၊ ဆလအ်လေဝ် ဟွံတိက် ပ္ဍဲခါတ်၊ ဆလအ်လေဝ် ဟွံဍေန်ပၟတ်၊ ဆလအ်လေဝ် ဟွံစကာဇုက် သွက်ဂွံတံင်ပ္တိုန်ဍာ် နူပလိုင် &lt;ref name=Misra&gt;{{cite book |last=Misra |first=P. K. |author-link= |date=1977 |title=The Nomadic Gadulia Lohar of Eastern Rajasthan, Calcutta |url= |location= |publisher=Director Anthropological Survey of India |page= |isbn=}}&lt;/ref&gt; စနူဂှ်တုဲ ညးတအ် ပဒတဴ ဘဝဓမ္မတာ စကာကွဳဂၠဴတုဲ ကၠင်ကြေဝ် ပဒတဴဒၟံင် မွဲဒၞာဲတုဲမွဲဒၞာဲ ဆက်မင်မဲအာ သစ္စဂတိပါင်ညးတအ် ကြပ်ပေင် ၄၀၀ သၞာံရလေဝ် စဵုကဵုလၟုဟ် ဒ္ဂေတ်ဗက်ဒၟံင်အတိုင်ဂှ်ဖိုဟ်ရ။&lt;ref name=Tehrani&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Tehrani, N. H. |date=2015 |title=The Ethnographic Narration of Gadulia Lohar Tribe of Udaipur, Rajasthan: With the Special Reference to the Ethnoarchaeological Perspective and Traditional Iron Tool Technology |url=https://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.12321/ |journal=Ancient Asia |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=1 -11 |doi= |pmc= |pmid= |access-date= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725214213/https://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.12321/ |date=2022-07-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

နကဵု ဂကောံမၞိဟ်ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်တအ်မ္ဂး ညးတအ်ဟီု ညးတအ်ဂှ် ဒှ်တၞောဝ်ရာဇ်ပုတ်၊ ဆဂး မၞိဟ်တၞောဝ်ရာဇ်ပုတ်တအ် ဟွံဒုင်တဲ၊ မၞိဟ်တၞောဝ်ရာဇ်ပုတ်တအ်ဂှ် ညးတအ်ဟီု ဒဒှ်ရ မွဲအခိင်တေအ် ညးတအ် ပဒတဴကၠုင်လဝ် မွဲစွံ၊ ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံဒှ် မွဲတၞောဝ် ကုရာဇ်ပုတ်။&lt;ref name=Tehrani/&gt; ဂါဒဳယျာလောဟာရ်တအ်ဂှ် ဟွံပဒတဴ ဒၞာဲဓနေတ်မွဲမွဲဒၞာဲတုဲ ညးတအ် ပြံင်ကၠင်ဒၟံင် တွဵု၊ ကာလညးပြံင်အာ မွဲမွဲဒၞာဲမ္ဂး ညးတအ် စကာနကဵုကွဳဂၠဴဟေင်ရ။ ဒြပ်ရတ်ညးတအ် သီုဖအိုတ်ဂှ် နွံပ္ဍဲကွဳဂှ်ဖအိုတ်တုဲ ကွဳဂၠဴဂှ် ညးတအ် စၟတ်သမ္တီလဝ် သ္ၚိညးတအ်ရ။ ညးတအ် ဇူတဴ (ဝါ) ပဒတဴ ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲမွဲမွဲဒၞာဲမ္ဂး ညးတအ် တက်တာဲ ပ္ဍဲဇိုင်ဂၠံင်တုဲ ပဒတဴဒၟံင် မွဲမွဲအံင်ရ။ ပ္ဍဲအခိင်ကၠာတေအ်မ္ဂး မွဲဂကောံမ္ဂး ကွဳပိ၊ ညးတအ် မလေပ်အာ မွဲစွံ၊ အခိင်လၟုဟ် အောန်စှ်ေ၊ လဆောဝ်ၜါပိ ဂကောံသ္ၚိကၟိန်ဂှ် နွံဆ ကွဳမွဲဓဝ်ရ။ ဒၞာဲညးတအ် မပဒတဴလအ်လအ်ဂှ်မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ကၠောန်ဗဒင် နကဵုတိ ကၟဳ နကဵုပလာသတေတ်တုဲ မံင်လေဝ် နွံကီုရ။ သွက်မၞိဟ်မပြံင်ဒၟံင် ပိပန်တ္ၚဲ မွဲဒၞာဲဂှ်မ္ဂး ညးတအ် ဟွံတက်တာဲ၊ တိက်မံင် ပ္ဍဲကွဳညးတအ်ဂှ်ရ။&lt;ref name=Misra/&gt;

== လေန်မ္ၚး ==
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=mgVwv9Kf0DsC&amp;pg=PA55&amp;dq Explains a lot about the Gadia Lohars (Blacksmith)]
*[http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Asia/India/photo265850.htm Gadia Lohar]
*[http://www.loupiote.com/sets/72157621238787512.shtml Photos of Gaduliya Lohars]
*[http://www.lohars.org Website of the Lohar Community]
*[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1984_Oct/ai_3455604/?tag=content;col1 The Gaduliya Lohars: India's wandering blacksmiths - UNESCO Courier, Oct 1984, by Esteban Cobas Puente] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712133708/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1984_Oct/ai_3455604/ |date=2012-07-12 }}
*[http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/02/nomads/lancaster-text India's Lost Nomads - National Geographic]
*[https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-miss-india-uk-s-documentary-to-showcase-life-of-gaddi-lohar-community-2730524 Deana Uppal shoots film on the gaddia Lohars ]

==နိဿဲ==
{{Reflist}}</text>
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    <title>ညးလွပ် ဓရီုကျာ:Ven Moneyyadhika</title>
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== လ္ပာ်ဏအ် ဒှ်ဒၞာဲ ဓရီုကျာ ကု Ven Moneyyadhika ==

သ္ဍိုက်မၠာ် ပိုဲဍိက်ဂကောံညးလွပ်တအ်၊ 
အရာမွဲမွဲ မမိက်ဂွံသၟာန်၊ မမိက်ဂွံပလေဝ်ပလေတ်၊ ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး မမိက်ဂွံဆဵုဂဗ ပ္ဍဲကဵု မုက်လိက်အဲမ္ဂး ကၠုင်တက်ကျာ ဒၞာဲဏအ်မာန်ရအဴ။ 

=== တင်စၟတ် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကမၠောန် ===
* သွက်ဂွံဒုင်တဲ ပရေင်ဆဝ်ဗ္ၚုဟ်၊ ပရေင်ပလေဝ်ပလေတ်၊ ကေုာံ ပရေင်သၟာန်သၟုက် ဂပ်ဝ်ဒးရး။
* ညံင်ဂွံဒှ် ဒၞာဲသ္ပတိတ် ပရေင်ဓရီုကျာ မနွံကဵု အဓိပ္ပါယ် ပ္ဍဲဂကောံဝဳကဳဗှ်မန်ရ။

---

{{Talkback|Ven Moneyyadhika}}

== ပရူဓရီုကျာ ==
(ကဵုပရူပရာ ဂလာန်ဓရီုကျာ သွက်ညးတၞဟ်တအ် ဂွံကၠုင်တက်ကျာ ပ္ဍဲဒၞာဲဏအ်ရအဴ)

[[Category:ညးလွပ် ဝဳကဳဗှ်]]

== Invitation to try the Starter Kit Tool ==

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      <text bytes="3480" sha1="iadnlujq5ijco9qfp70x8oo0qlqaxg2" xml:space="preserve">== ဒုင်တၠုင်ရအဴ ==

ကၠုင်ဘိုင်ရေင်တၠုင်ဝဳကဳမန်ဂှ် တင်ဂုဏ်ဗွဲမဇၞော်ကုဇြဟတ်ရ

တၞဟ်နသွက်ညးနိဿဲဗှ်လိက်တအ် သ္ဂောံဒှ်ဖိုလ်ပရဲမဂၠိုင် တၠအဲ စၟဳစၟတ်ကဵု မအက္ခရ်ကေုာံ အဓိပ္ပါယ်လိက်တအ်မ္ဂး 

ဒှ်ဒတုဲဖိုလ်ဂၠိုင်ညာတ်တုဲ 

ဗွဲကြဴပၠန်လေဝ် သြဝ်ကၠုင်ဘိုင်ရေင်တၠုင်ပတိုန်ဏာ သွက်ကဏ္ဍဗဟုသုတမန်ညိ ပၠန် 

တင်ဂုဏ်ဗွဲမလောန်ရအဴ  [[ညးလွပ်:Aue Nai|Aue Nai]] ([[ညးလွပ် ဓရီုကျာ:Aue Nai|ဓရီု]])  ၂၁:၃၈၊ ၂၆ ဂျောန် ၂၀၂၆ (+0630)

:ယွံ ဗွဲမညဳသၟဟ်ကဵုအခိၚ် အဲနဒဒှ် ရဲဘိုၚ်တက်ပတိုန်ဏံမွဲဂှ် ၜိုတ်နွံကဵု လညာတ်ညာဏ်ဗဟုသုတတအ်ဂှ် ပါ်ပါဲတုဲ စၟဳစၟတ် ပတိုန်အာရောၚ်၊ တၚ်ဂုဏ်ရအဴ [[ညးလွပ်:အဲလွဳနာဲ|အဲလွဳနာဲ]] ([[ညးလွပ် ဓရီုကျာ:အဲလွဳနာဲ|ဓရီု]])  ၀၆:၁၄၊ ၂၇ ဂျောန် ၂၀၂၆ (+0630)

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      <text bytes="23198" sha1="708idn8qz79dpedlyya1kfvbvr3459o" xml:space="preserve">'''ဍုင်ဆာတ်''' (အၚ်္ဂလိက်: ''Chad'', ပြင်သေတ်: ''Tchad'', အာရပ်: تشاد), ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး နကဵု ယၟု သၞောဝ် '''သမ္မတ ဍုင်ဆာတ်''' (Republic of Chad) ဟီုမ္ဂးဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မဟွံမဲ ကု သြင်ၜဳ (Landlocked country) မနွံ ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒေါဝ် ကေုာံ သၟဝ်ကျာ တိုက်အာဖရိက (Africa) ရ。 ဍုင်ဏအ်ဝွံ ပယျဵု ဆက်စပ် ဒၟံင် ကု ဍုင်လဳဗျာ (Libya) လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ၊ ဍုင်သုဒါန် (Sudan) လပါ် ဗၟံက်၊ သမ္မတ ဍုင်လဒေါဝ် အာဖရိက (Central African Republic) လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ၊ ဍုင်ကေမာရိုန် (Cameroon) ကဵု ဍုင်နုဲဂျဳရဳယျာ (Nigeria) လပါ် နေရတိ၊ ကေုာံ ဍုင်နဳဂျာ (Niger) လပါ် ပလိုတ် ရ。 ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ဍေဟ် သ္ၚောဲ နူကဵု ၜဳ တုဲ နွံကဵု ရာသဳဥတု ကန္တရ လတူ တိ ဂှ်ရ၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် ကော်စ နကဵု ယၟု ကၞေဟ် &quot;ကသိုပ် ဂမ္တဴ အာဖရိက&quot; (Dead Heart of Africa) ရ။&lt;ref name=&quot;decalo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Decalo |first=S. |title=Historical Dictionary of Chad |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=1997 |pages=15-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် ဇၞော် အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု မသုန် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တိုက်အာဖရိက တုဲ နွံကဵု ပရေင်တၞဟ်ခြာ ယေန်သၞာင် ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။ ဍုင်ဇၞော် အိုတ် ကေုာံ ဌာန်ဂဥုပ် ဍုင် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဍုင် အေန်ဂျာမေနာ (N'Djamena) ရ။ လိက်ပရေင် ဏအ်ဝွံ သ္ၚေဝ်ဂၠေပ် လဝ် ပရူပရာ ဍုင်ဆာတ် နကဵု လညာတ် ဝင်၊ ပထဝဳ၊ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ်၊ ယေန်သၞာင် ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ ခေတ်တၟိ ဗွဲမလှဲလး ရ။

[[File:Chad (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|right|300px|ဗီုရုပ် ထ္ၜး ဒၞာဲဒတန် ဍုင်ဆာတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု တိုက်အာဖရိက (အသာ် သၚေက်)]]

== ၁။ နိဒါန် ကေုာံ တမ်မူလ ယၟု (Introduction and Etymology) ==
ယၟု ဍုင် &quot;ဆာတ်&quot; ဝွံ ကၠုင် နူကဵု ယၟု '''[[ကၟာဆာတ်]]''' (Lake Chad) မဒှ် ကၟာ ဍာ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဒေသ ဂှ် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် ဒေသ (ဥပမာ အရေဝ် ကာနူရဳ Kanuri language) မ္ဂး၊ မလိက် &quot;Tsade&quot; ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး &quot;Chad&quot; ဂှ် ဂွံအဓိပ္ပါယ် &quot;ကၟာ ဍာ် ဇၞော်&quot; (Large expanse of water) ရ။ 

ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု သယံဇာတ မပ္တံကဵု ကၠေင်ရေနံ (Oil) ကေုာံ ထဝ် ကီုလေဝ်၊ ဍေဟ် ဒှ် ဍုင် မဒိုက်ဂတ် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲကဵု ဂၠးတိ ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဟွံညိင်ဝတ် ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်၊ ပေါဲဗတိုက် အပ္ဍဲဍုင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ကပ်ဘဲ သဘာဝ တအ် ရ။ ဍုင် ဏအ် နွံကဵု အရေဝ်ဘာသာ ရုံး (Official languages) ၜါ ဂှ် - ပြင်သေတ် (French) ကေုာံ အာရပ် (Arabic) ရ။

== ၂။ ဝင် တမၠာ ကေုာံ အေန်ပါယာဂမၠိုင် (Ancient History and Empires) ==
တိဍာ် ဍုင်ဆာတ် လၟုဟ် ဝွံ နွံ ဝင် ပရေင်မၞိဟ် မတန်တဴ ကၠုင် လဝ် နူကဵု သၞာံ မဂၠိုင်ကဵု လ္ၚီ တေအ် ရ။ 
* '''ခေတ် သမိုင်း တြေံ (Prehistoric):''' ပ္ဍဲ လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ကန္တရ သာဟာရာ (Sahara)၊ သုတေသန ဂၠာဲဆဵု ညာတ် ဇုတ် ကောန်မၞိဟ် တြေံ အိုတ် ဥပမာ ''Toumaï'' (Sahelanthropus tchadensis) မနွံ အာယုက် ၜိုတ် ၇ ပြကောဋိ သၞာံ ရ။
* '''အေန်ပါယာ ကာနင်-ဗဝ်နူ (Kanem-Bornu Empire):''' ပ္ဍဲ အကြာ ၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ စဵုကဵု ၁၉ ဗွဝ်ကၠံ၊ ဒေသ ကၟာဆာတ် ဂှ် ဒးဒုင် အုပ်ဓုပ် နကဵု အေန်ပါယာ ကာနင် မဒှ် အေန်ပါယာ အေတ်သလာမ် (Islamic empire) ဇၞော် မွဲ မထိင်ဒဝ် လဝ် ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ကန္တရ (Trans-Saharan trade) ရ။
* အေန်ပါယာ တအ် ဏအ် ဇၞော်မောဝ် ကၠုင် ဟိုတ်နူကဵု ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ဍိက် (Slave trade) ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဗၞိက် ၜဵု ကေုာံ ထဝ် ရ။&lt;ref name=&quot;azevedo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Azevedo |first=M. J. |title=Roots of Violence: A History of War in Chad |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |pages=35-50}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ၃။ ခေတ် ကဝ်လဝ်နဳ ပြင်သေတ် (French Colonial Era) ==
ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၀၀ ဂှ်၊ ပရေင်လုပ် သီ တိဍာ် နူကဵု ဍုင်ပြင်သေတ် (France) စတင် ကၠုင် ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ကူသေရဳ (Battle of Kousséri) ပြင်သေတ် တအ် အံင်ဇၞး အာ က္ဍိုပ်သကိုပ် ရာဗေတ် အာဇြူဘေ (Rabih az-Zubayr) တုဲ ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဂှ် စိုပ် အာ သၟဝ် အုပ်ဓုပ် ပြင်သေတ် ရ။

