Wikipedija mtwiki https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il-Pa%C4%A1na_prin%C4%8Bipali MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.4 first-letter Medja Speċjali Diskussjoni Utent Diskussjoni utent Wikipedija Diskussjoni Wikipedija Stampa Diskussjoni stampa MediaWiki Diskussjoni MediaWiki Mudell Diskussjoni mudell Għajnuna Diskussjoni għajnuna Kategorija Diskussjoni kategorija Portal Diskussjoni portal TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 1142 330265 330055 2026-05-27T17:14:52Z MediaWiki message delivery 8472 /* Vote now in the 2026 U4C election */ sezzjoni ġdida 330265 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Il-Pjazza}} <!-- AGĦMEL IL-KUMMENT TIEGĦEK TAĦT L-AĦĦAR INTERVENT LI SAR. --> == Launching! Join Us for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025! == Dear All, We’re happy to announce the launch of [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]], an annual international campaign dedicated to celebrating and preserving Islamic cultures and history through the power of Wikipedia. As an active contributor to the Local Wikipedia, you are specially invited to participate in the launch. This year’s campaign will be launched for you to join us write, edit, and improve articles that showcase the richness and diversity of Islamic traditions, history, and culture. * Topic: [[m:Event:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 Campaign Launch|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 Campaign Launch]] * When: Jan 19, 2025 * Time: 16:00 Universal Time UTC and runs throughout Ramadan (starting February 25, 2025). * Join Zoom Meeting: https://us02web.zoom.us/j/88420056597?pwd=NdrpqIhrwAVPeWB8FNb258n7qngqqo.1 * Zoom meeting hosted by [[m:Wikimedia Bangladesh|Wikimedia Bangladesh]] To get started, visit the [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|campaign page]] for details, resources, and guidelines: Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025. Add [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participant|your community here]], and organized Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 in your local language. Whether you’re a first-time editor or an experienced Wikipedian, your contributions matter. Together, we can ensure Islamic cultures and traditions are well-represented and accessible to all. Feel free to invite your community and friends too. Kindly reach out if you have any questions or need support as you prepare to participate. Let’s make Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 a success! For the [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Team|International Team]] 12:08, 16 Jannar 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=27568454 --> == Universal Code of Conduct annual review: provide your comments on the UCoC and Enforcement Guidelines == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> My apologies for writing in English. {{Int:Please-translate}}. I am writing to you to let you know the annual review period for the Universal Code of Conduct and Enforcement Guidelines is open now. You can make suggestions for changes through 3 February 2025. This is the first step of several to be taken for the annual review. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review|Read more information and find a conversation to join on the UCoC page on Meta]]. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|you may review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 01:11, 24 Jannar 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=27746256 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2025 starts soon == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2025 logo.svg|centre|550px|frameless]] ::<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <center>''{{int:please-translate}}''</center> Dear Wiki Community, You are humbly invited to organize the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2025|Feminism and Folklore 2025]]''' writing competition from February 1, 2025, to March 31, 2025 on your local Wikipedia. This year, Feminism and Folklore will focus on feminism, women's issues, and gender-focused topics for the project, with a [[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2025|Wiki Loves Folklore]] gender gap focus and a folk culture theme on Wikipedia. You can help Wikipedia's coverage of folklore from your area by writing or improving articles about things like folk festivals, folk dances, folk music, women and queer folklore figures, folk game athletes, women in mythology, women warriors in folklore, witches and witch hunting, fairy tales, and more. Users can help create new articles, expand or translate from a generated list of suggested articles. Organisers are requested to work on the following action items to sign up their communities for the project: # Create a page for the contest on the local wiki. # Set up a campaign on '''CampWiz''' tool. # Create the local list and mention the timeline and local and international prizes. # Request local admins for site notice. # Link the local page and the CampWiz link on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2025/Project Page|meta project page]]. This year, the Wiki Loves Folklore Tech Team has introduced two new tools to enhance support for the campaign. These tools include the '''Article List Generator by Topic''' and '''CampWiz'''. The Article List Generator by Topic enables users to identify articles on the English Wikipedia that are not present in their native language Wikipedia. Users can customize their selection criteria, and the tool will present a table showcasing the missing articles along with suggested titles. Additionally, users have the option to download the list in both CSV and wikitable formats. Notably, the CampWiz tool will be employed for the project for the first time, empowering users to effectively host the project with a jury. Both tools are now available for use in the campaign. [https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/ '''Click here to access these tools'''] Learn more about the contest and prizes on our [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2025|project page]]. Feel free to contact us on our [[:m:Talk:Feminism and Folklore 2025/Project Page|meta talk page]] or by email us if you need any assistance. We look forward to your immense coordination. Thank you and Best wishes, '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2025|Feminism and Folklore 2025 International Team]]''' ::::Stay connected [[File:B&W Facebook icon.png|link=https://www.facebook.com/feminismandfolklore/|30x30px]]&nbsp; [[File:B&W Twitter icon.png|link=https://twitter.com/wikifolklore|30x30px]] </div></div> --[[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 02:36, 29 Jannar 2025 (UTC) == Wiki Loves Folklore is back! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {{int:please-translate}} [[File:Wiki Loves Folklore Logo.svg|right|150px|frameless]] Dear Wiki Community, You are humbly invited to participate in the '''[[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2025|Wiki Loves Folklore 2025]]''' an international media contest organized on Wikimedia Commons to document folklore and intangible cultural heritage from different regions, including, folk creative activities and many more. It is held every year from the '''1st till the 31st''' of March. You can help in enriching the folklore documentation on Commons from your region by taking photos, audios, videos, and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:UploadWizard&campaign=wlf_2025 submitting] them in this commons contest. You can also [[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2025/Organize|organize a local contest]] in your country and support us in translating the [[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2025/Translations|project pages]] to help us spread the word in your native language. Feel free to contact us on our [[:c:Commons talk:Wiki Loves Folklore 2025|project Talk page]] if you need any assistance. '''Kind regards,''' '''Wiki loves Folklore International Team''' --[[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 02:36, 29 Jannar 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery/Wikipedia&oldid=26503019 --> == Reminder: first part of the annual UCoC review closes soon == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> My apologies for writing in English. {{Int:Please-translate}}. This is a reminder that the first phase of the annual review period for the Universal Code of Conduct and Enforcement Guidelines will be closing soon. You can make suggestions for changes through [[d:Q614092|the end of day]], 3 February 2025. This is the first step of several to be taken for the annual review. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review|Read more information and find a conversation to join on the UCoC page on Meta]]. After review of the feedback, proposals for updated text will be published on Meta in March for another round of community review. Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 00:48, 3 Frar 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28198931 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr"> Upcoming Language Community Meeting (Feb 28th, 14:00 UTC) and Newsletter</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="message"/> Hello everyone! [[File:WP20Symbols WIKI INCUBATOR.svg|right|frameless|150x150px|alt=An image symbolising multiple languages]] We’re excited to announce that the next '''Language Community Meeting''' is happening soon, '''February 28th at 14:00 UTC'''! If you’d like to join, simply sign up on the '''[[mw:Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization/Community_meetings#28_February_2025|wiki page]]'''. This is a participant-driven meeting where we share updates on language-related projects, discuss technical challenges in language wikis, and collaborate on solutions. In our last meeting, we covered topics like developing language keyboards, creating the Moore Wikipedia, and updates from the language support track at Wiki Indaba. '''Got a topic to share?''' Whether it’s a technical update from your project, a challenge you need help with, or a request for interpretation support, we’d love to hear from you! Feel free to '''reply to this message''' or add agenda items to the document '''[[etherpad:p/language-community-meeting-feb-2025|here]]'''. Also, we wanted to highlight that the sixth edition of the Language & Internationalization newsletter (January 2025) is available here: [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/January|Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/January]]. This newsletter provides updates from the October–December 2024 quarter on new feature development, improvements in various language-related technical projects and support efforts, details about community meetings, and ideas for contributing to projects. To stay updated, you can subscribe to the newsletter on its wiki page: [[:mw:Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter|Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter]]. We look forward to your ideas and participation at the language community meeting, see you there! <section end="message"/> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 08:29, 22 Frar 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:SSethi (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28217779 --> == CEE Hub Microgrant Programme - 2025 round == '''[[:m:Wikimedia CEE Hub/Microgrants|CEE Hub Microgrant programme]]''' is open for submissions from the communities across Central and Eastern Europe (as well as Central Asia, and Farsi contributors that live in these regions). The CEE Hub Microgrant programme will fund projects ranging from 50 to 700 EUR. Please read the criteria and other details with the programme. '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdscTZ9EPNjHhU0r7hUHNwntX34Wrk8ieiHemk_clB9VI3PfQ/viewform Application form]''' is accessible on the Meta page where you will need to answer a few simple questions. You can find a list of the applications for the programme from 2024 [[:m:Wikimedia CEE Hub/Microgrants/Applications 2024|on this page]], so you will get a sense of what other communities asked for funds. If you have any questions, please let us know ([[:m:Wikimedia CEE Hub/Communication|contact us]]). We are waiting for your submissions! --[[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 13:35, 24 Frar 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:TRistovski-CEEhub@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/CEE_Hub&oldid=28306207 --> == Universal Code of Conduct annual review: proposed changes are available for comment == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> My apologies for writing in English. {{Int:Please-translate}}. I am writing to you to let you know that [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/Proposed_Changes|proposed changes]] to the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Enforcement_guidelines|Universal Code of Conduct (UCoC) Enforcement Guidelines]] and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) Charter]] are open for review. '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/Proposed_Changes|You can provide feedback on suggested changes]]''' through the [[d:Q614092|end of day]] on Tuesday, 18 March 2025. This is the second step in the annual review process, the final step will be community voting on the proposed changes. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review|Read more information and find relevant links about the process on the UCoC annual review page on Meta]]. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|you may review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] 18:51, 7 Marzu 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28307738 --> == An improved dashboard for the Content Translation tool == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> {{Int:hello}} Wikipedians, Apologies as this message is not in your language, {{Int:please-translate}}. The [[mediawikiwiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization|Language and Product Localization team]] has improved the [https://test.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=previous-edits&active-list=suggestions&from=en&to=es Content Translation dashboard] to create a consistent experience for all contributors using mobile and desktop devices. The improved translation dashboard allows all logged-in users of the tool to enjoy a consistent experience regardless of their type of device. With a harmonized experience, logged-in desktop users now have access to the capabilities shown in the image below. [[file:Content_Translation_new-dashboard.png|alt=|center|thumb|576x576px|Notice that in this screenshot, the new dashboard allows: Users to adjust suggestions with the "For you" and "...More" buttons to select general topics or community-created collections (like the example of Climate topic).  Also, users can use translation to create new articles (as before) and expand existing articles section by section. You can see how suggestions are provided in the new dashboard  in two groups ("Create new pages" and "Expand with new sections")-one for each activity.]] [[File:Content_Translation_dashboard_on_desktop.png|alt=|center|thumb|577x577px|In the current dashboard, you will notice that you can't adjust suggestions to select topics or community-created collections. Also, you can't expand on existing articles by translating new sections.]] We will implement [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation#Improved translation experience|this improvement]] on your wiki '''on Monday, March 17th, 2025''' and remove the current dashboard '''by May 2025'''. Please reach out with any questions concerning the dashboard in this thread. Thank you! On behalf of the Language and Product Localization team. </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]]</bdi> 02:56, 13 Marzu 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:UOzurumba_(WMF)/sandbox_CX_Unified_dashboard_announcement_list_1&oldid=28382282 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Your wiki will be in read-only soon</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2025-03-19|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2025-03-19T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2025-03-19T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' *You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2025-03-19|en}}. *If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': *Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:15, 14 Marzu 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=28307742 --> == Final proposed modifications to the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter now posted == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> The proposed modifications to the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Enforcement_guidelines|Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines]] and the U4C Charter [[m:Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/2025/Proposed_Changes|are now on Meta-wiki for community notice]] in advance of the voting period. This final draft was developed from the previous two rounds of community review. Community members will be able to vote on these modifications starting on 17 April 2025. The vote will close on 1 May 2025, and results will be announced no later than 12 May 2025. The U4C election period, starting with a call for candidates, will open immediately following the announcement of the review results. More information will be posted on [[m:Special:MyLanguage//Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election|the wiki page for the election]] soon. Please be advised that this process will require more messages to be sent here over the next two months. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, you may [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this message with members of your community so they can participate as well. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 02:04, 4 April 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28469465 --> == Be part of the next CEE Catch Up about Global Trends == Hi everyone, We want to announce the ninth '''[[:m:Wikimedia CEE Hub/Catch up|CEE Catch Up]]''' session, which will be dedicated to the Foundation Annual Planning Workshop focused on [[diffblog:2025/03/04/global-trends-2025/|'''global trends that are affecting our movement''']]. The session will take place on 23^rd of April 2025, 18:00-19:00 CEST (check your local time [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1745424000 here]). Together (the CEE Communities and the Wikimedia Foundation staff) we will discuss the trends related to our projects, our readers and editors. We will explore how those trends show up in the CEE context and discuss what our projects need to address those trends, and how we can support them. You will also have the opportunity to ask questions to the Wikimedia Foundation staff about the work being planned as part of the annual plan that runs from July 2025 to June 2026. '''<u>''[[Wikimedia CEE Hub/Catch up|Join us at the Next CEE Catch up]]!''</u>''' --[[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 17:19, 14 April 2025 (UTC) (on behalf of the CEE Catch Up team) <!-- Message sent by User:TRistovski-CEEhub@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/CEE_Hub&oldid=28546550 --> == Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2025: Invitation == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> [[File:UCDM 2025 general.png|180px|right]] {{int:please-translate}} Hello, dear Wikipedians!<br/> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Ukraine|Wikimedia Ukraine]], in cooperation with the [[:en:Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine|MFA of Ukraine]] and [[:en:Ukrainian Institute|Ukrainian Institute]], has launched the fifth edition of writing challenge "'''[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2025|Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month]]'''", which lasts from '''14th April''' until '''16th May 2025'''. The campaign is dedicated to famous Ukrainian artists of cinema, music, literature, architecture, design, and cultural phenomena of Ukraine that are now part of world heritage. We accept contributions in every language! The most active contesters will receive prizes. If you are interested in coordinating long-term community engagement for the campaign and becoming a local ambassador, we would love to hear from you! Please let us know your interest. <br/> We invite you to take part and help us improve the coverage of Ukrainian culture on Wikipedia in your language! Also, we plan to set up a [[:m:CentralNotice/Request/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2025|banner]] to notify users of the possibility to participate in such a challenge! [[:m:User:OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)|OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)]] ([[:m:User talk:OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)|talk]]) </div> 16:11, 16 April 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Hide on Rosé@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:OlesiaLukaniuk_(WMUA)/list_of_wikis&oldid=28552112 --> == Vote now on the revised UCoC Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> The voting period for the revisions to the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines ("UCoC EG") and the UCoC's Coordinating Committee Charter is open now through the end of 1 May (UTC) ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1746162000 find in your time zone]). [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/2025/Voter_information|Read the information on how to participate and read over the proposal before voting]] on the UCoC page on Meta-wiki. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review of the EG and Charter was planned and implemented by the U4C. Further information will be provided in the coming months about the review of the UCoC itself. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, you may [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this message with members of your community so they can participate as well. In cooperation with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 00:34, 17 April 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28469465 --> == Sub-referencing: User testing == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> [[File:Sub-referencing reuse visual.png|400px|right]] <small>''Apologies for writing in English, please help us by providing a translation below''</small> Hi I’m Johannes from [[:m:Wikimedia Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland]]'s [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes|Technical Wishes team]]. We are making great strides with the new [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|sub-referencing feature]] and we’d love to invite you to take part in two activities to help us move this work further: #'''Try it out and share your feedback''' #:[[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing# Test the prototype|Please try]] the updated ''wikitext'' feature [https://en.wikipedia.beta.wmflabs.org/wiki/Sub-referencing on the beta wiki] and let us know what you think, either [[:m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|on our talk page]] or by [https://greatquestion.co/wikimediadeutschland/talktotechwish booking a call] with our UX researcher. #'''Get a sneak peak and help shape the ''Visual Editor'' user designs''' #:Help us test the new design prototypes by participating in user sessions – [https://greatquestion.co/wikimediadeutschland/gxk0taud/apply sign up here to receive an invite]. We're especially hoping to speak with people from underrepresented and diverse groups. If that's you, please consider signing up! No prior or extensive editing experience is required. User sessions will start ''May 14th''. We plan to bring this feature to Wikimedia wikis later this year. We’ll reach out to wikis for piloting in time for deployments. Creators and maintainers of reference-related tools and templates will be contacted beforehand as well. Thank you very much for your support and encouragement so far in helping bring this feature to life! </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|Johannes Richter (WMDE)]] ([[User talk:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|talk]])</bdi> 15:03, 28 April 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johannes Richter (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Johannes_Richter_(WMDE)/Sub-referencing/massmessage_list&oldid=28628657 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Vote on proposed modifications to the UCoC Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> The voting period for the revisions to the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter closes on 1 May 2025 at 23:59 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1746162000 find in your time zone]). [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Annual review/2025/Voter information|Read the information on how to participate and read over the proposal before voting]] on the UCoC page on Meta-wiki. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, you may [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this message with members of your community in your language, as appropriate, so they can participate as well. In cooperation with the U4C -- <section end="announcement-content" /> </div> <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 03:41, 29 April 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28618011 --> == We will be enabling the new Charts extension on your wiki soon! == ''(Apologies for posting in English)'' Hi all! We have good news to share regarding the ongoing problem with graphs and charts affecting all wikis that use them. As you probably know, the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Graph|old Graph extension]] was disabled in 2023 [[listarchive:list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/EWL4AGBEZEDMNNFTM4FRD4MHOU3CVESO/|due to security reasons]]. We’ve worked in these two years to find a solution that could replace the old extension, and provide a safer and better solution to users who wanted to showcase graphs and charts in their articles. We therefore developed the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|Charts extension]], which will be replacing the old Graph extension and potentially also the [[:mw:Extension:EasyTimeline|EasyTimeline extension]]. After successfully deploying the extension on Italian, Swedish, and Hebrew Wikipedia, as well as on MediaWiki.org, as part of a pilot phase, we are now happy to announce that we are moving forward with the next phase of deployment, which will also include your wiki. The deployment will happen in batches, and will start from '''May 6'''. Please, consult [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project#Deployment Timeline|our page on MediaWiki.org]] to discover when the new Charts extension will be deployed on your wiki. You can also [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|consult the documentation]] about the extension on MediaWiki.org. If you have questions, need clarifications, or just want to express your opinion about it, please refer to the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension_talk:Chart/Project|project’s talk page on Mediawiki.org]], or ping me directly under this thread. If you encounter issues using Charts once it gets enabled on your wiki, please report it on the [[:mw:Extension_talk:Chart/Project|talk page]] or at [[phab:tag/charts|Phabricator]]. Thank you in advance! -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 15:08, 6 Mejju 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=28663781 --> == Registration for the Wikimedia CEE Meeting 2025 is open == Dear all,               The Organising Committee of the [[metawiki:Wikimedia CEE Meeting 2025|Wikimedia CEE Meeting 2025]] is delighted to announce the opening of the registration for this year's conference. Affiliation and community delegates can register for the meeting until '''June 15th'''. All other self-funded participants can register until July 31st. The registration and scholarship application form which runs on Pretix, a free, open-sourced third-party platform that helps organize and manage events, can be found [https://pretix.eu/wikimedia-events/wmcee-2025/ here]. Details on how to select delegates and the selection process can be found on the [[metawiki:Wikimedia CEE Meeting 2025/Registration|registration page]]. Please keep in mind that the official language of the conference is English and interpreting services will not be available. If you encounter any issues while registering, or have questions about the registration process, feel free to contact the coordination team via [mailto:wmceem2025@wikimedia.gr wmceem2025@wikimedia.gr]. Your swift replies will be appreciated, as they will help us conduct an efficient booking process. Best regards,       On behalf of '''Wikimedia CEE Meeting 2025 Organising Team''' <nowiki>--~~~~</nowiki> [[Utent:MARKELLOS|MARKELLOS]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MARKELLOS|d]]) 17:20, 12 Mejju 2025 (UTC) == Proposal to enable the "Contribute" entry point in Maltese Wikipedia == {{Int:Hello}} Maltese Wikipedians, Apologies as this message is not in your language. {{Int:please-translate}}. The [[mediawikiwiki:Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization|WMF Language and Product Localization]] team proposes enabling an entry point called "Contribute" to your Wikipedia. The [[:bn:বিশেষ:Contribute|Contribute]] entry point is based on collaborative work with other product teams in the Wikimedia Foundation on [[mediawikiwiki:Edit_Discovery|Edit discovery]], which validated the entry point as a persistent and constant path that contributors took to discover ways to contribute content in Wikipedia. Therefore, enabling this entry point in your Wikipedia will help contributors quickly discover available tools and immediately click to start using them. This entry point is designed to be a central point for discovering contribution tools in Maltese Wikipedia. '''Who can access it''' Once it is enabled in your Wikipedia, newcomers can access the entry point automatically by just logging into their account, click on the User drop-down menu and choose the "Contribute" icon, which takes you to another menu where you will find a self-guided description of what you can do to contribute content, as shown in the image below. An option to "view contributions" is also available to access the list of your contributions. [[Stampa:Mobile_Contribute_Page.png|Mobile Contribute Page]] [[Stampa:Mobile_contribute_menu_(detailed).png|Mobile contribute menu (detailed)]] For experienced contributors, the Contribute icon is not automatically shown in their User drop-down menu. They will still see the "Contributions" option unless they change it to the "Contribute" manually. We have gotten valuable feedback that helped us improve its discoverability. Now, it is ready to be enabled in other Wikis. One major improvement was to [[phab:T369041|make the entry point optional for experienced contributors]] who still want to have the "Contributions" entry point as default.           We plan to enable it '''on mobile''' for Wikis, where the Section translation tool is enabled. In this way, we will provide a main entry point to the mobile translation dashboard, and the exposure can still be limited by targeting only the mobile platform for now. If there are no objections to having the entry point for mobile users from your community, we will enable it by 26th May 2025. We welcome your feedback and questions in this thread on our proposal to enable it here. Suppose there are no objections, we will deploy the "Contribute" entry point in your Wikipedia. We look forward to your response soon. Thank you! On behalf of the WMF Language and Product Localization team. [[Utent:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:UOzurumba (WMF)|d]]) 20:48, 12 Mejju 2025 (UTC) == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Call for Candidates for the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> The results of voting on the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines and Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) Charter is [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Annual review/2025#Results|available on Meta-wiki]]. You may now [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2025/Candidates|submit your candidacy to serve on the U4C]] through 29 May 2025 at 12:00 UTC. Information about [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2025|eligibility, process, and the timeline are on Meta-wiki]]. Voting on candidates will open on 1 June 2025 and run for two weeks, closing on 15 June 2025 at 12:00 UTC. If you have any questions, you can ask on [[m:Talk:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2025|the discussion page for the election]]. -- in cooperation with the U4C, </div><section end="announcement-content" /> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|diskussjoni]])</bdi> 22:07, 15 Mejju 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28618011 --> == RfC ongoing regarding Abstract Wikipedia (and your project) == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> ''(Apologies for posting in English, if this is not your first language)'' Hello all! We opened a discussion on Meta about a very delicate issue for the development of [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Abstract Wikipedia|Abstract Wikipedia]]: where to store the abstract content that will be developed through functions from Wikifunctions and data from Wikidata. Since some of the hypothesis involve your project, we wanted to hear your thoughts too. We want to make the decision process clear: we do not yet know which option we want to use, which is why we are consulting here. We will take the arguments from the Wikimedia communities into account, and we want to consult with the different communities and hear arguments that will help us with the decision. The decision will be made and communicated after the consultation period by the Foundation. You can read the various hypothesis and have your say at [[:m:Abstract Wikipedia/Location of Abstract Content|Abstract Wikipedia/Location of Abstract Content]]. Thank you in advance! -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 15:27, 22 Mejju 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=28768453 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees 2025 Selection & Call for Questions</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Announcement/Selection announcement|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Announcement/Selection announcement}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Dear all, This year, the term of 2 (two) Community- and Affiliate-selected Trustees on the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees will come to an end [1]. The Board invites the whole movement to participate in this year’s selection process and vote to fill those seats. The Elections Committee will oversee this process with support from Foundation staff [2]. The Governance Committee, composed of trustees who are not candidates in the 2025 community-and-affiliate-selected trustee selection process (Raju Narisetti, Shani Evenstein Sigalov, Lorenzo Losa, Kathy Collins, Victoria Doronina and Esra’a Al Shafei) [3], is tasked with providing Board oversight for the 2025 trustee selection process and for keeping the Board informed. More details on the roles of the Elections Committee, Board, and staff are here [4]. Here are the key planned dates: * May 22 – June 5: Announcement (this communication) and call for questions period [6] * June 17 – July 1, 2025: Call for candidates * July 2025: If needed, affiliates vote to shortlist candidates if more than 10 apply [5] * August 2025: Campaign period * August – September 2025: Two-week community voting period * October – November 2025: Background check of selected candidates * Board’s Meeting in December 2025: New trustees seated Learn more about the 2025 selection process - including the detailed timeline, the candidacy process, the campaign rules, and the voter eligibility criteria - on this Meta-wiki page [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025|[link]]]. '''Call for Questions''' In each selection process, the community has the opportunity to submit questions for the Board of Trustees candidates to answer. The Election Committee selects questions from the list developed by the community for the candidates to answer. Candidates must answer all the required questions in the application in order to be eligible; otherwise their application will be disqualified. This year, the Election Committee will select 5 questions for the candidates to answer. The selected questions may be a combination of what’s been submitted from the community, if they’re alike or related. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Questions_for_candidates|[link]]] '''Election Volunteers''' Another way to be involved with the 2025 selection process is to be an Election Volunteer. Election Volunteers are a bridge between the Elections Committee and their respective community. They help ensure their community is represented and mobilize them to vote. Learn more about the program and how to join on this Meta-wiki page [[m:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Election_volunteers|[link].]] Thank you! [1] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Results [2] https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Committee:Elections_Committee_Charter [3] https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Resolution:Committee_Membership,_December_2024 [4] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections_committee/Roles [5] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/FAQ [6] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Questions_for_candidates Best regards, Victoria Doronina Board Liaison to the Elections Committee Governance Committee<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 03:07, 28 Mejju 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28618011 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr"> Upcoming Deployment of the CampaignEvents Extension</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="message"/> Hello everyone, ''(Apologies for posting in English if English is not your first language. Please help translate to your language.)'' The Campaigns Product Team is planning a global deployment of the '''[[:mw:Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]]''' to all Wikipedias, including this wiki, during the '''week of June 23rd'''. This extension is designed to help organizers plan and manage events, WikiProjects, and other on-wiki collaborations - and to make these efforts more discoverable. The three main features of this extension are: * '''[[:m:Event_Center/Registration|Event Registration]]''': A simple way to sign up for events on the wiki. * '''[[:m:CampaignEvents/Collaboration_list|Collaboration List]]''': A global list of events and a local list of WikiProjects, accessible at '''[[:m:Special:AllEvents|Special:AllEvents]]'''. * '''[[:m:Campaigns/Foundation_Product_Team/Invitation_list|Invitation Lists]]''': A tool to help organizers find editors who might want to join, based on their past contributions. '''Note''': The extension comes with a new user right called '''"Event Organizer"''', which will be managed by administrators on this wiki. Organizer tools like Event Registration and Invitation Lists will only work if someone is granted this right. The Collaboration List is available to everyone immediately after deployment. The extension is already live on several wikis, including '''Meta, Wikidata, English Wikipedia''', and more ( [[m:CampaignEvents/Deployment_status#Current_Deployment_Status_for_CampaignEvents_extension| See the full deployment list]]) If you have any questions, concerns, or feedback, please feel free to share them on the [[m:Talk:CampaignEvents| extension talkpage]]. We’d love to hear from you before the rollout. Thank you! <section end="message"/> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:Udehb-WMF|Udehb-WMF]] ([[User talk:Udehb-WMF|diskussjoni]]) 16:47, 29 Mejju 2025 (UTC)</bdi> <!-- Message sent by User:Udehb-WMF@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Udehb-WMF/sandbox/deployment_audience&oldid=28803829 --> == Vote now in the 2025 U4C Election == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Apologies for writing in English. {{Int:Please-translate}} Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2025 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2025|2025 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 17 June 2025 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1750161600 12:00 UTC]. Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 1 July 2025. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 23:01, 13 Ġunju 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28848819 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees 2025 - Call for Candidates</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''<div class="plainlinks">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Announcement/Call for candidates|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Announcement/Call for candidates}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]</div> Hello all, The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025|call for candidates for the 2025 Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees selection is now open]] from June 17, 2025 – July 2, 2025 at 11:59 UTC [1]. The Board of Trustees oversees the Wikimedia Foundation's work, and each Trustee serves a three-year term [2]. This is a volunteer position. This year, the Wikimedia community will vote in late August through September 2025 to fill two (2) seats on the Foundation Board. Could you – or someone you know – be a good fit to join the Wikimedia Foundation's Board of Trustees? [3] Learn more about what it takes to stand for these leadership positions and how to submit your candidacy on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Candidate application|this Meta-wiki page]] or encourage someone else to run in this year's election. Best regards, Abhishek Suryawanshi<br /> Chair of the Elections Committee On behalf of the Elections Committee and Governance Committee [1] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Call_for_candidates [2] https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Legal:Bylaws#(B)_Term. [3] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Resources_for_candidates<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 17:44, 17 Ġunju 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28866958 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Sister Projects Task Force reviews Wikispore and Wikinews</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="message"/> Dear Wikimedia Community, The [[m:Wikimedia Foundation Community Affairs Committee|Community Affairs Committee (CAC)]] of the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees assigned [[m:Wikimedia Foundation Community Affairs Committee/Sister Projects Task Force|the Sister Projects Task Force (SPTF)]] to update and implement a procedure for assessing the lifecycle of Sister Projects – wiki [[m:Wikimedia projects|projects supported by Wikimedia Foundation (WMF)]]. A vision of relevant, accessible, and impactful free knowledge has always guided the Wikimedia Movement. As the ecosystem of Wikimedia projects continues to evolve, it is crucial that we periodically review existing projects to ensure they still align with our goals and community capacity. Despite their noble intent, some projects may no longer effectively serve their original purpose. '''Reviewing such projects is not about giving up – it's about responsible stewardship of shared resources'''. Volunteer time, staff support, infrastructure, and community attention are finite, and the non-technical costs tend to grow significantly as our ecosystem has entered a different age of the internet than the one we were founded in. Supporting inactive projects or projects that didn't meet our ambitions can unintentionally divert these resources from areas with more potential impact. Moreover, maintaining projects that no longer reflect the quality and reliability of the Wikimedia name stands for, involves a reputational risk. An abandoned or less reliable project affects trust in the Wikimedia movement. Lastly, '''failing to sunset or reimagine projects that are no longer working can make it much harder to start new ones'''. When the community feels bound to every past decision – no matter how outdated – we risk stagnation. A healthy ecosystem must allow for evolution, adaptation, and, when necessary, letting go. If we create the expectation that every project must exist indefinitely, we limit our ability to experiment and innovate. Because of this, SPTF reviewed two requests concerning the lifecycle of the Sister Projects to work through and demonstrate the review process. We chose Wikispore as a case study for a possible new Sister Project opening and Wikinews as a case study for a review of an existing project. Preliminary findings were discussed with the CAC, and a community consultation on both proposals was recommended. === Wikispore === The [[m:Wikispore|application to consider Wikispore]] was submitted in 2019. SPTF decided to review this request in more depth because rather than being concentrated on a specific topic, as most of the proposals for the new Sister Projects are, Wikispore has the potential to nurture multiple start-up Sister Projects. After careful consideration, the SPTF has decided '''not to recommend''' Wikispore as a Wikimedia Sister Project. Considering the current activity level, the current arrangement allows '''better flexibility''' and experimentation while WMF provides core infrastructural support. We acknowledge the initiative's potential and seek community input on what would constitute a sufficient level of activity and engagement to reconsider its status in the future. As part of the process, we shared the decision with the Wikispore community and invited one of its leaders, Pharos, to an SPTF meeting. Currently, we especially invite feedback on measurable criteria indicating the project's readiness, such as contributor numbers, content volume, and sustained community support. This would clarify the criteria sufficient for opening a new Sister Project, including possible future Wikispore re-application. However, the numbers will always be a guide because any number can be gamed. === Wikinews === We chose to review Wikinews among existing Sister Projects because it is the one for which we have observed the highest level of concern in multiple ways. Since the SPTF was convened in 2023, its members have asked for the community's opinions during conferences and community calls about Sister Projects that did not fulfil their promise in the Wikimedia movement.[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WCNA_2024._Sister_Projects_-_opening%3F_closing%3F_merging%3F_splitting%3F.pdf <nowiki>[1]</nowiki>][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_Community_Affairs_Committee/Sister_Projects_Task_Force#Wikimania_2023_session_%22Sister_Projects:_past,_present_and_the_glorious_future%22 <nowiki>[2]</nowiki>][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiConvention_francophone/2024/Programme/Quelle_proc%C3%A9dure_pour_ouvrir_ou_fermer_un_projet_%3F <nowiki>[3]</nowiki>] Wikinews was the leading candidate for an evaluation because people from multiple language communities proposed it. Additionally, by most measures, it is the least active Sister Project, with the greatest drop in activity over the years. While the Language Committee routinely opens and closes language versions of the Sister Projects in small languages, there has never been a valid proposal to close Wikipedia in major languages or any project in English. This is not true for Wikinews, where there was a proposal to close English Wikinews, which gained some traction but did not result in any action[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Proposals_for_closing_projects/Closure_of_English_Wikinews <nowiki>[4]</nowiki>][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiConvention_francophone/2024/Programme/Quelle_proc%C3%A9dure_pour_ouvrir_ou_fermer_un_projet_%3F <nowiki>[5]</nowiki>, see section 5] as well as a draft proposal to close all languages of Wikinews[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Proposals_for_closing_projects/Archive_2#Close_Wikinews_completely,_all_languages? <nowiki>[6]</nowiki>]. [[:c:File:Sister Projects Taskforce Wikinews review 2024.pdf|Initial metrics]] compiled by WMF staff also support the community's concerns about Wikinews. Based on this report, SPTF recommends a community reevaluation of Wikinews. We conclude that its current structure and activity levels are the lowest among the existing sister projects. SPTF also recommends pausing the opening of new language editions while the consultation runs. SPTF brings this analysis to a discussion and welcomes discussions of alternative outcomes, including potential restructuring efforts or integration with other Wikimedia initiatives. '''Options''' mentioned so far (which might be applied to just low-activity languages or all languages) include but are not limited to: *Restructure how Wikinews works and is linked to other current events efforts on the projects, *Merge the content of Wikinews into the relevant language Wikipedias, possibly in a new namespace, *Merge content into compatibly licensed external projects, *Archive Wikinews projects. Your insights and perspectives are invaluable in shaping the future of these projects. We encourage all interested community members to share their thoughts on the relevant discussion pages or through other designated feedback channels. === Feedback and next steps === We'd be grateful if you want to take part in a conversation on the future of these projects and the review process. We are setting up two different project pages: [[m:Public consultation about Wikispore|Public consultation about Wikispore]] and [[m:Public consultation about Wikinews|Public consultation about Wikinews]]. Please participate between 27 June 2025 and 27 July 2025, after which we will summarize the discussion to move forward. You can write in your own language. I will also host a community conversation 16th July Wednesday 11.00 UTC and 17th July Thursday 17.00 UTC (call links to follow shortly) and will be around at Wikimania for more discussions. <section end="message"/> </div> -- [[User:Victoria|Victoria]] on behalf of the Sister Project Task Force, 20:57, 27 Ġunju 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Johan_(WMF)/Sister_project_MassMassage_on_behalf_of_Victoria/Target_list&oldid=28911188 --> == Wikidata Item and Property labels soon displayed in Wiki Watchlist/Recent Changes == ''(Apologies for posting in English, you can help by translating into your language)'' Hello everyone, the [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Resolve_Labels|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team is excited to announce an upcoming change in how Wikidata edit changelogs are displayed in your [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlists]] and [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] lists. If an edit is made on Wikidata that affects a page in another Wikimedia Project, the changelog will contain some information about the nature of the edit. This can include a QID (or Q-number), a PID (or P-number) and a value (which can be text, numbers, dates, or also QID or PID’s). Confused by these terms? See the [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:Glossary|Wikidata:Glossary]] for further explanations. The upcoming change is scheduled for '''17.07.2025''', between '''1300 - 1500 UTC'''. The change will display the label (item name) alongside any QID or PIDs, as seen in the image below: [[File:Apr10 edit summary on Wikidata.png|An edit sum entry on Wikidata, labels display alongside their P- and Q-no.'s]] These changes will only be visible if you have Wikidata edits enabled in your User Preferences for Watchlists and Recent Changes, or have the active filter ‘Wikidata edits’ checkbox toggled on, directly on the Watchlist and Recent Changes pages. Your bot and gadget may be affected! There are thousands of bots, gadgets and user-scripts and whilst we have researched potential effects to many of them, we cannot guarantee there won’t be some that are broken or affected by this change. Further information and context about this change, including how your bot may be affected can be found on this [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Resolve_Labels|project task page]]. We welcome your questions and feedback, please write to us on this dedicated [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Resolve_Labels|Talk page]]. Thank you, - [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] on behalf of the Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects Team. [[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 12:45, 14 Lulju 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_Test_List&oldid=28981877 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Temporary accounts will be rolled out soon</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="body"/> Hello, we are the Wikimedia Foundation [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity|Product Safety and Integrity]] team. We would like to announce that '''we plan to enable [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] for this wiki in the week of September 1'''. Temporary accounts are successfully live on 30 wikis, including many large ones like German, Japanese, and French. The change they bring is especially relevant to logged-out editors, who this feature is designed to protect. But it is also relevant to community members like mentors, patrollers, and admins – anyone who reverts edits, blocks users, or otherwise interacts with logged-out editors as part of keeping the wikis safe and accurate. '''Why we are building temporary accounts''' Our wikis should be safer to edit by default for logged-out editors. Temporary accounts allow people to continue editing the wikis without creating an account, while avoiding publicly tying their edits to their IP address. We believe this is in the best interest of our logged-out editors, who make valuable contributions to the wikis and who may later create accounts and grow our community of editors, admins, and other roles. Even though the wikis do warn logged-out editors that their IP address will be associated with their edit, many people may not understand what an IP address is, or that it could be used to connect them to other information about them in ways they might not expect. Additionally, our moderation software and tools rely too heavily on network origin (IP addresses) to identify users and patterns of activity, especially as IP addresses themselves are becoming less stable as identifiers. Temporary accounts allow for more precise interactions with logged-out editors, including more precise blocks, and can help limit how often we unintentionally end up blocking good-faith users who use the same IP addresses as bad-faith users. '''How temporary accounts work''' [[File:Temporary account banner and empty talk page.png|thumb]] Any time a logged-out user publishes an edit on this wiki, a cookie will be set in this user's browser, and a temporary account tied with this cookie will be automatically created. This account's name will follow the pattern: <code dir=ltr>~2025-12345-67</code> (a tilde, current year, a number). On pages like Recent Changes or page history, this name will be displayed. The cookie will expire 90 days after its creation. As long as it exists, all edits made from this device will be attributed to this temporary account. It will be the same account even if the IP address changes, unless the user clears their cookies or uses a different device or web browser. A record of the IP address used at the time of each edit will be stored for 90 days after the edit. However, only some logged-in users will be able to see it. '''What does this mean for different groups of users?''' '''For logged-out editors''' * This increases privacy: currently, if you do not use a registered account to edit, then everybody can see the IP address for the edits you made, even after 90 days. That will no longer be possible on this wiki. * If you use a temporary account to edit from different locations in the last 90 days (for example at home and at a coffee shop), the edit history and the IP addresses for all those locations will now be recorded together, for the same temporary account. Users who [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Access_to_temporary_account_IP_addresses|meet the relevant requirements]] will be able to view this data. If this creates any personal security concerns for you, please contact talktohumanrights at wikimedia.org for advice. '''For community members interacting with logged-out editors''' * A temporary account is uniquely linked to a device. In comparison, an IP address can be shared with different devices and people (for example, different people at school or at work might have the same IP address). * Compared to the current situation, it will be safer to assume that a temporary user's talk page belongs to only one person, and messages left there will be read by them. As you can see in the screenshot, temporary account users will receive notifications. It will also be possible to thank them for their edits, ping them in discussions, and invite them to get more involved in the community. '''For users who use IP address data to moderate and maintain the wiki''' * '''For patrollers''' who track persistent abusers, investigate violations of policies, etc.: Users who [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Access_to_temporary_account_IP_addresses|meet the requirements]] will be able to reveal temporary users' IP addresses and all contributions made by temporary accounts from a specific IP address or range ([[Special:IPContributions]]). They will also have access to useful information about the IP addresses thanks to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/IP Info|IP Info]] feature. Many other pieces of software have been built or adjusted to work with temporary accounts, including AbuseFilter, global blocks, Global User Contributions, and more. (For information for volunteer developers on how to update the code of your tools – see the last part of the message.) * '''For admins blocking logged-out editors''': ** It will be possible to block many abusers by just blocking their temporary accounts. A blocked person won't be able to create new temporary accounts quickly if the admin selects the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Autoblock|autoblock]] option. ** It will still be possible to block an IP address or IP range. * Temporary accounts will not be retroactively applied to contributions made before the deployment. On Special:Contributions, you will be able to see existing IP user contributions, but not new contributions made by temporary accounts on that IP address. Instead, you should use Special:IPContributions for this. '''Our requests for you, and next steps''' * If you know of any tools, bots, gadgets etc. using data about IP addresses or being available for logged-out users, you may want to test if they work on [[testwiki:Main_Page|testwiki]] or [[test2wiki:Main_Page|test2wiki]]. If you are a volunteer developer, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers|read our documentation for developers]], and in particular, the section on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers#How should I update my code?|how your code might need to be updated]]. * If you want to test the temporary account experience, for example just to check what it feels like, go to testwiki or test2wiki and edit without logging in. * Tell us if you know of any difficulties that need to be addressed. We will try to help, and if we are not able, we will consider the available options. * Look at our [[m:Meta:Babel#Temporary_Accounts:_access_to_IP_addresses_and_next_steps|previous message]] about requirements for users without extended rights who may need access to IP addresses. To learn more about the project, check out [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/FAQ|our FAQ]] – you will find many useful answers there. You may also [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/Updates|look at the updates]] (we have just posted one) and [[mw:Newsletter:Product Safety and Integrity|subscribe to our new newsletter]]. If you'd like to talk to me (Szymon) off-wiki, you will find me on Discord and Telegram. Thank you!<section end="body" /> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[m:user:NKohli (WMF)|NKohli (WMF)]], [[m:user:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|SGrabarczuk (WMF)]]</bdi> 21:36, 26 Awwissu 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Quiddity_(WMF)/sandbox6&oldid=29181713 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2025-09-24|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2025-09-24T15:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2025-09-24T15:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' *You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2025-09-24|en}}. *If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': *Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> </div> <span dir=ltr>[[m:User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Trizek (WMF)|{{int:talk}}]])</span> 15:42, 18 Settembru 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=29170715 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Have your say: vote for the 2025 Board of Trustees</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> Hello all, The voting period for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025|2025 Board of Trustees election]] is now open. Candidates are running for two (2) seats on the Board. To check your voter eligibility, please visit the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Voter eligibility guidelines|voter eligibility page]]. Learn more about them by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Candidates|reading their application statements and watch their candidacy videos]]. When you are ready, go to the [[m:Special:SecurePoll/vote/405|SecurePoll voting page to vote]]. '''The vote is open from October 8 at 00:00 UTC to October 22 at 23:59 UTC.''' Best regards, Abhishek Suryawanshi<br />Chair, Elections Committee<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 04:48, 9 Ottubru 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=29360896 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Help us decide the name of the new Abstract Wikipedia project</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="function1"/> {{int:Hello}}. Please help pick a name for the new Abstract Wikipedia wiki project. This project will be a wiki that will enable users to combine functions from [[:f:|Wikifunctions]] and data from Wikidata in order to generate natural language sentences in any supported languages. These sentences can then be used by any Wikipedia (or elsewhere). There will be two rounds of voting, each followed by legal review of candidates, with votes beginning on 20 October and 17 November 2025. Our goal is to have a final project name selected on mid-December 2025. If you would like to participate, then '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Abstract Wikipedia/Abstract Wikipedia naming contest|please learn more and vote now]]''' at meta-wiki. {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}} <section end="function1"/> </div> -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 11:43, 20 Ottubru 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=29432175 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Seeking volunteers to join several of the movement’s committees</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> Each year, typically from October through December, several of the movement’s committees seek new volunteers. Read more about the committees on their Meta-wiki pages: * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee|Affiliations Committee (AffCom)]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Ombuds commission|Ombuds commission (OC)]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Legal/Community Resilience and Sustainability/Trust and Safety/Case Review Committee|Case Review Committee (CRC)]] Applications for the committees open on October 30, 2025. Applications for the Affiliations Committee, Ombuds commission and the Case Review Committee close on December 11, 2025. Learn how to apply by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Legal/Committee appointments|visiting the appointment page on Meta-wiki]]. Post to the talk page or email cst[[File:At sign.svg|16x16px|link=|(_AT_)]]wikimedia.org with any questions you may have. For the Committee Support team, <section end="announcement-content" /> </div> -[[m:User:MKaur (WMF)| MKaur (WMF)]] 14:12, 30 Ottubru 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:MKaur (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=29517125 --> == Join the CEE Hub staff team – We’re hiring a Program Specialist == Hi everyone, The regional [[:m:Wikimedia CEE Hub|CEE Hub]] is looking for a '''Program Specialist''' to join our [[:m:Wikimedia CEE Hub/Staff|staff team]]! Are you someone experienced with Wikimedia who wants to help volunteers? Do you participate in Wiki Loves… and other related projects, and do you have ideas and skills to help others improve their efforts? Do you enjoy working with people from different countries? Are you able to work on your own, feel comfortable on Meta-Wiki, and understand how Meta works? If this sounds like you and you're interested in working with the CEE hub team, we’d love to hear from you! '''As a Program Specialist, you will:''' * Support affiliates and communities in developing and implementing impactful programs, * Strengthen regional cooperation and cross-border projects, * Help guide campaigns and initiatives across the CEE region, * Work closely with the CEE Hub team and community members. This is a '''part-time (0.8–0.9 full-time equivalent), remote position''' open to candidates based in the CEE region or nearby time zones. '''APPLICATION DEADLINE: NOVEMBER 10, 2025''' ➡️ '''Learn more and learn how to apply on Meta:''' [[:m:Wikimedia CEE Hub/Jobs/Program Specialist|Wikimedia CEE Hub – Program Specialist]] ⬅️ If you know someone who would be a great fit, please share this opportunity with them! <!-- Message sent by User:TRistovski-CEEhub@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/CEE_Hub&oldid=29192870 --> == Help us test Cat-a-lot on your Wikipedia == '''[[:commons:Help:Gadget-Cat-a-lot|Cat-a-lot]]''' is a JavaScript gadget that helps with moving, removing and adding files (as well as articles or subcategories) between, from and to categories and it is widely used on Wikimedia Commons, where it is accessible for every user after enabling the gadget in your [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-gadgets Preferences]. Complete explanation of the tool, along with the images and demonstration video it is accessible on [[:commons:Help:Gadget-Cat-a-lot|Wikimedia Commons]]. If your Wikipedia is struggling with performing this repetitive task when you need to move pages between categories and remove pages from a category, Cat-a-lot could be activated for your Wikipedia as well. Installation can be done as your user script or as a project gadget and codes can be found [[:commons:Help:Gadget-Cat-a-lot|here]]. Installation is already done on Polish and Romanian wikis from our CEE Region. English phrases from [[:commons:MediaWiki:Gadget-Cat-a-lot.js/translating|MediaWiki:Gadget-Cat-a-lot.js/translating]] can be translated and saved in [[:commons:MediaWiki:Gadget-Cat-a-lot.js/ro|MediaWiki:Gadget-Cat-a-lot.js/ro]] (for example). [[:m:CEE Hub/Working Groups/Technical Advancement Group|CEE Hub Technical Advancement Group]] is willing to support your community in the installation of the tool, and to offer support in case of bugs, as we can report them to the development team. Just leave a message below with any issues you encounter. --[[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 10:42, 18 Novembru 2025 (UTC) (on behalf of the CEE Hub Technical Advancement Group) <!-- Message sent by User:TRistovski-CEEhub@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/CEE_Hub&oldid=29670161 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Reminder: Help us decide the name of the new Abstract Wikipedia project</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="function2"/> {{int:Hello}}. Reminder: Please help to choose name for the new Abstract Wikipedia wiki project. The finalist vote starts today. The finalists for the name are: <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Abstract Wikipedia, Multilingual Wikipedia, Wikiabstracts, Wikigenerator, Proto-Wiki</span>. If you would like to participate, then '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Abstract Wikipedia/Abstract Wikipedia naming contest|please learn more and vote now]]''' at meta-wiki. {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}} <section end="function2"/> </div> -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 14:22, 20 Novembru 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=29583860 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Migration to Parsoid</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> <em>[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Product and Technology/Parsoid Read Views/Read View Announcement|Read this in another language]]</em> Hello everyone! I am glad to inform you that as the next step in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification|Parser Unification]] project, Parsoid will soon be turned on as the default article renderer on your wiki. We are gradually increasing the number of wikis using Parsoid, with the intention of making it the default wikitext parser for MediaWiki's next long-term support release. This will make our wikis more reliable and consistent for editors, readers, and tools to use, as well as making the development of future wikitext features easier. If this disrupts your workflow, don’t worry! You can still opt out through a user preference or turn Parsoid off on the current page using the Tools submenu, as described in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:ParserMigration|Extension:ParserMigration]] documentation. There is [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification/Confidence Framework|more information about our roll-out strategy]] available, including the testing done before we turn on Parsoid for a new wiki. To report bugs and issues, please look at our [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification/Known Issues|known issues]] documentation and if you found a new bug please create a phab ticket and tag the [[phab:project/view/5846|Content Transform Team in Phabricator]]. <section end="announcement-content" /> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[mw:User:ABreault (WMF)|Content Transform Team]]</bdi> 21:43, 28 Novembru 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:ABreault (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikimedia_Foundation/Product_and_Technology/Parsoid_Read_Views/2025-12-01_Wikipedias&oldid=29723884 --> == About subscription == Hello. I didn't see any message on this page but I hope I can find someone to help me. I'm conducting extensive research on the Mediterranean Games with the support of various wikipedians, and in this context, I need someone who has a subscription to the Times of Malta newspaper or access to another national Maltese newspaper archive. I only need to find out two pieces of information, and this requires looking at a maximum of four newspaper issues. *1975 Mediterranean Games (newspapers of September 6 or 7, 1975) Water Polo game - 09/05/1975 - Morocco - Malta (score info is missing) *1983 Mediterranean Games (newspapers of September 15 or 16, 1983) Water Polo game - 09/14/1983 - Egypt - Malta (score info is missing) Thanks in advance.--[[Utent:Sabri76|Sabri76]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:Sabri76|d]]) 16:55, 5 Diċembru 2025 (UTC) == Thank You for Last Year – Join Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 == Dear Wikimedia communities, We hope you are doing well, and we wish you a happy New Year. ''Last year, we captured light. This year, we’ll capture legacy.'' In 2025, communities around the world shared the glow of Ramadan nights and the warmth of collective iftars. In 2026, ''Wiki Loves Ramadan'' is expanding, bringing more stories, more cultures, and deeper global connections across Wikimedia projects. We invite you to explore the ''Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026'' [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026|Meta page]] to learn how you can participate and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026/Participating communities|sign up]] your community. 📷 ''Photo campaign on '' [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026|Wikimedia Commons]] If you have questions about the project, please refer to the FAQs: * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan/FAQ/|Meta-Wiki]] * [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Wiki Loves Ramadan/FAQ|Wikimedia Commons]] ''Early registration for updates is now open via the '''[[m:Special:RegisterForEvent/2710|Event page]]''''' ''Stay connected and receive updates:'' * [https://t.me/WikiLovesRamadan Telegram channel] * [https://lists.wikimedia.org/postorius/lists/wikilovesramadan.lists.wikimedia.org/ Mailing list] We look forward to collaborating with you and your community. '''The Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 Organizing Team''' 19:45, 16 Jannar 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=29879549 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2026 starts soon == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|centre|550px|frameless]] ::<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <div style="text-align: center; width: 100%;">''{{int:please-translate}}''</div> ;Invitation to Organize Feminism and Folklore 2026 Dear Wiki Community, We are pleased to invite Wikimedia communities, affiliates, and independent contributors to organize the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026]]''' writing competition on your local Wikipedia. The international campaign will run from '''1 February to 31 March 2026''' and aims to improve coverage of feminism, women’s histories, gender-related topics, and folk culture across Wikipedia projects. ;About the Campaign '''Feminism and Folklore''' is a global writing initiative that complements the '''[[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2026|Wiki Loves Folklore]]''' photography competition. While Wiki Loves Folklore focuses on visual documentation, this writing campaign addresses the '''gender gap on Wikipedia''' by improving encyclopedic content related to folk culture and marginalized voices. ;What Can Participants Write About? Communities can contribute by creating, expanding, or translating articles related to: * Folk festivals, rituals, and celebrations * Folk dances, music, and traditional performances * Women and queer figures in folklore * Women in mythology and oral traditions * Women warriors, witches, and witch-hunting narratives * Fairy tales, folk stories, and legends * Folk games, sports, and cultural practices Participants may work from curated article lists or generate new article suggestions using campaign tools. ;How to Sign Up as an Organizer Organizers are requested to complete the following steps to register their community: # Create a local project page on your wiki [[:m:Feminism and Folklore/Sample|(see sample)]] # Set up the campaign using the '''CampWiz''' tool # Prepare a local article list and clearly mention: #* Campaign timeline #* Local and international prizes # Request a site notice from local administrators [[:mr:Template:SN-FNF|(see sample)]] # Add your local project page and CampWiz link to the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Meta project page]]''' ;Campaign Tools The Wiki Loves Folklore Tech Team has introduced tools to support organizers and participants: * '''Article List Generator by Topic''' – Helps identify articles available on English Wikipedia but missing in your local language Wikipedia. The tool allows customized filters and provides downloadable article lists in CSV and wikitable formats. * '''CampWiz''' – Enables communities to manage writing campaigns effectively, including jury-based evaluation. This will be the third year CampWiz is officially used for Feminism and Folklore. Both tools are now available for use in the campaign. '''[https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/ Click here to access the tools]''' ;Learn More & Get Support For detailed information about rules, timelines, and prizes, please visit the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026 project page]]'''. If you have any questions or need assistance, feel free to reach out via: * '''[[:m:Talk:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Meta talk page]]''' * Email us using details on the contact page. ;Join Us We look forward to your collaboration and coordination in making Feminism and Folklore 2026 a meaningful and impactful campaign for closing gender gaps and enriching folk culture content on Wikipedia. Thank you and best wishes, '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026 International Team]]''' ---- ''Stay connected:'' [[File:B&W Facebook icon.png|link=https://www.facebook.com/feminismandfolklore/|30x30px]]&nbsp; [[File:B&W Twitter icon.png|link=https://twitter.com/wikifolklore|30x30px]] </div></div> == Invitation to Host Wiki Loves Folklore 2026 in Your Country == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <div style="text-align: center; width: 100%;">''{{int:please-translate}}''</div> [[File:Wiki Loves Folklore Logo.svg|right|150px|frameless]] Hello everyone, We are delighted to invite Wikimedia affiliates, user groups, and community organizations worldwide to participate in '''Wiki Loves Folklore 2026''', an international initiative dedicated to documenting and celebrating folk culture across the globe. ;About Wiki Loves Folklore '''Wiki Loves Folklore''' is an annual international photography competition hosted on Wikimedia Commons. The campaign runs from '''1 February to 31 March 2026''' and encourages photographers, cultural enthusiasts, and community members to contribute photographs that highlight: * Folk traditions and rituals * Cultural festivals and celebrations * Traditional attire and crafts * Performing arts, music, and dance * Everyday practices rooted in folk heritage Through this campaign, we aim to preserve and promote diverse folk cultures and make them freely accessible to the world. [[:c:Commons:Wiki_Loves_Folklore_2026|Project page on Wikimedia Commons]] ; Host a Local Edition As we celebrate the '''eight edition''' of Wiki Loves Folklore, we warmly invite communities to organize a local edition in their country or region. Hosting a local campaign is a great opportunity to: * Increase visibility of your region’s folk culture * Engage new contributors in your community * Enrich Wikimedia Commons with high-quality cultural content '''[[:c:Commons:Wiki_Loves_Folklore_2026/Organize|Sign up to organize]]:''' If your team prefers to organize the competition in ''either February or March only'', please feel free to let us know. If you are unable to organize, we encourage you to share this opportunity with other interested groups or organizations in your region. ;Get in Touch If you have any questions, need support, or would like to explore collaboration opportunities, please feel free to contact us via: * The project Talk pages * Email: '''support@wikilovesfolklore.org''' We are also happy to connect via an online meeting if your team would like to discuss planning or coordination in more detail. Warm regards, '''The Wiki Loves Folklore International Team''' </div> [[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 13:21, 18 Jannar 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery/Wikipedia&oldid=29228188 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Annual review of the Universal Code of Conduct and Enforcement Guidelines</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> I am writing to you to let you know the annual review period for the Universal Code of Conduct and Enforcement Guidelines is open now. You can make suggestions for changes through 9 February 2026. This is the first step of several to be taken for the annual review. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Annual review/2026|Read more information and find a conversation to join on the UCoC page on Meta]]. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|you may review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]])<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> 21:01, 19 Jannar 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=29905753 --> == New Rapid Funds in CEE – global support now closer to your local activities == Hi everyone, '''Starting from 1 April 2026''', the CEE Hub will begin reviewing and supporting Rapid Fund applications for Central and Eastern Europe, in close cooperation with the Wikimedia Foundation. This change is part of our shared effort to bring support closer to communities and make the process more accessible and responsive to local contexts. You will still apply through the same system (Fluxx), and WMF will continue handling contracts and fund transfers. What changes is that the CEE Hub becomes your first point of contact, offering guidance, reviewing applications, and staying closer to your ideas throughout the process. We encourage you to reach out to [[:m:User:TRistovski-CEEhub|Toni]], our Grants Specialist before applying. A short conversation can help clarify your idea and make things smoother from the start. * ☝️ Rapid Funds remain open year-round (with possible delays in June and December). * ☝️ For Central Asian communities: the process stays the same – you continue applying directly through WMF. Join our online Q&A session to learn more (same content, two options to join): * 2 April, 5:00 PM CEST (UTC +2; [[:m:Event:CEE Hub Rapid Fund Q&A Nr. 1|register here]]) * 8 April 7:00 PM CEST (UTC +2; [[:m:Event:CEE Hub Rapid Fund Q&A Nr. 2|register here]]) More info & contact: '''[[:m:CEE Hub Rapid Funds|Wikimedia CEE Hub/Rapid Grants]]''' --[[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 11:21, 31 Marzu 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:TRistovski-CEEhub@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/CEE_Hub&oldid=29670168 --> == Join the sixth Ukraine’s Cultural Diplomacy Month on Wikipedia! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> [[File:Ukraine’s Cultural Diplomacy Month on Wikipedia 2026.png|right|250px|thumb|link=https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Ukraine%27s_Cultural_Diplomacy_Month_2026|Join our campaign!]] {{int:please-translate}} Dear Wikipedians! [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Ukraine|Wikimedia Ukraine]], in cooperation with the [[:en:Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine|MFA of Ukraine]] and [[:en:Ukrainian Institute|Ukrainian Institute]], has launched the sixth edition of writing challenge "'''[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2026|Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month]]'''", which lasts from '''1st April''' until '''30th April 2026'''. The initiative aims to promote knowledge about Ukrainian culture abroad by creating and improving Wikipedia articles in multiple languages. This year marks the sixth edition of the campaign, which will focus on contemporary culture, making today’s artistic voices and practices more visible to international audiences. 🧩'''How to participate?''' Choose an article from the suggested list → Write an article in your language, or improve an existing one according to the rules → Add your contribution to the contest page and calculate your points → Win prizes and receive a certificate of participation → Become a promoter of truthful knowledge about Ukraine. 🧩'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2026|Check our main page for more information]]'''. '''If you are interested in coordinating long-term community engagement for the campaign and becoming a local ambassador, we would love to hear from you! Please let us know your interest.''' If not, then we encourage you to translate the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2026|landing page of the contest]] and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MessageGroupStats?group=Centralnotice-tgroup-UCDM2026banner&messages=&language=en&x=D banner] into your own language. Also, we set up a [[:m:CentralNotice/Request/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2026|banner]] to notify users of the possibility to participate in this challenge! [[:m:User:OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)|OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)]] ([[:m:User talk:OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)|talk]]) 04:35, 1 April 2026 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:OlesiaLukaniuk_(WMUA)/list_of_wikis&oldid=28552112 --> == Action Required: Update templates/modules for electoral maps (Migrating from P1846 to P14226) == Hello everyone, This is a notice regarding an ongoing data migration on Wikidata that may affect your election-related templates and Lua modules (such as <code>Module:Itemgroup/list</code>). '''The Change:'''<br /> Currently, many templates pull electoral maps from Wikidata using the property [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]], combined with the qualifier [[:d:Property:P180|P180]]: [[:d:Q19571328|Q19571328]]. We are migrating this data (across roughly 4,000 items) to a newly created, dedicated property: '''[[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]]'''. '''What You Need To Do:'''<br /> To ensure your templates and infoboxes do not break or lose their maps, please update your local code to fetch data from [[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]] instead of the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] + [[:d:Property:P180|P180]] structure. A [[m:Wikidata/Property Migration: P1846 to P14226/List|list of pages]] was generated using Wikimedia Global Search. '''Deadline:'''<br /> We are temporarily retaining the old data on [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] to allow for a smooth transition. However, to complete the data cleanup on Wikidata, the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] statements will be removed after '''May 1, 2026'''. Please update your modules and templates before this date to prevent any disruption to your wiki's election articles. Let us know if you have any questions or need assistance with the query logic. Thank you for your help! [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] using [[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 17:11, 3 April 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=29941252 --> == Request for comment (global AI policy) == <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Apologies for writing in English. {{int:Please-translate}} A [[:m:Requests for comment/Artificial intelligence policy|request for comment]] is currently being held to decide on a global AI policy. {{int:Feedback-thanks-title}} [[Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 00:58, 26 April 2026 (UTC) </bdi> <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30424282 --> == Call for Community Candidates – Wikimedia CEE Hub Steering Committee Election 2026 == ''Please help us and your community by translating this announcement into your language!'' Dear all, The [[Meta:Wikimedia CEE Hub Steering Committee Election 2026]] is currently underway. There are 4 seats allocated to community representatives. Community members are invited to nominate themselves as candidates for these seats. These positions will be filled through a vote by the CEE community. '''Eligibility criteria:''' * Candidates must be [[Meta:Wikimedia CEE Hub Steering Committee Election 2026/Eligibility|eligible voters]]: ** Have a Wikimedia account created before 18 December 2025 ** Have at least 300 edits between 18 December 2025 and 18 June 2026 ** Must not have been blocked between 18 March 2026 and 18 June 2026 * Must have participated in at least 2 of the last 3 [[Meta:Wikimedia CEE Hub/CEE Hub Status Meeting|CEE Hub Advisory Group meetings]] You can check your eligibility using the following tool: https://cee-sc-election.toolforge.org/ '''How to proceed:''' Candidates may nominate themselves or be nominated by others. If nominated by others, the candidate must explicitly accept the nomination before 18 June 2026. The candidate should create their nomination page and submit their candidacy [[Meta:Wikimedia_CEE_Hub_Steering_Committee_Election_2026/Nominations|here]]: Please also inform your communities about the election and encourage participation. Best regards,   Electoral Commission of Wikimedia CEE Hub Steering Committee Election 2026 --[[Meta:Utent:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Meta:Diskussjoni utent:MediaWiki message delivery|d]]) 10:00, 30 April 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:MHeidarzadeh-CEEhub@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/CEE_Hub&oldid=30401522 --> == Wiki Loves Eurovision 2026 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> [[File:Wiki Loves Eurovision edit-a-thon logo 2026.svg|right|250px]] Hello everyone! You are invited to participate in the "[[meta:Wiki Loves Eurovision 2026|Wiki Loves Eurovision]]" article writing contest, where our goal is to create new Eurovision-related articles in the CEE-language Wikipedia editions and improve existing ones. The contest will take place from May 10 to June 10, 2026, and prizes are available: * 1st prize: a voucher worth €60 * 2nd prize: a voucher worth €50 * 3rd prize: a voucher worth €40 * 4th–10th prize: a voucher worth €30 To participate in the contest and learn more, please visit [[meta:Wiki Loves Eurovision 2026|this link]]. --[[User:MHeidarzadeh-CEEhub|MHeidarzadeh-CEEhub]] ([[User talk:MHeidarzadeh-CEEhub|talk]]) 14:00, 16 May 2026 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:MHeidarzadeh-CEEhub@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/CEE_Hub&oldid=30401522 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Vote now in the 2026 U4C election</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2026 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|2026 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 2 June 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780358400 00:00 UTC]. Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 14 June 2026. -- In cooperation with the U4C,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 17:14, 27 Mejju 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> eougco9h33ccwebue125ojrmdu7nwwh 0 33043 330269 317465 2026-05-28T07:01:44Z ~2026-29785-65 28131 330269 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox plejer tal-futbol | isem_plejer = Rico Browne | stampa =[[File:Rico Browne 02052026 (3).jpg|230px]] | deskrizzjoni = | isem_sħiħ = Rico Franklin Browne | data_twelid = {{data tat-twelid u età|2003|12|28}} | post_twelid = [[Manchester]] | pajjiż_twelid = Ingilterra | tul = 1.88 m | rwol = [[Difensur]] | klabb_attwali = [[Walsall FC|Walsall]] | numru = 33 | snin_mixtla1 = | klabb_mixtla1 = [[Elche CF|Elche]] | snin_mixtla2 = –2016 | klabb_mixtla2 = [[Birmingham City FC|Birmingham City]] | snin1 = 2016–2024 | klabb1 = [[Birmingham City FC|Birmingham City]] | snin2 = 2023–2024 | klabb2 = → [[Rushall Olympic FC|Rushall Olympic]] (self) | snin3 = 2024– | klabb3 = [[Walsall FC|Walsall]] | snin4 = 2024 | klabb4 = → [[Tamworth FC|Tamworth]] (self) }} '''Rico Franklin Browne''' (twieled fil-28 ta' Diċembru 2003) huwa [[futbol|futboler]] [[Ingilterra|Ingliż]] li jilgħab mal-klabb ta [[League Two]] ta ' [[Walsall FC|Walsall]], fejn jilgħab bħala [[Difensur]]. == Ħoloq esterni== * {{Soccerbase}} {{L-ewwel bil-Malti}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Browne, Rico}} [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Twieldu fl-2003]] [[Kategorija:Futbolers Ingliżi]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Elche CF]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Birmingham City FC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Rushall Olympic FC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Walsall FC]] [[Kategorija:Plejers ta' Tamworth FC]] af9e9mj75u5pe8qbyjo540mepo65z3k 0 34089 330274 330230 2026-05-28T11:39:08Z ToniSant 4257 /* Mejju */ RIP Rose Riolo 330274 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Din hija lista ta' nies notevoli Maltin li mietu fl-2026.''' F'din il-lista jidhru biss ismijiet ta' nies li l-mewt tagħhom hija kkonfermata peremezz ta' rapport/i minn sorsi verifikabbli. Żidiet bla referenza għal sors verifikabbli jitneħħew minn hawn u jitpoġġew fil-[[Diskussjoni:Nies Maltin li mietu fl-2026|paġna ta' diskussjoni]] sakemm jiġu verifikati sew. Dwar kull persuna jinġabru biss dawn id-dettalji hawn: * Data: Isem u Kunjom, età (jew "??" meta din mhux magħrufa), għal xiex inhi magħrufa l-persuna, kawża tal-mewt (m'għandu jiddaħħal xejn meta mhux magħrufa uffiċjalment) - tagħrif ieħor f'każ ta' persuna li mhux inkluża f'Wikidata (eż. data tat-twelid), referenzi (għandu jkun hemm aktar minn waħda f'każ ta' nies aktar notevoli) '''''Nota:''' id-data tal-mewt m'għandix tkun dik ta' meta tħabbret imma ta' meta seħħet.'' ---- == Jannar == * 2: [[Tony Carr]], 98, mużiċist <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/tony-carr-pioneering-maltese-jazz-drummer-dies.1121949|titlu=Tony Carr, Maltese jazz drummer to the stars, dies|kunjom=Borg|isem=Emma|data=2026-01-02|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/il-perkussjonist-tony-carr-george-caruana-jmut-fl-eta-ta-98-sena/|titlu=Il-perkussjonist Tony Carr (George Caruana) jmut fl-età ta’ 98 sena|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=2 Jannar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://themalteseherald.com/2026/01/02/tony-carr-passes-away/|titlu=Renowned Maltese drummer, Tony Carr, passes away aged 98|kunjom=Fenech|isem=Gerald|data=2026-01-02|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2026-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/138938/maltese_jazz_great_tony_carr_dies_aged_98|titlu=Maltese jazz great Tony Carr dies aged 98|kunjom=Meilak|isem=Nicole|data=2 Jannar 2026|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-01-02/local-news/Maltese-jazz-legend-Tony-Carr-passes-away-aged-98-6736286044|titlu=Maltese jazz legend, Tony Carr, passes away aged 98 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-ta-98-sena-d-drummer-malti-tony-carr/|titlu=Imut ta' 98 sena d-drummer Malti Tony Carr|data=2026-01-02|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/imut-ta-98-sena-d-drummer-famuz-malti-tony-carr-li-daqq-mal-akbar-stilel-muzikali/|titlu=Imut ta’ 98 sena d-drummer famuż Malti Tony Carr li daqq mal-akbar stilel mużikali|kunjom=Caruana|isem=Josef|data=3 Jannar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.melodija.eu/post/tony-carr-george-caruana-maltese-jazz-pioneer-dies-at-98|titlu=Tony Carr (George Caruana): Maltese Jazz Pioneer Dies at 98|kunjom=Mifsud|isem=Noel|data=2026-01-05|sit=Melodija|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/news/fond-tribute-on-death-of-drummer-who-played-with-the-greats-5465983|titlu=Fond tribute on death of drummer who played with the greats|kunjom=Hewitt|isem=Phil|data=2026-01-10|sit=SussexWorld|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-10}}</ref> * 5: [[George Spiteri]], 90, mużiċist u l-ewwel leader tal-[[Orkestra Filarmonika ta' Malta]] (twieled: 20 ta’ Lulju 1935) <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-january-6-2026.1122080|titlu=Announcements − January 6, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-george-spiteri-l-ewwel-leader-tal-orkestra-filarmonika-ta-malta/|titlu=Imut George Spiteri, l-ewwel leader tal-Orkestra Filarmonika ta’ Malta|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=6 Jannar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.facebook.com/reel/1540894257190704/?t=49|titlu=MPO: Protagonisti - George Spiteri|kunjom=Farrugia|isem=Joe Julian|data=6 Jannar 2026|sit=Facebook}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/a-real-gentleman-good-musician-violinist-george-spiteri-dies-aged-90.1122103|titlu='A real gentleman': trailblazing violinist George Spiteri dies at 90|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-01-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-06}}</ref> * 6: [[Thomas Farrell]], 89, għalliem u l-ewwel sindku ta' Ħaż Żabbar <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/thomas-farrell-first-mayor-zabbar-dies-aged-89.1122141|titlu=Thomas Farrell, first mayor of Żabbar, dies aged 89|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-07|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-07}}</ref> * 14: [[Paul Chetcuti Caruana]], 77, tabib u politiku <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-eks-deputat-laburista-t-tabib-paul-chetcuti-caruana/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-eks Deputat Laburista t-Tabib Paul Chetcuti Caruana|kunjom=Portelli|isem=Eman|data=14 Jannar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/former-mp-paul-chetcuti-caruana-dies.1122497|titlu=Mosta doctor Paul Chetcuti Caruana, targeted by 1977 letter bomb, dies aged 77|kunjom=Calleja|isem=Claudia|data=2026-01-14|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-15}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-01-14/local-news/Paul-Chetcuti-Caruana-who-survived-letter-bomb-attempt-in-1977-dies-6736286334|titlu=Paul Chetcuti Caruana, who survived letter-bomb attempt in 1977, dies - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-15}}</ref> <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/parliament-pays-tribute-mosta-doctor-pl-mp-paul-chetcuti-caruana.1123482|titlu=Parliament pays tribute to Mosta doctor and PL MP Paul Chetcuti Caruana|kunjom=Magri|isem=Giulia|data=2026-02-02|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-02}}</ref> * 20: [[Matthew Wismayer]], 53, fundatur ta' Schools for Africa (Malta) Foundation <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/matthew-wismayer-schools-africa-foundation-entrepreneur-dies.1122791|titlu=Matthew Wismayer, who turned a cancer diagnosis into inspiration, dies aged 53|kunjom=Debono|isem=Fiona Galea|data=2026-01-20|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-matthew-wismayer-il-mohh-wara-progett-biex-jigu-meghjuna-tfal-fl-afrika/|titlu=Imut Matthew Wismayer, il-moħħ wara proġett biex jiġu megħjuna tfal fl-Afrika|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-20|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/malta/founder-of-prince-princess-malta-matthew-wismayer-passes-away/|titlu=Founder Of 'Prince & Princess Malta' Matthew Wismayer Passes Away|kunjom=Spiteri|isem=Rebecca Scalvini|data=2026-01-20|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whoswho.mt/en/matthew-wismayer-passes-away-aged-53|titlu=Maltese Entrepreneur Matthew Wismayer passes away at 53|sit=whoswho.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-january-21-2026.1122811|titlu=Announcements – January 21, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-21|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref> * 21: [[George Callus]], ??, ko-fundatur tal-Comtec <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whoswho.mt/en/comtec-co-founder-george-callus-has-passed-away|titlu=Comtec Co-Founder George Callus has passed away|sit=whoswho.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-ir-ragel-ta-amy-callus-orlando-mrs-axiak-ta-simpatici/|titlu=Imut ir-raġel ta’ Amy Callus Orlando, Mrs Axiak ta’ Simpatiċi|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=21 Jannar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://gwida.mt/nimmissjak-immens-ghaziz-l-attrici-amy-callus-thabbar-it-telfa-ta-zewgha-george/|titlu="Nimmissjak Immens, Għażiż" - L-Attriċi Amy Callus Tħabbar It-Telfa Ta' Żewġha George|kunjom=Zarb|isem=Kyle|data=2026-01-22|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref> == Frar == * 4: [[Alfred Abela]], 80, eks-assistent kummissarju tal-pulizija <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-eks-assistent-kummissarju-tal-pulizija-alfred-abela/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-eks Assistent Kummissarju tal-Pulizija Alfred Abela|kunjom=Portelli|isem=Eman|data=4 Frar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 5: [[Philip Farrugia Randon]], 76, avukat u kittieb li ħoloq il-karattru ta' Puttinu <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/dedicated-patriot-philip-farrugia-randon-dies.1123612|titlu='Dedicated patriot' Philip Farrugia Randon dies|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-05|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-february-6-2026.1123652|titlu=Announcements − February 6, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-dr-philip-farrugia-randon-avukat-u-awtur-li-holoq-il-karattru-puttinu/|titlu=Imut Dr Philip Farrugia Randon, avukat u awtur li ħoloq il-karattru Puttinu|kunjom=Micallef|isem=Gaetano|data=2026-02-05|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/appreciation-philip-farrugia-randon.1124083|titlu=Appreciation: Philip Farrugia Randon|kunjom=De Bono|isem=Anthony|data=2026-02-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-15}}</ref> * 5: [[Helen Micallef]], 75, kantanta <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/helen-micallef-eurovision-1972-singer-dies-aged-75.1123643|titlu=Helen Micallef, Eurovision 1972 singer, dies aged 75|kunjom=Bonanno|isem=Matthew|data=2026-02-05|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-helen-micallef-l-ewwel-maltija-fil-eurovision/|titlu=Tmut Helen Micallef, l-ewwel kantanta Maltija fil-Eurovision|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=5 Frar 2025|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/139589/veteran_singer_helen_micallef_dies_aged_75|titlu=Veteran singer Helen Micallef dies aged 75|kunjom=Meilak|isem=Nicole|data=5 Frar 2026|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/helen-micallef-tinghata-l-ahhar-tislima-ghada-s-sibt/|titlu=Helen Micallef tingħata l-aħħar tislima għada s-Sibt|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=6 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-02-05/local-news/Helen-Micallef-first-Maltese-woman-at-Eurovision-dies-at-75-6736286990|titlu=Helen Micallef, first Maltese woman at Eurovision, dies at 75 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/iccelebrata-l-hajja-tal-kantanta-helen-micallef/|titlu=Iċċelebrata l-ħajja tal-kantanta Helen Micallef|kunjom=Falzon|isem=Anton|data=7 Frar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 8: [[Paul Aquilina]], 94, Ġiżwita Malti bbażat fl-Indja <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-ta-fr-paul-aquilina-l-ahhar-patri-gizwita-malti-fl-indja/|titlu=Imut Fr Paul Aquilina – l-aħħar Ġiżwita Malti fl-Indja|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Neil|data=8 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/l-ahhar-patri-gizwita-malti-fl-indja-jkanta-l-ghanjiet-tal-milied/|titlu=L-aħħar Patri Ġiżwita Malti fl-Indja jkanta l-Għanjiet tal-Milied|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=25 Diċembru 2025|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/mort-l-indja-biex-narah-jordna-sacerdot-u-kantajt-bil-malti-waqt-il-funeral-ta-fr-aquilina/|titlu=“Mort l-Indja nara żagħżugħ jiġi ordnat qassis, u spiċċajt inkanta bil-Malti fil-funeral ta’ Fr Aquilina”|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=11 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-february-15-2026.1124084|titlu=Announcements – February 15, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-15}}</ref> * 10: [[Lina Brockdorff|Lina Brockdorff,]] 95, kittieba <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/awardwinning-writer-lina-brockdorff-dies-aged-96.1123850|titlu=Novelist and playwright Lina Brockdorff dies aged 95|kunjom=Borg|isem=Emma|data=2026-02-10|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/tmut-l-awtrici-lina-brockdorff-fl-eta-ta-95-sena/|titlu=Tmut l-awtriċi Lina Brockdorff fl-età ta' 95 sena|data=2026-02-10|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/thabbret-il-mewt-tax-xandara-u-l-kittieba-lina-brockdorff/|titlu=Tħabbret il-mewt tax-xandara u l-kittieba Lina Brockdorff|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=10 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-02-10/local-news/Maltese-novelist-and-playwright-Lina-Brockdorff-dies-aged-95-6736287109|titlu=Maltese novelist and playwright Lina Brockdorff dies aged 95 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-02-10}}</ref> * 10: [[Achille Cauchi]], 86, monsinjur Għawdxi, ħu l-Isqof [[Nikol Cauchi]] <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-monsinjur-achille-cauchi/|titlu=Imut Monsinjur Achille Cauchi|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=11 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://rip.com.mt/obituary/mons-achille-cauchi-10-02-2026|titlu=Mons. Achille Cauchi - RIP.com.mt|kunjom=Gatt|isem=Thomas|sit=rip.com.mt|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref> * 15: [[Laurence Grech]], 77, ġurnalist u eks-editur tas-Sunday Times of Malta <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/former-times-malta-editor-laurence-grech-dies-aged-77.1124107|titlu=Former Times of Malta editor Laurence Grech dies, aged 77|kunjom=Carabott|isem=Sarah|data=2026-02-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-laurence-grech-il-ggant-tal-gurnalizmu-l-eks-editur-tat-times-of-malta/|titlu=Imut Laurence Grech, “il-ġgant tal-ġurnaliżmu”, l-eks-editur tat-Times of Malta|data=15 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-february-16-2026.1124125|titlu=Announcements – February 16, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-16|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://rip.com.mt/obituary/laurence-grech-15-02-2026|titlu=Laurence Grech - RIP.com.mt|kunjom=Gatt|isem=Thomas|sit=rip.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref> * 15: [[Esmeralda Galea Camilleri]], 37, mużiċista <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://gwida.mt/hafna-mahsuda-bil-mewt-tal-muzicista-brava-esmeralda-galea-camilleri/|titlu=Ħafna Maħsuda Bil-Mewt Tal-Mużiċista Brava Esmeralda Galea Camilleri|kunjom=Bayliss|isem=Emil Calleja|data=2026-02-16|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/kont-titpaxxa-tismaghha-tmut-il-muzicista-esmeralda-galea-camilleri/|titlu=“Kont titpaxxa tismagħha” – tmut il-mużiċista Esmeralda Galea Camilleri|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=16 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 16: [[Mario Bonnici]], 76, kantant <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/il-kanzunetta-li-kont-iddedikaktli-se-tibqa-fqalbi-imut-il-kantant-mario-bonnici/|titlu=“Il-kanzunetta li kont iddedikajtli se tibqa’ f’qalbi” – imut il-kantant Mario Bonnici|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=17 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 18: [[Julian Attard]], 44, amministratur tal-futbol ma' [[Marsaxlokk FC]] u [[Floriana FC]] (twieled fis-27 ta' Novembru 1981) <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://sport.timesofmalta.com/2026/02/18/former-marsaxlokk-and-floriana-fc-administrator-julian-attard-dies/|titlu=Former Marsaxlokk and Floriana FC administrator Julian Attard dies|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gianluca|data=2026-02-18|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/hallejtna-kmieni-wisq-habib-imut-julian-attard-tat-tim-tal-futbol-ta-marsaxlokk/|titlu=“Ħallejtna kmieni wisq ħabib” – imut Julian Attard, tat-tim tal-futbol ta’ Marsaxlokk|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=18 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 23: [[Manuel Casha]], 81, mużiċist, kittieb, u folklorista <ref> {{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-kittieb-u-muzicist-manuel-casha-fl-awstralja/ |sit=ONEnews|data=24 Frar 2026|isem=Josef|kunjom=Caruana|lingwa=mt|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-kittieb u mużiċist Manuel Casha fl-Awstralja}}</ref> * 28: [[Mario Buhagiar]], 81 professur tal-istorja tal-arti <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/mario-buhagiar-founder-art-history-department-dies-aged-81.1124795|titlu=Mario Buhagiar, founder of art history department dies aged 81|kunjom=Carabott|isem=Sarah|data=2026-03-01|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-01}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://themalteseherald.com/2026/03/02/prof-mario-buhagiar/|titlu=Founder of the arts History Department – Professor Mario Buhagiar passes away|kunjom=Fenech|isem=Gerald|data=2 Marzu 2026|sit=The Maltese Herald|lingwa=en}}</ref> == Marzu == * 8: [[Joseph Gatt (Caritas)|Joseph Gatt]], 81, pijunier fir-riabilitazzjoni tad-drogati f'Malta <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/joseph-gatt-drug-rehabilitation-pioneer-dies-aged-81.1125168|titlu=Joseph Gatt, drug rehabilitation pioneer, dies aged 81|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-03-08|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/segwi-meta-konna-fl-infern-habba-d-droga-joe-kien-anglu-kustodju/|titlu=Segwi: “Meta konna fl-infern ħabba d-droga Joe kien anġlu kustodju”|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=9 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 13: [[Luciano Bonello Bianco]], 72, propjetarju ta' Luciano Restaurant <ref>{{Ċita web|url= https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-march-15-2026.1125478 |titlu=Announcements|sit=Times of Malta|data-aċċess=2026-03-15}}</ref> * 21: [[Charles Micallef St John]], 81, kittieb u eks-kunsillier tal-Gżira <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-l-awtur-charles-micallef-st-john/|titlu=Imut l-awtur Charles Micallef St John|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Neil|data=21 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/03/21/imut-l-awtur-chaf-st-john/|titlu=Imut l-awtur Charles Micallef St. John|kunjom=Balbi|isem=Nicole Sciberras|data=2026-03-21|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-23}}</ref> * 22: [[Calvin Brincat]], 32, parteċipant fil-programm tat-television ''Hazzzard'', kanċer <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-calvin-brincat-li-ggieled-2-tipi-ta-kancer-u-kien-ippartecipa-fhazzzard/|titlu=Imut Calvin Brincat li ġġieled 2 tipi ta' kanċer u kien ipparteċipa f'HazZzard|data=2026-03-23|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-23}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-iz-zaghzugh-calvin-brincat-ta-hazzzard/|titlu=Imut iż-żagħżugħ Calvin Brincat ta’ HazZzard|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=23 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/tributes-paid-truly-sensitive-soul-cancer-patient-calvin-brincat.1125893|titlu=Tributes paid to 'truly sensitive soul', cancer victim Calvin Brincat|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-03-23|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-23}}</ref> * 29: [[Elio Lombardi]], 92, kittieb u direttur tal-films <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/prolific-filmmaker-author-elio-lombardi-dies-aged-92.1126197|titlu=Prolific film-maker, author Elio Lombardi dies aged 92|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-03-29|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-l-awtur-tal-kotba-u-direttur-tal-films-elio-lombardi/|titlu=Imut l-awtur tal-kotba u direttur tal-films Elio Lombardi|kunjom=Micallef|isem=Gaetano|data=2026-03-29|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/03/29/tithabbar-il-mewt-ta-elio-lombardi-fl-eta-ta-92-sena/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt ta' Elio Lombardi fl-età ta' 92 sena|kunjom=Catania|isem=Francesco|data=2026-03-29|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-kittieb-u-attur-elio-lombardi-fl-eta-ta-92-sena/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-kittieb u attur Elio Lombardi fl-età ta’ 92 Sena|kunjom=Farrugia|isem=Shanaya|data=29 Marzu 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-elio-lombardi-figura-prominenti-fil-films-u-l-letteratura-maltija/|titlu=Imut Elio Lombardi, figura prominenti fil-films u l-letteratura Maltija|kunjom=Cachia|isem=Paul|data=29 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-03-29/local-news/Maltese-author-and-film-director-Elio-Lombardi-dies-aged-92-6736288379|titlu=Maltese author and film director Elio Lombardi dies aged 92 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/thabbar-meta-se-jinghata-l-ahhar-tislima-elio-lombardi/|titlu=Tħabbar meta se jingħata l-aħħar tislima Elio Lombardi|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=1 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/ara-elio-dejjem-gharaf-li-kien-mimli-doni-minn-alla/|titlu=Ara: “Elio dejjem għaraf li kien mimli doni minn Alla”|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=8 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tinghata-l-ahhar-tislima-lil-elio-lombardi-ikona-fid-drama-maltija/|titlu=Tingħata l-aħħar tislima lil Elio Lombardi … ikona fid-drama Maltija|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Enrique|data=8 April 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref> == April == * 2: [[Edmond Zarb]], 81, kittieb u mużiċist <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/04/02/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-muzicist-u-awtur-edmond-zarb/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-mużiċist u awtur Edmond Zarb|kunjom=Catania|isem=Francesco|data=2026-04-02|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tajt-kontribut-lill-kultura-maltija-imut-l-awtur-u-pjanist-edmond-zarb|titlu=“Tajt kontribut lill-kultura Maltija” – imut l-awtur u pjanist Edmond Zarb|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=2 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 6: [[Graziella Castillo]], 47, direttur tal-Aġenzija Appoġġ <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/graziella-castillo-director-agenzija-appogg-dies-aged-47.1126547|titlu=Graziella Castillo, director of Agenzija Appoġġ, dies aged 47|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-04-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-graziella-castillo-direttrici-tal-agenzija-appogg/|titlu=Tmut Graziella Castillo – Direttriċi tal-Aġenzija Appoġġ|data=6 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 11: [[Colin Willis]], 81, eks-kummissajru Awstraljan għal Malta u attur <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-04-13/local-news/Well-known-actor-Colin-Willis-passes-away-aged-81-6736288759|titlu=Well-known actor Colin Willis passes away aged 81 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-13}}</ref> * 12: [[Aurelio Belli]], 49, mużiċist u arranġatur <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/musician-mpo-manager-aurelio-belli-dies-aged-49.1126829|titlu=Musician and MPO manager Aurelio Belli dies, aged 49|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-04-12|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://slippedisc.com/2026/04/malta-mourns-maestro-49/|titlu=Malta mourns maestro, 49|kunjom=lebrecht|isem=Norman|data=12 April 2026|sit=Slipped Disc|lingwa=en}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-04-12/local-news/Maestro-Aurelio-Belli-dies-aged-49-6736288731|titlu=Maestro Aurelio Belli dies, aged 49 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/140933/maestro_aurelio_belli_dies_at_49_|titlu=Maestro Aurelio Belli dies at 49|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Juliana|data=12 April 2026|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-il-maestro-aurelio-belli/|titlu=Imut il-Maestro Aurelio Belli|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Neil|data=12 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-is-surmast-aurelio-belli/|titlu=Imut is-Surmast Aurelio Belli|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-04-12|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-maestro-aurelio-belli-fl-eta-ta-49-sena/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-Maestro Aurelio Belli fl-età ta’ 49 sena|kunjom=Sacco Baldacchino|isem=Kimberley|data=12 April 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/04/12/tithabbar-il-mewt-tas-surmast-aurelio-belli/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tas-Surmast Aurelio Belli|kunjom=Catania|isem=Francesco|data=2026-04-12|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/il-maestro-aurelio-belli-jinghata-l-ahhar-tislima|titlu=Tislima lill-Maestro Aurelio Belli: “Mela s-silenzju b’ħajja ta’ noti”|kunjom=Mamo|isem=Christine|data=18 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 19: [[Desmond Morris]], 98, etoloġista Ingliż li għex f'Malta (1968–1974) <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/desmond-morris-famous-zoologist-author-painter-malta-past-dies-98.1127264|titlu=Desmond Morris, famous zoologist, author and painter with Malta past, dies at 98|kunjom=Debono|isem=Fiona Galea|data=2026-04-21|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-21}}</ref> * 24: [[Mary Grech]], 88, attriċi u xandara <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/veteran-actress-mary-grech-dies-aged-88.1127413|titlu=Veteran actress Mary Grech dies aged 88|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-04-24|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-l-attrici-u-prezentatrici-mary-grech/|titlu=Tmut l-attriċi u preżentatriċi Mary Grech|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=24 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/tmut-l-eks-prezentattrici-televiziva-mary-grech/|titlu=Tmut l-eks preżentattriċi televiżiva Mary Grech|kunjom=Attard|isem=Francesca|data=2026-04-24|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/04/24/tmut-mary-grech-pijufniera-tax-xandir-u-fost-l-ewwel-ucuh-tat-televizjoni-maltija/|titlu=Tmut Mary Grech, attriċi, pijuniera tax-xandir u fost l-ewwel uċuħ tat-televiżjoni Maltija|kunjom=Abdilla|isem=Raymond|data=2026-04-24|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref> == Mejju == * 1: [[Dolindo Cassar]], 83, xandar u eks-president tas-[[Soċjetà Filarmonika La Stella]] u tat-[[Teatru Astra]] <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://gwida.mt/tislima-lil-dolindo-cassar-li-ghadda-ghall-hajja-ta-dejjem-figura-li-halliet-marka-kbira-fil-kultura-ghawdxija/|titlu=Tislima Lil Dolindo Cassar Li Għadda Għall-Ħajja Ta’ Dejjem - Figura Li Ħalliet Marka Kbira Fil-Kultura Għawdxija|kunjom=Bayliss|isem=Emil Calleja|data=2026-05-05|sit=Gwida|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.stgeorge.org.mt/events/funeral-of-dolindo-cassar/|titlu=Funeral of DOLINDO CASSAR|data=2026-05-03|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2026-05-05}}</ref> * 14: [[Noel Galea Bason]], 71, skultur <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/05/15/imut-l-artist-noel-galea-bason/|titlu=Imut l-artist Noel Galea Bason|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-05-15|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/artist-noel-galea-bason-dies-aged-71.1128464|titlu=Artist Noel Galea Bason dies aged 71|kunjom=Carabott|isem=Sarah|data=2026-05-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-noel-galea-bason-furjaniz-moghni-btalenti-artistici-varji/|titlu=Imut Noel Galea Bason, Furjaniż mogħni b’talenti artistiċi varji|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=15 Mejju 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 19: [[Norbert Ellul Vincenti]], 88, patri Franġiskan, għalliem u kittieb <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/05/19/imut-p-norbert-ellul-vincenti-ofm/|titlu=Imut P. Norbert Ellul Vincenti OFM|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-05-19|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-05-19}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-patri-norbert-ellul-vincenti/|titlu=Imut Patri Norbert Ellul Vincenti|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=19 Mejju 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 26: [[Benny Muscat]], 86, sid ta' diversi ristorant <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/goodbye-nonno-renowned-restaurateur-benny-muscat-dies.1129052|titlu='Goodbye Nonno' – renowned restaurateur Benny Muscat dies|kunjom=Debono|isem=Fiona Galea|data=2026-05-26|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-05-26}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-benny-muscat-il-qalb-wara-ta-marija-palazzo-pescatore-u-trattoria-del-nonno/|titlu=Imut Benny Muscat, il-qalb wara Ta’ Marija, Palazzo Pescatore u Trattoria del Nonno|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=26 Mejju 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 28: [[Rose Riolo]], ??, attriċi <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-l-eks-attrici-rose-riolo/|titlu=Tmut l-eks attriċi Rose Riolo|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=28 Mejju 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> == Ara aktar == * [[:Kategorija:Mietu fl-2026]] - tinkludi ħoloq għal artikli fil-Wikipedija dwar nies li mietu fl-2026 == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}} [[Kategorija:Nies Maltin]] [[Kategorija:2026 f'Malta]] [[Kategorija:Imwiet f'Malta]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-2026|*]] [[Kategorija:Listi ta' mwiet bis-sena]] l1cs6f8npxiqkq2sicagj6t0gifzutz 330275 330274 2026-05-28T11:40:03Z ToniSant 4257 /* Mejju */ +ref 330275 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Din hija lista ta' nies notevoli Maltin li mietu fl-2026.''' F'din il-lista jidhru biss ismijiet ta' nies li l-mewt tagħhom hija kkonfermata peremezz ta' rapport/i minn sorsi verifikabbli. Żidiet bla referenza għal sors verifikabbli jitneħħew minn hawn u jitpoġġew fil-[[Diskussjoni:Nies Maltin li mietu fl-2026|paġna ta' diskussjoni]] sakemm jiġu verifikati sew. Dwar kull persuna jinġabru biss dawn id-dettalji hawn: * Data: Isem u Kunjom, età (jew "??" meta din mhux magħrufa), għal xiex inhi magħrufa l-persuna, kawża tal-mewt (m'għandu jiddaħħal xejn meta mhux magħrufa uffiċjalment) - tagħrif ieħor f'każ ta' persuna li mhux inkluża f'Wikidata (eż. data tat-twelid), referenzi (għandu jkun hemm aktar minn waħda f'każ ta' nies aktar notevoli) '''''Nota:''' id-data tal-mewt m'għandix tkun dik ta' meta tħabbret imma ta' meta seħħet.'' ---- == Jannar == * 2: [[Tony Carr]], 98, mużiċist <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/tony-carr-pioneering-maltese-jazz-drummer-dies.1121949|titlu=Tony Carr, Maltese jazz drummer to the stars, dies|kunjom=Borg|isem=Emma|data=2026-01-02|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/il-perkussjonist-tony-carr-george-caruana-jmut-fl-eta-ta-98-sena/|titlu=Il-perkussjonist Tony Carr (George Caruana) jmut fl-età ta’ 98 sena|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=2 Jannar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://themalteseherald.com/2026/01/02/tony-carr-passes-away/|titlu=Renowned Maltese drummer, Tony Carr, passes away aged 98|kunjom=Fenech|isem=Gerald|data=2026-01-02|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2026-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/138938/maltese_jazz_great_tony_carr_dies_aged_98|titlu=Maltese jazz great Tony Carr dies aged 98|kunjom=Meilak|isem=Nicole|data=2 Jannar 2026|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-01-02/local-news/Maltese-jazz-legend-Tony-Carr-passes-away-aged-98-6736286044|titlu=Maltese jazz legend, Tony Carr, passes away aged 98 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-ta-98-sena-d-drummer-malti-tony-carr/|titlu=Imut ta' 98 sena d-drummer Malti Tony Carr|data=2026-01-02|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/imut-ta-98-sena-d-drummer-famuz-malti-tony-carr-li-daqq-mal-akbar-stilel-muzikali/|titlu=Imut ta’ 98 sena d-drummer famuż Malti Tony Carr li daqq mal-akbar stilel mużikali|kunjom=Caruana|isem=Josef|data=3 Jannar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.melodija.eu/post/tony-carr-george-caruana-maltese-jazz-pioneer-dies-at-98|titlu=Tony Carr (George Caruana): Maltese Jazz Pioneer Dies at 98|kunjom=Mifsud|isem=Noel|data=2026-01-05|sit=Melodija|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/news/fond-tribute-on-death-of-drummer-who-played-with-the-greats-5465983|titlu=Fond tribute on death of drummer who played with the greats|kunjom=Hewitt|isem=Phil|data=2026-01-10|sit=SussexWorld|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-10}}</ref> * 5: [[George Spiteri]], 90, mużiċist u l-ewwel leader tal-[[Orkestra Filarmonika ta' Malta]] (twieled: 20 ta’ Lulju 1935) <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-january-6-2026.1122080|titlu=Announcements − January 6, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-george-spiteri-l-ewwel-leader-tal-orkestra-filarmonika-ta-malta/|titlu=Imut George Spiteri, l-ewwel leader tal-Orkestra Filarmonika ta’ Malta|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=6 Jannar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.facebook.com/reel/1540894257190704/?t=49|titlu=MPO: Protagonisti - George Spiteri|kunjom=Farrugia|isem=Joe Julian|data=6 Jannar 2026|sit=Facebook}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/a-real-gentleman-good-musician-violinist-george-spiteri-dies-aged-90.1122103|titlu='A real gentleman': trailblazing violinist George Spiteri dies at 90|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-01-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-06}}</ref> * 6: [[Thomas Farrell]], 89, għalliem u l-ewwel sindku ta' Ħaż Żabbar <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/thomas-farrell-first-mayor-zabbar-dies-aged-89.1122141|titlu=Thomas Farrell, first mayor of Żabbar, dies aged 89|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-07|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-07}}</ref> * 14: [[Paul Chetcuti Caruana]], 77, tabib u politiku <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-eks-deputat-laburista-t-tabib-paul-chetcuti-caruana/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-eks Deputat Laburista t-Tabib Paul Chetcuti Caruana|kunjom=Portelli|isem=Eman|data=14 Jannar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/former-mp-paul-chetcuti-caruana-dies.1122497|titlu=Mosta doctor Paul Chetcuti Caruana, targeted by 1977 letter bomb, dies aged 77|kunjom=Calleja|isem=Claudia|data=2026-01-14|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-15}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-01-14/local-news/Paul-Chetcuti-Caruana-who-survived-letter-bomb-attempt-in-1977-dies-6736286334|titlu=Paul Chetcuti Caruana, who survived letter-bomb attempt in 1977, dies - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-15}}</ref> <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/parliament-pays-tribute-mosta-doctor-pl-mp-paul-chetcuti-caruana.1123482|titlu=Parliament pays tribute to Mosta doctor and PL MP Paul Chetcuti Caruana|kunjom=Magri|isem=Giulia|data=2026-02-02|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-02}}</ref> * 20: [[Matthew Wismayer]], 53, fundatur ta' Schools for Africa (Malta) Foundation <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/matthew-wismayer-schools-africa-foundation-entrepreneur-dies.1122791|titlu=Matthew Wismayer, who turned a cancer diagnosis into inspiration, dies aged 53|kunjom=Debono|isem=Fiona Galea|data=2026-01-20|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-matthew-wismayer-il-mohh-wara-progett-biex-jigu-meghjuna-tfal-fl-afrika/|titlu=Imut Matthew Wismayer, il-moħħ wara proġett biex jiġu megħjuna tfal fl-Afrika|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-20|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://lovinmalta.com/malta/founder-of-prince-princess-malta-matthew-wismayer-passes-away/|titlu=Founder Of 'Prince & Princess Malta' Matthew Wismayer Passes Away|kunjom=Spiteri|isem=Rebecca Scalvini|data=2026-01-20|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whoswho.mt/en/matthew-wismayer-passes-away-aged-53|titlu=Maltese Entrepreneur Matthew Wismayer passes away at 53|sit=whoswho.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-january-21-2026.1122811|titlu=Announcements – January 21, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-01-21|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref> * 21: [[George Callus]], ??, ko-fundatur tal-Comtec <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://whoswho.mt/en/comtec-co-founder-george-callus-has-passed-away|titlu=Comtec Co-Founder George Callus has passed away|sit=whoswho.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-ir-ragel-ta-amy-callus-orlando-mrs-axiak-ta-simpatici/|titlu=Imut ir-raġel ta’ Amy Callus Orlando, Mrs Axiak ta’ Simpatiċi|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=21 Jannar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://gwida.mt/nimmissjak-immens-ghaziz-l-attrici-amy-callus-thabbar-it-telfa-ta-zewgha-george/|titlu="Nimmissjak Immens, Għażiż" - L-Attriċi Amy Callus Tħabbar It-Telfa Ta' Żewġha George|kunjom=Zarb|isem=Kyle|data=2026-01-22|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-01-22}}</ref> == Frar == * 4: [[Alfred Abela]], 80, eks-assistent kummissarju tal-pulizija <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-eks-assistent-kummissarju-tal-pulizija-alfred-abela/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-eks Assistent Kummissarju tal-Pulizija Alfred Abela|kunjom=Portelli|isem=Eman|data=4 Frar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 5: [[Philip Farrugia Randon]], 76, avukat u kittieb li ħoloq il-karattru ta' Puttinu <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/dedicated-patriot-philip-farrugia-randon-dies.1123612|titlu='Dedicated patriot' Philip Farrugia Randon dies|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-05|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-february-6-2026.1123652|titlu=Announcements − February 6, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-dr-philip-farrugia-randon-avukat-u-awtur-li-holoq-il-karattru-puttinu/|titlu=Imut Dr Philip Farrugia Randon, avukat u awtur li ħoloq il-karattru Puttinu|kunjom=Micallef|isem=Gaetano|data=2026-02-05|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/appreciation-philip-farrugia-randon.1124083|titlu=Appreciation: Philip Farrugia Randon|kunjom=De Bono|isem=Anthony|data=2026-02-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-15}}</ref> * 5: [[Helen Micallef]], 75, kantanta <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/helen-micallef-eurovision-1972-singer-dies-aged-75.1123643|titlu=Helen Micallef, Eurovision 1972 singer, dies aged 75|kunjom=Bonanno|isem=Matthew|data=2026-02-05|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-helen-micallef-l-ewwel-maltija-fil-eurovision/|titlu=Tmut Helen Micallef, l-ewwel kantanta Maltija fil-Eurovision|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=5 Frar 2025|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/139589/veteran_singer_helen_micallef_dies_aged_75|titlu=Veteran singer Helen Micallef dies aged 75|kunjom=Meilak|isem=Nicole|data=5 Frar 2026|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/helen-micallef-tinghata-l-ahhar-tislima-ghada-s-sibt/|titlu=Helen Micallef tingħata l-aħħar tislima għada s-Sibt|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=6 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-02-05/local-news/Helen-Micallef-first-Maltese-woman-at-Eurovision-dies-at-75-6736286990|titlu=Helen Micallef, first Maltese woman at Eurovision, dies at 75 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/iccelebrata-l-hajja-tal-kantanta-helen-micallef/|titlu=Iċċelebrata l-ħajja tal-kantanta Helen Micallef|kunjom=Falzon|isem=Anton|data=7 Frar 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 8: [[Paul Aquilina]], 94, Ġiżwita Malti bbażat fl-Indja <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-ta-fr-paul-aquilina-l-ahhar-patri-gizwita-malti-fl-indja/|titlu=Imut Fr Paul Aquilina – l-aħħar Ġiżwita Malti fl-Indja|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Neil|data=8 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/l-ahhar-patri-gizwita-malti-fl-indja-jkanta-l-ghanjiet-tal-milied/|titlu=L-aħħar Patri Ġiżwita Malti fl-Indja jkanta l-Għanjiet tal-Milied|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=25 Diċembru 2025|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/mort-l-indja-biex-narah-jordna-sacerdot-u-kantajt-bil-malti-waqt-il-funeral-ta-fr-aquilina/|titlu=“Mort l-Indja nara żagħżugħ jiġi ordnat qassis, u spiċċajt inkanta bil-Malti fil-funeral ta’ Fr Aquilina”|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=11 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-february-15-2026.1124084|titlu=Announcements – February 15, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-15}}</ref> * 10: [[Lina Brockdorff|Lina Brockdorff,]] 95, kittieba <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/awardwinning-writer-lina-brockdorff-dies-aged-96.1123850|titlu=Novelist and playwright Lina Brockdorff dies aged 95|kunjom=Borg|isem=Emma|data=2026-02-10|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/tmut-l-awtrici-lina-brockdorff-fl-eta-ta-95-sena/|titlu=Tmut l-awtriċi Lina Brockdorff fl-età ta' 95 sena|data=2026-02-10|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/thabbret-il-mewt-tax-xandara-u-l-kittieba-lina-brockdorff/|titlu=Tħabbret il-mewt tax-xandara u l-kittieba Lina Brockdorff|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=10 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-02-10/local-news/Maltese-novelist-and-playwright-Lina-Brockdorff-dies-aged-95-6736287109|titlu=Maltese novelist and playwright Lina Brockdorff dies aged 95 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-02-10}}</ref> * 10: [[Achille Cauchi]], 86, monsinjur Għawdxi, ħu l-Isqof [[Nikol Cauchi]] <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-monsinjur-achille-cauchi/|titlu=Imut Monsinjur Achille Cauchi|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=11 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://rip.com.mt/obituary/mons-achille-cauchi-10-02-2026|titlu=Mons. Achille Cauchi - RIP.com.mt|kunjom=Gatt|isem=Thomas|sit=rip.com.mt|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref> * 15: [[Laurence Grech]], 77, ġurnalist u eks-editur tas-Sunday Times of Malta <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/former-times-malta-editor-laurence-grech-dies-aged-77.1124107|titlu=Former Times of Malta editor Laurence Grech dies, aged 77|kunjom=Carabott|isem=Sarah|data=2026-02-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-laurence-grech-il-ggant-tal-gurnalizmu-l-eks-editur-tat-times-of-malta/|titlu=Imut Laurence Grech, “il-ġgant tal-ġurnaliżmu”, l-eks-editur tat-Times of Malta|data=15 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-february-16-2026.1124125|titlu=Announcements – February 16, 2026|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-02-16|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://rip.com.mt/obituary/laurence-grech-15-02-2026|titlu=Laurence Grech - RIP.com.mt|kunjom=Gatt|isem=Thomas|sit=rip.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref> * 15: [[Esmeralda Galea Camilleri]], 37, mużiċista <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://gwida.mt/hafna-mahsuda-bil-mewt-tal-muzicista-brava-esmeralda-galea-camilleri/|titlu=Ħafna Maħsuda Bil-Mewt Tal-Mużiċista Brava Esmeralda Galea Camilleri|kunjom=Bayliss|isem=Emil Calleja|data=2026-02-16|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-02-16}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/kont-titpaxxa-tismaghha-tmut-il-muzicista-esmeralda-galea-camilleri/|titlu=“Kont titpaxxa tismagħha” – tmut il-mużiċista Esmeralda Galea Camilleri|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=16 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 16: [[Mario Bonnici]], 76, kantant <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/il-kanzunetta-li-kont-iddedikaktli-se-tibqa-fqalbi-imut-il-kantant-mario-bonnici/|titlu=“Il-kanzunetta li kont iddedikajtli se tibqa’ f’qalbi” – imut il-kantant Mario Bonnici|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=17 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 18: [[Julian Attard]], 44, amministratur tal-futbol ma' [[Marsaxlokk FC]] u [[Floriana FC]] (twieled fis-27 ta' Novembru 1981) <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://sport.timesofmalta.com/2026/02/18/former-marsaxlokk-and-floriana-fc-administrator-julian-attard-dies/|titlu=Former Marsaxlokk and Floriana FC administrator Julian Attard dies|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gianluca|data=2026-02-18|lingwa=en-US|data-aċċess=2026-02-18}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/hallejtna-kmieni-wisq-habib-imut-julian-attard-tat-tim-tal-futbol-ta-marsaxlokk/|titlu=“Ħallejtna kmieni wisq ħabib” – imut Julian Attard, tat-tim tal-futbol ta’ Marsaxlokk|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=18 Frar 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 23: [[Manuel Casha]], 81, mużiċist, kittieb, u folklorista <ref> {{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-kittieb-u-muzicist-manuel-casha-fl-awstralja/ |sit=ONEnews|data=24 Frar 2026|isem=Josef|kunjom=Caruana|lingwa=mt|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-kittieb u mużiċist Manuel Casha fl-Awstralja}}</ref> * 28: [[Mario Buhagiar]], 81 professur tal-istorja tal-arti <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/mario-buhagiar-founder-art-history-department-dies-aged-81.1124795|titlu=Mario Buhagiar, founder of art history department dies aged 81|kunjom=Carabott|isem=Sarah|data=2026-03-01|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-01}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://themalteseherald.com/2026/03/02/prof-mario-buhagiar/|titlu=Founder of the arts History Department – Professor Mario Buhagiar passes away|kunjom=Fenech|isem=Gerald|data=2 Marzu 2026|sit=The Maltese Herald|lingwa=en}}</ref> == Marzu == * 8: [[Joseph Gatt (Caritas)|Joseph Gatt]], 81, pijunier fir-riabilitazzjoni tad-drogati f'Malta <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/joseph-gatt-drug-rehabilitation-pioneer-dies-aged-81.1125168|titlu=Joseph Gatt, drug rehabilitation pioneer, dies aged 81|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-03-08|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/segwi-meta-konna-fl-infern-habba-d-droga-joe-kien-anglu-kustodju/|titlu=Segwi: “Meta konna fl-infern ħabba d-droga Joe kien anġlu kustodju”|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=9 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 13: [[Luciano Bonello Bianco]], 72, propjetarju ta' Luciano Restaurant <ref>{{Ċita web|url= https://timesofmalta.com/article/announcements-march-15-2026.1125478 |titlu=Announcements|sit=Times of Malta|data-aċċess=2026-03-15}}</ref> * 21: [[Charles Micallef St John]], 81, kittieb u eks-kunsillier tal-Gżira <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-l-awtur-charles-micallef-st-john/|titlu=Imut l-awtur Charles Micallef St John|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Neil|data=21 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/03/21/imut-l-awtur-chaf-st-john/|titlu=Imut l-awtur Charles Micallef St. John|kunjom=Balbi|isem=Nicole Sciberras|data=2026-03-21|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-23}}</ref> * 22: [[Calvin Brincat]], 32, parteċipant fil-programm tat-television ''Hazzzard'', kanċer <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-calvin-brincat-li-ggieled-2-tipi-ta-kancer-u-kien-ippartecipa-fhazzzard/|titlu=Imut Calvin Brincat li ġġieled 2 tipi ta' kanċer u kien ipparteċipa f'HazZzard|data=2026-03-23|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-23}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-iz-zaghzugh-calvin-brincat-ta-hazzzard/|titlu=Imut iż-żagħżugħ Calvin Brincat ta’ HazZzard|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=23 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/tributes-paid-truly-sensitive-soul-cancer-patient-calvin-brincat.1125893|titlu=Tributes paid to 'truly sensitive soul', cancer victim Calvin Brincat|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-03-23|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-23}}</ref> * 29: [[Elio Lombardi]], 92, kittieb u direttur tal-films <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/prolific-filmmaker-author-elio-lombardi-dies-aged-92.1126197|titlu=Prolific film-maker, author Elio Lombardi dies aged 92|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-03-29|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-l-awtur-tal-kotba-u-direttur-tal-films-elio-lombardi/|titlu=Imut l-awtur tal-kotba u direttur tal-films Elio Lombardi|kunjom=Micallef|isem=Gaetano|data=2026-03-29|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/03/29/tithabbar-il-mewt-ta-elio-lombardi-fl-eta-ta-92-sena/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt ta' Elio Lombardi fl-età ta' 92 sena|kunjom=Catania|isem=Francesco|data=2026-03-29|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-kittieb-u-attur-elio-lombardi-fl-eta-ta-92-sena/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-kittieb u attur Elio Lombardi fl-età ta’ 92 Sena|kunjom=Farrugia|isem=Shanaya|data=29 Marzu 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-elio-lombardi-figura-prominenti-fil-films-u-l-letteratura-maltija/|titlu=Imut Elio Lombardi, figura prominenti fil-films u l-letteratura Maltija|kunjom=Cachia|isem=Paul|data=29 Marzu 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-03-29/local-news/Maltese-author-and-film-director-Elio-Lombardi-dies-aged-92-6736288379|titlu=Maltese author and film director Elio Lombardi dies aged 92 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/thabbar-meta-se-jinghata-l-ahhar-tislima-elio-lombardi/|titlu=Tħabbar meta se jingħata l-aħħar tislima Elio Lombardi|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=1 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/ara-elio-dejjem-gharaf-li-kien-mimli-doni-minn-alla/|titlu=Ara: “Elio dejjem għaraf li kien mimli doni minn Alla”|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=8 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tinghata-l-ahhar-tislima-lil-elio-lombardi-ikona-fid-drama-maltija/|titlu=Tingħata l-aħħar tislima lil Elio Lombardi … ikona fid-drama Maltija|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Enrique|data=8 April 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref> == April == * 2: [[Edmond Zarb]], 81, kittieb u mużiċist <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/04/02/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-muzicist-u-awtur-edmond-zarb/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-mużiċist u awtur Edmond Zarb|kunjom=Catania|isem=Francesco|data=2026-04-02|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-02}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tajt-kontribut-lill-kultura-maltija-imut-l-awtur-u-pjanist-edmond-zarb|titlu=“Tajt kontribut lill-kultura Maltija” – imut l-awtur u pjanist Edmond Zarb|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=2 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 6: [[Graziella Castillo]], 47, direttur tal-Aġenzija Appoġġ <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/graziella-castillo-director-agenzija-appogg-dies-aged-47.1126547|titlu=Graziella Castillo, director of Agenzija Appoġġ, dies aged 47|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-04-06|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-graziella-castillo-direttrici-tal-agenzija-appogg/|titlu=Tmut Graziella Castillo – Direttriċi tal-Aġenzija Appoġġ|data=6 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 11: [[Colin Willis]], 81, eks-kummissajru Awstraljan għal Malta u attur <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-04-13/local-news/Well-known-actor-Colin-Willis-passes-away-aged-81-6736288759|titlu=Well-known actor Colin Willis passes away aged 81 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-13}}</ref> * 12: [[Aurelio Belli]], 49, mużiċist u arranġatur <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/musician-mpo-manager-aurelio-belli-dies-aged-49.1126829|titlu=Musician and MPO manager Aurelio Belli dies, aged 49|kunjom=Cummings|isem=James|data=2026-04-12|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://slippedisc.com/2026/04/malta-mourns-maestro-49/|titlu=Malta mourns maestro, 49|kunjom=lebrecht|isem=Norman|data=12 April 2026|sit=Slipped Disc|lingwa=en}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2026-04-12/local-news/Maestro-Aurelio-Belli-dies-aged-49-6736288731|titlu=Maestro Aurelio Belli dies, aged 49 - The Malta Independent|sit=www.independent.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/news/national/140933/maestro_aurelio_belli_dies_at_49_|titlu=Maestro Aurelio Belli dies at 49|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Juliana|data=12 April 2026|sit=MaltaToday.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-il-maestro-aurelio-belli/|titlu=Imut il-Maestro Aurelio Belli|kunjom=Camilleri|isem=Neil|data=12 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/imut-is-surmast-aurelio-belli/|titlu=Imut is-Surmast Aurelio Belli|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-04-12|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://one.com.mt/tithabbar-il-mewt-tal-maestro-aurelio-belli-fl-eta-ta-49-sena/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tal-Maestro Aurelio Belli fl-età ta’ 49 sena|kunjom=Sacco Baldacchino|isem=Kimberley|data=12 April 2026|sit=ONEnews|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/04/12/tithabbar-il-mewt-tas-surmast-aurelio-belli/|titlu=Titħabbar il-mewt tas-Surmast Aurelio Belli|kunjom=Catania|isem=Francesco|data=2026-04-12|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/il-maestro-aurelio-belli-jinghata-l-ahhar-tislima|titlu=Tislima lill-Maestro Aurelio Belli: “Mela s-silenzju b’ħajja ta’ noti”|kunjom=Mamo|isem=Christine|data=18 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 19: [[Desmond Morris]], 98, etoloġista Ingliż li għex f'Malta (1968–1974) <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/desmond-morris-famous-zoologist-author-painter-malta-past-dies-98.1127264|titlu=Desmond Morris, famous zoologist, author and painter with Malta past, dies at 98|kunjom=Debono|isem=Fiona Galea|data=2026-04-21|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-21}}</ref> * 24: [[Mary Grech]], 88, attriċi u xandara <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/veteran-actress-mary-grech-dies-aged-88.1127413|titlu=Veteran actress Mary Grech dies aged 88|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-04-24|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-l-attrici-u-prezentatrici-mary-grech/|titlu=Tmut l-attriċi u preżentatriċi Mary Grech|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=24 April 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://tvmnews.mt/news/tmut-l-eks-prezentattrici-televiziva-mary-grech/|titlu=Tmut l-eks preżentattriċi televiżiva Mary Grech|kunjom=Attard|isem=Francesca|data=2026-04-24|sit=TVMnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/04/24/tmut-mary-grech-pijufniera-tax-xandir-u-fost-l-ewwel-ucuh-tat-televizjoni-maltija/|titlu=Tmut Mary Grech, attriċi, pijuniera tax-xandir u fost l-ewwel uċuħ tat-televiżjoni Maltija|kunjom=Abdilla|isem=Raymond|data=2026-04-24|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-04-24}}</ref> == Mejju == * 1: [[Dolindo Cassar]], 83, xandar u eks-president tas-[[Soċjetà Filarmonika La Stella]] u tat-[[Teatru Astra]] <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://gwida.mt/tislima-lil-dolindo-cassar-li-ghadda-ghall-hajja-ta-dejjem-figura-li-halliet-marka-kbira-fil-kultura-ghawdxija/|titlu=Tislima Lil Dolindo Cassar Li Għadda Għall-Ħajja Ta’ Dejjem - Figura Li Ħalliet Marka Kbira Fil-Kultura Għawdxija|kunjom=Bayliss|isem=Emil Calleja|data=2026-05-05|sit=Gwida|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://www.stgeorge.org.mt/events/funeral-of-dolindo-cassar/|titlu=Funeral of DOLINDO CASSAR|data=2026-05-03|lingwa=en-GB|data-aċċess=2026-05-05}}</ref> * 14: [[Noel Galea Bason]], 71, skultur <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/05/15/imut-l-artist-noel-galea-bason/|titlu=Imut l-artist Noel Galea Bason|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-05-15|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/artist-noel-galea-bason-dies-aged-71.1128464|titlu=Artist Noel Galea Bason dies aged 71|kunjom=Carabott|isem=Sarah|data=2026-05-15|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-noel-galea-bason-furjaniz-moghni-btalenti-artistici-varji/|titlu=Imut Noel Galea Bason, Furjaniż mogħni b’talenti artistiċi varji|kunjom=Lia|isem=Gabriel|data=15 Mejju 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 19: [[Norbert Ellul Vincenti]], 88, patri Franġiskan, għalliem u kittieb <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://netnews.com.mt/2026/05/19/imut-p-norbert-ellul-vincenti-ofm/|titlu=Imut P. Norbert Ellul Vincenti OFM|kunjom=|isem=|data=2026-05-19|sit=NETnews|lingwa=mt|data-aċċess=2026-05-19}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-patri-norbert-ellul-vincenti/|titlu=Imut Patri Norbert Ellul Vincenti|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=19 Mejju 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> * 26: [[Benny Muscat]], 86, sid ta' diversi ristorant <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://timesofmalta.com/article/goodbye-nonno-renowned-restaurateur-benny-muscat-dies.1129052|titlu='Goodbye Nonno' – renowned restaurateur Benny Muscat dies|kunjom=Debono|isem=Fiona Galea|data=2026-05-26|sit=Times of Malta|lingwa=en-gb|data-aċċess=2026-05-26}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/imut-benny-muscat-il-qalb-wara-ta-marija-palazzo-pescatore-u-trattoria-del-nonno/|titlu=Imut Benny Muscat, il-qalb wara Ta’ Marija, Palazzo Pescatore u Trattoria del Nonno|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=26 Mejju 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref><ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://rip.com.mt/obituary/benny-muscat-26-05-2026|titlu=Benny Muscat - RIP.com.mt|kunjom=Gatt|isem=Thomas|sit=rip.com.mt|lingwa=en|data-aċċess=2026-05-28}}</ref> * 28: [[Rose Riolo]], ??, attriċi <ref>{{Ċita web|url=https://newsbook.com.mt/tmut-l-eks-attrici-rose-riolo/|titlu=Tmut l-eks attriċi Rose Riolo|kunjom=Zammit|isem=Frederick|data=28 Mejju 2026|sit=Newsbook|lingwa=mt}}</ref> == Ara aktar == * [[:Kategorija:Mietu fl-2026]] - tinkludi ħoloq għal artikli fil-Wikipedija dwar nies li mietu fl-2026 == Referenzi == {{Referenzi}} [[Kategorija:Nies Maltin]] [[Kategorija:2026 f'Malta]] [[Kategorija:Imwiet f'Malta]] [[Kategorija:Mietu fl-2026|*]] [[Kategorija:Listi ta' mwiet bis-sena]] o3v8ydnvlwfdo69qd26l5nf834musbd 0 34460 330263 330260 2026-05-27T16:11:38Z Trigcly 17859 /* Sekli 18 u 19 */ 330263 wikitext text/x-wiki Id-'''demokrazija''' hija forma ta' governanza li permezz tagħha l-poter [[Politika|politiku]] jinkiseb min-nies jew mill-popolazzjoni ta' stat. Skont definizzjoni minimalista tad-demokrazija, il-mexxejja jiġu eletti permezz ta' elezzjonijiet kompetittivi filwaqt li d-definizzjonijiet iktar wesgħin jew massimalisti jorbtu d-demokrazija mal-garanziji tal-libertajiet ċivili u d-drittijiet tal-[[bniedem]] apparti l-elezzjonijiet kompetittivi. F'demokrazija diretta, il-poplu jkollu l-awtorità diretta li jagħmel deliberazzjonijiet u li jiddeċiedi dwar il-leġiżlazzjoni. F'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, il-poplu jagħżel l-uffiċjali tal-governanza permezz ta' elezzjonijiet. Id-definizzjoni ta' "poplu" u l-modi kif l-awtorità tiġi kondiviża fi ħdan il-poplu jew iddelegata minnu nbidlu mal-milja taż-żminijiet u b'rati li jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor. Il-karatteristiċi tad-demokrazija spiss jinkludu l-libertà tal-ġemgħa, il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni, il-proprjetà personali, il-libertà tar-[[reliġjon]] u tal-[[kelma]], iċ-ċittadinanza, il-kunsens ta' dawk li jiġu ggvernati, id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni, il-libertà miċ-ċaħda governattiva mhux ġustifikata tad-dritt tal-ħajja u tal-libertà, u d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. In-nozzjoni tad-demokrazija evolviet b'mod konsiderevoli maż-żmien. Matul l-[[Storja|istorja]], wieħed jista' jsib evidenza ta' demokrazija diretta, fejn il-komunitajiet kienu jieħdu deċiżjonijiet permezz ta' ġemgħat popolari. Illum il-ġurnata, il-forma dominanti tad-demokrazija hija d-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, fejn iċ-ċittadini jeleġġu lill-uffiċjali tal-gvern biex jiggvernaw f'isimhom, pereżempju f'demokrazija parlamentari jew presidenzjali. Fil-varjant komuni tad-demokrazija liberali, is-setgħat tal-maġġoranza jiġu eżerċitati fi ħdan il-qafas ta' demokrazija rappreżentattiva, iżda l-kostituzzjoni u l-qorti suprema jillimitaw lill-maġġoranza u jipproteġu lill-minoranzi — normalment billi jiġi żgurat li kulħadd igawdi minn ċerti drittijiet individwali, bħal-libertà tal-kelma jew il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni. It-terminu tfaċċa fis-seklu 5 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]. fil-bliet-stati [[Greċja antika|Griegi]], b'mod partikolari f'[[Ateni]] Klassika, u kien ifisser "it-tmexxija tal-poplu", b'kuntrast mal-aristokrazija (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: ἀριστοκρατία, ''aristokratía''), li tfisser "it-tmexxija tal-elit". Prattikament fil-gvernijiet demokratiċi kollha tul l-istorja tal-qedem u moderna, iċ-ċittadinanza demokratika inizjalment kienet ristretta għal klassi tal-elit, li iktar 'il quddiem ġiet estiża għaċ-ċittadini adulti kollha. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, dan inkiseb permezz tal-movimenti tas-suffraġju tas-sekli 19 u 20. Id-demokrazija tikkuntrasta mal-forom ta' governanza fejn il-poter ma jinbitx mill-popolazzjoni ġenerali ta' stat, pereżempju s-sistemi awtoritarji. Storikament is-sistemi demokratiċi kienu forma rari u vulnerabbli ta' governanza, iżda dawn saru iktar prevalenti mis-seklu 19 'l hawn, b'mod partikolari permezz ta' diversi mewġiet ta' demokratizzazzjoni. Id-demokrazija għandha leġittimità konsiderevoli fid-dinja moderna, peress li l-opinjoni pubblika fir-reġjuni dinjin normalment huma favur is-sistemi demokratiċi ta' governanza meta mqabbla mal-alternattivi, u peress li saħansitra l-istati awtoritarji jippruvaw ipinġu lilhom infushom bħala demokratiċi. Id-demokrazija b'mod iktar konsistenti tirriżulta f'saħħa, f'[[edukazzjoni]] u f'eżiti ekonomiċi mtejba. Skont l-indiċijiet ta' ''V-Dem Democracy'' u l-Indiċi tad-Demokrazija ta' ''The Economist'', inqas minn nofs il-popolazzjoni tad-dinja tgħix f'demokrazija mill-2022. Fl-istess ħin, filwaqt li d-demokrazija rappreżentattivi tingħata valur siewi b'mod mifrux, iċ-Ċentru tar-Riċerka ta' Pew sab li l-garr rigward il-prestazzjoni demokratika huwa komuni saħansitra f'bosta demokraziji stabbiliti. == Karatteristiċi == Għalkemm id-demokrazija fid-demokraziji purament rappreżentattivi hija mifhuma b'rabta mal-votazzjoni, ma jeżisti l-ebda konsensus dwar definizzjoni preċiża tad-demokrazija. Jeżistu wisq approċċi. Kien hemm studju li identifika 2,234 aġġettiv li jintuża għad-deskrizzjoni tad-demokrazija bil-[[lingwa Ingliża]]. Minkejja dan, hemm fehim iktar profond – bħal dak ta' [[Abraham Lincoln]]: : ''"Governanza tan-nies, min-nies, għan-nies"'' jew dik ta' [[Karl Popper]] li ssostni li l-ħarsa "klassika" lejn id-demokrazija hi, "fil-qosor, it-teorija li d-demokrazija hija t-tmexxija tal-poplu u li l-poplu għandu d-dritt li jiggverna hu. Il-prinċipji demokratiċi huma riflessi fiċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha, ilkoll indaqs quddiem il-[[Dritt|liġi]] u lkoll b'aċċess ugwali għall-proċessi leġiżlattivi. Pereżempju, f'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, kull vot (fit-teorija) għandu l-istess piż, u l-libertà taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli hija żgurata permezz ta' drittijiet u libertajiet leġittimizzati li tipikament ikunu mnaqqxa f'kostituzzjoni, filwaqt li użi oħra tad-"demokrazija" jaf jħaddnu d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament fuq id-diversi kwistjonijiet li jinqalgħu. Skont in-[[Ġnus Magħquda|Nazzjonijiet Uniti]], id-demokrazija "tipprovdi ambjent li jirrispetta d-drittijiet tal-bniedem u l-libertajiet fundamentali, u fejn ir-rieda espressa liberament tal-poplu tiġi eżerċitata". Skont teorija partikolari d-demokrazija tirrikjedi tliet prinċipji fundamentali: il-kontroll 'il fuq (sovranità fl-iżjed livelli baxxi tal-awtorità), l-ugwaljanza politika, u n-normi soċjali li permezz tagħhom l-individwi u l-istituzzjonijiet iqisu biss atti aċċettabbli li jirriflettu l-ewwel żewġ prinċipji tal-kontroll 'il fuq u l-ugwaljanza politika. L-ugwaljanza legali, il-libertà politika u l-istat ta' dritt sikwit jiġu identifikati bħala l-karatteristiċi ewlenin ta' demokrazija li tiffunzjona sew. F'xi pajjiżi, b'mod partikolari fir-[[Renju Unit]] (minn fejn oriġinat is-sistema ta' Westminster), il-prinċipju dominanti hu dak tas-sovranità Parlamentari, filwaqt li tinżamm l-indipendenza ġudizzjarja. Fl-[[Indja]], is-sovranità Parlamentari hija soġġetta għall-Kostituzzjoni tal-Indja li tinkludi rieżami ġudizzjarju. Għalkemm it-terminu "demokrazija" tipikament jintuża fil-kuntest ta' stat politiku, il-prinċipji wkoll huma applikabbli potenzjalment għall-organizzazzjonijiet privati, bħal klabbs, għaqdiet u ditti. Id-demokraziji jistgħu jużaw bosta metodi differenti ta' teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet, iżda t-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hija l-forma dominanti. Mingħajr kumpens, bħal protezzjonijiet legali tad-drittijiet individwali jew kollettivi, il-minoranzi politiċi jistgħu jiġu mgħakksa mit-"tirannija tal-maġġoranza". It-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza tinvolvi approċċ kompetittiv, għad-differenza tad-demokrazija tal-konsensus, u b'hekk tinħoloq il-ħtieġa li l-elezzjonijiet, u ġeneralment id-deliberazzjoni, ikunu sostantivament u proċeduralment "ġusti" u ekwi. Fżxi pajjiżi, il-libertà tal-espressjoni politika, il-libertà tal-kelma u l-libertà tal-istampa jitqiesu bħala importanti biex jiġi żgurat li l-votanti jkunu infurmati sew, u b'hekk ikunu jistgħu jivvutaw skont l-interessi u t-twemmin tagħhom stess. Ġie ssuġġerit ukoll li karatteristika bażika tad-demokrazija hija l-kapaċità li l-votanti kollha jipparteċipaw b'mod ħieles u sħiħ fil-[[ħajja]] tas-soċjetà tagħhom. Bl-enfasi fuq in-nozzjonijiet tal-kuntratt soċjali u r-rieda kollettiva tal-votanti kollha, id-demokrazija tista' tkun ikkaratterizzata wkoll bħala forma ta' kollettiviżmu politiku peress li tiġi definita bħala forma ta' governanza fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom vuċi ugwali fit-tfassil tal-liġijiet. Ir-repubbliki, għalkemm spiss ikunu assoċjati popolarment mad-demokrazija minħabba l-prinċipju kondiviż tal-kunsens mogħti minn dawk li jiġu ggvernati għat-tmexxija, mhux neċessarjament ikunu demokraziji, għax ir-repubblikaniżmu ma jispeċifikax ''kif'' in-nies għandhom imexxu. Tradizzjonalment it-terminu "repubblika" kien iħaddan kemm id-demokraziji kif ukoll l-aristokraziji u l-varjanti tagħhom. F'sens modern, il-forma ta' governanza repubblikana hija forma ta' governanza mingħajr monarka. Minħabba f'hekk, id-demokraziji jistgħu jkunu repubbliki jew monarkiji kostituzzjonali, bħar-Renju Unit, fejn il-monarka ma jkunx il-mexxej. == Storja == Il-ġemgħat demokratiċi għandhom żmien daqs kemm għandha żmien l-ispeċi umana u ilhom jeżistu tul l-istorja umana, iżda sas-seklu 19, il-figuri [[Politiku|politiċi]] ewlenin fil-biċċa l-kbira opponew id-demokrazija. It-teoriċi repubblikani rabtu d-demokrazija ma' daqs ċkejken: iktar ma kienu jikbru fid-daqs l-unitajiet politiċi, iktar kienet tiżdied il-probabbiltà li l-gvern isir tiranniku. Fl-istess waqt, l-unitajiet politiċi żgħar kienu vulnerabbli għall-ħakma. Montesquieu kiteb, "Jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered mill-imperfezzjoni interna". Skont ix-xjenzat politiku tal-Università ta' Johns Hopkins [[Daniel Deudney]], il-ħolqien tal-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]], bid-daqs kbir u s-sistema ta' kontrolli u bilanċi tagħha, kienet soluzzjoni għall-problemi doppji tad-daqs. Fis-soċjetajiet ta' madwar id-dinja seħħew forom ta' demokrazija b'mod organiku li ma kellhom l-ebda kuntatt ma' xulxin. === Oriġini === ==== [[Greċja]] u [[Ruma]] ==== It-terminu ''demokrazija'' tfaċċa għall-ewwel darba fil-ħsieb politiku u [[Filosofija|filosofiku]] tal-Greċja Antika fil-belt-stat ta' Ateni fl-antikità klassika. Il-kelma ġejja minn ''dêmos'' li tfisser "nies (komuni)" u minn ''krátos'' li tfisser "qawwa/setgħa". Taħt Cleisthenes, f'Ateni ġie stabbilit dak li huwa maħsub bħala l-ewwel eżempju ta' tip ta' demokrazija fis-seklu 6 Q.K. (508–507 Q.K.). Cleisthenes huwa meqjus bħala "l-missier tad-demokrazija ta' Ateni". L-ewwel użu attestat tal-kelma demokrazija jinsab fix-xogħlijiet ta' proża tal-ħabta tal-430 Q.K., bħall-''Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, iżda l-użu tagħha kien eqdem b'diversi deċennji, peress li żewġ persuni minn Ateni li twieldu għall-ħabta tal-470 Q.K. kien jisimhom Democrates, isem politiku ġdid — x'aktarx b'appoġġ għad-demokrazija — li ngħata fi żmien ta' dibattiti dwar kwistjonijiet kostituzzjonali f'Ateni. Aeschylus jalludi bis-saħħa wkoll għall-kelma fid-dramm tiegħu ''Is-Supplikanti'', li ttella' għall-ħabta tal-463 Q.K., fejn isemmi "l-id tat-tmexxija tal-kotra" [''demou kratousa cheir'']. Qabel dak iż-żmien, il-kelma li kienet tiddefinixxi s-sistema politika ġdida ta' Cleisthenes x'aktarx li kienet ''isonomija'', li tfisser ugwaljanza politika. Id-demokrazija ta' Ateni ħadet is-sura ta' demokrazija diretta, u kellha żewġ karatteristiċi li jiddistingwuha: l-għażla aleatorja ta' ċittadini ordinarji biex jimlew il-ftit karigi amministrattivi u ġudizzjarji eżistenti tal-gvern, u ġemgħa leġiżlattiva li kienet tikkonsisti mill-maġġoranza taċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha kienu jitħallew jitkellmu u jivvutaw fil-ġemgħa jew fl-assemblea, fejn kienu jiġu stabbiliti l-liġijiet tal-belt-stat. Madankollu, iċ-ċittadinanza ta' Ateni ma kinitx tingħata lin-[[Mara|nisa]], lill-[[Skjavitù|ilsiera]], lill-barranin (μέτοικοι / ''métoikoi''), u liż-żgħażagħ taħt l-età tas-servizz militari. Effettivament, resident wieħed minn kull erba' f'Ateni kienu jikkwalifikaw bħala ċittadini. Is-sjieda tal-art ma kinitx rekwiżit għaċ-ċittadinanza. L-esklużjoni ta' partijiet kbar tal-popolazzjoni mill-korp taċ-ċittadini hija marbuta mill-qrib mal-fehim tal-qedem taċ-ċittadinanza. Fil-biċċa l-kbira ta' żmien il-qedem, il-benefiċċju taċ-ċittadinanza kien marbut mal-obbligu tal-ġlied fil-kampanji militari. Id-demokrazija ta' Aterni mhux biss kienet ''diretta'' fis-sens li d-deċiżjonijiet kienu jittieħdu mill-ġemgħa, iżda anke l-''iżjed diretta'' fis-sens li l-ġemgħa permezz tal-istrutturi bħall-assemblea, is-senat u l-qrati legali kienet tikkontrolla l-proċess politiku kollu u proporzjon kbir taċ-ċittadini kienu jkunu involuti b'mod kostanti fl-affarijiet pubbliċi. Minkejja li d-drittijiet tal-individwu ma kinux żgurati mill-kostituzzjoni ta' Ateni fis-sens modern (il-Griegi tal-qedem ma kellhomx kelma għal "drittijiet"), dawk li kienu ċittadini ta' Ateni kienu jgawdu l-libertajiet tagħhom mhux f'oppożizzjoni għall-gvern iżda billi jgħixu f'belt li ma kinitx soġġetta għal xi setgħa oħra u billi huma stess ma kinux soġġetti għat-tmexxija ta' ħaddieħor. Il-votazzjoni tfaċċat fi [[Sparta]] saħansitra fis-700 Q.K. L-ekkleżjastiċi ta' Sparta kienu ġemgħa tal-poplu, li kienet tiltaqa' darba fix-xahar, fejn kull ċittadini maskili ta' mill-inqas 20 sena seta' jipparteċipa. Fl-assemblea, l-Ispartani kienu jeleġġu l-mexxejja u jixħtu l-voti tagħhom bl-għajjat (il-votazzjoni kienet tiġi deċiża skont l-ikbar għajta tal-folla). [[Aristotli]] ddeskriva dan il-metodu bħala "tat-tfal", meta mqabbel mas-sistema tal-votazzjoni fuq poloz tal-ġebel użata miċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Sparta adottat din is-sistema minħabba s-sempliċità tagħha, u biex jiġi evitat kull tip ta' preġudizzju, xiri jew qerq fil-votazzjoni, li kienu predominanti fl-elezzjonijiet demokratiċi bikrin. Barra minn hekk, id-depożizzjoni tar-Renju Ruman ħolqot sistema b'element demokratiku fil-forma ta' bosta ġemgħat popolari differenti. Minkejja li r-Repubblika Rumana tat kontribut sinifikanti għal bosta aspetti tad-demokrazija, frazzjon biss mir-Rumani kienu ċittadini li kellhom il-vot fl-elezzjonijiet għall-maġistrati. Il-voti tas-setgħana kienu jingħataw iktar piż permezz ta' sistema ta' votazzjoni ponderata, għaldaqstant il-biċċa l-kbira tal-uffiċjali għoljin, inkluż il-membri tas-Senat, kienu jiġu minn ftit familji għonja u nobbli. Il-mudell Ruman ta' governanza ispira bosta ħassieba politiċi tul is-sekli. ==== Indja tal-qedem ==== Vaishali, il-[[belt kapitali]] tal-Lega ta' Vajjika (Vrijji mahajanapada) tal-Indja, titqies bħala wieħed mill-ewwel eżempji ta' repubblika għall-ħabta tas-seklu 6 Q.K. ==== Amerki ==== [[Kultura|Kulturi]] oħra, bħall-Iroquois fl-Amerki, żviluppaw ukoll forma ta' soċjetà demokratika bejn l-1450 u l-1660 (u possibbilment fl-1142), ferm qabel ma kellhom kuntatt mal-[[Ewropa|Ewropej]]. Din id-demokrazija għadha preżenti sal-lum u hija l-iżjed demokrazija rappreżentattiva antika eżistenti fid-dinja. === [[Medjuevu|Medju Evu]] === Filwaqt li l-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjuni fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu kienu mmexxijin mill-kleru jew minn sinjuri fewdali, kienu jeżistu diversi sistemi li kienu jinvolvu l-elezzjonijiet jew il-ġemgħat, għalkemm spiss kienu jinvolvu parti żgħira mill-popolazzjoni. Fl-Iskandinavja, kien hemm korpi magħrufa ta' nies ħielsa ppreseduti minn kelliem tal-liġi. Dawn il-korpi ta' deliberazzjoni kienu responsabbli għas-soluzzjoni ta' kwistjonijiet politiċi, u xi varjanti kienu jinkludu l-Althing fl-[[Iżlanda]] u l-Løgting fil-[[Gżejjer Faroe|Gżejjer Faeroe]]. Il-''veche'', fil-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]], kien korp simili għal dawk tal-Iskandinavja. Fil-[[Knisja Kattolika]] Rumana, il-[[Papa]] ilu jiġi elett minn [[konklav]] Papali magħmul mill-kardinali mill-1059. L-ewwel korp Parlamentari ddokumentat fl-Ewropa kien il-Cortes ta' [[León]]. Stabbilit minn [[Alfonsu IX|Alfonso IX]] fl-1188, il-Cortes kellu l-awtorità għall-iffissar tat-tassazzjoni, għall-affarijiet barranin u għal-leġiżlazzjoni, għalkemm in-natura eżatta tar-rwol tiegħu għadha kkontestata. Ir-Repubblika ta' [[Ragusa]], stabbilita fl-1358 u ċċentrata madwar il-belt ta' [[Dubrovnik]], ipprovdiet drittijiet ta' rappreżentanza u ta' votazzjoni lill-aristokrazija maskili tagħha biss. Diversi bliet-stati u sistemi ta' governanza Taljani kellhom forom ta' governanza repubblikani. Pereżempju, ir-Repubblika ta' [[Firenze]], stabbilita fl-1115, kienet immexxija mis-Signoria u l-membri tagħha kienu jintgħażlu bix-xorti. Fil-Frisja tas-sekli 10–15, soċjetà mhux fewdali distinta, id-dritt tal-votazzjoni dwar kwistjonijiet lokali u dwar l-uffiċjali tal-kontea kien ibbażat fuq id-daqs tal-art. Il-''Kouroukan Fouga'' qasam l-Imperu tal-[[Mali]] fi klans tat-tmexxija li kienu rrappreżentati f'ġemgħa kbira msejħa l-''Gbara''. Madankollu, id-dokument wassal biex il-Mali jkun iktar simili għal monarkija kostituzzjonali milli repubblika demokratika. Il-Parlament tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] kellu l-għeruq tiegħu fir-restrizzjonijiet tal-poter tar-rejiet miktubin fil-''Magna Carta'' (1215), li b'mod espliċitu ħarset ċerti drittijiet tas-sudditi tar-Re u b'mod impliċitu appoġġat dak li mbagħad sar id-digriet Ingliż tal-''habeas corpus'', li jissalvagwardja l-libertà individwali mill-ħabs illegali u li jagħti d-dritt tal-appell. L-ewwel assemblea nazzjonali rappreżentattiva fl-Ingilterra kienet il-Parlament ta' [[Simon de Montfort]] fl-1265. Il-preżenza tat-tressiq tal-petizzjonijiet hija fost l-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-użu tal-Parlament bħala forum biex jiġi indirizzat it-tħassib ġenerali tan-nies ordinarji. Madankollu, is-setgħa tas-sejħa tal-Parlament baqgħet f'idejn il-monarka. Xi studji kkollegaw l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjonijiet Parlamentari fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu mal-agglomerazzjonijiet urbani u mal-ħolqien ta' klassijiet ġodda, bħall-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]], kif ukoll mal-preżenza tan-nobbli u tal-eliti reliġjużi. L-istudjużi kkollegaw ukoll l-istabbiliment tal-governanza rappreżentattiva mal-frammentazzjoni politika relattiva tal-Ewropa. Ix-xjenzat politiku [[David Stasavage]] jikkollega l-frammentazzjoni tal-Ewropa, u d-demokratizzazzjoni sussegwenti tagħha, mal-mod kif sfaxxa l-[[Imperu Ruman]]: it-territorju Ruman inħakem minn gruppi frammentati żgħar ta' tribujiet Ġermaniċi, u dan wassal għall-ħolqien ta' unitajiet politiċi żgħar fejn il-mexxejja kienu relattivament dgħajfin u kienu jeħtieġu l-kunsens taċ-ċittadini tagħhom biex jifilħu għat-theddidiet barranin. Fil-[[Polonja]], id-demokrazija nobbli kienet ikkaratterizzata minn żieda fl-attività tan-nobbiltà nofsanija, li riedet iżżid is-sehem tagħha fl-eżerċitar tal-poter għas-spejjeż tal-manjati. Il-manjati ddominaw l-iżjed karigi importanti fl-istat (lajċi u ekkleżjastiċi) u kienu jinġabru fil-kunsill irjali, li iktar 'il quddiem sar is-senat. L-importanza dejjem tikber tan-nobbiltà nofsanija kellha impatt fuq l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjoni tal-art magħrufa bħala s-''sejmik'' (assemblea lokali), li sussegwentement kisbet iktar drittijiet. Matul is-seklu 15 u l-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 16, is-sejmiks ingħataw iktar u iktar poter u saru l-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tal-poter lokali. Fl-1454, [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] ta lis-sejmiks id-dritt li jiddeċiedu dwar it-taxxi u li jorganizzaw mobilizzazzjoni tal-massa fl-Istatuti ta' Nieszawa. Huwa wiegħed ukoll li ma kienx se joħloq liġijiet ġodda mingħajr il-kunsens tagħhom. === Era moderna === ==== Perjodu modern bikri ==== Fl-Ingilterra tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta. Il-Parlament tal-Ingilterra għadda l-Petizzjoni tad-Drittijiet fl-1628 li stabbiliet ċerti libertajiet għas-sudditi. Il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża (1642–1651) ġiet miġġielda bejn ir-Re u Parlament oligarkiku iżda elett, u matul dan iż-żmien iffurmat l-idea ta' partit politiku, bi gruppi jiddibattu d-drittijiet għar-rappreżentanza politika matul id-Dibattiti ta' Putney tal-1647. Sussegwentement, il-Protettorat (1653–59) u l-Integrazzjoni mill-Ġdid Ingliża (1660) integraw iktar tmexxija awtokratika, għalkemm il-Parlament għadda l-Att dwar il-''Habeas Corpus'' fl-1679 li saħħaħ il-konvenzjoni li pprojbixxiet id-detenzjoni mingħajr biżżejjed raġunijiet jew evidenza. Wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688, il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet ġiet ippromulgata fl-1689 u din ikkodifikat ċerti drittijiet u libertajiet u għadha fis-seħħ. Il-liġi stabbiliet ir-rekwiżiti li jsiru elezzjonijiet regolari, ir-regoli għal-libertà tal-kelma fil-Parlament u limitat il-poter tal-monarka, u b'hekk żgurat, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-Ewropa ta' dak iż-żmien, li l-assolutiżmu rjali ma jipprevalix. L-istoriċi ekonomiċi [[Douglass North]] u [[Barry Weingast]] ikkaratterizzaw l-istituzzjonijiet implimentati fir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża bħala suċċess kbir f'termini tar-restrizzjonijiet tal-governanza u l-iżgurar tal-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet tal-proprjetà. L-interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta, il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża, u r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża fis-seklu 17 xprunaw it-tkabbir ta' filosofija politika fil-Gżejjer Brittaniċi. [[Thomas Hobbes]] kien l-ewwel filosfu li fassal teorija dettaljata dwar il-kuntratt soċjali. Fil-''Leviathan'' (1651), Hobbes ħareġ bit-teorija li l-individwi li jgħixu fin-natura kienu jgħixu ħajja "solitarja, fqira, kerha, iebsa u qasira" u kienu jagħmlu gwerer kontinwi kontra kulħadd. Sabiex tiġi evitata l-okkorrenza tal-istat anarkiku tan-natura, Hobbes irraġuna li l-individwi kienu jċedu d-drittijiet tagħhom lil qawwa awtoritarja setgħana. Fi kliem ieħor, Hobbes tkellem favur monarkija assoluta, li fl-opinjoni tiegħu kienet l-aqwa forma ta' governanza. Iktar 'il quddiem, il-filosfu u t-[[tabib]] [[John Locke]] ħareġ b'interpretazzjoni differenti dwar it-teorija tal-kuntratt soċjali. Fiż-''Żewġ Trattati tal-Governanza'' (1689) tiegħu, Locke sostna li l-individwi kollha kellhom id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għall-proprjetà. Skont Locke, l-individwi kienu jinġabru volontarjament flimkien biex jiffurmaw stat bl-għan li jiddefendu drittijiethom. Għal Locke kienu partikolarment importanti d-drittijiet tal-proprjetà, li skont Locke kienu jirrikjedu l-ħarsien, li kien l-iskop primarju tal-gvern. Barra minn hekk, Locke sostna li l-gvernijiet kienu leġittimi biss jekk kellhom il-kunsens ta' dawk li kienu ggvernati. Skont Locke, iċ-ċittadini kellhom id-dritt jirribellaw kontra l-gvern jekk dan kien jaġixxi kontra l-interessi tagħhom jew isir tiranniku. Għalkemm ma tantx kienu moqrija matul ħajtu, ix-xogħlijiet ta' Locke jitqiesu bħala d-dokumenti li jsejsu l-ħsieb liberali u influwenzaw ferm il-mexxejja tar-Rivoluzzjoni Amerikana u iktar 'il quddiem ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża]]. Il-qafas demokratiku liberali tiegħu tal-governanza għadu l-forma ewlenija tad-demokrazija fid-dinja. Fir-repubbliki tal-Cossack tal-[[Ukrajna]] fis-sekli 16 u 17, l-Etmanat tal-Cossack u s-Sich ta' Zaporizhia, id-detentur tal-ogħla kariga ta' Hetman kien jiġi elett mir-rappreżentanti tad-distretti tal-pajjiż. Fl-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]], il-governanza rappreżentattiva bdiet f'Jamestown, Virginia, bl-elezzjoni tal-Kamra tal-Burgesses (il-prekursur tal-Assemblea Ġenerali ta' Virginia) fl-1619. Il-Puritani Ingliżi li għamlu migrazzjoni mill-1620 stabbilew kolonji f'New England, fejn kien hemm governanza lokali demokratika; il-poter ta' dawn l-assemblej lokali kien ivarja ferm tul il-perjodu kolonjali. Madankollu, uffiċjalment kellhom ammonti żgħar ta' poter devolut, peress li l-awtorità aħħarija kienet f'idejn il-monarkija u l-Parlament. Il-Puritani, il-Battisti u l-Quakers li stabbilew dawn il-kolonji applikaw l-organizzazzjoni demokratika tal-kongregazzjonijiet tagħhom anke għall-amministrazzjoni tal-komunitajiet tagħhom fil-ħajja ta' kuljum. ==== Sekli 18 u 19 ==== L-ewwel Parlament tal-Gran Brittanja ġie stabbilit fl-1707, wara l-fużjoni tar-Renju tal-Ingilterra u r-Renju tal-[[Skozja|Iskozja]] skont l-Atti tal-Unjoni. Żewġ dokumenti ewlenin tal-kostituzzjoni mhux kodifikata tar-Renju Unit, id-Dikjarazzjoni Ingliża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689 (imsejħa mill-ġdid bħala l-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689) u d-Dikjarazzjoni Skoċċiża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689, it-tnejn li huma kienu kkonsolidaw il-pożizzjoni tal-Parlament bħala l-korp suprem tat-tfassil tal-liġijiet u kienu jgħidu li "l-elezzjoni tal-membri tal-Parlament kellha tkun ħielsa". Madankollu, il-Parlament kien jiġi elett biss mis-sidien tal-art maskili, li kienu jammontaw għal 3 % tal-popolazzjoni fl-1780. L-ewwel persuna Brittanika magħrufa ta' nisel Afrikan li vvota f'elezzjoni ġenerali, [[Ignatius Sancho]], ivvota fl-1774 u fl-1780. Matul l-Era tal-Libertà fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] (1718–1772), id-drittijiet ċivili twessgħu u l-poter għadda mingħand il-monarka għall-Parlament. Ir-raħħala intaxxati kienu rrappreżentati fil-Parlament, għalkemm ma tantx kellhom influwenza, iżda n-nies komuni mingħajr proprjetà intaxxata ma kellhomx suffraġju. Il-ħolqien ta' Repubblika ta' [[Korsika]] ta' għomorha qasir fl-1755 kien tentattiv bikri li tiġi adottata kostituzzjoni demokratika (setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel u n-nisa kollha li kellhom iktar minn 25 sena). Din il-Kostituzzjoni ta' Korsika kienet l-ewwel waħda bbażata fuq il-prinċipji tal-Illuminiżmu u kienet tinkludi s-suffraġju femminili, xi ħaġa li ma kinitx inkluża fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji l-oħra sas-seklu 20. L-Amerka kolonjali kellha kwalifikazzjonijiet simili dwar il-proprjetà bħall-Brittanja, u fil-perjodu qabel l-1776 l-abbundanza u d-disponibbiltà tal-art kienet tfisser li għadd kbir ta' kolonjalisti kienu jissodisfaw tali rekwiżiti b'mill-inqas 60 fil-mija tal-irġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda li setgħu jivvutaw. Il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda kienu [[Bidwi|bdiewa]] li kienu jissodisfaw ir-rekwiżiti tas-sjieda tal-proprjetà jew tal-ħlas tat-taxxa. Bi ftit eċċezzjonijiet, l-ebda mara jew persuna b'karnaġjon sewda ma setgħu jivvutaw. Vermont, li malli ddikjarat l-indipendenza mill-Gran Brittanja fl-1777, adottat kostituzzjoni mmudellata fuq iċ-ċittadinanza u s-suffraġju demokratiku ta' Pennsylvania għall-irġiel bi proprjetà jew mingħajr proprjetà. Il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti tal-1787 hija l-eqdem kostituzzjoni governattiva kkodifikata li għadha teżisti u li għadha attiva. Il-Kostituzzjoni kienet tipprevedi gvern elett u protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet ċivili, iżda ma temmitx il-jasar u lanqas ma estendiet id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni fl-Istati Uniti, u minflok ħalliet il-kwistjoni tas-suffraġju f'idejn l-istati individwali. Ġeneralment, l-istati llimitaw is-suffraġju għas-sidien tal-proprjetà maskili u għal dawk li jħallsu t-taxxi ta' karnaġjon bajda. Meta kien hemm l-ewwel elezzjoni Presidenzjali fl-1789, madwar 6 % tal-popolazzjoni kienet eliġibbli biex tivvota. L-Att dwar in-Naturalizzazzjoni tal-1790 illimita ċ-ċittadinanza Amerikana lill-persuni ta' karnaġjon bajda biss. Il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet fl-1791 stabbiliet limiti fuq il-poter tal-gvern sabiex tħares il-libertajiet personali iżda kellha ftit impatt fuq is-sentenzi tal-qrati għall-ewwel 130 sena wara r-ratifika. Fl-1789, [[Franza]] Rivoluzzjonarja adottat id-Dikjarazzjoni tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem u taċ-Ċittadini, u għalkemm għomorha kien qasir, il-Konvenzjoni Nazzjonali kienet eletta mill-irġiel kollha biss fl-1792. Il-Kostituzzjoni Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]] tat-3 ta' Mejju 1791 ippruvat timplimenta monarkija kostituzzjonali iktar effettiva, introduċiet l-ugwaljanza politika bejn iċ-ċittadini u n-nobbli, u poġġiet ir-raħħala taħt il-protezzjoni tal-gvern, u b'hekk taffiet l-agħar abbużi kontra r-raħħala. Din damet fis-seħħ għal inqas minn 19-il xahar, u ġiet iddikjarata nulla mis-Sejm ta' Grodno li ltaqa' fl-1793. Minkejja dan, il-Kostituzzjoni tal-1791 għenet biex l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Pollakki jibqgħu ħajjin għar-restawr eventwali tas-sovranità tal-pajjiż iktar minn seklu wara. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1828 kienet l-ewwel waħda li fiha setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda li ma kinux sidien tal-proprjetà fil-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-istati. L-ammont ta' nies li ħarġu jivvutaw żdied matul is-snin 30 tas-seklu 19, u laħaq madwar 80 % tal-popolazzjoni ta' rġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda fl-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1840. North Carolina kien l-aħħar stat li abolixxa l-kwalifazzjoni abbażi tal-proprjetà fl-1856 u dan wassal għal approssimazzjoni tas-suffraġju universali tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda (madankollu r-rekwiżiti tal-ħlas tat-taxxa baqgħu jeżistu f'ħames stati fl-1860 u baqgħu jeżistu f'żewġ stati sas-seklu 20). Fiċ-ċensiment tal-Istati Uniti tal-1860, il-popolazzjoni tal-iskjavi kienet kibret għal 4 miljuni, u fir-Rikostruzzjoni wara l-Gwerra Ċivili, għaddew tliet emendi kostituzzjonali: it-13-il Emenda (1865) li temmet l-iskjavitù; l-14-il Emenda (1869) li tat iċ-ċittadinanza lin-nies ta' karnaġjon sewda, u l-15-il Emenda (1870) lil tat lill-irġiel ta' karnaġjon sewda d-dritt nominali biex jivvutaw. L-involviment sħiħ taċ-ċittadini kollha ma ġiex żgurat sa wara li l-moviment tad-drittijiet ċivili kiseb l-approvazzjoni mill-Kungress tal-Istati Uniti fir-rigward tal-Att dwar id-Drittijiet tal-Votazzjoni tal-1965. Id-dritt tal-votazzjoni fir-Renju Unit twessa' u sar iktar uniformi permezz ta' sensiela ta' riformi li bdew bl-Att dwar ir-Riformi tal-1832 u komplew fis-seklu 20, b'mod partikolari bl-Att dwar ir-Rappreżentanza tan-Nies tal-1918 u l-Att dwar l-Ugwaljanza tal-1928. Is-suffraġju maskili universali ġie stabbilit fi Franza f'Marzu 1848 fid-dawl tar-Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża tal-1848. Matul dik is-sena, faqqgħu diversi rivoluzzjonijiet fl-Ewropa peress li l-mexxejja kellhom ilaħħqu mad-domandi popolari għall-kostituzzjonijiet liberali u għal iktar governanza demokratika. In 1876, the Ottoman Empire transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, and held two elections the next year to elect members to her newly formed parliament. Provisional Electoral Regulations were issued, stating that the elected members of the Provincial Administrative Councils would elect members to the first Parliament. Later that year, a new constitution was promulgated, which provided for a bicameral Parliament with a Senate appointed by the Sultan and a popularly elected Chamber of Deputies. Only men above the age of 30 who were competent in Turkish and had full civil rights were allowed to stand for election. Reasons for disqualification included holding dual citizenship, being employed by a foreign government, being bankrupt, employed as a servant, or having "notoriety for ill deeds". Full universal suffrage was achieved in 1934. In 1893, the self-governing colony New Zealand became the first country in the world (except for the short-lived 18th-century Corsican Republic) to establish active universal suffrage by recognizing women as having the right to vote. ==== Sekli 20 u 21 ==== 20th-century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive "waves of democracy", variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonisation, and religious and economic circumstances. Global waves of "democratic regression" reversing democratization, have also occurred in the 1920s and 30s, in the 1960s and 1970s, and in the 2010s. World War I and the dissolution of the autocratic Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states in Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democratic movements flourished and women's suffrage advanced, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as non-democratic governments in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in Western Europe. The democratisation of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the later theory of government change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet-dominated bloc. The war was followed by decolonisation, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so. Countries that were once part of the British Empire often adopted the British Westminster system. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights mandated democracy:<blockquote>3. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.</blockquote>— Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 21, United Nations, 1948 By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nominal democracies that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in "Communist" states and the former colonies). A subsequent wave of democratisation brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many states, dubbed "third wave of democracy". Portugal, Spain, and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the 1970s and 1980s. This was followed by countries in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratisation and liberalisation of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now either part of the European Union or candidate states. In 1986, after the toppling of the most prominent Asian dictatorship, the only democratic state of its kind at the time emerged in the Philippines with the rise of Corazon Aquino, who would later be known as the mother of Asian democracy. The liberal trend spread to some states in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalisation include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia. According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). According to ''World Forum on Democracy'', electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58.2 per cent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i.e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 per cent of the global population. Also in 2007 the United Nations declared 15 September the International Day of Democracy. Many countries reduced their voting age to 18 years; the major democracies began to do so in the 1970s starting in Western Europe and North America.^{[''failed verification'']} Most electoral democracies continue to exclude those younger than 18 from voting. The voting age has been lowered to 16 for national elections in a number of countries, including Brazil, Austria, Cuba, and Nicaragua. In California, a 2004 proposal to permit a quarter vote at 14 and a half vote at 16 was ultimately defeated. In 2008, the German parliament proposed but shelved a bill that would grant the vote to each citizen at birth, to be used by a parent until the child claims it for themselves. According to Freedom House, starting in 2005, there have been 17 consecutive years in which declines in political rights and civil liberties throughout the world have outnumbered improvements, as populist and nationalist political forces have gained ground everywhere from Poland (under the Law and Justice party) to the Philippines (under Rodrigo Duterte). In a Freedom House report released in 2018, Democracy Scores for most countries declined for the 12th consecutive year. ''The Christian Science Monitor'' reported that nationalist and populist political ideologies were gaining ground, at the expense of rule of law, in countries like Poland, Turkey and Hungary. For example, in Poland, the President appointed 27 new Supreme Court judges over legal objections from the European Commission. In Turkey, thousands of judges were removed from their positions following a failed coup attempt during a government crackdown . "Democratic backsliding" in the 2010s were attributed to economic inequality and social discontent, personalism, poor government's management of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as other factors such as manipulation of civil society, "toxic polarization", foreign disinformation campaigns, racism and nativism, excessive executive power, and decreased power of the opposition. Within English-speaking Western democracies, "protection-based" attitudes combining cultural conservatism and leftist economic attitudes were the strongest predictor of support for authoritarian modes of governance. == Teorija == === Teorija bikrija === Aristotle's '''democratic theory''' contrasted rule by the many (democracy/timocracy), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy/elitism), and with rule by a single person (tyranny/autocracy/absolute monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to timocracy). A common view among early and renaissance Republican theorists was that democracy could only survive in small political communities. Heeding the lessons of the Roman Republic's shift to monarchism as it grew larger or smaller, these Republican theorists held that the expansion of territory and population inevitably led to tyranny. Democracy was therefore highly fragile and rare historically, as it could only survive in small political units, which due to their size were vulnerable to conquest by larger political units. Montesquieu famously said, "if a republic is small, it is destroyed by an outside force; if it is large, it is destroyed by an internal vice." Jean-Jacques Rousseau asserted, "It is, therefore the natural property of small states to be governed as a republic, of middling ones to be subject to a monarch, and of large empires to be swayed by a despotic prince." === Teorija kontemporanja === Fost it-teoriji politiċi moderni, jeżistu kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. ==== Aggregazzjoni ==== The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit citizens' preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. According to the minimalist democracy conception, elections are a mechanism for competition between politicians. Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view famously in his book ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''. Anthony Downs argues that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individuals and governments. On the other hand, direct democracy, where citizens vote directly on legislative proposals, can show better aggregation in cases of differences in preferences between elites and voters. ===== Mandat medjan ===== According to the median voter theorem the political representativeness can be evaluated by comparing how close laws and policies are to the views of the median voter along the political spectrum. The ''median mandate'' views the preferences of the median voter as granting political legitimacy. ==== Poliarkija ==== Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration. He uses the term polyarchy ("rule by many") to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that "democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal." ==== Deliberazzjoni ==== Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. Citizens assemblies are considered by many scholars as practical examples of deliberative democracy, with a recent OECD report identifying citizens assemblies as an increasingly popular mechanism to involve citizens in governmental decision-making. Proponents of direct democracy view citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. ==== Tipi ta' demokraziji governattivi ==== Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not structured to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. ===== Forom bażiċi ===== Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy is direct democracy, in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly. In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a representative democracy. If the head of state is democratically elected then the polity is called a democratic republic ====== Demokrazija diretta ====== Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. Proponents like Jean-Jacques Rousseau argue the direct approach increases legitimacy. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: * Change constitutional laws, * Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws Within modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens' initiatives and recall elections are referred to as forms of direct democracy. However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion. Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus, the Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities, communities affiliated with the CIPO-RFM, the Bolivian city councils of FEJUVE, and Kurdish cantons of Rojava. ====== Demokrazija semidiretta ====== Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed ''semi-direct democracies'' or ''participatory democracies''. Examples include Switzerland and some U.S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. The Swiss confederation is a semi-direct democracy. At the federal level, citizens can propose changes to the constitution (federal popular initiative) or ask for a referendum to be held on any law voted by the parliament. Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, to answer 103 questions (during the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums). Although in the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum. Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. In New England, town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a representative state government. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters. ====== Sistema tax-xorti ====== The use of a lot system, a characteristic of Athenian democracy, is a feature of some versions of direct democracies. In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens picked from a lottery. ====== Demokrazija rappreżentattiva ====== Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so. Such reasons have driven criticism upon representative democracy, pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy. ====== Demokrazija Parlamentari ====== Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. In a parliamentary system, the prime minister may be dismissed by the legislature at any point in time for not meeting the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a vote of no confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the prime minister from office with majority support for dismissal. In some countries, the prime minister can also call an election at any point in time, typically when the prime minister believes that they are in good favour with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies, extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. An important feature of the parliamentary democracy is the concept of the "loyal opposition". The essence of the concept is that the second largest political party (or opposition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while still remaining loyal to the state and its democratic principles. ====== Demokrazija Presidenzjali ====== Presidential democracy is a system where the public elects the president through an election. The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. The legislature often has limited ability to remove a president from office. Elections typically have a fixed date and are not easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing the cabinet members. The executive usually has the responsibility to execute or implement legislation and may have the limited legislative powers, such as a veto. However, a legislative branch passes legislation and budgets. This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence, however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia. A semi-presidential system is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. ==== Tipoloġija ==== ===== Monarkija kostituzzjonali ===== Many countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs (often gradually) with limited or symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689. Strongly limited constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, have been referred to as crowned republics by writers such as H. G. Wells. In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, and Egypt). An elected person, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries. Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many states. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British House of Lords) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the Australian Senate). ===== Demokrazija repubblika ===== The term ''republic'' has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. The Founding Fathers of the United States often criticised direct democracy; James Madison argued, especially in ''The Federalist'' No. 10, that what distinguished a direct ''democracy'' from a ''republic'' was that the former depended on small size and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure. Accordingly, during Philadelphia convention Madison called election of representatives by large territories "the only defence against the inconveniencies of democracy consistent with the democratic form of Govt." Professors Richard Ellis of Willamette University and Michael Nelson of Rhodes College argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on "the problem of majority tyranny". They conclude, "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities." What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the US Constitution, Elizabeth Willing Powel asked him "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic—if you can keep it." ===== Demokrazija liberali ===== A liberal democracy is a representative democracy which enshrines a liberal political philosophy, where the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, moderated by a constitution or laws such as the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and constrained on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities. ===== Demokrazija Soċjalista ===== Socialist thought has several different views on democracy, for example social democracy or democratic socialism. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory, industrial, economic and/or workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. ===== Demokrazija Marxista ===== Marxist theory supports a democratic society centering the working class. Some Marxists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy or workers' councils (which are sometimes called soviets). This system can begin with workplace democracy and can manifest itself as soviet democracy or dictatorship of the proletariat. Trotskyist groups have interpreted socialist democracy to be synonymous with multi-party far-left representation, autonomous union organizations, worker's control of production, internal party democracy and the mass participation of the working masses. Some communist parties support a soviet republic with democratic centralism. Within democracy in Marxism there can be hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy". ===== Demokrazija Anarkista ===== Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticised individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism. Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. ===== Demokrazija każwali ===== Sortition is the process of choosing decision-making bodies via a random selection. These bodies can be more representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large than an elected legislature or other decision-maker. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence and is still used in modern jury selection and citizens' assemblies. ===== Demokrazija Kostituzzjonali ===== Consociational democracy, also called consociationalism, is a form of democracy based on power-sharing formula between elites representing the social groups within the society. In 1969, Arendt Lijphart argued this would stabilize democracies with factions. A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them. The Qualified majority voting rule in European Council of Ministers is a consociational democracy approach for supranational democracies. This system in Treaty of Rome allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. A consociational democracy requires consensus of representatives, while consensus democracy requires consensus of electorate. ===== Demokrazija maġġoritarja ===== Majoritarian democracy is a form of democracy based upon a principle of majority rule. Majoritarian democracy contrasts with consensus democracy, rule by as many people as possible. ===== Konsensus ===== Consensus democracy requires consensus decision-making and supermajority to obtain a larger support than majority. In contrast, in majoritarian democracy minority opinions can potentially be ignored by vote-winning majorities. Constitutions typically require consensus or supermajorities. ===== Demokrazija etnika ===== The term ethnic democracy, as used by some political scientists, purports to describe a governance system that combines a structured ethnic dominance with democratic, political and civil rights for all. Both the dominant ethnic group—typically an ethnic majority—and the minority ethnic groups have citizenship and are able to fully participate in the political process. However, critics of the "ethnic democracy" model argue it is a contradiction in terms, and thus conceptually inadequate or confusing; these critics allege that purported ethnic democracies, most notably Israel, are not democratic at all, or are at best a sort of semi-democracy. ===== Demokrazija inklużiva ===== Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal ''Democracy & Nature'' and its successor ''The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy''. ===== Politika parteċipattiva ===== A parpolity or participatory polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a nested council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision-making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council. A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy. ===== Demokrazija proċedurali ===== Procedural democracy or proceduralist democracy, proceduralism or hollow democracy is a term used to denote the particular procedures, such as regular elections based on universal suffrage, that produce an electorally-legitimated government. Procedural democracy, with its centering of electoral processes as the basis of democratic legitimacy, is often contrasted with substantive or participatory democracy, which centers the equal participation of all groups in society in the political process as the basis of legitimacy. ===== Demokrazija radikali ===== Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Radical democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes. ===== Demokrazija reliġjuża ===== Religious democracy is a form of democracy where the values of a particular religion or state religion are preferred. The term applies to all democratic countries in which religion is incorporated into the form of government. ===== Demokrazija kożmopolitana ===== Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as ''global democracy'' or ''world federalism'', is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them. According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing international organisations, e.g., the United Nations, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a World Parliament, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics. Cosmopolitan democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi. The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy. ===== Demokrazija kreattiva ===== Creative democracy is advocated by American philosopher John Dewey. The main idea about creative democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us" and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral ideal requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute". ===== Demokrazija ggwidata ===== Guided democracy is a form of democracy that incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner that may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "guided democracy". Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government. === Tfittxija ta' fehim komuni === The search for a common approach to conceptualize, measure and compare democracy remains a challenge in modern political science. This challenge strikes through to measuring, assessing and comparing the quality of democracy, as Seva Gunitsky pointed in 2015 in the Washington Post, based upon his research for ''Ranking the World – Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance'', that measuring democracy can mislead as much as clarify – a problem for academics, policy-makers and anyone who cares about democracy. In his contribution ''Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics'' to ''Ranking the World'', he, on the example of former Soviet republics, examines fundamental problems with measures of democracy, observing that indices often disagree and occasionally draw contradictory conclusions from observing the same event. He argues, that this reflects inherent tradeoffs in conceptualizing democratic governance, which arise from fundamental normative disagreements about a highly contested concept. In 2011, Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al. proposed an approach to such conceptualization and measurement. In their paper ''Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: A New Approach'' they review some of the weaknesses among contemporary and older approaches, then lay out their approach, characterizing it as ''historical'', ''multidimensional'', ''disaggregated'', and ''transparent''. The authors propose to create a new set of four features to conceptualize and measure democracy. First, ''historical'', extending indicators of democracy back through modern history, wherever possible. Second, a ''multidimensional'' approach to the problem of conceptualizing democracy. Third, to collect information relevant to democracy at a highly ''disaggregated'' level. Fourth, ''transparent'', a strategy for data collection and presentation that should enhance the precision, validity, transparency, and legitimacy of the resulting indicators. They also sum up the conceptions, and/or aspects, of democracy into six – ''electoral'', ''liberal'', ''majoritarian'', ''participatory'', ''deliberative'', and ''egalitarian'', which taken together offer a fairly comprehensive accounting of the concept of democracy as it is employed today (see overview in the table below). {| class="wikitable" | colspan="5" | ---- |- | colspan="5" |Conceptions of democracy by Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al., 2011 |- valign="top" | | |Principles |Question |Institutions |- | colspan="5" | ---- |- valign="top" |I. |'''Electoral''' |Contestation, competition |Are government offices filled by free and fair multiparty elections? |Elections, political parties, competitiveness and turnover |- valign="top" |II. |'''Liberal''' |Limited government, multiple veto points, horizontal accountability, individual rights, civil liberties, transparency |Is political power decentralized & constrained? |Multiple, independent, and decentralized, with special focus on the role of the media, interest groups, the judiciary, and a written constitution with explicit guarantees |- valign="top" |III. |'''Majoritarian''' |Majority rule, centralization, vertical accountability |Does the majority (or plurality) rule? |Consolidated and centralized, with special focus on the role of political parties |- valign="top" |IV. |'''Participatory''' |Government by the people |Do ordinary citizens participate in politics? |Election law, civil society, local government, direct democracy |- valign="top" |V. |'''Deliberative''' |Government by reason |Are political decisions the product of public deliberation? |Media, hearings, panels, other deliberative bodies |- valign="top" |VI. |'''Egalitarian''' |Political equality |Are all citizens equally empowered? |Designed to ensure equal participation, representation, protection, and politically relevant resources |- | colspan="5" | ---- |} === Measurement of democracy === Main article: Measurement of democracy Measurement of democracy varies according to the different fundamental conceptions of democracy. Minimalist democracy evaluations focus on free and fair elections, while maximalist democracy evaluates additional values, such as human rights, deliberation, economic outcomes or state capacity. == Demokrazija mhux governattiva == Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy. Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed Islamic democracy or ''Islamocracy''. There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff. === Demokrazija tal-azzjonisti === Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders. In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle. Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives. The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights. == Ġustifikazzjoni == Ingħataw diversi ġustifikazzjonijiet għad-demokrazija. === Leġittimità === Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. The public legitimacy of democracy varies by country, in some countries religious texts have more public support than the will of the people. === Teħid ta' deċiżjonijiet aħjar === Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution. === Suċċess ekonomiku === In ''Why Nations Fail'', economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. Unemployment is associated with anti-democratic beliefs. == Kritika == Democracy as a concept and as a practical form of government has been the subject of critique throughout history. Some critics consider that democratic regimes often fail to be true to the highest principles expected of them, while others reject the values promoted by constitutional democracy in whole or part. Opposition to democracy goes as far back as Plato, who argued for a 'government of the best qualified'. More recently, James Madison extensively studied historic attempts at and arguments on democracy in his preparation for the Constitutional Convention, and Winston Churchill remarked that "no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." Critics argue that modern democracies may fail to be sufficiently democratic and instead function in practice as oligarchies, insofar as governments are more responsive to the preferences of economic elites than to those of ordinary citizens. Numerous empirical studies across various western democracies including the United States, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Norway and Germany have consistently found that elected representatives tend to respond more to the preferences of very affluent citizens for policy outcomes than those of the average voter. Some critics of democracy have highlighted the concept's inconsistencies, paradoxes, and limits: drawing contrasts with other forms of government, such as epistocracy or lottocracy. Others have characterized most modern democracies as democratic polyarchies and democratic aristocracies. Yet others have identified fascist moments in modern democracies. They have termed the societies produced by modern democracies as neo-feudal and have contrasted democracy with fascism, anarcho-capitalism, theocracy, and absolute monarchy. == Tranżizzjonijiet demokratiċi == A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). === Demokratizzazzjoni === Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. The opposite process of democratic transition is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization. Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments could not do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns. Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:^{[''need quotation to verify'']} * a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) * an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence. Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07). A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26). Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750 to 1850 despite arguments to the contrary. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:<blockquote>The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.</blockquote>Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratization in 18 countries: Benin, Bolivia, Botswana, Bazil, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Guatemala, Lesotho, Mauritius, Montenegro, Poland, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste, Thailand, The Gambia, and Zambia. ===== Promozzjoni tad-demokrazija ===== Promotion of democracy can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing electoral integrity, youth suffrage and civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality, reducing presidentialism and aligning with median voter preferences. === Awtokratizzazzjoni === Democratic backsliding is a form of autocratization, a process of structural government transition toward authoritarianism in which the exercise of political power becomes less limited and more arbitrary and repressive. Democratic backsliding specifically assumes a starting point of a democratic system. The process typically restricts the space for public contest and political participation in the process of government selection. Democratic backsliding involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.^{[''citation needed'']} Steven Levitsky says: "It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That's asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters." The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratic backsliding in 44 countries: Afghanistan, Argentina, Armenia, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, El Salvador, Haiti, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Ivory Coast, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Libya, Mali, Madagascar, Mauretania, Mexico, Moldova, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Senegal, Serbia, Romania, Togo, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States. ===== Tfixkil ===== Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: * Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. * Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: ** Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état ** An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. * Royal coup, in which a monarch not normally involved in government seizes all power. For example, the 6 January Dictatorship, begun in 1929 when King Alexander I of Yugoslavia dismissed parliament and started ruling by decree. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. == Influwenza tal-midja == The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: * Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment * Meaningful agenda setting * Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy * Dialogue across a diverse range of views * Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power * Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved * A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience * A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. The ability to find effective political solutions to social problems is hampered when problems tend to be blamed on individuals rather than on structural causes. This person-centered focus may have far-reaching consequences not only for domestic problems but also for foreign policy when international conflicts are blamed on foreign heads of state rather than on political and economic structures. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. The responsiveness and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. In fact, studies show that false stories are going more viral than true stories. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. Reliable information sources are essential for the democratic process. Less democratic governments rely heavily on censorship, propaganda, and misinformation in order to stay in power, while independent sources of information are able to undermine their legitimacy. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Greċja antika]] 4x3e31imii1xe2aii8az5cpb047esxu 330264 330263 2026-05-27T16:22:56Z Trigcly 17859 /* Sekli 18 u 19 */ 330264 wikitext text/x-wiki Id-'''demokrazija''' hija forma ta' governanza li permezz tagħha l-poter [[Politika|politiku]] jinkiseb min-nies jew mill-popolazzjoni ta' stat. Skont definizzjoni minimalista tad-demokrazija, il-mexxejja jiġu eletti permezz ta' elezzjonijiet kompetittivi filwaqt li d-definizzjonijiet iktar wesgħin jew massimalisti jorbtu d-demokrazija mal-garanziji tal-libertajiet ċivili u d-drittijiet tal-[[bniedem]] apparti l-elezzjonijiet kompetittivi. F'demokrazija diretta, il-poplu jkollu l-awtorità diretta li jagħmel deliberazzjonijiet u li jiddeċiedi dwar il-leġiżlazzjoni. F'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, il-poplu jagħżel l-uffiċjali tal-governanza permezz ta' elezzjonijiet. Id-definizzjoni ta' "poplu" u l-modi kif l-awtorità tiġi kondiviża fi ħdan il-poplu jew iddelegata minnu nbidlu mal-milja taż-żminijiet u b'rati li jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor. Il-karatteristiċi tad-demokrazija spiss jinkludu l-libertà tal-ġemgħa, il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni, il-proprjetà personali, il-libertà tar-[[reliġjon]] u tal-[[kelma]], iċ-ċittadinanza, il-kunsens ta' dawk li jiġu ggvernati, id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni, il-libertà miċ-ċaħda governattiva mhux ġustifikata tad-dritt tal-ħajja u tal-libertà, u d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. In-nozzjoni tad-demokrazija evolviet b'mod konsiderevoli maż-żmien. Matul l-[[Storja|istorja]], wieħed jista' jsib evidenza ta' demokrazija diretta, fejn il-komunitajiet kienu jieħdu deċiżjonijiet permezz ta' ġemgħat popolari. Illum il-ġurnata, il-forma dominanti tad-demokrazija hija d-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, fejn iċ-ċittadini jeleġġu lill-uffiċjali tal-gvern biex jiggvernaw f'isimhom, pereżempju f'demokrazija parlamentari jew presidenzjali. Fil-varjant komuni tad-demokrazija liberali, is-setgħat tal-maġġoranza jiġu eżerċitati fi ħdan il-qafas ta' demokrazija rappreżentattiva, iżda l-kostituzzjoni u l-qorti suprema jillimitaw lill-maġġoranza u jipproteġu lill-minoranzi — normalment billi jiġi żgurat li kulħadd igawdi minn ċerti drittijiet individwali, bħal-libertà tal-kelma jew il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni. It-terminu tfaċċa fis-seklu 5 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]. fil-bliet-stati [[Greċja antika|Griegi]], b'mod partikolari f'[[Ateni]] Klassika, u kien ifisser "it-tmexxija tal-poplu", b'kuntrast mal-aristokrazija (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: ἀριστοκρατία, ''aristokratía''), li tfisser "it-tmexxija tal-elit". Prattikament fil-gvernijiet demokratiċi kollha tul l-istorja tal-qedem u moderna, iċ-ċittadinanza demokratika inizjalment kienet ristretta għal klassi tal-elit, li iktar 'il quddiem ġiet estiża għaċ-ċittadini adulti kollha. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, dan inkiseb permezz tal-movimenti tas-suffraġju tas-sekli 19 u 20. Id-demokrazija tikkuntrasta mal-forom ta' governanza fejn il-poter ma jinbitx mill-popolazzjoni ġenerali ta' stat, pereżempju s-sistemi awtoritarji. Storikament is-sistemi demokratiċi kienu forma rari u vulnerabbli ta' governanza, iżda dawn saru iktar prevalenti mis-seklu 19 'l hawn, b'mod partikolari permezz ta' diversi mewġiet ta' demokratizzazzjoni. Id-demokrazija għandha leġittimità konsiderevoli fid-dinja moderna, peress li l-opinjoni pubblika fir-reġjuni dinjin normalment huma favur is-sistemi demokratiċi ta' governanza meta mqabbla mal-alternattivi, u peress li saħansitra l-istati awtoritarji jippruvaw ipinġu lilhom infushom bħala demokratiċi. Id-demokrazija b'mod iktar konsistenti tirriżulta f'saħħa, f'[[edukazzjoni]] u f'eżiti ekonomiċi mtejba. Skont l-indiċijiet ta' ''V-Dem Democracy'' u l-Indiċi tad-Demokrazija ta' ''The Economist'', inqas minn nofs il-popolazzjoni tad-dinja tgħix f'demokrazija mill-2022. Fl-istess ħin, filwaqt li d-demokrazija rappreżentattivi tingħata valur siewi b'mod mifrux, iċ-Ċentru tar-Riċerka ta' Pew sab li l-garr rigward il-prestazzjoni demokratika huwa komuni saħansitra f'bosta demokraziji stabbiliti. == Karatteristiċi == Għalkemm id-demokrazija fid-demokraziji purament rappreżentattivi hija mifhuma b'rabta mal-votazzjoni, ma jeżisti l-ebda konsensus dwar definizzjoni preċiża tad-demokrazija. Jeżistu wisq approċċi. Kien hemm studju li identifika 2,234 aġġettiv li jintuża għad-deskrizzjoni tad-demokrazija bil-[[lingwa Ingliża]]. Minkejja dan, hemm fehim iktar profond – bħal dak ta' [[Abraham Lincoln]]: : ''"Governanza tan-nies, min-nies, għan-nies"'' jew dik ta' [[Karl Popper]] li ssostni li l-ħarsa "klassika" lejn id-demokrazija hi, "fil-qosor, it-teorija li d-demokrazija hija t-tmexxija tal-poplu u li l-poplu għandu d-dritt li jiggverna hu. Il-prinċipji demokratiċi huma riflessi fiċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha, ilkoll indaqs quddiem il-[[Dritt|liġi]] u lkoll b'aċċess ugwali għall-proċessi leġiżlattivi. Pereżempju, f'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, kull vot (fit-teorija) għandu l-istess piż, u l-libertà taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli hija żgurata permezz ta' drittijiet u libertajiet leġittimizzati li tipikament ikunu mnaqqxa f'kostituzzjoni, filwaqt li użi oħra tad-"demokrazija" jaf jħaddnu d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament fuq id-diversi kwistjonijiet li jinqalgħu. Skont in-[[Ġnus Magħquda|Nazzjonijiet Uniti]], id-demokrazija "tipprovdi ambjent li jirrispetta d-drittijiet tal-bniedem u l-libertajiet fundamentali, u fejn ir-rieda espressa liberament tal-poplu tiġi eżerċitata". Skont teorija partikolari d-demokrazija tirrikjedi tliet prinċipji fundamentali: il-kontroll 'il fuq (sovranità fl-iżjed livelli baxxi tal-awtorità), l-ugwaljanza politika, u n-normi soċjali li permezz tagħhom l-individwi u l-istituzzjonijiet iqisu biss atti aċċettabbli li jirriflettu l-ewwel żewġ prinċipji tal-kontroll 'il fuq u l-ugwaljanza politika. L-ugwaljanza legali, il-libertà politika u l-istat ta' dritt sikwit jiġu identifikati bħala l-karatteristiċi ewlenin ta' demokrazija li tiffunzjona sew. F'xi pajjiżi, b'mod partikolari fir-[[Renju Unit]] (minn fejn oriġinat is-sistema ta' Westminster), il-prinċipju dominanti hu dak tas-sovranità Parlamentari, filwaqt li tinżamm l-indipendenza ġudizzjarja. Fl-[[Indja]], is-sovranità Parlamentari hija soġġetta għall-Kostituzzjoni tal-Indja li tinkludi rieżami ġudizzjarju. Għalkemm it-terminu "demokrazija" tipikament jintuża fil-kuntest ta' stat politiku, il-prinċipji wkoll huma applikabbli potenzjalment għall-organizzazzjonijiet privati, bħal klabbs, għaqdiet u ditti. Id-demokraziji jistgħu jużaw bosta metodi differenti ta' teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet, iżda t-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hija l-forma dominanti. Mingħajr kumpens, bħal protezzjonijiet legali tad-drittijiet individwali jew kollettivi, il-minoranzi politiċi jistgħu jiġu mgħakksa mit-"tirannija tal-maġġoranza". It-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza tinvolvi approċċ kompetittiv, għad-differenza tad-demokrazija tal-konsensus, u b'hekk tinħoloq il-ħtieġa li l-elezzjonijiet, u ġeneralment id-deliberazzjoni, ikunu sostantivament u proċeduralment "ġusti" u ekwi. Fżxi pajjiżi, il-libertà tal-espressjoni politika, il-libertà tal-kelma u l-libertà tal-istampa jitqiesu bħala importanti biex jiġi żgurat li l-votanti jkunu infurmati sew, u b'hekk ikunu jistgħu jivvutaw skont l-interessi u t-twemmin tagħhom stess. Ġie ssuġġerit ukoll li karatteristika bażika tad-demokrazija hija l-kapaċità li l-votanti kollha jipparteċipaw b'mod ħieles u sħiħ fil-[[ħajja]] tas-soċjetà tagħhom. Bl-enfasi fuq in-nozzjonijiet tal-kuntratt soċjali u r-rieda kollettiva tal-votanti kollha, id-demokrazija tista' tkun ikkaratterizzata wkoll bħala forma ta' kollettiviżmu politiku peress li tiġi definita bħala forma ta' governanza fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom vuċi ugwali fit-tfassil tal-liġijiet. Ir-repubbliki, għalkemm spiss ikunu assoċjati popolarment mad-demokrazija minħabba l-prinċipju kondiviż tal-kunsens mogħti minn dawk li jiġu ggvernati għat-tmexxija, mhux neċessarjament ikunu demokraziji, għax ir-repubblikaniżmu ma jispeċifikax ''kif'' in-nies għandhom imexxu. Tradizzjonalment it-terminu "repubblika" kien iħaddan kemm id-demokraziji kif ukoll l-aristokraziji u l-varjanti tagħhom. F'sens modern, il-forma ta' governanza repubblikana hija forma ta' governanza mingħajr monarka. Minħabba f'hekk, id-demokraziji jistgħu jkunu repubbliki jew monarkiji kostituzzjonali, bħar-Renju Unit, fejn il-monarka ma jkunx il-mexxej. == Storja == Il-ġemgħat demokratiċi għandhom żmien daqs kemm għandha żmien l-ispeċi umana u ilhom jeżistu tul l-istorja umana, iżda sas-seklu 19, il-figuri [[Politiku|politiċi]] ewlenin fil-biċċa l-kbira opponew id-demokrazija. It-teoriċi repubblikani rabtu d-demokrazija ma' daqs ċkejken: iktar ma kienu jikbru fid-daqs l-unitajiet politiċi, iktar kienet tiżdied il-probabbiltà li l-gvern isir tiranniku. Fl-istess waqt, l-unitajiet politiċi żgħar kienu vulnerabbli għall-ħakma. Montesquieu kiteb, "Jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered mill-imperfezzjoni interna". Skont ix-xjenzat politiku tal-Università ta' Johns Hopkins [[Daniel Deudney]], il-ħolqien tal-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]], bid-daqs kbir u s-sistema ta' kontrolli u bilanċi tagħha, kienet soluzzjoni għall-problemi doppji tad-daqs. Fis-soċjetajiet ta' madwar id-dinja seħħew forom ta' demokrazija b'mod organiku li ma kellhom l-ebda kuntatt ma' xulxin. === Oriġini === ==== [[Greċja]] u [[Ruma]] ==== It-terminu ''demokrazija'' tfaċċa għall-ewwel darba fil-ħsieb politiku u [[Filosofija|filosofiku]] tal-Greċja Antika fil-belt-stat ta' Ateni fl-antikità klassika. Il-kelma ġejja minn ''dêmos'' li tfisser "nies (komuni)" u minn ''krátos'' li tfisser "qawwa/setgħa". Taħt Cleisthenes, f'Ateni ġie stabbilit dak li huwa maħsub bħala l-ewwel eżempju ta' tip ta' demokrazija fis-seklu 6 Q.K. (508–507 Q.K.). Cleisthenes huwa meqjus bħala "l-missier tad-demokrazija ta' Ateni". L-ewwel użu attestat tal-kelma demokrazija jinsab fix-xogħlijiet ta' proża tal-ħabta tal-430 Q.K., bħall-''Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, iżda l-użu tagħha kien eqdem b'diversi deċennji, peress li żewġ persuni minn Ateni li twieldu għall-ħabta tal-470 Q.K. kien jisimhom Democrates, isem politiku ġdid — x'aktarx b'appoġġ għad-demokrazija — li ngħata fi żmien ta' dibattiti dwar kwistjonijiet kostituzzjonali f'Ateni. Aeschylus jalludi bis-saħħa wkoll għall-kelma fid-dramm tiegħu ''Is-Supplikanti'', li ttella' għall-ħabta tal-463 Q.K., fejn isemmi "l-id tat-tmexxija tal-kotra" [''demou kratousa cheir'']. Qabel dak iż-żmien, il-kelma li kienet tiddefinixxi s-sistema politika ġdida ta' Cleisthenes x'aktarx li kienet ''isonomija'', li tfisser ugwaljanza politika. Id-demokrazija ta' Ateni ħadet is-sura ta' demokrazija diretta, u kellha żewġ karatteristiċi li jiddistingwuha: l-għażla aleatorja ta' ċittadini ordinarji biex jimlew il-ftit karigi amministrattivi u ġudizzjarji eżistenti tal-gvern, u ġemgħa leġiżlattiva li kienet tikkonsisti mill-maġġoranza taċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha kienu jitħallew jitkellmu u jivvutaw fil-ġemgħa jew fl-assemblea, fejn kienu jiġu stabbiliti l-liġijiet tal-belt-stat. Madankollu, iċ-ċittadinanza ta' Ateni ma kinitx tingħata lin-[[Mara|nisa]], lill-[[Skjavitù|ilsiera]], lill-barranin (μέτοικοι / ''métoikoi''), u liż-żgħażagħ taħt l-età tas-servizz militari. Effettivament, resident wieħed minn kull erba' f'Ateni kienu jikkwalifikaw bħala ċittadini. Is-sjieda tal-art ma kinitx rekwiżit għaċ-ċittadinanza. L-esklużjoni ta' partijiet kbar tal-popolazzjoni mill-korp taċ-ċittadini hija marbuta mill-qrib mal-fehim tal-qedem taċ-ċittadinanza. Fil-biċċa l-kbira ta' żmien il-qedem, il-benefiċċju taċ-ċittadinanza kien marbut mal-obbligu tal-ġlied fil-kampanji militari. Id-demokrazija ta' Aterni mhux biss kienet ''diretta'' fis-sens li d-deċiżjonijiet kienu jittieħdu mill-ġemgħa, iżda anke l-''iżjed diretta'' fis-sens li l-ġemgħa permezz tal-istrutturi bħall-assemblea, is-senat u l-qrati legali kienet tikkontrolla l-proċess politiku kollu u proporzjon kbir taċ-ċittadini kienu jkunu involuti b'mod kostanti fl-affarijiet pubbliċi. Minkejja li d-drittijiet tal-individwu ma kinux żgurati mill-kostituzzjoni ta' Ateni fis-sens modern (il-Griegi tal-qedem ma kellhomx kelma għal "drittijiet"), dawk li kienu ċittadini ta' Ateni kienu jgawdu l-libertajiet tagħhom mhux f'oppożizzjoni għall-gvern iżda billi jgħixu f'belt li ma kinitx soġġetta għal xi setgħa oħra u billi huma stess ma kinux soġġetti għat-tmexxija ta' ħaddieħor. Il-votazzjoni tfaċċat fi [[Sparta]] saħansitra fis-700 Q.K. L-ekkleżjastiċi ta' Sparta kienu ġemgħa tal-poplu, li kienet tiltaqa' darba fix-xahar, fejn kull ċittadini maskili ta' mill-inqas 20 sena seta' jipparteċipa. Fl-assemblea, l-Ispartani kienu jeleġġu l-mexxejja u jixħtu l-voti tagħhom bl-għajjat (il-votazzjoni kienet tiġi deċiża skont l-ikbar għajta tal-folla). [[Aristotli]] ddeskriva dan il-metodu bħala "tat-tfal", meta mqabbel mas-sistema tal-votazzjoni fuq poloz tal-ġebel użata miċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Sparta adottat din is-sistema minħabba s-sempliċità tagħha, u biex jiġi evitat kull tip ta' preġudizzju, xiri jew qerq fil-votazzjoni, li kienu predominanti fl-elezzjonijiet demokratiċi bikrin. Barra minn hekk, id-depożizzjoni tar-Renju Ruman ħolqot sistema b'element demokratiku fil-forma ta' bosta ġemgħat popolari differenti. Minkejja li r-Repubblika Rumana tat kontribut sinifikanti għal bosta aspetti tad-demokrazija, frazzjon biss mir-Rumani kienu ċittadini li kellhom il-vot fl-elezzjonijiet għall-maġistrati. Il-voti tas-setgħana kienu jingħataw iktar piż permezz ta' sistema ta' votazzjoni ponderata, għaldaqstant il-biċċa l-kbira tal-uffiċjali għoljin, inkluż il-membri tas-Senat, kienu jiġu minn ftit familji għonja u nobbli. Il-mudell Ruman ta' governanza ispira bosta ħassieba politiċi tul is-sekli. ==== Indja tal-qedem ==== Vaishali, il-[[belt kapitali]] tal-Lega ta' Vajjika (Vrijji mahajanapada) tal-Indja, titqies bħala wieħed mill-ewwel eżempji ta' repubblika għall-ħabta tas-seklu 6 Q.K. ==== Amerki ==== [[Kultura|Kulturi]] oħra, bħall-Iroquois fl-Amerki, żviluppaw ukoll forma ta' soċjetà demokratika bejn l-1450 u l-1660 (u possibbilment fl-1142), ferm qabel ma kellhom kuntatt mal-[[Ewropa|Ewropej]]. Din id-demokrazija għadha preżenti sal-lum u hija l-iżjed demokrazija rappreżentattiva antika eżistenti fid-dinja. === [[Medjuevu|Medju Evu]] === Filwaqt li l-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjuni fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu kienu mmexxijin mill-kleru jew minn sinjuri fewdali, kienu jeżistu diversi sistemi li kienu jinvolvu l-elezzjonijiet jew il-ġemgħat, għalkemm spiss kienu jinvolvu parti żgħira mill-popolazzjoni. Fl-Iskandinavja, kien hemm korpi magħrufa ta' nies ħielsa ppreseduti minn kelliem tal-liġi. Dawn il-korpi ta' deliberazzjoni kienu responsabbli għas-soluzzjoni ta' kwistjonijiet politiċi, u xi varjanti kienu jinkludu l-Althing fl-[[Iżlanda]] u l-Løgting fil-[[Gżejjer Faroe|Gżejjer Faeroe]]. Il-''veche'', fil-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]], kien korp simili għal dawk tal-Iskandinavja. Fil-[[Knisja Kattolika]] Rumana, il-[[Papa]] ilu jiġi elett minn [[konklav]] Papali magħmul mill-kardinali mill-1059. L-ewwel korp Parlamentari ddokumentat fl-Ewropa kien il-Cortes ta' [[León]]. Stabbilit minn [[Alfonsu IX|Alfonso IX]] fl-1188, il-Cortes kellu l-awtorità għall-iffissar tat-tassazzjoni, għall-affarijiet barranin u għal-leġiżlazzjoni, għalkemm in-natura eżatta tar-rwol tiegħu għadha kkontestata. Ir-Repubblika ta' [[Ragusa]], stabbilita fl-1358 u ċċentrata madwar il-belt ta' [[Dubrovnik]], ipprovdiet drittijiet ta' rappreżentanza u ta' votazzjoni lill-aristokrazija maskili tagħha biss. Diversi bliet-stati u sistemi ta' governanza Taljani kellhom forom ta' governanza repubblikani. Pereżempju, ir-Repubblika ta' [[Firenze]], stabbilita fl-1115, kienet immexxija mis-Signoria u l-membri tagħha kienu jintgħażlu bix-xorti. Fil-Frisja tas-sekli 10–15, soċjetà mhux fewdali distinta, id-dritt tal-votazzjoni dwar kwistjonijiet lokali u dwar l-uffiċjali tal-kontea kien