* သၞာံ ၁၉၂၀ ဂှ်၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဒှ် အာ ကဏ္ဍ မွဲ နူကဵု ဒေသ ပြင်သေတ် အာဖရိက အဳကွေတာ (French Equatorial Africa) ရ。
* အုပ်ဓုပ် ပြင်သေတ် တအ် အာရီုစွံ အဓိက လတူ လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ သွက်ဂွံ တဵုလွဳ တဵု ဗြိ (Cotton) တုဲ လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ဂှ် ညးတအ် ပလပ် ထောအ် သီု ဟွံမဲ ပရေင်ဇၞော်မောဝ် ရ။ ဏအ်ဂှ် ကတဵုဗဒှ် ပရေင်ဟွံတုပ်သၟဟ် ဇၞော် (North-South divide) မဆက် ကတဵုဒှ် ပြသၞာ စဵုကဵု တ္ၚဲဏအ် ရ။

== ၄။ ဍုင်သၠးပွး ကေုာံ ပေါဲဗတိုက် အပ္ဍဲဍုင် (Independence and Civil Wars) ==
ပ္ဍဲ '''၁၁ အဝ်ဂေတ် ၁၉၆၀'''၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် ကလိဂွံ သၠးပွး နူကဵု ပြင်သေတ် တုဲ '''[[ဖရန်သွာ တောမ်ဗလ်ဘာယေ]]''' (François Tombalbaye) ဒှ် သမ္မတ ပထမအိုတ် ရ။ ဆဂး အလဵုအသဳ ညး မနွံ လညာတ် သၠုင်ကျာ ဂှ် ဍဵုဍိုက် လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ တုဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် အပ္ဍဲဍုင် ပထမ စ ကတဵုဒှ် ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၁၉၆၅ ရ။

* သၞာံ ၁၉၇၅: သမ္မတ တောမ်ဗလ်ဘာယေ ဒးဒုင် ဂစိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲသီအဝဵု ပၞာန်။
* သၞာံ ၁၉၈၂: ဟစ်သေန် ហាဗရီ (Hissène Habré) လုပ် သီ အဝဵု ဍုင်။ ပ္ဍဲ ခေတ် ညးဂှ် ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဒး တဝ်စၞေဟ် ကု ပရေင်လုပ် သီ နူကဵု လဳဗျာ (Libya - Toyota War)။ ហាဗရီ ဒးဒုင် စောဲ ဒုဟ် ဟိုတ်နူ ဂစိုတ် မၞိဟ် ၄၀,၀၀၀ ပြင်င် ရ။
* သၞာံ ၁၉၉၀: ဂဥုပ်ဗိုလ် '''[[အဳဒရစ် ဒေဗဳ]]''' (Idriss Déby) သီ ကေတ် အဝဵု နူ ហាဗရီ တုဲ ဒှ် သမ္မတ စဵုကဵု ညး စုတိ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲဗတိုက် သၞာံ ၂၀၂၁ ရ။&lt;ref name=&quot;burr&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Burr |first=J. M. |author2=Collins, R. O. |title=Africa's Thirty Years War: Chad, Libya, and the Sudan, 1963–1993 |publisher=Westview Press |year=1999 |pages=150-165}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ၅။ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု (Geography and Climate) ==
ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဇမၞော် တိဍာ် ၁,၂၈၄,၀၀၀ စတုရန်း ကဳလဝ်မဳတာ (၄၉၆,၀၀၀ စတုရန်း မိုင်) တုဲ ဒှ် ဍုင် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ၅ ပ္ဍဲ အာဖရိက ရ။ ဍေဟ် ပါ်လဝ် ဒေသ အဓိက ၃ သာ် -

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ ဒေသ ပထဝဳ ကေုာံ ရာသဳဥတု ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဆာတ်
|-
! ဒေသ (Zone)
! တန်တဴ (Location)
! ရာသဳဥတု ကေုာံ အကာဲအရာ
|-
| '''ကန္တရ သာဟာရာ''' (Sahara) || လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ || ကန္တရ ကှ်ကှ်၊ ဗြဲ အောန် နူ ၅၀ မဳလဳမဳတာ ပ္ဍဲ မွဲ သၞာံ။ နွံကဵု ဒဵု တဳဗေသတဳ (Tibesti Mountains) ကေုာံ က္ဍဟ် ဒဵု အေမဳ ကူသဳ (Emi Koussi - ၃,၄၄၅ မဳတာ) မသၠုင် အိုတ်။
|-
| '''ဇြောန် သာဟေလ်''' (Sahel) || လဒေါဝ် ဍုင် || တိ မကှ် ကဝက် (Semi-arid)၊ ဒှ် ဒၞာဲ အဓိက သွက် ကမၠောန် လွဳလွတ် တိရစ္ဆာန် (Pastoralism)။ ကၟာဆာတ် နွံ ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသ ဏအ် ရ။
|-
| '''ဇြောန် သုဒါန်နဳယျာ''' (Sudanian Savanna) || လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ || ဗြဲ ဂူ ခိုဟ် (၆၀၀ - ၁၀၀၀ မဳလဳမဳတာ)၊ ဒှ် တိ မသန်တဴ သွက် ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ နွံ ဂြိုပ်ဆု ရ။
|}

'''ကၟာဆာတ်''' (Lake Chad) ဝွံ မွဲ အခိင် တေအ် ဒှ် ကၟာ ဍာ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် မရနုက်ကဵု ၜါ ပ္ဍဲ အာဖရိက၊ ဆဂး ဟိုတ်နူ ရာသဳဥတု ပြံင်လှာဲ ကေုာံ ပရေင်စကာ ဍာ် မလောန် က္ဍင်၊ လၟုဟ် ဍေဟ် ယှောတ် စှ်ေ အာ ၉၀% နူကဵု သၞာံ ၁၉၆၀ တေအ် ရ။

== ၆။ အလဵုအသဳ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် (Government and Politics) ==
ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် သမ္မတ (Republic)၊ ဆဂး ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန် ဝွံ ဒးဒုင် အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် နကဵု ဒပ်ပၞာန် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ရ။

* သမ္မတ အဳဒရစ် ဒေဗဳ (Idriss Déby) ဂှ် အုပ်ဓုပ် လဝ် ဍုင် နူ ၁၉၉၀ စဵုကဵု ၂၀၂၁ ရ။ ညး ဒးဒုင် ပန် ဂစိုတ် ပ္ဍဲ အခိင် ညး အာ ဇရေင် မုက် ပၞာန် သွက်ဂွံ ဗတိုက် ကု ဂကောံ ပၠန်ဂတး FACTS (Front for Change and Concord in Chad) ရ။
* ကြဴနူ ဂှ်၊ ကောန် ညး '''[[မာဟာမတ် ဒေဗဳ]]''' (Mahamat Déby) က္ဍိုက်က္ဍိုပ် ကံင်သဳ ပၞာန် ပြံင်လှာဲ (Transitional Military Council) တုဲ သီ ကေတ် အဝဵု ရ။ ပ္ဍဲ သၞာံ ၂၀၂၄၊ မာဟာမတ် ဒေဗဳ ဂွံ ဒုင် ရုဲစှ် နဒဒှ် သမ္မတ တၟိ ပ္ဍဲ ပေါဲရုဲစှ် မနွံကဵု ပြသၞာ သံသယ ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ရ။&lt;ref name=&quot;nolutshungu&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Nolutshungu |first=S. C. |title=Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad |publisher=University of Virginia Press |year=1995 |pages=102-115}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ၇။ ပရေင်မၞိဟ် ကေုာံ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် (Demographics and Society) ==
အတိုင် စရင် ၂၀၂၃၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် နွံ လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် ၜိုတ် ၁၇ ပြကောဋိ ရ။ ဂကောံမၞိဟ် ဝွံ နွံကဵု ဂကူ ကေုာံ ယေန်သၞာင် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် -

* '''ဂကူ (Ethnic Groups):''' နွံ ဂကူ ကောန်ဍုင်အရင် ပြင် ၂၀၀ ဂကူ ရ။ ဂကူ ဇၞော် အိုတ် ဂှ် ဒှ် ဂကူ သာရာ (Sara - ၃၀%) မနွံ လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ၊ ကေုာံ ဂကူ အာရပ် (Arabs - ၁၂%) မနွံ လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ကဵု လဒေါဝ် ရ။ ဂကူ တၞဟ် တအ် မပ္တံကဵု Kanembu, Wadai, ကေုာံ Gorane တအ် ပါလုပ် ရ။
* '''ဘာသာ (Religion):''' 
  * ဘာသာ အေတ်သလာမ် (Islam): ၜိုတ် ၅၅% - ၅၈% (ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် လပါ် သၟဝ်ကျာ ကဵု လဒေါဝ်)။
  * ဘာသာ ခရေတ်ယာန် (Christianity): ၜိုတ် ၄၀% (ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် လပါ် သၠုင်ကျာ)။
  * ဘာသာ သဘာဝ တြေံ (Animism): ၜိုတ် ၂%။

== ၈။ ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ကေုာံ သယံဇာတ (Economy and Resources) ==
ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ပါလုပ် ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ ဍုင် မဇၞော်မောဝ် အောန် အိုတ် (Least Developed Countries) ရ။ ၜိုန်ရ နွံကဵု သယံဇာတ ကီုလေဝ်၊ ပရေင်အုပ်ဓုပ် ပရေအ်၊ တိဍာ် ဟွံမဲ ကု ၜဳ၊ ကေုာံ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ပကဵု ညံင် ပရေင်ပိုန်ဒြပ် ဟွံဇၞော်မောဝ် ရ။

* '''ကၠေင်ရေနံ (Oil):''' စတမ် နူ သၞာံ ၂၀ဝ၃ ဂှ်၊ ကၠေင်ရေနံ ဒှ် အာ ထုတ်ကုန် တိတ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် သွက် ဍုင်ဆာတ် ရ။ ပရေင်သြိုင်ခၞံ ပိုက်လိုင်း ဆာတ်-ကေမာရိုန် (Chad-Cameroon pipeline) ဂှ် ပကဵု ညံင် ညးတအ် ပလံင် ကၠေင် စိုပ် ၜဳ မာန် ရ။ ဆဂး သြန်ဘဏ္ဍာ နူ ကၠေင် ဂှ် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် စကာ ပ္ဍဲ ဒပ်ပၞာန် ကေုာံ မၞိဟ် ဇၞော် တအ် သၟး တုဲ ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ဟွံဂွံ ဒုင်စသိုင် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်တဵုလွဳ (Agriculture):''' မၞိဟ် ၈၀% ပြင်င် ဂှ် ကၠောန် ကမၠောန် တဵုလွဳ ကေုာံ လွဳလွတ် တိရစ္ဆာန် ရ။ ကပေါတ် သွက်ဂွံ ပတိတ် (Export) အဓိက သၟေဟ် ဂှ် ဒှ် တဵု ဗြိ (Cotton)၊ သဵု (Sesame) ကေုာံ ဂၠဴ/သဵု ရ။&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/chad/ |title=Chad |publisher=CIA World Factbook |year=2024 |access-date=August 11, 2026 |accessdate=August 11, 2026 |archivedate=January 26, 2021 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032225/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/chad/ }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ၉။ ယေန်သၞာင်၊ ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Culture, Education, and Health) ==
ယေန်သၞာင် ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ နှဴရဴ ဒၟံင် အကြာ ယေန်သၞာင် အာရပ် ကေုာံ အာဖရိက ရ။ 
* '''အရေဝ်ဘာသာ (Languages):''' ၜိုန်ရ ပြင်သေတ် ကဵု အာရပ် ဒှ် အရေဝ် ရုံး ကီုလေဝ်၊ အရေဝ် ဆာတ်-အာရပ် (Chadian Arabic) ဂှ် ဒှ် အရေဝ် မစကာ ဂၠိုင် အိုတ် သွက် ပရေင်ဆက်ဆံ (Lingua franca) ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ပညာ (Education):''' ပရေင်ပညာ ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဂှ် ဍိုန်လျ ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။ လၟိဟ် မၞိဟ် မလေပ် လိက် (Literacy rate) နွံ ဆ ၜိုတ် ၃၁% သၟး တုဲ၊ ဒှ် လၟိဟ် အောန် အိုတ် မွဲ ပ္ဍဲ ဂၠးတိ ရ။ ကောန်ၚာ် ဗြဴ တအ် အခေါင် အာ ဘာ အောန် ဗွဲမလောန် ရ။
* '''ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် (Health):''' သၞောတ် ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ဝွံ ဟွံခိုင်ကၠိုက် တုဲ ပြသၞာ ယဲ ဂမ္တဴ (Malaria)၊ HIV/AIDS ကေုာံ ဍာ် သန့်ရှင်း ဟွံမဲ ဂှ် ဒှ် ပြသၞာ ဇၞော် အိုတ် ရ။ အာယုက် မဂျိုင်တန်တဴ (Life expectancy) ဂှ် နွံ ဆ ၜိုတ် ၅၄ သၞာံ သၟး ရ။

== ၁၀။ သ္ၚောပ် ကေုာံ အနာဂတ် (Conclusion and Future Perspectives) ==
ဍုင်ဆာတ် ဝွံ ဒှ် ဍုင် မနွံကဵု ပြသၞာ ထပ်တိုန် ဗွဲမဂၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲကဵု လဒေါဝ် တိုက်အာဖရိက ရ။ သြဇာ နူ ပေါဲဗတိုက် ပ္ဍဲ ဍုင် ဆက်စပ် မပ္တံကဵု သုဒါန် ကေုာံ လဳဗျာ ဂှ် လေဝ် ကဵု ဖဵု ပရေအ် လတူ ဂီုကၠီု ဍုင်ဆာတ် လၟိုန် ရ။ 

ပ္ဍဲ အနာဂတ်၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် သ္ဒး ဆဵုဂဗ ကု တင်ဝါတ်ဂါတ် ဇၞော် အိုတ် ၜါ သာ် - မွဲ ဂှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ ရာသဳဥတု (Climate change) မပကဵု ညံင် ကန္တရ သာဟာရာ ဂွံ ဇၞော် တိုန် ကေုာံ ကၟာဆာတ် ဂွံ ကှ် အာ။ ၜါ ဂှ် ပရေင်ပြံင်လှာဲ သၞောတ် ဒဳမဝ်ကရေသဳ မဍာံပြ သွက်ဂွံ သၠး နူကဵု အုပ်ဓုပ် တၠအာဏာ ပၞာန် ကေုာံ သုင်စောဲ သြန် ကၠေင်ရေနံ သွက်ဂွံ ဖန်ဗဒှ် ပရေင်ပညာ ကေုာံ ပရေင်ထတ်ယုက် ခိုဟ် ကု ညးဍုင်ကွာန် တအ် ရောင်။ ယဝ်ရ ပြသၞာ တအ် ဏအ် ဖြေစှ် ဟွံမာန် မ္ဂး၊ ဍုင်ဆာတ် သ္ဒး ဆက် တန်တဴ ပ္ဍဲ ဂကောံ ဍုင် မဒိုက်ဂတ် အိုတ် အလုံ ဂၠးတိ ရောင်။

== နိဿဲဂမၠိုင် ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== ဆက်ဗှ်လ္ၚတ် ==
* [[တိုက် အာဖရိက]] (Africa)
* [[ကန္တရ သာဟာရာ]] (Sahara)
* [[ကၟာဆာတ်]] (Lake Chad)
* [[အေန်ဂျာမေနာ]] (N'Djamena)
* [[ကၠေင်ရေနံ]] (Petroleum)

{{Navbox
| name = Chad topics
| title = ပရူပရာ ဆက်စပ် ကု ဍုင်ဆာတ် (Chad Topics)
| listclass = hlist
| state = autocollapse
| group1 = ဝင် ကေုာံ ပရေင်ဍုင်ကွာန်
| list1 =
* [[အေန်ပါယာ ကာနင်-ဗဝ်နူ]] (Kanem-Bornu)
* [[ဖရန်သွာ တောမ်ဗလ်ဘာယေ]] (François Tombalbaye)
* [[အဳဒရစ် ဒေဗဳ]] (Idriss Déby)
* [[မာဟာမတ် ဒေဗဳ]] (Mahamat Déby)
| group2 = ပထဝဳ
| list2 =
* [[ကၟာဆာတ်]] (Lake Chad)
* [[ကန္တရ သာဟာရာ]] (Sahara Desert)
* [[သာဟေလ်]] (Sahel)
* [[အေန်ဂျာမေနာ]] (N'Djamena)
| group3 = ဍုင် ဆက်စပ် ပယျဵု
| list3 =
* [[လဳဗျာ]] (Libya)
* [[သုဒါန်]] (Sudan)
* [[ကေမာရိုန်]] (Cameroon)
* [[နုဲဂျဳရဳယျာ]] (Nigeria)
* [[နဳဂျာ]] (Niger)
* [[သမ္မတ ဍုင်လဒေါဝ် အာဖရိက]] (Central African Republic)
| group4 = ဂကူ ကေုာံ ဘာသာ
| list4 =
* [[ဂကူ သာရာ]] (Sara people)
* [[ဘာသာ အေတ်သလာမ်]] (Islam)
* [[ဘာသာ ခရေတ်ယာန်]] (Christianity)
}}

[[Category:ဍုင်ဆာတ်]]
[[Category:ဍုင်ဂမၠိုင် ပ္ဍဲ အာဖရိက]]
[[Category:ဍုင်သၠးပွးဂမၠိုင်]]
[[Category:ဒေသ သာဟာရာ]]</text>
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== namyo1678@gmail.com ==

Mon [[ညးလွပ်:Koko66687|Koko66687]] ([[ညးလွပ် ဓရီုကျာ:Koko66687|ဓရီု]])  ၂၃:၃၅၊ ၁၁ အဝ်ဂေတ် ၂၀၂၆ (+0630)</text>
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      <comment>ခၞံကၠောန်လဝ် မုက်လိက် နကု &quot;{{Speciesbox |image = N Ipoa D1600.JPG |status = LC |status_system = IUCN3.1 |status_ref =&lt;ref name=&quot;iucn status 19 November 2021&quot;&gt;{{cite iucn |author=Gupta, A.K. |author2=Sayer, C. |date=2018 |title=''Ipomoea aquatica'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T168908A120145878 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T168908A120145878.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; |genus = Ipomoea |species = aquatica |authority = Peter F...&quot;</comment>
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|image = N Ipoa D1600.JPG
|status = LC
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_ref =&lt;ref name=&quot;iucn status 19 November 2021&quot;&gt;{{cite iucn |author=Gupta, A.K. |author2=Sayer, C. |date=2018 |title=''Ipomoea aquatica'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T168908A120145878 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T168908A120145878.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|genus = Ipomoea
|species = aquatica
|authority = [[Peter Forsskål|Forssk.]]
}}

'''''ဝုန်''''', ( '''water spinach''') ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞေဝ် ဂကူတၞံဍာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသဂမ္တဴရ။ တမ်မူလ တၞံဝုန်ဂှ် ပတှ်ေကေတ် စတိုန် ပ္ဍဲ အာသျှအဂၞဲ၊ တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ အာသျှအဂၞဲ၊ အာသျှဗမံက်ကီု သီု အာသျှသၠုင်ကျာဂှ် တဵုလွဳဒၟံင် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကုဒြဟတ်ရ။ တၞံဝုန်ဂှ် တိုန် ဒၞာဲမကြပ်ညောန် ကုဍာ်တုဲ ဟွံမဲပၟိက် ပွမဒးလွဳလွတ်ရ။&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

==လက်သန်==
''ဝုန်'' တိုန် ပ္ဍဲဍာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တိထၞုက်။ တၞံဍေဟ် နွံ ဇမၠိင် ၜိုတ်{{convert|2|-|3|m|ft|sigfig=1}}၊ ရိုဟ် တိတ် ပ္ဍဲ တင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။  The hollow cavity within the stem makes the plant buoyant. The leaves vary from typically sagittate (arrowhead-shaped) to [[lanceolate]], {{convert|5|-|15|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|-|8|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} broad. The flowers are trumpet-shaped, {{convert|3|-|5|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} in diameter, and usually white in colour with a mauve centre. Propagation is either by planting cuttings of the stem shoots, which will root along nodes, or by planting the seeds from flowers that produce seed pods.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.curiousgardener.com/2011/09/15/the-new-kangkong-experiment/|title=Growing kangkong in water |work=curiousgardener.com|date=15 September 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.kangkungking.com/2009/01/how-to-harvest-kang-kung-kong-seeds.html |title=Kangkungking.com |publisher=Kangkungking.com |access-date=13 January 2014 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120210321/http://www.kangkungking.com/2009/01/how-to-harvest-kang-kung-kong-seeds.html |archive-date=20 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Origin and distribution==
The origin of ''Ipomoea aquatica'' is not quite clear, but it is generally believed to be native to [[Southeast Asia]] and was first cultivated there. This is supported by phylogenetic studies, its ideal climatic conditions, and the number of native pathogens in the region (like ''[[Albugo]]'' spp.); as well as its predominant cultivation range, the prevalence in usage as food and traditional medicine, and the number of distinct native names in Southeast Asian languages and language families.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Li, H.-L. 1970. The origin of cultivated plants in Southeast Asia. ''Economic Botany'' 24:3-19.&lt;/ref&gt;

Several sources have also cited China or India as the location of the plant's domestication.&lt;ref&gt;Chang, K-C. 1970. Beginnings of agriculture in the Far East. ''Antiquity'' 44:1-12.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Westphal, E. 1993. ''Ipomoea aquatica'' Forsskal Pp. 181- 184 in ''Plant Resources in South-East Asia''. Number 8. Vegetables. Edited by J.S. Siemonsma &amp; K. Piluek. Pu-doc Scientific Publishers, Wageningen.&lt;/ref&gt; However, these claims have no supporting evidence other than the appearance of the plant's name in historical records. The first clear mention of ''I. aquatica'' in Chinese records is in the ''[[Nanfang Caomu Zhuang]]'' written by the Chinese botanist Ji Han (AD 263-307). Ji Han specifically identifies ''I. aquatica'' as being &quot;a strange vegetable of the south&quot; with a foreign origin brought over by &quot;western countries&quot;. The claim for an Indian origin is based on the presence of the old name {{Lang|sa-latn|kalamba}} for the plant in [[Sanskrit]], presumed to be from around 200 BC, but this is putative.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

''Ipomoea aquatica'' is also found in [[Africa]], the southwestern [[Pacific Islands]], and northern [[Australia]]. However, in Africa and the Pacific Islands, the number of native common names isn't as varied as in Southeast Asia, and there are very few references to the local use of ''I.&amp;nbsp;aquatica'' for any purpose. Similarly, in Australia, it does not have indigenous names at all and is entirely absent in the traditional diet of [[Indigenous Australians]]. These imply that ''I.&amp;nbsp;aquatica'' weren't native to these regions and were likely introduced relatively late from tropical Asia.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

== Composition ==
=== Nutrition ===
{{See also|Stir-fried water spinach}}
{{nutritional value | name=Water spinach, raw
| kJ=79
| protein=2.6 g
| fat=0.2 g
| carbs=3.14 g
| fiber=2.1 g
| calcium_mg=77
| iron_mg=1.67
| magnesium_mg=71
| phosphorus_mg=39
| potassium_mg=312
| sodium_mg=113
| zinc_mg=0.18
| manganese_mg=0.16
| vitC_mg=55
| thiamin_mg=0.03
| riboflavin_mg=0.1
| niacin_mg=0.9
| pantothenic_mg=0.141
| vitB6_mg=0.096
| folate_ug=57
| vitA_ug=315
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/169301/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

== Safety ==
=== Health risk ===
Many of the waters where water spinach grows are fed by domestic or other waste. Pigs in southeast Asia are a natural reservoir for the parasite ''[[Fasciolopsis|Fasciolopsis buski]]''. Infections in the [[Mekong]] regions resulted from feeding on water spinach. Infections of ''F. buski'' in humans through water spinach can be anticipated. The infection can be prevented by proper preparation, such as frying or boiling.&lt;ref&gt;Yoshihara, S., Hung, N. P., Hung, N. H., Loc, C. B. &quot;Helminths and Helminthiosis of Pigs in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam with Special Reference to Ascariosis and Fasciolopsis buski Infection.&quot; Jarq 33, 193-199 (1999)&lt;/ref&gt; Contamination with [[Coliform bacteria|thermotolerant coliforms]] (ThC) or [[Protozoa|protozoan parasites]] with fecal origin, are very likely when the water spinach is planted in wastewater fed urban systems.&lt;ref&gt;Vuong TA, Nguyen TT, Klank LT, Phung DC, Dalsgaard A.&quot;Faecal and protozoan parasite contamination of water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) cultivated in urban wastewater in Phnom Penh, Cambodia.&quot; Tropical Medicine and International Health, 73-81 (2007)&lt;/ref&gt; Water spinach has great potential as a purifier of aquatic habitats. It is an efficient accumulator of [[cadmium]], [[lead]], and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]]. This characteristic can be dangerous if water spinach is planted for human or animal feed in polluted aquatic systems. Mercury in water spinach is composed mostly as [[methylmercury]] and has the highest potential of becoming a threat to human health. The edible parts of the plant have a lower [[Heavy metals|heavy metal]] concentration. The stems and bottom of the edible portion of the plant are higher in concentration and should be removed to minimize the heavy metal intake.&lt;ref&gt;Gosh, S. &quot;Wetland Macrophytes as toxic metal accumulators&quot; International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 523-528 (2010)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Göthberg A., Greger, M., Bengtsson, E. &quot;Accumulation of heavy metals in water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) cultivated in the Bangkok region, Thailand&quot; Environmental Toxicology, 1934-1939 (2009)&lt;/ref&gt;

== Uses ==
=== Culinary ===
The vegetable is a common ingredient in East, South and Southeast Asian dishes, such as in [[stir-fried water spinach]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Water spinach and coconut stir-fry (kankun mallung) |date=23 July 2013 |publisher=[[SBS Food]] |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/recipes/water-spinach-and-coconut-stir-fry-kankun-mallung}}&lt;/ref&gt; In [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Malaysia]], the tender shoots along with the leaves are usually [[stir frying|stir-fried]] with [[chili pepper]], [[garlic]], [[ginger]], dried [[shrimp paste]] (''[[belacan]]''/''[[terasi]]'') and other [[spice]]s. In [[Penang]] and [[Ipoh]], it is cooked with [[cuttlefish]] and a sweet and spicy sauce. Also known as {{Lang|nan-latn|eng chhai}} in the Hokkien dialect, it can also be boiled with preserved cuttlefish, then rinsed and mixed with spicy {{Lang|nan-latn|rojak}} paste to become {{Lang|nan-latn|jiu hu eng chhai}}. Boiled {{Lang|nan-latn|eng chhai}} also can be served with fermented krill noodles – {{Lang|nan-latn|belacan bihun}} – and prawn mi.&lt;ref name=&quot;seasiafood&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.seasiafood.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/prawn-noodle-300x224.jpg |title=Archived copy |access-date=20 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617134709/http://www.seasiafood.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/prawn-noodle-300x224.jpg |archive-date=17 June 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Burmese cuisine]], water spinach is the primary ingredient in a [[Burmese salads|Burmese salad]] called {{Lang|my-latn|gazun ywet thoke}} ({{lang|my|ကန်စွန်းရွက်သုပ်}}), made with blanched water spinach, lime juice, fried garlic and garlic oil, roasted [[rice flour]] and dried shrimp.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2014-01-29 |title=အာလူး၊ငါးကက်သလိတ်ကြော်နှင့် ကန်စွန်းရွက်သုပ် |url=https://myanmar.mmtimes.com/timeout/tea-break/8855-2014-01-29-06-39-14.html |access-date=2022-07-22 |website=The Myanmar Times |archive-date=22 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722163317/https://myanmar.mmtimes.com/timeout/tea-break/8855-2014-01-29-06-39-14.html }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Indonesian cuisine]] it is called {{Lang|id|kangkung}}; boiled or blanched together with other vegetables it forms the ingredient of ''[[gado-gado]]'' or ''[[pecel]]'' salads in [[peanut sauce]]. Some recipes that use ''{{Lang|id|kangkung}}'' include ''[[plecing kangkung]]'' from Lombok, ''[[mie kangkung]]'' (kangkong noodles) from Jakarta, and ''petis kangkung'' from Semarang.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Maharani |first1=Ainda Seprita |title=Petis Kangkung Kuliner Khas Legendaris di Semarang, Catat 5 Rekomendasi Lokasi yang Bisa Dikunjungi |url=https://www.suaramerdeka.com/gaya-hidup/0412378981/petis-kangkung-kuliner-khas-legendaris-di-semarang-catat-5-rekomendasi-lokasi-yang-bisa-dikunjungi|website=suaramerdeka.com |access-date=31 October 2024 |language=Indonesian}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Cuisine of Thailand|Thailand]], where it is called {{Lang|th-latn|phak bung}} ({{langx|th|ผักบุ้ง|links=no}}), it is eaten raw, often along with [[som tam|green papaya salad]] or ''[[nam phrik]]'', in stir-fries and in curries such as ''[[kaeng som]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ifrpd.ku.ac.th/pr/research/Thai_foods_Payom.pdf |title=Nutritional composition of traditional Thai foods used local vegetables |access-date=4 April 2017 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212013623/http://www.ifrpd.ku.ac.th/pr/research/Thai_foods_Payom.pdf |archive-date=12 December 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the [[Philippines]], where it is called {{Lang|fil|kangkóng}}, the tender shoots are cut into segments and cooked, together with the leaves, in fish and meat stews, such as ''[[sinigang]]''. The vegetable is also commonly eaten alone. In ''[[Philippine adobo|adobong kangkóng]]'' (also called {{Lang|fil|apan-apan}}), it is sautéed in cooking oil, [[onion]]s, garlic, [[vinegar]], and [[soy sauce]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Piccio |first1=Belle |title=Apan-apan: The Dish Reflective of the Tradition of Ilonggo Farmers |url=https://www.choosephilippines.com/eat/recipes/4396/apan-apan-all-time-filipino-favorite |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420155425/http://www.choosephilippines.com/eat/recipes/4396/apan-apan-all-time-filipino-favorite |url-status=usurped |archive-date=20 April 2017 |website=Choose Philippines |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; In {{Lang|fil|ensaladang kangkóng}} (or {{Lang|fil|kinilaw na kangkóng}}), it is blanched and served in vinegar or [[calamansi]] juice and fresh [[tomato]]es and [[onion]]s with salt and pepper to taste.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ensaladang Kangkong |url=https://www.melykitchen.com/2015/01/ensaladang-kangkong.html |website=Mely's Kitchen |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175656/https://www.melykitchen.com/2015/01/ensaladang-kangkong.html }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ensaladang Kangkong |url=https://www.overseaspinoycooking.net/2011/10/ensaladang-kangkong.html |website=Overseas Pinoy Cooking |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; In {{Lang|fil|binagoongang kangkóng}} (or {{Lang|fil|ginisang kangkóng}}), it is sautéed with garlic and topped with ''[[bagoong alamang]]'' (shrimp paste) or ''[[bagoong isda]]'' (fermented fish) and sliced fresh tomatoes and onions, commonly also with cubed crispy {{Lang|fil|liempo}} ([[pork belly]]) or [[Philippine adobo|pork ''adobo'']]. It can also be spiced with ''[[siling haba]]'' or ''[[siling labuyo]]'' peppers, soy sauce, black pepper, and sugar. It differs from {{Lang|fil|adobong kangkóng}} in that it does not use vinegar.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Binagoongang Kangkong |url=http://www.pinoyhapagkainan.com/binagoongang-kangkong/ |website=Pinoy Hapagkainan |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Spicy Stir-Fry Kangkong with Bagoong |url=http://www.pinoykitchenette.com/2011/06/spicy-stir-fry-kangkong-with-bagoong.html |website=Pinoy Kitchenette |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kangkong with Bagoong |url=http://filipinostylerecipe.com/2013/04/kangkong-with-bagoong/ |website=Filipino Style Recipe |date=28 April 2013 |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kangkong with Bagoong Recipe |url=https://panlasangpinoy.com/2012/05/29/kangkong-with-bagoong-recipe/ |website=Panlasang Pinoy |date=30 May 2012 |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; A local appetiser called [[crispy kangkong|crispy ''kangkóng'']] has the leaves coated in a flour-based batter and fried until crisp, similar to [[Cuisine of Japan|Japanese]] vegetable [[tempura]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.pinoyrecipe.net/crispy-kangkong-recipe-river-spinach/ |title=Crispy Kangkong Recipe (River Spinach) - Filipino Recipes Portal |date=8 May 2012 |publisher=Pinoyrecipe.net |access-date=13 January 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Crispy Spinach Recipe |url=https://panlasangpinoy.com/2010/06/08/crispy-spinach-recipe/ |website=Panlasang Pinoy |date=9 June 2010 |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Chinese cuisine]], ''Ipomoea aquatica'' is a popular leafy vegetable commonly stir-fried with garlic, fermented tofu, or chili, depending on regional preferences. It is particularly associated with [[southern China]], including [[Guangdong]] and [[Fujian]], where it is often prepared as a quick, flavorful dish. In [[Sichuan]] cuisine, it may be stir-fried with pickled chili for a spicy twist. In [[Taiwan]], it is cooked similar to Southeast Asia, with soy sauce and dried shrimp for added umami.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=chou |first=cindy |date=2020-09-26 |title=stir-fried morning glory 蒜炒空心菜 |url=https://thesoundofcooking.com/stir-fried-morning-glory/ |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=The Sound of Cooking |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;90px&quot;&gt;
File:Adobong kangkong (Philippines).jpg|[[Philippine cuisine|Filipino]] ''[[Philippine adobo|adobong kangkóng]]''
File:Ensaladang kangkong.jpg|Filipino ''[[Kinilaw|ensaladang kangkóng]]''
File:Pelecing kangkung.JPG| Indonesian ''[[plecing kangkung]]'' from Lombok
File:Mie Kangkung.JPG|Indonesian ''[[mie kangkung]]'' (with noodles)
File:Gendar Petis Kangkung.jpg|Indonesian ''petis kangkung'' (with ''gendar'' rice cake) from Semarang
File:Kangkungblacan.jpg|[[Malaysia]]n-style ''[[kangkung belacan]]''
File:Pak boong fai daeng.jpg|[[Thailand|Thai]] ''phak bung fai daeng''
File:Canhchua2.jpg|[[Vietnam]]ese ''canh chua''
File:HK 上環市政大廈 Sheung Wan Municipal Building Cooked food centre 棟記 Tung Kee Restaurant dinner food August 2019 SSG 10.jpg|[[Hongkong]]-style ''kōngxīncài''
File:Food 炒牛肝, 小吳現炒牛肉, 天母, 台北 (15256971207).jpg|[[Taiwan|Taiwanese]]-style ''kōngxīncài''
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===Phytoremediation===
Using aquatic macrophytes to remove nutrients from wastewater and to control freshwater [[eutrophication]] has been reported to be a feasible way of [[phytoremediation]]. Various plants, including ''I. aquatica'', have been tested for this use. Owing to its being edible and thus marketable, it could be an attractive option for this use.&lt;ref&gt;Li, M., Wu, Y. J., Yu, Z. L., Sheng, G. P., &amp; Yu, H. Q. (2007). Nitrogen removal from eutrophic water by floating-bed-grown water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.) with ion implantation. ''Water research'', ''41''(14), 3152-3158.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Animal feed===
Water spinach is fed to livestock as green fodder with high nutritive value—especially the leaves, for they are a good source of carotene. It is fed to cattle, pigs, fish, ducks, and chicken.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;&gt;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables. Udaipur: Agrotech Academy, 2011. Print.&lt;/ref&gt; In limited quantities, ''I. aquatica'' can have a somewhat laxative effect.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

=== Medicinal ===
{{medref|1=section|date=February 2025}}
''I. aquatica'' is used in the traditional medicine of southeast Asia and in the traditional medicine of some countries in Africa.{{cn|date=February 2025}} In southeast Asian medicine it is used against [[piles]], and [[nosebleeds]], as an [[anthelmintic]], and to treat [[high blood pressure]].{{medcn|date=February 2025}} In Ayurveda, leaf extracts are used against jaundice and nervous debility.&lt;ref name=&quot;International Journal of Botany&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagendra Prasad |first1=K. |last2=Shivamurthy |first2=G.R. |last3=Aradhya |first3=S.M. |title=Ipomoea aquatica, An Underutilized Green Leafy Vegetable: A Review |journal=International Journal of Botany |date=2008 |volume=1 |issue=4 |page=127}}&lt;/ref&gt; In indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka, water spinach is supposed to have insulin-like properties.{{medcn|date=February 2025}}

Christophe Wiart cites several promising studies showing improvements in blood glucose levels in humans and rats and concludes that clinical trials are warranted.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wiart |first1=Christophe |title=Medicinal plants in Asia for metabolic syndrome: natural products and molecular basis |date=2018 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |isbn=978-1-315-17775-5 |page=44}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Antioxidant bioactive compounds and anti-microbial substances can be detected in water spinach.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Anbu Jothi |first1=B. |last2=Geetha |first2=B. |title=GC-MS and FT-IR analysis of bioactive compounds on methanol extract of Ipomoea aquatica |journal=International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Research |date=May 2017 |volume=2 |issue=3 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{npsn|date=February 2025}} Furthermore, plant extracts of water spinach inhibit cancer cell growth of Vero, Hep-2, and A-549 cells, though they have moderate anti-cancer properties.&lt;ref name=&quot;International Journal of Botany&quot;/&gt;{{npsn|date=February 2025}}

&lt;!--- uncited over a year==Cultural references==
[[File:Ipomoea aquatica (Marsh Glory) flower W2 IMG 0405.jpg|thumb|upright|A close-up of the flower]]
There is a belief in traditional [[Chinese culture]] that discourages extensive consumption of ''Ipomoea aquatica''{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} with the explanation that the hollow stem makes the person weak and hollow like the plant{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}, although this belief does not advocate refraining from eating the plant entirely{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}. The elderly however are especially discouraged from consuming it{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}. There is also a belief in Chinese culture that extensive consumption may result in muscle cramps.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Despite this, it is a common vegetable in Asian cuisine.---&gt;

==Cultivation==
[[File:09985jfKangkong harvesting in the Philippinesfvf 35.jpg|thumb|Wild ''I. aquatica'' being harvested from rafts in the [[Angat River]], [[Philippines]]]]
[[File:0002jfVegetable plantations Taal Pulilan Bulacanfvf 11.jpg|thumb|Cultivated ''I. aquatica'' in [[Bulacan]], Philippines]]
''Ipomoea aquatica'' is most commonly grown in east, south, and southeast Asia. It flourishes naturally in waterways, and requires little if any care. It is used extensively in Indonesian, Burmese, Thai, Lao, Cambodian, Malay, Vietnamese, Filipino, and Chinese cuisine, especially in rural or ''[[kampung]]'' (village) areas. The vegetable is also extremely popular in [[Taiwan]], where it grows well. During the [[Japanese occupation of Singapore]] in World War II, the vegetable grew remarkably easily in many areas, and became a popular wartime crop.

Water spinach has been found to be cultivated in the following countries:&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Pinker, I. 2006&quot;&gt;Pinker, I., U. Bubner, and M. Böhme. &quot;Selection of water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.)-genotypes for protected cultivation in temperate regions.&quot; I International Conference on Indigenous Vegetables and Legumes. Prospectus for Fighting Poverty, Hunger and Malnutrition 752. 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
*[[Australia]]
*[[Bangladesh]]
*[[Myanmar|Burma]]
*[[Cambodia]]
*[[China]]
*[[Fiji]]
*[[India]]
*[[Maldives]]
*[[Indonesia]]
*[[Japan]]
*[[Malaysia]]
*[[Nepal]]
*[[New Guinea]]
*[[Philippines]]
*[[Lanka|Sri Lanka]]
*[[Taiwan]]
*[[Thailand]]
*[[Vietnam]]
{{div col end}}

In the United States, it is cultivated in California, Florida, Hawaii, Texas, Arizona, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.&lt;ref&gt;Chilton, Earl W. &quot;Risk Assessment for Water Spinach (Ipomoea Aquatica) in Texas.&quot; Journal Of Aquatic Plant Management 55 (2017): 96-102. Web.&lt;/ref&gt; It is also found in Africa and in its wild form; it is collected and used by the [[Shambaa people|Sambaa]] people in [[Tanzania]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Austin, Daniel F. F. &quot;Water Spinach (Ipomoea Aquatica, Convolvulaceae) a Food Gone Wild.&quot; Ethnobotany Research and Applications 5 (2007): 123-46. Web.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Vainio-Mattila, Katariina. &quot;Wild vegetables used by the Sambaa in the Usambara Mountains, NE Tanzania.&quot; Annales Botanici Fennici. Finnish Zoological and Botanical Publishing Board, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;

Water spinach is also potentially suitable for cultivation in [[greenhouse]]s in more [[Temperate climate|temperate]] regions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pinker, I. 2006&quot;/&gt;

In non-tropical areas, it is easily grown in containers given enough water in a bright sunny location. It readily roots from cuttings.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

===Requirements for climate and soil===
[[File:Kanko cultivation in Dili drainage ditch.jpg|thumb|''I. aquatica'' being cultivated in a drainage ditch in [[Dili]], [[Timor-Leste]]]]
Water spinach is ideal for [[Subtropics|sub]]-tropical and [[Tropics|tropical]] climate, as it does not grow well below {{convert|23.9|C}} and is sensitive to frost. High soil moisture is beneficial for growth. Clay soils and [[marsh]]y soils rich in organic matter are suitable for water spinach. The ideal pH range for the growth is from 5 to 7. The provision of shade has been shown to have a positive influence on the yield of water spinach.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

===Traditional cultivation methods===
[[File:Starr-170627-0206-Ipomoea aquatica-young starts with Kim and Thai Worker Hin-Hydroponics Greenhouse Sand Island-Midway Atoll (36319965171).jpg|thumb|''I. aquatica'' being grown in a [[hydroponics]] greenhouse in Sand Island, [[Midway Atoll]]]]
Water spinach is cultivated in a variety of systems. In [[Hong Kong]], two methods are traditionally used: the dryland method and the wetland method.

In '''the dryland method''', water spinach is grown on raised beds which are separated by irrigation ditches. The seeds can be sown directly onto the beds. Alternatively, a nursery may be used and the seedlings are transplanted when they reach a sufficient size. In either case, the distance between the plants should be about {{convert|12|cm}} by the time they are {{convert|15|cm}} tall. Regular irrigation is crucial in the dryland system and so is sufficient fertilization. Water spinach cultivated with the dryland method is ready for harvest 50 to 60 days after sowing. Harvesting is done by pulling up the whole plant.&lt;ref name=&quot;Edie, Harry 1969&quot;&gt;Edie, Harry, and H. Ho. &quot;Ipomoea Aquatica as a Vegetable Crop in Hong Kong.&quot; Economic Botany 23.1 (1969): 32-36. Web.&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''wetland method''' is the traditionally more common and important method for cultivation in Hong Kong: In the wetland method, water spinach is cultivated on flat fields surrounded by raised banks, which have oftentimes been used as [[Paddy field|rice paddies]] in the past. These former rice paddies have a heavy clay soil with an iron-pan. This helps to retain water for the water spinach. The seedlings to be used in this method are usually grown in a nursery on a dry field, as germination under water is quite poor. Six weeks after sowing, cuttings can be taken from the seedlings for transplantation. One cutting is an approximately {{convert|30|cm}} long cut from the stem containing seven or eight nodes. This is then planted in the field with a spacing of about {{convert|40|cm}}. The field is prepared beforehand by flooding it to a depth of {{convert|3|to|5|cm}}. The soil itself is tramped into a liquid mud so that the cuttings can root easily. Once the plants are established, the depth of the flooding is increased to {{convert|15|to|20|cm}}. The first harvest in the wetland method can usually be done at around 30 days after transplantation. Also, the harvesting differs from the dryland system: In the wetland, the upper part of the main shoot is cut at about water level. This stimulates lateral growth and produces horizontal shoots carrying vertical branches. After the first harvests, every seven to ten days throughout the summer, these vertical branches can be harvested. After the planting period, the fields are drained and once the fruit of the water spinach is ripe, it is harvested, dried, then trodden to release the seeds which are to be used for the following season.&lt;ref name=&quot;Edie, Harry 1969&quot;/&gt;

===Use of fertilizer===
How much fertilizer is used for the cultivation strongly depends on the region. Most research is from the 1980s and 1990s. Generally, it has been shown that a dose of {{convert|60|kg}} [[Nitrogen|N]]/ha is sufficient and that the application of [[Potassium|K]] can be beneficial on the yield. Also, the application of plant growth regulators, for example [[Adenine]] and Zetanine,{{clarify|What's zetanine?|date=May 2022}} has been found to be an effective means to promote water spinach growth. One study has determined, that the highest yields are produced with the application of 60&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of N, 90&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of [[Phosphorus pentoxide|P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;]] and 50&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of [[Potassium oxide|K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] for the first harvest. For the second harvest the optimal fertilization was determined as 120&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of N, 45&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; and 100&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

'''Taiwan''': In Taiwan, the usual fertilization includes the basic application of about 10 t/ha of cow manure followed by 50&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of [[ammonium sulfate]] after each harvest.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

'''Bangkok''': In Bangkok, it is common to apply about 300&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of NPK fertilizer twice a month.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

'''Indonesia''': In Indonesia, usually 150&amp;nbsp;kg to 300&amp;nbsp;kg of NPK are applied per hectare.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

===Pathogens and pests===
[[File:Tortoise beetle hess.jpg|thumb|A [[tortoise beetle]] on an ''I. aquatica'' leaf]]
There are several pathogens and pests reported, affecting ''I. aquatica''. Pathogens include ''[[Pythium]]'', causing problems like damping-off, ''[[Cercospora]]'' leaf spot and root nematodes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Also, [[aphid]]s may be problems in fields. Additionally, there are several [[List of feeding behaviours|polyphagous]] insects feeding on ''I. aquatica''. [[Lepidoptera]] species include ''Diacrisia strigatula'' Walker and ''Spodoptera litura''. The &quot;woolly-bear&quot; caterpillars (''D. virginica'' [Fabricius]) of the eastern United States and ''D. strigatula'' (Chinese tiger moth) are other species with wide food preferences.&lt;ref name=&quot;Austin&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eS7lX_rC3GEC |first=Daniel F. |last=Austin |title=Florida Ethnobotany |publisher=CRC Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8493-2332-4 |page=365}}&lt;/ref&gt; A specialist pathogen on ''I. aquatica'' is the [[oomycete]] ''Albugo ipomoeae-aquaticae'', though its range is restricted to southern and southeast Asia.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

===Invasiveness===
''Ipomoea aquatica'' is listed by the [[USDA]] as a noxious weed,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://plants.usda.gov/java/noxious?rptType=Federal |title=Federal Noxious Weed List |publisher=USDA |access-date=2019-08-13}}&lt;/ref&gt; especially in the states of [[Florida]], [[California]], and [[Hawaii]], where it can be observed growing in the wild.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. swamp morning-glory |url=http://plants.usda.gov/plant-profile?symbol=IPAQ |website=plants.usda.gov |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service |access-date=10 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the US, water spinach has mainly become a problem in Florida. It is unclear why it is a problem there; however, although the fast growth rate has been cited as a threat to native plants in certain areas of Florida.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Water Spinach|url=http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/habitat/invasive-plants/weed-alerts/water-spinach/|website=Florida Fish And Wildlife Conservation Commission|language=en|access-date=2020-05-11|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809092941/https://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/habitat/invasive-plants/weed-alerts/water-spinach/}}&lt;/ref&gt; It could be owing to the time since introduction, or owing to climatic factors.&lt;ref name=&quot;Edie, Harry 1969&quot;/&gt; ''I. aquatica'' has been extensively cultivated in [[Texas]] for over 30 years, having been originally brought there by Asian immigrants. Because no evidence indicates the plant has escaped into the wild, Texas lifted its ban on cultivation for personal use with no restrictions or requirements, noting its importance as a vegetable in many cultures, and also began permitting cultivation for commercial sales with the requirement of an exotic species permit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.texasinvasives.org/plant_database/detail.php?symbol=IPAQ |title=Texas Invasives |work=texasinvasives.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Possession of ''I. aquatica'' has been prohibited in Florida since 1973, but it is still being grown and sold illegally. Some of the infestations in Florida public lakes have been eradicated, or at least attempts have been made.&lt;ref&gt;Langeland, K.A. &amp; K.C. Burks. 1998. Editors of ''Identification &amp; Biology of Non-Native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas''. University of Florida, Gainesville&lt;/ref&gt; In [[Sri Lanka]] it invades wetlands, where its long, floating stems form dense mats which can block the flow of water and prevent the passage of boats.&lt;ref&gt;Gunasekera Lalith. ''Invasive Plants, A Guide to the Identification of the Most Invasive Plants in Sri Lanka'', Colombo 2009.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;150&quot; heights=&quot;150&quot;&gt;
File:04657jfDampol Rueda Plaridel Pungo Calumpit Bulacan Riverbanks Kangkung Viaductfvf 26.jpg|''I. aquatica'' along the [[Angat River]], [[Philippines]]
File:Starr-121029-0421-Ipomoea aquatica-habit in wetland-Ukumehame-Maui (24827090269).jpg|''Ipomoea aquatica'' in Ukumehame, [[Maui]], [[Hawaii]]
File:Immature seeds of Ipomoea aquatica 2.jpg|Immature fruits of ''Ipomoea aquatica''
File:Ipomoea aquatica Nksw 4.jpg|''Ipomoea aquatica'' at Nakhonsawan school, Nakhon Sawan, [[Thailand]]
File:Ipomoea aquatica bd-3.jpg|Fruits of ''Ipomoea aquatica ''
File:Ipomoea aquatica (Marsh Glory) flower W IMG 0403.jpg|Close-up of ''I. aquatica'' flower in [[Hyderabad]], [[India]]
File:9916Wawa Poblacion Balagtas 13.jpg|Freshly-harvested ''I. aquatica'' bundles being unloaded from rafts in the Philippines
File:甕菜 Ipomoea aquatica -香港西貢獅子會自然教育中心 Saikung, Hong Kong- (9240155912).jpg|''I. aquatica'' with white flowers in [[Sai Kung Town|Sai Kung]], [[Hong Kong]]
File:Bubulcus ibis in the Philippines 22.jpg|[[Cattle egret]]s among ''I. aquatica'' in [[Norzagaray]], Philippines
File:HK WCD 灣仔 Wan Chai 春園街 Spring Garden Lane shop Kai Bo Food Supermarket vegetable July 2021 SS2.jpg|''I. aquatica'' being sold in a market in [[Hong Kong]]
File:Ipomoea aquatica.jpg|''I. aquatica'' bundles sold in a market in [[Sarawak]], [[Malaysia]]
File:03899jfPasig City Boundary Buting Bridge School Creek Monument Makati Cityfvf 19.jpg|Bundles of ''I. aquatica'' being sold by a roadside vendor in [[Makati City]], Philippines
&lt;/gallery&gt;


==နိဿဲ==
{{Reflist|30em}}</text>
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|image = N Ipoa D1600.JPG
|status = LC
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_ref =&lt;ref name=&quot;iucn status 19 November 2021&quot;&gt;{{cite iucn |author=Gupta, A.K. |author2=Sayer, C. |date=2018 |title=''Ipomoea aquatica'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T168908A120145878 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T168908A120145878.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|genus = Ipomoea
|species = aquatica
|authority = [[Peter Forsskål|Forssk.]]
}}

'''''ဝုန်''''', ( '''water spinach''') ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞေဝ် ဂကူတၞံဍာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသဂမ္တဴရ။ တမ်မူလ တၞံဝုန်ဂှ် ပတှ်ေကေတ် စတိုန် ပ္ဍဲ အာသျှအဂၞဲ၊ တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ အာသျှအဂၞဲ၊ အာသျှဗမံက်ကီု သီု အာသျှသၠုင်ကျာဂှ် တဵုလွဳဒၟံင် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကုဒြဟတ်ရ။ တၞံဝုန်ဂှ် တိုန် ဒၞာဲမကြပ်ညောန် ကုဍာ်တုဲ ဟွံမဲပၟိက် ပွမဒးလွဳလွတ်ရ။&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

==လက်သန်==
''ဝုန်'' တိုန် ပ္ဍဲဍာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တိထၞုက်။ တၞံဍေဟ် နွံ ဇမၠိင် ၜိုတ်{{convert|2|-|3|m|ft|sigfig=1}}၊ ရိုဟ် တိတ် ပ္ဍဲ တင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။  The hollow cavity within the stem makes the plant buoyant. The leaves vary from typically sagittate (arrowhead-shaped) to [[lanceolate]], {{convert|5|-|15|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|-|8|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} broad. The flowers are trumpet-shaped, {{convert|3|-|5|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} in diameter, and usually white in colour with a mauve centre. Propagation is either by planting cuttings of the stem shoots, which will root along nodes, or by planting the seeds from flowers that produce seed pods.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.curiousgardener.com/2011/09/15/the-new-kangkong-experiment/|title=Growing kangkong in water |work=curiousgardener.com|date=15 September 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.kangkungking.com/2009/01/how-to-harvest-kang-kung-kong-seeds.html |title=Kangkungking.com |publisher=Kangkungking.com |access-date=13 January 2014 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120210321/http://www.kangkungking.com/2009/01/how-to-harvest-kang-kung-kong-seeds.html |archive-date=20 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;


== Uses ==
=== Culinary ===
The vegetable is a common ingredient in East, South and Southeast Asian dishes, such as in [[stir-fried water spinach]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Water spinach and coconut stir-fry (kankun mallung) |date=23 July 2013 |publisher=[[SBS Food]] |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/recipes/water-spinach-and-coconut-stir-fry-kankun-mallung}}&lt;/ref&gt; In [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Malaysia]], the tender shoots along with the leaves are usually [[stir frying|stir-fried]] with [[chili pepper]], [[garlic]], [[ginger]], dried [[shrimp paste]] (''[[belacan]]''/''[[terasi]]'') and other [[spice]]s. In [[Penang]] and [[Ipoh]], it is cooked with [[cuttlefish]] and a sweet and spicy sauce. Also known as {{Lang|nan-latn|eng chhai}} in the Hokkien dialect, it can also be boiled with preserved cuttlefish, then rinsed and mixed with spicy {{Lang|nan-latn|rojak}} paste to become {{Lang|nan-latn|jiu hu eng chhai}}. Boiled {{Lang|nan-latn|eng chhai}} also can be served with fermented krill noodles – {{Lang|nan-latn|belacan bihun}} – and prawn mi.&lt;ref name=&quot;seasiafood&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.seasiafood.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/prawn-noodle-300x224.jpg |title=Archived copy |access-date=20 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617134709/http://www.seasiafood.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/prawn-noodle-300x224.jpg |archive-date=17 June 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Burmese cuisine]], water spinach is the primary ingredient in a [[Burmese salads|Burmese salad]] called {{Lang|my-latn|gazun ywet thoke}} ({{lang|my|ကန်စွန်းရွက်သုပ်}}), made with blanched water spinach, lime juice, fried garlic and garlic oil, roasted [[rice flour]] and dried shrimp.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2014-01-29 |title=အာလူး၊ငါးကက်သလိတ်ကြော်နှင့် ကန်စွန်းရွက်သုပ် |url=https://myanmar.mmtimes.com/timeout/tea-break/8855-2014-01-29-06-39-14.html |access-date=2022-07-22 |website=The Myanmar Times |archive-date=22 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722163317/https://myanmar.mmtimes.com/timeout/tea-break/8855-2014-01-29-06-39-14.html }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Indonesian cuisine]] it is called {{Lang|id|kangkung}}; boiled or blanched together with other vegetables it forms the ingredient of ''[[gado-gado]]'' or ''[[pecel]]'' salads in [[peanut sauce]]. Some recipes that use ''{{Lang|id|kangkung}}'' include ''[[plecing kangkung]]'' from Lombok, ''[[mie kangkung]]'' (kangkong noodles) from Jakarta, and ''petis kangkung'' from Semarang.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Maharani |first1=Ainda Seprita |title=Petis Kangkung Kuliner Khas Legendaris di Semarang, Catat 5 Rekomendasi Lokasi yang Bisa Dikunjungi |url=https://www.suaramerdeka.com/gaya-hidup/0412378981/petis-kangkung-kuliner-khas-legendaris-di-semarang-catat-5-rekomendasi-lokasi-yang-bisa-dikunjungi|website=suaramerdeka.com |access-date=31 October 2024 |language=Indonesian}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Cuisine of Thailand|Thailand]], where it is called {{Lang|th-latn|phak bung}} ({{langx|th|ผักบุ้ง|links=no}}), it is eaten raw, often along with [[som tam|green papaya salad]] or ''[[nam phrik]]'', in stir-fries and in curries such as ''[[kaeng som]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ifrpd.ku.ac.th/pr/research/Thai_foods_Payom.pdf |title=Nutritional composition of traditional Thai foods used local vegetables |access-date=4 April 2017 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212013623/http://www.ifrpd.ku.ac.th/pr/research/Thai_foods_Payom.pdf |archive-date=12 December 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the [[Philippines]], where it is called {{Lang|fil|kangkóng}}, the tender shoots are cut into segments and cooked, together with the leaves, in fish and meat stews, such as ''[[sinigang]]''. The vegetable is also commonly eaten alone. In ''[[Philippine adobo|adobong kangkóng]]'' (also called {{Lang|fil|apan-apan}}), it is sautéed in cooking oil, [[onion]]s, garlic, [[vinegar]], and [[soy sauce]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Piccio |first1=Belle |title=Apan-apan: The Dish Reflective of the Tradition of Ilonggo Farmers |url=https://www.choosephilippines.com/eat/recipes/4396/apan-apan-all-time-filipino-favorite |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420155425/http://www.choosephilippines.com/eat/recipes/4396/apan-apan-all-time-filipino-favorite |url-status=usurped |archive-date=20 April 2017 |website=Choose Philippines |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; In {{Lang|fil|ensaladang kangkóng}} (or {{Lang|fil|kinilaw na kangkóng}}), it is blanched and served in vinegar or [[calamansi]] juice and fresh [[tomato]]es and [[onion]]s with salt and pepper to taste.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ensaladang Kangkong |url=https://www.melykitchen.com/2015/01/ensaladang-kangkong.html |website=Mely's Kitchen |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175656/https://www.melykitchen.com/2015/01/ensaladang-kangkong.html }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ensaladang Kangkong |url=https://www.overseaspinoycooking.net/2011/10/ensaladang-kangkong.html |website=Overseas Pinoy Cooking |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; In {{Lang|fil|binagoongang kangkóng}} (or {{Lang|fil|ginisang kangkóng}}), it is sautéed with garlic and topped with ''[[bagoong alamang]]'' (shrimp paste) or ''[[bagoong isda]]'' (fermented fish) and sliced fresh tomatoes and onions, commonly also with cubed crispy {{Lang|fil|liempo}} ([[pork belly]]) or [[Philippine adobo|pork ''adobo'']]. It can also be spiced with ''[[siling haba]]'' or ''[[siling labuyo]]'' peppers, soy sauce, black pepper, and sugar. It differs from {{Lang|fil|adobong kangkóng}} in that it does not use vinegar.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Binagoongang Kangkong |url=http://www.pinoyhapagkainan.com/binagoongang-kangkong/ |website=Pinoy Hapagkainan |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Spicy Stir-Fry Kangkong with Bagoong |url=http://www.pinoykitchenette.com/2011/06/spicy-stir-fry-kangkong-with-bagoong.html |website=Pinoy Kitchenette |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kangkong with Bagoong |url=http://filipinostylerecipe.com/2013/04/kangkong-with-bagoong/ |website=Filipino Style Recipe |date=28 April 2013 |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kangkong with Bagoong Recipe |url=https://panlasangpinoy.com/2012/05/29/kangkong-with-bagoong-recipe/ |website=Panlasang Pinoy |date=30 May 2012 |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; A local appetiser called [[crispy kangkong|crispy ''kangkóng'']] has the leaves coated in a flour-based batter and fried until crisp, similar to [[Cuisine of Japan|Japanese]] vegetable [[tempura]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.pinoyrecipe.net/crispy-kangkong-recipe-river-spinach/ |title=Crispy Kangkong Recipe (River Spinach) - Filipino Recipes Portal |date=8 May 2012 |publisher=Pinoyrecipe.net |access-date=13 January 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Crispy Spinach Recipe |url=https://panlasangpinoy.com/2010/06/08/crispy-spinach-recipe/ |website=Panlasang Pinoy |date=9 June 2010 |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Chinese cuisine]], ''Ipomoea aquatica'' is a popular leafy vegetable commonly stir-fried with garlic, fermented tofu, or chili, depending on regional preferences. It is particularly associated with [[southern China]], including [[Guangdong]] and [[Fujian]], where it is often prepared as a quick, flavorful dish. In [[Sichuan]] cuisine, it may be stir-fried with pickled chili for a spicy twist. In [[Taiwan]], it is cooked similar to Southeast Asia, with soy sauce and dried shrimp for added umami.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=chou |first=cindy |date=2020-09-26 |title=stir-fried morning glory 蒜炒空心菜 |url=https://thesoundofcooking.com/stir-fried-morning-glory/ |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=The Sound of Cooking |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;90px&quot;&gt;
File:Adobong kangkong (Philippines).jpg|[[Philippine cuisine|Filipino]] ''[[Philippine adobo|adobong kangkóng]]''
File:Ensaladang kangkong.jpg|Filipino ''[[Kinilaw|ensaladang kangkóng]]''
File:Pelecing kangkung.JPG| Indonesian ''[[plecing kangkung]]'' from Lombok
File:Mie Kangkung.JPG|Indonesian ''[[mie kangkung]]'' (with noodles)
File:Gendar Petis Kangkung.jpg|Indonesian ''petis kangkung'' (with ''gendar'' rice cake) from Semarang
File:Kangkungblacan.jpg|[[Malaysia]]n-style ''[[kangkung belacan]]''
File:Pak boong fai daeng.jpg|[[Thailand|Thai]] ''phak bung fai daeng''
File:Canhchua2.jpg|[[Vietnam]]ese ''canh chua''
File:HK 上環市政大廈 Sheung Wan Municipal Building Cooked food centre 棟記 Tung Kee Restaurant dinner food August 2019 SSG 10.jpg|[[Hongkong]]-style ''kōngxīncài''
File:Food 炒牛肝, 小吳現炒牛肉, 天母, 台北 (15256971207).jpg|[[Taiwan|Taiwanese]]-style ''kōngxīncài''
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===Phytoremediation===
Using aquatic macrophytes to remove nutrients from wastewater and to control freshwater [[eutrophication]] has been reported to be a feasible way of [[phytoremediation]]. Various plants, including ''I. aquatica'', have been tested for this use. Owing to its being edible and thus marketable, it could be an attractive option for this use.&lt;ref&gt;Li, M., Wu, Y. J., Yu, Z. L., Sheng, G. P., &amp; Yu, H. Q. (2007). Nitrogen removal from eutrophic water by floating-bed-grown water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.) with ion implantation. ''Water research'', ''41''(14), 3152-3158.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Animal feed===
Water spinach is fed to livestock as green fodder with high nutritive value—especially the leaves, for they are a good source of carotene. It is fed to cattle, pigs, fish, ducks, and chicken.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;&gt;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables. Udaipur: Agrotech Academy, 2011. Print.&lt;/ref&gt; In limited quantities, ''I. aquatica'' can have a somewhat laxative effect.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

=== Medicinal ===
{{medref|1=section|date=February 2025}}
''I. aquatica'' is used in the traditional medicine of southeast Asia and in the traditional medicine of some countries in Africa.{{cn|date=February 2025}} In southeast Asian medicine it is used against [[piles]], and [[nosebleeds]], as an [[anthelmintic]], and to treat [[high blood pressure]].{{medcn|date=February 2025}} In Ayurveda, leaf extracts are used against jaundice and nervous debility.&lt;ref name=&quot;International Journal of Botany&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagendra Prasad |first1=K. |last2=Shivamurthy |first2=G.R. |last3=Aradhya |first3=S.M. |title=Ipomoea aquatica, An Underutilized Green Leafy Vegetable: A Review |journal=International Journal of Botany |date=2008 |volume=1 |issue=4 |page=127}}&lt;/ref&gt; In indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka, water spinach is supposed to have insulin-like properties.{{medcn|date=February 2025}}

Christophe Wiart cites several promising studies showing improvements in blood glucose levels in humans and rats and concludes that clinical trials are warranted.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wiart |first1=Christophe |title=Medicinal plants in Asia for metabolic syndrome: natural products and molecular basis |date=2018 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |isbn=978-1-315-17775-5 |page=44}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Antioxidant bioactive compounds and anti-microbial substances can be detected in water spinach.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Anbu Jothi |first1=B. |last2=Geetha |first2=B. |title=GC-MS and FT-IR analysis of bioactive compounds on methanol extract of Ipomoea aquatica |journal=International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Research |date=May 2017 |volume=2 |issue=3 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{npsn|date=February 2025}} Furthermore, plant extracts of water spinach inhibit cancer cell growth of Vero, Hep-2, and A-549 cells, though they have moderate anti-cancer properties.&lt;ref name=&quot;International Journal of Botany&quot;/&gt;{{npsn|date=February 2025}}

&lt;!--- uncited over a year==Cultural references==
[[File:Ipomoea aquatica (Marsh Glory) flower W2 IMG 0405.jpg|thumb|upright|A close-up of the flower]]
There is a belief in traditional [[Chinese culture]] that discourages extensive consumption of ''Ipomoea aquatica''{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} with the explanation that the hollow stem makes the person weak and hollow like the plant{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}, although this belief does not advocate refraining from eating the plant entirely{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}. The elderly however are especially discouraged from consuming it{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}. There is also a belief in Chinese culture that extensive consumption may result in muscle cramps.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Despite this, it is a common vegetable in Asian cuisine.---&gt;

==Cultivation==
[[File:09985jfKangkong harvesting in the Philippinesfvf 35.jpg|thumb|Wild ''I. aquatica'' being harvested from rafts in the [[Angat River]], [[Philippines]]]]
[[File:0002jfVegetable plantations Taal Pulilan Bulacanfvf 11.jpg|thumb|Cultivated ''I. aquatica'' in [[Bulacan]], Philippines]]
''Ipomoea aquatica'' is most commonly grown in east, south, and southeast Asia. It flourishes naturally in waterways, and requires little if any care. It is used extensively in Indonesian, Burmese, Thai, Lao, Cambodian, Malay, Vietnamese, Filipino, and Chinese cuisine, especially in rural or ''[[kampung]]'' (village) areas. The vegetable is also extremely popular in [[Taiwan]], where it grows well. During the [[Japanese occupation of Singapore]] in World War II, the vegetable grew remarkably easily in many areas, and became a popular wartime crop.

Water spinach has been found to be cultivated in the following countries:&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Pinker, I. 2006&quot;&gt;Pinker, I., U. Bubner, and M. Böhme. &quot;Selection of water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.)-genotypes for protected cultivation in temperate regions.&quot; I International Conference on Indigenous Vegetables and Legumes. Prospectus for Fighting Poverty, Hunger and Malnutrition 752. 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
*[[Australia]]
*[[Bangladesh]]
*[[Myanmar|Burma]]
*[[Cambodia]]
*[[China]]
*[[Fiji]]
*[[India]]
*[[Maldives]]
*[[Indonesia]]
*[[Japan]]
*[[Malaysia]]
*[[Nepal]]
*[[New Guinea]]
*[[Philippines]]
*[[Lanka|Sri Lanka]]
*[[Taiwan]]
*[[Thailand]]
*[[Vietnam]]
{{div col end}}

In the United States, it is cultivated in California, Florida, Hawaii, Texas, Arizona, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.&lt;ref&gt;Chilton, Earl W. &quot;Risk Assessment for Water Spinach (Ipomoea Aquatica) in Texas.&quot; Journal Of Aquatic Plant Management 55 (2017): 96-102. Web.&lt;/ref&gt; It is also found in Africa and in its wild form; it is collected and used by the [[Shambaa people|Sambaa]] people in [[Tanzania]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Austin, Daniel F. F. &quot;Water Spinach (Ipomoea Aquatica, Convolvulaceae) a Food Gone Wild.&quot; Ethnobotany Research and Applications 5 (2007): 123-46. Web.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Vainio-Mattila, Katariina. &quot;Wild vegetables used by the Sambaa in the Usambara Mountains, NE Tanzania.&quot; Annales Botanici Fennici. Finnish Zoological and Botanical Publishing Board, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;

Water spinach is also potentially suitable for cultivation in [[greenhouse]]s in more [[Temperate climate|temperate]] regions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pinker, I. 2006&quot;/&gt;

In non-tropical areas, it is easily grown in containers given enough water in a bright sunny location. It readily roots from cuttings.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

===Requirements for climate and soil===
[[File:Kanko cultivation in Dili drainage ditch.jpg|thumb|''I. aquatica'' being cultivated in a drainage ditch in [[Dili]], [[Timor-Leste]]]]
Water spinach is ideal for [[Subtropics|sub]]-tropical and [[Tropics|tropical]] climate, as it does not grow well below {{convert|23.9|C}} and is sensitive to frost. High soil moisture is beneficial for growth. Clay soils and [[marsh]]y soils rich in organic matter are suitable for water spinach. The ideal pH range for the growth is from 5 to 7. The provision of shade has been shown to have a positive influence on the yield of water spinach.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

===Traditional cultivation methods===
[[File:Starr-170627-0206-Ipomoea aquatica-young starts with Kim and Thai Worker Hin-Hydroponics Greenhouse Sand Island-Midway Atoll (36319965171).jpg|thumb|''I. aquatica'' being grown in a [[hydroponics]] greenhouse in Sand Island, [[Midway Atoll]]]]
Water spinach is cultivated in a variety of systems. In [[Hong Kong]], two methods are traditionally used: the dryland method and the wetland method.

In '''the dryland method''', water spinach is grown on raised beds which are separated by irrigation ditches. The seeds can be sown directly onto the beds. Alternatively, a nursery may be used and the seedlings are transplanted when they reach a sufficient size. In either case, the distance between the plants should be about {{convert|12|cm}} by the time they are {{convert|15|cm}} tall. Regular irrigation is crucial in the dryland system and so is sufficient fertilization. Water spinach cultivated with the dryland method is ready for harvest 50 to 60 days after sowing. Harvesting is done by pulling up the whole plant.&lt;ref name=&quot;Edie, Harry 1969&quot;&gt;Edie, Harry, and H. Ho. &quot;Ipomoea Aquatica as a Vegetable Crop in Hong Kong.&quot; Economic Botany 23.1 (1969): 32-36. Web.&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''wetland method''' is the traditionally more common and important method for cultivation in Hong Kong: In the wetland method, water spinach is cultivated on flat fields surrounded by raised banks, which have oftentimes been used as [[Paddy field|rice paddies]] in the past. These former rice paddies have a heavy clay soil with an iron-pan. This helps to retain water for the water spinach. The seedlings to be used in this method are usually grown in a nursery on a dry field, as germination under water is quite poor. Six weeks after sowing, cuttings can be taken from the seedlings for transplantation. One cutting is an approximately {{convert|30|cm}} long cut from the stem containing seven or eight nodes. This is then planted in the field with a spacing of about {{convert|40|cm}}. The field is prepared beforehand by flooding it to a depth of {{convert|3|to|5|cm}}. The soil itself is tramped into a liquid mud so that the cuttings can root easily. Once the plants are established, the depth of the flooding is increased to {{convert|15|to|20|cm}}. The first harvest in the wetland method can usually be done at around 30 days after transplantation. Also, the harvesting differs from the dryland system: In the wetland, the upper part of the main shoot is cut at about water level. This stimulates lateral growth and produces horizontal shoots carrying vertical branches. After the first harvests, every seven to ten days throughout the summer, these vertical branches can be harvested. After the planting period, the fields are drained and once the fruit of the water spinach is ripe, it is harvested, dried, then trodden to release the seeds which are to be used for the following season.&lt;ref name=&quot;Edie, Harry 1969&quot;/&gt;

===Use of fertilizer===
How much fertilizer is used for the cultivation strongly depends on the region. Most research is from the 1980s and 1990s. Generally, it has been shown that a dose of {{convert|60|kg}} [[Nitrogen|N]]/ha is sufficient and that the application of [[Potassium|K]] can be beneficial on the yield. Also, the application of plant growth regulators, for example [[Adenine]] and Zetanine,{{clarify|What's zetanine?|date=May 2022}} has been found to be an effective means to promote water spinach growth. One study has determined, that the highest yields are produced with the application of 60&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of N, 90&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of [[Phosphorus pentoxide|P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;]] and 50&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of [[Potassium oxide|K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] for the first harvest. For the second harvest the optimal fertilization was determined as 120&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of N, 45&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; and 100&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

'''Taiwan''': In Taiwan, the usual fertilization includes the basic application of about 10 t/ha of cow manure followed by 50&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of [[ammonium sulfate]] after each harvest.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

'''Bangkok''': In Bangkok, it is common to apply about 300&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of NPK fertilizer twice a month.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

'''Indonesia''': In Indonesia, usually 150&amp;nbsp;kg to 300&amp;nbsp;kg of NPK are applied per hectare.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

===Pathogens and pests===
[[File:Tortoise beetle hess.jpg|thumb|A [[tortoise beetle]] on an ''I. aquatica'' leaf]]
There are several pathogens and pests reported, affecting ''I. aquatica''. Pathogens include ''[[Pythium]]'', causing problems like damping-off, ''[[Cercospora]]'' leaf spot and root nematodes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Also, [[aphid]]s may be problems in fields. Additionally, there are several [[List of feeding behaviours|polyphagous]] insects feeding on ''I. aquatica''. [[Lepidoptera]] species include ''Diacrisia strigatula'' Walker and ''Spodoptera litura''. The &quot;woolly-bear&quot; caterpillars (''D. virginica'' [Fabricius]) of the eastern United States and ''D. strigatula'' (Chinese tiger moth) are other species with wide food preferences.&lt;ref name=&quot;Austin&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eS7lX_rC3GEC |first=Daniel F. |last=Austin |title=Florida Ethnobotany |publisher=CRC Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8493-2332-4 |page=365}}&lt;/ref&gt; A specialist pathogen on ''I. aquatica'' is the [[oomycete]] ''Albugo ipomoeae-aquaticae'', though its range is restricted to southern and southeast Asia.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

===Invasiveness===
''Ipomoea aquatica'' is listed by the [[USDA]] as a noxious weed,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://plants.usda.gov/java/noxious?rptType=Federal |title=Federal Noxious Weed List |publisher=USDA |access-date=2019-08-13}}&lt;/ref&gt; especially in the states of [[Florida]], [[California]], and [[Hawaii]], where it can be observed growing in the wild.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. swamp morning-glory |url=http://plants.usda.gov/plant-profile?symbol=IPAQ |website=plants.usda.gov |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service |access-date=10 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the US, water spinach has mainly become a problem in Florida. It is unclear why it is a problem there; however, although the fast growth rate has been cited as a threat to native plants in certain areas of Florida.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Water Spinach|url=http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/habitat/invasive-plants/weed-alerts/water-spinach/|website=Florida Fish And Wildlife Conservation Commission|language=en|access-date=2020-05-11|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809092941/https://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/habitat/invasive-plants/weed-alerts/water-spinach/}}&lt;/ref&gt; It could be owing to the time since introduction, or owing to climatic factors.&lt;ref name=&quot;Edie, Harry 1969&quot;/&gt; ''I. aquatica'' has been extensively cultivated in [[Texas]] for over 30 years, having been originally brought there by Asian immigrants. Because no evidence indicates the plant has escaped into the wild, Texas lifted its ban on cultivation for personal use with no restrictions or requirements, noting its importance as a vegetable in many cultures, and also began permitting cultivation for commercial sales with the requirement of an exotic species permit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.texasinvasives.org/plant_database/detail.php?symbol=IPAQ |title=Texas Invasives |work=texasinvasives.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Possession of ''I. aquatica'' has been prohibited in Florida since 1973, but it is still being grown and sold illegally. Some of the infestations in Florida public lakes have been eradicated, or at least attempts have been made.&lt;ref&gt;Langeland, K.A. &amp; K.C. Burks. 1998. Editors of ''Identification &amp; Biology of Non-Native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas''. University of Florida, Gainesville&lt;/ref&gt; In [[Sri Lanka]] it invades wetlands, where its long, floating stems form dense mats which can block the flow of water and prevent the passage of boats.&lt;ref&gt;Gunasekera Lalith. ''Invasive Plants, A Guide to the Identification of the Most Invasive Plants in Sri Lanka'', Colombo 2009.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;150&quot; heights=&quot;150&quot;&gt;
File:04657jfDampol Rueda Plaridel Pungo Calumpit Bulacan Riverbanks Kangkung Viaductfvf 26.jpg|''I. aquatica'' along the [[Angat River]], [[Philippines]]
File:Starr-121029-0421-Ipomoea aquatica-habit in wetland-Ukumehame-Maui (24827090269).jpg|''Ipomoea aquatica'' in Ukumehame, [[Maui]], [[Hawaii]]
File:Immature seeds of Ipomoea aquatica 2.jpg|Immature fruits of ''Ipomoea aquatica''
File:Ipomoea aquatica Nksw 4.jpg|''Ipomoea aquatica'' at Nakhonsawan school, Nakhon Sawan, [[Thailand]]
File:Ipomoea aquatica bd-3.jpg|Fruits of ''Ipomoea aquatica ''
File:Ipomoea aquatica (Marsh Glory) flower W IMG 0403.jpg|Close-up of ''I. aquatica'' flower in [[Hyderabad]], [[India]]
File:9916Wawa Poblacion Balagtas 13.jpg|Freshly-harvested ''I. aquatica'' bundles being unloaded from rafts in the Philippines
File:甕菜 Ipomoea aquatica -香港西貢獅子會自然教育中心 Saikung, Hong Kong- (9240155912).jpg|''I. aquatica'' with white flowers in [[Sai Kung Town|Sai Kung]], [[Hong Kong]]
File:Bubulcus ibis in the Philippines 22.jpg|[[Cattle egret]]s among ''I. aquatica'' in [[Norzagaray]], Philippines
File:HK WCD 灣仔 Wan Chai 春園街 Spring Garden Lane shop Kai Bo Food Supermarket vegetable July 2021 SS2.jpg|''I. aquatica'' being sold in a market in [[Hong Kong]]
File:Ipomoea aquatica.jpg|''I. aquatica'' bundles sold in a market in [[Sarawak]], [[Malaysia]]
File:03899jfPasig City Boundary Buting Bridge School Creek Monument Makati Cityfvf 19.jpg|Bundles of ''I. aquatica'' being sold by a roadside vendor in [[Makati City]], Philippines
&lt;/gallery&gt;


==နိဿဲ==
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      <text bytes="29457" sha1="miydm3crgq40h2ck150jjmadfxfz0wv" xml:space="preserve">{{Speciesbox
|image = N Ipoa D1600.JPG
|status = LC
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|status_ref =&lt;ref name=&quot;iucn status 19 November 2021&quot;&gt;{{cite iucn |author=Gupta, A.K. |author2=Sayer, C. |date=2018 |title=''Ipomoea aquatica'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T168908A120145878 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T168908A120145878.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|genus = Ipomoea
|species = aquatica
|authority = [[Peter Forsskål|Forssk.]]
}}

'''''ဝုန်''''', ( '''water spinach''') ဂှ် ဒှ် သၞေဝ် ဂကူတၞံဍာ် ပ္ဍဲ ဒေသဂမ္တဴရ။ တမ်မူလ တၞံဝုန်ဂှ် ပတှ်ေကေတ် စတိုန် ပ္ဍဲ အာသျှအဂၞဲ၊ တုဲ ပ္ဍဲ အာသျှအဂၞဲ၊ အာသျှဗမံက်ကီု သီု အာသျှသၠုင်ကျာဂှ် တဵုလွဳဒၟံင် ဗွဲမဇၞော် ကုဒြဟတ်ရ။ တၞံဝုန်ဂှ် တိုန် ဒၞာဲမကြပ်ညောန် ကုဍာ်တုဲ ဟွံမဲပၟိက် ပွမဒးလွဳလွတ်ရ။&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

==လက်သန်==
''ဝုန်'' တိုန် ပ္ဍဲဍာ် ဟွံသေင်မ္ဂး တိထၞုက်။ တၞံဍေဟ် နွံ ဇမၠိင် ၜိုတ်{{convert|2|-|3|m|ft|sigfig=1}}၊ ရိုဟ် တိတ် ပ္ဍဲ တင်ဂမၠိုင်ရ။  The hollow cavity within the stem makes the plant buoyant. The leaves vary from typically sagittate (arrowhead-shaped) to [[lanceolate]], {{convert|5|-|15|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|-|8|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} broad. The flowers are trumpet-shaped, {{convert|3|-|5|cm|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} in diameter, and usually white in colour with a mauve centre. Propagation is either by planting cuttings of the stem shoots, which will root along nodes, or by planting the seeds from flowers that produce seed pods.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.curiousgardener.com/2011/09/15/the-new-kangkong-experiment/|title=Growing kangkong in water |work=curiousgardener.com|date=15 September 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.kangkungking.com/2009/01/how-to-harvest-kang-kung-kong-seeds.html |title=Kangkungking.com |publisher=Kangkungking.com |access-date=13 January 2014 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120210321/http://www.kangkungking.com/2009/01/how-to-harvest-kang-kung-kong-seeds.html |archive-date=20 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;


== Uses ==
=== Culinary ===
The vegetable is a common ingredient in East, South and Southeast Asian dishes, such as in [[stir-fried water spinach]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Water spinach and coconut stir-fry (kankun mallung) |date=23 July 2013 |publisher=[[SBS Food]] |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/recipes/water-spinach-and-coconut-stir-fry-kankun-mallung}}&lt;/ref&gt; In [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Malaysia]], the tender shoots along with the leaves are usually [[stir frying|stir-fried]] with [[chili pepper]], [[garlic]], [[ginger]], dried [[shrimp paste]] (''[[belacan]]''/''[[terasi]]'') and other [[spice]]s. In [[Penang]] and [[Ipoh]], it is cooked with [[cuttlefish]] and a sweet and spicy sauce. Also known as {{Lang|nan-latn|eng chhai}} in the Hokkien dialect, it can also be boiled with preserved cuttlefish, then rinsed and mixed with spicy {{Lang|nan-latn|rojak}} paste to become {{Lang|nan-latn|jiu hu eng chhai}}. Boiled {{Lang|nan-latn|eng chhai}} also can be served with fermented krill noodles – {{Lang|nan-latn|belacan bihun}} – and prawn mi.&lt;ref name=&quot;seasiafood&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.seasiafood.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/prawn-noodle-300x224.jpg |title=Archived copy |access-date=20 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617134709/http://www.seasiafood.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/prawn-noodle-300x224.jpg |archive-date=17 June 2015 |accessdate=11 August 2026 |archivedate=17 June 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617134709/http://www.seasiafood.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/prawn-noodle-300x224.jpg }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Burmese cuisine]], water spinach is the primary ingredient in a [[Burmese salads|Burmese salad]] called {{Lang|my-latn|gazun ywet thoke}} ({{lang|my|ကန်စွန်းရွက်သုပ်}}), made with blanched water spinach, lime juice, fried garlic and garlic oil, roasted [[rice flour]] and dried shrimp.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2014-01-29 |title=အာလူး၊ငါးကက်သလိတ်ကြော်နှင့် ကန်စွန်းရွက်သုပ် |url=https://myanmar.mmtimes.com/timeout/tea-break/8855-2014-01-29-06-39-14.html |access-date=2022-07-22 |website=The Myanmar Times |archive-date=22 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722163317/https://myanmar.mmtimes.com/timeout/tea-break/8855-2014-01-29-06-39-14.html }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Indonesian cuisine]] it is called {{Lang|id|kangkung}}; boiled or blanched together with other vegetables it forms the ingredient of ''[[gado-gado]]'' or ''[[pecel]]'' salads in [[peanut sauce]]. Some recipes that use ''{{Lang|id|kangkung}}'' include ''[[plecing kangkung]]'' from Lombok, ''[[mie kangkung]]'' (kangkong noodles) from Jakarta, and ''petis kangkung'' from Semarang.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Maharani |first1=Ainda Seprita |title=Petis Kangkung Kuliner Khas Legendaris di Semarang, Catat 5 Rekomendasi Lokasi yang Bisa Dikunjungi |url=https://www.suaramerdeka.com/gaya-hidup/0412378981/petis-kangkung-kuliner-khas-legendaris-di-semarang-catat-5-rekomendasi-lokasi-yang-bisa-dikunjungi|website=suaramerdeka.com |access-date=31 October 2024 |language=Indonesian}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Cuisine of Thailand|Thailand]], where it is called {{Lang|th-latn|phak bung}} ({{langx|th|ผักบุ้ง|links=no}}), it is eaten raw, often along with [[som tam|green papaya salad]] or ''[[nam phrik]]'', in stir-fries and in curries such as ''[[kaeng som]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ifrpd.ku.ac.th/pr/research/Thai_foods_Payom.pdf |title=Nutritional composition of traditional Thai foods used local vegetables |access-date=4 April 2017 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212013623/http://www.ifrpd.ku.ac.th/pr/research/Thai_foods_Payom.pdf |archive-date=12 December 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the [[Philippines]], where it is called {{Lang|fil|kangkóng}}, the tender shoots are cut into segments and cooked, together with the leaves, in fish and meat stews, such as ''[[sinigang]]''. The vegetable is also commonly eaten alone. In ''[[Philippine adobo|adobong kangkóng]]'' (also called {{Lang|fil|apan-apan}}), it is sautéed in cooking oil, [[onion]]s, garlic, [[vinegar]], and [[soy sauce]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=Piccio |first1=Belle |title=Apan-apan: The Dish Reflective of the Tradition of Ilonggo Farmers |url=https://www.choosephilippines.com/eat/recipes/4396/apan-apan-all-time-filipino-favorite |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420155425/http://www.choosephilippines.com/eat/recipes/4396/apan-apan-all-time-filipino-favorite |url-status=usurped |archive-date=20 April 2017 |website=Choose Philippines |access-date=11 January 2019 |accessdate=11 August 2026 |archivedate=20 April 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420155425/http://www.choosephilippines.com/eat/recipes/4396/apan-apan-all-time-filipino-favorite }}&lt;/ref&gt; In {{Lang|fil|ensaladang kangkóng}} (or {{Lang|fil|kinilaw na kangkóng}}), it is blanched and served in vinegar or [[calamansi]] juice and fresh [[tomato]]es and [[onion]]s with salt and pepper to taste.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ensaladang Kangkong |url=https://www.melykitchen.com/2015/01/ensaladang-kangkong.html |website=Mely's Kitchen |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175656/https://www.melykitchen.com/2015/01/ensaladang-kangkong.html |accessdate=11 August 2026 |archivedate=11 January 2019 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111175656/https://www.melykitchen.com/2015/01/ensaladang-kangkong.html }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ensaladang Kangkong |url=https://www.overseaspinoycooking.net/2011/10/ensaladang-kangkong.html |website=Overseas Pinoy Cooking |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; In {{Lang|fil|binagoongang kangkóng}} (or {{Lang|fil|ginisang kangkóng}}), it is sautéed with garlic and topped with ''[[bagoong alamang]]'' (shrimp paste) or ''[[bagoong isda]]'' (fermented fish) and sliced fresh tomatoes and onions, commonly also with cubed crispy {{Lang|fil|liempo}} ([[pork belly]]) or [[Philippine adobo|pork ''adobo'']]. It can also be spiced with ''[[siling haba]]'' or ''[[siling labuyo]]'' peppers, soy sauce, black pepper, and sugar. It differs from {{Lang|fil|adobong kangkóng}} in that it does not use vinegar.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Binagoongang Kangkong |url=http://www.pinoyhapagkainan.com/binagoongang-kangkong/ |website=Pinoy Hapagkainan |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Spicy Stir-Fry Kangkong with Bagoong |url=http://www.pinoykitchenette.com/2011/06/spicy-stir-fry-kangkong-with-bagoong.html |website=Pinoy Kitchenette |access-date=11 January 2019 |accessdate=11 August 2026 |archivedate=12 March 2022 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220312065354/http://www.pinoykitchenette.com/2011/06/spicy-stir-fry-kangkong-with-bagoong.html }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kangkong with Bagoong |url=http://filipinostylerecipe.com/2013/04/kangkong-with-bagoong/ |website=Filipino Style Recipe |date=28 April 2013 |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Kangkong with Bagoong Recipe |url=https://panlasangpinoy.com/2012/05/29/kangkong-with-bagoong-recipe/ |website=Panlasang Pinoy |date=30 May 2012 |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; A local appetiser called [[crispy kangkong|crispy ''kangkóng'']] has the leaves coated in a flour-based batter and fried until crisp, similar to [[Cuisine of Japan|Japanese]] vegetable [[tempura]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.pinoyrecipe.net/crispy-kangkong-recipe-river-spinach/ |title=Crispy Kangkong Recipe (River Spinach) - Filipino Recipes Portal |date=8 May 2012 |publisher=Pinoyrecipe.net |access-date=13 January 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Crispy Spinach Recipe |url=https://panlasangpinoy.com/2010/06/08/crispy-spinach-recipe/ |website=Panlasang Pinoy |date=9 June 2010 |access-date=11 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[Chinese cuisine]], ''Ipomoea aquatica'' is a popular leafy vegetable commonly stir-fried with garlic, fermented tofu, or chili, depending on regional preferences. It is particularly associated with [[southern China]], including [[Guangdong]] and [[Fujian]], where it is often prepared as a quick, flavorful dish. In [[Sichuan]] cuisine, it may be stir-fried with pickled chili for a spicy twist. In [[Taiwan]], it is cooked similar to Southeast Asia, with soy sauce and dried shrimp for added umami.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=chou |first=cindy |date=2020-09-26 |title=stir-fried morning glory 蒜炒空心菜 |url=https://thesoundofcooking.com/stir-fried-morning-glory/ |access-date=2025-03-18 |website=The Sound of Cooking |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;90px&quot;&gt;
File:Adobong kangkong (Philippines).jpg|[[Philippine cuisine|Filipino]] ''[[Philippine adobo|adobong kangkóng]]''
File:Ensaladang kangkong.jpg|Filipino ''[[Kinilaw|ensaladang kangkóng]]''
File:Pelecing kangkung.JPG| Indonesian ''[[plecing kangkung]]'' from Lombok
File:Mie Kangkung.JPG|Indonesian ''[[mie kangkung]]'' (with noodles)
File:Gendar Petis Kangkung.jpg|Indonesian ''petis kangkung'' (with ''gendar'' rice cake) from Semarang
File:Kangkungblacan.jpg|[[Malaysia]]n-style ''[[kangkung belacan]]''
File:Pak boong fai daeng.jpg|[[Thailand|Thai]] ''phak bung fai daeng''
File:Canhchua2.jpg|[[Vietnam]]ese ''canh chua''
File:HK 上環市政大廈 Sheung Wan Municipal Building Cooked food centre 棟記 Tung Kee Restaurant dinner food August 2019 SSG 10.jpg|[[Hongkong]]-style ''kōngxīncài''
File:Food 炒牛肝, 小吳現炒牛肉, 天母, 台北 (15256971207).jpg|[[Taiwan|Taiwanese]]-style ''kōngxīncài''
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===Phytoremediation===
Using aquatic macrophytes to remove nutrients from wastewater and to control freshwater [[eutrophication]] has been reported to be a feasible way of [[phytoremediation]]. Various plants, including ''I. aquatica'', have been tested for this use. Owing to its being edible and thus marketable, it could be an attractive option for this use.&lt;ref&gt;Li, M., Wu, Y. J., Yu, Z. L., Sheng, G. P., &amp; Yu, H. Q. (2007). Nitrogen removal from eutrophic water by floating-bed-grown water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.) with ion implantation. ''Water research'', ''41''(14), 3152-3158.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Animal feed===
Water spinach is fed to livestock as green fodder with high nutritive value—especially the leaves, for they are a good source of carotene. It is fed to cattle, pigs, fish, ducks, and chicken.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;&gt;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables. Udaipur: Agrotech Academy, 2011. Print.&lt;/ref&gt; In limited quantities, ''I. aquatica'' can have a somewhat laxative effect.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

=== Medicinal ===
{{medref|1=section|date=February 2025}}
''I. aquatica'' is used in the traditional medicine of southeast Asia and in the traditional medicine of some countries in Africa.{{cn|date=February 2025}} In southeast Asian medicine it is used against [[piles]], and [[nosebleeds]], as an [[anthelmintic]], and to treat [[high blood pressure]].{{medcn|date=February 2025}} In Ayurveda, leaf extracts are used against jaundice and nervous debility.&lt;ref name=&quot;International Journal of Botany&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagendra Prasad |first1=K. |last2=Shivamurthy |first2=G.R. |last3=Aradhya |first3=S.M. |title=Ipomoea aquatica, An Underutilized Green Leafy Vegetable: A Review |journal=International Journal of Botany |date=2008 |volume=1 |issue=4 |page=127}}&lt;/ref&gt; In indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka, water spinach is supposed to have insulin-like properties.{{medcn|date=February 2025}}

Christophe Wiart cites several promising studies showing improvements in blood glucose levels in humans and rats and concludes that clinical trials are warranted.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wiart |first1=Christophe |title=Medicinal plants in Asia for metabolic syndrome: natural products and molecular basis |date=2018 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |isbn=978-1-315-17775-5 |page=44}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Antioxidant bioactive compounds and anti-microbial substances can be detected in water spinach.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Anbu Jothi |first1=B. |last2=Geetha |first2=B. |title=GC-MS and FT-IR analysis of bioactive compounds on methanol extract of Ipomoea aquatica |journal=International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Research |date=May 2017 |volume=2 |issue=3 |page=15}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{npsn|date=February 2025}} Furthermore, plant extracts of water spinach inhibit cancer cell growth of Vero, Hep-2, and A-549 cells, though they have moderate anti-cancer properties.&lt;ref name=&quot;International Journal of Botany&quot;/&gt;{{npsn|date=February 2025}}

&lt;!--- uncited over a year==Cultural references==
[[File:Ipomoea aquatica (Marsh Glory) flower W2 IMG 0405.jpg|thumb|upright|A close-up of the flower]]
There is a belief in traditional [[Chinese culture]] that discourages extensive consumption of ''Ipomoea aquatica''{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} with the explanation that the hollow stem makes the person weak and hollow like the plant{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}, although this belief does not advocate refraining from eating the plant entirely{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}. The elderly however are especially discouraged from consuming it{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}. There is also a belief in Chinese culture that extensive consumption may result in muscle cramps.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Despite this, it is a common vegetable in Asian cuisine.---&gt;

==Cultivation==
[[File:09985jfKangkong harvesting in the Philippinesfvf 35.jpg|thumb|Wild ''I. aquatica'' being harvested from rafts in the [[Angat River]], [[Philippines]]]]
[[File:0002jfVegetable plantations Taal Pulilan Bulacanfvf 11.jpg|thumb|Cultivated ''I. aquatica'' in [[Bulacan]], Philippines]]
''Ipomoea aquatica'' is most commonly grown in east, south, and southeast Asia. It flourishes naturally in waterways, and requires little if any care. It is used extensively in Indonesian, Burmese, Thai, Lao, Cambodian, Malay, Vietnamese, Filipino, and Chinese cuisine, especially in rural or ''[[kampung]]'' (village) areas. The vegetable is also extremely popular in [[Taiwan]], where it grows well. During the [[Japanese occupation of Singapore]] in World War II, the vegetable grew remarkably easily in many areas, and became a popular wartime crop.

Water spinach has been found to be cultivated in the following countries:&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Pinker, I. 2006&quot;&gt;Pinker, I., U. Bubner, and M. Böhme. &quot;Selection of water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.)-genotypes for protected cultivation in temperate regions.&quot; I International Conference on Indigenous Vegetables and Legumes. Prospectus for Fighting Poverty, Hunger and Malnutrition 752. 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
*[[Australia]]
*[[Bangladesh]]
*[[Myanmar|Burma]]
*[[Cambodia]]
*[[China]]
*[[Fiji]]
*[[India]]
*[[Maldives]]
*[[Indonesia]]
*[[Japan]]
*[[Malaysia]]
*[[Nepal]]
*[[New Guinea]]
*[[Philippines]]
*[[Lanka|Sri Lanka]]
*[[Taiwan]]
*[[Thailand]]
*[[Vietnam]]
{{div col end}}

In the United States, it is cultivated in California, Florida, Hawaii, Texas, Arizona, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.&lt;ref&gt;Chilton, Earl W. &quot;Risk Assessment for Water Spinach (Ipomoea Aquatica) in Texas.&quot; Journal Of Aquatic Plant Management 55 (2017): 96-102. Web.&lt;/ref&gt; It is also found in Africa and in its wild form; it is collected and used by the [[Shambaa people|Sambaa]] people in [[Tanzania]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Austin, Daniel F. F. &quot;Water Spinach (Ipomoea Aquatica, Convolvulaceae) a Food Gone Wild.&quot; Ethnobotany Research and Applications 5 (2007): 123-46. Web.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Vainio-Mattila, Katariina. &quot;Wild vegetables used by the Sambaa in the Usambara Mountains, NE Tanzania.&quot; Annales Botanici Fennici. Finnish Zoological and Botanical Publishing Board, 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;

Water spinach is also potentially suitable for cultivation in [[greenhouse]]s in more [[Temperate climate|temperate]] regions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pinker, I. 2006&quot;/&gt;

In non-tropical areas, it is easily grown in containers given enough water in a bright sunny location. It readily roots from cuttings.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

===Requirements for climate and soil===
[[File:Kanko cultivation in Dili drainage ditch.jpg|thumb|''I. aquatica'' being cultivated in a drainage ditch in [[Dili]], [[Timor-Leste]]]]
Water spinach is ideal for [[Subtropics|sub]]-tropical and [[Tropics|tropical]] climate, as it does not grow well below {{convert|23.9|C}} and is sensitive to frost. High soil moisture is beneficial for growth. Clay soils and [[marsh]]y soils rich in organic matter are suitable for water spinach. The ideal pH range for the growth is from 5 to 7. The provision of shade has been shown to have a positive influence on the yield of water spinach.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

===Traditional cultivation methods===
[[File:Starr-170627-0206-Ipomoea aquatica-young starts with Kim and Thai Worker Hin-Hydroponics Greenhouse Sand Island-Midway Atoll (36319965171).jpg|thumb|''I. aquatica'' being grown in a [[hydroponics]] greenhouse in Sand Island, [[Midway Atoll]]]]
Water spinach is cultivated in a variety of systems. In [[Hong Kong]], two methods are traditionally used: the dryland method and the wetland method.

In '''the dryland method''', water spinach is grown on raised beds which are separated by irrigation ditches. The seeds can be sown directly onto the beds. Alternatively, a nursery may be used and the seedlings are transplanted when they reach a sufficient size. In either case, the distance between the plants should be about {{convert|12|cm}} by the time they are {{convert|15|cm}} tall. Regular irrigation is crucial in the dryland system and so is sufficient fertilization. Water spinach cultivated with the dryland method is ready for harvest 50 to 60 days after sowing. Harvesting is done by pulling up the whole plant.&lt;ref name=&quot;Edie, Harry 1969&quot;&gt;Edie, Harry, and H. Ho. &quot;Ipomoea Aquatica as a Vegetable Crop in Hong Kong.&quot; Economic Botany 23.1 (1969): 32-36. Web.&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''wetland method''' is the traditionally more common and important method for cultivation in Hong Kong: In the wetland method, water spinach is cultivated on flat fields surrounded by raised banks, which have oftentimes been used as [[Paddy field|rice paddies]] in the past. These former rice paddies have a heavy clay soil with an iron-pan. This helps to retain water for the water spinach. The seedlings to be used in this method are usually grown in a nursery on a dry field, as germination under water is quite poor. Six weeks after sowing, cuttings can be taken from the seedlings for transplantation. One cutting is an approximately {{convert|30|cm}} long cut from the stem containing seven or eight nodes. This is then planted in the field with a spacing of about {{convert|40|cm}}. The field is prepared beforehand by flooding it to a depth of {{convert|3|to|5|cm}}. The soil itself is tramped into a liquid mud so that the cuttings can root easily. Once the plants are established, the depth of the flooding is increased to {{convert|15|to|20|cm}}. The first harvest in the wetland method can usually be done at around 30 days after transplantation. Also, the harvesting differs from the dryland system: In the wetland, the upper part of the main shoot is cut at about water level. This stimulates lateral growth and produces horizontal shoots carrying vertical branches. After the first harvests, every seven to ten days throughout the summer, these vertical branches can be harvested. After the planting period, the fields are drained and once the fruit of the water spinach is ripe, it is harvested, dried, then trodden to release the seeds which are to be used for the following season.&lt;ref name=&quot;Edie, Harry 1969&quot;/&gt;

===Use of fertilizer===
How much fertilizer is used for the cultivation strongly depends on the region. Most research is from the 1980s and 1990s. Generally, it has been shown that a dose of {{convert|60|kg}} [[Nitrogen|N]]/ha is sufficient and that the application of [[Potassium|K]] can be beneficial on the yield. Also, the application of plant growth regulators, for example [[Adenine]] and Zetanine,{{clarify|What's zetanine?|date=May 2022}} has been found to be an effective means to promote water spinach growth. One study has determined, that the highest yields are produced with the application of 60&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of N, 90&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of [[Phosphorus pentoxide|P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;]] and 50&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of [[Potassium oxide|K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] for the first harvest. For the second harvest the optimal fertilization was determined as 120&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of N, 45&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; and 100&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

'''Taiwan''': In Taiwan, the usual fertilization includes the basic application of about 10 t/ha of cow manure followed by 50&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of [[ammonium sulfate]] after each harvest.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

'''Bangkok''': In Bangkok, it is common to apply about 300&amp;nbsp;kg/ha of NPK fertilizer twice a month.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

'''Indonesia''': In Indonesia, usually 150&amp;nbsp;kg to 300&amp;nbsp;kg of NPK are applied per hectare.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pandey, A.K. Aquatic Vegetables 2011&quot;/&gt;

===Pathogens and pests===
[[File:Tortoise beetle hess.jpg|thumb|A [[tortoise beetle]] on an ''I. aquatica'' leaf]]
There are several pathogens and pests reported, affecting ''I. aquatica''. Pathogens include ''[[Pythium]]'', causing problems like damping-off, ''[[Cercospora]]'' leaf spot and root nematodes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Also, [[aphid]]s may be problems in fields. Additionally, there are several [[List of feeding behaviours|polyphagous]] insects feeding on ''I. aquatica''. [[Lepidoptera]] species include ''Diacrisia strigatula'' Walker and ''Spodoptera litura''. The &quot;woolly-bear&quot; caterpillars (''D. virginica'' [Fabricius]) of the eastern United States and ''D. strigatula'' (Chinese tiger moth) are other species with wide food preferences.&lt;ref name=&quot;Austin&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eS7lX_rC3GEC |first=Daniel F. |last=Austin |title=Florida Ethnobotany |publisher=CRC Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8493-2332-4 |page=365}}&lt;/ref&gt; A specialist pathogen on ''I. aquatica'' is the [[oomycete]] ''Albugo ipomoeae-aquaticae'', though its range is restricted to southern and southeast Asia.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

===Invasiveness===
''Ipomoea aquatica'' is listed by the [[USDA]] as a noxious weed,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://plants.usda.gov/java/noxious?rptType=Federal |title=Federal Noxious Weed List |publisher=USDA |access-date=2019-08-13}}&lt;/ref&gt; especially in the states of [[Florida]], [[California]], and [[Hawaii]], where it can be observed growing in the wild.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. swamp morning-glory |url=http://plants.usda.gov/plant-profile?symbol=IPAQ |website=plants.usda.gov |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service |access-date=10 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the US, water spinach has mainly become a problem in Florida. It is unclear why it is a problem there; however, although the fast growth rate has been cited as a threat to native plants in certain areas of Florida.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Water Spinach|url=http://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/habitat/invasive-plants/weed-alerts/water-spinach/|website=Florida Fish And Wildlife Conservation Commission|language=en|access-date=2020-05-11|archive-date=9 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809092941/https://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/habitat/invasive-plants/weed-alerts/water-spinach/|accessdate=2026-08-11|archivedate=2020-08-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809092941/https://myfwc.com/wildlifehabitats/habitat/invasive-plants/weed-alerts/water-spinach/}}&lt;/ref&gt; It could be owing to the time since introduction, or owing to climatic factors.&lt;ref name=&quot;Edie, Harry 1969&quot;/&gt; ''I. aquatica'' has been extensively cultivated in [[Texas]] for over 30 years, having been originally brought there by Asian immigrants. Because no evidence indicates the plant has escaped into the wild, Texas lifted its ban on cultivation for personal use with no restrictions or requirements, noting its importance as a vegetable in many cultures, and also began permitting cultivation for commercial sales with the requirement of an exotic species permit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.texasinvasives.org/plant_database/detail.php?symbol=IPAQ |title=Texas Invasives |work=texasinvasives.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Possession of ''I. aquatica'' has been prohibited in Florida since 1973, but it is still being grown and sold illegally. Some of the infestations in Florida public lakes have been eradicated, or at least attempts have been made.&lt;ref&gt;Langeland, K.A. &amp; K.C. Burks. 1998. Editors of ''Identification &amp; Biology of Non-Native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas''. University of Florida, Gainesville&lt;/ref&gt; In [[Sri Lanka]] it invades wetlands, where its long, floating stems form dense mats which can block the flow of water and prevent the passage of boats.&lt;ref&gt;Gunasekera Lalith. ''Invasive Plants, A Guide to the Identification of the Most Invasive Plants in Sri Lanka'', Colombo 2009.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;150&quot; heights=&quot;150&quot;&gt;
File:04657jfDampol Rueda Plaridel Pungo Calumpit Bulacan Riverbanks Kangkung Viaductfvf 26.jpg|''I. aquatica'' along the [[Angat River]], [[Philippines]]
File:Starr-121029-0421-Ipomoea aquatica-habit in wetland-Ukumehame-Maui (24827090269).jpg|''Ipomoea aquatica'' in Ukumehame, [[Maui]], [[Hawaii]]
File:Immature seeds of Ipomoea aquatica 2.jpg|Immature fruits of ''Ipomoea aquatica''
File:Ipomoea aquatica Nksw 4.jpg|''Ipomoea aquatica'' at Nakhonsawan school, Nakhon Sawan, [[Thailand]]
File:Ipomoea aquatica bd-3.jpg|Fruits of ''Ipomoea aquatica ''
File:Ipomoea aquatica (Marsh Glory) flower W IMG 0403.jpg|Close-up of ''I. aquatica'' flower in [[Hyderabad]], [[India]]
File:9916Wawa Poblacion Balagtas 13.jpg|Freshly-harvested ''I. aquatica'' bundles being unloaded from rafts in the Philippines
File:甕菜 Ipomoea aquatica -香港西貢獅子會自然教育中心 Saikung, Hong Kong- (9240155912).jpg|''I. aquatica'' with white flowers in [[Sai Kung Town|Sai Kung]], [[Hong Kong]]
File:Bubulcus ibis in the Philippines 22.jpg|[[Cattle egret]]s among ''I. aquatica'' in [[Norzagaray]], Philippines
File:HK WCD 灣仔 Wan Chai 春園街 Spring Garden Lane shop Kai Bo Food Supermarket vegetable July 2021 SS2.jpg|''I. aquatica'' being sold in a market in [[Hong Kong]]
File:Ipomoea aquatica.jpg|''I. aquatica'' bundles sold in a market in [[Sarawak]], [[Malaysia]]
File:03899jfPasig City Boundary Buting Bridge School Creek Monument Makati Cityfvf 19.jpg|Bundles of ''I. aquatica'' being sold by a roadside vendor in [[Makati City]], Philippines
&lt;/gallery&gt;


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