ibbażat fuq id-daqs tal-art. Il-''Kouroukan Fouga'' qasam l-Imperu tal-[[Mali]] fi klans tat-tmexxija li kienu rrappreżentati f'ġemgħa kbira msejħa l-''Gbara''. Madankollu, id-dokument wassal biex il-Mali jkun iktar simili għal monarkija kostituzzjonali milli repubblika demokratika. Il-Parlament tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] kellu l-għeruq tiegħu fir-restrizzjonijiet tal-poter tar-rejiet miktubin fil-''Magna Carta'' (1215), li b'mod espliċitu ħarset ċerti drittijiet tas-sudditi tar-Re u b'mod impliċitu appoġġat dak li mbagħad sar id-digriet Ingliż tal-''habeas corpus'', li jissalvagwardja l-libertà individwali mill-ħabs illegali u li jagħti d-dritt tal-appell. L-ewwel assemblea nazzjonali rappreżentattiva fl-Ingilterra kienet il-Parlament ta' [[Simon de Montfort]] fl-1265. Il-preżenza tat-tressiq tal-petizzjonijiet hija fost l-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-użu tal-Parlament bħala forum biex jiġi indirizzat it-tħassib ġenerali tan-nies ordinarji. Madankollu, is-setgħa tas-sejħa tal-Parlament baqgħet f'idejn il-monarka. Xi studji kkollegaw l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjonijiet Parlamentari fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu mal-agglomerazzjonijiet urbani u mal-ħolqien ta' klassijiet ġodda, bħall-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]], kif ukoll mal-preżenza tan-nobbli u tal-eliti reliġjużi. L-istudjużi kkollegaw ukoll l-istabbiliment tal-governanza rappreżentattiva mal-frammentazzjoni politika relattiva tal-Ewropa. Ix-xjenzat politiku [[David Stasavage]] jikkollega l-frammentazzjoni tal-Ewropa, u d-demokratizzazzjoni sussegwenti tagħha, mal-mod kif sfaxxa l-[[Imperu Ruman]]: it-territorju Ruman inħakem minn gruppi frammentati żgħar ta' tribujiet Ġermaniċi, u dan wassal għall-ħolqien ta' unitajiet politiċi żgħar fejn il-mexxejja kienu relattivament dgħajfin u kienu jeħtieġu l-kunsens taċ-ċittadini tagħhom biex jifilħu għat-theddidiet barranin. Fil-[[Polonja]], id-demokrazija nobbli kienet ikkaratterizzata minn żieda fl-attività tan-nobbiltà nofsanija, li riedet iżżid is-sehem tagħha fl-eżerċitar tal-poter għas-spejjeż tal-manjati. Il-manjati ddominaw l-iżjed karigi importanti fl-istat (lajċi u ekkleżjastiċi) u kienu jinġabru fil-kunsill irjali, li iktar 'il quddiem sar is-senat. L-importanza dejjem tikber tan-nobbiltà nofsanija kellha impatt fuq l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjoni tal-art magħrufa bħala s-''sejmik'' (assemblea lokali), li sussegwentement kisbet iktar drittijiet. Matul is-seklu 15 u l-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 16, is-sejmiks ingħataw iktar u iktar poter u saru l-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tal-poter lokali. Fl-1454, [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] ta lis-sejmiks id-dritt li jiddeċiedu dwar it-taxxi u li jorganizzaw mobilizzazzjoni tal-massa fl-Istatuti ta' Nieszawa. Huwa wiegħed ukoll li ma kienx se joħloq liġijiet ġodda mingħajr il-kunsens tagħhom. === Era moderna === ==== Perjodu modern bikri ==== Fl-Ingilterra tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta. Il-Parlament tal-Ingilterra għadda l-Petizzjoni tad-Drittijiet fl-1628 li stabbiliet ċerti libertajiet għas-sudditi. Il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża (1642–1651) ġiet miġġielda bejn ir-Re u Parlament oligarkiku iżda elett, u matul dan iż-żmien iffurmat l-idea ta' partit politiku, bi gruppi jiddibattu d-drittijiet għar-rappreżentanza politika matul id-Dibattiti ta' Putney tal-1647. Sussegwentement, il-Protettorat (1653–59) u l-Integrazzjoni mill-Ġdid Ingliża (1660) integraw iktar tmexxija awtokratika, għalkemm il-Parlament għadda l-Att dwar il-''Habeas Corpus'' fl-1679 li saħħaħ il-konvenzjoni li pprojbixxiet id-detenzjoni mingħajr biżżejjed raġunijiet jew evidenza. Wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688, il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet ġiet ippromulgata fl-1689 u din ikkodifikat ċerti drittijiet u libertajiet u għadha fis-seħħ. Il-liġi stabbiliet ir-rekwiżiti li jsiru elezzjonijiet regolari, ir-regoli għal-libertà tal-kelma fil-Parlament u limitat il-poter tal-monarka, u b'hekk żgurat, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-Ewropa ta' dak iż-żmien, li l-assolutiżmu rjali ma jipprevalix. L-istoriċi ekonomiċi [[Douglass North]] u [[Barry Weingast]] ikkaratterizzaw l-istituzzjonijiet implimentati fir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża bħala suċċess kbir f'termini tar-restrizzjonijiet tal-governanza u l-iżgurar tal-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet tal-proprjetà. L-interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta, il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża, u r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża fis-seklu 17 xprunaw it-tkabbir ta' filosofija politika fil-Gżejjer Brittaniċi. [[Thomas Hobbes]] kien l-ewwel filosfu li fassal teorija dettaljata dwar il-kuntratt soċjali. Fil-''Leviathan'' (1651), Hobbes ħareġ bit-teorija li l-individwi li jgħixu fin-natura kienu jgħixu ħajja "solitarja, fqira, kerha, iebsa u qasira" u kienu jagħmlu gwerer kontinwi kontra kulħadd. Sabiex tiġi evitata l-okkorrenza tal-istat anarkiku tan-natura, Hobbes irraġuna li l-individwi kienu jċedu d-drittijiet tagħhom lil qawwa awtoritarja setgħana. Fi kliem ieħor, Hobbes tkellem favur monarkija assoluta, li fl-opinjoni tiegħu kienet l-aqwa forma ta' governanza. Iktar 'il quddiem, il-filosfu u t-[[tabib]] [[John Locke]] ħareġ b'interpretazzjoni differenti dwar it-teorija tal-kuntratt soċjali. Fiż-''Żewġ Trattati tal-Governanza'' (1689) tiegħu, Locke sostna li l-individwi kollha kellhom id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għall-proprjetà. Skont Locke, l-individwi kienu jinġabru volontarjament flimkien biex jiffurmaw stat bl-għan li jiddefendu drittijiethom. Għal Locke kienu partikolarment importanti d-drittijiet tal-proprjetà, li skont Locke kienu jirrikjedu l-ħarsien, li kien l-iskop primarju tal-gvern. Barra minn hekk, Locke sostna li l-gvernijiet kienu leġittimi biss jekk kellhom il-kunsens ta' dawk li kienu ggvernati. Skont Locke, iċ-ċittadini kellhom id-dritt jirribellaw kontra l-gvern jekk dan kien jaġixxi kontra l-interessi tagħhom jew isir tiranniku. Għalkemm ma tantx kienu moqrija matul ħajtu, ix-xogħlijiet ta' Locke jitqiesu bħala d-dokumenti li jsejsu l-ħsieb liberali u influwenzaw ferm il-mexxejja tar-Rivoluzzjoni Amerikana u iktar 'il quddiem ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża]]. Il-qafas demokratiku liberali tiegħu tal-governanza għadu l-forma ewlenija tad-demokrazija fid-dinja. Fir-repubbliki tal-Cossack tal-[[Ukrajna]] fis-sekli 16 u 17, l-Etmanat tal-Cossack u s-Sich ta' Zaporizhia, id-detentur tal-ogħla kariga ta' Hetman kien jiġi elett mir-rappreżentanti tad-distretti tal-pajjiż. Fl-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]], il-governanza rappreżentattiva bdiet f'Jamestown, Virginia, bl-elezzjoni tal-Kamra tal-Burgesses (il-prekursur tal-Assemblea Ġenerali ta' Virginia) fl-1619. Il-Puritani Ingliżi li għamlu migrazzjoni mill-1620 stabbilew kolonji f'New England, fejn kien hemm governanza lokali demokratika; il-poter ta' dawn l-assemblej lokali kien ivarja ferm tul il-perjodu kolonjali. Madankollu, uffiċjalment kellhom ammonti żgħar ta' poter devolut, peress li l-awtorità aħħarija kienet f'idejn il-monarkija u l-Parlament. Il-Puritani, il-Battisti u l-Quakers li stabbilew dawn il-kolonji applikaw l-organizzazzjoni demokratika tal-kongregazzjonijiet tagħhom anke għall-amministrazzjoni tal-komunitajiet tagħhom fil-ħajja ta' kuljum. ==== Sekli 18 u 19 ==== L-ewwel Parlament tal-Gran Brittanja ġie stabbilit fl-1707, wara l-fużjoni tar-Renju tal-Ingilterra u r-Renju tal-[[Skozja|Iskozja]] skont l-Atti tal-Unjoni. Żewġ dokumenti ewlenin tal-kostituzzjoni mhux kodifikata tar-Renju Unit, id-Dikjarazzjoni Ingliża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689 (imsejħa mill-ġdid bħala l-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689) u d-Dikjarazzjoni Skoċċiża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689, it-tnejn li huma kienu kkonsolidaw il-pożizzjoni tal-Parlament bħala l-korp suprem tat-tfassil tal-liġijiet u kienu jgħidu li "l-elezzjoni tal-membri tal-Parlament kellha tkun ħielsa". Madankollu, il-Parlament kien jiġi elett biss mis-sidien tal-art maskili, li kienu jammontaw għal 3 % tal-popolazzjoni fl-1780. L-ewwel persuna Brittanika magħrufa ta' nisel Afrikan li vvota f'elezzjoni ġenerali, [[Ignatius Sancho]], ivvota fl-1774 u fl-1780. Matul l-Era tal-Libertà fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] (1718–1772), id-drittijiet ċivili twessgħu u l-poter għadda mingħand il-monarka għall-Parlament. Ir-raħħala intaxxati kienu rrappreżentati fil-Parlament, għalkemm ma tantx kellhom influwenza, iżda n-nies komuni mingħajr proprjetà intaxxata ma kellhomx suffraġju. Il-ħolqien ta' Repubblika ta' [[Korsika]] ta' għomorha qasir fl-1755 kien tentattiv bikri li tiġi adottata kostituzzjoni demokratika (setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel u n-nisa kollha li kellhom iktar minn 25 sena). Din il-Kostituzzjoni ta' Korsika kienet l-ewwel waħda bbażata fuq il-prinċipji tal-Illuminiżmu u kienet tinkludi s-suffraġju femminili, xi ħaġa li ma kinitx inkluża fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji l-oħra sas-seklu 20. L-Amerka kolonjali kellha kwalifikazzjonijiet simili dwar il-proprjetà bħall-Brittanja, u fil-perjodu qabel l-1776 l-abbundanza u d-disponibbiltà tal-art kienet tfisser li għadd kbir ta' kolonjalisti kienu jissodisfaw tali rekwiżiti b'mill-inqas 60 fil-mija tal-irġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda li setgħu jivvutaw. Il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda kienu [[Bidwi|bdiewa]] li kienu jissodisfaw ir-rekwiżiti tas-sjieda tal-proprjetà jew tal-ħlas tat-taxxa. Bi ftit eċċezzjonijiet, l-ebda mara jew persuna b'karnaġjon sewda ma setgħu jivvutaw. Vermont, li malli ddikjarat l-indipendenza mill-Gran Brittanja fl-1777, adottat kostituzzjoni mmudellata fuq iċ-ċittadinanza u s-suffraġju demokratiku ta' Pennsylvania għall-irġiel bi proprjetà jew mingħajr proprjetà. Il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti tal-1787 hija l-eqdem kostituzzjoni governattiva kkodifikata li għadha teżisti u li għadha attiva. Il-Kostituzzjoni kienet tipprevedi gvern elett u protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet ċivili, iżda ma temmitx il-jasar u lanqas ma estendiet id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni fl-Istati Uniti, u minflok ħalliet il-kwistjoni tas-suffraġju f'idejn l-istati individwali. Ġeneralment, l-istati llimitaw is-suffraġju għas-sidien tal-proprjetà maskili u għal dawk li jħallsu t-taxxi ta' karnaġjon bajda. Meta kien hemm l-ewwel elezzjoni Presidenzjali fl-1789, madwar 6 % tal-popolazzjoni kienet eliġibbli biex tivvota. L-Att dwar in-Naturalizzazzjoni tal-1790 illimita ċ-ċittadinanza Amerikana lill-persuni ta' karnaġjon bajda biss. Il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet fl-1791 stabbiliet limiti fuq il-poter tal-gvern sabiex tħares il-libertajiet personali iżda kellha ftit impatt fuq is-sentenzi tal-qrati għall-ewwel 130 sena wara r-ratifika. Fl-1789, [[Franza]] Rivoluzzjonarja adottat id-Dikjarazzjoni tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem u taċ-Ċittadini, u għalkemm għomorha kien qasir, il-Konvenzjoni Nazzjonali kienet eletta mill-irġiel kollha biss fl-1792. Il-Kostituzzjoni Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]] tat-3 ta' Mejju 1791 ippruvat timplimenta monarkija kostituzzjonali iktar effettiva, introduċiet l-ugwaljanza politika bejn iċ-ċittadini u n-nobbli, u poġġiet ir-raħħala taħt il-protezzjoni tal-gvern, u b'hekk taffiet l-agħar abbużi kontra r-raħħala. Din damet fis-seħħ għal inqas minn 19-il xahar, u ġiet iddikjarata nulla mis-Sejm ta' Grodno li ltaqa' fl-1793. Minkejja dan, il-Kostituzzjoni tal-1791 għenet biex l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Pollakki jibqgħu ħajjin għar-restawr eventwali tas-sovranità tal-pajjiż iktar minn seklu wara. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1828 kienet l-ewwel waħda li fiha setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda li ma kinux sidien tal-proprjetà fil-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-istati. L-ammont ta' nies li ħarġu jivvutaw żdied matul is-snin 30 tas-seklu 19, u laħaq madwar 80 % tal-popolazzjoni ta' rġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda fl-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1840. North Carolina kien l-aħħar stat li abolixxa l-kwalifazzjoni abbażi tal-proprjetà fl-1856 u dan wassal għal approssimazzjoni tas-suffraġju universali tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda (madankollu r-rekwiżiti tal-ħlas tat-taxxa baqgħu jeżistu f'ħames stati fl-1860 u baqgħu jeżistu f'żewġ stati sas-seklu 20). Fiċ-ċensiment tal-Istati Uniti tal-1860, il-popolazzjoni tal-iskjavi kienet kibret għal 4 miljuni, u fir-Rikostruzzjoni wara l-Gwerra Ċivili, għaddew tliet emendi kostituzzjonali: it-13-il Emenda (1865) li temmet l-iskjavitù; l-14-il Emenda (1869) li tat iċ-ċittadinanza lin-nies ta' karnaġjon sewda, u l-15-il Emenda (1870) lil tat lill-irġiel ta' karnaġjon sewda d-dritt nominali biex jivvutaw. L-involviment sħiħ taċ-ċittadini kollha ma ġiex żgurat sa wara li l-moviment tad-drittijiet ċivili kiseb l-approvazzjoni mill-Kungress tal-Istati Uniti fir-rigward tal-Att dwar id-Drittijiet tal-Votazzjoni tal-1965. Id-dritt tal-votazzjoni fir-Renju Unit twessa' u sar iktar uniformi permezz ta' sensiela ta' riformi li bdew bl-Att dwar ir-Riformi tal-1832 u komplew fis-seklu 20, b'mod partikolari bl-Att dwar ir-Rappreżentanza tan-Nies tal-1918 u l-Att dwar l-Ugwaljanza tal-1928. Is-suffraġju maskili universali ġie stabbilit fi Franza f'Marzu 1848 fid-dawl tar-Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża tal-1848. Matul dik is-sena, faqqgħu diversi rivoluzzjonijiet fl-Ewropa peress li l-mexxejja kellhom ilaħħqu mad-domandi popolari għall-kostituzzjonijiet liberali u għal iktar governanza demokratika. Fl-1876, l-[[Imperu Ottoman]] għadda minn monarkija assoluta għal waħda kostituzzjonali, u organizza żewġ elezzjonijiet is-sena ta' wara biex jeleġġi membri fil-Parlament li kien għadu kemm ġie ffurmat. Inħarġu Regolamenti Elettorali Proviżorji, li kienu jiddikjaraw li l-membri eletti tal-Kunsilli Amministrattivi Provinċjali kellhom jeleġġu l-membri għall-ewwel Parlament. Iktar tard dik is-sena, ġiet ippromulgata kostituzzjoni ġdida, li kienet tipprevedi l-istabbiliment ta' Parlament bikamerali b'Senat maħtur mis-Sultan u Kamra tad-Deputati eletta mill-poplu. Kienu jitħallew jikkontestaw għall-elezzjoni l-irġiel biss li kellhom iktar minn 30 sena u li kienu midħla tat-Tork u li kellhom drittijiet ċivili sħaħ. Fost ir-raġunijiet ta' skwalifika kien hemm iż-żamma ta' ċittadinanza doppja, ir-reklutaġġ minn gvern barrani, il-falliment monetarju, l-impjieg bħala qaddej, jew "ir-reputazzjoni tat-twettiq ta' azzjonijiet ħżiena". Is-suffraġju universali sħiħ inkiseb fl-1934. Fl-1893, il-kolonja bl-awtogovernanza ta' [[New Zealand]] saret l-ewwel pajjiż fid-dinja (għajr għar-Repubblika ta' Korsika b'għomorha qasir tas-seklu 18) li stabbilixxa s-suffraġju universali attiv billi n-nisa ġew rikonoxxuti bid-dritt tal-votazzjoni. ==== Sekli 20 u 21 ==== 20th-century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive "waves of democracy", variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonisation, and religious and economic circumstances. Global waves of "democratic regression" reversing democratization, have also occurred in the 1920s and 30s, in the 1960s and 1970s, and in the 2010s. World War I and the dissolution of the autocratic Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states in Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democratic movements flourished and women's suffrage advanced, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as non-democratic governments in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in Western Europe. The democratisation of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the later theory of government change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet-dominated bloc. The war was followed by decolonisation, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so. Countries that were once part of the British Empire often adopted the British Westminster system. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights mandated democracy:<blockquote>3. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.</blockquote>— Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 21, United Nations, 1948 By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nominal democracies that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in "Communist" states and the former colonies). A subsequent wave of democratisation brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many states, dubbed "third wave of democracy". Portugal, Spain, and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the 1970s and 1980s. This was followed by countries in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratisation and liberalisation of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now either part of the European Union or candidate states. In 1986, after the toppling of the most prominent Asian dictatorship, the only democratic state of its kind at the time emerged in the Philippines with the rise of Corazon Aquino, who would later be known as the mother of Asian democracy. The liberal trend spread to some states in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalisation include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia. According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). According to ''World Forum on Democracy'', electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58.2 per cent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i.e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 per cent of the global population. Also in 2007 the United Nations declared 15 September the International Day of Democracy. Many countries reduced their voting age to 18 years; the major democracies began to do so in the 1970s starting in Western Europe and North America.^{[''failed verification'']} Most electoral democracies continue to exclude those younger than 18 from voting. The voting age has been lowered to 16 for national elections in a number of countries, including Brazil, Austria, Cuba, and Nicaragua. In California, a 2004 proposal to permit a quarter vote at 14 and a half vote at 16 was ultimately defeated. In 2008, the German parliament proposed but shelved a bill that would grant the vote to each citizen at birth, to be used by a parent until the child claims it for themselves. According to Freedom House, starting in 2005, there have been 17 consecutive years in which declines in political rights and civil liberties throughout the world have outnumbered improvements, as populist and nationalist political forces have gained ground everywhere from Poland (under the Law and Justice party) to the Philippines (under Rodrigo Duterte). In a Freedom House report released in 2018, Democracy Scores for most countries declined for the 12th consecutive year. ''The Christian Science Monitor'' reported that nationalist and populist political ideologies were gaining ground, at the expense of rule of law, in countries like Poland, Turkey and Hungary. For example, in Poland, the President appointed 27 new Supreme Court judges over legal objections from the European Commission. In Turkey, thousands of judges were removed from their positions following a failed coup attempt during a government crackdown . "Democratic backsliding" in the 2010s were attributed to economic inequality and social discontent, personalism, poor government's management of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as other factors such as manipulation of civil society, "toxic polarization", foreign disinformation campaigns, racism and nativism, excessive executive power, and decreased power of the opposition. Within English-speaking Western democracies, "protection-based" attitudes combining cultural conservatism and leftist economic attitudes were the strongest predictor of support for authoritarian modes of governance. == Teorija == === Teorija bikrija === Aristotle's '''democratic theory''' contrasted rule by the many (democracy/timocracy), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy/elitism), and with rule by a single person (tyranny/autocracy/absolute monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to timocracy). A common view among early and renaissance Republican theorists was that democracy could only survive in small political communities. Heeding the lessons of the Roman Republic's shift to monarchism as it grew larger or smaller, these Republican theorists held that the expansion of territory and population inevitably led to tyranny. Democracy was therefore highly fragile and rare historically, as it could only survive in small political units, which due to their size were vulnerable to conquest by larger political units. Montesquieu famously said, "if a republic is small, it is destroyed by an outside force; if it is large, it is destroyed by an internal vice." Jean-Jacques Rousseau asserted, "It is, therefore the natural property of small states to be governed as a republic, of middling ones to be subject to a monarch, and of large empires to be swayed by a despotic prince." === Teorija kontemporanja === Fost it-teoriji politiċi moderni, jeżistu kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. ==== Aggregazzjoni ==== The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit citizens' preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. According to the minimalist democracy conception, elections are a mechanism for competition between politicians. Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view famously in his book ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''. Anthony Downs argues that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individuals and governments. On the other hand, direct democracy, where citizens vote directly on legislative proposals, can show better aggregation in cases of differences in preferences between elites and voters. ===== Mandat medjan ===== According to the median voter theorem the political representativeness can be evaluated by comparing how close laws and policies are to the views of the median voter along the political spectrum. The ''median mandate'' views the preferences of the median voter as granting political legitimacy. ==== Poliarkija ==== Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration. He uses the term polyarchy ("rule by many") to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that "democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal." ==== Deliberazzjoni ==== Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. Citizens assemblies are considered by many scholars as practical examples of deliberative democracy, with a recent OECD report identifying citizens assemblies as an increasingly popular mechanism to involve citizens in governmental decision-making. Proponents of direct democracy view citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. ==== Tipi ta' demokraziji governattivi ==== Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not structured to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. ===== Forom bażiċi ===== Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy is direct democracy, in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly. In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a representative democracy. If the head of state is democratically elected then the polity is called a democratic republic ====== Demokrazija diretta ====== Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. Proponents like Jean-Jacques Rousseau argue the direct approach increases legitimacy. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: * Change constitutional laws, * Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws Within modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens' initiatives and recall elections are referred to as forms of direct democracy. However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion. Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus, the Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities, communities affiliated with the CIPO-RFM, the Bolivian city councils of FEJUVE, and Kurdish cantons of Rojava. ====== Demokrazija semidiretta ====== Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed ''semi-direct democracies'' or ''participatory democracies''. Examples include Switzerland and some U.S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. The Swiss confederation is a semi-direct democracy. At the federal level, citizens can propose changes to the constitution (federal popular initiative) or ask for a referendum to be held on any law voted by the parliament. Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, to answer 103 questions (during the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums). Although in the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum. Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. In New England, town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a representative state government. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters. ====== Sistema tax-xorti ====== The use of a lot system, a characteristic of Athenian democracy, is a feature of some versions of direct democracies. In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens picked from a lottery. ====== Demokrazija rappreżentattiva ====== Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so. Such reasons have driven criticism upon representative democracy, pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy. ====== Demokrazija Parlamentari ====== Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. In a parliamentary system, the prime minister may be dismissed by the legislature at any point in time for not meeting the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a vote of no confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the prime minister from office with majority support for dismissal. In some countries, the prime minister can also call an election at any point in time, typically when the prime minister believes that they are in good favour with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies, extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. An important feature of the parliamentary democracy is the concept of the "loyal opposition". The essence of the concept is that the second largest political party (or opposition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while still remaining loyal to the state and its democratic principles. ====== Demokrazija Presidenzjali ====== Presidential democracy is a system where the public elects the president through an election. The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. The legislature often has limited ability to remove a president from office. Elections typically have a fixed date and are not easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing the cabinet members. The executive usually has the responsibility to execute or implement legislation and may have the limited legislative powers, such as a veto. However, a legislative branch passes legislation and budgets. This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence, however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia. A semi-presidential system is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. ==== Tipoloġija ==== ===== Monarkija kostituzzjonali ===== Many countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs (often gradually) with limited or symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689. Strongly limited constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, have been referred to as crowned republics by writers such as H. G. Wells. In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, and Egypt). An elected person, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries. Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many states. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British House of Lords) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the Australian Senate). ===== Demokrazija repubblika ===== The term ''republic'' has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. The Founding Fathers of the United States often criticised direct democracy; James Madison argued, especially in ''The Federalist'' No. 10, that what distinguished a direct ''democracy'' from a ''republic'' was that the former depended on small size and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure. Accordingly, during Philadelphia convention Madison called election of representatives by large territories "the only defence against the inconveniencies of democracy consistent with the democratic form of Govt." Professors Richard Ellis of Willamette University and Michael Nelson of Rhodes College argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on "the problem of majority tyranny". They conclude, "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities." What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the US Constitution, Elizabeth Willing Powel asked him "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic—if you can keep it." ===== Demokrazija liberali ===== A liberal democracy is a representative democracy which enshrines a liberal political philosophy, where the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, moderated by a constitution or laws such as the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and constrained on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities. ===== Demokrazija Soċjalista ===== Socialist thought has several different views on democracy, for example social democracy or democratic socialism. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory, industrial, economic and/or workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. ===== Demokrazija Marxista ===== Marxist theory supports a democratic society centering the working class. Some Marxists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy or workers' councils (which are sometimes called soviets). This system can begin with workplace democracy and can manifest itself as soviet democracy or dictatorship of the proletariat. Trotskyist groups have interpreted socialist democracy to be synonymous with multi-party far-left representation, autonomous union organizations, worker's control of production, internal party democracy and the mass participation of the working masses. Some communist parties support a soviet republic with democratic centralism. Within democracy in Marxism there can be hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy". ===== Demokrazija Anarkista ===== Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticised individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism. Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. ===== Demokrazija każwali ===== Sortition is the process of choosing decision-making bodies via a random selection. These bodies can be more representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large than an elected legislature or other decision-maker. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence and is still used in modern jury selection and citizens' assemblies. ===== Demokrazija Kostituzzjonali ===== Consociational democracy, also called consociationalism, is a form of democracy based on power-sharing formula between elites representing the social groups within the society. In 1969, Arendt Lijphart argued this would stabilize democracies with factions. A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them. The Qualified majority voting rule in European Council of Ministers is a consociational democracy approach for supranational democracies. This system in Treaty of Rome allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. A consociational democracy requires consensus of representatives, while consensus democracy requires consensus of electorate. ===== Demokrazija maġġoritarja ===== Majoritarian democracy is a form of democracy based upon a principle of majority rule. Majoritarian democracy contrasts with consensus democracy, rule by as many people as possible. ===== Konsensus ===== Consensus democracy requires consensus decision-making and supermajority to obtain a larger support than majority. In contrast, in majoritarian democracy minority opinions can potentially be ignored by vote-winning majorities. Constitutions typically require consensus or supermajorities. ===== Demokrazija etnika ===== The term ethnic democracy, as used by some political scientists, purports to describe a governance system that combines a structured ethnic dominance with democratic, political and civil rights for all. Both the dominant ethnic group—typically an ethnic majority—and the minority ethnic groups have citizenship and are able to fully participate in the political process. However, critics of the "ethnic democracy" model argue it is a contradiction in terms, and thus conceptually inadequate or confusing; these critics allege that purported ethnic democracies, most notably Israel, are not democratic at all, or are at best a sort of semi-democracy. ===== Demokrazija inklużiva ===== Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal ''Democracy & Nature'' and its successor ''The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy''. ===== Politika parteċipattiva ===== A parpolity or participatory polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a nested council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision-making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council. A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy. ===== Demokrazija proċedurali ===== Procedural democracy or proceduralist democracy, proceduralism or hollow democracy is a term used to denote the particular procedures, such as regular elections based on universal suffrage, that produce an electorally-legitimated government. Procedural democracy, with its centering of electoral processes as the basis of democratic legitimacy, is often contrasted with substantive or participatory democracy, which centers the equal participation of all groups in society in the political process as the basis of legitimacy. ===== Demokrazija radikali ===== Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Radical democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes. ===== Demokrazija reliġjuża ===== Religious democracy is a form of democracy where the values of a particular religion or state religion are preferred. The term applies to all democratic countries in which religion is incorporated into the form of government. ===== Demokrazija kożmopolitana ===== Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as ''global democracy'' or ''world federalism'', is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them. According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing international organisations, e.g., the United Nations, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a World Parliament, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics. Cosmopolitan democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi. The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy. ===== Demokrazija kreattiva ===== Creative democracy is advocated by American philosopher John Dewey. The main idea about creative democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us" and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral ideal requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute". ===== Demokrazija ggwidata ===== Guided democracy is a form of democracy that incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner that may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "guided democracy". Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government. === Tfittxija ta' fehim komuni === The search for a common approach to conceptualize, measure and compare democracy remains a challenge in modern political science. This challenge strikes through to measuring, assessing and comparing the quality of democracy, as Seva Gunitsky pointed in 2015 in the Washington Post, based upon his research for ''Ranking the World – Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance'', that measuring democracy can mislead as much as clarify – a problem for academics, policy-makers and anyone who cares about democracy. In his contribution ''Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics'' to ''Ranking the World'', he, on the example of former Soviet republics, examines fundamental problems with measures of democracy, observing that indices often disagree and occasionally draw contradictory conclusions from observing the same event. He argues, that this reflects inherent tradeoffs in conceptualizing democratic governance, which arise from fundamental normative disagreements about a highly contested concept. In 2011, Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al. proposed an approach to such conceptualization and measurement. In their paper ''Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: A New Approach'' they review some of the weaknesses among contemporary and older approaches, then lay out their approach, characterizing it as ''historical'', ''multidimensional'', ''disaggregated'', and ''transparent''. The authors propose to create a new set of four features to conceptualize and measure democracy. First, ''historical'', extending indicators of democracy back through modern history, wherever possible. Second, a ''multidimensional'' approach to the problem of conceptualizing democracy. Third, to collect information relevant to democracy at a highly ''disaggregated'' level. Fourth, ''transparent'', a strategy for data collection and presentation that should enhance the precision, validity, transparency, and legitimacy of the resulting indicators. They also sum up the conceptions, and/or aspects, of democracy into six – ''electoral'', ''liberal'', ''majoritarian'', ''participatory'', ''deliberative'', and ''egalitarian'', which taken together offer a fairly comprehensive accounting of the concept of democracy as it is employed today (see overview in the table below). {| class="wikitable" | colspan="5" | ---- |- | colspan="5" |Conceptions of democracy by Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al., 2011 |- valign="top" | | |Principles |Question |Institutions |- | colspan="5" | ---- |- valign="top" |I. |'''Electoral''' |Contestation, competition |Are government offices filled by free and fair multiparty elections? |Elections, political parties, competitiveness and turnover |- valign="top" |II. |'''Liberal''' |Limited government, multiple veto points, horizontal accountability, individual rights, civil liberties, transparency |Is political power decentralized & constrained? |Multiple, independent, and decentralized, with special focus on the role of the media, interest groups, the judiciary, and a written constitution with explicit guarantees |- valign="top" |III. |'''Majoritarian''' |Majority rule, centralization, vertical accountability |Does the majority (or plurality) rule? |Consolidated and centralized, with special focus on the role of political parties |- valign="top" |IV. |'''Participatory''' |Government by the people |Do ordinary citizens participate in politics? |Election law, civil society, local government, direct democracy |- valign="top" |V. |'''Deliberative''' |Government by reason |Are political decisions the product of public deliberation? |Media, hearings, panels, other deliberative bodies |- valign="top" |VI. |'''Egalitarian''' |Political equality |Are all citizens equally empowered? |Designed to ensure equal participation, representation, protection, and politically relevant resources |- | colspan="5" | ---- |} === Measurement of democracy === Main article: Measurement of democracy Measurement of democracy varies according to the different fundamental conceptions of democracy. Minimalist democracy evaluations focus on free and fair elections, while maximalist democracy evaluates additional values, such as human rights, deliberation, economic outcomes or state capacity. == Demokrazija mhux governattiva == Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy. Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed Islamic democracy or ''Islamocracy''. There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff. === Demokrazija tal-azzjonisti === Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders. In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle. Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives. The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights. == Ġustifikazzjoni == Ingħataw diversi ġustifikazzjonijiet għad-demokrazija. === Leġittimità === Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. The public legitimacy of democracy varies by country, in some countries religious texts have more public support than the will of the people. === Teħid ta' deċiżjonijiet aħjar === Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution. === Suċċess ekonomiku === In ''Why Nations Fail'', economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. Unemployment is associated with anti-democratic beliefs. == Kritika == Democracy as a concept and as a practical form of government has been the subject of critique throughout history. Some critics consider that democratic regimes often fail to be true to the highest principles expected of them, while others reject the values promoted by constitutional democracy in whole or part. Opposition to democracy goes as far back as Plato, who argued for a 'government of the best qualified'. More recently, James Madison extensively studied historic attempts at and arguments on democracy in his preparation for the Constitutional Convention, and Winston Churchill remarked that "no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." Critics argue that modern democracies may fail to be sufficiently democratic and instead function in practice as oligarchies, insofar as governments are more responsive to the preferences of economic elites than to those of ordinary citizens. Numerous empirical studies across various western democracies including the United States, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Norway and Germany have consistently found that elected representatives tend to respond more to the preferences of very affluent citizens for policy outcomes than those of the average voter. Some critics of democracy have highlighted the concept's inconsistencies, paradoxes, and limits: drawing contrasts with other forms of government, such as epistocracy or lottocracy. Others have characterized most modern democracies as democratic polyarchies and democratic aristocracies. Yet others have identified fascist moments in modern democracies. They have termed the societies produced by modern democracies as neo-feudal and have contrasted democracy with fascism, anarcho-capitalism, theocracy, and absolute monarchy. == Tranżizzjonijiet demokratiċi == A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). === Demokratizzazzjoni === Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. The opposite process of democratic transition is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization. Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments could not do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns. Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:^{[''need quotation to verify'']} * a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) * an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence. Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07). A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26). Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750 to 1850 despite arguments to the contrary. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:<blockquote>The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.</blockquote>Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratization in 18 countries: Benin, Bolivia, Botswana, Bazil, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Guatemala, Lesotho, Mauritius, Montenegro, Poland, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste, Thailand, The Gambia, and Zambia. ===== Promozzjoni tad-demokrazija ===== Promotion of democracy can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing electoral integrity, youth suffrage and civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality, reducing presidentialism and aligning with median voter preferences. === Awtokratizzazzjoni === Democratic backsliding is a form of autocratization, a process of structural government transition toward authoritarianism in which the exercise of political power becomes less limited and more arbitrary and repressive. Democratic backsliding specifically assumes a starting point of a democratic system. The process typically restricts the space for public contest and political participation in the process of government selection. Democratic backsliding involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.^{[''citation needed'']} Steven Levitsky says: "It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That's asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters." The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratic backsliding in 44 countries: Afghanistan, Argentina, Armenia, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, El Salvador, Haiti, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Ivory Coast, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Libya, Mali, Madagascar, Mauretania, Mexico, Moldova, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Senegal, Serbia, Romania, Togo, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States. ===== Tfixkil ===== Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: * Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. * Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: ** Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état ** An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. * Royal coup, in which a monarch not normally involved in government seizes all power. For example, the 6 January Dictatorship, begun in 1929 when King Alexander I of Yugoslavia dismissed parliament and started ruling by decree. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. == Influwenza tal-midja == The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: * Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment * Meaningful agenda setting * Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy * Dialogue across a diverse range of views * Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power * Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved * A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience * A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. The ability to find effective political solutions to social problems is hampered when problems tend to be blamed on individuals rather than on structural causes. This person-centered focus may have far-reaching consequences not only for domestic problems but also for foreign policy when international conflicts are blamed on foreign heads of state rather than on political and economic structures. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. The responsiveness and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. In fact, studies show that false stories are going more viral than true stories. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. Reliable information sources are essential for the democratic process. Less democratic governments rely heavily on censorship, propaganda, and misinformation in order to stay in power, while independent sources of information are able to undermine their legitimacy. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Greċja antika]] 2cxt830jkr9r6425yvsfk2k78t623m3 330266 330264 2026-05-27T22:33:07Z Trigcly 17859 330266 wikitext text/x-wiki Id-'''demokrazija''' hija forma ta' governanza li permezz tagħha l-poter [[Politika|politiku]] jinkiseb min-nies jew mill-popolazzjoni ta' stat. Skont definizzjoni minimalista tad-demokrazija, il-mexxejja jiġu eletti permezz ta' elezzjonijiet kompetittivi filwaqt li d-definizzjonijiet iktar wesgħin jew massimalisti jorbtu d-demokrazija mal-garanziji tal-libertajiet ċivili u d-drittijiet tal-[[bniedem]] apparti l-elezzjonijiet kompetittivi. F'demokrazija diretta, il-poplu jkollu l-awtorità diretta li jagħmel deliberazzjonijiet u li jiddeċiedi dwar il-leġiżlazzjoni. F'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, il-poplu jagħżel l-uffiċjali tal-governanza permezz ta' elezzjonijiet. Id-definizzjoni ta' "poplu" u l-modi kif l-awtorità tiġi kondiviża fi ħdan il-poplu jew iddelegata minnu nbidlu mal-milja taż-żminijiet u b'rati li jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor. Il-karatteristiċi tad-demokrazija spiss jinkludu l-libertà tal-ġemgħa, il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni, il-proprjetà personali, il-libertà tar-[[reliġjon]] u tal-[[kelma]], iċ-ċittadinanza, il-kunsens ta' dawk li jiġu ggvernati, id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni, il-libertà miċ-ċaħda governattiva mhux ġustifikata tad-dritt tal-ħajja u tal-libertà, u d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. In-nozzjoni tad-demokrazija evolviet b'mod konsiderevoli maż-żmien. Matul l-[[Storja|istorja]], wieħed jista' jsib evidenza ta' demokrazija diretta, fejn il-komunitajiet kienu jieħdu deċiżjonijiet permezz ta' ġemgħat popolari. Illum il-ġurnata, il-forma dominanti tad-demokrazija hija d-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, fejn iċ-ċittadini jeleġġu lill-uffiċjali tal-gvern biex jiggvernaw f'isimhom, pereżempju f'demokrazija parlamentari jew presidenzjali. Fil-varjant komuni tad-demokrazija liberali, is-setgħat tal-maġġoranza jiġu eżerċitati fi ħdan il-qafas ta' demokrazija rappreżentattiva, iżda l-kostituzzjoni u l-qorti suprema jillimitaw lill-maġġoranza u jipproteġu lill-minoranzi — normalment billi jiġi żgurat li kulħadd igawdi minn ċerti drittijiet individwali, bħal-libertà tal-kelma jew il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni. It-terminu tfaċċa fis-seklu 5 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]. fil-bliet-stati [[Greċja antika|Griegi]], b'mod partikolari f'[[Ateni]] Klassika, u kien ifisser "it-tmexxija tal-poplu", b'kuntrast mal-aristokrazija (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: ἀριστοκρατία, ''aristokratía''), li tfisser "it-tmexxija tal-elit". Prattikament fil-gvernijiet demokratiċi kollha tul l-istorja tal-qedem u moderna, iċ-ċittadinanza demokratika inizjalment kienet ristretta għal klassi tal-elit, li iktar 'il quddiem ġiet estiża għaċ-ċittadini adulti kollha. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, dan inkiseb permezz tal-movimenti tas-suffraġju tas-sekli 19 u 20. Id-demokrazija tikkuntrasta mal-forom ta' governanza fejn il-poter ma jinbitx mill-popolazzjoni ġenerali ta' stat, pereżempju s-sistemi awtoritarji. Storikament is-sistemi demokratiċi kienu forma rari u vulnerabbli ta' governanza, iżda dawn saru iktar prevalenti mis-seklu 19 'l hawn, b'mod partikolari permezz ta' diversi mewġiet ta' demokratizzazzjoni. Id-demokrazija għandha leġittimità konsiderevoli fid-dinja moderna, peress li l-opinjoni pubblika fir-reġjuni dinjin normalment huma favur is-sistemi demokratiċi ta' governanza meta mqabbla mal-alternattivi, u peress li saħansitra l-istati awtoritarji jippruvaw ipinġu lilhom infushom bħala demokratiċi. Id-demokrazija b'mod iktar konsistenti tirriżulta f'saħħa, f'[[edukazzjoni]] u f'eżiti ekonomiċi mtejba. Skont l-indiċijiet ta' ''V-Dem Democracy'' u l-Indiċi tad-Demokrazija ta' ''The Economist'', inqas minn nofs il-popolazzjoni tad-dinja tgħix f'demokrazija mill-2022. Fl-istess ħin, filwaqt li d-demokrazija rappreżentattivi tingħata valur siewi b'mod mifrux, iċ-Ċentru tar-Riċerka ta' Pew sab li l-garr rigward il-prestazzjoni demokratika huwa komuni saħansitra f'bosta demokraziji stabbiliti. == Karatteristiċi == Għalkemm id-demokrazija fid-demokraziji purament rappreżentattivi hija mifhuma b'rabta mal-votazzjoni, ma jeżisti l-ebda konsensus dwar definizzjoni preċiża tad-demokrazija. Jeżistu wisq approċċi. Kien hemm studju li identifika 2,234 aġġettiv li jintuża għad-deskrizzjoni tad-demokrazija bil-[[lingwa Ingliża]]. Minkejja dan, hemm fehim iktar profond – bħal dak ta' [[Abraham Lincoln]]: : ''"Governanza tan-nies, min-nies, għan-nies"'' jew dik ta' [[Karl Popper]] li ssostni li l-ħarsa "klassika" lejn id-demokrazija hi, "fil-qosor, it-teorija li d-demokrazija hija t-tmexxija tal-poplu u li l-poplu għandu d-dritt li jiggverna hu. Il-prinċipji demokratiċi huma riflessi fiċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha, ilkoll indaqs quddiem il-[[Dritt|liġi]] u lkoll b'aċċess ugwali għall-proċessi leġiżlattivi. Pereżempju, f'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, kull vot (fit-teorija) għandu l-istess piż, u l-libertà taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli hija żgurata permezz ta' drittijiet u libertajiet leġittimizzati li tipikament ikunu mnaqqxa f'kostituzzjoni, filwaqt li użi oħra tad-"demokrazija" jaf jħaddnu d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament fuq id-diversi kwistjonijiet li jinqalgħu. Skont in-[[Ġnus Magħquda|Nazzjonijiet Uniti]], id-demokrazija "tipprovdi ambjent li jirrispetta d-drittijiet tal-bniedem u l-libertajiet fundamentali, u fejn ir-rieda espressa liberament tal-poplu tiġi eżerċitata". Skont teorija partikolari d-demokrazija tirrikjedi tliet prinċipji fundamentali: il-kontroll 'il fuq (sovranità fl-iżjed livelli baxxi tal-awtorità), l-ugwaljanza politika, u n-normi soċjali li permezz tagħhom l-individwi u l-istituzzjonijiet iqisu biss atti aċċettabbli li jirriflettu l-ewwel żewġ prinċipji tal-kontroll 'il fuq u l-ugwaljanza politika. L-ugwaljanza legali, il-libertà politika u l-istat ta' dritt sikwit jiġu identifikati bħala l-karatteristiċi ewlenin ta' demokrazija li tiffunzjona sew. F'xi pajjiżi, b'mod partikolari fir-[[Renju Unit]] (minn fejn oriġinat is-sistema ta' Westminster), il-prinċipju dominanti hu dak tas-sovranità Parlamentari, filwaqt li tinżamm l-indipendenza ġudizzjarja. Fl-[[Indja]], is-sovranità Parlamentari hija soġġetta għall-Kostituzzjoni tal-Indja li tinkludi rieżami ġudizzjarju. Għalkemm it-terminu "demokrazija" tipikament jintuża fil-kuntest ta' stat politiku, il-prinċipji wkoll huma applikabbli potenzjalment għall-organizzazzjonijiet privati, bħal klabbs, għaqdiet u ditti. Id-demokraziji jistgħu jużaw bosta metodi differenti ta' teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet, iżda t-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hija l-forma dominanti. Mingħajr kumpens, bħal protezzjonijiet legali tad-drittijiet individwali jew kollettivi, il-minoranzi politiċi jistgħu jiġu mgħakksa mit-"tirannija tal-maġġoranza". It-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza tinvolvi approċċ kompetittiv, għad-differenza tad-demokrazija tal-konsensus, u b'hekk tinħoloq il-ħtieġa li l-elezzjonijiet, u ġeneralment id-deliberazzjoni, ikunu sostantivament u proċeduralment "ġusti" u ekwi. Fżxi pajjiżi, il-libertà tal-espressjoni politika, il-libertà tal-kelma u l-libertà tal-istampa jitqiesu bħala importanti biex jiġi żgurat li l-votanti jkunu infurmati sew, u b'hekk ikunu jistgħu jivvutaw skont l-interessi u t-twemmin tagħhom stess. Ġie ssuġġerit ukoll li karatteristika bażika tad-demokrazija hija l-kapaċità li l-votanti kollha jipparteċipaw b'mod ħieles u sħiħ fil-[[ħajja]] tas-soċjetà tagħhom. Bl-enfasi fuq in-nozzjonijiet tal-kuntratt soċjali u r-rieda kollettiva tal-votanti kollha, id-demokrazija tista' tkun ikkaratterizzata wkoll bħala forma ta' kollettiviżmu politiku peress li tiġi definita bħala forma ta' governanza fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom vuċi ugwali fit-tfassil tal-liġijiet. Ir-repubbliki, għalkemm spiss ikunu assoċjati popolarment mad-demokrazija minħabba l-prinċipju kondiviż tal-kunsens mogħti minn dawk li jiġu ggvernati għat-tmexxija, mhux neċessarjament ikunu demokraziji, għax ir-repubblikaniżmu ma jispeċifikax ''kif'' in-nies għandhom imexxu. Tradizzjonalment it-terminu "repubblika" kien iħaddan kemm id-demokraziji kif ukoll l-aristokraziji u l-varjanti tagħhom. F'sens modern, il-forma ta' governanza repubblikana hija forma ta' governanza mingħajr monarka. Minħabba f'hekk, id-demokraziji jistgħu jkunu repubbliki jew monarkiji kostituzzjonali, bħar-Renju Unit, fejn il-monarka ma jkunx il-mexxej. == Storja == Il-ġemgħat demokratiċi għandhom żmien daqs kemm għandha żmien l-ispeċi umana u ilhom jeżistu tul l-istorja umana, iżda sas-seklu 19, il-figuri [[Politiku|politiċi]] ewlenin fil-biċċa l-kbira opponew id-demokrazija. It-teoriċi repubblikani rabtu d-demokrazija ma' daqs ċkejken: iktar ma kienu jikbru fid-daqs l-unitajiet politiċi, iktar kienet tiżdied il-probabbiltà li l-gvern isir tiranniku. Fl-istess waqt, l-unitajiet politiċi żgħar kienu vulnerabbli għall-ħakma. Montesquieu kiteb, "Jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered mill-imperfezzjoni interna". Skont ix-xjenzat politiku tal-Università ta' Johns Hopkins [[Daniel Deudney]], il-ħolqien tal-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]], bid-daqs kbir u s-sistema ta' kontrolli u bilanċi tagħha, kienet soluzzjoni għall-problemi doppji tad-daqs. Fis-soċjetajiet ta' madwar id-dinja seħħew forom ta' demokrazija b'mod organiku li ma kellhom l-ebda kuntatt ma' xulxin. === Oriġini === ==== [[Greċja]] u [[Ruma]] ==== It-terminu ''demokrazija'' tfaċċa għall-ewwel darba fil-ħsieb politiku u [[Filosofija|filosofiku]] tal-Greċja Antika fil-belt-stat ta' Ateni fl-antikità klassika. Il-kelma ġejja minn ''dêmos'' li tfisser "nies (komuni)" u minn ''krátos'' li tfisser "qawwa/setgħa". Taħt Cleisthenes, f'Ateni ġie stabbilit dak li huwa maħsub bħala l-ewwel eżempju ta' tip ta' demokrazija fis-seklu 6 Q.K. (508–507 Q.K.). Cleisthenes huwa meqjus bħala "l-missier tad-demokrazija ta' Ateni". L-ewwel użu attestat tal-kelma demokrazija jinsab fix-xogħlijiet ta' proża tal-ħabta tal-430 Q.K., bħall-''Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, iżda l-użu tagħha kien eqdem b'diversi deċennji, peress li żewġ persuni minn Ateni li twieldu għall-ħabta tal-470 Q.K. kien jisimhom Democrates, isem politiku ġdid — x'aktarx b'appoġġ għad-demokrazija — li ngħata fi żmien ta' dibattiti dwar kwistjonijiet kostituzzjonali f'Ateni. Aeschylus jalludi bis-saħħa wkoll għall-kelma fid-dramm tiegħu ''Is-Supplikanti'', li ttella' għall-ħabta tal-463 Q.K., fejn isemmi "l-id tat-tmexxija tal-kotra" [''demou kratousa cheir'']. Qabel dak iż-żmien, il-kelma li kienet tiddefinixxi s-sistema politika ġdida ta' Cleisthenes x'aktarx li kienet ''isonomija'', li tfisser ugwaljanza politika. Id-demokrazija ta' Ateni ħadet is-sura ta' demokrazija diretta, u kellha żewġ karatteristiċi li jiddistingwuha: l-għażla aleatorja ta' ċittadini ordinarji biex jimlew il-ftit karigi amministrattivi u ġudizzjarji eżistenti tal-gvern, u ġemgħa leġiżlattiva li kienet tikkonsisti mill-maġġoranza taċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha kienu jitħallew jitkellmu u jivvutaw fil-ġemgħa jew fl-assemblea, fejn kienu jiġu stabbiliti l-liġijiet tal-belt-stat. Madankollu, iċ-ċittadinanza ta' Ateni ma kinitx tingħata lin-[[Mara|nisa]], lill-[[Skjavitù|ilsiera]], lill-barranin (μέτοικοι / ''métoikoi''), u liż-żgħażagħ taħt l-età tas-servizz militari. Effettivament, resident wieħed minn kull erba' f'Ateni kienu jikkwalifikaw bħala ċittadini. Is-sjieda tal-art ma kinitx rekwiżit għaċ-ċittadinanza. L-esklużjoni ta' partijiet kbar tal-popolazzjoni mill-korp taċ-ċittadini hija marbuta mill-qrib mal-fehim tal-qedem taċ-ċittadinanza. Fil-biċċa l-kbira ta' żmien il-qedem, il-benefiċċju taċ-ċittadinanza kien marbut mal-obbligu tal-ġlied fil-kampanji militari. Id-demokrazija ta' Aterni mhux biss kienet ''diretta'' fis-sens li d-deċiżjonijiet kienu jittieħdu mill-ġemgħa, iżda anke l-''iżjed diretta'' fis-sens li l-ġemgħa permezz tal-istrutturi bħall-assemblea, is-senat u l-qrati legali kienet tikkontrolla l-proċess politiku kollu u proporzjon kbir taċ-ċittadini kienu jkunu involuti b'mod kostanti fl-affarijiet pubbliċi. Minkejja li d-drittijiet tal-individwu ma kinux żgurati mill-kostituzzjoni ta' Ateni fis-sens modern (il-Griegi tal-qedem ma kellhomx kelma għal "drittijiet"), dawk li kienu ċittadini ta' Ateni kienu jgawdu l-libertajiet tagħhom mhux f'oppożizzjoni għall-gvern iżda billi jgħixu f'belt li ma kinitx soġġetta għal xi setgħa oħra u billi huma stess ma kinux soġġetti għat-tmexxija ta' ħaddieħor. Il-votazzjoni tfaċċat fi [[Sparta]] saħansitra fis-700 Q.K. L-ekkleżjastiċi ta' Sparta kienu ġemgħa tal-poplu, li kienet tiltaqa' darba fix-xahar, fejn kull ċittadini maskili ta' mill-inqas 20 sena seta' jipparteċipa. Fl-assemblea, l-Ispartani kienu jeleġġu l-mexxejja u jixħtu l-voti tagħhom bl-għajjat (il-votazzjoni kienet tiġi deċiża skont l-ikbar għajta tal-folla). [[Aristotli]] ddeskriva dan il-metodu bħala "tat-tfal", meta mqabbel mas-sistema tal-votazzjoni fuq poloz tal-ġebel użata miċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Sparta adottat din is-sistema minħabba s-sempliċità tagħha, u biex jiġi evitat kull tip ta' preġudizzju, xiri jew qerq fil-votazzjoni, li kienu predominanti fl-elezzjonijiet demokratiċi bikrin. Barra minn hekk, id-depożizzjoni tar-Renju Ruman ħolqot sistema b'element demokratiku fil-forma ta' bosta ġemgħat popolari differenti. Minkejja li r-Repubblika Rumana tat kontribut sinifikanti għal bosta aspetti tad-demokrazija, frazzjon biss mir-Rumani kienu ċittadini li kellhom il-vot fl-elezzjonijiet għall-maġistrati. Il-voti tas-setgħana kienu jingħataw iktar piż permezz ta' sistema ta' votazzjoni ponderata, għaldaqstant il-biċċa l-kbira tal-uffiċjali għoljin, inkluż il-membri tas-Senat, kienu jiġu minn ftit familji għonja u nobbli. Il-mudell Ruman ta' governanza ispira bosta ħassieba politiċi tul is-sekli. ==== Indja tal-qedem ==== Vaishali, il-[[belt kapitali]] tal-Lega ta' Vajjika (Vrijji mahajanapada) tal-Indja, titqies bħala wieħed mill-ewwel eżempji ta' repubblika għall-ħabta tas-seklu 6 Q.K. ==== Amerki ==== [[Kultura|Kulturi]] oħra, bħall-Iroquois fl-Amerki, żviluppaw ukoll forma ta' soċjetà demokratika bejn l-1450 u l-1660 (u possibbilment fl-1142), ferm qabel ma kellhom kuntatt mal-[[Ewropa|Ewropej]]. Din id-demokrazija għadha preżenti sal-lum u hija l-iżjed demokrazija rappreżentattiva antika eżistenti fid-dinja. === [[Medjuevu|Medju Evu]] === Filwaqt li l-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjuni fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu kienu mmexxijin mill-kleru jew minn sinjuri fewdali, kienu jeżistu diversi sistemi li kienu jinvolvu l-elezzjonijiet jew il-ġemgħat, għalkemm spiss kienu jinvolvu parti żgħira mill-popolazzjoni. Fl-Iskandinavja, kien hemm korpi magħrufa ta' nies ħielsa ppreseduti minn kelliem tal-liġi. Dawn il-korpi ta' deliberazzjoni kienu responsabbli għas-soluzzjoni ta' kwistjonijiet politiċi, u xi varjanti kienu jinkludu l-Althing fl-[[Iżlanda]] u l-Løgting fil-[[Gżejjer Faroe|Gżejjer Faeroe]]. Il-''veche'', fil-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]], kien korp simili għal dawk tal-Iskandinavja. Fil-[[Knisja Kattolika]] Rumana, il-[[Papa]] ilu jiġi elett minn [[konklav]] Papali magħmul mill-kardinali mill-1059. L-ewwel korp Parlamentari ddokumentat fl-Ewropa kien il-Cortes ta' [[León]]. Stabbilit minn [[Alfonsu IX|Alfonso IX]] fl-1188, il-Cortes kellu l-awtorità għall-iffissar tat-tassazzjoni, għall-affarijiet barranin u għal-leġiżlazzjoni, għalkemm in-natura eżatta tar-rwol tiegħu għadha kkontestata. Ir-Repubblika ta' [[Ragusa]], stabbilita fl-1358 u ċċentrata madwar il-belt ta' [[Dubrovnik]], ipprovdiet drittijiet ta' rappreżentanza u ta' votazzjoni lill-aristokrazija maskili tagħha biss. Diversi bliet-stati u sistemi ta' governanza Taljani kellhom forom ta' governanza repubblikani. Pereżempju, ir-Repubblika ta' [[Firenze]], stabbilita fl-1115, kienet immexxija mis-Signoria u l-membri tagħha kienu jintgħażlu bix-xorti. Fil-Frisja tas-sekli 10–15, soċjetà mhux fewdali distinta, id-dritt tal-votazzjoni dwar kwistjonijiet lokali u dwar l-uffiċjali tal-kontea kien ibbażat fuq id-daqs tal-art. Il-''Kouroukan Fouga'' qasam l-Imperu tal-[[Mali]] fi klans tat-tmexxija li kienu rrappreżentati f'ġemgħa kbira msejħa l-''Gbara''. Madankollu, id-dokument wassal biex il-Mali jkun iktar simili għal monarkija kostituzzjonali milli repubblika demokratika. Il-Parlament tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] kellu l-għeruq tiegħu fir-restrizzjonijiet tal-poter tar-rejiet miktubin fil-''Magna Carta'' (1215), li b'mod espliċitu ħarset ċerti drittijiet tas-sudditi tar-Re u b'mod impliċitu appoġġat dak li mbagħad sar id-digriet Ingliż tal-''habeas corpus'', li jissalvagwardja l-libertà individwali mill-ħabs illegali u li jagħti d-dritt tal-appell. L-ewwel assemblea nazzjonali rappreżentattiva fl-Ingilterra kienet il-Parlament ta' [[Simon de Montfort]] fl-1265. Il-preżenza tat-tressiq tal-petizzjonijiet hija fost l-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-użu tal-Parlament bħala forum biex jiġi indirizzat it-tħassib ġenerali tan-nies ordinarji. Madankollu, is-setgħa tas-sejħa tal-Parlament baqgħet f'idejn il-monarka. Xi studji kkollegaw l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjonijiet Parlamentari fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu mal-agglomerazzjonijiet urbani u mal-ħolqien ta' klassijiet ġodda, bħall-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]], kif ukoll mal-preżenza tan-nobbli u tal-eliti reliġjużi. L-istudjużi kkollegaw ukoll l-istabbiliment tal-governanza rappreżentattiva mal-frammentazzjoni politika relattiva tal-Ewropa. Ix-xjenzat politiku [[David Stasavage]] jikkollega l-frammentazzjoni tal-Ewropa, u d-demokratizzazzjoni sussegwenti tagħha, mal-mod kif sfaxxa l-[[Imperu Ruman]]: it-territorju Ruman inħakem minn gruppi frammentati żgħar ta' tribujiet Ġermaniċi, u dan wassal għall-ħolqien ta' unitajiet politiċi żgħar fejn il-mexxejja kienu relattivament dgħajfin u kienu jeħtieġu l-kunsens taċ-ċittadini tagħhom biex jifilħu għat-theddidiet barranin. Fil-[[Polonja]], id-demokrazija nobbli kienet ikkaratterizzata minn żieda fl-attività tan-nobbiltà nofsanija, li riedet iżżid is-sehem tagħha fl-eżerċitar tal-poter għas-spejjeż tal-manjati. Il-manjati ddominaw l-iżjed karigi importanti fl-istat (lajċi u ekkleżjastiċi) u kienu jinġabru fil-kunsill irjali, li iktar 'il quddiem sar is-senat. L-importanza dejjem tikber tan-nobbiltà nofsanija kellha impatt fuq l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjoni tal-art magħrufa bħala s-''sejmik'' (assemblea lokali), li sussegwentement kisbet iktar drittijiet. Matul is-seklu 15 u l-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 16, is-sejmiks ingħataw iktar u iktar poter u saru l-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tal-poter lokali. Fl-1454, [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] ta lis-sejmiks id-dritt li jiddeċiedu dwar it-taxxi u li jorganizzaw mobilizzazzjoni tal-massa fl-Istatuti ta' Nieszawa. Huwa wiegħed ukoll li ma kienx se joħloq liġijiet ġodda mingħajr il-kunsens tagħhom. === Era moderna === ==== Perjodu modern bikri ==== Fl-Ingilterra tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta. Il-Parlament tal-Ingilterra għadda l-Petizzjoni tad-Drittijiet fl-1628 li stabbiliet ċerti libertajiet għas-sudditi. Il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża (1642–1651) ġiet miġġielda bejn ir-Re u Parlament oligarkiku iżda elett, u matul dan iż-żmien iffurmat l-idea ta' partit politiku, bi gruppi jiddibattu d-drittijiet għar-rappreżentanza politika matul id-Dibattiti ta' Putney tal-1647. Sussegwentement, il-Protettorat (1653–59) u l-Integrazzjoni mill-Ġdid Ingliża (1660) integraw iktar tmexxija awtokratika, għalkemm il-Parlament għadda l-Att dwar il-''Habeas Corpus'' fl-1679 li saħħaħ il-konvenzjoni li pprojbixxiet id-detenzjoni mingħajr biżżejjed raġunijiet jew evidenza. Wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688, il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet ġiet ippromulgata fl-1689 u din ikkodifikat ċerti drittijiet u libertajiet u għadha fis-seħħ. Il-liġi stabbiliet ir-rekwiżiti li jsiru elezzjonijiet regolari, ir-regoli għal-libertà tal-kelma fil-Parlament u limitat il-poter tal-monarka, u b'hekk żgurat, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-Ewropa ta' dak iż-żmien, li l-assolutiżmu rjali ma jipprevalix. L-istoriċi ekonomiċi [[Douglass North]] u [[Barry Weingast]] ikkaratterizzaw l-istituzzjonijiet implimentati fir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża bħala suċċess kbir f'termini tar-restrizzjonijiet tal-governanza u l-iżgurar tal-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet tal-proprjetà. L-interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta, il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża, u r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża fis-seklu 17 xprunaw it-tkabbir ta' filosofija politika fil-Gżejjer Brittaniċi. [[Thomas Hobbes]] kien l-ewwel filosfu li fassal teorija dettaljata dwar il-kuntratt soċjali. Fil-''Leviathan'' (1651), Hobbes ħareġ bit-teorija li l-individwi li jgħixu fin-natura kienu jgħixu ħajja "solitarja, fqira, kerha, iebsa u qasira" u kienu jagħmlu gwerer kontinwi kontra kulħadd. Sabiex tiġi evitata l-okkorrenza tal-istat anarkiku tan-natura, Hobbes irraġuna li l-individwi kienu jċedu d-drittijiet tagħhom lil qawwa awtoritarja setgħana. Fi kliem ieħor, Hobbes tkellem favur monarkija assoluta, li fl-opinjoni tiegħu kienet l-aqwa forma ta' governanza. Iktar 'il quddiem, il-filosfu u t-[[tabib]] [[John Locke]] ħareġ b'interpretazzjoni differenti dwar it-teorija tal-kuntratt soċjali. Fiż-''Żewġ Trattati tal-Governanza'' (1689) tiegħu, Locke sostna li l-individwi kollha kellhom id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għall-proprjetà. Skont Locke, l-individwi kienu jinġabru volontarjament flimkien biex jiffurmaw stat bl-għan li jiddefendu drittijiethom. Għal Locke kienu partikolarment importanti d-drittijiet tal-proprjetà, li skont Locke kienu jirrikjedu l-ħarsien, li kien l-iskop primarju tal-gvern. Barra minn hekk, Locke sostna li l-gvernijiet kienu leġittimi biss jekk kellhom il-kunsens ta' dawk li kienu ggvernati. Skont Locke, iċ-ċittadini kellhom id-dritt jirribellaw kontra l-gvern jekk dan kien jaġixxi kontra l-interessi tagħhom jew isir tiranniku. Għalkemm ma tantx kienu moqrija matul ħajtu, ix-xogħlijiet ta' Locke jitqiesu bħala d-dokumenti li jsejsu l-ħsieb liberali u influwenzaw ferm il-mexxejja tar-Rivoluzzjoni Amerikana u iktar 'il quddiem ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża]]. Il-qafas demokratiku liberali tiegħu tal-governanza għadu l-forma ewlenija tad-demokrazija fid-dinja. Fir-repubbliki tal-Cossack tal-[[Ukrajna]] fis-sekli 16 u 17, l-Etmanat tal-Cossack u s-Sich ta' Zaporizhia, id-detentur tal-ogħla kariga ta' Hetman kien jiġi elett mir-rappreżentanti tad-distretti tal-pajjiż. Fl-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]], il-governanza rappreżentattiva bdiet f'Jamestown, Virginia, bl-elezzjoni tal-Kamra tal-Burgesses (il-prekursur tal-Assemblea Ġenerali ta' Virginia) fl-1619. Il-Puritani Ingliżi li għamlu migrazzjoni mill-1620 stabbilew kolonji f'New England, fejn kien hemm governanza lokali demokratika; il-poter ta' dawn l-assemblej lokali kien ivarja ferm tul il-perjodu kolonjali. Madankollu, uffiċjalment kellhom ammonti żgħar ta' poter devolut, peress li l-awtorità aħħarija kienet f'idejn il-monarkija u l-Parlament. Il-Puritani, il-Battisti u l-Quakers li stabbilew dawn il-kolonji applikaw l-organizzazzjoni demokratika tal-kongregazzjonijiet tagħhom anke għall-amministrazzjoni tal-komunitajiet tagħhom fil-ħajja ta' kuljum. ==== Sekli 18 u 19 ==== L-ewwel Parlament tal-Gran Brittanja ġie stabbilit fl-1707, wara l-fużjoni tar-Renju tal-Ingilterra u r-Renju tal-[[Skozja|Iskozja]] skont l-Atti tal-Unjoni. Żewġ dokumenti ewlenin tal-kostituzzjoni mhux kodifikata tar-Renju Unit, id-Dikjarazzjoni Ingliża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689 (imsejħa mill-ġdid bħala l-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689) u d-Dikjarazzjoni Skoċċiża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689, it-tnejn li huma kienu kkonsolidaw il-pożizzjoni tal-Parlament bħala l-korp suprem tat-tfassil tal-liġijiet u kienu jgħidu li "l-elezzjoni tal-membri tal-Parlament kellha tkun ħielsa". Madankollu, il-Parlament kien jiġi elett biss mis-sidien tal-art maskili, li kienu jammontaw għal 3 % tal-popolazzjoni fl-1780. L-ewwel persuna Brittanika magħrufa ta' nisel Afrikan li vvota f'elezzjoni ġenerali, [[Ignatius Sancho]], ivvota fl-1774 u fl-1780. Matul l-Era tal-Libertà fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] (1718–1772), id-drittijiet ċivili twessgħu u l-poter għadda mingħand il-monarka għall-Parlament. Ir-raħħala intaxxati kienu rrappreżentati fil-Parlament, għalkemm ma tantx kellhom influwenza, iżda n-nies komuni mingħajr proprjetà intaxxata ma kellhomx suffraġju. Il-ħolqien ta' Repubblika ta' [[Korsika]] ta' għomorha qasir fl-1755 kien tentattiv bikri li tiġi adottata kostituzzjoni demokratika (setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel u n-nisa kollha li kellhom iktar minn 25 sena). Din il-Kostituzzjoni ta' Korsika kienet l-ewwel waħda bbażata fuq il-prinċipji tal-Illuminiżmu u kienet tinkludi s-suffraġju femminili, xi ħaġa li ma kinitx inkluża fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji l-oħra sas-seklu 20. L-Amerka kolonjali kellha kwalifikazzjonijiet simili dwar il-proprjetà bħall-Brittanja, u fil-perjodu qabel l-1776 l-abbundanza u d-disponibbiltà tal-art kienet tfisser li għadd kbir ta' kolonjalisti kienu jissodisfaw tali rekwiżiti b'mill-inqas 60 fil-mija tal-irġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda li setgħu jivvutaw. Il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda kienu [[Bidwi|bdiewa]] li kienu jissodisfaw ir-rekwiżiti tas-sjieda tal-proprjetà jew tal-ħlas tat-taxxa. Bi ftit eċċezzjonijiet, l-ebda mara jew persuna b'karnaġjon sewda ma setgħu jivvutaw. Vermont, li malli ddikjarat l-indipendenza mill-Gran Brittanja fl-1777, adottat kostituzzjoni mmudellata fuq iċ-ċittadinanza u s-suffraġju demokratiku ta' Pennsylvania għall-irġiel bi proprjetà jew mingħajr proprjetà. Il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti tal-1787 hija l-eqdem kostituzzjoni governattiva kkodifikata li għadha teżisti u li għadha attiva. Il-Kostituzzjoni kienet tipprevedi gvern elett u protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet ċivili, iżda ma temmitx il-jasar u lanqas ma estendiet id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni fl-Istati Uniti, u minflok ħalliet il-kwistjoni tas-suffraġju f'idejn l-istati individwali. Ġeneralment, l-istati llimitaw is-suffraġju għas-sidien tal-proprjetà maskili u għal dawk li jħallsu t-taxxi ta' karnaġjon bajda. Meta kien hemm l-ewwel elezzjoni Presidenzjali fl-1789, madwar 6 % tal-popolazzjoni kienet eliġibbli biex tivvota. L-Att dwar in-Naturalizzazzjoni tal-1790 illimita ċ-ċittadinanza Amerikana lill-persuni ta' karnaġjon bajda biss. Il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet fl-1791 stabbiliet limiti fuq il-poter tal-gvern sabiex tħares il-libertajiet personali iżda kellha ftit impatt fuq is-sentenzi tal-qrati għall-ewwel 130 sena wara r-ratifika. Fl-1789, [[Franza]] Rivoluzzjonarja adottat id-Dikjarazzjoni tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem u taċ-Ċittadini, u għalkemm għomorha kien qasir, il-Konvenzjoni Nazzjonali kienet eletta mill-irġiel kollha biss fl-1792. Il-Kostituzzjoni Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]] tat-3 ta' Mejju 1791 ippruvat timplimenta monarkija kostituzzjonali iktar effettiva, introduċiet l-ugwaljanza politika bejn iċ-ċittadini u n-nobbli, u poġġiet ir-raħħala taħt il-protezzjoni tal-gvern, u b'hekk taffiet l-agħar abbużi kontra r-raħħala. Din damet fis-seħħ għal inqas minn 19-il xahar, u ġiet iddikjarata nulla mis-Sejm ta' Grodno li ltaqa' fl-1793. Minkejja dan, il-Kostituzzjoni tal-1791 għenet biex l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Pollakki jibqgħu ħajjin għar-restawr eventwali tas-sovranità tal-pajjiż iktar minn seklu wara. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1828 kienet l-ewwel waħda li fiha setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda li ma kinux sidien tal-proprjetà fil-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-istati. L-ammont ta' nies li ħarġu jivvutaw żdied matul is-snin 30 tas-seklu 19, u laħaq madwar 80 % tal-popolazzjoni ta' rġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda fl-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1840. North Carolina kien l-aħħar stat li abolixxa l-kwalifazzjoni abbażi tal-proprjetà fl-1856 u dan wassal għal approssimazzjoni tas-suffraġju universali tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda (madankollu r-rekwiżiti tal-ħlas tat-taxxa baqgħu jeżistu f'ħames stati fl-1860 u baqgħu jeżistu f'żewġ stati sas-seklu 20). Fiċ-ċensiment tal-Istati Uniti tal-1860, il-popolazzjoni tal-iskjavi kienet kibret għal 4 miljuni, u fir-Rikostruzzjoni wara l-Gwerra Ċivili, għaddew tliet emendi kostituzzjonali: it-13-il Emenda (1865) li temmet l-iskjavitù; l-14-il Emenda (1869) li tat iċ-ċittadinanza lin-nies ta' karnaġjon sewda, u l-15-il Emenda (1870) lil tat lill-irġiel ta' karnaġjon sewda d-dritt nominali biex jivvutaw. L-involviment sħiħ taċ-ċittadini kollha ma ġiex żgurat sa wara li l-moviment tad-drittijiet ċivili kiseb l-approvazzjoni mill-Kungress tal-Istati Uniti fir-rigward tal-Att dwar id-Drittijiet tal-Votazzjoni tal-1965. Id-dritt tal-votazzjoni fir-Renju Unit twessa' u sar iktar uniformi permezz ta' sensiela ta' riformi li bdew bl-Att dwar ir-Riformi tal-1832 u komplew fis-seklu 20, b'mod partikolari bl-Att dwar ir-Rappreżentanza tan-Nies tal-1918 u l-Att dwar l-Ugwaljanza tal-1928. Is-suffraġju maskili universali ġie stabbilit fi Franza f'Marzu 1848 fid-dawl tar-Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża tal-1848. Matul dik is-sena, faqqgħu diversi rivoluzzjonijiet fl-Ewropa peress li l-mexxejja kellhom ilaħħqu mad-domandi popolari għall-kostituzzjonijiet liberali u għal iktar governanza demokratika. Fl-1876, l-[[Imperu Ottoman]] għadda minn monarkija assoluta għal waħda kostituzzjonali, u organizza żewġ elezzjonijiet is-sena ta' wara biex jeleġġi membri fil-Parlament li kien għadu kemm ġie ffurmat. Inħarġu Regolamenti Elettorali Proviżorji, li kienu jiddikjaraw li l-membri eletti tal-Kunsilli Amministrattivi Provinċjali kellhom jeleġġu l-membri għall-ewwel Parlament. Iktar tard dik is-sena, ġiet ippromulgata kostituzzjoni ġdida, li kienet tipprevedi l-istabbiliment ta' Parlament bikamerali b'Senat maħtur mis-Sultan u Kamra tad-Deputati eletta mill-poplu. Kienu jitħallew jikkontestaw għall-elezzjoni l-irġiel biss li kellhom iktar minn 30 sena u li kienu midħla tat-Tork u li kellhom drittijiet ċivili sħaħ. Fost ir-raġunijiet ta' skwalifika kien hemm iż-żamma ta' ċittadinanza doppja, ir-reklutaġġ minn gvern barrani, il-falliment monetarju, l-impjieg bħala qaddej, jew "ir-reputazzjoni tat-twettiq ta' azzjonijiet ħżiena". Is-suffraġju universali sħiħ inkiseb fl-1934. Fl-1893, il-kolonja bl-awtogovernanza ta' [[New Zealand]] saret l-ewwel pajjiż fid-dinja (għajr għar-Repubblika ta' Korsika b'għomorha qasir tas-seklu 18 li stabbiliet is-suffraġju universali attiv billi n-nisa ngħataw id-dritt tal-votazzjoni. ==== Sekli 20 u 21 ==== It-tranżizzjonijiet tas-seklu 20 lejn id-demokrazija liberali waslu f'"mewġiet suċċessivi tad-demokrazija", u rriżultaw b'modi differenti minn gwerer, rivoluzzjonijiet, dekolonizzazzjoni, u ċirkostanzi reliġjużi u ekonomiċi. Il-mewġiet globali ta' "regressjoni demokratika" li reġġgħu lura d-demokratizzazzjoni seħħew ukoll fis-snin 20 u 30 tas-seklu 20, fis-snin 60 u 70 tas-seklu 20 u fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21. [[L-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]] u x-xoljiment tal-[[Imperu Ottoman]] u tal-Imperu Awstro-Ungariku wasslu għall-ħolqien ta' nazzjonijiet-stati ġodda fl-Ewropa, u l-biċċa l-kbira minnhom kienu mill-inqas nominalment demokratiċi. Fis-snin 20 tas-seklu 20 tkattru l-movimenti demokratiċi u s-suffraġju universali avvanza, iżda d-Dipressjoni l-Kbira ġabet magħha diżillużjoni u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Ewropa, tal-Amerka Latina u tal-[[Asja]] daru għat-tmexxija ta' rġiel b'saħħithom jew dittaturi. Il-Faxxiżmu u d-dittaturi tkattru fil-[[Ġermanja]] Nażista, fl-[[Italja]], fi [[Spanja]] u fil-[[Portugall]], kif ukoll il-gvernijiet mhux demokratiċi fil-Baltiċi, fil-Balkani, fil-[[Brażil]], f'[[Kuba]], fiċ-[[Ċina]] u fil-[[Ġappun]] fost l-oħrajn. [[It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija]] ġabet magħha treġġigħ lura definittiv ta' din it-tendenza fil-Punent tal-Ewropa. Id-demokratizzazzjoni tas-setturi Amerikani, Brittaniċi u Franċiżi tal-Ġermanja okkupata (għalkemm xi sorsi jikkontestaw dan il-punt), tal-[[Awstrija]], tal-[[Italja]], u tal-[[Ġappun]] okkupat serviet bħala mudell għat-teorija li ġiet wara tal-bidla fil-gvern. Madankollu, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Lvant tal-Ewropa, inkluż is-settur [[Unjoni Sovjetika|Sovjetiku]] tal-Ġermanja, sfat fit-territorju mhux demokratiku ddominat mis-Sovjetiċi. Wara l-gwerra kien hemm id-dekolonizzazzjoni, u mill-ġdid il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istati indipendenti ġodda kellhom kostituzzjonijiet nominalment demokratiċi. L-Indja feġġet bħala l-ikbar demokrazija fid-dinja u għadha fit-tmun. Il-pajjiżi li fl-imgħoddi kienu parti mill-Imperu Brittanika, spiss adottaw is-sistema Brittanika ta' Westminster. Fl-1948, id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem irrekjediet id-demokrazija:<blockquote>3. Ir-rieda tan-nies għandha tkun il-bażi tal-awtorità tal-governanza; din għandha tkun espressa f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom jkunu b'suffraġju universali u ugwali u dan għandu jiġi espress f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom isiru b'suffraġju universali u ndaqs u għandhom isiru permezz ta' votazzjoni sigrieta u jew bi proċeduri ekwivalenti ta' votazzjoni ħielsa.</blockquote>— Id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem, l-Artikolu 21, in-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, fl-1948 By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nominal democracies that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in "Communist" states and the former colonies). A subsequent wave of democratisation brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many states, dubbed "third wave of democracy". Portugal, Spain, and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the 1970s and 1980s. This was followed by countries in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratisation and liberalisation of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now either part of the European Union or candidate states. In 1986, after the toppling of the most prominent Asian dictatorship, the only democratic state of its kind at the time emerged in the Philippines with the rise of Corazon Aquino, who would later be known as the mother of Asian democracy. The liberal trend spread to some states in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalisation include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia. According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). According to ''World Forum on Democracy'', electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58.2 per cent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i.e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 per cent of the global population. Also in 2007 the United Nations declared 15 September the International Day of Democracy. Many countries reduced their voting age to 18 years; the major democracies began to do so in the 1970s starting in Western Europe and North America.^{[''failed verification'']} Most electoral democracies continue to exclude those younger than 18 from voting. The voting age has been lowered to 16 for national elections in a number of countries, including Brazil, Austria, Cuba, and Nicaragua. In California, a 2004 proposal to permit a quarter vote at 14 and a half vote at 16 was ultimately defeated. In 2008, the German parliament proposed but shelved a bill that would grant the vote to each citizen at birth, to be used by a parent until the child claims it for themselves. According to Freedom House, starting in 2005, there have been 17 consecutive years in which declines in political rights and civil liberties throughout the world have outnumbered improvements, as populist and nationalist political forces have gained ground everywhere from Poland (under the Law and Justice party) to the Philippines (under Rodrigo Duterte). In a Freedom House report released in 2018, Democracy Scores for most countries declined for the 12th consecutive year. ''The Christian Science Monitor'' reported that nationalist and populist political ideologies were gaining ground, at the expense of rule of law, in countries like Poland, Turkey and Hungary. For example, in Poland, the President appointed 27 new Supreme Court judges over legal objections from the European Commission. In Turkey, thousands of judges were removed from their positions following a failed coup attempt during a government crackdown . "Democratic backsliding" in the 2010s were attributed to economic inequality and social discontent, personalism, poor government's management of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as other factors such as manipulation of civil society, "toxic polarization", foreign disinformation campaigns, racism and nativism, excessive executive power, and decreased power of the opposition. Within English-speaking Western democracies, "protection-based" attitudes combining cultural conservatism and leftist economic attitudes were the strongest predictor of support for authoritarian modes of governance. == Teorija == === Teorija bikrija === Aristotle's '''democratic theory''' contrasted rule by the many (democracy/timocracy), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy/elitism), and with rule by a single person (tyranny/autocracy/absolute monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to timocracy). A common view among early and renaissance Republican theorists was that democracy could only survive in small political communities. Heeding the lessons of the Roman Republic's shift to monarchism as it grew larger or smaller, these Republican theorists held that the expansion of territory and population inevitably led to tyranny. Democracy was therefore highly fragile and rare historically, as it could only survive in small political units, which due to their size were vulnerable to conquest by larger political units. Montesquieu famously said, "if a republic is small, it is destroyed by an outside force; if it is large, it is destroyed by an internal vice." Jean-Jacques Rousseau asserted, "It is, therefore the natural property of small states to be governed as a republic, of middling ones to be subject to a monarch, and of large empires to be swayed by a despotic prince." === Teorija kontemporanja === Fost it-teoriji politiċi moderni, jeżistu kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. ==== Aggregazzjoni ==== The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit citizens' preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. According to the minimalist democracy conception, elections are a mechanism for competition between politicians. Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view famously in his book ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''. Anthony Downs argues that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individuals and governments. On the other hand, direct democracy, where citizens vote directly on legislative proposals, can show better aggregation in cases of differences in preferences between elites and voters. ===== Mandat medjan ===== According to the median voter theorem the political representativeness can be evaluated by comparing how close laws and policies are to the views of the median voter along the political spectrum. The ''median mandate'' views the preferences of the median voter as granting political legitimacy. ==== Poliarkija ==== Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration. He uses the term polyarchy ("rule by many") to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that "democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal." ==== Deliberazzjoni ==== Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. Citizens assemblies are considered by many scholars as practical examples of deliberative democracy, with a recent OECD report identifying citizens assemblies as an increasingly popular mechanism to involve citizens in governmental decision-making. Proponents of direct democracy view citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. ==== Tipi ta' demokraziji governattivi ==== Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not structured to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. ===== Forom bażiċi ===== Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy is direct democracy, in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly. In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a representative democracy. If the head of state is democratically elected then the polity is called a democratic republic ====== Demokrazija diretta ====== Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. Proponents like Jean-Jacques Rousseau argue the direct approach increases legitimacy. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: * Change constitutional laws, * Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws Within modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens' initiatives and recall elections are referred to as forms of direct democracy. However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion. Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus, the Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities, communities affiliated with the CIPO-RFM, the Bolivian city councils of FEJUVE, and Kurdish cantons of Rojava. ====== Demokrazija semidiretta ====== Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed ''semi-direct democracies'' or ''participatory democracies''. Examples include Switzerland and some U.S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. The Swiss confederation is a semi-direct democracy. At the federal level, citizens can propose changes to the constitution (federal popular initiative) or ask for a referendum to be held on any law voted by the parliament. Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, to answer 103 questions (during the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums). Although in the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum. Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. In New England, town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a representative state government. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters. ====== Sistema tax-xorti ====== The use of a lot system, a characteristic of Athenian democracy, is a feature of some versions of direct democracies. In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens picked from a lottery. ====== Demokrazija rappreżentattiva ====== Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so. Such reasons have driven criticism upon representative democracy, pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy. ====== Demokrazija Parlamentari ====== Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. In a parliamentary system, the prime minister may be dismissed by the legislature at any point in time for not meeting the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a vote of no confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the prime minister from office with majority support for dismissal. In some countries, the prime minister can also call an election at any point in time, typically when the prime minister believes that they are in good favour with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies, extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. An important feature of the parliamentary democracy is the concept of the "loyal opposition". The essence of the concept is that the second largest political party (or opposition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while still remaining loyal to the state and its democratic principles. ====== Demokrazija Presidenzjali ====== Presidential democracy is a system where the public elects the president through an election. The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. The legislature often has limited ability to remove a president from office. Elections typically have a fixed date and are not easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing the cabinet members. The executive usually has the responsibility to execute or implement legislation and may have the limited legislative powers, such as a veto. However, a legislative branch passes legislation and budgets. This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence, however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia. A semi-presidential system is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. ==== Tipoloġija ==== ===== Monarkija kostituzzjonali ===== Many countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs (often gradually) with limited or symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689. Strongly limited constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, have been referred to as crowned republics by writers such as H. G. Wells. In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, and Egypt). An elected person, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries. Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many states. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British House of Lords) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the Australian Senate). ===== Demokrazija repubblika ===== The term ''republic'' has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. The Founding Fathers of the United States often criticised direct democracy; James Madison argued, especially in ''The Federalist'' No. 10, that what distinguished a direct ''democracy'' from a ''republic'' was that the former depended on small size and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure. Accordingly, during Philadelphia convention Madison called election of representatives by large territories "the only defence against the inconveniencies of democracy consistent with the democratic form of Govt." Professors Richard Ellis of Willamette University and Michael Nelson of Rhodes College argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on "the problem of majority tyranny". They conclude, "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities." What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the US Constitution, Elizabeth Willing Powel asked him "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic—if you can keep it." ===== Demokrazija liberali ===== A liberal democracy is a representative democracy which enshrines a liberal political philosophy, where the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, moderated by a constitution or laws such as the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and constrained on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities. ===== Demokrazija Soċjalista ===== Socialist thought has several different views on democracy, for example social democracy or democratic socialism. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory, industrial, economic and/or workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. ===== Demokrazija Marxista ===== Marxist theory supports a democratic society centering the working class. Some Marxists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy or workers' councils (which are sometimes called soviets). This system can begin with workplace democracy and can manifest itself as soviet democracy or dictatorship of the proletariat. Trotskyist groups have interpreted socialist democracy to be synonymous with multi-party far-left representation, autonomous union organizations, worker's control of production, internal party democracy and the mass participation of the working masses. Some communist parties support a soviet republic with democratic centralism. Within democracy in Marxism there can be hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy". ===== Demokrazija Anarkista ===== Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticised individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism. Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. ===== Demokrazija każwali ===== Sortition is the process of choosing decision-making bodies via a random selection. These bodies can be more representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large than an elected legislature or other decision-maker. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence and is still used in modern jury selection and citizens' assemblies. ===== Demokrazija Kostituzzjonali ===== Consociational democracy, also called consociationalism, is a form of democracy based on power-sharing formula between elites representing the social groups within the society. In 1969, Arendt Lijphart argued this would stabilize democracies with factions. A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them. The Qualified majority voting rule in European Council of Ministers is a consociational democracy approach for supranational democracies. This system in Treaty of Rome allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. A consociational democracy requires consensus of representatives, while consensus democracy requires consensus of electorate. ===== Demokrazija maġġoritarja ===== Majoritarian democracy is a form of democracy based upon a principle of majority rule. Majoritarian democracy contrasts with consensus democracy, rule by as many people as possible. ===== Konsensus ===== Consensus democracy requires consensus decision-making and supermajority to obtain a larger support than majority. In contrast, in majoritarian democracy minority opinions can potentially be ignored by vote-winning majorities. Constitutions typically require consensus or supermajorities. ===== Demokrazija etnika ===== The term ethnic democracy, as used by some political scientists, purports to describe a governance system that combines a structured ethnic dominance with democratic, political and civil rights for all. Both the dominant ethnic group—typically an ethnic majority—and the minority ethnic groups have citizenship and are able to fully participate in the political process. However, critics of the "ethnic democracy" model argue it is a contradiction in terms, and thus conceptually inadequate or confusing; these critics allege that purported ethnic democracies, most notably Israel, are not democratic at all, or are at best a sort of semi-democracy. ===== Demokrazija inklużiva ===== Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal ''Democracy & Nature'' and its successor ''The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy''. ===== Politika parteċipattiva ===== A parpolity or participatory polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a nested council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision-making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council. A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy. ===== Demokrazija proċedurali ===== Procedural democracy or proceduralist democracy, proceduralism or hollow democracy is a term used to denote the particular procedures, such as regular elections based on universal suffrage, that produce an electorally-legitimated government. Procedural democracy, with its centering of electoral processes as the basis of democratic legitimacy, is often contrasted with substantive or participatory democracy, which centers the equal participation of all groups in society in the political process as the basis of legitimacy. ===== Demokrazija radikali ===== Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Radical democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes. ===== Demokrazija reliġjuża ===== Religious democracy is a form of democracy where the values of a particular religion or state religion are preferred. The term applies to all democratic countries in which religion is incorporated into the form of government. ===== Demokrazija kożmopolitana ===== Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as ''global democracy'' or ''world federalism'', is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them. According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing international organisations, e.g., the United Nations, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a World Parliament, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics. Cosmopolitan democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi. The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy. ===== Demokrazija kreattiva ===== Creative democracy is advocated by American philosopher John Dewey. The main idea about creative democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us" and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral ideal requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute". ===== Demokrazija ggwidata ===== Guided democracy is a form of democracy that incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner that may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "guided democracy". Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government. === Tfittxija ta' fehim komuni === The search for a common approach to conceptualize, measure and compare democracy remains a challenge in modern political science. This challenge strikes through to measuring, assessing and comparing the quality of democracy, as Seva Gunitsky pointed in 2015 in the Washington Post, based upon his research for ''Ranking the World – Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance'', that measuring democracy can mislead as much as clarify – a problem for academics, policy-makers and anyone who cares about democracy. In his contribution ''Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics'' to ''Ranking the World'', he, on the example of former Soviet republics, examines fundamental problems with measures of democracy, observing that indices often disagree and occasionally draw contradictory conclusions from observing the same event. He argues, that this reflects inherent tradeoffs in conceptualizing democratic governance, which arise from fundamental normative disagreements about a highly contested concept. In 2011, Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al. proposed an approach to such conceptualization and measurement. In their paper ''Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: A New Approach'' they review some of the weaknesses among contemporary and older approaches, then lay out their approach, characterizing it as ''historical'', ''multidimensional'', ''disaggregated'', and ''transparent''. The authors propose to create a new set of four features to conceptualize and measure democracy. First, ''historical'', extending indicators of democracy back through modern history, wherever possible. Second, a ''multidimensional'' approach to the problem of conceptualizing democracy. Third, to collect information relevant to democracy at a highly ''disaggregated'' level. Fourth, ''transparent'', a strategy for data collection and presentation that should enhance the precision, validity, transparency, and legitimacy of the resulting indicators. They also sum up the conceptions, and/or aspects, of democracy into six – ''electoral'', ''liberal'', ''majoritarian'', ''participatory'', ''deliberative'', and ''egalitarian'', which taken together offer a fairly comprehensive accounting of the concept of democracy as it is employed today (see overview in the table below). {| class="wikitable" | colspan="5" | ---- |- | colspan="5" |Conceptions of democracy by Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al., 2011 |- valign="top" | | |Principles |Question |Institutions |- | colspan="5" | ---- |- valign="top" |I. |'''Electoral''' |Contestation, competition |Are government offices filled by free and fair multiparty elections? |Elections, political parties, competitiveness and turnover |- valign="top" |II. |'''Liberal''' |Limited government, multiple veto points, horizontal accountability, individual rights, civil liberties, transparency |Is political power decentralized & constrained? |Multiple, independent, and decentralized, with special focus on the role of the media, interest groups, the judiciary, and a written constitution with explicit guarantees |- valign="top" |III. |'''Majoritarian''' |Majority rule, centralization, vertical accountability |Does the majority (or plurality) rule? |Consolidated and centralized, with special focus on the role of political parties |- valign="top" |IV. |'''Participatory''' |Government by the people |Do ordinary citizens participate in politics? |Election law, civil society, local government, direct democracy |- valign="top" |V. |'''Deliberative''' |Government by reason |Are political decisions the product of public deliberation? |Media, hearings, panels, other deliberative bodies |- valign="top" |VI. |'''Egalitarian''' |Political equality |Are all citizens equally empowered? |Designed to ensure equal participation, representation, protection, and politically relevant resources |- | colspan="5" | ---- |} === Measurement of democracy === Main article: Measurement of democracy Measurement of democracy varies according to the different fundamental conceptions of democracy. Minimalist democracy evaluations focus on free and fair elections, while maximalist democracy evaluates additional values, such as human rights, deliberation, economic outcomes or state capacity. == Demokrazija mhux governattiva == Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy. Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed Islamic democracy or ''Islamocracy''. There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff. === Demokrazija tal-azzjonisti === Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders. In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle. Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives. The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights. == Ġustifikazzjoni == Ingħataw diversi ġustifikazzjonijiet għad-demokrazija. === Leġittimità === Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. The public legitimacy of democracy varies by country, in some countries religious texts have more public support than the will of the people. === Teħid ta' deċiżjonijiet aħjar === Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution. === Suċċess ekonomiku === In ''Why Nations Fail'', economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. Unemployment is associated with anti-democratic beliefs. == Kritika == Democracy as a concept and as a practical form of government has been the subject of critique throughout history. Some critics consider that democratic regimes often fail to be true to the highest principles expected of them, while others reject the values promoted by constitutional democracy in whole or part. Opposition to democracy goes as far back as Plato, who argued for a 'government of the best qualified'. More recently, James Madison extensively studied historic attempts at and arguments on democracy in his preparation for the Constitutional Convention, and Winston Churchill remarked that "no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." Critics argue that modern democracies may fail to be sufficiently democratic and instead function in practice as oligarchies, insofar as governments are more responsive to the preferences of economic elites than to those of ordinary citizens. Numerous empirical studies across various western democracies including the United States, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Norway and Germany have consistently found that elected representatives tend to respond more to the preferences of very affluent citizens for policy outcomes than those of the average voter. Some critics of democracy have highlighted the concept's inconsistencies, paradoxes, and limits: drawing contrasts with other forms of government, such as epistocracy or lottocracy. Others have characterized most modern democracies as democratic polyarchies and democratic aristocracies. Yet others have identified fascist moments in modern democracies. They have termed the societies produced by modern democracies as neo-feudal and have contrasted democracy with fascism, anarcho-capitalism, theocracy, and absolute monarchy. == Tranżizzjonijiet demokratiċi == A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). === Demokratizzazzjoni === Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. The opposite process of democratic transition is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization. Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments could not do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns. Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:^{[''need quotation to verify'']} * a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) * an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence. Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07). A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26). Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750 to 1850 despite arguments to the contrary. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:<blockquote>The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.</blockquote>Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratization in 18 countries: Benin, Bolivia, Botswana, Bazil, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Guatemala, Lesotho, Mauritius, Montenegro, Poland, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste, Thailand, The Gambia, and Zambia. ===== Promozzjoni tad-demokrazija ===== Promotion of democracy can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing electoral integrity, youth suffrage and civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality, reducing presidentialism and aligning with median voter preferences. === Awtokratizzazzjoni === Democratic backsliding is a form of autocratization, a process of structural government transition toward authoritarianism in which the exercise of political power becomes less limited and more arbitrary and repressive. Democratic backsliding specifically assumes a starting point of a democratic system. The process typically restricts the space for public contest and political participation in the process of government selection. Democratic backsliding involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.^{[''citation needed'']} Steven Levitsky says: "It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That's asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters." The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratic backsliding in 44 countries: Afghanistan, Argentina, Armenia, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, El Salvador, Haiti, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Ivory Coast, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Libya, Mali, Madagascar, Mauretania, Mexico, Moldova, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Senegal, Serbia, Romania, Togo, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States. ===== Tfixkil ===== Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: * Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. * Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: ** Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état ** An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. * Royal coup, in which a monarch not normally involved in government seizes all power. For example, the 6 January Dictatorship, begun in 1929 when King Alexander I of Yugoslavia dismissed parliament and started ruling by decree. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. == Influwenza tal-midja == The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: * Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment * Meaningful agenda setting * Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy * Dialogue across a diverse range of views * Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power * Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved * A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience * A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. The ability to find effective political solutions to social problems is hampered when problems tend to be blamed on individuals rather than on structural causes. This person-centered focus may have far-reaching consequences not only for domestic problems but also for foreign policy when international conflicts are blamed on foreign heads of state rather than on political and economic structures. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. The responsiveness and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. In fact, studies show that false stories are going more viral than true stories. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. Reliable information sources are essential for the democratic process. Less democratic governments rely heavily on censorship, propaganda, and misinformation in order to stay in power, while independent sources of information are able to undermine their legitimacy. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Greċja antika]] cmnt03rcm3hniidr1ip4nvf6tvj4cd6 330267 330266 2026-05-28T05:20:36Z Trigcly 17859 /* Sekli 20 u 21 */ 330267 wikitext text/x-wiki Id-'''demokrazija''' hija forma ta' governanza li permezz tagħha l-poter [[Politika|politiku]] jinkiseb min-nies jew mill-popolazzjoni ta' stat. Skont definizzjoni minimalista tad-demokrazija, il-mexxejja jiġu eletti permezz ta' elezzjonijiet kompetittivi filwaqt li d-definizzjonijiet iktar wesgħin jew massimalisti jorbtu d-demokrazija mal-garanziji tal-libertajiet ċivili u d-drittijiet tal-[[bniedem]] apparti l-elezzjonijiet kompetittivi. F'demokrazija diretta, il-poplu jkollu l-awtorità diretta li jagħmel deliberazzjonijiet u li jiddeċiedi dwar il-leġiżlazzjoni. F'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, il-poplu jagħżel l-uffiċjali tal-governanza permezz ta' elezzjonijiet. Id-definizzjoni ta' "poplu" u l-modi kif l-awtorità tiġi kondiviża fi ħdan il-poplu jew iddelegata minnu nbidlu mal-milja taż-żminijiet u b'rati li jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor. Il-karatteristiċi tad-demokrazija spiss jinkludu l-libertà tal-ġemgħa, il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni, il-proprjetà personali, il-libertà tar-[[reliġjon]] u tal-[[kelma]], iċ-ċittadinanza, il-kunsens ta' dawk li jiġu ggvernati, id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni, il-libertà miċ-ċaħda governattiva mhux ġustifikata tad-dritt tal-ħajja u tal-libertà, u d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. In-nozzjoni tad-demokrazija evolviet b'mod konsiderevoli maż-żmien. Matul l-[[Storja|istorja]], wieħed jista' jsib evidenza ta' demokrazija diretta, fejn il-komunitajiet kienu jieħdu deċiżjonijiet permezz ta' ġemgħat popolari. Illum il-ġurnata, il-forma dominanti tad-demokrazija hija d-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, fejn iċ-ċittadini jeleġġu lill-uffiċjali tal-gvern biex jiggvernaw f'isimhom, pereżempju f'demokrazija parlamentari jew presidenzjali. Fil-varjant komuni tad-demokrazija liberali, is-setgħat tal-maġġoranza jiġu eżerċitati fi ħdan il-qafas ta' demokrazija rappreżentattiva, iżda l-kostituzzjoni u l-qorti suprema jillimitaw lill-maġġoranza u jipproteġu lill-minoranzi — normalment billi jiġi żgurat li kulħadd igawdi minn ċerti drittijiet individwali, bħal-libertà tal-kelma jew il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni. It-terminu tfaċċa fis-seklu 5 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]. fil-bliet-stati [[Greċja antika|Griegi]], b'mod partikolari f'[[Ateni]] Klassika, u kien ifisser "it-tmexxija tal-poplu", b'kuntrast mal-aristokrazija (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: ἀριστοκρατία, ''aristokratía''), li tfisser "it-tmexxija tal-elit". Prattikament fil-gvernijiet demokratiċi kollha tul l-istorja tal-qedem u moderna, iċ-ċittadinanza demokratika inizjalment kienet ristretta għal klassi tal-elit, li iktar 'il quddiem ġiet estiża għaċ-ċittadini adulti kollha. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, dan inkiseb permezz tal-movimenti tas-suffraġju tas-sekli 19 u 20. Id-demokrazija tikkuntrasta mal-forom ta' governanza fejn il-poter ma jinbitx mill-popolazzjoni ġenerali ta' stat, pereżempju s-sistemi awtoritarji. Storikament is-sistemi demokratiċi kienu forma rari u vulnerabbli ta' governanza, iżda dawn saru iktar prevalenti mis-seklu 19 'l hawn, b'mod partikolari permezz ta' diversi mewġiet ta' demokratizzazzjoni. Id-demokrazija għandha leġittimità konsiderevoli fid-dinja moderna, peress li l-opinjoni pubblika fir-reġjuni dinjin normalment huma favur is-sistemi demokratiċi ta' governanza meta mqabbla mal-alternattivi, u peress li saħansitra l-istati awtoritarji jippruvaw ipinġu lilhom infushom bħala demokratiċi. Id-demokrazija b'mod iktar konsistenti tirriżulta f'saħħa, f'[[edukazzjoni]] u f'eżiti ekonomiċi mtejba. Skont l-indiċijiet ta' ''V-Dem Democracy'' u l-Indiċi tad-Demokrazija ta' ''The Economist'', inqas minn nofs il-popolazzjoni tad-dinja tgħix f'demokrazija mill-2022. Fl-istess ħin, filwaqt li d-demokrazija rappreżentattivi tingħata valur siewi b'mod mifrux, iċ-Ċentru tar-Riċerka ta' Pew sab li l-garr rigward il-prestazzjoni demokratika huwa komuni saħansitra f'bosta demokraziji stabbiliti. == Karatteristiċi == Għalkemm id-demokrazija fid-demokraziji purament rappreżentattivi hija mifhuma b'rabta mal-votazzjoni, ma jeżisti l-ebda konsensus dwar definizzjoni preċiża tad-demokrazija. Jeżistu wisq approċċi. Kien hemm studju li identifika 2,234 aġġettiv li jintuża għad-deskrizzjoni tad-demokrazija bil-[[lingwa Ingliża]]. Minkejja dan, hemm fehim iktar profond – bħal dak ta' [[Abraham Lincoln]]: : ''"Governanza tan-nies, min-nies, għan-nies"'' jew dik ta' [[Karl Popper]] li ssostni li l-ħarsa "klassika" lejn id-demokrazija hi, "fil-qosor, it-teorija li d-demokrazija hija t-tmexxija tal-poplu u li l-poplu għandu d-dritt li jiggverna hu. Il-prinċipji demokratiċi huma riflessi fiċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha, ilkoll indaqs quddiem il-[[Dritt|liġi]] u lkoll b'aċċess ugwali għall-proċessi leġiżlattivi. Pereżempju, f'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, kull vot (fit-teorija) għandu l-istess piż, u l-libertà taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli hija żgurata permezz ta' drittijiet u libertajiet leġittimizzati li tipikament ikunu mnaqqxa f'kostituzzjoni, filwaqt li użi oħra tad-"demokrazija" jaf jħaddnu d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament fuq id-diversi kwistjonijiet li jinqalgħu. Skont in-[[Ġnus Magħquda|Nazzjonijiet Uniti]], id-demokrazija "tipprovdi ambjent li jirrispetta d-drittijiet tal-bniedem u l-libertajiet fundamentali, u fejn ir-rieda espressa liberament tal-poplu tiġi eżerċitata". Skont teorija partikolari d-demokrazija tirrikjedi tliet prinċipji fundamentali: il-kontroll 'il fuq (sovranità fl-iżjed livelli baxxi tal-awtorità), l-ugwaljanza politika, u n-normi soċjali li permezz tagħhom l-individwi u l-istituzzjonijiet iqisu biss atti aċċettabbli li jirriflettu l-ewwel żewġ prinċipji tal-kontroll 'il fuq u l-ugwaljanza politika. L-ugwaljanza legali, il-libertà politika u l-istat ta' dritt sikwit jiġu identifikati bħala l-karatteristiċi ewlenin ta' demokrazija li tiffunzjona sew. F'xi pajjiżi, b'mod partikolari fir-[[Renju Unit]] (minn fejn oriġinat is-sistema ta' Westminster), il-prinċipju dominanti hu dak tas-sovranità Parlamentari, filwaqt li tinżamm l-indipendenza ġudizzjarja. Fl-[[Indja]], is-sovranità Parlamentari hija soġġetta għall-Kostituzzjoni tal-Indja li tinkludi rieżami ġudizzjarju. Għalkemm it-terminu "demokrazija" tipikament jintuża fil-kuntest ta' stat politiku, il-prinċipji wkoll huma applikabbli potenzjalment għall-organizzazzjonijiet privati, bħal klabbs, għaqdiet u ditti. Id-demokraziji jistgħu jużaw bosta metodi differenti ta' teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet, iżda t-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hija l-forma dominanti. Mingħajr kumpens, bħal protezzjonijiet legali tad-drittijiet individwali jew kollettivi, il-minoranzi politiċi jistgħu jiġu mgħakksa mit-"tirannija tal-maġġoranza". It-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza tinvolvi approċċ kompetittiv, għad-differenza tad-demokrazija tal-konsensus, u b'hekk tinħoloq il-ħtieġa li l-elezzjonijiet, u ġeneralment id-deliberazzjoni, ikunu sostantivament u proċeduralment "ġusti" u ekwi. Fżxi pajjiżi, il-libertà tal-espressjoni politika, il-libertà tal-kelma u l-libertà tal-istampa jitqiesu bħala importanti biex jiġi żgurat li l-votanti jkunu infurmati sew, u b'hekk ikunu jistgħu jivvutaw skont l-interessi u t-twemmin tagħhom stess. Ġie ssuġġerit ukoll li karatteristika bażika tad-demokrazija hija l-kapaċità li l-votanti kollha jipparteċipaw b'mod ħieles u sħiħ fil-[[ħajja]] tas-soċjetà tagħhom. Bl-enfasi fuq in-nozzjonijiet tal-kuntratt soċjali u r-rieda kollettiva tal-votanti kollha, id-demokrazija tista' tkun ikkaratterizzata wkoll bħala forma ta' kollettiviżmu politiku peress li tiġi definita bħala forma ta' governanza fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom vuċi ugwali fit-tfassil tal-liġijiet. Ir-repubbliki, għalkemm spiss ikunu assoċjati popolarment mad-demokrazija minħabba l-prinċipju kondiviż tal-kunsens mogħti minn dawk li jiġu ggvernati għat-tmexxija, mhux neċessarjament ikunu demokraziji, għax ir-repubblikaniżmu ma jispeċifikax ''kif'' in-nies għandhom imexxu. Tradizzjonalment it-terminu "repubblika" kien iħaddan kemm id-demokraziji kif ukoll l-aristokraziji u l-varjanti tagħhom. F'sens modern, il-forma ta' governanza repubblikana hija forma ta' governanza mingħajr monarka. Minħabba f'hekk, id-demokraziji jistgħu jkunu repubbliki jew monarkiji kostituzzjonali, bħar-Renju Unit, fejn il-monarka ma jkunx il-mexxej. == Storja == Il-ġemgħat demokratiċi għandhom żmien daqs kemm għandha żmien l-ispeċi umana u ilhom jeżistu tul l-istorja umana, iżda sas-seklu 19, il-figuri [[Politiku|politiċi]] ewlenin fil-biċċa l-kbira opponew id-demokrazija. It-teoriċi repubblikani rabtu d-demokrazija ma' daqs ċkejken: iktar ma kienu jikbru fid-daqs l-unitajiet politiċi, iktar kienet tiżdied il-probabbiltà li l-gvern isir tiranniku. Fl-istess waqt, l-unitajiet politiċi żgħar kienu vulnerabbli għall-ħakma. Montesquieu kiteb, "Jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered mill-imperfezzjoni interna". Skont ix-xjenzat politiku tal-Università ta' Johns Hopkins [[Daniel Deudney]], il-ħolqien tal-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]], bid-daqs kbir u s-sistema ta' kontrolli u bilanċi tagħha, kienet soluzzjoni għall-problemi doppji tad-daqs. Fis-soċjetajiet ta' madwar id-dinja seħħew forom ta' demokrazija b'mod organiku li ma kellhom l-ebda kuntatt ma' xulxin. === Oriġini === ==== [[Greċja]] u [[Ruma]] ==== It-terminu ''demokrazija'' tfaċċa għall-ewwel darba fil-ħsieb politiku u [[Filosofija|filosofiku]] tal-Greċja Antika fil-belt-stat ta' Ateni fl-antikità klassika. Il-kelma ġejja minn ''dêmos'' li tfisser "nies (komuni)" u minn ''krátos'' li tfisser "qawwa/setgħa". Taħt Cleisthenes, f'Ateni ġie stabbilit dak li huwa maħsub bħala l-ewwel eżempju ta' tip ta' demokrazija fis-seklu 6 Q.K. (508–507 Q.K.). Cleisthenes huwa meqjus bħala "l-missier tad-demokrazija ta' Ateni". L-ewwel użu attestat tal-kelma demokrazija jinsab fix-xogħlijiet ta' proża tal-ħabta tal-430 Q.K., bħall-''Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, iżda l-użu tagħha kien eqdem b'diversi deċennji, peress li żewġ persuni minn Ateni li twieldu għall-ħabta tal-470 Q.K. kien jisimhom Democrates, isem politiku ġdid — x'aktarx b'appoġġ għad-demokrazija — li ngħata fi żmien ta' dibattiti dwar kwistjonijiet kostituzzjonali f'Ateni. Aeschylus jalludi bis-saħħa wkoll għall-kelma fid-dramm tiegħu ''Is-Supplikanti'', li ttella' għall-ħabta tal-463 Q.K., fejn isemmi "l-id tat-tmexxija tal-kotra" [''demou kratousa cheir'']. Qabel dak iż-żmien, il-kelma li kienet tiddefinixxi s-sistema politika ġdida ta' Cleisthenes x'aktarx li kienet ''isonomija'', li tfisser ugwaljanza politika. Id-demokrazija ta' Ateni ħadet is-sura ta' demokrazija diretta, u kellha żewġ karatteristiċi li jiddistingwuha: l-għażla aleatorja ta' ċittadini ordinarji biex jimlew il-ftit karigi amministrattivi u ġudizzjarji eżistenti tal-gvern, u ġemgħa leġiżlattiva li kienet tikkonsisti mill-maġġoranza taċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha kienu jitħallew jitkellmu u jivvutaw fil-ġemgħa jew fl-assemblea, fejn kienu jiġu stabbiliti l-liġijiet tal-belt-stat. Madankollu, iċ-ċittadinanza ta' Ateni ma kinitx tingħata lin-[[Mara|nisa]], lill-[[Skjavitù|ilsiera]], lill-barranin (μέτοικοι / ''métoikoi''), u liż-żgħażagħ taħt l-età tas-servizz militari. Effettivament, resident wieħed minn kull erba' f'Ateni kienu jikkwalifikaw bħala ċittadini. Is-sjieda tal-art ma kinitx rekwiżit għaċ-ċittadinanza. L-esklużjoni ta' partijiet kbar tal-popolazzjoni mill-korp taċ-ċittadini hija marbuta mill-qrib mal-fehim tal-qedem taċ-ċittadinanza. Fil-biċċa l-kbira ta' żmien il-qedem, il-benefiċċju taċ-ċittadinanza kien marbut mal-obbligu tal-ġlied fil-kampanji militari. Id-demokrazija ta' Aterni mhux biss kienet ''diretta'' fis-sens li d-deċiżjonijiet kienu jittieħdu mill-ġemgħa, iżda anke l-''iżjed diretta'' fis-sens li l-ġemgħa permezz tal-istrutturi bħall-assemblea, is-senat u l-qrati legali kienet tikkontrolla l-proċess politiku kollu u proporzjon kbir taċ-ċittadini kienu jkunu involuti b'mod kostanti fl-affarijiet pubbliċi. Minkejja li d-drittijiet tal-individwu ma kinux żgurati mill-kostituzzjoni ta' Ateni fis-sens modern (il-Griegi tal-qedem ma kellhomx kelma għal "drittijiet"), dawk li kienu ċittadini ta' Ateni kienu jgawdu l-libertajiet tagħhom mhux f'oppożizzjoni għall-gvern iżda billi jgħixu f'belt li ma kinitx soġġetta għal xi setgħa oħra u billi huma stess ma kinux soġġetti għat-tmexxija ta' ħaddieħor. Il-votazzjoni tfaċċat fi [[Sparta]] saħansitra fis-700 Q.K. L-ekkleżjastiċi ta' Sparta kienu ġemgħa tal-poplu, li kienet tiltaqa' darba fix-xahar, fejn kull ċittadini maskili ta' mill-inqas 20 sena seta' jipparteċipa. Fl-assemblea, l-Ispartani kienu jeleġġu l-mexxejja u jixħtu l-voti tagħhom bl-għajjat (il-votazzjoni kienet tiġi deċiża skont l-ikbar għajta tal-folla). [[Aristotli]] ddeskriva dan il-metodu bħala "tat-tfal", meta mqabbel mas-sistema tal-votazzjoni fuq poloz tal-ġebel użata miċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Sparta adottat din is-sistema minħabba s-sempliċità tagħha, u biex jiġi evitat kull tip ta' preġudizzju, xiri jew qerq fil-votazzjoni, li kienu predominanti fl-elezzjonijiet demokratiċi bikrin. Barra minn hekk, id-depożizzjoni tar-Renju Ruman ħolqot sistema b'element demokratiku fil-forma ta' bosta ġemgħat popolari differenti. Minkejja li r-Repubblika Rumana tat kontribut sinifikanti għal bosta aspetti tad-demokrazija, frazzjon biss mir-Rumani kienu ċittadini li kellhom il-vot fl-elezzjonijiet għall-maġistrati. Il-voti tas-setgħana kienu jingħataw iktar piż permezz ta' sistema ta' votazzjoni ponderata, għaldaqstant il-biċċa l-kbira tal-uffiċjali għoljin, inkluż il-membri tas-Senat, kienu jiġu minn ftit familji għonja u nobbli. Il-mudell Ruman ta' governanza ispira bosta ħassieba politiċi tul is-sekli. ==== Indja tal-qedem ==== Vaishali, il-[[belt kapitali]] tal-Lega ta' Vajjika (Vrijji mahajanapada) tal-Indja, titqies bħala wieħed mill-ewwel eżempji ta' repubblika għall-ħabta tas-seklu 6 Q.K. ==== Amerki ==== [[Kultura|Kulturi]] oħra, bħall-Iroquois fl-Amerki, żviluppaw ukoll forma ta' soċjetà demokratika bejn l-1450 u l-1660 (u possibbilment fl-1142), ferm qabel ma kellhom kuntatt mal-[[Ewropa|Ewropej]]. Din id-demokrazija għadha preżenti sal-lum u hija l-iżjed demokrazija rappreżentattiva antika eżistenti fid-dinja. === [[Medjuevu|Medju Evu]] === Filwaqt li l-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjuni fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu kienu mmexxijin mill-kleru jew minn sinjuri fewdali, kienu jeżistu diversi sistemi li kienu jinvolvu l-elezzjonijiet jew il-ġemgħat, għalkemm spiss kienu jinvolvu parti żgħira mill-popolazzjoni. Fl-Iskandinavja, kien hemm korpi magħrufa ta' nies ħielsa ppreseduti minn kelliem tal-liġi. Dawn il-korpi ta' deliberazzjoni kienu responsabbli għas-soluzzjoni ta' kwistjonijiet politiċi, u xi varjanti kienu jinkludu l-Althing fl-[[Iżlanda]] u l-Løgting fil-[[Gżejjer Faroe|Gżejjer Faeroe]]. Il-''veche'', fil-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]], kien korp simili għal dawk tal-Iskandinavja. Fil-[[Knisja Kattolika]] Rumana, il-[[Papa]] ilu jiġi elett minn [[konklav]] Papali magħmul mill-kardinali mill-1059. L-ewwel korp Parlamentari ddokumentat fl-Ewropa kien il-Cortes ta' [[León]]. Stabbilit minn [[Alfonsu IX|Alfonso IX]] fl-1188, il-Cortes kellu l-awtorità għall-iffissar tat-tassazzjoni, għall-affarijiet barranin u għal-leġiżlazzjoni, għalkemm in-natura eżatta tar-rwol tiegħu għadha kkontestata. Ir-Repubblika ta' [[Ragusa]], stabbilita fl-1358 u ċċentrata madwar il-belt ta' [[Dubrovnik]], ipprovdiet drittijiet ta' rappreżentanza u ta' votazzjoni lill-aristokrazija maskili tagħha biss. Diversi bliet-stati u sistemi ta' governanza Taljani kellhom forom ta' governanza repubblikani. Pereżempju, ir-Repubblika ta' [[Firenze]], stabbilita fl-1115, kienet immexxija mis-Signoria u l-membri tagħha kienu jintgħażlu bix-xorti. Fil-Frisja tas-sekli 10–15, soċjetà mhux fewdali distinta, id-dritt tal-votazzjoni dwar kwistjonijiet lokali u dwar l-uffiċjali tal-kontea kien ibbażat fuq id-daqs tal-art. Il-''Kouroukan Fouga'' qasam l-Imperu tal-[[Mali]] fi klans tat-tmexxija li kienu rrappreżentati f'ġemgħa kbira msejħa l-''Gbara''. Madankollu, id-dokument wassal biex il-Mali jkun iktar simili għal monarkija kostituzzjonali milli repubblika demokratika. Il-Parlament tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] kellu l-għeruq tiegħu fir-restrizzjonijiet tal-poter tar-rejiet miktubin fil-''Magna Carta'' (1215), li b'mod espliċitu ħarset ċerti drittijiet tas-sudditi tar-Re u b'mod impliċitu appoġġat dak li mbagħad sar id-digriet Ingliż tal-''habeas corpus'', li jissalvagwardja l-libertà individwali mill-ħabs illegali u li jagħti d-dritt tal-appell. L-ewwel assemblea nazzjonali rappreżentattiva fl-Ingilterra kienet il-Parlament ta' [[Simon de Montfort]] fl-1265. Il-preżenza tat-tressiq tal-petizzjonijiet hija fost l-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-użu tal-Parlament bħala forum biex jiġi indirizzat it-tħassib ġenerali tan-nies ordinarji. Madankollu, is-setgħa tas-sejħa tal-Parlament baqgħet f'idejn il-monarka. Xi studji kkollegaw l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjonijiet Parlamentari fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu mal-agglomerazzjonijiet urbani u mal-ħolqien ta' klassijiet ġodda, bħall-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]], kif ukoll mal-preżenza tan-nobbli u tal-eliti reliġjużi. L-istudjużi kkollegaw ukoll l-istabbiliment tal-governanza rappreżentattiva mal-frammentazzjoni politika relattiva tal-Ewropa. Ix-xjenzat politiku [[David Stasavage]] jikkollega l-frammentazzjoni tal-Ewropa, u d-demokratizzazzjoni sussegwenti tagħha, mal-mod kif sfaxxa l-[[Imperu Ruman]]: it-territorju Ruman inħakem minn gruppi frammentati żgħar ta' tribujiet Ġermaniċi, u dan wassal għall-ħolqien ta' unitajiet politiċi żgħar fejn il-mexxejja kienu relattivament dgħajfin u kienu jeħtieġu l-kunsens taċ-ċittadini tagħhom biex jifilħu għat-theddidiet barranin. Fil-[[Polonja]], id-demokrazija nobbli kienet ikkaratterizzata minn żieda fl-attività tan-nobbiltà nofsanija, li riedet iżżid is-sehem tagħha fl-eżerċitar tal-poter għas-spejjeż tal-manjati. Il-manjati ddominaw l-iżjed karigi importanti fl-istat (lajċi u ekkleżjastiċi) u kienu jinġabru fil-kunsill irjali, li iktar 'il quddiem sar is-senat. L-importanza dejjem tikber tan-nobbiltà nofsanija kellha impatt fuq l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjoni tal-art magħrufa bħala s-''sejmik'' (assemblea lokali), li sussegwentement kisbet iktar drittijiet. Matul is-seklu 15 u l-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 16, is-sejmiks ingħataw iktar u iktar poter u saru l-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tal-poter lokali. Fl-1454, [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] ta lis-sejmiks id-dritt li jiddeċiedu dwar it-taxxi u li jorganizzaw mobilizzazzjoni tal-massa fl-Istatuti ta' Nieszawa. Huwa wiegħed ukoll li ma kienx se joħloq liġijiet ġodda mingħajr il-kunsens tagħhom. === Era moderna === ==== Perjodu modern bikri ==== Fl-Ingilterra tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta. Il-Parlament tal-Ingilterra għadda l-Petizzjoni tad-Drittijiet fl-1628 li stabbiliet ċerti libertajiet għas-sudditi. Il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża (1642–1651) ġiet miġġielda bejn ir-Re u Parlament oligarkiku iżda elett, u matul dan iż-żmien iffurmat l-idea ta' partit politiku, bi gruppi jiddibattu d-drittijiet għar-rappreżentanza politika matul id-Dibattiti ta' Putney tal-1647. Sussegwentement, il-Protettorat (1653–59) u l-Integrazzjoni mill-Ġdid Ingliża (1660) integraw iktar tmexxija awtokratika, għalkemm il-Parlament għadda l-Att dwar il-''Habeas Corpus'' fl-1679 li saħħaħ il-konvenzjoni li pprojbixxiet id-detenzjoni mingħajr biżżejjed raġunijiet jew evidenza. Wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688, il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet ġiet ippromulgata fl-1689 u din ikkodifikat ċerti drittijiet u libertajiet u għadha fis-seħħ. Il-liġi stabbiliet ir-rekwiżiti li jsiru elezzjonijiet regolari, ir-regoli għal-libertà tal-kelma fil-Parlament u limitat il-poter tal-monarka, u b'hekk żgurat, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-Ewropa ta' dak iż-żmien, li l-assolutiżmu rjali ma jipprevalix. L-istoriċi ekonomiċi [[Douglass North]] u [[Barry Weingast]] ikkaratterizzaw l-istituzzjonijiet implimentati fir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża bħala suċċess kbir f'termini tar-restrizzjonijiet tal-governanza u l-iżgurar tal-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet tal-proprjetà. L-interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta, il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża, u r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża fis-seklu 17 xprunaw it-tkabbir ta' filosofija politika fil-Gżejjer Brittaniċi. [[Thomas Hobbes]] kien l-ewwel filosfu li fassal teorija dettaljata dwar il-kuntratt soċjali. Fil-''Leviathan'' (1651), Hobbes ħareġ bit-teorija li l-individwi li jgħixu fin-natura kienu jgħixu ħajja "solitarja, fqira, kerha, iebsa u qasira" u kienu jagħmlu gwerer kontinwi kontra kulħadd. Sabiex tiġi evitata l-okkorrenza tal-istat anarkiku tan-natura, Hobbes irraġuna li l-individwi kienu jċedu d-drittijiet tagħhom lil qawwa awtoritarja setgħana. Fi kliem ieħor, Hobbes tkellem favur monarkija assoluta, li fl-opinjoni tiegħu kienet l-aqwa forma ta' governanza. Iktar 'il quddiem, il-filosfu u t-[[tabib]] [[John Locke]] ħareġ b'interpretazzjoni differenti dwar it-teorija tal-kuntratt soċjali. Fiż-''Żewġ Trattati tal-Governanza'' (1689) tiegħu, Locke sostna li l-individwi kollha kellhom id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għall-proprjetà. Skont Locke, l-individwi kienu jinġabru volontarjament flimkien biex jiffurmaw stat bl-għan li jiddefendu drittijiethom. Għal Locke kienu partikolarment importanti d-drittijiet tal-proprjetà, li skont Locke kienu jirrikjedu l-ħarsien, li kien l-iskop primarju tal-gvern. Barra minn hekk, Locke sostna li l-gvernijiet kienu leġittimi biss jekk kellhom il-kunsens ta' dawk li kienu ggvernati. Skont Locke, iċ-ċittadini kellhom id-dritt jirribellaw kontra l-gvern jekk dan kien jaġixxi kontra l-interessi tagħhom jew isir tiranniku. Għalkemm ma tantx kienu moqrija matul ħajtu, ix-xogħlijiet ta' Locke jitqiesu bħala d-dokumenti li jsejsu l-ħsieb liberali u influwenzaw ferm il-mexxejja tar-Rivoluzzjoni Amerikana u iktar 'il quddiem ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża]]. Il-qafas demokratiku liberali tiegħu tal-governanza għadu l-forma ewlenija tad-demokrazija fid-dinja. Fir-repubbliki tal-Cossack tal-[[Ukrajna]] fis-sekli 16 u 17, l-Etmanat tal-Cossack u s-Sich ta' Zaporizhia, id-detentur tal-ogħla kariga ta' Hetman kien jiġi elett mir-rappreżentanti tad-distretti tal-pajjiż. Fl-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]], il-governanza rappreżentattiva bdiet f'Jamestown, Virginia, bl-elezzjoni tal-Kamra tal-Burgesses (il-prekursur tal-Assemblea Ġenerali ta' Virginia) fl-1619. Il-Puritani Ingliżi li għamlu migrazzjoni mill-1620 stabbilew kolonji f'New England, fejn kien hemm governanza lokali demokratika; il-poter ta' dawn l-assemblej lokali kien ivarja ferm tul il-perjodu kolonjali. Madankollu, uffiċjalment kellhom ammonti żgħar ta' poter devolut, peress li l-awtorità aħħarija kienet f'idejn il-monarkija u l-Parlament. Il-Puritani, il-Battisti u l-Quakers li stabbilew dawn il-kolonji applikaw l-organizzazzjoni demokratika tal-kongregazzjonijiet tagħhom anke għall-amministrazzjoni tal-komunitajiet tagħhom fil-ħajja ta' kuljum. ==== Sekli 18 u 19 ==== L-ewwel Parlament tal-Gran Brittanja ġie stabbilit fl-1707, wara l-fużjoni tar-Renju tal-Ingilterra u r-Renju tal-[[Skozja|Iskozja]] skont l-Atti tal-Unjoni. Żewġ dokumenti ewlenin tal-kostituzzjoni mhux kodifikata tar-Renju Unit, id-Dikjarazzjoni Ingliża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689 (imsejħa mill-ġdid bħala l-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689) u d-Dikjarazzjoni Skoċċiża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689, it-tnejn li huma kienu kkonsolidaw il-pożizzjoni tal-Parlament bħala l-korp suprem tat-tfassil tal-liġijiet u kienu jgħidu li "l-elezzjoni tal-membri tal-Parlament kellha tkun ħielsa". Madankollu, il-Parlament kien jiġi elett biss mis-sidien tal-art maskili, li kienu jammontaw għal 3 % tal-popolazzjoni fl-1780. L-ewwel persuna Brittanika magħrufa ta' nisel Afrikan li vvota f'elezzjoni ġenerali, [[Ignatius Sancho]], ivvota fl-1774 u fl-1780. Matul l-Era tal-Libertà fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] (1718–1772), id-drittijiet ċivili twessgħu u l-poter għadda mingħand il-monarka għall-Parlament. Ir-raħħala intaxxati kienu rrappreżentati fil-Parlament, għalkemm ma tantx kellhom influwenza, iżda n-nies komuni mingħajr proprjetà intaxxata ma kellhomx suffraġju. Il-ħolqien ta' Repubblika ta' [[Korsika]] ta' għomorha qasir fl-1755 kien tentattiv bikri li tiġi adottata kostituzzjoni demokratika (setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel u n-nisa kollha li kellhom iktar minn 25 sena). Din il-Kostituzzjoni ta' Korsika kienet l-ewwel waħda bbażata fuq il-prinċipji tal-Illuminiżmu u kienet tinkludi s-suffraġju femminili, xi ħaġa li ma kinitx inkluża fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji l-oħra sas-seklu 20. L-Amerka kolonjali kellha kwalifikazzjonijiet simili dwar il-proprjetà bħall-Brittanja, u fil-perjodu qabel l-1776 l-abbundanza u d-disponibbiltà tal-art kienet tfisser li għadd kbir ta' kolonjalisti kienu jissodisfaw tali rekwiżiti b'mill-inqas 60 fil-mija tal-irġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda li setgħu jivvutaw. Il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda kienu [[Bidwi|bdiewa]] li kienu jissodisfaw ir-rekwiżiti tas-sjieda tal-proprjetà jew tal-ħlas tat-taxxa. Bi ftit eċċezzjonijiet, l-ebda mara jew persuna b'karnaġjon sewda ma setgħu jivvutaw. Vermont, li malli ddikjarat l-indipendenza mill-Gran Brittanja fl-1777, adottat kostituzzjoni mmudellata fuq iċ-ċittadinanza u s-suffraġju demokratiku ta' Pennsylvania għall-irġiel bi proprjetà jew mingħajr proprjetà. Il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti tal-1787 hija l-eqdem kostituzzjoni governattiva kkodifikata li għadha teżisti u li għadha attiva. Il-Kostituzzjoni kienet tipprevedi gvern elett u protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet ċivili, iżda ma temmitx il-jasar u lanqas ma estendiet id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni fl-Istati Uniti, u minflok ħalliet il-kwistjoni tas-suffraġju f'idejn l-istati individwali. Ġeneralment, l-istati llimitaw is-suffraġju għas-sidien tal-proprjetà maskili u għal dawk li jħallsu t-taxxi ta' karnaġjon bajda. Meta kien hemm l-ewwel elezzjoni Presidenzjali fl-1789, madwar 6 % tal-popolazzjoni kienet eliġibbli biex tivvota. L-Att dwar in-Naturalizzazzjoni tal-1790 illimita ċ-ċittadinanza Amerikana lill-persuni ta' karnaġjon bajda biss. Il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet fl-1791 stabbiliet limiti fuq il-poter tal-gvern sabiex tħares il-libertajiet personali iżda kellha ftit impatt fuq is-sentenzi tal-qrati għall-ewwel 130 sena wara r-ratifika. Fl-1789, [[Franza]] Rivoluzzjonarja adottat id-Dikjarazzjoni tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem u taċ-Ċittadini, u għalkemm għomorha kien qasir, il-Konvenzjoni Nazzjonali kienet eletta mill-irġiel kollha biss fl-1792. Il-Kostituzzjoni Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]] tat-3 ta' Mejju 1791 ippruvat timplimenta monarkija kostituzzjonali iktar effettiva, introduċiet l-ugwaljanza politika bejn iċ-ċittadini u n-nobbli, u poġġiet ir-raħħala taħt il-protezzjoni tal-gvern, u b'hekk taffiet l-agħar abbużi kontra r-raħħala. Din damet fis-seħħ għal inqas minn 19-il xahar, u ġiet iddikjarata nulla mis-Sejm ta' Grodno li ltaqa' fl-1793. Minkejja dan, il-Kostituzzjoni tal-1791 għenet biex l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Pollakki jibqgħu ħajjin għar-restawr eventwali tas-sovranità tal-pajjiż iktar minn seklu wara. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1828 kienet l-ewwel waħda li fiha setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda li ma kinux sidien tal-proprjetà fil-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-istati. L-ammont ta' nies li ħarġu jivvutaw żdied matul is-snin 30 tas-seklu 19, u laħaq madwar 80 % tal-popolazzjoni ta' rġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda fl-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1840. North Carolina kien l-aħħar stat li abolixxa l-kwalifazzjoni abbażi tal-proprjetà fl-1856 u dan wassal għal approssimazzjoni tas-suffraġju universali tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda (madankollu r-rekwiżiti tal-ħlas tat-taxxa baqgħu jeżistu f'ħames stati fl-1860 u baqgħu jeżistu f'żewġ stati sas-seklu 20). Fiċ-ċensiment tal-Istati Uniti tal-1860, il-popolazzjoni tal-iskjavi kienet kibret għal 4 miljuni, u fir-Rikostruzzjoni wara l-Gwerra Ċivili, għaddew tliet emendi kostituzzjonali: it-13-il Emenda (1865) li temmet l-iskjavitù; l-14-il Emenda (1869) li tat iċ-ċittadinanza lin-nies ta' karnaġjon sewda, u l-15-il Emenda (1870) lil tat lill-irġiel ta' karnaġjon sewda d-dritt nominali biex jivvutaw. L-involviment sħiħ taċ-ċittadini kollha ma ġiex żgurat sa wara li l-moviment tad-drittijiet ċivili kiseb l-approvazzjoni mill-Kungress tal-Istati Uniti fir-rigward tal-Att dwar id-Drittijiet tal-Votazzjoni tal-1965. Id-dritt tal-votazzjoni fir-Renju Unit twessa' u sar iktar uniformi permezz ta' sensiela ta' riformi li bdew bl-Att dwar ir-Riformi tal-1832 u komplew fis-seklu 20, b'mod partikolari bl-Att dwar ir-Rappreżentanza tan-Nies tal-1918 u l-Att dwar l-Ugwaljanza tal-1928. Is-suffraġju maskili universali ġie stabbilit fi Franza f'Marzu 1848 fid-dawl tar-Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża tal-1848. Matul dik is-sena, faqqgħu diversi rivoluzzjonijiet fl-Ewropa peress li l-mexxejja kellhom ilaħħqu mad-domandi popolari għall-kostituzzjonijiet liberali u għal iktar governanza demokratika. Fl-1876, l-[[Imperu Ottoman]] għadda minn monarkija assoluta għal waħda kostituzzjonali, u organizza żewġ elezzjonijiet is-sena ta' wara biex jeleġġi membri fil-Parlament li kien għadu kemm ġie ffurmat. Inħarġu Regolamenti Elettorali Proviżorji, li kienu jiddikjaraw li l-membri eletti tal-Kunsilli Amministrattivi Provinċjali kellhom jeleġġu l-membri għall-ewwel Parlament. Iktar tard dik is-sena, ġiet ippromulgata kostituzzjoni ġdida, li kienet tipprevedi l-istabbiliment ta' Parlament bikamerali b'Senat maħtur mis-Sultan u Kamra tad-Deputati eletta mill-poplu. Kienu jitħallew jikkontestaw għall-elezzjoni l-irġiel biss li kellhom iktar minn 30 sena u li kienu midħla tat-Tork u li kellhom drittijiet ċivili sħaħ. Fost ir-raġunijiet ta' skwalifika kien hemm iż-żamma ta' ċittadinanza doppja, ir-reklutaġġ minn gvern barrani, il-falliment monetarju, l-impjieg bħala qaddej, jew "ir-reputazzjoni tat-twettiq ta' azzjonijiet ħżiena". Is-suffraġju universali sħiħ inkiseb fl-1934. Fl-1893, il-kolonja bl-awtogovernanza ta' [[New Zealand]] saret l-ewwel pajjiż fid-dinja (għajr għar-Repubblika ta' Korsika b'għomorha qasir tas-seklu 18 li stabbiliet is-suffraġju universali attiv billi n-nisa ngħataw id-dritt tal-votazzjoni. ==== Sekli 20 u 21 ==== It-tranżizzjonijiet tas-seklu 20 lejn id-demokrazija liberali waslu f'"mewġiet suċċessivi tad-demokrazija", u rriżultaw b'modi differenti minn gwerer, rivoluzzjonijiet, dekolonizzazzjoni, u ċirkostanzi reliġjużi u ekonomiċi. Il-mewġiet globali ta' "regressjoni demokratika" li reġġgħu lura d-demokratizzazzjoni seħħew ukoll fis-snin 20 u 30 tas-seklu 20, fis-snin 60 u 70 tas-seklu 20 u fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21. [[L-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]] u x-xoljiment tal-[[Imperu Ottoman]] u tal-Imperu Awstro-Ungariku wasslu għall-ħolqien ta' nazzjonijiet-stati ġodda fl-Ewropa, u l-biċċa l-kbira minnhom kienu mill-inqas nominalment demokratiċi. Fis-snin 20 tas-seklu 20 tkattru l-movimenti demokratiċi u s-suffraġju universali avvanza, iżda d-Dipressjoni l-Kbira ġabet magħha diżillużjoni u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Ewropa, tal-Amerka Latina u tal-[[Asja]] daru għat-tmexxija ta' rġiel b'saħħithom jew dittaturi. Il-Faxxiżmu u d-dittaturi tkattru fil-[[Ġermanja]] Nażista, fl-[[Italja]], fi [[Spanja]] u fil-[[Portugall]], kif ukoll il-gvernijiet mhux demokratiċi fil-Baltiċi, fil-Balkani, fil-[[Brażil]], f'[[Kuba]], fiċ-[[Ċina]] u fil-[[Ġappun]] fost l-oħrajn. [[It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija]] ġabet magħha treġġigħ lura definittiv ta' din it-tendenza fil-Punent tal-Ewropa. Id-demokratizzazzjoni tas-setturi Amerikani, Brittaniċi u Franċiżi tal-Ġermanja okkupata (għalkemm xi sorsi jikkontestaw dan il-punt), tal-[[Awstrija]], tal-[[Italja]], u tal-[[Ġappun]] okkupat serviet bħala mudell għat-teorija li ġiet wara tal-bidla fil-gvern. Madankollu, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Lvant tal-Ewropa, inkluż is-settur [[Unjoni Sovjetika|Sovjetiku]] tal-Ġermanja, sfat fit-territorju mhux demokratiku ddominat mis-Sovjetiċi. Wara l-gwerra kien hemm id-dekolonizzazzjoni, u mill-ġdid il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istati indipendenti ġodda kellhom kostituzzjonijiet nominalment demokratiċi. L-Indja feġġet bħala l-ikbar demokrazija fid-dinja u għadha fit-tmun. Il-pajjiżi li fl-imgħoddi kienu parti mill-Imperu Brittanika, spiss adottaw is-sistema Brittanika ta' Westminster. Fl-1948, id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem irrekjediet id-demokrazija:<blockquote>3. Ir-rieda tan-nies għandha tkun il-bażi tal-awtorità tal-governanza; din għandha tkun espressa f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom jkunu b'suffraġju universali u ugwali u dan għandu jiġi espress f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom isiru b'suffraġju universali u ndaqs u għandhom isiru permezz ta' votazzjoni sigrieta u jew bi proċeduri ekwivalenti ta' votazzjoni ħielsa.</blockquote>— Id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem, l-Artikolu 21, in-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, fl-1948 Sal-1960, il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-pajjiżi-stati nominalment kienu demokraziji, għalkemm il-biċċa l-kbira tal-popolazzjonijiet tad-dinja kienu jgħixu f'demokraziji nominali li esperjenzaw elezzjonijiet taparsi, u forom oħra ta' qerq (b'mod partikolari fl-istati "[[Komuniżmu|Komunisti]]" u l-eks kolonji). Mewġa sussegwenti ta' demokratizzazzjoni ġabet magħha kisbiet sostanzjali favur demokrazija liberali ta' vera għal bosta stati, u din ġiet imlaqqma bħala t-"tielet mewġa ta' demokrazija". Il-Portugall, Spanja u diversi mid-dittaturi militari fl-[[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t'Isfel]] reġgħu lura għat-tmexxija ċivili fis-snin 70 u 80 tas-seklu 20. Din ġiet segwita minn pajjiżi fil-Lvant u fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja sa nofs u l-aħħar tas-snin 80 tas-seklu 20. L-għawġ ekonomiku fis-snin 80 tas-seklu 20, flimkien mal-garr minħabba l-oppressjoni Sovjetika, wasslu għall-isfaxxar tal-Unjoni Sovjetika, it-tmiem assoċjata tal-[[Gwerra Bierda]], u d-demokratizzazzjoni u l-liberalizzazzjoni tal-pajjiżi tal-Lvant tal-eks Unjoni Sovjetika. L-iżjed demokraziji mid-demokraziji l-ġodda li kellhom suċċess kienu dawk li [[Ġeografija|ġeografikament]] u [[Kultura|kulturalment]] kienu l-eqreb tal-Punent tal-Ewropa, u li issa huma parti mill-[[Unjoni Ewropea]] jew huma pajjiżi kandidati. Fl-1986, wara li waqgħet l-iżjed dittatura Asjatika prominenti, l-uniku stat demokratiku tax-xorta tiegħu dak iż-żmien feġġ fil-[[Filippini]] bil-wasla ta' [[Corazon Aquino]], li iktar 'il quddiem saret magħrufa bħala omm id-demokrazija Asjatika. Ix-xejra liberali nfirxet f'uħud mill-istati Afrikani fis-snin 90 tas-seklu 20, l-iktar fl-[[Afrika t'Isfel]]. Xi eżempji reċenti ta' tentattivi ta' liberalizzazzjoni jinkludu r-Rivoluzzjoni [[Indoneżja|Indoneżjana]] tal-1998, ir-Rivoluzzjoni bil-Gafef fil-[[Jugoslavja]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ward fil-[[Ġeorġja|Georgia]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni Oranġjo fl-[[Ukrajna]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni taċ-Ċedru fil-[[Libanu]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tat-Tulipani fil-[[Kirgiżistan]] u r-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ġiżimin fit-[[Tuneżija]]. Skont Freedom House, fl-2007 kien hemm 123 demokrazija elettorali (minn 40 waħda fl-1972). Skont il-''Forum Dinji dwar id-Demokrazija'', id-demokraziji elettorali issa jirrappreżentaw 120 mill-192 pajjiż eżistenti u jikkostitwixxu 58.2 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni dinjija. Fl-istess ħin, id-demokraziji liberali, jiġifieri l-pajjiżi li Freedom House tqis bħala ħielsa u li jirrispettaw id-drittijiet tal-bniedem bażiċi u l-istat tad-dritt, jammontaw għal 85 pajjiż u jirrappreżentaw 38 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni globali. Fl-2007 ukoll, in-[[Nazzjonijiet Uniti]] ddikjaraw il-15 ta' Settembru bħala l-Jum Internazzjonali tad-Demokrazija. Bosta pajjiżi baxxew l-età tal-votazzjoni għal 18-il sena; id-demokraziji ewlenin bdew jagħmlu dan fis-snin 70 tas-seklu 20, l-ewwel nett fil-Punent tal-Ewropa u fl-Amerka ta' Fuq. Il-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji elettorali għadhom jeskludu lil dawk taħt l-età ta' 18-il sena mill-votazzjoni. L-età tal-votazzjoni tbaxxiet għal 16-il sena għall-elezzjonijiet nazzjonali f'għadd ta' pajjiżi, fosthom il-[[Brażil]], l-Awstrija, [[Kuba]] u n-[[Nikaragwa]]. F'California, proposta tal-2004 biex jingħata kwart ta' vot li dawk ta' 16-il sena fl-aħħar mill-aħħar ma għaddietx. Fl-2008, il-Parlament Ġermaniż ippropona abbozz ta' liġi li mbagħad warrab li kienet tagħti d-dritt tal-votazzjoni lil kull ċittadin mat-twelid, biex jintuża minn ġenitur sa meta l-wild ikun jista' jibda jużah. Skont Freedom House, mill-2005 kien hemm 17-il sena konsekuttiva li fihom id-drittijiet politiċi u l-libertajiet ċivili madwar id-dinja marru għall-agħar f'iktar pajjiżi milli fejn sar xi titjib, peress li l-qawwiet populisti u nazzjonalistiċi mexew 'il quddiem kullimkien, mill-[[Polonja]] (eż. il-partit tal-Liġi u l-Ġustizzja) sal-Filippini (taħt [[Rodrigo Duterte]]). F'rapport ta' Freedom House li nħareġ fl-2018, il-punteġġi rigward id-demokrazija għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi marru lura għat-12-il sena konsekuttiva. ''The Christian Science Monitor'' irrapporta li l-ideoloġiji nazzjonalistiċi u populisti kienu qed jissaħħew, a skapitu tal-istat tad-dritt, f'pajjiżi bħall-Polonja, it-[[Turkija]] u l-[[Ungerija]]. Pereżempju, fil-Polonja, il-President ħatar 27 imħallef ġdid tal-Qorti Suprema minkejja l-oġġezzjonijiet legali mill-[[Kummissjoni Ewropea]]. Fit-Turkija, eluf ta' mħallfin tneħħew mill-karigi tagħhom wara kolp ta' stat li ma rnexxiex. Iċ-"ċedimenti demokratiċi" fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21 ġew attribwiti lill-inugwaljanza ekonomika u l-garr soċjali, il-personaliżmu, il-ġestjoni batuta tal-gvernijiet fir-rigward tal-[[pandemija tal-COVID-19]], kif ukoll fatturi oħra bħall-manipolazzjoni tas-soċjetà ċivili, il-"polarizzazzjoni tossika", il-kampanji barranin tad-diżinformazzjoni, ir-razziżmu u n-nattiviżmu, is-setgħa eżekuttiva eċċessiva, u s-setgħa mnaqqsa tal-oppożizzjoni. Fi ħdan id-demokraziji tal-Punent, l-attitudnijiet ta' "protezzjoniżmu", li jiġbru flimkien il-konservattiviżmu kulturali u l-attitudnijiet ekonomiċi Xellugin, kienu l-iżjed indikatur b'saħħtu tal-appoġġ għall-modalitajiet awtoritarji ta' governanza. == Teorija == === Teorija bikrija === It-teorija demokratika ta' Aristotli kienet tpoġġi f'kuntrast it-tmexxija mill-ħafna (demokrazija/timokrazija), mat-tmexxija mill-ftit (oligarkija/aristokrazija/elitiżmu), kif ukoll mat-tmexxija minn persuna waħda (tirannija/awtokrazija/monarkija assoluta). Huwa ħaseb ukoll li kien hemm varjant tajjeb u ħażin ta' kull sistema (huwa qies id-demokrazija bħala l-kontroparti ħażina tat-timokrazija). Fehma komuni fost it-teoriċi Repubblikani bikrin u Rinaxximentali kienet li d-demokrazija setgħet tibqa' ħajja biss fil-komunitajiet politiċi ż-żgħar. Abbażi tal-lezzjonijiet meħuda mill-bidla tar-Repubblika Rumana lejn il-monarkiżmu iktar ma kibret jew ċkienet, dawn it-teoriċi Repubblikani sostnew li l-espansjoni tat-territorji u tal-popolazzjoni inevitabbilment kienu jwasslu għat-tirannija. Għaldaqstant id-demokrazija kienet fraġli ferm u rari storikament, għax setgħet tibqa' teżisti biss f'unitajiet politiċi żgħar, li minħabba d-daqs tagħhom kienu vulnerabbli għal ħakma minn unitajiet politiċi akbar. Huwa magħruf li Montesquieu qal, "jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered minn difett intern". [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] sostna, "Għaldaqstant, hija l-karatteristika naturali tal-istati żgħar li jiġu ggvernati bħala repubblika, tal-istati ta' daqs nofsani li jkunu soġġetti għal monarka, u tal-imperi kbar li jitmexxew minn prinċep tirann". === Teorija kontemporanja === Fost it-teoriji politiċi moderni, jeżistu kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. ==== Aggregazzjoni ==== The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit citizens' preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. According to the minimalist democracy conception, elections are a mechanism for competition between politicians. Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view famously in his book ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''. Anthony Downs argues that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individuals and governments. On the other hand, direct democracy, where citizens vote directly on legislative proposals, can show better aggregation in cases of differences in preferences between elites and voters. ===== Mandat medjan ===== According to the median voter theorem the political representativeness can be evaluated by comparing how close laws and policies are to the views of the median voter along the political spectrum. The ''median mandate'' views the preferences of the median voter as granting political legitimacy. ==== Poliarkija ==== Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration. He uses the term polyarchy ("rule by many") to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that "democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal." ==== Deliberazzjoni ==== Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. Citizens assemblies are considered by many scholars as practical examples of deliberative democracy, with a recent OECD report identifying citizens assemblies as an increasingly popular mechanism to involve citizens in governmental decision-making. Proponents of direct democracy view citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socialises and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. ==== Tipi ta' demokraziji governattivi ==== Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not structured to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. ===== Forom bażiċi ===== Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy is direct democracy, in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly. In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a representative democracy. If the head of state is democratically elected then the polity is called a democratic republic ====== Demokrazija diretta ====== Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. Proponents like Jean-Jacques Rousseau argue the direct approach increases legitimacy. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: * Change constitutional laws, * Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws Within modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens' initiatives and recall elections are referred to as forms of direct democracy. However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion. Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus, the Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities, communities affiliated with the CIPO-RFM, the Bolivian city councils of FEJUVE, and Kurdish cantons of Rojava. ====== Demokrazija semidiretta ====== Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed ''semi-direct democracies'' or ''participatory democracies''. Examples include Switzerland and some U.S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. The Swiss confederation is a semi-direct democracy. At the federal level, citizens can propose changes to the constitution (federal popular initiative) or ask for a referendum to be held on any law voted by the parliament. Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, to answer 103 questions (during the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums). Although in the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum. Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. In New England, town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a representative state government. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters. ====== Sistema tax-xorti ====== The use of a lot system, a characteristic of Athenian democracy, is a feature of some versions of direct democracies. In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens picked from a lottery. ====== Demokrazija rappreżentattiva ====== Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so. Such reasons have driven criticism upon representative democracy, pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy. ====== Demokrazija Parlamentari ====== Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. In a parliamentary system, the prime minister may be dismissed by the legislature at any point in time for not meeting the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a vote of no confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the prime minister from office with majority support for dismissal. In some countries, the prime minister can also call an election at any point in time, typically when the prime minister believes that they are in good favour with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies, extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. An important feature of the parliamentary democracy is the concept of the "loyal opposition". The essence of the concept is that the second largest political party (or opposition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while still remaining loyal to the state and its democratic principles. ====== Demokrazija Presidenzjali ====== Presidential democracy is a system where the public elects the president through an election. The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. The legislature often has limited ability to remove a president from office. Elections typically have a fixed date and are not easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing the cabinet members. The executive usually has the responsibility to execute or implement legislation and may have the limited legislative powers, such as a veto. However, a legislative branch passes legislation and budgets. This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence, however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia. A semi-presidential system is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. ==== Tipoloġija ==== ===== Monarkija kostituzzjonali ===== Many countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs (often gradually) with limited or symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689. Strongly limited constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, have been referred to as crowned republics by writers such as H. G. Wells. In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, and Egypt). An elected person, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries. Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many states. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British House of Lords) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the Australian Senate). ===== Demokrazija repubblika ===== The term ''republic'' has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. The Founding Fathers of the United States often criticised direct democracy; James Madison argued, especially in ''The Federalist'' No. 10, that what distinguished a direct ''democracy'' from a ''republic'' was that the former depended on small size and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure. Accordingly, during Philadelphia convention Madison called election of representatives by large territories "the only defence against the inconveniencies of democracy consistent with the democratic form of Govt." Professors Richard Ellis of Willamette University and Michael Nelson of Rhodes College argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on "the problem of majority tyranny". They conclude, "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities." What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the US Constitution, Elizabeth Willing Powel asked him "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic—if you can keep it." ===== Demokrazija liberali ===== A liberal democracy is a representative democracy which enshrines a liberal political philosophy, where the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, moderated by a constitution or laws such as the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and constrained on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities. ===== Demokrazija Soċjalista ===== Socialist thought has several different views on democracy, for example social democracy or democratic socialism. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory, industrial, economic and/or workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. ===== Demokrazija Marxista ===== Marxist theory supports a democratic society centering the working class. Some Marxists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy or workers' councils (which are sometimes called soviets). This system can begin with workplace democracy and can manifest itself as soviet democracy or dictatorship of the proletariat. Trotskyist groups have interpreted socialist democracy to be synonymous with multi-party far-left representation, autonomous union organizations, worker's control of production, internal party democracy and the mass participation of the working masses. Some communist parties support a soviet republic with democratic centralism. Within democracy in Marxism there can be hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy". ===== Demokrazija Anarkista ===== Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticised individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism. Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. ===== Demokrazija każwali ===== Sortition is the process of choosing decision-making bodies via a random selection. These bodies can be more representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large than an elected legislature or other decision-maker. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence and is still used in modern jury selection and citizens' assemblies. ===== Demokrazija Kostituzzjonali ===== Consociational democracy, also called consociationalism, is a form of democracy based on power-sharing formula between elites representing the social groups within the society. In 1969, Arendt Lijphart argued this would stabilize democracies with factions. A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them. The Qualified majority voting rule in European Council of Ministers is a consociational democracy approach for supranational democracies. This system in Treaty of Rome allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. A consociational democracy requires consensus of representatives, while consensus democracy requires consensus of electorate. ===== Demokrazija maġġoritarja ===== Majoritarian democracy is a form of democracy based upon a principle of majority rule. Majoritarian democracy contrasts with consensus democracy, rule by as many people as possible. ===== Konsensus ===== Consensus democracy requires consensus decision-making and supermajority to obtain a larger support than majority. In contrast, in majoritarian democracy minority opinions can potentially be ignored by vote-winning majorities. Constitutions typically require consensus or supermajorities. ===== Demokrazija etnika ===== The term ethnic democracy, as used by some political scientists, purports to describe a governance system that combines a structured ethnic dominance with democratic, political and civil rights for all. Both the dominant ethnic group—typically an ethnic majority—and the minority ethnic groups have citizenship and are able to fully participate in the political process. However, critics of the "ethnic democracy" model argue it is a contradiction in terms, and thus conceptually inadequate or confusing; these critics allege that purported ethnic democracies, most notably Israel, are not democratic at all, or are at best a sort of semi-democracy. ===== Demokrazija inklużiva ===== Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal ''Democracy & Nature'' and its successor ''The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy''. ===== Politika parteċipattiva ===== A parpolity or participatory polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a nested council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision-making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council. A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy. ===== Demokrazija proċedurali ===== Procedural democracy or proceduralist democracy, proceduralism or hollow democracy is a term used to denote the particular procedures, such as regular elections based on universal suffrage, that produce an electorally-legitimated government. Procedural democracy, with its centering of electoral processes as the basis of democratic legitimacy, is often contrasted with substantive or participatory democracy, which centers the equal participation of all groups in society in the political process as the basis of legitimacy. ===== Demokrazija radikali ===== Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Radical democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes. ===== Demokrazija reliġjuża ===== Religious democracy is a form of democracy where the values of a particular religion or state religion are preferred. The term applies to all democratic countries in which religion is incorporated into the form of government. ===== Demokrazija kożmopolitana ===== Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as ''global democracy'' or ''world federalism'', is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them. According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing international organisations, e.g., the United Nations, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a World Parliament, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics. Cosmopolitan democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi. The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy. ===== Demokrazija kreattiva ===== Creative democracy is advocated by American philosopher John Dewey. The main idea about creative democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us" and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral ideal requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute". ===== Demokrazija ggwidata ===== Guided democracy is a form of democracy that incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner that may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "guided democracy". Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government. === Tfittxija ta' fehim komuni === The search for a common approach to conceptualize, measure and compare democracy remains a challenge in modern political science. This challenge strikes through to measuring, assessing and comparing the quality of democracy, as Seva Gunitsky pointed in 2015 in the Washington Post, based upon his research for ''Ranking the World – Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance'', that measuring democracy can mislead as much as clarify – a problem for academics, policy-makers and anyone who cares about democracy. In his contribution ''Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics'' to ''Ranking the World'', he, on the example of former Soviet republics, examines fundamental problems with measures of democracy, observing that indices often disagree and occasionally draw contradictory conclusions from observing the same event. He argues, that this reflects inherent tradeoffs in conceptualizing democratic governance, which arise from fundamental normative disagreements about a highly contested concept. In 2011, Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al. proposed an approach to such conceptualization and measurement. In their paper ''Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: A New Approach'' they review some of the weaknesses among contemporary and older approaches, then lay out their approach, characterizing it as ''historical'', ''multidimensional'', ''disaggregated'', and ''transparent''. The authors propose to create a new set of four features to conceptualize and measure democracy. First, ''historical'', extending indicators of democracy back through modern history, wherever possible. Second, a ''multidimensional'' approach to the problem of conceptualizing democracy. Third, to collect information relevant to democracy at a highly ''disaggregated'' level. Fourth, ''transparent'', a strategy for data collection and presentation that should enhance the precision, validity, transparency, and legitimacy of the resulting indicators. They also sum up the conceptions, and/or aspects, of democracy into six – ''electoral'', ''liberal'', ''majoritarian'', ''participatory'', ''deliberative'', and ''egalitarian'', which taken together offer a fairly comprehensive accounting of the concept of democracy as it is employed today (see overview in the table below). {| class="wikitable" | colspan="5" | ---- |- | colspan="5" |Conceptions of democracy by Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al., 2011 |- valign="top" | | |Principles |Question |Institutions |- | colspan="5" | ---- |- valign="top" |I. |'''Electoral''' |Contestation, competition |Are government offices filled by free and fair multiparty elections? |Elections, political parties, competitiveness and turnover |- valign="top" |II. |'''Liberal''' |Limited government, multiple veto points, horizontal accountability, individual rights, civil liberties, transparency |Is political power decentralized & constrained? |Multiple, independent, and decentralized, with special focus on the role of the media, interest groups, the judiciary, and a written constitution with explicit guarantees |- valign="top" |III. |'''Majoritarian''' |Majority rule, centralization, vertical accountability |Does the majority (or plurality) rule? |Consolidated and centralized, with special focus on the role of political parties |- valign="top" |IV. |'''Participatory''' |Government by the people |Do ordinary citizens participate in politics? |Election law, civil society, local government, direct democracy |- valign="top" |V. |'''Deliberative''' |Government by reason |Are political decisions the product of public deliberation? |Media, hearings, panels, other deliberative bodies |- valign="top" |VI. |'''Egalitarian''' |Political equality |Are all citizens equally empowered? |Designed to ensure equal participation, representation, protection, and politically relevant resources |- | colspan="5" | ---- |} === Measurement of democracy === Main article: Measurement of democracy Measurement of democracy varies according to the different fundamental conceptions of democracy. Minimalist democracy evaluations focus on free and fair elections, while maximalist democracy evaluates additional values, such as human rights, deliberation, economic outcomes or state capacity. == Demokrazija mhux governattiva == Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy. Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed Islamic democracy or ''Islamocracy''. There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff. === Demokrazija tal-azzjonisti === Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders. In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle. Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives. The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights. == Ġustifikazzjoni == Ingħataw diversi ġustifikazzjonijiet għad-demokrazija. === Leġittimità === Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. The public legitimacy of democracy varies by country, in some countries religious texts have more public support than the will of the people. === Teħid ta' deċiżjonijiet aħjar === Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution. === Suċċess ekonomiku === In ''Why Nations Fail'', economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. Unemployment is associated with anti-democratic beliefs. == Kritika == Democracy as a concept and as a practical form of government has been the subject of critique throughout history. Some critics consider that democratic regimes often fail to be true to the highest principles expected of them, while others reject the values promoted by constitutional democracy in whole or part. Opposition to democracy goes as far back as Plato, who argued for a 'government of the best qualified'. More recently, James Madison extensively studied historic attempts at and arguments on democracy in his preparation for the Constitutional Convention, and Winston Churchill remarked that "no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." Critics argue that modern democracies may fail to be sufficiently democratic and instead function in practice as oligarchies, insofar as governments are more responsive to the preferences of economic elites than to those of ordinary citizens. Numerous empirical studies across various western democracies including the United States, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Norway and Germany have consistently found that elected representatives tend to respond more to the preferences of very affluent citizens for policy outcomes than those of the average voter. Some critics of democracy have highlighted the concept's inconsistencies, paradoxes, and limits: drawing contrasts with other forms of government, such as epistocracy or lottocracy. Others have characterized most modern democracies as democratic polyarchies and democratic aristocracies. Yet others have identified fascist moments in modern democracies. They have termed the societies produced by modern democracies as neo-feudal and have contrasted democracy with fascism, anarcho-capitalism, theocracy, and absolute monarchy. == Tranżizzjonijiet demokratiċi == A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). === Demokratizzazzjoni === Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. The opposite process of democratic transition is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization. Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments could not do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns. Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:^{[''need quotation to verify'']} * a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) * an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence. Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07). A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26). Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750 to 1850 despite arguments to the contrary. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:<blockquote>The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.</blockquote>Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratization in 18 countries: Benin, Bolivia, Botswana, Bazil, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Guatemala, Lesotho, Mauritius, Montenegro, Poland, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste, Thailand, The Gambia, and Zambia. ===== Promozzjoni tad-demokrazija ===== Promotion of democracy can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing electoral integrity, youth suffrage and civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality, reducing presidentialism and aligning with median voter preferences. === Awtokratizzazzjoni === Democratic backsliding is a form of autocratization, a process of structural government transition toward authoritarianism in which the exercise of political power becomes less limited and more arbitrary and repressive. Democratic backsliding specifically assumes a starting point of a democratic system. The process typically restricts the space for public contest and political participation in the process of government selection. Democratic backsliding involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.^{[''citation needed'']} Steven Levitsky says: "It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That's asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters." The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratic backsliding in 44 countries: Afghanistan, Argentina, Armenia, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, El Salvador, Haiti, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Ivory Coast, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Libya, Mali, Madagascar, Mauretania, Mexico, Moldova, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Senegal, Serbia, Romania, Togo, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States. ===== Tfixkil ===== Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: * Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. * Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: ** Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état ** An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. * Royal coup, in which a monarch not normally involved in government seizes all power. For example, the 6 January Dictatorship, begun in 1929 when King Alexander I of Yugoslavia dismissed parliament and started ruling by decree. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. == Influwenza tal-midja == The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: * Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment * Meaningful agenda setting * Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy * Dialogue across a diverse range of views * Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power * Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved * A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience * A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. The ability to find effective political solutions to social problems is hampered when problems tend to be blamed on individuals rather than on structural causes. This person-centered focus may have far-reaching consequences not only for domestic problems but also for foreign policy when international conflicts are blamed on foreign heads of state rather than on political and economic structures. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. The responsiveness and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. In fact, studies show that false stories are going more viral than true stories. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. Reliable information sources are essential for the democratic process. Less democratic governments rely heavily on censorship, propaganda, and misinformation in order to stay in power, while independent sources of information are able to undermine their legitimacy. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Greċja antika]] jipqware6e2ihzd48zw9jm539qff77j 330268 330267 2026-05-28T06:06:46Z Trigcly 17859 /* Teorija kontemporanja */ 330268 wikitext text/x-wiki Id-'''demokrazija''' hija forma ta' governanza li permezz tagħha l-poter [[Politika|politiku]] jinkiseb min-nies jew mill-popolazzjoni ta' stat. Skont definizzjoni minimalista tad-demokrazija, il-mexxejja jiġu eletti permezz ta' elezzjonijiet kompetittivi filwaqt li d-definizzjonijiet iktar wesgħin jew massimalisti jorbtu d-demokrazija mal-garanziji tal-libertajiet ċivili u d-drittijiet tal-[[bniedem]] apparti l-elezzjonijiet kompetittivi. F'demokrazija diretta, il-poplu jkollu l-awtorità diretta li jagħmel deliberazzjonijiet u li jiddeċiedi dwar il-leġiżlazzjoni. F'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, il-poplu jagħżel l-uffiċjali tal-governanza permezz ta' elezzjonijiet. Id-definizzjoni ta' "poplu" u l-modi kif l-awtorità tiġi kondiviża fi ħdan il-poplu jew iddelegata minnu nbidlu mal-milja taż-żminijiet u b'rati li jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor. Il-karatteristiċi tad-demokrazija spiss jinkludu l-libertà tal-ġemgħa, il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni, il-proprjetà personali, il-libertà tar-[[reliġjon]] u tal-[[kelma]], iċ-ċittadinanza, il-kunsens ta' dawk li jiġu ggvernati, id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni, il-libertà miċ-ċaħda governattiva mhux ġustifikata tad-dritt tal-ħajja u tal-libertà, u d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. In-nozzjoni tad-demokrazija evolviet b'mod konsiderevoli maż-żmien. Matul l-[[Storja|istorja]], wieħed jista' jsib evidenza ta' demokrazija diretta, fejn il-komunitajiet kienu jieħdu deċiżjonijiet permezz ta' ġemgħat popolari. Illum il-ġurnata, il-forma dominanti tad-demokrazija hija d-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, fejn iċ-ċittadini jeleġġu lill-uffiċjali tal-gvern biex jiggvernaw f'isimhom, pereżempju f'demokrazija parlamentari jew presidenzjali. Fil-varjant komuni tad-demokrazija liberali, is-setgħat tal-maġġoranza jiġu eżerċitati fi ħdan il-qafas ta' demokrazija rappreżentattiva, iżda l-kostituzzjoni u l-qorti suprema jillimitaw lill-maġġoranza u jipproteġu lill-minoranzi — normalment billi jiġi żgurat li kulħadd igawdi minn ċerti drittijiet individwali, bħal-libertà tal-kelma jew il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni. It-terminu tfaċċa fis-seklu 5 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]. fil-bliet-stati [[Greċja antika|Griegi]], b'mod partikolari f'[[Ateni]] Klassika, u kien ifisser "it-tmexxija tal-poplu", b'kuntrast mal-aristokrazija (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: ἀριστοκρατία, ''aristokratía''), li tfisser "it-tmexxija tal-elit". Prattikament fil-gvernijiet demokratiċi kollha tul l-istorja tal-qedem u moderna, iċ-ċittadinanza demokratika inizjalment kienet ristretta għal klassi tal-elit, li iktar 'il quddiem ġiet estiża għaċ-ċittadini adulti kollha. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, dan inkiseb permezz tal-movimenti tas-suffraġju tas-sekli 19 u 20. Id-demokrazija tikkuntrasta mal-forom ta' governanza fejn il-poter ma jinbitx mill-popolazzjoni ġenerali ta' stat, pereżempju s-sistemi awtoritarji. Storikament is-sistemi demokratiċi kienu forma rari u vulnerabbli ta' governanza, iżda dawn saru iktar prevalenti mis-seklu 19 'l hawn, b'mod partikolari permezz ta' diversi mewġiet ta' demokratizzazzjoni. Id-demokrazija għandha leġittimità konsiderevoli fid-dinja moderna, peress li l-opinjoni pubblika fir-reġjuni dinjin normalment huma favur is-sistemi demokratiċi ta' governanza meta mqabbla mal-alternattivi, u peress li saħansitra l-istati awtoritarji jippruvaw ipinġu lilhom infushom bħala demokratiċi. Id-demokrazija b'mod iktar konsistenti tirriżulta f'saħħa, f'[[edukazzjoni]] u f'eżiti ekonomiċi mtejba. Skont l-indiċijiet ta' ''V-Dem Democracy'' u l-Indiċi tad-Demokrazija ta' ''The Economist'', inqas minn nofs il-popolazzjoni tad-dinja tgħix f'demokrazija mill-2022. Fl-istess ħin, filwaqt li d-demokrazija rappreżentattivi tingħata valur siewi b'mod mifrux, iċ-Ċentru tar-Riċerka ta' Pew sab li l-garr rigward il-prestazzjoni demokratika huwa komuni saħansitra f'bosta demokraziji stabbiliti. == Karatteristiċi == Għalkemm id-demokrazija fid-demokraziji purament rappreżentattivi hija mifhuma b'rabta mal-votazzjoni, ma jeżisti l-ebda konsensus dwar definizzjoni preċiża tad-demokrazija. Jeżistu wisq approċċi. Kien hemm studju li identifika 2,234 aġġettiv li jintuża għad-deskrizzjoni tad-demokrazija bil-[[lingwa Ingliża]]. Minkejja dan, hemm fehim iktar profond – bħal dak ta' [[Abraham Lincoln]]: : ''"Governanza tan-nies, min-nies, għan-nies"'' jew dik ta' [[Karl Popper]] li ssostni li l-ħarsa "klassika" lejn id-demokrazija hi, "fil-qosor, it-teorija li d-demokrazija hija t-tmexxija tal-poplu u li l-poplu għandu d-dritt li jiggverna hu. Il-prinċipji demokratiċi huma riflessi fiċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha, ilkoll indaqs quddiem il-[[Dritt|liġi]] u lkoll b'aċċess ugwali għall-proċessi leġiżlattivi. Pereżempju, f'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, kull vot (fit-teorija) għandu l-istess piż, u l-libertà taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli hija żgurata permezz ta' drittijiet u libertajiet leġittimizzati li tipikament ikunu mnaqqxa f'kostituzzjoni, filwaqt li użi oħra tad-"demokrazija" jaf jħaddnu d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament fuq id-diversi kwistjonijiet li jinqalgħu. Skont in-[[Ġnus Magħquda|Nazzjonijiet Uniti]], id-demokrazija "tipprovdi ambjent li jirrispetta d-drittijiet tal-bniedem u l-libertajiet fundamentali, u fejn ir-rieda espressa liberament tal-poplu tiġi eżerċitata". Skont teorija partikolari d-demokrazija tirrikjedi tliet prinċipji fundamentali: il-kontroll 'il fuq (sovranità fl-iżjed livelli baxxi tal-awtorità), l-ugwaljanza politika, u n-normi soċjali li permezz tagħhom l-individwi u l-istituzzjonijiet iqisu biss atti aċċettabbli li jirriflettu l-ewwel żewġ prinċipji tal-kontroll 'il fuq u l-ugwaljanza politika. L-ugwaljanza legali, il-libertà politika u l-istat ta' dritt sikwit jiġu identifikati bħala l-karatteristiċi ewlenin ta' demokrazija li tiffunzjona sew. F'xi pajjiżi, b'mod partikolari fir-[[Renju Unit]] (minn fejn oriġinat is-sistema ta' Westminster), il-prinċipju dominanti hu dak tas-sovranità Parlamentari, filwaqt li tinżamm l-indipendenza ġudizzjarja. Fl-[[Indja]], is-sovranità Parlamentari hija soġġetta għall-Kostituzzjoni tal-Indja li tinkludi rieżami ġudizzjarju. Għalkemm it-terminu "demokrazija" tipikament jintuża fil-kuntest ta' stat politiku, il-prinċipji wkoll huma applikabbli potenzjalment għall-organizzazzjonijiet privati, bħal klabbs, għaqdiet u ditti. Id-demokraziji jistgħu jużaw bosta metodi differenti ta' teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet, iżda t-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hija l-forma dominanti. Mingħajr kumpens, bħal protezzjonijiet legali tad-drittijiet individwali jew kollettivi, il-minoranzi politiċi jistgħu jiġu mgħakksa mit-"tirannija tal-maġġoranza". It-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza tinvolvi approċċ kompetittiv, għad-differenza tad-demokrazija tal-konsensus, u b'hekk tinħoloq il-ħtieġa li l-elezzjonijiet, u ġeneralment id-deliberazzjoni, ikunu sostantivament u proċeduralment "ġusti" u ekwi. Fżxi pajjiżi, il-libertà tal-espressjoni politika, il-libertà tal-kelma u l-libertà tal-istampa jitqiesu bħala importanti biex jiġi żgurat li l-votanti jkunu infurmati sew, u b'hekk ikunu jistgħu jivvutaw skont l-interessi u t-twemmin tagħhom stess. Ġie ssuġġerit ukoll li karatteristika bażika tad-demokrazija hija l-kapaċità li l-votanti kollha jipparteċipaw b'mod ħieles u sħiħ fil-[[ħajja]] tas-soċjetà tagħhom. Bl-enfasi fuq in-nozzjonijiet tal-kuntratt soċjali u r-rieda kollettiva tal-votanti kollha, id-demokrazija tista' tkun ikkaratterizzata wkoll bħala forma ta' kollettiviżmu politiku peress li tiġi definita bħala forma ta' governanza fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom vuċi ugwali fit-tfassil tal-liġijiet. Ir-repubbliki, għalkemm spiss ikunu assoċjati popolarment mad-demokrazija minħabba l-prinċipju kondiviż tal-kunsens mogħti minn dawk li jiġu ggvernati għat-tmexxija, mhux neċessarjament ikunu demokraziji, għax ir-repubblikaniżmu ma jispeċifikax ''kif'' in-nies għandhom imexxu. Tradizzjonalment it-terminu "repubblika" kien iħaddan kemm id-demokraziji kif ukoll l-aristokraziji u l-varjanti tagħhom. F'sens modern, il-forma ta' governanza repubblikana hija forma ta' governanza mingħajr monarka. Minħabba f'hekk, id-demokraziji jistgħu jkunu repubbliki jew monarkiji kostituzzjonali, bħar-Renju Unit, fejn il-monarka ma jkunx il-mexxej. == Storja == Il-ġemgħat demokratiċi għandhom żmien daqs kemm għandha żmien l-ispeċi umana u ilhom jeżistu tul l-istorja umana, iżda sas-seklu 19, il-figuri [[Politiku|politiċi]] ewlenin fil-biċċa l-kbira opponew id-demokrazija. It-teoriċi repubblikani rabtu d-demokrazija ma' daqs ċkejken: iktar ma kienu jikbru fid-daqs l-unitajiet politiċi, iktar kienet tiżdied il-probabbiltà li l-gvern isir tiranniku. Fl-istess waqt, l-unitajiet politiċi żgħar kienu vulnerabbli għall-ħakma. Montesquieu kiteb, "Jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered mill-imperfezzjoni interna". Skont ix-xjenzat politiku tal-Università ta' Johns Hopkins [[Daniel Deudney]], il-ħolqien tal-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]], bid-daqs kbir u s-sistema ta' kontrolli u bilanċi tagħha, kienet soluzzjoni għall-problemi doppji tad-daqs. Fis-soċjetajiet ta' madwar id-dinja seħħew forom ta' demokrazija b'mod organiku li ma kellhom l-ebda kuntatt ma' xulxin. === Oriġini === ==== [[Greċja]] u [[Ruma]] ==== It-terminu ''demokrazija'' tfaċċa għall-ewwel darba fil-ħsieb politiku u [[Filosofija|filosofiku]] tal-Greċja Antika fil-belt-stat ta' Ateni fl-antikità klassika. Il-kelma ġejja minn ''dêmos'' li tfisser "nies (komuni)" u minn ''krátos'' li tfisser "qawwa/setgħa". Taħt Cleisthenes, f'Ateni ġie stabbilit dak li huwa maħsub bħala l-ewwel eżempju ta' tip ta' demokrazija fis-seklu 6 Q.K. (508–507 Q.K.). Cleisthenes huwa meqjus bħala "l-missier tad-demokrazija ta' Ateni". L-ewwel użu attestat tal-kelma demokrazija jinsab fix-xogħlijiet ta' proża tal-ħabta tal-430 Q.K., bħall-''Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, iżda l-użu tagħha kien eqdem b'diversi deċennji, peress li żewġ persuni minn Ateni li twieldu għall-ħabta tal-470 Q.K. kien jisimhom Democrates, isem politiku ġdid — x'aktarx b'appoġġ għad-demokrazija — li ngħata fi żmien ta' dibattiti dwar kwistjonijiet kostituzzjonali f'Ateni. Aeschylus jalludi bis-saħħa wkoll għall-kelma fid-dramm tiegħu ''Is-Supplikanti'', li ttella' għall-ħabta tal-463 Q.K., fejn isemmi "l-id tat-tmexxija tal-kotra" [''demou kratousa cheir'']. Qabel dak iż-żmien, il-kelma li kienet tiddefinixxi s-sistema politika ġdida ta' Cleisthenes x'aktarx li kienet ''isonomija'', li tfisser ugwaljanza politika. Id-demokrazija ta' Ateni ħadet is-sura ta' demokrazija diretta, u kellha żewġ karatteristiċi li jiddistingwuha: l-għażla aleatorja ta' ċittadini ordinarji biex jimlew il-ftit karigi amministrattivi u ġudizzjarji eżistenti tal-gvern, u ġemgħa leġiżlattiva li kienet tikkonsisti mill-maġġoranza taċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha kienu jitħallew jitkellmu u jivvutaw fil-ġemgħa jew fl-assemblea, fejn kienu jiġu stabbiliti l-liġijiet tal-belt-stat. Madankollu, iċ-ċittadinanza ta' Ateni ma kinitx tingħata lin-[[Mara|nisa]], lill-[[Skjavitù|ilsiera]], lill-barranin (μέτοικοι / ''métoikoi''), u liż-żgħażagħ taħt l-età tas-servizz militari. Effettivament, resident wieħed minn kull erba' f'Ateni kienu jikkwalifikaw bħala ċittadini. Is-sjieda tal-art ma kinitx rekwiżit għaċ-ċittadinanza. L-esklużjoni ta' partijiet kbar tal-popolazzjoni mill-korp taċ-ċittadini hija marbuta mill-qrib mal-fehim tal-qedem taċ-ċittadinanza. Fil-biċċa l-kbira ta' żmien il-qedem, il-benefiċċju taċ-ċittadinanza kien marbut mal-obbligu tal-ġlied fil-kampanji militari. Id-demokrazija ta' Aterni mhux biss kienet ''diretta'' fis-sens li d-deċiżjonijiet kienu jittieħdu mill-ġemgħa, iżda anke l-''iżjed diretta'' fis-sens li l-ġemgħa permezz tal-istrutturi bħall-assemblea, is-senat u l-qrati legali kienet tikkontrolla l-proċess politiku kollu u proporzjon kbir taċ-ċittadini kienu jkunu involuti b'mod kostanti fl-affarijiet pubbliċi. Minkejja li d-drittijiet tal-individwu ma kinux żgurati mill-kostituzzjoni ta' Ateni fis-sens modern (il-Griegi tal-qedem ma kellhomx kelma għal "drittijiet"), dawk li kienu ċittadini ta' Ateni kienu jgawdu l-libertajiet tagħhom mhux f'oppożizzjoni għall-gvern iżda billi jgħixu f'belt li ma kinitx soġġetta għal xi setgħa oħra u billi huma stess ma kinux soġġetti għat-tmexxija ta' ħaddieħor. Il-votazzjoni tfaċċat fi [[Sparta]] saħansitra fis-700 Q.K. L-ekkleżjastiċi ta' Sparta kienu ġemgħa tal-poplu, li kienet tiltaqa' darba fix-xahar, fejn kull ċittadini maskili ta' mill-inqas 20 sena seta' jipparteċipa. Fl-assemblea, l-Ispartani kienu jeleġġu l-mexxejja u jixħtu l-voti tagħhom bl-għajjat (il-votazzjoni kienet tiġi deċiża skont l-ikbar għajta tal-folla). [[Aristotli]] ddeskriva dan il-metodu bħala "tat-tfal", meta mqabbel mas-sistema tal-votazzjoni fuq poloz tal-ġebel użata miċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Sparta adottat din is-sistema minħabba s-sempliċità tagħha, u biex jiġi evitat kull tip ta' preġudizzju, xiri jew qerq fil-votazzjoni, li kienu predominanti fl-elezzjonijiet demokratiċi bikrin. Barra minn hekk, id-depożizzjoni tar-Renju Ruman ħolqot sistema b'element demokratiku fil-forma ta' bosta ġemgħat popolari differenti. Minkejja li r-Repubblika Rumana tat kontribut sinifikanti għal bosta aspetti tad-demokrazija, frazzjon biss mir-Rumani kienu ċittadini li kellhom il-vot fl-elezzjonijiet għall-maġistrati. Il-voti tas-setgħana kienu jingħataw iktar piż permezz ta' sistema ta' votazzjoni ponderata, għaldaqstant il-biċċa l-kbira tal-uffiċjali għoljin, inkluż il-membri tas-Senat, kienu jiġu minn ftit familji għonja u nobbli. Il-mudell Ruman ta' governanza ispira bosta ħassieba politiċi tul is-sekli. ==== Indja tal-qedem ==== Vaishali, il-[[belt kapitali]] tal-Lega ta' Vajjika (Vrijji mahajanapada) tal-Indja, titqies bħala wieħed mill-ewwel eżempji ta' repubblika għall-ħabta tas-seklu 6 Q.K. ==== Amerki ==== [[Kultura|Kulturi]] oħra, bħall-Iroquois fl-Amerki, żviluppaw ukoll forma ta' soċjetà demokratika bejn l-1450 u l-1660 (u possibbilment fl-1142), ferm qabel ma kellhom kuntatt mal-[[Ewropa|Ewropej]]. Din id-demokrazija għadha preżenti sal-lum u hija l-iżjed demokrazija rappreżentattiva antika eżistenti fid-dinja. === [[Medjuevu|Medju Evu]] === Filwaqt li l-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjuni fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu kienu mmexxijin mill-kleru jew minn sinjuri fewdali, kienu jeżistu diversi sistemi li kienu jinvolvu l-elezzjonijiet jew il-ġemgħat, għalkemm spiss kienu jinvolvu parti żgħira mill-popolazzjoni. Fl-Iskandinavja, kien hemm korpi magħrufa ta' nies ħielsa ppreseduti minn kelliem tal-liġi. Dawn il-korpi ta' deliberazzjoni kienu responsabbli għas-soluzzjoni ta' kwistjonijiet politiċi, u xi varjanti kienu jinkludu l-Althing fl-[[Iżlanda]] u l-Løgting fil-[[Gżejjer Faroe|Gżejjer Faeroe]]. Il-''veche'', fil-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]], kien korp simili għal dawk tal-Iskandinavja. Fil-[[Knisja Kattolika]] Rumana, il-[[Papa]] ilu jiġi elett minn [[konklav]] Papali magħmul mill-kardinali mill-1059. L-ewwel korp Parlamentari ddokumentat fl-Ewropa kien il-Cortes ta' [[León]]. Stabbilit minn [[Alfonsu IX|Alfonso IX]] fl-1188, il-Cortes kellu l-awtorità għall-iffissar tat-tassazzjoni, għall-affarijiet barranin u għal-leġiżlazzjoni, għalkemm in-natura eżatta tar-rwol tiegħu għadha kkontestata. Ir-Repubblika ta' [[Ragusa]], stabbilita fl-1358 u ċċentrata madwar il-belt ta' [[Dubrovnik]], ipprovdiet drittijiet ta' rappreżentanza u ta' votazzjoni lill-aristokrazija maskili tagħha biss. Diversi bliet-stati u sistemi ta' governanza Taljani kellhom forom ta' governanza repubblikani. Pereżempju, ir-Repubblika ta' [[Firenze]], stabbilita fl-1115, kienet immexxija mis-Signoria u l-membri tagħha kienu jintgħażlu bix-xorti. Fil-Frisja tas-sekli 10–15, soċjetà mhux fewdali distinta, id-dritt tal-votazzjoni dwar kwistjonijiet lokali u dwar l-uffiċjali tal-kontea kien ibbażat fuq id-daqs tal-art. Il-''Kouroukan Fouga'' qasam l-Imperu tal-[[Mali]] fi klans tat-tmexxija li kienu rrappreżentati f'ġemgħa kbira msejħa l-''Gbara''. Madankollu, id-dokument wassal biex il-Mali jkun iktar simili għal monarkija kostituzzjonali milli repubblika demokratika. Il-Parlament tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] kellu l-għeruq tiegħu fir-restrizzjonijiet tal-poter tar-rejiet miktubin fil-''Magna Carta'' (1215), li b'mod espliċitu ħarset ċerti drittijiet tas-sudditi tar-Re u b'mod impliċitu appoġġat dak li mbagħad sar id-digriet Ingliż tal-''habeas corpus'', li jissalvagwardja l-libertà individwali mill-ħabs illegali u li jagħti d-dritt tal-appell. L-ewwel assemblea nazzjonali rappreżentattiva fl-Ingilterra kienet il-Parlament ta' [[Simon de Montfort]] fl-1265. Il-preżenza tat-tressiq tal-petizzjonijiet hija fost l-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-użu tal-Parlament bħala forum biex jiġi indirizzat it-tħassib ġenerali tan-nies ordinarji. Madankollu, is-setgħa tas-sejħa tal-Parlament baqgħet f'idejn il-monarka. Xi studji kkollegaw l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjonijiet Parlamentari fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu mal-agglomerazzjonijiet urbani u mal-ħolqien ta' klassijiet ġodda, bħall-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]], kif ukoll mal-preżenza tan-nobbli u tal-eliti reliġjużi. L-istudjużi kkollegaw ukoll l-istabbiliment tal-governanza rappreżentattiva mal-frammentazzjoni politika relattiva tal-Ewropa. Ix-xjenzat politiku [[David Stasavage]] jikkollega l-frammentazzjoni tal-Ewropa, u d-demokratizzazzjoni sussegwenti tagħha, mal-mod kif sfaxxa l-[[Imperu Ruman]]: it-territorju Ruman inħakem minn gruppi frammentati żgħar ta' tribujiet Ġermaniċi, u dan wassal għall-ħolqien ta' unitajiet politiċi żgħar fejn il-mexxejja kienu relattivament dgħajfin u kienu jeħtieġu l-kunsens taċ-ċittadini tagħhom biex jifilħu għat-theddidiet barranin. Fil-[[Polonja]], id-demokrazija nobbli kienet ikkaratterizzata minn żieda fl-attività tan-nobbiltà nofsanija, li riedet iżżid is-sehem tagħha fl-eżerċitar tal-poter għas-spejjeż tal-manjati. Il-manjati ddominaw l-iżjed karigi importanti fl-istat (lajċi u ekkleżjastiċi) u kienu jinġabru fil-kunsill irjali, li iktar 'il quddiem sar is-senat. L-importanza dejjem tikber tan-nobbiltà nofsanija kellha impatt fuq l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjoni tal-art magħrufa bħala s-''sejmik'' (assemblea lokali), li sussegwentement kisbet iktar drittijiet. Matul is-seklu 15 u l-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 16, is-sejmiks ingħataw iktar u iktar poter u saru l-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tal-poter lokali. Fl-1454, [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] ta lis-sejmiks id-dritt li jiddeċiedu dwar it-taxxi u li jorganizzaw mobilizzazzjoni tal-massa fl-Istatuti ta' Nieszawa. Huwa wiegħed ukoll li ma kienx se joħloq liġijiet ġodda mingħajr il-kunsens tagħhom. === Era moderna === ==== Perjodu modern bikri ==== Fl-Ingilterra tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta. Il-Parlament tal-Ingilterra għadda l-Petizzjoni tad-Drittijiet fl-1628 li stabbiliet ċerti libertajiet għas-sudditi. Il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża (1642–1651) ġiet miġġielda bejn ir-Re u Parlament oligarkiku iżda elett, u matul dan iż-żmien iffurmat l-idea ta' partit politiku, bi gruppi jiddibattu d-drittijiet għar-rappreżentanza politika matul id-Dibattiti ta' Putney tal-1647. Sussegwentement, il-Protettorat (1653–59) u l-Integrazzjoni mill-Ġdid Ingliża (1660) integraw iktar tmexxija awtokratika, għalkemm il-Parlament għadda l-Att dwar il-''Habeas Corpus'' fl-1679 li saħħaħ il-konvenzjoni li pprojbixxiet id-detenzjoni mingħajr biżżejjed raġunijiet jew evidenza. Wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688, il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet ġiet ippromulgata fl-1689 u din ikkodifikat ċerti drittijiet u libertajiet u għadha fis-seħħ. Il-liġi stabbiliet ir-rekwiżiti li jsiru elezzjonijiet regolari, ir-regoli għal-libertà tal-kelma fil-Parlament u limitat il-poter tal-monarka, u b'hekk żgurat, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-Ewropa ta' dak iż-żmien, li l-assolutiżmu rjali ma jipprevalix. L-istoriċi ekonomiċi [[Douglass North]] u [[Barry Weingast]] ikkaratterizzaw l-istituzzjonijiet implimentati fir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża bħala suċċess kbir f'termini tar-restrizzjonijiet tal-governanza u l-iżgurar tal-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet tal-proprjetà. L-interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta, il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża, u r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża fis-seklu 17 xprunaw it-tkabbir ta' filosofija politika fil-Gżejjer Brittaniċi. [[Thomas Hobbes]] kien l-ewwel filosfu li fassal teorija dettaljata dwar il-kuntratt soċjali. Fil-''Leviathan'' (1651), Hobbes ħareġ bit-teorija li l-individwi li jgħixu fin-natura kienu jgħixu ħajja "solitarja, fqira, kerha, iebsa u qasira" u kienu jagħmlu gwerer kontinwi kontra kulħadd. Sabiex tiġi evitata l-okkorrenza tal-istat anarkiku tan-natura, Hobbes irraġuna li l-individwi kienu jċedu d-drittijiet tagħhom lil qawwa awtoritarja setgħana. Fi kliem ieħor, Hobbes tkellem favur monarkija assoluta, li fl-opinjoni tiegħu kienet l-aqwa forma ta' governanza. Iktar 'il quddiem, il-filosfu u t-[[tabib]] [[John Locke]] ħareġ b'interpretazzjoni differenti dwar it-teorija tal-kuntratt soċjali. Fiż-''Żewġ Trattati tal-Governanza'' (1689) tiegħu, Locke sostna li l-individwi kollha kellhom id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għall-proprjetà. Skont Locke, l-individwi kienu jinġabru volontarjament flimkien biex jiffurmaw stat bl-għan li jiddefendu drittijiethom. Għal Locke kienu partikolarment importanti d-drittijiet tal-proprjetà, li skont Locke kienu jirrikjedu l-ħarsien, li kien l-iskop primarju tal-gvern. Barra minn hekk, Locke sostna li l-gvernijiet kienu leġittimi biss jekk kellhom il-kunsens ta' dawk li kienu ggvernati. Skont Locke, iċ-ċittadini kellhom id-dritt jirribellaw kontra l-gvern jekk dan kien jaġixxi kontra l-interessi tagħhom jew isir tiranniku. Għalkemm ma tantx kienu moqrija matul ħajtu, ix-xogħlijiet ta' Locke jitqiesu bħala d-dokumenti li jsejsu l-ħsieb liberali u influwenzaw ferm il-mexxejja tar-Rivoluzzjoni Amerikana u iktar 'il quddiem ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża]]. Il-qafas demokratiku liberali tiegħu tal-governanza għadu l-forma ewlenija tad-demokrazija fid-dinja. Fir-repubbliki tal-Cossack tal-[[Ukrajna]] fis-sekli 16 u 17, l-Etmanat tal-Cossack u s-Sich ta' Zaporizhia, id-detentur tal-ogħla kariga ta' Hetman kien jiġi elett mir-rappreżentanti tad-distretti tal-pajjiż. Fl-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]], il-governanza rappreżentattiva bdiet f'Jamestown, Virginia, bl-elezzjoni tal-Kamra tal-Burgesses (il-prekursur tal-Assemblea Ġenerali ta' Virginia) fl-1619. Il-Puritani Ingliżi li għamlu migrazzjoni mill-1620 stabbilew kolonji f'New England, fejn kien hemm governanza lokali demokratika; il-poter ta' dawn l-assemblej lokali kien ivarja ferm tul il-perjodu kolonjali. Madankollu, uffiċjalment kellhom ammonti żgħar ta' poter devolut, peress li l-awtorità aħħarija kienet f'idejn il-monarkija u l-Parlament. Il-Puritani, il-Battisti u l-Quakers li stabbilew dawn il-kolonji applikaw l-organizzazzjoni demokratika tal-kongregazzjonijiet tagħhom anke għall-amministrazzjoni tal-komunitajiet tagħhom fil-ħajja ta' kuljum. ==== Sekli 18 u 19 ==== L-ewwel Parlament tal-Gran Brittanja ġie stabbilit fl-1707, wara l-fużjoni tar-Renju tal-Ingilterra u r-Renju tal-[[Skozja|Iskozja]] skont l-Atti tal-Unjoni. Żewġ dokumenti ewlenin tal-kostituzzjoni mhux kodifikata tar-Renju Unit, id-Dikjarazzjoni Ingliża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689 (imsejħa mill-ġdid bħala l-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689) u d-Dikjarazzjoni Skoċċiża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689, it-tnejn li huma kienu kkonsolidaw il-pożizzjoni tal-Parlament bħala l-korp suprem tat-tfassil tal-liġijiet u kienu jgħidu li "l-elezzjoni tal-membri tal-Parlament kellha tkun ħielsa". Madankollu, il-Parlament kien jiġi elett biss mis-sidien tal-art maskili, li kienu jammontaw għal 3 % tal-popolazzjoni fl-1780. L-ewwel persuna Brittanika magħrufa ta' nisel Afrikan li vvota f'elezzjoni ġenerali, [[Ignatius Sancho]], ivvota fl-1774 u fl-1780. Matul l-Era tal-Libertà fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] (1718–1772), id-drittijiet ċivili twessgħu u l-poter għadda mingħand il-monarka għall-Parlament. Ir-raħħala intaxxati kienu rrappreżentati fil-Parlament, għalkemm ma tantx kellhom influwenza, iżda n-nies komuni mingħajr proprjetà intaxxata ma kellhomx suffraġju. Il-ħolqien ta' Repubblika ta' [[Korsika]] ta' għomorha qasir fl-1755 kien tentattiv bikri li tiġi adottata kostituzzjoni demokratika (setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel u n-nisa kollha li kellhom iktar minn 25 sena). Din il-Kostituzzjoni ta' Korsika kienet l-ewwel waħda bbażata fuq il-prinċipji tal-Illuminiżmu u kienet tinkludi s-suffraġju femminili, xi ħaġa li ma kinitx inkluża fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji l-oħra sas-seklu 20. L-Amerka kolonjali kellha kwalifikazzjonijiet simili dwar il-proprjetà bħall-Brittanja, u fil-perjodu qabel l-1776 l-abbundanza u d-disponibbiltà tal-art kienet tfisser li għadd kbir ta' kolonjalisti kienu jissodisfaw tali rekwiżiti b'mill-inqas 60 fil-mija tal-irġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda li setgħu jivvutaw. Il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda kienu [[Bidwi|bdiewa]] li kienu jissodisfaw ir-rekwiżiti tas-sjieda tal-proprjetà jew tal-ħlas tat-taxxa. Bi ftit eċċezzjonijiet, l-ebda mara jew persuna b'karnaġjon sewda ma setgħu jivvutaw. Vermont, li malli ddikjarat l-indipendenza mill-Gran Brittanja fl-1777, adottat kostituzzjoni mmudellata fuq iċ-ċittadinanza u s-suffraġju demokratiku ta' Pennsylvania għall-irġiel bi proprjetà jew mingħajr proprjetà. Il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti tal-1787 hija l-eqdem kostituzzjoni governattiva kkodifikata li għadha teżisti u li għadha attiva. Il-Kostituzzjoni kienet tipprevedi gvern elett u protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet ċivili, iżda ma temmitx il-jasar u lanqas ma estendiet id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni fl-Istati Uniti, u minflok ħalliet il-kwistjoni tas-suffraġju f'idejn l-istati individwali. Ġeneralment, l-istati llimitaw is-suffraġju għas-sidien tal-proprjetà maskili u għal dawk li jħallsu t-taxxi ta' karnaġjon bajda. Meta kien hemm l-ewwel elezzjoni Presidenzjali fl-1789, madwar 6 % tal-popolazzjoni kienet eliġibbli biex tivvota. L-Att dwar in-Naturalizzazzjoni tal-1790 illimita ċ-ċittadinanza Amerikana lill-persuni ta' karnaġjon bajda biss. Il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet fl-1791 stabbiliet limiti fuq il-poter tal-gvern sabiex tħares il-libertajiet personali iżda kellha ftit impatt fuq is-sentenzi tal-qrati għall-ewwel 130 sena wara r-ratifika. Fl-1789, [[Franza]] Rivoluzzjonarja adottat id-Dikjarazzjoni tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem u taċ-Ċittadini, u għalkemm għomorha kien qasir, il-Konvenzjoni Nazzjonali kienet eletta mill-irġiel kollha biss fl-1792. Il-Kostituzzjoni Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]] tat-3 ta' Mejju 1791 ippruvat timplimenta monarkija kostituzzjonali iktar effettiva, introduċiet l-ugwaljanza politika bejn iċ-ċittadini u n-nobbli, u poġġiet ir-raħħala taħt il-protezzjoni tal-gvern, u b'hekk taffiet l-agħar abbużi kontra r-raħħala. Din damet fis-seħħ għal inqas minn 19-il xahar, u ġiet iddikjarata nulla mis-Sejm ta' Grodno li ltaqa' fl-1793. Minkejja dan, il-Kostituzzjoni tal-1791 għenet biex l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Pollakki jibqgħu ħajjin għar-restawr eventwali tas-sovranità tal-pajjiż iktar minn seklu wara. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1828 kienet l-ewwel waħda li fiha setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda li ma kinux sidien tal-proprjetà fil-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-istati. L-ammont ta' nies li ħarġu jivvutaw żdied matul is-snin 30 tas-seklu 19, u laħaq madwar 80 % tal-popolazzjoni ta' rġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda fl-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1840. North Carolina kien l-aħħar stat li abolixxa l-kwalifazzjoni abbażi tal-proprjetà fl-1856 u dan wassal għal approssimazzjoni tas-suffraġju universali tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda (madankollu r-rekwiżiti tal-ħlas tat-taxxa baqgħu jeżistu f'ħames stati fl-1860 u baqgħu jeżistu f'żewġ stati sas-seklu 20). Fiċ-ċensiment tal-Istati Uniti tal-1860, il-popolazzjoni tal-iskjavi kienet kibret għal 4 miljuni, u fir-Rikostruzzjoni wara l-Gwerra Ċivili, għaddew tliet emendi kostituzzjonali: it-13-il Emenda (1865) li temmet l-iskjavitù; l-14-il Emenda (1869) li tat iċ-ċittadinanza lin-nies ta' karnaġjon sewda, u l-15-il Emenda (1870) lil tat lill-irġiel ta' karnaġjon sewda d-dritt nominali biex jivvutaw. L-involviment sħiħ taċ-ċittadini kollha ma ġiex żgurat sa wara li l-moviment tad-drittijiet ċivili kiseb l-approvazzjoni mill-Kungress tal-Istati Uniti fir-rigward tal-Att dwar id-Drittijiet tal-Votazzjoni tal-1965. Id-dritt tal-votazzjoni fir-Renju Unit twessa' u sar iktar uniformi permezz ta' sensiela ta' riformi li bdew bl-Att dwar ir-Riformi tal-1832 u komplew fis-seklu 20, b'mod partikolari bl-Att dwar ir-Rappreżentanza tan-Nies tal-1918 u l-Att dwar l-Ugwaljanza tal-1928. Is-suffraġju maskili universali ġie stabbilit fi Franza f'Marzu 1848 fid-dawl tar-Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża tal-1848. Matul dik is-sena, faqqgħu diversi rivoluzzjonijiet fl-Ewropa peress li l-mexxejja kellhom ilaħħqu mad-domandi popolari għall-kostituzzjonijiet liberali u għal iktar governanza demokratika. Fl-1876, l-[[Imperu Ottoman]] għadda minn monarkija assoluta għal waħda kostituzzjonali, u organizza żewġ elezzjonijiet is-sena ta' wara biex jeleġġi membri fil-Parlament li kien għadu kemm ġie ffurmat. Inħarġu Regolamenti Elettorali Proviżorji, li kienu jiddikjaraw li l-membri eletti tal-Kunsilli Amministrattivi Provinċjali kellhom jeleġġu l-membri għall-ewwel Parlament. Iktar tard dik is-sena, ġiet ippromulgata kostituzzjoni ġdida, li kienet tipprevedi l-istabbiliment ta' Parlament bikamerali b'Senat maħtur mis-Sultan u Kamra tad-Deputati eletta mill-poplu. Kienu jitħallew jikkontestaw għall-elezzjoni l-irġiel biss li kellhom iktar minn 30 sena u li kienu midħla tat-Tork u li kellhom drittijiet ċivili sħaħ. Fost ir-raġunijiet ta' skwalifika kien hemm iż-żamma ta' ċittadinanza doppja, ir-reklutaġġ minn gvern barrani, il-falliment monetarju, l-impjieg bħala qaddej, jew "ir-reputazzjoni tat-twettiq ta' azzjonijiet ħżiena". Is-suffraġju universali sħiħ inkiseb fl-1934. Fl-1893, il-kolonja bl-awtogovernanza ta' [[New Zealand]] saret l-ewwel pajjiż fid-dinja (għajr għar-Repubblika ta' Korsika b'għomorha qasir tas-seklu 18 li stabbiliet is-suffraġju universali attiv billi n-nisa ngħataw id-dritt tal-votazzjoni. ==== Sekli 20 u 21 ==== It-tranżizzjonijiet tas-seklu 20 lejn id-demokrazija liberali waslu f'"mewġiet suċċessivi tad-demokrazija", u rriżultaw b'modi differenti minn gwerer, rivoluzzjonijiet, dekolonizzazzjoni, u ċirkostanzi reliġjużi u ekonomiċi. Il-mewġiet globali ta' "regressjoni demokratika" li reġġgħu lura d-demokratizzazzjoni seħħew ukoll fis-snin 20 u 30 tas-seklu 20, fis-snin 60 u 70 tas-seklu 20 u fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21. [[L-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]] u x-xoljiment tal-[[Imperu Ottoman]] u tal-Imperu Awstro-Ungariku wasslu għall-ħolqien ta' nazzjonijiet-stati ġodda fl-Ewropa, u l-biċċa l-kbira minnhom kienu mill-inqas nominalment demokratiċi. Fis-snin 20 tas-seklu 20 tkattru l-movimenti demokratiċi u s-suffraġju universali avvanza, iżda d-Dipressjoni l-Kbira ġabet magħha diżillużjoni u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Ewropa, tal-Amerka Latina u tal-[[Asja]] daru għat-tmexxija ta' rġiel b'saħħithom jew dittaturi. Il-Faxxiżmu u d-dittaturi tkattru fil-[[Ġermanja]] Nażista, fl-[[Italja]], fi [[Spanja]] u fil-[[Portugall]], kif ukoll il-gvernijiet mhux demokratiċi fil-Baltiċi, fil-Balkani, fil-[[Brażil]], f'[[Kuba]], fiċ-[[Ċina]] u fil-[[Ġappun]] fost l-oħrajn. [[It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija]] ġabet magħha treġġigħ lura definittiv ta' din it-tendenza fil-Punent tal-Ewropa. Id-demokratizzazzjoni tas-setturi Amerikani, Brittaniċi u Franċiżi tal-Ġermanja okkupata (għalkemm xi sorsi jikkontestaw dan il-punt), tal-[[Awstrija]], tal-[[Italja]], u tal-[[Ġappun]] okkupat serviet bħala mudell għat-teorija li ġiet wara tal-bidla fil-gvern. Madankollu, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Lvant tal-Ewropa, inkluż is-settur [[Unjoni Sovjetika|Sovjetiku]] tal-Ġermanja, sfat fit-territorju mhux demokratiku ddominat mis-Sovjetiċi. Wara l-gwerra kien hemm id-dekolonizzazzjoni, u mill-ġdid il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istati indipendenti ġodda kellhom kostituzzjonijiet nominalment demokratiċi. L-Indja feġġet bħala l-ikbar demokrazija fid-dinja u għadha fit-tmun. Il-pajjiżi li fl-imgħoddi kienu parti mill-Imperu Brittanika, spiss adottaw is-sistema Brittanika ta' Westminster. Fl-1948, id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem irrekjediet id-demokrazija:<blockquote>3. Ir-rieda tan-nies għandha tkun il-bażi tal-awtorità tal-governanza; din għandha tkun espressa f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom jkunu b'suffraġju universali u ugwali u dan għandu jiġi espress f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom isiru b'suffraġju universali u ndaqs u għandhom isiru permezz ta' votazzjoni sigrieta u jew bi proċeduri ekwivalenti ta' votazzjoni ħielsa.</blockquote>— Id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem, l-Artikolu 21, in-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, fl-1948 Sal-1960, il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-pajjiżi-stati nominalment kienu demokraziji, għalkemm il-biċċa l-kbira tal-popolazzjonijiet tad-dinja kienu jgħixu f'demokraziji nominali li esperjenzaw elezzjonijiet taparsi, u forom oħra ta' qerq (b'mod partikolari fl-istati "[[Komuniżmu|Komunisti]]" u l-eks kolonji). Mewġa sussegwenti ta' demokratizzazzjoni ġabet magħha kisbiet sostanzjali favur demokrazija liberali ta' vera għal bosta stati, u din ġiet imlaqqma bħala t-"tielet mewġa ta' demokrazija". Il-Portugall, Spanja u diversi mid-dittaturi militari fl-[[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t'Isfel]] reġgħu lura għat-tmexxija ċivili fis-snin 70 u 80 tas-seklu 20. Din ġiet segwita minn pajjiżi fil-Lvant u fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja sa nofs u l-aħħar tas-snin 80 tas-seklu 20. L-għawġ ekonomiku fis-snin 80 tas-seklu 20, flimkien mal-garr minħabba l-oppressjoni Sovjetika, wasslu għall-isfaxxar tal-Unjoni Sovjetika, it-tmiem assoċjata tal-[[Gwerra Bierda]], u d-demokratizzazzjoni u l-liberalizzazzjoni tal-pajjiżi tal-Lvant tal-eks Unjoni Sovjetika. L-iżjed demokraziji mid-demokraziji l-ġodda li kellhom suċċess kienu dawk li [[Ġeografija|ġeografikament]] u [[Kultura|kulturalment]] kienu l-eqreb tal-Punent tal-Ewropa, u li issa huma parti mill-[[Unjoni Ewropea]] jew huma pajjiżi kandidati. Fl-1986, wara li waqgħet l-iżjed dittatura Asjatika prominenti, l-uniku stat demokratiku tax-xorta tiegħu dak iż-żmien feġġ fil-[[Filippini]] bil-wasla ta' [[Corazon Aquino]], li iktar 'il quddiem saret magħrufa bħala omm id-demokrazija Asjatika. Ix-xejra liberali nfirxet f'uħud mill-istati Afrikani fis-snin 90 tas-seklu 20, l-iktar fl-[[Afrika t'Isfel]]. Xi eżempji reċenti ta' tentattivi ta' liberalizzazzjoni jinkludu r-Rivoluzzjoni [[Indoneżja|Indoneżjana]] tal-1998, ir-Rivoluzzjoni bil-Gafef fil-[[Jugoslavja]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ward fil-[[Ġeorġja|Georgia]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni Oranġjo fl-[[Ukrajna]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni taċ-Ċedru fil-[[Libanu]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tat-Tulipani fil-[[Kirgiżistan]] u r-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ġiżimin fit-[[Tuneżija]]. Skont Freedom House, fl-2007 kien hemm 123 demokrazija elettorali (minn 40 waħda fl-1972). Skont il-''Forum Dinji dwar id-Demokrazija'', id-demokraziji elettorali issa jirrappreżentaw 120 mill-192 pajjiż eżistenti u jikkostitwixxu 58.2 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni dinjija. Fl-istess ħin, id-demokraziji liberali, jiġifieri l-pajjiżi li Freedom House tqis bħala ħielsa u li jirrispettaw id-drittijiet tal-bniedem bażiċi u l-istat tad-dritt, jammontaw għal 85 pajjiż u jirrappreżentaw 38 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni globali. Fl-2007 ukoll, in-[[Nazzjonijiet Uniti]] ddikjaraw il-15 ta' Settembru bħala l-Jum Internazzjonali tad-Demokrazija. Bosta pajjiżi baxxew l-età tal-votazzjoni għal 18-il sena; id-demokraziji ewlenin bdew jagħmlu dan fis-snin 70 tas-seklu 20, l-ewwel nett fil-Punent tal-Ewropa u fl-Amerka ta' Fuq. Il-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji elettorali għadhom jeskludu lil dawk taħt l-età ta' 18-il sena mill-votazzjoni. L-età tal-votazzjoni tbaxxiet għal 16-il sena għall-elezzjonijiet nazzjonali f'għadd ta' pajjiżi, fosthom il-[[Brażil]], l-Awstrija, [[Kuba]] u n-[[Nikaragwa]]. F'California, proposta tal-2004 biex jingħata kwart ta' vot li dawk ta' 16-il sena fl-aħħar mill-aħħar ma għaddietx. Fl-2008, il-Parlament Ġermaniż ippropona abbozz ta' liġi li mbagħad warrab li kienet tagħti d-dritt tal-votazzjoni lil kull ċittadin mat-twelid, biex jintuża minn ġenitur sa meta l-wild ikun jista' jibda jużah. Skont Freedom House, mill-2005 kien hemm 17-il sena konsekuttiva li fihom id-drittijiet politiċi u l-libertajiet ċivili madwar id-dinja marru għall-agħar f'iktar pajjiżi milli fejn sar xi titjib, peress li l-qawwiet populisti u nazzjonalistiċi mexew 'il quddiem kullimkien, mill-[[Polonja]] (eż. il-partit tal-Liġi u l-Ġustizzja) sal-Filippini (taħt [[Rodrigo Duterte]]). F'rapport ta' Freedom House li nħareġ fl-2018, il-punteġġi rigward id-demokrazija għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi marru lura għat-12-il sena konsekuttiva. ''The Christian Science Monitor'' irrapporta li l-ideoloġiji nazzjonalistiċi u populisti kienu qed jissaħħew, a skapitu tal-istat tad-dritt, f'pajjiżi bħall-Polonja, it-[[Turkija]] u l-[[Ungerija]]. Pereżempju, fil-Polonja, il-President ħatar 27 imħallef ġdid tal-Qorti Suprema minkejja l-oġġezzjonijiet legali mill-[[Kummissjoni Ewropea]]. Fit-Turkija, eluf ta' mħallfin tneħħew mill-karigi tagħhom wara kolp ta' stat li ma rnexxiex. Iċ-"ċedimenti demokratiċi" fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21 ġew attribwiti lill-inugwaljanza ekonomika u l-garr soċjali, il-personaliżmu, il-ġestjoni batuta tal-gvernijiet fir-rigward tal-[[pandemija tal-COVID-19]], kif ukoll fatturi oħra bħall-manipolazzjoni tas-soċjetà ċivili, il-"polarizzazzjoni tossika", il-kampanji barranin tad-diżinformazzjoni, ir-razziżmu u n-nattiviżmu, is-setgħa eżekuttiva eċċessiva, u s-setgħa mnaqqsa tal-oppożizzjoni. Fi ħdan id-demokraziji tal-Punent, l-attitudnijiet ta' "protezzjoniżmu", li jiġbru flimkien il-konservattiviżmu kulturali u l-attitudnijiet ekonomiċi Xellugin, kienu l-iżjed indikatur b'saħħtu tal-appoġġ għall-modalitajiet awtoritarji ta' governanza. == Teorija == === Teorija bikrija === It-teorija demokratika ta' Aristotli kienet tpoġġi f'kuntrast it-tmexxija mill-ħafna (demokrazija/timokrazija), mat-tmexxija mill-ftit (oligarkija/aristokrazija/elitiżmu), kif ukoll mat-tmexxija minn persuna waħda (tirannija/awtokrazija/monarkija assoluta). Huwa ħaseb ukoll li kien hemm varjant tajjeb u ħażin ta' kull sistema (huwa qies id-demokrazija bħala l-kontroparti ħażina tat-timokrazija). Fehma komuni fost it-teoriċi Repubblikani bikrin u Rinaxximentali kienet li d-demokrazija setgħet tibqa' ħajja biss fil-komunitajiet politiċi ż-żgħar. Abbażi tal-lezzjonijiet meħuda mill-bidla tar-Repubblika Rumana lejn il-monarkiżmu iktar ma kibret jew ċkienet, dawn it-teoriċi Repubblikani sostnew li l-espansjoni tat-territorji u tal-popolazzjoni inevitabbilment kienu jwasslu għat-tirannija. Għaldaqstant id-demokrazija kienet fraġli ferm u rari storikament, għax setgħet tibqa' teżisti biss f'unitajiet politiċi żgħar, li minħabba d-daqs tagħhom kienu vulnerabbli għal ħakma minn unitajiet politiċi akbar. Huwa magħruf li Montesquieu qal, "jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered minn difett intern". [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] sostna, "Għaldaqstant, hija l-karatteristika naturali tal-istati żgħar li jiġu ggvernati bħala repubblika, tal-istati ta' daqs nofsani li jkunu soġġetti għal monarka, u tal-imperi kbar li jitmexxew minn prinċep tirann". === Teorija kontemporanja === Fost it-teoriji politiċi moderni, jeżistu kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. ==== Aggregazzjoni ==== It-teorija tad-demokrazija aggregattiva ssostni li l-għan tal-proċessi demokratiċi hu li jmexxu 'l quddiem il-preferenzi taċ-ċittadini u jaggregawhom flimkien biex jiddeterminaw liema politiki soċjali għandha tadotta s-soċjetà. Għaldaqstant, dawk li jħaddnu din il-fehma jsostnu li s-sehem demokratiku għandu jiffoka b'mod primarju fuq il-votazzjoni, fejn il-politiki bl-ikbar ammont ta' voti jiġu implimentati. Jeżistu varjanti differenti tad-demokrazija aggregattiva. Skont il-ħsieb tad-demokrazija minimalista, l-elezzjonijiet huma mekkaniżmu ta' kompetizzjoni bejn il-[[Politiku|politiċi]]. [[Joseph Schumpeter]] huwa magħruf li spjega dan il-ħsieb fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Kapitaliżmu, Soċjaliżmu u Demokrazija''. [[Anthony Downs]] jargumenta li l-partiti politiċi ideoloġiċi huma neċessarji biex jaġixxu bħala sensara bejn l-individwi u l-gvernijiet. Min-naħa l-oħra, id-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament rigward il-proposti leġiżlattivi, tista' turi aggregazzjoni aħjar f'każijiet ta' differenzi fil-preferenzi bejn l-elit u l-votanti. ===== Mandat medjan ===== Skont it-teorema tal-votant medjan, ir-rappreżentattività politika tista' tiġi evalwata billi jitqabbel kemm il-liġijiet u l-politiki huma qrib tal-fehmiet tal-votanti medjani tul l-ispettru politiku. Il-mandat medjan iħares lejn il-preferenzi tal-votant medjan bħala dawk li jagħtu leġittimità politika. ==== Poliarkija ==== [[Robert A. Dahl]] jargumenta li l-prinċipju demokratiku fundamentali hu li meta wieħed jasal għal deċiżjonijiet kollettivi vinkolanti, kull persuna f'komunità politika hija intitolata li l-interessi tagħha jitqiesu b'mod indaqs. Huwa juża t-terminu poliarkija ("it-tmexxija mill-ħafna") biex jirreferi għal soċjetajiet fejn jeżisti ċertu sett ta' istituzzjonijiet u proċeduri li huma perċepiti li jwasslu għal tali demokrazija. L-ewwel u qabel kollox fost dawn l-istituzzjonijiet hemm l-okkorrenza regolari ta' elezzjonijiet ħielsa u miftuħa li jsiru biex jintgħażlu r-rappreżentanti li mbagħad jiġġestixxu l-politiki pubbliċi kollha tas-soċjetà jew il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom. Madankollu, dawn il-proċeduri poliarkiċi jaf ma joħolqux demokrazija sħiħa, jekk pereżempju l-faqar ixekkel il-parteċipazzjoni politika. B'mod simili, [[Ronald Dworkin]] isostni li d-"demokrazija hija ideal sostantiv, mhux sempliċement proċedurali". ==== Deliberazzjoni ==== Id-demokrazija deliberattiva hija bbażata fuq in-nozzjoni li d-demokrazija hija governanza bid-deliberazzjoni. Għad-differenza tad-demokrazija aggregattiva, id-demokrazija deliberattiva ssostni li biex deċiżjoni demokratika tkun leġittima, din trid tkun preċeduta minn deliberazzjoni awtentika, mhux sempliċement l-aggregazzjoni tal-preferenzi li sseħħ fil-votazzjoni. Deliberazzjoni awtentika hija deliberazzjoni fost dawk li jieħdu d-deċiżjonijiet li tkun ħielsa minn distorsjonijiet tas-setgħa politika inugwali, bħas-setgħa li jikseb min jieħu d-deċiżjonijiet permezz tal-ġid ekonomiku jew l-appoġġ tal-gruppi ta' interess. Jekk dawk li jieħdu d-deċiżjonijiet ma jkunux jistgħu jaslu għal konsensus wara deliberazzjoni awtentika dwar proposta, imbagħad jivvutaw dwar il-proposta billi jużaw forma ta' tmexxija tal-maġġoranza. Il-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini jitqiesu minn bosta studjużi bħala eżempji prattiċi tad-demokrazija deliberattiva, u rapport reċenti tal-[[OECD]] jidentifika l-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini bħala mekkaniżmu popolari li kulma jmur jinvolvi liċ-ċittadini fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet governattivi. Dawk li huma favur id-demokrazija diretta jsostnu li ċ-ċittadini ma jmexxux lilhom infushom sakemm ma jiddeċidux direttament rigward il-liġijiet u l-politiki. L-attività politika tista' tkun siewja fiha nnifisha, peress li tissoċjalizza u teduka liċ-ċittadini, u l-parteċipazzjoni popolari tista' tikkontrolla l-elit setgħana. ==== Tipi ta' demokraziji governattivi ==== Id-demokrazija għandha bosta forom, kemm fit-teorija kif ukoll fil-prattika. Xi varjetajiet tad-demokrazija jipprovdu rappreżentanza aħjar u iktar libertà għaċ-ċittadini minn oħrajn. Madankollu, jekk xi demokrazija ma tkunx strutturata sabiex tipprojbixxi lill-gvern milli jeskludi lin-nies mill-proċess leġiżlattiv, jew lil kwalunkwe fergħa tal-gvern milli tibdel is-separazzjoni tal-poteri favuriha, imbagħad fergħa tas-sistema tista' takkumula wisq poter u teqred id-demokrazija. It-tipi ta' demokrazija li ġejjin ma jeskludux lil xulxin: ħafna jispeċifikaw dettalji ta' aspetti li huma indipendenti minn xulxin u jistgħu jeżistu flimkien f'sistema unika. ===== Forom bażiċi ===== Jeżistu diversi varjanti ta' demokrazija, iżda hemm żewġ forom bażiċi, u t-tnejn li huma jikkonċernaw kif il-korp kollu taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli jwettaq ir-rieda tiegħu. Forma ta' demokrazija hija d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom parteċipazzjoni attiva fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet politiċi, pereżempju billi jivvutaw direttament rigward l-inizjattivi ta' politika. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, il-korp kollu ta' ċittadini eliġibbli jibqa' l-poter sovran iżda l-poter politiku jiġi eżerċitat indirettament permezz ta' rappreżentanti eletti; din tissejjaħ demokrazija rappreżentattiva. Jekk il-kap ta' stat jiġi elett b'mod demokratiku, l-istat jissejjaħ repubblika demokratika. ====== Demokrazija diretta ====== Id-demokrazija diretta hija sistema politika fejn iċ-ċittadini jieħdu sehem fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet personalment. minflok jiddependu fuq intermedjarji jew rappreżentanti. Dawk li tkellmu favuriha bħal Jean-Jacques Rousseau jsostnu li l-approċċ dirett iżid il-leġittimità. Demokrazija diretta tagħti lill-popolazzjoni li tivvota s-setgħa li: * tibdel il-liġijiet kostituzzjonali; * tressaq inizjattivi, referenda u suġġerimenti għal liġijiet. Fi ħdan il-gvernijiet rappreżentattivi moderni, ċerti għodod elettorali bħar-referenda, l-inizjattivi taċ-ċittadini u r-referendum għat-tneħħija ta' gvern jitqiesu bħala fororm ta' demokrazija diretta. Madankollu, uħud li huma favur id-demokrazija diretta jsostnu li l-ġemgħat lokali jeħtieġu jiddiskutu wiċċ imb wiċċ. Id-demokrazija diretta bħala sistema ta' governanza attwalment teżisti fil-kantons [[Żvizzera|Żvizzeri]] ta' Appenzell Innerrhoden u Glarus, il-Muniċipalitajiet Awtonomi Zapatisti Ribelli, il-komunitajiet affiljati mas-CIPO-RFM, il-kunsilli lokali [[Bolivja|Bolivjani]] ta' FEJUVE, u l-kantons Kurdi ta' Rojava. ====== Demokrazija semidiretta ====== Xi demokraziji moderni li huma rappreżentattivi għalkollox fin-natura tagħhom jiddependu bil-kbir fuq forom ta' azzjoni politika tad-demokrazija diretta. Dawn id-demokraziji, li jużaw elementi tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva u tad-demokrazija diretta, jissejħu demokraziji semidiretti jew demokraziji parteċipattivi. Xi eżempji jinkludu l-Iżvizzera u xi stati tal-Istati Uniti, fejn isir użu frekwenti tar-referenda u tal-inizjattivi. Il-Konfederazzjoni Żvizzera hija demokrazija semidiretta. Fil-livell federali, iċ-ċittadini jistgħu jipproponu bidliet fil-kostituzzjoni (inizjattiva popolari federali) jew jitolbu li jsir referendum rigward kwalunkwe liġi vvutata mill-Parlament. Bejn Jannar 1995 u Ġunju 2005, iċ-ċittadini Żvizzeri vvutaw 31 darba, biex iwieġbu 103 domanda (matul l-istess perjodu, iċ-ċittadini Franċiżi pparteċipaw f'żewġ referenda biss). Minkejja dan, fl-aħħar 120 sena inqas minn 250 inizjattiva tressqu għal referendum. Xi eżempji jinkludu l-użu estensiv tar-referenda fl-istat Amerikan ta' California, li huwa stat b'iktar minn 20 miljun votant. F'New England spiss jintużaw laqgħat tal-belt, speċjalment fiż-żoni rurali, għall-ġestjoni tal-governanza lokali. Dan joħloq forma ibrida ta' governanza, b'demokrazija diretta lokali u gvern statali rappreżentattiv. Pereżempju, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-bliet ta' Vermont jorganizzaw laqgħat tal-bliet annwali f'Marzu fejn jiġu eletti l-uffiċjali tal-bliet, jiġu vvutati l-baġits għall-bliet u għall-iskejjel, u ċ-ċittadini jkollhom l-opportunità li jitkellmu u jinstemgħu rigward il-kwistjonijiet politiċi. ====== Sistema tax-xorti ====== L-użu ta' sistema tax-xorti, demokrazija karatteristika ta' Ateni, hija karatteristika ta' xi verżjonijiet ta' demokraziji diretti. F'din is-sistema, kompiti governattivi u amministrattivi importanti jitwettqu minn ċittadini li jittellgħu bix-xorti f'lotterija. ====== Demokrazija rappreżentattiva ====== Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so. Such reasons have driven criticism upon representative democracy, pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy. ====== Demokrazija Parlamentari ====== Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. In a parliamentary system, the prime minister may be dismissed by the legislature at any point in time for not meeting the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a vote of no confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the prime minister from office with majority support for dismissal. In some countries, the prime minister can also call an election at any point in time, typically when the prime minister believes that they are in good favour with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies, extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. An important feature of the parliamentary democracy is the concept of the "loyal opposition". The essence of the concept is that the second largest political party (or opposition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while still remaining loyal to the state and its democratic principles. ====== Demokrazija Presidenzjali ====== Presidential democracy is a system where the public elects the president through an election. The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. The legislature often has limited ability to remove a president from office. Elections typically have a fixed date and are not easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing the cabinet members. The executive usually has the responsibility to execute or implement legislation and may have the limited legislative powers, such as a veto. However, a legislative branch passes legislation and budgets. This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence, however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia. A semi-presidential system is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. ==== Tipoloġija ==== ===== Monarkija kostituzzjonali ===== Many countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs (often gradually) with limited or symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689. Strongly limited constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, have been referred to as crowned republics by writers such as H. G. Wells. In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece, and Egypt). An elected person, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries. Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many states. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British House of Lords) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the Australian Senate). ===== Demokrazija repubblika ===== The term ''republic'' has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. The Founding Fathers of the United States often criticised direct democracy; James Madison argued, especially in ''The Federalist'' No. 10, that what distinguished a direct ''democracy'' from a ''republic'' was that the former depended on small size and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure. Accordingly, during Philadelphia convention Madison called election of representatives by large territories "the only defence against the inconveniencies of democracy consistent with the democratic form of Govt." Professors Richard Ellis of Willamette University and Michael Nelson of Rhodes College argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on "the problem of majority tyranny". They conclude, "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities." What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted, was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the US Constitution, Elizabeth Willing Powel asked him "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic—if you can keep it." ===== Demokrazija liberali ===== A liberal democracy is a representative democracy which enshrines a liberal political philosophy, where the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, moderated by a constitution or laws such as the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and constrained on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities. ===== Demokrazija Soċjalista ===== Socialist thought has several different views on democracy, for example social democracy or democratic socialism. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory, industrial, economic and/or workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. ===== Demokrazija Marxista ===== Marxist theory supports a democratic society centering the working class. Some Marxists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy or workers' councils (which are sometimes called soviets). This system can begin with workplace democracy and can manifest itself as soviet democracy or dictatorship of the proletariat. Trotskyist groups have interpreted socialist democracy to be synonymous with multi-party far-left representation, autonomous union organizations, worker's control of production, internal party democracy and the mass participation of the working masses. Some communist parties support a soviet republic with democratic centralism. Within democracy in Marxism there can be hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy". ===== Demokrazija Anarkista ===== Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticised individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism. Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. ===== Demokrazija każwali ===== Sortition is the process of choosing decision-making bodies via a random selection. These bodies can be more representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large than an elected legislature or other decision-maker. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence and is still used in modern jury selection and citizens' assemblies. ===== Demokrazija Kostituzzjonali ===== Consociational democracy, also called consociationalism, is a form of democracy based on power-sharing formula between elites representing the social groups within the society. In 1969, Arendt Lijphart argued this would stabilize democracies with factions. A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them. The Qualified majority voting rule in European Council of Ministers is a consociational democracy approach for supranational democracies. This system in Treaty of Rome allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. A consociational democracy requires consensus of representatives, while consensus democracy requires consensus of electorate. ===== Demokrazija maġġoritarja ===== Majoritarian democracy is a form of democracy based upon a principle of majority rule. Majoritarian democracy contrasts with consensus democracy, rule by as many people as possible. ===== Konsensus ===== Consensus democracy requires consensus decision-making and supermajority to obtain a larger support than majority. In contrast, in majoritarian democracy minority opinions can potentially be ignored by vote-winning majorities. Constitutions typically require consensus or supermajorities. ===== Demokrazija etnika ===== The term ethnic democracy, as used by some political scientists, purports to describe a governance system that combines a structured ethnic dominance with democratic, political and civil rights for all. Both the dominant ethnic group—typically an ethnic majority—and the minority ethnic groups have citizenship and are able to fully participate in the political process. However, critics of the "ethnic democracy" model argue it is a contradiction in terms, and thus conceptually inadequate or confusing; these critics allege that purported ethnic democracies, most notably Israel, are not democratic at all, or are at best a sort of semi-democracy. ===== Demokrazija inklużiva ===== Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal ''Democracy & Nature'' and its successor ''The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy''. ===== Politika parteċipattiva ===== A parpolity or participatory polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a nested council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision-making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council. A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy. ===== Demokrazija proċedurali ===== Procedural democracy or proceduralist democracy, proceduralism or hollow democracy is a term used to denote the particular procedures, such as regular elections based on universal suffrage, that produce an electorally-legitimated government. Procedural democracy, with its centering of electoral processes as the basis of democratic legitimacy, is often contrasted with substantive or participatory democracy, which centers the equal participation of all groups in society in the political process as the basis of legitimacy. ===== Demokrazija radikali ===== Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Radical democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes. ===== Demokrazija reliġjuża ===== Religious democracy is a form of democracy where the values of a particular religion or state religion are preferred. The term applies to all democratic countries in which religion is incorporated into the form of government. ===== Demokrazija kożmopolitana ===== Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as ''global democracy'' or ''world federalism'', is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them. According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing international organisations, e.g., the United Nations, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a World Parliament, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics. Cosmopolitan democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi. The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy. ===== Demokrazija kreattiva ===== Creative democracy is advocated by American philosopher John Dewey. The main idea about creative democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us" and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral ideal requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute". ===== Demokrazija ggwidata ===== Guided democracy is a form of democracy that incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner that may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "guided democracy". Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government. === Tfittxija ta' fehim komuni === The search for a common approach to conceptualize, measure and compare democracy remains a challenge in modern political science. This challenge strikes through to measuring, assessing and comparing the quality of democracy, as Seva Gunitsky pointed in 2015 in the Washington Post, based upon his research for ''Ranking the World – Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance'', that measuring democracy can mislead as much as clarify – a problem for academics, policy-makers and anyone who cares about democracy. In his contribution ''Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics'' to ''Ranking the World'', he, on the example of former Soviet republics, examines fundamental problems with measures of democracy, observing that indices often disagree and occasionally draw contradictory conclusions from observing the same event. He argues, that this reflects inherent tradeoffs in conceptualizing democratic governance, which arise from fundamental normative disagreements about a highly contested concept. In 2011, Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al. proposed an approach to such conceptualization and measurement. In their paper ''Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: A New Approach'' they review some of the weaknesses among contemporary and older approaches, then lay out their approach, characterizing it as ''historical'', ''multidimensional'', ''disaggregated'', and ''transparent''. The authors propose to create a new set of four features to conceptualize and measure democracy. First, ''historical'', extending indicators of democracy back through modern history, wherever possible. Second, a ''multidimensional'' approach to the problem of conceptualizing democracy. Third, to collect information relevant to democracy at a highly ''disaggregated'' level. Fourth, ''transparent'', a strategy for data collection and presentation that should enhance the precision, validity, transparency, and legitimacy of the resulting indicators. They also sum up the conceptions, and/or aspects, of democracy into six – ''electoral'', ''liberal'', ''majoritarian'', ''participatory'', ''deliberative'', and ''egalitarian'', which taken together offer a fairly comprehensive accounting of the concept of democracy as it is employed today (see overview in the table below). {| class="wikitable" | colspan="5" | ---- |- | colspan="5" |Conceptions of democracy by Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al., 2011 |- valign="top" | | |Principles |Question |Institutions |- | colspan="5" | ---- |- valign="top" |I. |'''Electoral''' |Contestation, competition |Are government offices filled by free and fair multiparty elections? |Elections, political parties, competitiveness and turnover |- valign="top" |II. |'''Liberal''' |Limited government, multiple veto points, horizontal accountability, individual rights, civil liberties, transparency |Is political power decentralized & constrained? |Multiple, independent, and decentralized, with special focus on the role of the media, interest groups, the judiciary, and a written constitution with explicit guarantees |- valign="top" |III. |'''Majoritarian''' |Majority rule, centralization, vertical accountability |Does the majority (or plurality) rule? |Consolidated and centralized, with special focus on the role of political parties |- valign="top" |IV. |'''Participatory''' |Government by the people |Do ordinary citizens participate in politics? |Election law, civil society, local government, direct democracy |- valign="top" |V. |'''Deliberative''' |Government by reason |Are political decisions the product of public deliberation? |Media, hearings, panels, other deliberative bodies |- valign="top" |VI. |'''Egalitarian''' |Political equality |Are all citizens equally empowered? |Designed to ensure equal participation, representation, protection, and politically relevant resources |- | colspan="5" | ---- |} === Measurement of democracy === Main article: Measurement of democracy Measurement of democracy varies according to the different fundamental conceptions of democracy. Minimalist democracy evaluations focus on free and fair elections, while maximalist democracy evaluates additional values, such as human rights, deliberation, economic outcomes or state capacity. == Demokrazija mhux governattiva == Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy. Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed Islamic democracy or ''Islamocracy''. There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff. === Demokrazija tal-azzjonisti === Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders. In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle. Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives. The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights. == Ġustifikazzjoni == Ingħataw diversi ġustifikazzjonijiet għad-demokrazija. === Leġittimità === Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. The public legitimacy of democracy varies by country, in some countries religious texts have more public support than the will of the people. === Teħid ta' deċiżjonijiet aħjar === Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution. === Suċċess ekonomiku === In ''Why Nations Fail'', economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. Unemployment is associated with anti-democratic beliefs. == Kritika == Democracy as a concept and as a practical form of government has been the subject of critique throughout history. Some critics consider that democratic regimes often fail to be true to the highest principles expected of them, while others reject the values promoted by constitutional democracy in whole or part. Opposition to democracy goes as far back as Plato, who argued for a 'government of the best qualified'. More recently, James Madison extensively studied historic attempts at and arguments on democracy in his preparation for the Constitutional Convention, and Winston Churchill remarked that "no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." Critics argue that modern democracies may fail to be sufficiently democratic and instead function in practice as oligarchies, insofar as governments are more responsive to the preferences of economic elites than to those of ordinary citizens. Numerous empirical studies across various western democracies including the United States, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Norway and Germany have consistently found that elected representatives tend to respond more to the preferences of very affluent citizens for policy outcomes than those of the average voter. Some critics of democracy have highlighted the concept's inconsistencies, paradoxes, and limits: drawing contrasts with other forms of government, such as epistocracy or lottocracy. Others have characterized most modern democracies as democratic polyarchies and democratic aristocracies. Yet others have identified fascist moments in modern democracies. They have termed the societies produced by modern democracies as neo-feudal and have contrasted democracy with fascism, anarcho-capitalism, theocracy, and absolute monarchy. == Tranżizzjonijiet demokratiċi == A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). === Demokratizzazzjoni === Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. The opposite process of democratic transition is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization. Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments could not do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns. Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:^{[''need quotation to verify'']} * a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) * an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence. Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07). A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26). Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750 to 1850 despite arguments to the contrary. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:<blockquote>The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.</blockquote>Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratization in 18 countries: Benin, Bolivia, Botswana, Bazil, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Guatemala, Lesotho, Mauritius, Montenegro, Poland, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste, Thailand, The Gambia, and Zambia. ===== Promozzjoni tad-demokrazija ===== Promotion of democracy can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing electoral integrity, youth suffrage and civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality, reducing presidentialism and aligning with median voter preferences. === Awtokratizzazzjoni === Democratic backsliding is a form of autocratization, a process of structural government transition toward authoritarianism in which the exercise of political power becomes less limited and more arbitrary and repressive. Democratic backsliding specifically assumes a starting point of a democratic system. The process typically restricts the space for public contest and political participation in the process of government selection. Democratic backsliding involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.^{[''citation needed'']} Steven Levitsky says: "It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That's asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters." The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratic backsliding in 44 countries: Afghanistan, Argentina, Armenia, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, El Salvador, Haiti, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Ivory Coast, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Libya, Mali, Madagascar, Mauretania, Mexico, Moldova, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Senegal, Serbia, Romania, Togo, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States. ===== Tfixkil ===== Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: * Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. * Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: ** Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état ** An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. * Royal coup, in which a monarch not normally involved in government seizes all power. For example, the 6 January Dictatorship, begun in 1929 when King Alexander I of Yugoslavia dismissed parliament and started ruling by decree. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. == Influwenza tal-midja == The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: * Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment * Meaningful agenda setting * Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy * Dialogue across a diverse range of views * Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power * Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved * A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience * A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. The ability to find effective political solutions to social problems is hampered when problems tend to be blamed on individuals rather than on structural causes. This person-centered focus may have far-reaching consequences not only for domestic problems but also for foreign policy when international conflicts are blamed on foreign heads of state rather than on political and economic structures. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. The responsiveness and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. In fact, studies show that false stories are going more viral than true stories. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. Reliable information sources are essential for the democratic process. Less democratic governments rely heavily on censorship, propaganda, and misinformation in order to stay in power, while independent sources of information are able to undermine their legitimacy. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Greċja antika]] 7fvuw3n7slcifwz0uzdl8av7jg0u183 330270 330268 2026-05-28T07:19:18Z Trigcly 17859 /* Demokrazija rappreżentattiva */ 330270 wikitext text/x-wiki Id-'''demokrazija''' hija forma ta' governanza li permezz tagħha l-poter [[Politika|politiku]] jinkiseb min-nies jew mill-popolazzjoni ta' stat. Skont definizzjoni minimalista tad-demokrazija, il-mexxejja jiġu eletti permezz ta' elezzjonijiet kompetittivi filwaqt li d-definizzjonijiet iktar wesgħin jew massimalisti jorbtu d-demokrazija mal-garanziji tal-libertajiet ċivili u d-drittijiet tal-[[bniedem]] apparti l-elezzjonijiet kompetittivi. F'demokrazija diretta, il-poplu jkollu l-awtorità diretta li jagħmel deliberazzjonijiet u li jiddeċiedi dwar il-leġiżlazzjoni. F'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, il-poplu jagħżel l-uffiċjali tal-governanza permezz ta' elezzjonijiet. Id-definizzjoni ta' "poplu" u l-modi kif l-awtorità tiġi kondiviża fi ħdan il-poplu jew iddelegata minnu nbidlu mal-milja taż-żminijiet u b'rati li jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor. Il-karatteristiċi tad-demokrazija spiss jinkludu l-libertà tal-ġemgħa, il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni, il-proprjetà personali, il-libertà tar-[[reliġjon]] u tal-[[kelma]], iċ-ċittadinanza, il-kunsens ta' dawk li jiġu ggvernati, id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni, il-libertà miċ-ċaħda governattiva mhux ġustifikata tad-dritt tal-ħajja u tal-libertà, u d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. In-nozzjoni tad-demokrazija evolviet b'mod konsiderevoli maż-żmien. Matul l-[[Storja|istorja]], wieħed jista' jsib evidenza ta' demokrazija diretta, fejn il-komunitajiet kienu jieħdu deċiżjonijiet permezz ta' ġemgħat popolari. Illum il-ġurnata, il-forma dominanti tad-demokrazija hija d-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, fejn iċ-ċittadini jeleġġu lill-uffiċjali tal-gvern biex jiggvernaw f'isimhom, pereżempju f'demokrazija parlamentari jew presidenzjali. Fil-varjant komuni tad-demokrazija liberali, is-setgħat tal-maġġoranza jiġu eżerċitati fi ħdan il-qafas ta' demokrazija rappreżentattiva, iżda l-kostituzzjoni u l-qorti suprema jillimitaw lill-maġġoranza u jipproteġu lill-minoranzi — normalment billi jiġi żgurat li kulħadd igawdi minn ċerti drittijiet individwali, bħal-libertà tal-kelma jew il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni. It-terminu tfaċċa fis-seklu 5 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]. fil-bliet-stati [[Greċja antika|Griegi]], b'mod partikolari f'[[Ateni]] Klassika, u kien ifisser "it-tmexxija tal-poplu", b'kuntrast mal-aristokrazija (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: ἀριστοκρατία, ''aristokratía''), li tfisser "it-tmexxija tal-elit". Prattikament fil-gvernijiet demokratiċi kollha tul l-istorja tal-qedem u moderna, iċ-ċittadinanza demokratika inizjalment kienet ristretta għal klassi tal-elit, li iktar 'il quddiem ġiet estiża għaċ-ċittadini adulti kollha. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, dan inkiseb permezz tal-movimenti tas-suffraġju tas-sekli 19 u 20. Id-demokrazija tikkuntrasta mal-forom ta' governanza fejn il-poter ma jinbitx mill-popolazzjoni ġenerali ta' stat, pereżempju s-sistemi awtoritarji. Storikament is-sistemi demokratiċi kienu forma rari u vulnerabbli ta' governanza, iżda dawn saru iktar prevalenti mis-seklu 19 'l hawn, b'mod partikolari permezz ta' diversi mewġiet ta' demokratizzazzjoni. Id-demokrazija għandha leġittimità konsiderevoli fid-dinja moderna, peress li l-opinjoni pubblika fir-reġjuni dinjin normalment huma favur is-sistemi demokratiċi ta' governanza meta mqabbla mal-alternattivi, u peress li saħansitra l-istati awtoritarji jippruvaw ipinġu lilhom infushom bħala demokratiċi. Id-demokrazija b'mod iktar konsistenti tirriżulta f'saħħa, f'[[edukazzjoni]] u f'eżiti ekonomiċi mtejba. Skont l-indiċijiet ta' ''V-Dem Democracy'' u l-Indiċi tad-Demokrazija ta' ''The Economist'', inqas minn nofs il-popolazzjoni tad-dinja tgħix f'demokrazija mill-2022. Fl-istess ħin, filwaqt li d-demokrazija rappreżentattivi tingħata valur siewi b'mod mifrux, iċ-Ċentru tar-Riċerka ta' Pew sab li l-garr rigward il-prestazzjoni demokratika huwa komuni saħansitra f'bosta demokraziji stabbiliti. == Karatteristiċi == Għalkemm id-demokrazija fid-demokraziji purament rappreżentattivi hija mifhuma b'rabta mal-votazzjoni, ma jeżisti l-ebda konsensus dwar definizzjoni preċiża tad-demokrazija. Jeżistu wisq approċċi. Kien hemm studju li identifika 2,234 aġġettiv li jintuża għad-deskrizzjoni tad-demokrazija bil-[[lingwa Ingliża]]. Minkejja dan, hemm fehim iktar profond – bħal dak ta' [[Abraham Lincoln]]: : ''"Governanza tan-nies, min-nies, għan-nies"'' jew dik ta' [[Karl Popper]] li ssostni li l-ħarsa "klassika" lejn id-demokrazija hi, "fil-qosor, it-teorija li d-demokrazija hija t-tmexxija tal-poplu u li l-poplu għandu d-dritt li jiggverna hu. Il-prinċipji demokratiċi huma riflessi fiċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha, ilkoll indaqs quddiem il-[[Dritt|liġi]] u lkoll b'aċċess ugwali għall-proċessi leġiżlattivi. Pereżempju, f'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, kull vot (fit-teorija) għandu l-istess piż, u l-libertà taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli hija żgurata permezz ta' drittijiet u libertajiet leġittimizzati li tipikament ikunu mnaqqxa f'kostituzzjoni, filwaqt li użi oħra tad-"demokrazija" jaf jħaddnu d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament fuq id-diversi kwistjonijiet li jinqalgħu. Skont in-[[Ġnus Magħquda|Nazzjonijiet Uniti]], id-demokrazija "tipprovdi ambjent li jirrispetta d-drittijiet tal-bniedem u l-libertajiet fundamentali, u fejn ir-rieda espressa liberament tal-poplu tiġi eżerċitata". Skont teorija partikolari d-demokrazija tirrikjedi tliet prinċipji fundamentali: il-kontroll 'il fuq (sovranità fl-iżjed livelli baxxi tal-awtorità), l-ugwaljanza politika, u n-normi soċjali li permezz tagħhom l-individwi u l-istituzzjonijiet iqisu biss atti aċċettabbli li jirriflettu l-ewwel żewġ prinċipji tal-kontroll 'il fuq u l-ugwaljanza politika. L-ugwaljanza legali, il-libertà politika u l-istat ta' dritt sikwit jiġu identifikati bħala l-karatteristiċi ewlenin ta' demokrazija li tiffunzjona sew. F'xi pajjiżi, b'mod partikolari fir-[[Renju Unit]] (minn fejn oriġinat is-sistema ta' Westminster), il-prinċipju dominanti hu dak tas-sovranità Parlamentari, filwaqt li tinżamm l-indipendenza ġudizzjarja. Fl-[[Indja]], is-sovranità Parlamentari hija soġġetta għall-Kostituzzjoni tal-Indja li tinkludi rieżami ġudizzjarju. Għalkemm it-terminu "demokrazija" tipikament jintuża fil-kuntest ta' stat politiku, il-prinċipji wkoll huma applikabbli potenzjalment għall-organizzazzjonijiet privati, bħal klabbs, għaqdiet u ditti. Id-demokraziji jistgħu jużaw bosta metodi differenti ta' teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet, iżda t-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hija l-forma dominanti. Mingħajr kumpens, bħal protezzjonijiet legali tad-drittijiet individwali jew kollettivi, il-minoranzi politiċi jistgħu jiġu mgħakksa mit-"tirannija tal-maġġoranza". It-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza tinvolvi approċċ kompetittiv, għad-differenza tad-demokrazija tal-konsensus, u b'hekk tinħoloq il-ħtieġa li l-elezzjonijiet, u ġeneralment id-deliberazzjoni, ikunu sostantivament u proċeduralment "ġusti" u ekwi. Fżxi pajjiżi, il-libertà tal-espressjoni politika, il-libertà tal-kelma u l-libertà tal-istampa jitqiesu bħala importanti biex jiġi żgurat li l-votanti jkunu infurmati sew, u b'hekk ikunu jistgħu jivvutaw skont l-interessi u t-twemmin tagħhom stess. Ġie ssuġġerit ukoll li karatteristika bażika tad-demokrazija hija l-kapaċità li l-votanti kollha jipparteċipaw b'mod ħieles u sħiħ fil-[[ħajja]] tas-soċjetà tagħhom. Bl-enfasi fuq in-nozzjonijiet tal-kuntratt soċjali u r-rieda kollettiva tal-votanti kollha, id-demokrazija tista' tkun ikkaratterizzata wkoll bħala forma ta' kollettiviżmu politiku peress li tiġi definita bħala forma ta' governanza fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom vuċi ugwali fit-tfassil tal-liġijiet. Ir-repubbliki, għalkemm spiss ikunu assoċjati popolarment mad-demokrazija minħabba l-prinċipju kondiviż tal-kunsens mogħti minn dawk li jiġu ggvernati għat-tmexxija, mhux neċessarjament ikunu demokraziji, għax ir-repubblikaniżmu ma jispeċifikax ''kif'' in-nies għandhom imexxu. Tradizzjonalment it-terminu "repubblika" kien iħaddan kemm id-demokraziji kif ukoll l-aristokraziji u l-varjanti tagħhom. F'sens modern, il-forma ta' governanza repubblikana hija forma ta' governanza mingħajr monarka. Minħabba f'hekk, id-demokraziji jistgħu jkunu repubbliki jew monarkiji kostituzzjonali, bħar-Renju Unit, fejn il-monarka ma jkunx il-mexxej. == Storja == Il-ġemgħat demokratiċi għandhom żmien daqs kemm għandha żmien l-ispeċi umana u ilhom jeżistu tul l-istorja umana, iżda sas-seklu 19, il-figuri [[Politiku|politiċi]] ewlenin fil-biċċa l-kbira opponew id-demokrazija. It-teoriċi repubblikani rabtu d-demokrazija ma' daqs ċkejken: iktar ma kienu jikbru fid-daqs l-unitajiet politiċi, iktar kienet tiżdied il-probabbiltà li l-gvern isir tiranniku. Fl-istess waqt, l-unitajiet politiċi żgħar kienu vulnerabbli għall-ħakma. Montesquieu kiteb, "Jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered mill-imperfezzjoni interna". Skont ix-xjenzat politiku tal-Università ta' Johns Hopkins [[Daniel Deudney]], il-ħolqien tal-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]], bid-daqs kbir u s-sistema ta' kontrolli u bilanċi tagħha, kienet soluzzjoni għall-problemi doppji tad-daqs. Fis-soċjetajiet ta' madwar id-dinja seħħew forom ta' demokrazija b'mod organiku li ma kellhom l-ebda kuntatt ma' xulxin. === Oriġini === ==== [[Greċja]] u [[Ruma]] ==== It-terminu ''demokrazija'' tfaċċa għall-ewwel darba fil-ħsieb politiku u [[Filosofija|filosofiku]] tal-Greċja Antika fil-belt-stat ta' Ateni fl-antikità klassika. Il-kelma ġejja minn ''dêmos'' li tfisser "nies (komuni)" u minn ''krátos'' li tfisser "qawwa/setgħa". Taħt Cleisthenes, f'Ateni ġie stabbilit dak li huwa maħsub bħala l-ewwel eżempju ta' tip ta' demokrazija fis-seklu 6 Q.K. (508–507 Q.K.). Cleisthenes huwa meqjus bħala "l-missier tad-demokrazija ta' Ateni". L-ewwel użu attestat tal-kelma demokrazija jinsab fix-xogħlijiet ta' proża tal-ħabta tal-430 Q.K., bħall-''Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, iżda l-użu tagħha kien eqdem b'diversi deċennji, peress li żewġ persuni minn Ateni li twieldu għall-ħabta tal-470 Q.K. kien jisimhom Democrates, isem politiku ġdid — x'aktarx b'appoġġ għad-demokrazija — li ngħata fi żmien ta' dibattiti dwar kwistjonijiet kostituzzjonali f'Ateni. Aeschylus jalludi bis-saħħa wkoll għall-kelma fid-dramm tiegħu ''Is-Supplikanti'', li ttella' għall-ħabta tal-463 Q.K., fejn isemmi "l-id tat-tmexxija tal-kotra" [''demou kratousa cheir'']. Qabel dak iż-żmien, il-kelma li kienet tiddefinixxi s-sistema politika ġdida ta' Cleisthenes x'aktarx li kienet ''isonomija'', li tfisser ugwaljanza politika. Id-demokrazija ta' Ateni ħadet is-sura ta' demokrazija diretta, u kellha żewġ karatteristiċi li jiddistingwuha: l-għażla aleatorja ta' ċittadini ordinarji biex jimlew il-ftit karigi amministrattivi u ġudizzjarji eżistenti tal-gvern, u ġemgħa leġiżlattiva li kienet tikkonsisti mill-maġġoranza taċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha kienu jitħallew jitkellmu u jivvutaw fil-ġemgħa jew fl-assemblea, fejn kienu jiġu stabbiliti l-liġijiet tal-belt-stat. Madankollu, iċ-ċittadinanza ta' Ateni ma kinitx tingħata lin-[[Mara|nisa]], lill-[[Skjavitù|ilsiera]], lill-barranin (μέτοικοι / ''métoikoi''), u liż-żgħażagħ taħt l-età tas-servizz militari. Effettivament, resident wieħed minn kull erba' f'Ateni kienu jikkwalifikaw bħala ċittadini. Is-sjieda tal-art ma kinitx rekwiżit għaċ-ċittadinanza. L-esklużjoni ta' partijiet kbar tal-popolazzjoni mill-korp taċ-ċittadini hija marbuta mill-qrib mal-fehim tal-qedem taċ-ċittadinanza. Fil-biċċa l-kbira ta' żmien il-qedem, il-benefiċċju taċ-ċittadinanza kien marbut mal-obbligu tal-ġlied fil-kampanji militari. Id-demokrazija ta' Aterni mhux biss kienet ''diretta'' fis-sens li d-deċiżjonijiet kienu jittieħdu mill-ġemgħa, iżda anke l-''iżjed diretta'' fis-sens li l-ġemgħa permezz tal-istrutturi bħall-assemblea, is-senat u l-qrati legali kienet tikkontrolla l-proċess politiku kollu u proporzjon kbir taċ-ċittadini kienu jkunu involuti b'mod kostanti fl-affarijiet pubbliċi. Minkejja li d-drittijiet tal-individwu ma kinux żgurati mill-kostituzzjoni ta' Ateni fis-sens modern (il-Griegi tal-qedem ma kellhomx kelma għal "drittijiet"), dawk li kienu ċittadini ta' Ateni kienu jgawdu l-libertajiet tagħhom mhux f'oppożizzjoni għall-gvern iżda billi jgħixu f'belt li ma kinitx soġġetta għal xi setgħa oħra u billi huma stess ma kinux soġġetti għat-tmexxija ta' ħaddieħor. Il-votazzjoni tfaċċat fi [[Sparta]] saħansitra fis-700 Q.K. L-ekkleżjastiċi ta' Sparta kienu ġemgħa tal-poplu, li kienet tiltaqa' darba fix-xahar, fejn kull ċittadini maskili ta' mill-inqas 20 sena seta' jipparteċipa. Fl-assemblea, l-Ispartani kienu jeleġġu l-mexxejja u jixħtu l-voti tagħhom bl-għajjat (il-votazzjoni kienet tiġi deċiża skont l-ikbar għajta tal-folla). [[Aristotli]] ddeskriva dan il-metodu bħala "tat-tfal", meta mqabbel mas-sistema tal-votazzjoni fuq poloz tal-ġebel użata miċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Sparta adottat din is-sistema minħabba s-sempliċità tagħha, u biex jiġi evitat kull tip ta' preġudizzju, xiri jew qerq fil-votazzjoni, li kienu predominanti fl-elezzjonijiet demokratiċi bikrin. Barra minn hekk, id-depożizzjoni tar-Renju Ruman ħolqot sistema b'element demokratiku fil-forma ta' bosta ġemgħat popolari differenti. Minkejja li r-Repubblika Rumana tat kontribut sinifikanti għal bosta aspetti tad-demokrazija, frazzjon biss mir-Rumani kienu ċittadini li kellhom il-vot fl-elezzjonijiet għall-maġistrati. Il-voti tas-setgħana kienu jingħataw iktar piż permezz ta' sistema ta' votazzjoni ponderata, għaldaqstant il-biċċa l-kbira tal-uffiċjali għoljin, inkluż il-membri tas-Senat, kienu jiġu minn ftit familji għonja u nobbli. Il-mudell Ruman ta' governanza ispira bosta ħassieba politiċi tul is-sekli. ==== Indja tal-qedem ==== Vaishali, il-[[belt kapitali]] tal-Lega ta' Vajjika (Vrijji mahajanapada) tal-Indja, titqies bħala wieħed mill-ewwel eżempji ta' repubblika għall-ħabta tas-seklu 6 Q.K. ==== Amerki ==== [[Kultura|Kulturi]] oħra, bħall-Iroquois fl-Amerki, żviluppaw ukoll forma ta' soċjetà demokratika bejn l-1450 u l-1660 (u possibbilment fl-1142), ferm qabel ma kellhom kuntatt mal-[[Ewropa|Ewropej]]. Din id-demokrazija għadha preżenti sal-lum u hija l-iżjed demokrazija rappreżentattiva antika eżistenti fid-dinja. === [[Medjuevu|Medju Evu]] === Filwaqt li l-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjuni fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu kienu mmexxijin mill-kleru jew minn sinjuri fewdali, kienu jeżistu diversi sistemi li kienu jinvolvu l-elezzjonijiet jew il-ġemgħat, għalkemm spiss kienu jinvolvu parti żgħira mill-popolazzjoni. Fl-Iskandinavja, kien hemm korpi magħrufa ta' nies ħielsa ppreseduti minn kelliem tal-liġi. Dawn il-korpi ta' deliberazzjoni kienu responsabbli għas-soluzzjoni ta' kwistjonijiet politiċi, u xi varjanti kienu jinkludu l-Althing fl-[[Iżlanda]] u l-Løgting fil-[[Gżejjer Faroe|Gżejjer Faeroe]]. Il-''veche'', fil-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]], kien korp simili għal dawk tal-Iskandinavja. Fil-[[Knisja Kattolika]] Rumana, il-[[Papa]] ilu jiġi elett minn [[konklav]] Papali magħmul mill-kardinali mill-1059. L-ewwel korp Parlamentari ddokumentat fl-Ewropa kien il-Cortes ta' [[León]]. Stabbilit minn [[Alfonsu IX|Alfonso IX]] fl-1188, il-Cortes kellu l-awtorità għall-iffissar tat-tassazzjoni, għall-affarijiet barranin u għal-leġiżlazzjoni, għalkemm in-natura eżatta tar-rwol tiegħu għadha kkontestata. Ir-Repubblika ta' [[Ragusa]], stabbilita fl-1358 u ċċentrata madwar il-belt ta' [[Dubrovnik]], ipprovdiet drittijiet ta' rappreżentanza u ta' votazzjoni lill-aristokrazija maskili tagħha biss. Diversi bliet-stati u sistemi ta' governanza Taljani kellhom forom ta' governanza repubblikani. Pereżempju, ir-Repubblika ta' [[Firenze]], stabbilita fl-1115, kienet immexxija mis-Signoria u l-membri tagħha kienu jintgħażlu bix-xorti. Fil-Frisja tas-sekli 10–15, soċjetà mhux fewdali distinta, id-dritt tal-votazzjoni dwar kwistjonijiet lokali u dwar l-uffiċjali tal-kontea kien ibbażat fuq id-daqs tal-art. Il-''Kouroukan Fouga'' qasam l-Imperu tal-[[Mali]] fi klans tat-tmexxija li kienu rrappreżentati f'ġemgħa kbira msejħa l-''Gbara''. Madankollu, id-dokument wassal biex il-Mali jkun iktar simili għal monarkija kostituzzjonali milli repubblika demokratika. Il-Parlament tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] kellu l-għeruq tiegħu fir-restrizzjonijiet tal-poter tar-rejiet miktubin fil-''Magna Carta'' (1215), li b'mod espliċitu ħarset ċerti drittijiet tas-sudditi tar-Re u b'mod impliċitu appoġġat dak li mbagħad sar id-digriet Ingliż tal-''habeas corpus'', li jissalvagwardja l-libertà individwali mill-ħabs illegali u li jagħti d-dritt tal-appell. L-ewwel assemblea nazzjonali rappreżentattiva fl-Ingilterra kienet il-Parlament ta' [[Simon de Montfort]] fl-1265. Il-preżenza tat-tressiq tal-petizzjonijiet hija fost l-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-użu tal-Parlament bħala forum biex jiġi indirizzat it-tħassib ġenerali tan-nies ordinarji. Madankollu, is-setgħa tas-sejħa tal-Parlament baqgħet f'idejn il-monarka. Xi studji kkollegaw l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjonijiet Parlamentari fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu mal-agglomerazzjonijiet urbani u mal-ħolqien ta' klassijiet ġodda, bħall-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]], kif ukoll mal-preżenza tan-nobbli u tal-eliti reliġjużi. L-istudjużi kkollegaw ukoll l-istabbiliment tal-governanza rappreżentattiva mal-frammentazzjoni politika relattiva tal-Ewropa. Ix-xjenzat politiku [[David Stasavage]] jikkollega l-frammentazzjoni tal-Ewropa, u d-demokratizzazzjoni sussegwenti tagħha, mal-mod kif sfaxxa l-[[Imperu Ruman]]: it-territorju Ruman inħakem minn gruppi frammentati żgħar ta' tribujiet Ġermaniċi, u dan wassal għall-ħolqien ta' unitajiet politiċi żgħar fejn il-mexxejja kienu relattivament dgħajfin u kienu jeħtieġu l-kunsens taċ-ċittadini tagħhom biex jifilħu għat-theddidiet barranin. Fil-[[Polonja]], id-demokrazija nobbli kienet ikkaratterizzata minn żieda fl-attività tan-nobbiltà nofsanija, li riedet iżżid is-sehem tagħha fl-eżerċitar tal-poter għas-spejjeż tal-manjati. Il-manjati ddominaw l-iżjed karigi importanti fl-istat (lajċi u ekkleżjastiċi) u kienu jinġabru fil-kunsill irjali, li iktar 'il quddiem sar is-senat. L-importanza dejjem tikber tan-nobbiltà nofsanija kellha impatt fuq l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjoni tal-art magħrufa bħala s-''sejmik'' (assemblea lokali), li sussegwentement kisbet iktar drittijiet. Matul is-seklu 15 u l-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 16, is-sejmiks ingħataw iktar u iktar poter u saru l-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tal-poter lokali. Fl-1454, [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] ta lis-sejmiks id-dritt li jiddeċiedu dwar it-taxxi u li jorganizzaw mobilizzazzjoni tal-massa fl-Istatuti ta' Nieszawa. Huwa wiegħed ukoll li ma kienx se joħloq liġijiet ġodda mingħajr il-kunsens tagħhom. === Era moderna === ==== Perjodu modern bikri ==== Fl-Ingilterra tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta. Il-Parlament tal-Ingilterra għadda l-Petizzjoni tad-Drittijiet fl-1628 li stabbiliet ċerti libertajiet għas-sudditi. Il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża (1642–1651) ġiet miġġielda bejn ir-Re u Parlament oligarkiku iżda elett, u matul dan iż-żmien iffurmat l-idea ta' partit politiku, bi gruppi jiddibattu d-drittijiet għar-rappreżentanza politika matul id-Dibattiti ta' Putney tal-1647. Sussegwentement, il-Protettorat (1653–59) u l-Integrazzjoni mill-Ġdid Ingliża (1660) integraw iktar tmexxija awtokratika, għalkemm il-Parlament għadda l-Att dwar il-''Habeas Corpus'' fl-1679 li saħħaħ il-konvenzjoni li pprojbixxiet id-detenzjoni mingħajr biżżejjed raġunijiet jew evidenza. Wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688, il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet ġiet ippromulgata fl-1689 u din ikkodifikat ċerti drittijiet u libertajiet u għadha fis-seħħ. Il-liġi stabbiliet ir-rekwiżiti li jsiru elezzjonijiet regolari, ir-regoli għal-libertà tal-kelma fil-Parlament u limitat il-poter tal-monarka, u b'hekk żgurat, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-Ewropa ta' dak iż-żmien, li l-assolutiżmu rjali ma jipprevalix. L-istoriċi ekonomiċi [[Douglass North]] u [[Barry Weingast]] ikkaratterizzaw l-istituzzjonijiet implimentati fir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża bħala suċċess kbir f'termini tar-restrizzjonijiet tal-governanza u l-iżgurar tal-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet tal-proprjetà. L-interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta, il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża, u r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża fis-seklu 17 xprunaw it-tkabbir ta' filosofija politika fil-Gżejjer Brittaniċi. [[Thomas Hobbes]] kien l-ewwel filosfu li fassal teorija dettaljata dwar il-kuntratt soċjali. Fil-''Leviathan'' (1651), Hobbes ħareġ bit-teorija li l-individwi li jgħixu fin-natura kienu jgħixu ħajja "solitarja, fqira, kerha, iebsa u qasira" u kienu jagħmlu gwerer kontinwi kontra kulħadd. Sabiex tiġi evitata l-okkorrenza tal-istat anarkiku tan-natura, Hobbes irraġuna li l-individwi kienu jċedu d-drittijiet tagħhom lil qawwa awtoritarja setgħana. Fi kliem ieħor, Hobbes tkellem favur monarkija assoluta, li fl-opinjoni tiegħu kienet l-aqwa forma ta' governanza. Iktar 'il quddiem, il-filosfu u t-[[tabib]] [[John Locke]] ħareġ b'interpretazzjoni differenti dwar it-teorija tal-kuntratt soċjali. Fiż-''Żewġ Trattati tal-Governanza'' (1689) tiegħu, Locke sostna li l-individwi kollha kellhom id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għall-proprjetà. Skont Locke, l-individwi kienu jinġabru volontarjament flimkien biex jiffurmaw stat bl-għan li jiddefendu drittijiethom. Għal Locke kienu partikolarment importanti d-drittijiet tal-proprjetà, li skont Locke kienu jirrikjedu l-ħarsien, li kien l-iskop primarju tal-gvern. Barra minn hekk, Locke sostna li l-gvernijiet kienu leġittimi biss jekk kellhom il-kunsens ta' dawk li kienu ggvernati. Skont Locke, iċ-ċittadini kellhom id-dritt jirribellaw kontra l-gvern jekk dan kien jaġixxi kontra l-interessi tagħhom jew isir tiranniku. Għalkemm ma tantx kienu moqrija matul ħajtu, ix-xogħlijiet ta' Locke jitqiesu bħala d-dokumenti li jsejsu l-ħsieb liberali u influwenzaw ferm il-mexxejja tar-Rivoluzzjoni Amerikana u iktar 'il quddiem ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża]]. Il-qafas demokratiku liberali tiegħu tal-governanza għadu l-forma ewlenija tad-demokrazija fid-dinja. Fir-repubbliki tal-Cossack tal-[[Ukrajna]] fis-sekli 16 u 17, l-Etmanat tal-Cossack u s-Sich ta' Zaporizhia, id-detentur tal-ogħla kariga ta' Hetman kien jiġi elett mir-rappreżentanti tad-distretti tal-pajjiż. Fl-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]], il-governanza rappreżentattiva bdiet f'Jamestown, Virginia, bl-elezzjoni tal-Kamra tal-Burgesses (il-prekursur tal-Assemblea Ġenerali ta' Virginia) fl-1619. Il-Puritani Ingliżi li għamlu migrazzjoni mill-1620 stabbilew kolonji f'New England, fejn kien hemm governanza lokali demokratika; il-poter ta' dawn l-assemblej lokali kien ivarja ferm tul il-perjodu kolonjali. Madankollu, uffiċjalment kellhom ammonti żgħar ta' poter devolut, peress li l-awtorità aħħarija kienet f'idejn il-monarkija u l-Parlament. Il-Puritani, il-Battisti u l-Quakers li stabbilew dawn il-kolonji applikaw l-organizzazzjoni demokratika tal-kongregazzjonijiet tagħhom anke għall-amministrazzjoni tal-komunitajiet tagħhom fil-ħajja ta' kuljum. ==== Sekli 18 u 19 ==== L-ewwel Parlament tal-Gran Brittanja ġie stabbilit fl-1707, wara l-fużjoni tar-Renju tal-Ingilterra u r-Renju tal-[[Skozja|Iskozja]] skont l-Atti tal-Unjoni. Żewġ dokumenti ewlenin tal-kostituzzjoni mhux kodifikata tar-Renju Unit, id-Dikjarazzjoni Ingliża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689 (imsejħa mill-ġdid bħala l-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689) u d-Dikjarazzjoni Skoċċiża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689, it-tnejn li huma kienu kkonsolidaw il-pożizzjoni tal-Parlament bħala l-korp suprem tat-tfassil tal-liġijiet u kienu jgħidu li "l-elezzjoni tal-membri tal-Parlament kellha tkun ħielsa". Madankollu, il-Parlament kien jiġi elett biss mis-sidien tal-art maskili, li kienu jammontaw għal 3 % tal-popolazzjoni fl-1780. L-ewwel persuna Brittanika magħrufa ta' nisel Afrikan li vvota f'elezzjoni ġenerali, [[Ignatius Sancho]], ivvota fl-1774 u fl-1780. Matul l-Era tal-Libertà fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] (1718–1772), id-drittijiet ċivili twessgħu u l-poter għadda mingħand il-monarka għall-Parlament. Ir-raħħala intaxxati kienu rrappreżentati fil-Parlament, għalkemm ma tantx kellhom influwenza, iżda n-nies komuni mingħajr proprjetà intaxxata ma kellhomx suffraġju. Il-ħolqien ta' Repubblika ta' [[Korsika]] ta' għomorha qasir fl-1755 kien tentattiv bikri li tiġi adottata kostituzzjoni demokratika (setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel u n-nisa kollha li kellhom iktar minn 25 sena). Din il-Kostituzzjoni ta' Korsika kienet l-ewwel waħda bbażata fuq il-prinċipji tal-Illuminiżmu u kienet tinkludi s-suffraġju femminili, xi ħaġa li ma kinitx inkluża fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji l-oħra sas-seklu 20. L-Amerka kolonjali kellha kwalifikazzjonijiet simili dwar il-proprjetà bħall-Brittanja, u fil-perjodu qabel l-1776 l-abbundanza u d-disponibbiltà tal-art kienet tfisser li għadd kbir ta' kolonjalisti kienu jissodisfaw tali rekwiżiti b'mill-inqas 60 fil-mija tal-irġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda li setgħu jivvutaw. Il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda kienu [[Bidwi|bdiewa]] li kienu jissodisfaw ir-rekwiżiti tas-sjieda tal-proprjetà jew tal-ħlas tat-taxxa. Bi ftit eċċezzjonijiet, l-ebda mara jew persuna b'karnaġjon sewda ma setgħu jivvutaw. Vermont, li malli ddikjarat l-indipendenza mill-Gran Brittanja fl-1777, adottat kostituzzjoni mmudellata fuq iċ-ċittadinanza u s-suffraġju demokratiku ta' Pennsylvania għall-irġiel bi proprjetà jew mingħajr proprjetà. Il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti tal-1787 hija l-eqdem kostituzzjoni governattiva kkodifikata li għadha teżisti u li għadha attiva. Il-Kostituzzjoni kienet tipprevedi gvern elett u protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet ċivili, iżda ma temmitx il-jasar u lanqas ma estendiet id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni fl-Istati Uniti, u minflok ħalliet il-kwistjoni tas-suffraġju f'idejn l-istati individwali. Ġeneralment, l-istati llimitaw is-suffraġju għas-sidien tal-proprjetà maskili u għal dawk li jħallsu t-taxxi ta' karnaġjon bajda. Meta kien hemm l-ewwel elezzjoni Presidenzjali fl-1789, madwar 6 % tal-popolazzjoni kienet eliġibbli biex tivvota. L-Att dwar in-Naturalizzazzjoni tal-1790 illimita ċ-ċittadinanza Amerikana lill-persuni ta' karnaġjon bajda biss. Il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet fl-1791 stabbiliet limiti fuq il-poter tal-gvern sabiex tħares il-libertajiet personali iżda kellha ftit impatt fuq is-sentenzi tal-qrati għall-ewwel 130 sena wara r-ratifika. Fl-1789, [[Franza]] Rivoluzzjonarja adottat id-Dikjarazzjoni tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem u taċ-Ċittadini, u għalkemm għomorha kien qasir, il-Konvenzjoni Nazzjonali kienet eletta mill-irġiel kollha biss fl-1792. Il-Kostituzzjoni Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]] tat-3 ta' Mejju 1791 ippruvat timplimenta monarkija kostituzzjonali iktar effettiva, introduċiet l-ugwaljanza politika bejn iċ-ċittadini u n-nobbli, u poġġiet ir-raħħala taħt il-protezzjoni tal-gvern, u b'hekk taffiet l-agħar abbużi kontra r-raħħala. Din damet fis-seħħ għal inqas minn 19-il xahar, u ġiet iddikjarata nulla mis-Sejm ta' Grodno li ltaqa' fl-1793. Minkejja dan, il-Kostituzzjoni tal-1791 għenet biex l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Pollakki jibqgħu ħajjin għar-restawr eventwali tas-sovranità tal-pajjiż iktar minn seklu wara. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1828 kienet l-ewwel waħda li fiha setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda li ma kinux sidien tal-proprjetà fil-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-istati. L-ammont ta' nies li ħarġu jivvutaw żdied matul is-snin 30 tas-seklu 19, u laħaq madwar 80 % tal-popolazzjoni ta' rġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda fl-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1840. North Carolina kien l-aħħar stat li abolixxa l-kwalifazzjoni abbażi tal-proprjetà fl-1856 u dan wassal għal approssimazzjoni tas-suffraġju universali tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda (madankollu r-rekwiżiti tal-ħlas tat-taxxa baqgħu jeżistu f'ħames stati fl-1860 u baqgħu jeżistu f'żewġ stati sas-seklu 20). Fiċ-ċensiment tal-Istati Uniti tal-1860, il-popolazzjoni tal-iskjavi kienet kibret għal 4 miljuni, u fir-Rikostruzzjoni wara l-Gwerra Ċivili, għaddew tliet emendi kostituzzjonali: it-13-il Emenda (1865) li temmet l-iskjavitù; l-14-il Emenda (1869) li tat iċ-ċittadinanza lin-nies ta' karnaġjon sewda, u l-15-il Emenda (1870) lil tat lill-irġiel ta' karnaġjon sewda d-dritt nominali biex jivvutaw. L-involviment sħiħ taċ-ċittadini kollha ma ġiex żgurat sa wara li l-moviment tad-drittijiet ċivili kiseb l-approvazzjoni mill-Kungress tal-Istati Uniti fir-rigward tal-Att dwar id-Drittijiet tal-Votazzjoni tal-1965. Id-dritt tal-votazzjoni fir-Renju Unit twessa' u sar iktar uniformi permezz ta' sensiela ta' riformi li bdew bl-Att dwar ir-Riformi tal-1832 u komplew fis-seklu 20, b'mod partikolari bl-Att dwar ir-Rappreżentanza tan-Nies tal-1918 u l-Att dwar l-Ugwaljanza tal-1928. Is-suffraġju maskili universali ġie stabbilit fi Franza f'Marzu 1848 fid-dawl tar-Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża tal-1848. Matul dik is-sena, faqqgħu diversi rivoluzzjonijiet fl-Ewropa peress li l-mexxejja kellhom ilaħħqu mad-domandi popolari għall-kostituzzjonijiet liberali u għal iktar governanza demokratika. Fl-1876, l-[[Imperu Ottoman]] għadda minn monarkija assoluta għal waħda kostituzzjonali, u organizza żewġ elezzjonijiet is-sena ta' wara biex jeleġġi membri fil-Parlament li kien għadu kemm ġie ffurmat. Inħarġu Regolamenti Elettorali Proviżorji, li kienu jiddikjaraw li l-membri eletti tal-Kunsilli Amministrattivi Provinċjali kellhom jeleġġu l-membri għall-ewwel Parlament. Iktar tard dik is-sena, ġiet ippromulgata kostituzzjoni ġdida, li kienet tipprevedi l-istabbiliment ta' Parlament bikamerali b'Senat maħtur mis-Sultan u Kamra tad-Deputati eletta mill-poplu. Kienu jitħallew jikkontestaw għall-elezzjoni l-irġiel biss li kellhom iktar minn 30 sena u li kienu midħla tat-Tork u li kellhom drittijiet ċivili sħaħ. Fost ir-raġunijiet ta' skwalifika kien hemm iż-żamma ta' ċittadinanza doppja, ir-reklutaġġ minn gvern barrani, il-falliment monetarju, l-impjieg bħala qaddej, jew "ir-reputazzjoni tat-twettiq ta' azzjonijiet ħżiena". Is-suffraġju universali sħiħ inkiseb fl-1934. Fl-1893, il-kolonja bl-awtogovernanza ta' [[New Zealand]] saret l-ewwel pajjiż fid-dinja (għajr għar-Repubblika ta' Korsika b'għomorha qasir tas-seklu 18 li stabbiliet is-suffraġju universali attiv billi n-nisa ngħataw id-dritt tal-votazzjoni. ==== Sekli 20 u 21 ==== It-tranżizzjonijiet tas-seklu 20 lejn id-demokrazija liberali waslu f'"mewġiet suċċessivi tad-demokrazija", u rriżultaw b'modi differenti minn gwerer, rivoluzzjonijiet, dekolonizzazzjoni, u ċirkostanzi reliġjużi u ekonomiċi. Il-mewġiet globali ta' "regressjoni demokratika" li reġġgħu lura d-demokratizzazzjoni seħħew ukoll fis-snin 20 u 30 tas-seklu 20, fis-snin 60 u 70 tas-seklu 20 u fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21. [[L-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]] u x-xoljiment tal-[[Imperu Ottoman]] u tal-Imperu Awstro-Ungariku wasslu għall-ħolqien ta' nazzjonijiet-stati ġodda fl-Ewropa, u l-biċċa l-kbira minnhom kienu mill-inqas nominalment demokratiċi. Fis-snin 20 tas-seklu 20 tkattru l-movimenti demokratiċi u s-suffraġju universali avvanza, iżda d-Dipressjoni l-Kbira ġabet magħha diżillużjoni u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Ewropa, tal-Amerka Latina u tal-[[Asja]] daru għat-tmexxija ta' rġiel b'saħħithom jew dittaturi. Il-Faxxiżmu u d-dittaturi tkattru fil-[[Ġermanja]] Nażista, fl-[[Italja]], fi [[Spanja]] u fil-[[Portugall]], kif ukoll il-gvernijiet mhux demokratiċi fil-Baltiċi, fil-Balkani, fil-[[Brażil]], f'[[Kuba]], fiċ-[[Ċina]] u fil-[[Ġappun]] fost l-oħrajn. [[It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija]] ġabet magħha treġġigħ lura definittiv ta' din it-tendenza fil-Punent tal-Ewropa. Id-demokratizzazzjoni tas-setturi Amerikani, Brittaniċi u Franċiżi tal-Ġermanja okkupata (għalkemm xi sorsi jikkontestaw dan il-punt), tal-[[Awstrija]], tal-[[Italja]], u tal-[[Ġappun]] okkupat serviet bħala mudell għat-teorija li ġiet wara tal-bidla fil-gvern. Madankollu, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Lvant tal-Ewropa, inkluż is-settur [[Unjoni Sovjetika|Sovjetiku]] tal-Ġermanja, sfat fit-territorju mhux demokratiku ddominat mis-Sovjetiċi. Wara l-gwerra kien hemm id-dekolonizzazzjoni, u mill-ġdid il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istati indipendenti ġodda kellhom kostituzzjonijiet nominalment demokratiċi. L-Indja feġġet bħala l-ikbar demokrazija fid-dinja u għadha fit-tmun. Il-pajjiżi li fl-imgħoddi kienu parti mill-Imperu Brittanika, spiss adottaw is-sistema Brittanika ta' Westminster. Fl-1948, id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem irrekjediet id-demokrazija:<blockquote>3. Ir-rieda tan-nies għandha tkun il-bażi tal-awtorità tal-governanza; din għandha tkun espressa f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom jkunu b'suffraġju universali u ugwali u dan għandu jiġi espress f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom isiru b'suffraġju universali u ndaqs u għandhom isiru permezz ta' votazzjoni sigrieta u jew bi proċeduri ekwivalenti ta' votazzjoni ħielsa.</blockquote>— Id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem, l-Artikolu 21, in-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, fl-1948 Sal-1960, il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-pajjiżi-stati nominalment kienu demokraziji, għalkemm il-biċċa l-kbira tal-popolazzjonijiet tad-dinja kienu jgħixu f'demokraziji nominali li esperjenzaw elezzjonijiet taparsi, u forom oħra ta' qerq (b'mod partikolari fl-istati "[[Komuniżmu|Komunisti]]" u l-eks kolonji). Mewġa sussegwenti ta' demokratizzazzjoni ġabet magħha kisbiet sostanzjali favur demokrazija liberali ta' vera għal bosta stati, u din ġiet imlaqqma bħala t-"tielet mewġa ta' demokrazija". Il-Portugall, Spanja u diversi mid-dittaturi militari fl-[[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t'Isfel]] reġgħu lura għat-tmexxija ċivili fis-snin 70 u 80 tas-seklu 20. Din ġiet segwita minn pajjiżi fil-Lvant u fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja sa nofs u l-aħħar tas-snin 80 tas-seklu 20. L-għawġ ekonomiku fis-snin 80 tas-seklu 20, flimkien mal-garr minħabba l-oppressjoni Sovjetika, wasslu għall-isfaxxar tal-Unjoni Sovjetika, it-tmiem assoċjata tal-[[Gwerra Bierda]], u d-demokratizzazzjoni u l-liberalizzazzjoni tal-pajjiżi tal-Lvant tal-eks Unjoni Sovjetika. L-iżjed demokraziji mid-demokraziji l-ġodda li kellhom suċċess kienu dawk li [[Ġeografija|ġeografikament]] u [[Kultura|kulturalment]] kienu l-eqreb tal-Punent tal-Ewropa, u li issa huma parti mill-[[Unjoni Ewropea]] jew huma pajjiżi kandidati. Fl-1986, wara li waqgħet l-iżjed dittatura Asjatika prominenti, l-uniku stat demokratiku tax-xorta tiegħu dak iż-żmien feġġ fil-[[Filippini]] bil-wasla ta' [[Corazon Aquino]], li iktar 'il quddiem saret magħrufa bħala omm id-demokrazija Asjatika. Ix-xejra liberali nfirxet f'uħud mill-istati Afrikani fis-snin 90 tas-seklu 20, l-iktar fl-[[Afrika t'Isfel]]. Xi eżempji reċenti ta' tentattivi ta' liberalizzazzjoni jinkludu r-Rivoluzzjoni [[Indoneżja|Indoneżjana]] tal-1998, ir-Rivoluzzjoni bil-Gafef fil-[[Jugoslavja]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ward fil-[[Ġeorġja|Georgia]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni Oranġjo fl-[[Ukrajna]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni taċ-Ċedru fil-[[Libanu]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tat-Tulipani fil-[[Kirgiżistan]] u r-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ġiżimin fit-[[Tuneżija]]. Skont Freedom House, fl-2007 kien hemm 123 demokrazija elettorali (minn 40 waħda fl-1972). Skont il-''Forum Dinji dwar id-Demokrazija'', id-demokraziji elettorali issa jirrappreżentaw 120 mill-192 pajjiż eżistenti u jikkostitwixxu 58.2 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni dinjija. Fl-istess ħin, id-demokraziji liberali, jiġifieri l-pajjiżi li Freedom House tqis bħala ħielsa u li jirrispettaw id-drittijiet tal-bniedem bażiċi u l-istat tad-dritt, jammontaw għal 85 pajjiż u jirrappreżentaw 38 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni globali. Fl-2007 ukoll, in-[[Nazzjonijiet Uniti]] ddikjaraw il-15 ta' Settembru bħala l-Jum Internazzjonali tad-Demokrazija. Bosta pajjiżi baxxew l-età tal-votazzjoni għal 18-il sena; id-demokraziji ewlenin bdew jagħmlu dan fis-snin 70 tas-seklu 20, l-ewwel nett fil-Punent tal-Ewropa u fl-Amerka ta' Fuq. Il-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji elettorali għadhom jeskludu lil dawk taħt l-età ta' 18-il sena mill-votazzjoni. L-età tal-votazzjoni tbaxxiet għal 16-il sena għall-elezzjonijiet nazzjonali f'għadd ta' pajjiżi, fosthom il-[[Brażil]], l-Awstrija, [[Kuba]] u n-[[Nikaragwa]]. F'California, proposta tal-2004 biex jingħata kwart ta' vot li dawk ta' 16-il sena fl-aħħar mill-aħħar ma għaddietx. Fl-2008, il-Parlament Ġermaniż ippropona abbozz ta' liġi li mbagħad warrab li kienet tagħti d-dritt tal-votazzjoni lil kull ċittadin mat-twelid, biex jintuża minn ġenitur sa meta l-wild ikun jista' jibda jużah. Skont Freedom House, mill-2005 kien hemm 17-il sena konsekuttiva li fihom id-drittijiet politiċi u l-libertajiet ċivili madwar id-dinja marru għall-agħar f'iktar pajjiżi milli fejn sar xi titjib, peress li l-qawwiet populisti u nazzjonalistiċi mexew 'il quddiem kullimkien, mill-[[Polonja]] (eż. il-partit tal-Liġi u l-Ġustizzja) sal-Filippini (taħt [[Rodrigo Duterte]]). F'rapport ta' Freedom House li nħareġ fl-2018, il-punteġġi rigward id-demokrazija għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi marru lura għat-12-il sena konsekuttiva. ''The Christian Science Monitor'' irrapporta li l-ideoloġiji nazzjonalistiċi u populisti kienu qed jissaħħew, a skapitu tal-istat tad-dritt, f'pajjiżi bħall-Polonja, it-[[Turkija]] u l-[[Ungerija]]. Pereżempju, fil-Polonja, il-President ħatar 27 imħallef ġdid tal-Qorti Suprema minkejja l-oġġezzjonijiet legali mill-[[Kummissjoni Ewropea]]. Fit-Turkija, eluf ta' mħallfin tneħħew mill-karigi tagħhom wara kolp ta' stat li ma rnexxiex. Iċ-"ċedimenti demokratiċi" fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21 ġew attribwiti lill-inugwaljanza ekonomika u l-garr soċjali, il-personaliżmu, il-ġestjoni batuta tal-gvernijiet fir-rigward tal-[[pandemija tal-COVID-19]], kif ukoll fatturi oħra bħall-manipolazzjoni tas-soċjetà ċivili, il-"polarizzazzjoni tossika", il-kampanji barranin tad-diżinformazzjoni, ir-razziżmu u n-nattiviżmu, is-setgħa eżekuttiva eċċessiva, u s-setgħa mnaqqsa tal-oppożizzjoni. Fi ħdan id-demokraziji tal-Punent, l-attitudnijiet ta' "protezzjoniżmu", li jiġbru flimkien il-konservattiviżmu kulturali u l-attitudnijiet ekonomiċi Xellugin, kienu l-iżjed indikatur b'saħħtu tal-appoġġ għall-modalitajiet awtoritarji ta' governanza. == Teorija == === Teorija bikrija === It-teorija demokratika ta' Aristotli kienet tpoġġi f'kuntrast it-tmexxija mill-ħafna (demokrazija/timokrazija), mat-tmexxija mill-ftit (oligarkija/aristokrazija/elitiżmu), kif ukoll mat-tmexxija minn persuna waħda (tirannija/awtokrazija/monarkija assoluta). Huwa ħaseb ukoll li kien hemm varjant tajjeb u ħażin ta' kull sistema (huwa qies id-demokrazija bħala l-kontroparti ħażina tat-timokrazija). Fehma komuni fost it-teoriċi Repubblikani bikrin u Rinaxximentali kienet li d-demokrazija setgħet tibqa' ħajja biss fil-komunitajiet politiċi ż-żgħar. Abbażi tal-lezzjonijiet meħuda mill-bidla tar-Repubblika Rumana lejn il-monarkiżmu iktar ma kibret jew ċkienet, dawn it-teoriċi Repubblikani sostnew li l-espansjoni tat-territorji u tal-popolazzjoni inevitabbilment kienu jwasslu għat-tirannija. Għaldaqstant id-demokrazija kienet fraġli ferm u rari storikament, għax setgħet tibqa' teżisti biss f'unitajiet politiċi żgħar, li minħabba d-daqs tagħhom kienu vulnerabbli għal ħakma minn unitajiet politiċi akbar. Huwa magħruf li Montesquieu qal, "jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered minn difett intern". [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] sostna, "Għaldaqstant, hija l-karatteristika naturali tal-istati żgħar li jiġu ggvernati bħala repubblika, tal-istati ta' daqs nofsani li jkunu soġġetti għal monarka, u tal-imperi kbar li jitmexxew minn prinċep tirann". === Teorija kontemporanja === Fost it-teoriji politiċi moderni, jeżistu kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. ==== Aggregazzjoni ==== It-teorija tad-demokrazija aggregattiva ssostni li l-għan tal-proċessi demokratiċi hu li jmexxu 'l quddiem il-preferenzi taċ-ċittadini u jaggregawhom flimkien biex jiddeterminaw liema politiki soċjali għandha tadotta s-soċjetà. Għaldaqstant, dawk li jħaddnu din il-fehma jsostnu li s-sehem demokratiku għandu jiffoka b'mod primarju fuq il-votazzjoni, fejn il-politiki bl-ikbar ammont ta' voti jiġu implimentati. Jeżistu varjanti differenti tad-demokrazija aggregattiva. Skont il-ħsieb tad-demokrazija minimalista, l-elezzjonijiet huma mekkaniżmu ta' kompetizzjoni bejn il-[[Politiku|politiċi]]. [[Joseph Schumpeter]] huwa magħruf li spjega dan il-ħsieb fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Kapitaliżmu, Soċjaliżmu u Demokrazija''. [[Anthony Downs]] jargumenta li l-partiti politiċi ideoloġiċi huma neċessarji biex jaġixxu bħala sensara bejn l-individwi u l-gvernijiet. Min-naħa l-oħra, id-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament rigward il-proposti leġiżlattivi, tista' turi aggregazzjoni aħjar f'każijiet ta' differenzi fil-preferenzi bejn l-elit u l-votanti. ===== Mandat medjan ===== Skont it-teorema tal-votant medjan, ir-rappreżentattività politika tista' tiġi evalwata billi jitqabbel kemm il-liġijiet u l-politiki huma qrib tal-fehmiet tal-votanti medjani tul l-ispettru politiku. Il-mandat medjan iħares lejn il-preferenzi tal-votant medjan bħala dawk li jagħtu leġittimità politika. ==== Poliarkija ==== [[Robert A. Dahl]] jargumenta li l-prinċipju demokratiku fundamentali hu li meta wieħed jasal għal deċiżjonijiet kollettivi vinkolanti, kull persuna f'komunità politika hija intitolata li l-interessi tagħha jitqiesu b'mod indaqs. Huwa juża t-terminu poliarkija ("it-tmexxija mill-ħafna") biex jirreferi għal soċjetajiet fejn jeżisti ċertu sett ta' istituzzjonijiet u proċeduri li huma perċepiti li jwasslu għal tali demokrazija. L-ewwel u qabel kollox fost dawn l-istituzzjonijiet hemm l-okkorrenza regolari ta' elezzjonijiet ħielsa u miftuħa li jsiru biex jintgħażlu r-rappreżentanti li mbagħad jiġġestixxu l-politiki pubbliċi kollha tas-soċjetà jew il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom. Madankollu, dawn il-proċeduri poliarkiċi jaf ma joħolqux demokrazija sħiħa, jekk pereżempju l-faqar ixekkel il-parteċipazzjoni politika. B'mod simili, [[Ronald Dworkin]] isostni li d-"demokrazija hija ideal sostantiv, mhux sempliċement proċedurali". ==== Deliberazzjoni ==== Id-demokrazija deliberattiva hija bbażata fuq in-nozzjoni li d-demokrazija hija governanza bid-deliberazzjoni. Għad-differenza tad-demokrazija aggregattiva, id-demokrazija deliberattiva ssostni li biex deċiżjoni demokratika tkun leġittima, din trid tkun preċeduta minn deliberazzjoni awtentika, mhux sempliċement l-aggregazzjoni tal-preferenzi li sseħħ fil-votazzjoni. Deliberazzjoni awtentika hija deliberazzjoni fost dawk li jieħdu d-deċiżjonijiet li tkun ħielsa minn distorsjonijiet tas-setgħa politika inugwali, bħas-setgħa li jikseb min jieħu d-deċiżjonijiet permezz tal-ġid ekonomiku jew l-appoġġ tal-gruppi ta' interess. Jekk dawk li jieħdu d-deċiżjonijiet ma jkunux jistgħu jaslu għal konsensus wara deliberazzjoni awtentika dwar proposta, imbagħad jivvutaw dwar il-proposta billi jużaw forma ta' tmexxija tal-maġġoranza. Il-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini jitqiesu minn bosta studjużi bħala eżempji prattiċi tad-demokrazija deliberattiva, u rapport reċenti tal-[[OECD]] jidentifika l-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini bħala mekkaniżmu popolari li kulma jmur jinvolvi liċ-ċittadini fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet governattivi. Dawk li huma favur id-demokrazija diretta jsostnu li ċ-ċittadini ma jmexxux lilhom infushom sakemm ma jiddeċidux direttament rigward il-liġijiet u l-politiki. L-attività politika tista' tkun siewja fiha nnifisha, peress li tissoċjalizza u teduka liċ-ċittadini, u l-parteċipazzjoni popolari tista' tikkontrolla l-elit setgħana. ==== Tipi ta' demokraziji governattivi ==== Id-demokrazija għandha bosta forom, kemm fit-teorija kif ukoll fil-prattika. Xi varjetajiet tad-demokrazija jipprovdu rappreżentanza aħjar u iktar libertà għaċ-ċittadini minn oħrajn. Madankollu, jekk xi demokrazija ma tkunx strutturata sabiex tipprojbixxi lill-gvern milli jeskludi lin-nies mill-proċess leġiżlattiv, jew lil kwalunkwe fergħa tal-gvern milli tibdel is-separazzjoni tal-poteri favuriha, imbagħad fergħa tas-sistema tista' takkumula wisq poter u teqred id-demokrazija. It-tipi ta' demokrazija li ġejjin ma jeskludux lil xulxin: ħafna jispeċifikaw dettalji ta' aspetti li huma indipendenti minn xulxin u jistgħu jeżistu flimkien f'sistema unika. ===== Forom bażiċi ===== Jeżistu diversi varjanti ta' demokrazija, iżda hemm żewġ forom bażiċi, u t-tnejn li huma jikkonċernaw kif il-korp kollu taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli jwettaq ir-rieda tiegħu. Forma ta' demokrazija hija d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom parteċipazzjoni attiva fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet politiċi, pereżempju billi jivvutaw direttament rigward l-inizjattivi ta' politika. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, il-korp kollu ta' ċittadini eliġibbli jibqa' l-poter sovran iżda l-poter politiku jiġi eżerċitat indirettament permezz ta' rappreżentanti eletti; din tissejjaħ demokrazija rappreżentattiva. Jekk il-kap ta' stat jiġi elett b'mod demokratiku, l-istat jissejjaħ repubblika demokratika. ====== Demokrazija diretta ====== Id-demokrazija diretta hija sistema politika fejn iċ-ċittadini jieħdu sehem fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet personalment. minflok jiddependu fuq intermedjarji jew rappreżentanti. Dawk li tkellmu favuriha bħal Jean-Jacques Rousseau jsostnu li l-approċċ dirett iżid il-leġittimità. Demokrazija diretta tagħti lill-popolazzjoni li tivvota s-setgħa li: * tibdel il-liġijiet kostituzzjonali; * tressaq inizjattivi, referenda u suġġerimenti għal liġijiet. Fi ħdan il-gvernijiet rappreżentattivi moderni, ċerti għodod elettorali bħar-referenda, l-inizjattivi taċ-ċittadini u r-referendum għat-tneħħija ta' gvern jitqiesu bħala fororm ta' demokrazija diretta. Madankollu, uħud li huma favur id-demokrazija diretta jsostnu li l-ġemgħat lokali jeħtieġu jiddiskutu wiċċ imb wiċċ. Id-demokrazija diretta bħala sistema ta' governanza attwalment teżisti fil-kantons [[Żvizzera|Żvizzeri]] ta' Appenzell Innerrhoden u Glarus, il-Muniċipalitajiet Awtonomi Zapatisti Ribelli, il-komunitajiet affiljati mas-CIPO-RFM, il-kunsilli lokali [[Bolivja|Bolivjani]] ta' FEJUVE, u l-kantons Kurdi ta' Rojava. ====== Demokrazija semidiretta ====== Xi demokraziji moderni li huma rappreżentattivi għalkollox fin-natura tagħhom jiddependu bil-kbir fuq forom ta' azzjoni politika tad-demokrazija diretta. Dawn id-demokraziji, li jużaw elementi tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva u tad-demokrazija diretta, jissejħu demokraziji semidiretti jew demokraziji parteċipattivi. Xi eżempji jinkludu l-Iżvizzera u xi stati tal-Istati Uniti, fejn isir użu frekwenti tar-referenda u tal-inizjattivi. Il-Konfederazzjoni Żvizzera hija demokrazija semidiretta. Fil-livell federali, iċ-ċittadini jistgħu jipproponu bidliet fil-kostituzzjoni (inizjattiva popolari federali) jew jitolbu li jsir referendum rigward kwalunkwe liġi vvutata mill-Parlament. Bejn Jannar 1995 u Ġunju 2005, iċ-ċittadini Żvizzeri vvutaw 31 darba, biex iwieġbu 103 domanda (matul l-istess perjodu, iċ-ċittadini Franċiżi pparteċipaw f'żewġ referenda biss). Minkejja dan, fl-aħħar 120 sena inqas minn 250 inizjattiva tressqu għal referendum. Xi eżempji jinkludu l-użu estensiv tar-referenda fl-istat Amerikan ta' California, li huwa stat b'iktar minn 20 miljun votant. F'New England spiss jintużaw laqgħat tal-belt, speċjalment fiż-żoni rurali, għall-ġestjoni tal-governanza lokali. Dan joħloq forma ibrida ta' governanza, b'demokrazija diretta lokali u gvern statali rappreżentattiv. Pereżempju, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-bliet ta' Vermont jorganizzaw laqgħat tal-bliet annwali f'Marzu fejn jiġu eletti l-uffiċjali tal-bliet, jiġu vvutati l-baġits għall-bliet u għall-iskejjel, u ċ-ċittadini jkollhom l-opportunità li jitkellmu u jinstemgħu rigward il-kwistjonijiet politiċi. ====== Sistema tax-xorti ====== L-użu ta' sistema tax-xorti, demokrazija karatteristika ta' Ateni, hija karatteristika ta' xi verżjonijiet ta' demokraziji diretti. F'din is-sistema, kompiti governattivi u amministrattivi importanti jitwettqu minn ċittadini li jittellgħu bix-xorti f'lotterija. ====== Demokrazija rappreżentattiva ====== Id-demokrazija rappreżentattiva tinvolvi l-elezzjoni tal-uffiċjali tal-gvern min-nies rappreżentati. L-iżjed mekkaniżmi komuni jinvolvu l-elezzjoni tal-kandidat mill-maġġoranza jew minn pluralità tal-voti. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Punent għandhom sistemi rappreżentattivi. Ir-rappreżentanti jistgħu jiġu eletti bħala rappreżentanti diplomatiċi minn distrett (jew kostitwenza) partikolari, jew jirrappreżentaw l-elettorat kollu permezz ta' sistemi proporzjonali. Xi demokraziji rappreżentattivi jinkorporaw ukoll elementi tad-demokrazija diretta, bħal referenda. Karatteristika tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva hi li filwaqt li r-rappreżentanti jiġu eletti min-nies biex jaġixxu fl-interess tan-nies, jibqa' jkollhom il-libertà li jeżerċitaw il-ġudizzju tagħhom stess kif jaħsbu li jkun l-aħjar. Dan wassal għal kritika fir-rigward tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, u ġew indikati kontradizzjonijiet tal-mekkaniżmi ta' rappreżentanza mad-demokrazija. ====== Demokrazija Parlamentari ====== Id-demokrazija Parlamentari hija demokrazija rappreżentattiva fejn il-gvern jinħatar jew jista' jitneħħa mir-rappreżentanti, għad-differenza tat-"tmexxija Presidenzjali" fejn il-President ikun il-kap ta' stat u l-kap tal-gvern u jiġi elett mill-votanti. F'demokrazija Parlamentari, il-governanza tiġi eżerċitata b'delega lill-eżekuttiv u tkun soġġetta għal rieżami kontinwu, verifiki u bilanċi mill-Parlament leġiżlattiv elett mill-poplu. F'sistema Parlamentari, il-Prim Ministru jista' jitneħħa mil-leġiżlatura fi kwalunkwe mument jekk ma jkunx żamm mal-istennijiet tal-leġiżlatura. Dan isir permezz ta' vut ta' sfiduċja fejn il-leġiżlatura tiddeċiedi jekk il-Prim Ministru għandux jitneħħa mill-kariga b'maġġoranza favur it-tneħħija. F'xi pajjiżi, il-Prim Ministru jista' jsejjaħ elezzjoni ukoll fi kwalunkwe ħin, tipikament meta l-Prim Ministru jemmen li jkollu l-poplu warajh biex jerġa' jiġi elett. F'demokraziji Parlamentari oħra, elezzjonijiet addizzjonali prattikament qatt ma jsiru, u jiġi ppreferut gvern ta' minoranza sal-elezzjonijiet ordinarji ta' wara. Karatteristika importanti tad-demokrazija Parlamentari hija l-kunċett tal-"oppożizzjoni leali". Il-qofol tal-kunċett hu li t-tieni l-ikbar partit politiku (jew l-oppożizzjoni) jopponi l-partit fil-gvern (jew koalizzjoni), filwaqt li jibqa' leali lejn l-istat u l-prinċipji demokratiċi tiegħu. ====== Demokrazija Presidenzjali ====== Id-demokrazija Presidenzjali hija sistema fejn il-pubbliku jeleġġi l-President permezz ta' elezzjoni. Il-President jaqdi l-funzjoni ta' kap ta' stat u ta' kap ta' gvern u jikkontrolla l-biċċa l-kbira tal-poteri eżekuttivi. Il-President iservi għal mandat speċifiku u ma jistax iservi għal iktar. Spiss il-leġiżlatura limitat il-possibbiltà li President jitneħħa mill-kariga. L-elezzjonijiet tipikament ikollhom data fissa u qajla jinbidlu. Il-President ikollu kontroll dirett fuq il-kabinett, u jaħtar speċifikament il-membri tal-kabinett. Normalment l-eżekuttiv ikollu r-responsabbiltà tat-twettiq jew tal-implimentazzjoni tal-leġiżlazzjoni u jaf ikollu poteri leġiżlattivi limitati, bħal veto. Madankollu, fergħa leġiżlattiva tgħaddi l-leġiżlazzjoni u l-baġits. B'hekk ikun hemm xi forma ta' separazzjoni tal-poteri. B'hekk, il-Presidentu u l-leġiżlatura jaf jispiċċaw ikollhom kontroll ta' partiti separati, u wieħed ikun jista' jimblokka lill-ieħor u b'hekk jindaħal mal-ħidma kif suppost tal-istat. Din jaf hija r-raġuni għalfejn id-demokrazija Presidenzjali ma tantx hija komuni 'l barra mill-Amerki, l-Afrika u l-Asja Ċentrali u tax-Xlokk. Sistema semi-Presidenzjali hija sistema ta' demokrazija fejn il-gvern jinkludi kemm Prim Ministru kif ukoll President. Is-setgħat partikolari tal-Prim Ministru u tal-President ivarjaw skont il-pajjiż. ==== Tipoloġija ==== ===== Monarkija kostituzzjonali ===== Bosta pajjiżi bħar-Renju Unit, [[Spanja]], in-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]], il-[[Belġju]], il-pajjiżi Skandinavi, it-[[Tajlandja]], il-[[Ġappun]] u l-[[Butan|Bhutan]] bidlu monarkiji setgħana f'monarkiji kostituzzjonali (spiss gradwalment) bi rwoli limitati jew simboliċi. Pereżempju, fl-istati predeċessuri tar-Renju Unit, il-monarkija kostituzzjonali bdiet tfeġġ u baqgħet teżisti bla xkiel mir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688 u minn meta għaddiet il-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689. Il-monarkiji kostituzzjonali limitati ferm, bħar-Renju Unit, ġew imsejħa bħala repubbliki monarkiċi minn [[Kittieb|kittieba]] bħal [[H. G. Wells]]. F'pajjiżi oħra, il-monarkija ġiet abolita flimkien mas-sistema aristokratika (bħal fi Franza, iċ-[[Ċina]], ir-[[Russja]], il-Ġermanja, l-Awstrija, l-Ungerija, l-Italja, il-Greċja u l-[[Eġittu]]). Persuna eletta, b'poteri sinifikanti jew mingħajrhom, saret il-kap ta' stat f'dawn il-pajjiżi. Il-familji tal-elit tal-leġiżlaturi, li spiss kellhom mandati ereditarji jew għal għomorhom, kienu komuni f'bosta stati. Maż-żmien, dawn kellhom poteri li ġew limitati (bħall-House of Lords tar-Renju Unit) jew saru elettivi u baqgħu setgħana (bħas-Senat [[Awstralja|Awstraljan]]). ===== Demokrazija repubblikana ===== It-terminu ''repubblika'' għandu bosta tifsiriet differenti, iżda llum il-ġurnata spiss jirreferi għal demokrazija rappreżentattiva b'kap ta' stat elett, bħal President, li jservi għal mandat limitat, b'kuntrast mal-istati b'monarka ereditarju bħala kap ta' stat, anke jekk dawn l-istati jkunu demokraziji rappreżentattivi b'kap ta' gvern elett jew maħtur bħal Prim Ministru. Il-Missirijiet Fundaturi tal-Istati Uniti spiss ikkritikaw id-demokrazija diretta; [[James Madison]] argumenta speċjalment f'''The Federalist'' Nru 10, li dak li ddistingwa demokrazija diretta minn waħda repubblikana kien li dik tal-ewwel kienet tiddependi fuq daqs żgħir u kienet tbati ferm mill-effetti tal-fazzjonijiet, filwaqt li dik repubblikana setgħet issir iktar b'saħħitha iktar ma tikber u minnha nnifisha tiġġieled il-fazzjonijiet permezz tal-istruttura tagħha stess. B'hekk, matul konvenzjoni f'[[Philadelphia]], Madison sejjaħ l-elezzjoni tar-rappreżentanti minn territorji kbar bħala "l-unika difiża kontra l-inkonvenjenzi tad-demokrazija konsistenti mal-forma demokratika ta' governanza". Il-Professuri [[Richard Ellis]] tal-Università ta' Willamette u [[Michael Nelson]] tal-Kulleġġ ta' Rhodes isostnu li l-biċċa l-kbira tal-ħsieb kostituzzjonali, minn Madison għal Lincoln u lil hinn, iffoka fuq "il-problema tat-tirannija tal-maġġoranza". Huma kkonkludew, "il-prinċipji tal-governanza repubblikana mħaddna fil-Kostituzzjoni jirrappreżentaw sforz biex jiġi żgurat li id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għat-tfittxija tal-kuntentizza ma jiġux imkasbra mill-maġġoranzi". [[John Adams]] insista li dak li kien kritiku għall-valuri Amerikani kien li l-gvern ikun "marbut minn liġijiet fissi, li l-poplu jkollu l-jedd li jinstema' fit-tfassil tagħhom, u d-dritt għad-difiża". Meta [[Benjamin Franklin]] kien ħiereġ wara li kiteb il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti, [[Elizabeth Willing Powel]] staqsietu "Mela, Dr., x'għandna — repubblika jew monarkija?". Huwa wieġeb "Repubblika — jekk kapaċi żżommuha". ===== Demokrazija liberali ===== Id-demokrazija liberali hija demokrazija rappreżentattiva li tħaddan filosofija politika liberali, fejn il-kapaċità tar-rappreżentanti eletti li jeżerċitaw il-poter tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet hija soġġetta għall-istat tad-dritt, moderat minn kostituzzjoni jew liġijiet bħall-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet tal-individwi, u limitat sal-punt li r-rieda tal-maġġoranza ma tistax tiġi eżerċitata kontra d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. ===== Demokrazija Soċjalista ===== Il-ħsieb Soċjalista għandu diversi fehmiet differenti rigward id-demokrazija, pereżempju d-demokrazija soċjali jew is-Soċjaliżmu demokratiku. Ħafna Soċjalisti demokratiċi u demokratiċi Soċjalisti jemmnu f'forma ta' demokrazija parteċipattiva, industrijali, ekonomika u/jew tal-post tax-xogħol flimkien ma' demokrazija rappreżentattiva. ===== Demokrazija Marxista ===== Marxist theory supports a democratic society centering the working class. Some Marxists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy or workers' councils (which are sometimes called soviets). This system can begin with workplace democracy and can manifest itself as soviet democracy or dictatorship of the proletariat. Trotskyist groups have interpreted socialist democracy to be synonymous with multi-party far-left representation, autonomous union organizations, worker's control of production, internal party democracy and the mass participation of the working masses. Some communist parties support a soviet republic with democratic centralism. Within democracy in Marxism there can be hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy". ===== Demokrazija Anarkista ===== Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticised individualist anarchists for opposing democracy, and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism. Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. ===== Demokrazija każwali ===== Sortition is the process of choosing decision-making bodies via a random selection. These bodies can be more representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large than an elected legislature or other decision-maker. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and Renaissance Florence and is still used in modern jury selection and citizens' assemblies. ===== Demokrazija Kostituzzjonali ===== Consociational democracy, also called consociationalism, is a form of democracy based on power-sharing formula between elites representing the social groups within the society. In 1969, Arendt Lijphart argued this would stabilize democracies with factions. A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them. The Qualified majority voting rule in European Council of Ministers is a consociational democracy approach for supranational democracies. This system in Treaty of Rome allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. A consociational democracy requires consensus of representatives, while consensus democracy requires consensus of electorate. ===== Demokrazija maġġoritarja ===== Majoritarian democracy is a form of democracy based upon a principle of majority rule. Majoritarian democracy contrasts with consensus democracy, rule by as many people as possible. ===== Konsensus ===== Consensus democracy requires consensus decision-making and supermajority to obtain a larger support than majority. In contrast, in majoritarian democracy minority opinions can potentially be ignored by vote-winning majorities. Constitutions typically require consensus or supermajorities. ===== Demokrazija etnika ===== The term ethnic democracy, as used by some political scientists, purports to describe a governance system that combines a structured ethnic dominance with democratic, political and civil rights for all. Both the dominant ethnic group—typically an ethnic majority—and the minority ethnic groups have citizenship and are able to fully participate in the political process. However, critics of the "ethnic democracy" model argue it is a contradiction in terms, and thus conceptually inadequate or confusing; these critics allege that purported ethnic democracies, most notably Israel, are not democratic at all, or are at best a sort of semi-democracy. ===== Demokrazija inklużiva ===== Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal ''Democracy & Nature'' and its successor ''The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy''. ===== Politika parteċipattiva ===== A parpolity or participatory polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a nested council structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision-making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council. A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the tyranny of the majority, and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a participatory economy. ===== Demokrazija proċedurali ===== Procedural democracy or proceduralist democracy, proceduralism or hollow democracy is a term used to denote the particular procedures, such as regular elections based on universal suffrage, that produce an electorally-legitimated government. Procedural democracy, with its centering of electoral processes as the basis of democratic legitimacy, is often contrasted with substantive or participatory democracy, which centers the equal participation of all groups in society in the political process as the basis of legitimacy. ===== Demokrazija radikali ===== Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Radical democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes. ===== Demokrazija reliġjuża ===== Religious democracy is a form of democracy where the values of a particular religion or state religion are preferred. The term applies to all democratic countries in which religion is incorporated into the form of government. ===== Demokrazija kożmopolitana ===== Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as ''global democracy'' or ''world federalism'', is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them. According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing international organisations, e.g., the United Nations, as well as the creation of new institutions such as a World Parliament, which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics. Cosmopolitan democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein, writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist George Monbiot, and professors David Held and Daniele Archibugi. The creation of the International Criminal Court in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy. ===== Demokrazija kreattiva ===== Creative democracy is advocated by American philosopher John Dewey. The main idea about creative democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us" and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a moral ideal requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute". ===== Demokrazija ggwidata ===== Guided democracy is a form of democracy that incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner that may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "guided democracy". Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government. === Tfittxija ta' fehim komuni === The search for a common approach to conceptualize, measure and compare democracy remains a challenge in modern political science. This challenge strikes through to measuring, assessing and comparing the quality of democracy, as Seva Gunitsky pointed in 2015 in the Washington Post, based upon his research for ''Ranking the World – Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance'', that measuring democracy can mislead as much as clarify – a problem for academics, policy-makers and anyone who cares about democracy. In his contribution ''Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics'' to ''Ranking the World'', he, on the example of former Soviet republics, examines fundamental problems with measures of democracy, observing that indices often disagree and occasionally draw contradictory conclusions from observing the same event. He argues, that this reflects inherent tradeoffs in conceptualizing democratic governance, which arise from fundamental normative disagreements about a highly contested concept. In 2011, Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al. proposed an approach to such conceptualization and measurement. In their paper ''Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: A New Approach'' they review some of the weaknesses among contemporary and older approaches, then lay out their approach, characterizing it as ''historical'', ''multidimensional'', ''disaggregated'', and ''transparent''. The authors propose to create a new set of four features to conceptualize and measure democracy. First, ''historical'', extending indicators of democracy back through modern history, wherever possible. Second, a ''multidimensional'' approach to the problem of conceptualizing democracy. Third, to collect information relevant to democracy at a highly ''disaggregated'' level. Fourth, ''transparent'', a strategy for data collection and presentation that should enhance the precision, validity, transparency, and legitimacy of the resulting indicators. They also sum up the conceptions, and/or aspects, of democracy into six – ''electoral'', ''liberal'', ''majoritarian'', ''participatory'', ''deliberative'', and ''egalitarian'', which taken together offer a fairly comprehensive accounting of the concept of democracy as it is employed today (see overview in the table below). {| class="wikitable" | colspan="5" | ---- |- | colspan="5" |Conceptions of democracy by Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al., 2011 |- valign="top" | | |Principles |Question |Institutions |- | colspan="5" | ---- |- valign="top" |I. |'''Electoral''' |Contestation, competition |Are government offices filled by free and fair multiparty elections? |Elections, political parties, competitiveness and turnover |- valign="top" |II. |'''Liberal''' |Limited government, multiple veto points, horizontal accountability, individual rights, civil liberties, transparency |Is political power decentralized & constrained? |Multiple, independent, and decentralized, with special focus on the role of the media, interest groups, the judiciary, and a written constitution with explicit guarantees |- valign="top" |III. |'''Majoritarian''' |Majority rule, centralization, vertical accountability |Does the majority (or plurality) rule? |Consolidated and centralized, with special focus on the role of political parties |- valign="top" |IV. |'''Participatory''' |Government by the people |Do ordinary citizens participate in politics? |Election law, civil society, local government, direct democracy |- valign="top" |V. |'''Deliberative''' |Government by reason |Are political decisions the product of public deliberation? |Media, hearings, panels, other deliberative bodies |- valign="top" |VI. |'''Egalitarian''' |Political equality |Are all citizens equally empowered? |Designed to ensure equal participation, representation, protection, and politically relevant resources |- | colspan="5" | ---- |} === Measurement of democracy === Main article: Measurement of democracy Measurement of democracy varies according to the different fundamental conceptions of democracy. Minimalist democracy evaluations focus on free and fair elections, while maximalist democracy evaluates additional values, such as human rights, deliberation, economic outcomes or state capacity. == Demokrazija mhux governattiva == Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy. Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed Islamic democracy or ''Islamocracy''. There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff. === Demokrazija tal-azzjonisti === Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders. In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle. Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives. The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights. == Ġustifikazzjoni == Ingħataw diversi ġustifikazzjonijiet għad-demokrazija. === Leġittimità === Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. The public legitimacy of democracy varies by country, in some countries religious texts have more public support than the will of the people. === Teħid ta' deċiżjonijiet aħjar === Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution. === Suċċess ekonomiku === In ''Why Nations Fail'', economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. Unemployment is associated with anti-democratic beliefs. == Kritika == Democracy as a concept and as a practical form of government has been the subject of critique throughout history. Some critics consider that democratic regimes often fail to be true to the highest principles expected of them, while others reject the values promoted by constitutional democracy in whole or part. Opposition to democracy goes as far back as Plato, who argued for a 'government of the best qualified'. More recently, James Madison extensively studied historic attempts at and arguments on democracy in his preparation for the Constitutional Convention, and Winston Churchill remarked that "no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." Critics argue that modern democracies may fail to be sufficiently democratic and instead function in practice as oligarchies, insofar as governments are more responsive to the preferences of economic elites than to those of ordinary citizens. Numerous empirical studies across various western democracies including the United States, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Norway and Germany have consistently found that elected representatives tend to respond more to the preferences of very affluent citizens for policy outcomes than those of the average voter. Some critics of democracy have highlighted the concept's inconsistencies, paradoxes, and limits: drawing contrasts with other forms of government, such as epistocracy or lottocracy. Others have characterized most modern democracies as democratic polyarchies and democratic aristocracies. Yet others have identified fascist moments in modern democracies. They have termed the societies produced by modern democracies as neo-feudal and have contrasted democracy with fascism, anarcho-capitalism, theocracy, and absolute monarchy. == Tranżizzjonijiet demokratiċi == A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). === Demokratizzazzjoni === Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. The opposite process of democratic transition is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization. Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments could not do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns. Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:^{[''need quotation to verify'']} * a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) * an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence. Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07). A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26). Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750 to 1850 despite arguments to the contrary. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:<blockquote>The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.</blockquote>Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratization in 18 countries: Benin, Bolivia, Botswana, Bazil, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Guatemala, Lesotho, Mauritius, Montenegro, Poland, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste, Thailand, The Gambia, and Zambia. ===== Promozzjoni tad-demokrazija ===== Promotion of democracy can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing electoral integrity, youth suffrage and civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality, reducing presidentialism and aligning with median voter preferences. === Awtokratizzazzjoni === Democratic backsliding is a form of autocratization, a process of structural government transition toward authoritarianism in which the exercise of political power becomes less limited and more arbitrary and repressive. Democratic backsliding specifically assumes a starting point of a democratic system. The process typically restricts the space for public contest and political participation in the process of government selection. Democratic backsliding involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.^{[''citation needed'']} Steven Levitsky says: "It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That's asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters." The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratic backsliding in 44 countries: Afghanistan, Argentina, Armenia, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, El Salvador, Haiti, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Ivory Coast, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Libya, Mali, Madagascar, Mauretania, Mexico, Moldova, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Senegal, Serbia, Romania, Togo, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States. ===== Tfixkil ===== Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: * Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. * Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: ** Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état ** An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. * Royal coup, in which a monarch not normally involved in government seizes all power. For example, the 6 January Dictatorship, begun in 1929 when King Alexander I of Yugoslavia dismissed parliament and started ruling by decree. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. == Influwenza tal-midja == The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: * Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment * Meaningful agenda setting * Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy * Dialogue across a diverse range of views * Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power * Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved * A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience * A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. The ability to find effective political solutions to social problems is hampered when problems tend to be blamed on individuals rather than on structural causes. This person-centered focus may have far-reaching consequences not only for domestic problems but also for foreign policy when international conflicts are blamed on foreign heads of state rather than on political and economic structures. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. The responsiveness and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. In fact, studies show that false stories are going more viral than true stories. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. Reliable information sources are essential for the democratic process. Less democratic governments rely heavily on censorship, propaganda, and misinformation in order to stay in power, while independent sources of information are able to undermine their legitimacy. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Greċja antika]] rxhtr1m2huddhyvtvqyfp9kf46kx31n 330271 330270 2026-05-28T09:44:24Z Trigcly 17859 /* Demokrazija Marxista */ 330271 wikitext text/x-wiki Id-'''demokrazija''' hija forma ta' governanza li permezz tagħha l-poter [[Politika|politiku]] jinkiseb min-nies jew mill-popolazzjoni ta' stat. Skont definizzjoni minimalista tad-demokrazija, il-mexxejja jiġu eletti permezz ta' elezzjonijiet kompetittivi filwaqt li d-definizzjonijiet iktar wesgħin jew massimalisti jorbtu d-demokrazija mal-garanziji tal-libertajiet ċivili u d-drittijiet tal-[[bniedem]] apparti l-elezzjonijiet kompetittivi. F'demokrazija diretta, il-poplu jkollu l-awtorità diretta li jagħmel deliberazzjonijiet u li jiddeċiedi dwar il-leġiżlazzjoni. F'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, il-poplu jagħżel l-uffiċjali tal-governanza permezz ta' elezzjonijiet. Id-definizzjoni ta' "poplu" u l-modi kif l-awtorità tiġi kondiviża fi ħdan il-poplu jew iddelegata minnu nbidlu mal-milja taż-żminijiet u b'rati li jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor. Il-karatteristiċi tad-demokrazija spiss jinkludu l-libertà tal-ġemgħa, il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni, il-proprjetà personali, il-libertà tar-[[reliġjon]] u tal-[[kelma]], iċ-ċittadinanza, il-kunsens ta' dawk li jiġu ggvernati, id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni, il-libertà miċ-ċaħda governattiva mhux ġustifikata tad-dritt tal-ħajja u tal-libertà, u d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. In-nozzjoni tad-demokrazija evolviet b'mod konsiderevoli maż-żmien. Matul l-[[Storja|istorja]], wieħed jista' jsib evidenza ta' demokrazija diretta, fejn il-komunitajiet kienu jieħdu deċiżjonijiet permezz ta' ġemgħat popolari. Illum il-ġurnata, il-forma dominanti tad-demokrazija hija d-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, fejn iċ-ċittadini jeleġġu lill-uffiċjali tal-gvern biex jiggvernaw f'isimhom, pereżempju f'demokrazija parlamentari jew presidenzjali. Fil-varjant komuni tad-demokrazija liberali, is-setgħat tal-maġġoranza jiġu eżerċitati fi ħdan il-qafas ta' demokrazija rappreżentattiva, iżda l-kostituzzjoni u l-qorti suprema jillimitaw lill-maġġoranza u jipproteġu lill-minoranzi — normalment billi jiġi żgurat li kulħadd igawdi minn ċerti drittijiet individwali, bħal-libertà tal-kelma jew il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni. It-terminu tfaċċa fis-seklu 5 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]. fil-bliet-stati [[Greċja antika|Griegi]], b'mod partikolari f'[[Ateni]] Klassika, u kien ifisser "it-tmexxija tal-poplu", b'kuntrast mal-aristokrazija (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: ἀριστοκρατία, ''aristokratía''), li tfisser "it-tmexxija tal-elit". Prattikament fil-gvernijiet demokratiċi kollha tul l-istorja tal-qedem u moderna, iċ-ċittadinanza demokratika inizjalment kienet ristretta għal klassi tal-elit, li iktar 'il quddiem ġiet estiża għaċ-ċittadini adulti kollha. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, dan inkiseb permezz tal-movimenti tas-suffraġju tas-sekli 19 u 20. Id-demokrazija tikkuntrasta mal-forom ta' governanza fejn il-poter ma jinbitx mill-popolazzjoni ġenerali ta' stat, pereżempju s-sistemi awtoritarji. Storikament is-sistemi demokratiċi kienu forma rari u vulnerabbli ta' governanza, iżda dawn saru iktar prevalenti mis-seklu 19 'l hawn, b'mod partikolari permezz ta' diversi mewġiet ta' demokratizzazzjoni. Id-demokrazija għandha leġittimità konsiderevoli fid-dinja moderna, peress li l-opinjoni pubblika fir-reġjuni dinjin normalment huma favur is-sistemi demokratiċi ta' governanza meta mqabbla mal-alternattivi, u peress li saħansitra l-istati awtoritarji jippruvaw ipinġu lilhom infushom bħala demokratiċi. Id-demokrazija b'mod iktar konsistenti tirriżulta f'saħħa, f'[[edukazzjoni]] u f'eżiti ekonomiċi mtejba. Skont l-indiċijiet ta' ''V-Dem Democracy'' u l-Indiċi tad-Demokrazija ta' ''The Economist'', inqas minn nofs il-popolazzjoni tad-dinja tgħix f'demokrazija mill-2022. Fl-istess ħin, filwaqt li d-demokrazija rappreżentattivi tingħata valur siewi b'mod mifrux, iċ-Ċentru tar-Riċerka ta' Pew sab li l-garr rigward il-prestazzjoni demokratika huwa komuni saħansitra f'bosta demokraziji stabbiliti. == Karatteristiċi == Għalkemm id-demokrazija fid-demokraziji purament rappreżentattivi hija mifhuma b'rabta mal-votazzjoni, ma jeżisti l-ebda konsensus dwar definizzjoni preċiża tad-demokrazija. Jeżistu wisq approċċi. Kien hemm studju li identifika 2,234 aġġettiv li jintuża għad-deskrizzjoni tad-demokrazija bil-[[lingwa Ingliża]]. Minkejja dan, hemm fehim iktar profond – bħal dak ta' [[Abraham Lincoln]]: : ''"Governanza tan-nies, min-nies, għan-nies"'' jew dik ta' [[Karl Popper]] li ssostni li l-ħarsa "klassika" lejn id-demokrazija hi, "fil-qosor, it-teorija li d-demokrazija hija t-tmexxija tal-poplu u li l-poplu għandu d-dritt li jiggverna hu. Il-prinċipji demokratiċi huma riflessi fiċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha, ilkoll indaqs quddiem il-[[Dritt|liġi]] u lkoll b'aċċess ugwali għall-proċessi leġiżlattivi. Pereżempju, f'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, kull vot (fit-teorija) għandu l-istess piż, u l-libertà taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli hija żgurata permezz ta' drittijiet u libertajiet leġittimizzati li tipikament ikunu mnaqqxa f'kostituzzjoni, filwaqt li użi oħra tad-"demokrazija" jaf jħaddnu d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament fuq id-diversi kwistjonijiet li jinqalgħu. Skont in-[[Ġnus Magħquda|Nazzjonijiet Uniti]], id-demokrazija "tipprovdi ambjent li jirrispetta d-drittijiet tal-bniedem u l-libertajiet fundamentali, u fejn ir-rieda espressa liberament tal-poplu tiġi eżerċitata". Skont teorija partikolari d-demokrazija tirrikjedi tliet prinċipji fundamentali: il-kontroll 'il fuq (sovranità fl-iżjed livelli baxxi tal-awtorità), l-ugwaljanza politika, u n-normi soċjali li permezz tagħhom l-individwi u l-istituzzjonijiet iqisu biss atti aċċettabbli li jirriflettu l-ewwel żewġ prinċipji tal-kontroll 'il fuq u l-ugwaljanza politika. L-ugwaljanza legali, il-libertà politika u l-istat ta' dritt sikwit jiġu identifikati bħala l-karatteristiċi ewlenin ta' demokrazija li tiffunzjona sew. F'xi pajjiżi, b'mod partikolari fir-[[Renju Unit]] (minn fejn oriġinat is-sistema ta' Westminster), il-prinċipju dominanti hu dak tas-sovranità Parlamentari, filwaqt li tinżamm l-indipendenza ġudizzjarja. Fl-[[Indja]], is-sovranità Parlamentari hija soġġetta għall-Kostituzzjoni tal-Indja li tinkludi rieżami ġudizzjarju. Għalkemm it-terminu "demokrazija" tipikament jintuża fil-kuntest ta' stat politiku, il-prinċipji wkoll huma applikabbli potenzjalment għall-organizzazzjonijiet privati, bħal klabbs, għaqdiet u ditti. Id-demokraziji jistgħu jużaw bosta metodi differenti ta' teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet, iżda t-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hija l-forma dominanti. Mingħajr kumpens, bħal protezzjonijiet legali tad-drittijiet individwali jew kollettivi, il-minoranzi politiċi jistgħu jiġu mgħakksa mit-"tirannija tal-maġġoranza". It-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza tinvolvi approċċ kompetittiv, għad-differenza tad-demokrazija tal-konsensus, u b'hekk tinħoloq il-ħtieġa li l-elezzjonijiet, u ġeneralment id-deliberazzjoni, ikunu sostantivament u proċeduralment "ġusti" u ekwi. Fżxi pajjiżi, il-libertà tal-espressjoni politika, il-libertà tal-kelma u l-libertà tal-istampa jitqiesu bħala importanti biex jiġi żgurat li l-votanti jkunu infurmati sew, u b'hekk ikunu jistgħu jivvutaw skont l-interessi u t-twemmin tagħhom stess. Ġie ssuġġerit ukoll li karatteristika bażika tad-demokrazija hija l-kapaċità li l-votanti kollha jipparteċipaw b'mod ħieles u sħiħ fil-[[ħajja]] tas-soċjetà tagħhom. Bl-enfasi fuq in-nozzjonijiet tal-kuntratt soċjali u r-rieda kollettiva tal-votanti kollha, id-demokrazija tista' tkun ikkaratterizzata wkoll bħala forma ta' kollettiviżmu politiku peress li tiġi definita bħala forma ta' governanza fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom vuċi ugwali fit-tfassil tal-liġijiet. Ir-repubbliki, għalkemm spiss ikunu assoċjati popolarment mad-demokrazija minħabba l-prinċipju kondiviż tal-kunsens mogħti minn dawk li jiġu ggvernati għat-tmexxija, mhux neċessarjament ikunu demokraziji, għax ir-repubblikaniżmu ma jispeċifikax ''kif'' in-nies għandhom imexxu. Tradizzjonalment it-terminu "repubblika" kien iħaddan kemm id-demokraziji kif ukoll l-aristokraziji u l-varjanti tagħhom. F'sens modern, il-forma ta' governanza repubblikana hija forma ta' governanza mingħajr monarka. Minħabba f'hekk, id-demokraziji jistgħu jkunu repubbliki jew monarkiji kostituzzjonali, bħar-Renju Unit, fejn il-monarka ma jkunx il-mexxej. == Storja == Il-ġemgħat demokratiċi għandhom żmien daqs kemm għandha żmien l-ispeċi umana u ilhom jeżistu tul l-istorja umana, iżda sas-seklu 19, il-figuri [[Politiku|politiċi]] ewlenin fil-biċċa l-kbira opponew id-demokrazija. It-teoriċi repubblikani rabtu d-demokrazija ma' daqs ċkejken: iktar ma kienu jikbru fid-daqs l-unitajiet politiċi, iktar kienet tiżdied il-probabbiltà li l-gvern isir tiranniku. Fl-istess waqt, l-unitajiet politiċi żgħar kienu vulnerabbli għall-ħakma. Montesquieu kiteb, "Jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered mill-imperfezzjoni interna". Skont ix-xjenzat politiku tal-Università ta' Johns Hopkins [[Daniel Deudney]], il-ħolqien tal-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]], bid-daqs kbir u s-sistema ta' kontrolli u bilanċi tagħha, kienet soluzzjoni għall-problemi doppji tad-daqs. Fis-soċjetajiet ta' madwar id-dinja seħħew forom ta' demokrazija b'mod organiku li ma kellhom l-ebda kuntatt ma' xulxin. === Oriġini === ==== [[Greċja]] u [[Ruma]] ==== It-terminu ''demokrazija'' tfaċċa għall-ewwel darba fil-ħsieb politiku u [[Filosofija|filosofiku]] tal-Greċja Antika fil-belt-stat ta' Ateni fl-antikità klassika. Il-kelma ġejja minn ''dêmos'' li tfisser "nies (komuni)" u minn ''krátos'' li tfisser "qawwa/setgħa". Taħt Cleisthenes, f'Ateni ġie stabbilit dak li huwa maħsub bħala l-ewwel eżempju ta' tip ta' demokrazija fis-seklu 6 Q.K. (508–507 Q.K.). Cleisthenes huwa meqjus bħala "l-missier tad-demokrazija ta' Ateni". L-ewwel użu attestat tal-kelma demokrazija jinsab fix-xogħlijiet ta' proża tal-ħabta tal-430 Q.K., bħall-''Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, iżda l-użu tagħha kien eqdem b'diversi deċennji, peress li żewġ persuni minn Ateni li twieldu għall-ħabta tal-470 Q.K. kien jisimhom Democrates, isem politiku ġdid — x'aktarx b'appoġġ għad-demokrazija — li ngħata fi żmien ta' dibattiti dwar kwistjonijiet kostituzzjonali f'Ateni. Aeschylus jalludi bis-saħħa wkoll għall-kelma fid-dramm tiegħu ''Is-Supplikanti'', li ttella' għall-ħabta tal-463 Q.K., fejn isemmi "l-id tat-tmexxija tal-kotra" [''demou kratousa cheir'']. Qabel dak iż-żmien, il-kelma li kienet tiddefinixxi s-sistema politika ġdida ta' Cleisthenes x'aktarx li kienet ''isonomija'', li tfisser ugwaljanza politika. Id-demokrazija ta' Ateni ħadet is-sura ta' demokrazija diretta, u kellha żewġ karatteristiċi li jiddistingwuha: l-għażla aleatorja ta' ċittadini ordinarji biex jimlew il-ftit karigi amministrattivi u ġudizzjarji eżistenti tal-gvern, u ġemgħa leġiżlattiva li kienet tikkonsisti mill-maġġoranza taċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha kienu jitħallew jitkellmu u jivvutaw fil-ġemgħa jew fl-assemblea, fejn kienu jiġu stabbiliti l-liġijiet tal-belt-stat. Madankollu, iċ-ċittadinanza ta' Ateni ma kinitx tingħata lin-[[Mara|nisa]], lill-[[Skjavitù|ilsiera]], lill-barranin (μέτοικοι / ''métoikoi''), u liż-żgħażagħ taħt l-età tas-servizz militari. Effettivament, resident wieħed minn kull erba' f'Ateni kienu jikkwalifikaw bħala ċittadini. Is-sjieda tal-art ma kinitx rekwiżit għaċ-ċittadinanza. L-esklużjoni ta' partijiet kbar tal-popolazzjoni mill-korp taċ-ċittadini hija marbuta mill-qrib mal-fehim tal-qedem taċ-ċittadinanza. Fil-biċċa l-kbira ta' żmien il-qedem, il-benefiċċju taċ-ċittadinanza kien marbut mal-obbligu tal-ġlied fil-kampanji militari. Id-demokrazija ta' Aterni mhux biss kienet ''diretta'' fis-sens li d-deċiżjonijiet kienu jittieħdu mill-ġemgħa, iżda anke l-''iżjed diretta'' fis-sens li l-ġemgħa permezz tal-istrutturi bħall-assemblea, is-senat u l-qrati legali kienet tikkontrolla l-proċess politiku kollu u proporzjon kbir taċ-ċittadini kienu jkunu involuti b'mod kostanti fl-affarijiet pubbliċi. Minkejja li d-drittijiet tal-individwu ma kinux żgurati mill-kostituzzjoni ta' Ateni fis-sens modern (il-Griegi tal-qedem ma kellhomx kelma għal "drittijiet"), dawk li kienu ċittadini ta' Ateni kienu jgawdu l-libertajiet tagħhom mhux f'oppożizzjoni għall-gvern iżda billi jgħixu f'belt li ma kinitx soġġetta għal xi setgħa oħra u billi huma stess ma kinux soġġetti għat-tmexxija ta' ħaddieħor. Il-votazzjoni tfaċċat fi [[Sparta]] saħansitra fis-700 Q.K. L-ekkleżjastiċi ta' Sparta kienu ġemgħa tal-poplu, li kienet tiltaqa' darba fix-xahar, fejn kull ċittadini maskili ta' mill-inqas 20 sena seta' jipparteċipa. Fl-assemblea, l-Ispartani kienu jeleġġu l-mexxejja u jixħtu l-voti tagħhom bl-għajjat (il-votazzjoni kienet tiġi deċiża skont l-ikbar għajta tal-folla). [[Aristotli]] ddeskriva dan il-metodu bħala "tat-tfal", meta mqabbel mas-sistema tal-votazzjoni fuq poloz tal-ġebel użata miċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Sparta adottat din is-sistema minħabba s-sempliċità tagħha, u biex jiġi evitat kull tip ta' preġudizzju, xiri jew qerq fil-votazzjoni, li kienu predominanti fl-elezzjonijiet demokratiċi bikrin. Barra minn hekk, id-depożizzjoni tar-Renju Ruman ħolqot sistema b'element demokratiku fil-forma ta' bosta ġemgħat popolari differenti. Minkejja li r-Repubblika Rumana tat kontribut sinifikanti għal bosta aspetti tad-demokrazija, frazzjon biss mir-Rumani kienu ċittadini li kellhom il-vot fl-elezzjonijiet għall-maġistrati. Il-voti tas-setgħana kienu jingħataw iktar piż permezz ta' sistema ta' votazzjoni ponderata, għaldaqstant il-biċċa l-kbira tal-uffiċjali għoljin, inkluż il-membri tas-Senat, kienu jiġu minn ftit familji għonja u nobbli. Il-mudell Ruman ta' governanza ispira bosta ħassieba politiċi tul is-sekli. ==== Indja tal-qedem ==== Vaishali, il-[[belt kapitali]] tal-Lega ta' Vajjika (Vrijji mahajanapada) tal-Indja, titqies bħala wieħed mill-ewwel eżempji ta' repubblika għall-ħabta tas-seklu 6 Q.K. ==== Amerki ==== [[Kultura|Kulturi]] oħra, bħall-Iroquois fl-Amerki, żviluppaw ukoll forma ta' soċjetà demokratika bejn l-1450 u l-1660 (u possibbilment fl-1142), ferm qabel ma kellhom kuntatt mal-[[Ewropa|Ewropej]]. Din id-demokrazija għadha preżenti sal-lum u hija l-iżjed demokrazija rappreżentattiva antika eżistenti fid-dinja. === [[Medjuevu|Medju Evu]] === Filwaqt li l-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjuni fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu kienu mmexxijin mill-kleru jew minn sinjuri fewdali, kienu jeżistu diversi sistemi li kienu jinvolvu l-elezzjonijiet jew il-ġemgħat, għalkemm spiss kienu jinvolvu parti żgħira mill-popolazzjoni. Fl-Iskandinavja, kien hemm korpi magħrufa ta' nies ħielsa ppreseduti minn kelliem tal-liġi. Dawn il-korpi ta' deliberazzjoni kienu responsabbli għas-soluzzjoni ta' kwistjonijiet politiċi, u xi varjanti kienu jinkludu l-Althing fl-[[Iżlanda]] u l-Løgting fil-[[Gżejjer Faroe|Gżejjer Faeroe]]. Il-''veche'', fil-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]], kien korp simili għal dawk tal-Iskandinavja. Fil-[[Knisja Kattolika]] Rumana, il-[[Papa]] ilu jiġi elett minn [[konklav]] Papali magħmul mill-kardinali mill-1059. L-ewwel korp Parlamentari ddokumentat fl-Ewropa kien il-Cortes ta' [[León]]. Stabbilit minn [[Alfonsu IX|Alfonso IX]] fl-1188, il-Cortes kellu l-awtorità għall-iffissar tat-tassazzjoni, għall-affarijiet barranin u għal-leġiżlazzjoni, għalkemm in-natura eżatta tar-rwol tiegħu għadha kkontestata. Ir-Repubblika ta' [[Ragusa]], stabbilita fl-1358 u ċċentrata madwar il-belt ta' [[Dubrovnik]], ipprovdiet drittijiet ta' rappreżentanza u ta' votazzjoni lill-aristokrazija maskili tagħha biss. Diversi bliet-stati u sistemi ta' governanza Taljani kellhom forom ta' governanza repubblikani. Pereżempju, ir-Repubblika ta' [[Firenze]], stabbilita fl-1115, kienet immexxija mis-Signoria u l-membri tagħha kienu jintgħażlu bix-xorti. Fil-Frisja tas-sekli 10–15, soċjetà mhux fewdali distinta, id-dritt tal-votazzjoni dwar kwistjonijiet lokali u dwar l-uffiċjali tal-kontea kien ibbażat fuq id-daqs tal-art. Il-''Kouroukan Fouga'' qasam l-Imperu tal-[[Mali]] fi klans tat-tmexxija li kienu rrappreżentati f'ġemgħa kbira msejħa l-''Gbara''. Madankollu, id-dokument wassal biex il-Mali jkun iktar simili għal monarkija kostituzzjonali milli repubblika demokratika. Il-Parlament tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] kellu l-għeruq tiegħu fir-restrizzjonijiet tal-poter tar-rejiet miktubin fil-''Magna Carta'' (1215), li b'mod espliċitu ħarset ċerti drittijiet tas-sudditi tar-Re u b'mod impliċitu appoġġat dak li mbagħad sar id-digriet Ingliż tal-''habeas corpus'', li jissalvagwardja l-libertà individwali mill-ħabs illegali u li jagħti d-dritt tal-appell. L-ewwel assemblea nazzjonali rappreżentattiva fl-Ingilterra kienet il-Parlament ta' [[Simon de Montfort]] fl-1265. Il-preżenza tat-tressiq tal-petizzjonijiet hija fost l-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-użu tal-Parlament bħala forum biex jiġi indirizzat it-tħassib ġenerali tan-nies ordinarji. Madankollu, is-setgħa tas-sejħa tal-Parlament baqgħet f'idejn il-monarka. Xi studji kkollegaw l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjonijiet Parlamentari fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu mal-agglomerazzjonijiet urbani u mal-ħolqien ta' klassijiet ġodda, bħall-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]], kif ukoll mal-preżenza tan-nobbli u tal-eliti reliġjużi. L-istudjużi kkollegaw ukoll l-istabbiliment tal-governanza rappreżentattiva mal-frammentazzjoni politika relattiva tal-Ewropa. Ix-xjenzat politiku [[David Stasavage]] jikkollega l-frammentazzjoni tal-Ewropa, u d-demokratizzazzjoni sussegwenti tagħha, mal-mod kif sfaxxa l-[[Imperu Ruman]]: it-territorju Ruman inħakem minn gruppi frammentati żgħar ta' tribujiet Ġermaniċi, u dan wassal għall-ħolqien ta' unitajiet politiċi żgħar fejn il-mexxejja kienu relattivament dgħajfin u kienu jeħtieġu l-kunsens taċ-ċittadini tagħhom biex jifilħu għat-theddidiet barranin. Fil-[[Polonja]], id-demokrazija nobbli kienet ikkaratterizzata minn żieda fl-attività tan-nobbiltà nofsanija, li riedet iżżid is-sehem tagħha fl-eżerċitar tal-poter għas-spejjeż tal-manjati. Il-manjati ddominaw l-iżjed karigi importanti fl-istat (lajċi u ekkleżjastiċi) u kienu jinġabru fil-kunsill irjali, li iktar 'il quddiem sar is-senat. L-importanza dejjem tikber tan-nobbiltà nofsanija kellha impatt fuq l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjoni tal-art magħrufa bħala s-''sejmik'' (assemblea lokali), li sussegwentement kisbet iktar drittijiet. Matul is-seklu 15 u l-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 16, is-sejmiks ingħataw iktar u iktar poter u saru l-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tal-poter lokali. Fl-1454, [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] ta lis-sejmiks id-dritt li jiddeċiedu dwar it-taxxi u li jorganizzaw mobilizzazzjoni tal-massa fl-Istatuti ta' Nieszawa. Huwa wiegħed ukoll li ma kienx se joħloq liġijiet ġodda mingħajr il-kunsens tagħhom. === Era moderna === ==== Perjodu modern bikri ==== Fl-Ingilterra tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta. Il-Parlament tal-Ingilterra għadda l-Petizzjoni tad-Drittijiet fl-1628 li stabbiliet ċerti libertajiet għas-sudditi. Il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża (1642–1651) ġiet miġġielda bejn ir-Re u Parlament oligarkiku iżda elett, u matul dan iż-żmien iffurmat l-idea ta' partit politiku, bi gruppi jiddibattu d-drittijiet għar-rappreżentanza politika matul id-Dibattiti ta' Putney tal-1647. Sussegwentement, il-Protettorat (1653–59) u l-Integrazzjoni mill-Ġdid Ingliża (1660) integraw iktar tmexxija awtokratika, għalkemm il-Parlament għadda l-Att dwar il-''Habeas Corpus'' fl-1679 li saħħaħ il-konvenzjoni li pprojbixxiet id-detenzjoni mingħajr biżżejjed raġunijiet jew evidenza. Wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688, il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet ġiet ippromulgata fl-1689 u din ikkodifikat ċerti drittijiet u libertajiet u għadha fis-seħħ. Il-liġi stabbiliet ir-rekwiżiti li jsiru elezzjonijiet regolari, ir-regoli għal-libertà tal-kelma fil-Parlament u limitat il-poter tal-monarka, u b'hekk żgurat, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-Ewropa ta' dak iż-żmien, li l-assolutiżmu rjali ma jipprevalix. L-istoriċi ekonomiċi [[Douglass North]] u [[Barry Weingast]] ikkaratterizzaw l-istituzzjonijiet implimentati fir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża bħala suċċess kbir f'termini tar-restrizzjonijiet tal-governanza u l-iżgurar tal-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet tal-proprjetà. L-interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta, il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża, u r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża fis-seklu 17 xprunaw it-tkabbir ta' filosofija politika fil-Gżejjer Brittaniċi. [[Thomas Hobbes]] kien l-ewwel filosfu li fassal teorija dettaljata dwar il-kuntratt soċjali. Fil-''Leviathan'' (1651), Hobbes ħareġ bit-teorija li l-individwi li jgħixu fin-natura kienu jgħixu ħajja "solitarja, fqira, kerha, iebsa u qasira" u kienu jagħmlu gwerer kontinwi kontra kulħadd. Sabiex tiġi evitata l-okkorrenza tal-istat anarkiku tan-natura, Hobbes irraġuna li l-individwi kienu jċedu d-drittijiet tagħhom lil qawwa awtoritarja setgħana. Fi kliem ieħor, Hobbes tkellem favur monarkija assoluta, li fl-opinjoni tiegħu kienet l-aqwa forma ta' governanza. Iktar 'il quddiem, il-filosfu u t-[[tabib]] [[John Locke]] ħareġ b'interpretazzjoni differenti dwar it-teorija tal-kuntratt soċjali. Fiż-''Żewġ Trattati tal-Governanza'' (1689) tiegħu, Locke sostna li l-individwi kollha kellhom id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għall-proprjetà. Skont Locke, l-individwi kienu jinġabru volontarjament flimkien biex jiffurmaw stat bl-għan li jiddefendu drittijiethom. Għal Locke kienu partikolarment importanti d-drittijiet tal-proprjetà, li skont Locke kienu jirrikjedu l-ħarsien, li kien l-iskop primarju tal-gvern. Barra minn hekk, Locke sostna li l-gvernijiet kienu leġittimi biss jekk kellhom il-kunsens ta' dawk li kienu ggvernati. Skont Locke, iċ-ċittadini kellhom id-dritt jirribellaw kontra l-gvern jekk dan kien jaġixxi kontra l-interessi tagħhom jew isir tiranniku. Għalkemm ma tantx kienu moqrija matul ħajtu, ix-xogħlijiet ta' Locke jitqiesu bħala d-dokumenti li jsejsu l-ħsieb liberali u influwenzaw ferm il-mexxejja tar-Rivoluzzjoni Amerikana u iktar 'il quddiem ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża]]. Il-qafas demokratiku liberali tiegħu tal-governanza għadu l-forma ewlenija tad-demokrazija fid-dinja. Fir-repubbliki tal-Cossack tal-[[Ukrajna]] fis-sekli 16 u 17, l-Etmanat tal-Cossack u s-Sich ta' Zaporizhia, id-detentur tal-ogħla kariga ta' Hetman kien jiġi elett mir-rappreżentanti tad-distretti tal-pajjiż. Fl-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]], il-governanza rappreżentattiva bdiet f'Jamestown, Virginia, bl-elezzjoni tal-Kamra tal-Burgesses (il-prekursur tal-Assemblea Ġenerali ta' Virginia) fl-1619. Il-Puritani Ingliżi li għamlu migrazzjoni mill-1620 stabbilew kolonji f'New England, fejn kien hemm governanza lokali demokratika; il-poter ta' dawn l-assemblej lokali kien ivarja ferm tul il-perjodu kolonjali. Madankollu, uffiċjalment kellhom ammonti żgħar ta' poter devolut, peress li l-awtorità aħħarija kienet f'idejn il-monarkija u l-Parlament. Il-Puritani, il-Battisti u l-Quakers li stabbilew dawn il-kolonji applikaw l-organizzazzjoni demokratika tal-kongregazzjonijiet tagħhom anke għall-amministrazzjoni tal-komunitajiet tagħhom fil-ħajja ta' kuljum. ==== Sekli 18 u 19 ==== L-ewwel Parlament tal-Gran Brittanja ġie stabbilit fl-1707, wara l-fużjoni tar-Renju tal-Ingilterra u r-Renju tal-[[Skozja|Iskozja]] skont l-Atti tal-Unjoni. Żewġ dokumenti ewlenin tal-kostituzzjoni mhux kodifikata tar-Renju Unit, id-Dikjarazzjoni Ingliża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689 (imsejħa mill-ġdid bħala l-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689) u d-Dikjarazzjoni Skoċċiża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689, it-tnejn li huma kienu kkonsolidaw il-pożizzjoni tal-Parlament bħala l-korp suprem tat-tfassil tal-liġijiet u kienu jgħidu li "l-elezzjoni tal-membri tal-Parlament kellha tkun ħielsa". Madankollu, il-Parlament kien jiġi elett biss mis-sidien tal-art maskili, li kienu jammontaw għal 3 % tal-popolazzjoni fl-1780. L-ewwel persuna Brittanika magħrufa ta' nisel Afrikan li vvota f'elezzjoni ġenerali, [[Ignatius Sancho]], ivvota fl-1774 u fl-1780. Matul l-Era tal-Libertà fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] (1718–1772), id-drittijiet ċivili twessgħu u l-poter għadda mingħand il-monarka għall-Parlament. Ir-raħħala intaxxati kienu rrappreżentati fil-Parlament, għalkemm ma tantx kellhom influwenza, iżda n-nies komuni mingħajr proprjetà intaxxata ma kellhomx suffraġju. Il-ħolqien ta' Repubblika ta' [[Korsika]] ta' għomorha qasir fl-1755 kien tentattiv bikri li tiġi adottata kostituzzjoni demokratika (setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel u n-nisa kollha li kellhom iktar minn 25 sena). Din il-Kostituzzjoni ta' Korsika kienet l-ewwel waħda bbażata fuq il-prinċipji tal-Illuminiżmu u kienet tinkludi s-suffraġju femminili, xi ħaġa li ma kinitx inkluża fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji l-oħra sas-seklu 20. L-Amerka kolonjali kellha kwalifikazzjonijiet simili dwar il-proprjetà bħall-Brittanja, u fil-perjodu qabel l-1776 l-abbundanza u d-disponibbiltà tal-art kienet tfisser li għadd kbir ta' kolonjalisti kienu jissodisfaw tali rekwiżiti b'mill-inqas 60 fil-mija tal-irġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda li setgħu jivvutaw. Il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda kienu [[Bidwi|bdiewa]] li kienu jissodisfaw ir-rekwiżiti tas-sjieda tal-proprjetà jew tal-ħlas tat-taxxa. Bi ftit eċċezzjonijiet, l-ebda mara jew persuna b'karnaġjon sewda ma setgħu jivvutaw. Vermont, li malli ddikjarat l-indipendenza mill-Gran Brittanja fl-1777, adottat kostituzzjoni mmudellata fuq iċ-ċittadinanza u s-suffraġju demokratiku ta' Pennsylvania għall-irġiel bi proprjetà jew mingħajr proprjetà. Il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti tal-1787 hija l-eqdem kostituzzjoni governattiva kkodifikata li għadha teżisti u li għadha attiva. Il-Kostituzzjoni kienet tipprevedi gvern elett u protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet ċivili, iżda ma temmitx il-jasar u lanqas ma estendiet id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni fl-Istati Uniti, u minflok ħalliet il-kwistjoni tas-suffraġju f'idejn l-istati individwali. Ġeneralment, l-istati llimitaw is-suffraġju għas-sidien tal-proprjetà maskili u għal dawk li jħallsu t-taxxi ta' karnaġjon bajda. Meta kien hemm l-ewwel elezzjoni Presidenzjali fl-1789, madwar 6 % tal-popolazzjoni kienet eliġibbli biex tivvota. L-Att dwar in-Naturalizzazzjoni tal-1790 illimita ċ-ċittadinanza Amerikana lill-persuni ta' karnaġjon bajda biss. Il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet fl-1791 stabbiliet limiti fuq il-poter tal-gvern sabiex tħares il-libertajiet personali iżda kellha ftit impatt fuq is-sentenzi tal-qrati għall-ewwel 130 sena wara r-ratifika. Fl-1789, [[Franza]] Rivoluzzjonarja adottat id-Dikjarazzjoni tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem u taċ-Ċittadini, u għalkemm għomorha kien qasir, il-Konvenzjoni Nazzjonali kienet eletta mill-irġiel kollha biss fl-1792. Il-Kostituzzjoni Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]] tat-3 ta' Mejju 1791 ippruvat timplimenta monarkija kostituzzjonali iktar effettiva, introduċiet l-ugwaljanza politika bejn iċ-ċittadini u n-nobbli, u poġġiet ir-raħħala taħt il-protezzjoni tal-gvern, u b'hekk taffiet l-agħar abbużi kontra r-raħħala. Din damet fis-seħħ għal inqas minn 19-il xahar, u ġiet iddikjarata nulla mis-Sejm ta' Grodno li ltaqa' fl-1793. Minkejja dan, il-Kostituzzjoni tal-1791 għenet biex l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Pollakki jibqgħu ħajjin għar-restawr eventwali tas-sovranità tal-pajjiż iktar minn seklu wara. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1828 kienet l-ewwel waħda li fiha setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda li ma kinux sidien tal-proprjetà fil-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-istati. L-ammont ta' nies li ħarġu jivvutaw żdied matul is-snin 30 tas-seklu 19, u laħaq madwar 80 % tal-popolazzjoni ta' rġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda fl-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1840. North Carolina kien l-aħħar stat li abolixxa l-kwalifazzjoni abbażi tal-proprjetà fl-1856 u dan wassal għal approssimazzjoni tas-suffraġju universali tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda (madankollu r-rekwiżiti tal-ħlas tat-taxxa baqgħu jeżistu f'ħames stati fl-1860 u baqgħu jeżistu f'żewġ stati sas-seklu 20). Fiċ-ċensiment tal-Istati Uniti tal-1860, il-popolazzjoni tal-iskjavi kienet kibret għal 4 miljuni, u fir-Rikostruzzjoni wara l-Gwerra Ċivili, għaddew tliet emendi kostituzzjonali: it-13-il Emenda (1865) li temmet l-iskjavitù; l-14-il Emenda (1869) li tat iċ-ċittadinanza lin-nies ta' karnaġjon sewda, u l-15-il Emenda (1870) lil tat lill-irġiel ta' karnaġjon sewda d-dritt nominali biex jivvutaw. L-involviment sħiħ taċ-ċittadini kollha ma ġiex żgurat sa wara li l-moviment tad-drittijiet ċivili kiseb l-approvazzjoni mill-Kungress tal-Istati Uniti fir-rigward tal-Att dwar id-Drittijiet tal-Votazzjoni tal-1965. Id-dritt tal-votazzjoni fir-Renju Unit twessa' u sar iktar uniformi permezz ta' sensiela ta' riformi li bdew bl-Att dwar ir-Riformi tal-1832 u komplew fis-seklu 20, b'mod partikolari bl-Att dwar ir-Rappreżentanza tan-Nies tal-1918 u l-Att dwar l-Ugwaljanza tal-1928. Is-suffraġju maskili universali ġie stabbilit fi Franza f'Marzu 1848 fid-dawl tar-Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża tal-1848. Matul dik is-sena, faqqgħu diversi rivoluzzjonijiet fl-Ewropa peress li l-mexxejja kellhom ilaħħqu mad-domandi popolari għall-kostituzzjonijiet liberali u għal iktar governanza demokratika. Fl-1876, l-[[Imperu Ottoman]] għadda minn monarkija assoluta għal waħda kostituzzjonali, u organizza żewġ elezzjonijiet is-sena ta' wara biex jeleġġi membri fil-Parlament li kien għadu kemm ġie ffurmat. Inħarġu Regolamenti Elettorali Proviżorji, li kienu jiddikjaraw li l-membri eletti tal-Kunsilli Amministrattivi Provinċjali kellhom jeleġġu l-membri għall-ewwel Parlament. Iktar tard dik is-sena, ġiet ippromulgata kostituzzjoni ġdida, li kienet tipprevedi l-istabbiliment ta' Parlament bikamerali b'Senat maħtur mis-Sultan u Kamra tad-Deputati eletta mill-poplu. Kienu jitħallew jikkontestaw għall-elezzjoni l-irġiel biss li kellhom iktar minn 30 sena u li kienu midħla tat-Tork u li kellhom drittijiet ċivili sħaħ. Fost ir-raġunijiet ta' skwalifika kien hemm iż-żamma ta' ċittadinanza doppja, ir-reklutaġġ minn gvern barrani, il-falliment monetarju, l-impjieg bħala qaddej, jew "ir-reputazzjoni tat-twettiq ta' azzjonijiet ħżiena". Is-suffraġju universali sħiħ inkiseb fl-1934. Fl-1893, il-kolonja bl-awtogovernanza ta' [[New Zealand]] saret l-ewwel pajjiż fid-dinja (għajr għar-Repubblika ta' Korsika b'għomorha qasir tas-seklu 18 li stabbiliet is-suffraġju universali attiv billi n-nisa ngħataw id-dritt tal-votazzjoni. ==== Sekli 20 u 21 ==== It-tranżizzjonijiet tas-seklu 20 lejn id-demokrazija liberali waslu f'"mewġiet suċċessivi tad-demokrazija", u rriżultaw b'modi differenti minn gwerer, rivoluzzjonijiet, dekolonizzazzjoni, u ċirkostanzi reliġjużi u ekonomiċi. Il-mewġiet globali ta' "regressjoni demokratika" li reġġgħu lura d-demokratizzazzjoni seħħew ukoll fis-snin 20 u 30 tas-seklu 20, fis-snin 60 u 70 tas-seklu 20 u fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21. [[L-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]] u x-xoljiment tal-[[Imperu Ottoman]] u tal-Imperu Awstro-Ungariku wasslu għall-ħolqien ta' nazzjonijiet-stati ġodda fl-Ewropa, u l-biċċa l-kbira minnhom kienu mill-inqas nominalment demokratiċi. Fis-snin 20 tas-seklu 20 tkattru l-movimenti demokratiċi u s-suffraġju universali avvanza, iżda d-Dipressjoni l-Kbira ġabet magħha diżillużjoni u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Ewropa, tal-Amerka Latina u tal-[[Asja]] daru għat-tmexxija ta' rġiel b'saħħithom jew dittaturi. Il-Faxxiżmu u d-dittaturi tkattru fil-[[Ġermanja]] Nażista, fl-[[Italja]], fi [[Spanja]] u fil-[[Portugall]], kif ukoll il-gvernijiet mhux demokratiċi fil-Baltiċi, fil-Balkani, fil-[[Brażil]], f'[[Kuba]], fiċ-[[Ċina]] u fil-[[Ġappun]] fost l-oħrajn. [[It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija]] ġabet magħha treġġigħ lura definittiv ta' din it-tendenza fil-Punent tal-Ewropa. Id-demokratizzazzjoni tas-setturi Amerikani, Brittaniċi u Franċiżi tal-Ġermanja okkupata (għalkemm xi sorsi jikkontestaw dan il-punt), tal-[[Awstrija]], tal-[[Italja]], u tal-[[Ġappun]] okkupat serviet bħala mudell għat-teorija li ġiet wara tal-bidla fil-gvern. Madankollu, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Lvant tal-Ewropa, inkluż is-settur [[Unjoni Sovjetika|Sovjetiku]] tal-Ġermanja, sfat fit-territorju mhux demokratiku ddominat mis-Sovjetiċi. Wara l-gwerra kien hemm id-dekolonizzazzjoni, u mill-ġdid il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istati indipendenti ġodda kellhom kostituzzjonijiet nominalment demokratiċi. L-Indja feġġet bħala l-ikbar demokrazija fid-dinja u għadha fit-tmun. Il-pajjiżi li fl-imgħoddi kienu parti mill-Imperu Brittanika, spiss adottaw is-sistema Brittanika ta' Westminster. Fl-1948, id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem irrekjediet id-demokrazija:<blockquote>3. Ir-rieda tan-nies għandha tkun il-bażi tal-awtorità tal-governanza; din għandha tkun espressa f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom jkunu b'suffraġju universali u ugwali u dan għandu jiġi espress f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom isiru b'suffraġju universali u ndaqs u għandhom isiru permezz ta' votazzjoni sigrieta u jew bi proċeduri ekwivalenti ta' votazzjoni ħielsa.</blockquote>— Id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem, l-Artikolu 21, in-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, fl-1948 Sal-1960, il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-pajjiżi-stati nominalment kienu demokraziji, għalkemm il-biċċa l-kbira tal-popolazzjonijiet tad-dinja kienu jgħixu f'demokraziji nominali li esperjenzaw elezzjonijiet taparsi, u forom oħra ta' qerq (b'mod partikolari fl-istati "[[Komuniżmu|Komunisti]]" u l-eks kolonji). Mewġa sussegwenti ta' demokratizzazzjoni ġabet magħha kisbiet sostanzjali favur demokrazija liberali ta' vera għal bosta stati, u din ġiet imlaqqma bħala t-"tielet mewġa ta' demokrazija". Il-Portugall, Spanja u diversi mid-dittaturi militari fl-[[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t'Isfel]] reġgħu lura għat-tmexxija ċivili fis-snin 70 u 80 tas-seklu 20. Din ġiet segwita minn pajjiżi fil-Lvant u fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja sa nofs u l-aħħar tas-snin 80 tas-seklu 20. L-għawġ ekonomiku fis-snin 80 tas-seklu 20, flimkien mal-garr minħabba l-oppressjoni Sovjetika, wasslu għall-isfaxxar tal-Unjoni Sovjetika, it-tmiem assoċjata tal-[[Gwerra Bierda]], u d-demokratizzazzjoni u l-liberalizzazzjoni tal-pajjiżi tal-Lvant tal-eks Unjoni Sovjetika. L-iżjed demokraziji mid-demokraziji l-ġodda li kellhom suċċess kienu dawk li [[Ġeografija|ġeografikament]] u [[Kultura|kulturalment]] kienu l-eqreb tal-Punent tal-Ewropa, u li issa huma parti mill-[[Unjoni Ewropea]] jew huma pajjiżi kandidati. Fl-1986, wara li waqgħet l-iżjed dittatura Asjatika prominenti, l-uniku stat demokratiku tax-xorta tiegħu dak iż-żmien feġġ fil-[[Filippini]] bil-wasla ta' [[Corazon Aquino]], li iktar 'il quddiem saret magħrufa bħala omm id-demokrazija Asjatika. Ix-xejra liberali nfirxet f'uħud mill-istati Afrikani fis-snin 90 tas-seklu 20, l-iktar fl-[[Afrika t'Isfel]]. Xi eżempji reċenti ta' tentattivi ta' liberalizzazzjoni jinkludu r-Rivoluzzjoni [[Indoneżja|Indoneżjana]] tal-1998, ir-Rivoluzzjoni bil-Gafef fil-[[Jugoslavja]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ward fil-[[Ġeorġja|Georgia]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni Oranġjo fl-[[Ukrajna]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni taċ-Ċedru fil-[[Libanu]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tat-Tulipani fil-[[Kirgiżistan]] u r-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ġiżimin fit-[[Tuneżija]]. Skont Freedom House, fl-2007 kien hemm 123 demokrazija elettorali (minn 40 waħda fl-1972). Skont il-''Forum Dinji dwar id-Demokrazija'', id-demokraziji elettorali issa jirrappreżentaw 120 mill-192 pajjiż eżistenti u jikkostitwixxu 58.2 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni dinjija. Fl-istess ħin, id-demokraziji liberali, jiġifieri l-pajjiżi li Freedom House tqis bħala ħielsa u li jirrispettaw id-drittijiet tal-bniedem bażiċi u l-istat tad-dritt, jammontaw għal 85 pajjiż u jirrappreżentaw 38 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni globali. Fl-2007 ukoll, in-[[Nazzjonijiet Uniti]] ddikjaraw il-15 ta' Settembru bħala l-Jum Internazzjonali tad-Demokrazija. Bosta pajjiżi baxxew l-età tal-votazzjoni għal 18-il sena; id-demokraziji ewlenin bdew jagħmlu dan fis-snin 70 tas-seklu 20, l-ewwel nett fil-Punent tal-Ewropa u fl-Amerka ta' Fuq. Il-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji elettorali għadhom jeskludu lil dawk taħt l-età ta' 18-il sena mill-votazzjoni. L-età tal-votazzjoni tbaxxiet għal 16-il sena għall-elezzjonijiet nazzjonali f'għadd ta' pajjiżi, fosthom il-[[Brażil]], l-Awstrija, [[Kuba]] u n-[[Nikaragwa]]. F'California, proposta tal-2004 biex jingħata kwart ta' vot li dawk ta' 16-il sena fl-aħħar mill-aħħar ma għaddietx. Fl-2008, il-Parlament Ġermaniż ippropona abbozz ta' liġi li mbagħad warrab li kienet tagħti d-dritt tal-votazzjoni lil kull ċittadin mat-twelid, biex jintuża minn ġenitur sa meta l-wild ikun jista' jibda jużah. Skont Freedom House, mill-2005 kien hemm 17-il sena konsekuttiva li fihom id-drittijiet politiċi u l-libertajiet ċivili madwar id-dinja marru għall-agħar f'iktar pajjiżi milli fejn sar xi titjib, peress li l-qawwiet populisti u nazzjonalistiċi mexew 'il quddiem kullimkien, mill-[[Polonja]] (eż. il-partit tal-Liġi u l-Ġustizzja) sal-Filippini (taħt [[Rodrigo Duterte]]). F'rapport ta' Freedom House li nħareġ fl-2018, il-punteġġi rigward id-demokrazija għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi marru lura għat-12-il sena konsekuttiva. ''The Christian Science Monitor'' irrapporta li l-ideoloġiji nazzjonalistiċi u populisti kienu qed jissaħħew, a skapitu tal-istat tad-dritt, f'pajjiżi bħall-Polonja, it-[[Turkija]] u l-[[Ungerija]]. Pereżempju, fil-Polonja, il-President ħatar 27 imħallef ġdid tal-Qorti Suprema minkejja l-oġġezzjonijiet legali mill-[[Kummissjoni Ewropea]]. Fit-Turkija, eluf ta' mħallfin tneħħew mill-karigi tagħhom wara kolp ta' stat li ma rnexxiex. Iċ-"ċedimenti demokratiċi" fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21 ġew attribwiti lill-inugwaljanza ekonomika u l-garr soċjali, il-personaliżmu, il-ġestjoni batuta tal-gvernijiet fir-rigward tal-[[pandemija tal-COVID-19]], kif ukoll fatturi oħra bħall-manipolazzjoni tas-soċjetà ċivili, il-"polarizzazzjoni tossika", il-kampanji barranin tad-diżinformazzjoni, ir-razziżmu u n-nattiviżmu, is-setgħa eżekuttiva eċċessiva, u s-setgħa mnaqqsa tal-oppożizzjoni. Fi ħdan id-demokraziji tal-Punent, l-attitudnijiet ta' "protezzjoniżmu", li jiġbru flimkien il-konservattiviżmu kulturali u l-attitudnijiet ekonomiċi Xellugin, kienu l-iżjed indikatur b'saħħtu tal-appoġġ għall-modalitajiet awtoritarji ta' governanza. == Teorija == === Teorija bikrija === It-teorija demokratika ta' Aristotli kienet tpoġġi f'kuntrast it-tmexxija mill-ħafna (demokrazija/timokrazija), mat-tmexxija mill-ftit (oligarkija/aristokrazija/elitiżmu), kif ukoll mat-tmexxija minn persuna waħda (tirannija/awtokrazija/monarkija assoluta). Huwa ħaseb ukoll li kien hemm varjant tajjeb u ħażin ta' kull sistema (huwa qies id-demokrazija bħala l-kontroparti ħażina tat-timokrazija). Fehma komuni fost it-teoriċi Repubblikani bikrin u Rinaxximentali kienet li d-demokrazija setgħet tibqa' ħajja biss fil-komunitajiet politiċi ż-żgħar. Abbażi tal-lezzjonijiet meħuda mill-bidla tar-Repubblika Rumana lejn il-monarkiżmu iktar ma kibret jew ċkienet, dawn it-teoriċi Repubblikani sostnew li l-espansjoni tat-territorji u tal-popolazzjoni inevitabbilment kienu jwasslu għat-tirannija. Għaldaqstant id-demokrazija kienet fraġli ferm u rari storikament, għax setgħet tibqa' teżisti biss f'unitajiet politiċi żgħar, li minħabba d-daqs tagħhom kienu vulnerabbli għal ħakma minn unitajiet politiċi akbar. Huwa magħruf li Montesquieu qal, "jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered minn difett intern". [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] sostna, "Għaldaqstant, hija l-karatteristika naturali tal-istati żgħar li jiġu ggvernati bħala repubblika, tal-istati ta' daqs nofsani li jkunu soġġetti għal monarka, u tal-imperi kbar li jitmexxew minn prinċep tirann". === Teorija kontemporanja === Fost it-teoriji politiċi moderni, jeżistu kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. ==== Aggregazzjoni ==== It-teorija tad-demokrazija aggregattiva ssostni li l-għan tal-proċessi demokratiċi hu li jmexxu 'l quddiem il-preferenzi taċ-ċittadini u jaggregawhom flimkien biex jiddeterminaw liema politiki soċjali għandha tadotta s-soċjetà. Għaldaqstant, dawk li jħaddnu din il-fehma jsostnu li s-sehem demokratiku għandu jiffoka b'mod primarju fuq il-votazzjoni, fejn il-politiki bl-ikbar ammont ta' voti jiġu implimentati. Jeżistu varjanti differenti tad-demokrazija aggregattiva. Skont il-ħsieb tad-demokrazija minimalista, l-elezzjonijiet huma mekkaniżmu ta' kompetizzjoni bejn il-[[Politiku|politiċi]]. [[Joseph Schumpeter]] huwa magħruf li spjega dan il-ħsieb fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Kapitaliżmu, Soċjaliżmu u Demokrazija''. [[Anthony Downs]] jargumenta li l-partiti politiċi ideoloġiċi huma neċessarji biex jaġixxu bħala sensara bejn l-individwi u l-gvernijiet. Min-naħa l-oħra, id-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament rigward il-proposti leġiżlattivi, tista' turi aggregazzjoni aħjar f'każijiet ta' differenzi fil-preferenzi bejn l-elit u l-votanti. ===== Mandat medjan ===== Skont it-teorema tal-votant medjan, ir-rappreżentattività politika tista' tiġi evalwata billi jitqabbel kemm il-liġijiet u l-politiki huma qrib tal-fehmiet tal-votanti medjani tul l-ispettru politiku. Il-mandat medjan iħares lejn il-preferenzi tal-votant medjan bħala dawk li jagħtu leġittimità politika. ==== Poliarkija ==== [[Robert A. Dahl]] jargumenta li l-prinċipju demokratiku fundamentali hu li meta wieħed jasal għal deċiżjonijiet kollettivi vinkolanti, kull persuna f'komunità politika hija intitolata li l-interessi tagħha jitqiesu b'mod indaqs. Huwa juża t-terminu poliarkija ("it-tmexxija mill-ħafna") biex jirreferi għal soċjetajiet fejn jeżisti ċertu sett ta' istituzzjonijiet u proċeduri li huma perċepiti li jwasslu għal tali demokrazija. L-ewwel u qabel kollox fost dawn l-istituzzjonijiet hemm l-okkorrenza regolari ta' elezzjonijiet ħielsa u miftuħa li jsiru biex jintgħażlu r-rappreżentanti li mbagħad jiġġestixxu l-politiki pubbliċi kollha tas-soċjetà jew il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom. Madankollu, dawn il-proċeduri poliarkiċi jaf ma joħolqux demokrazija sħiħa, jekk pereżempju l-faqar ixekkel il-parteċipazzjoni politika. B'mod simili, [[Ronald Dworkin]] isostni li d-"demokrazija hija ideal sostantiv, mhux sempliċement proċedurali". ==== Deliberazzjoni ==== Id-demokrazija deliberattiva hija bbażata fuq in-nozzjoni li d-demokrazija hija governanza bid-deliberazzjoni. Għad-differenza tad-demokrazija aggregattiva, id-demokrazija deliberattiva ssostni li biex deċiżjoni demokratika tkun leġittima, din trid tkun preċeduta minn deliberazzjoni awtentika, mhux sempliċement l-aggregazzjoni tal-preferenzi li sseħħ fil-votazzjoni. Deliberazzjoni awtentika hija deliberazzjoni fost dawk li jieħdu d-deċiżjonijiet li tkun ħielsa minn distorsjonijiet tas-setgħa politika inugwali, bħas-setgħa li jikseb min jieħu d-deċiżjonijiet permezz tal-ġid ekonomiku jew l-appoġġ tal-gruppi ta' interess. Jekk dawk li jieħdu d-deċiżjonijiet ma jkunux jistgħu jaslu għal konsensus wara deliberazzjoni awtentika dwar proposta, imbagħad jivvutaw dwar il-proposta billi jużaw forma ta' tmexxija tal-maġġoranza. Il-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini jitqiesu minn bosta studjużi bħala eżempji prattiċi tad-demokrazija deliberattiva, u rapport reċenti tal-[[OECD]] jidentifika l-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini bħala mekkaniżmu popolari li kulma jmur jinvolvi liċ-ċittadini fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet governattivi. Dawk li huma favur id-demokrazija diretta jsostnu li ċ-ċittadini ma jmexxux lilhom infushom sakemm ma jiddeċidux direttament rigward il-liġijiet u l-politiki. L-attività politika tista' tkun siewja fiha nnifisha, peress li tissoċjalizza u teduka liċ-ċittadini, u l-parteċipazzjoni popolari tista' tikkontrolla l-elit setgħana. ==== Tipi ta' demokraziji governattivi ==== Id-demokrazija għandha bosta forom, kemm fit-teorija kif ukoll fil-prattika. Xi varjetajiet tad-demokrazija jipprovdu rappreżentanza aħjar u iktar libertà għaċ-ċittadini minn oħrajn. Madankollu, jekk xi demokrazija ma tkunx strutturata sabiex tipprojbixxi lill-gvern milli jeskludi lin-nies mill-proċess leġiżlattiv, jew lil kwalunkwe fergħa tal-gvern milli tibdel is-separazzjoni tal-poteri favuriha, imbagħad fergħa tas-sistema tista' takkumula wisq poter u teqred id-demokrazija. It-tipi ta' demokrazija li ġejjin ma jeskludux lil xulxin: ħafna jispeċifikaw dettalji ta' aspetti li huma indipendenti minn xulxin u jistgħu jeżistu flimkien f'sistema unika. ===== Forom bażiċi ===== Jeżistu diversi varjanti ta' demokrazija, iżda hemm żewġ forom bażiċi, u t-tnejn li huma jikkonċernaw kif il-korp kollu taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli jwettaq ir-rieda tiegħu. Forma ta' demokrazija hija d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom parteċipazzjoni attiva fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet politiċi, pereżempju billi jivvutaw direttament rigward l-inizjattivi ta' politika. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, il-korp kollu ta' ċittadini eliġibbli jibqa' l-poter sovran iżda l-poter politiku jiġi eżerċitat indirettament permezz ta' rappreżentanti eletti; din tissejjaħ demokrazija rappreżentattiva. Jekk il-kap ta' stat jiġi elett b'mod demokratiku, l-istat jissejjaħ repubblika demokratika. ====== Demokrazija diretta ====== Id-demokrazija diretta hija sistema politika fejn iċ-ċittadini jieħdu sehem fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet personalment. minflok jiddependu fuq intermedjarji jew rappreżentanti. Dawk li tkellmu favuriha bħal Jean-Jacques Rousseau jsostnu li l-approċċ dirett iżid il-leġittimità. Demokrazija diretta tagħti lill-popolazzjoni li tivvota s-setgħa li: * tibdel il-liġijiet kostituzzjonali; * tressaq inizjattivi, referenda u suġġerimenti għal liġijiet. Fi ħdan il-gvernijiet rappreżentattivi moderni, ċerti għodod elettorali bħar-referenda, l-inizjattivi taċ-ċittadini u r-referendum għat-tneħħija ta' gvern jitqiesu bħala fororm ta' demokrazija diretta. Madankollu, uħud li huma favur id-demokrazija diretta jsostnu li l-ġemgħat lokali jeħtieġu jiddiskutu wiċċ imb wiċċ. Id-demokrazija diretta bħala sistema ta' governanza attwalment teżisti fil-kantons [[Żvizzera|Żvizzeri]] ta' Appenzell Innerrhoden u Glarus, il-Muniċipalitajiet Awtonomi Zapatisti Ribelli, il-komunitajiet affiljati mas-CIPO-RFM, il-kunsilli lokali [[Bolivja|Bolivjani]] ta' FEJUVE, u l-kantons Kurdi ta' Rojava. ====== Demokrazija semidiretta ====== Xi demokraziji moderni li huma rappreżentattivi għalkollox fin-natura tagħhom jiddependu bil-kbir fuq forom ta' azzjoni politika tad-demokrazija diretta. Dawn id-demokraziji, li jużaw elementi tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva u tad-demokrazija diretta, jissejħu demokraziji semidiretti jew demokraziji parteċipattivi. Xi eżempji jinkludu l-Iżvizzera u xi stati tal-Istati Uniti, fejn isir użu frekwenti tar-referenda u tal-inizjattivi. Il-Konfederazzjoni Żvizzera hija demokrazija semidiretta. Fil-livell federali, iċ-ċittadini jistgħu jipproponu bidliet fil-kostituzzjoni (inizjattiva popolari federali) jew jitolbu li jsir referendum rigward kwalunkwe liġi vvutata mill-Parlament. Bejn Jannar 1995 u Ġunju 2005, iċ-ċittadini Żvizzeri vvutaw 31 darba, biex iwieġbu 103 domanda (matul l-istess perjodu, iċ-ċittadini Franċiżi pparteċipaw f'żewġ referenda biss). Minkejja dan, fl-aħħar 120 sena inqas minn 250 inizjattiva tressqu għal referendum. Xi eżempji jinkludu l-użu estensiv tar-referenda fl-istat Amerikan ta' California, li huwa stat b'iktar minn 20 miljun votant. F'New England spiss jintużaw laqgħat tal-belt, speċjalment fiż-żoni rurali, għall-ġestjoni tal-governanza lokali. Dan joħloq forma ibrida ta' governanza, b'demokrazija diretta lokali u gvern statali rappreżentattiv. Pereżempju, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-bliet ta' Vermont jorganizzaw laqgħat tal-bliet annwali f'Marzu fejn jiġu eletti l-uffiċjali tal-bliet, jiġu vvutati l-baġits għall-bliet u għall-iskejjel, u ċ-ċittadini jkollhom l-opportunità li jitkellmu u jinstemgħu rigward il-kwistjonijiet politiċi. ====== Sistema tax-xorti ====== L-użu ta' sistema tax-xorti, demokrazija karatteristika ta' Ateni, hija karatteristika ta' xi verżjonijiet ta' demokraziji diretti. F'din is-sistema, kompiti governattivi u amministrattivi importanti jitwettqu minn ċittadini li jittellgħu bix-xorti f'lotterija. ====== Demokrazija rappreżentattiva ====== Id-demokrazija rappreżentattiva tinvolvi l-elezzjoni tal-uffiċjali tal-gvern min-nies rappreżentati. L-iżjed mekkaniżmi komuni jinvolvu l-elezzjoni tal-kandidat mill-maġġoranza jew minn pluralità tal-voti. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Punent għandhom sistemi rappreżentattivi. Ir-rappreżentanti jistgħu jiġu eletti bħala rappreżentanti diplomatiċi minn distrett (jew kostitwenza) partikolari, jew jirrappreżentaw l-elettorat kollu permezz ta' sistemi proporzjonali. Xi demokraziji rappreżentattivi jinkorporaw ukoll elementi tad-demokrazija diretta, bħal referenda. Karatteristika tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva hi li filwaqt li r-rappreżentanti jiġu eletti min-nies biex jaġixxu fl-interess tan-nies, jibqa' jkollhom il-libertà li jeżerċitaw il-ġudizzju tagħhom stess kif jaħsbu li jkun l-aħjar. Dan wassal għal kritika fir-rigward tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, u ġew indikati kontradizzjonijiet tal-mekkaniżmi ta' rappreżentanza mad-demokrazija. ====== Demokrazija Parlamentari ====== Id-demokrazija Parlamentari hija demokrazija rappreżentattiva fejn il-gvern jinħatar jew jista' jitneħħa mir-rappreżentanti, għad-differenza tat-"tmexxija Presidenzjali" fejn il-President ikun il-kap ta' stat u l-kap tal-gvern u jiġi elett mill-votanti. F'demokrazija Parlamentari, il-governanza tiġi eżerċitata b'delega lill-eżekuttiv u tkun soġġetta għal rieżami kontinwu, verifiki u bilanċi mill-Parlament leġiżlattiv elett mill-poplu. F'sistema Parlamentari, il-Prim Ministru jista' jitneħħa mil-leġiżlatura fi kwalunkwe mument jekk ma jkunx żamm mal-istennijiet tal-leġiżlatura. Dan isir permezz ta' vut ta' sfiduċja fejn il-leġiżlatura tiddeċiedi jekk il-Prim Ministru għandux jitneħħa mill-kariga b'maġġoranza favur it-tneħħija. F'xi pajjiżi, il-Prim Ministru jista' jsejjaħ elezzjoni ukoll fi kwalunkwe ħin, tipikament meta l-Prim Ministru jemmen li jkollu l-poplu warajh biex jerġa' jiġi elett. F'demokraziji Parlamentari oħra, elezzjonijiet addizzjonali prattikament qatt ma jsiru, u jiġi ppreferut gvern ta' minoranza sal-elezzjonijiet ordinarji ta' wara. Karatteristika importanti tad-demokrazija Parlamentari hija l-kunċett tal-"oppożizzjoni leali". Il-qofol tal-kunċett hu li t-tieni l-ikbar partit politiku (jew l-oppożizzjoni) jopponi l-partit fil-gvern (jew koalizzjoni), filwaqt li jibqa' leali lejn l-istat u l-prinċipji demokratiċi tiegħu. ====== Demokrazija Presidenzjali ====== Id-demokrazija Presidenzjali hija sistema fejn il-pubbliku jeleġġi l-President permezz ta' elezzjoni. Il-President jaqdi l-funzjoni ta' kap ta' stat u ta' kap ta' gvern u jikkontrolla l-biċċa l-kbira tal-poteri eżekuttivi. Il-President iservi għal mandat speċifiku u ma jistax iservi għal iktar. Spiss il-leġiżlatura limitat il-possibbiltà li President jitneħħa mill-kariga. L-elezzjonijiet tipikament ikollhom data fissa u qajla jinbidlu. Il-President ikollu kontroll dirett fuq il-kabinett, u jaħtar speċifikament il-membri tal-kabinett. Normalment l-eżekuttiv ikollu r-responsabbiltà tat-twettiq jew tal-implimentazzjoni tal-leġiżlazzjoni u jaf ikollu poteri leġiżlattivi limitati, bħal veto. Madankollu, fergħa leġiżlattiva tgħaddi l-leġiżlazzjoni u l-baġits. B'hekk ikun hemm xi forma ta' separazzjoni tal-poteri. B'hekk, il-Presidentu u l-leġiżlatura jaf jispiċċaw ikollhom kontroll ta' partiti separati, u wieħed ikun jista' jimblokka lill-ieħor u b'hekk jindaħal mal-ħidma kif suppost tal-istat. Din jaf hija r-raġuni għalfejn id-demokrazija Presidenzjali ma tantx hija komuni 'l barra mill-Amerki, l-Afrika u l-Asja Ċentrali u tax-Xlokk. Sistema semi-Presidenzjali hija sistema ta' demokrazija fejn il-gvern jinkludi kemm Prim Ministru kif ukoll President. Is-setgħat partikolari tal-Prim Ministru u tal-President ivarjaw skont il-pajjiż. ==== Tipoloġija ==== ===== Monarkija kostituzzjonali ===== Bosta pajjiżi bħar-Renju Unit, [[Spanja]], in-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]], il-[[Belġju]], il-pajjiżi Skandinavi, it-[[Tajlandja]], il-[[Ġappun]] u l-[[Butan|Bhutan]] bidlu monarkiji setgħana f'monarkiji kostituzzjonali (spiss gradwalment) bi rwoli limitati jew simboliċi. Pereżempju, fl-istati predeċessuri tar-Renju Unit, il-monarkija kostituzzjonali bdiet tfeġġ u baqgħet teżisti bla xkiel mir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688 u minn meta għaddiet il-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689. Il-monarkiji kostituzzjonali limitati ferm, bħar-Renju Unit, ġew imsejħa bħala repubbliki monarkiċi minn [[Kittieb|kittieba]] bħal [[H. G. Wells]]. F'pajjiżi oħra, il-monarkija ġiet abolita flimkien mas-sistema aristokratika (bħal fi Franza, iċ-[[Ċina]], ir-[[Russja]], il-Ġermanja, l-Awstrija, l-Ungerija, l-Italja, il-Greċja u l-[[Eġittu]]). Persuna eletta, b'poteri sinifikanti jew mingħajrhom, saret il-kap ta' stat f'dawn il-pajjiżi. Il-familji tal-elit tal-leġiżlaturi, li spiss kellhom mandati ereditarji jew għal għomorhom, kienu komuni f'bosta stati. Maż-żmien, dawn kellhom poteri li ġew limitati (bħall-House of Lords tar-Renju Unit) jew saru elettivi u baqgħu setgħana (bħas-Senat [[Awstralja|Awstraljan]]). ===== Demokrazija repubblikana ===== It-terminu ''repubblika'' għandu bosta tifsiriet differenti, iżda llum il-ġurnata spiss jirreferi għal demokrazija rappreżentattiva b'kap ta' stat elett, bħal President, li jservi għal mandat limitat, b'kuntrast mal-istati b'monarka ereditarju bħala kap ta' stat, anke jekk dawn l-istati jkunu demokraziji rappreżentattivi b'kap ta' gvern elett jew maħtur bħal Prim Ministru. Il-Missirijiet Fundaturi tal-Istati Uniti spiss ikkritikaw id-demokrazija diretta; [[James Madison]] argumenta speċjalment f'''The Federalist'' Nru 10, li dak li ddistingwa demokrazija diretta minn waħda repubblikana kien li dik tal-ewwel kienet tiddependi fuq daqs żgħir u kienet tbati ferm mill-effetti tal-fazzjonijiet, filwaqt li dik repubblikana setgħet issir iktar b'saħħitha iktar ma tikber u minnha nnifisha tiġġieled il-fazzjonijiet permezz tal-istruttura tagħha stess. B'hekk, matul konvenzjoni f'[[Philadelphia]], Madison sejjaħ l-elezzjoni tar-rappreżentanti minn territorji kbar bħala "l-unika difiża kontra l-inkonvenjenzi tad-demokrazija konsistenti mal-forma demokratika ta' governanza". Il-Professuri [[Richard Ellis]] tal-Università ta' Willamette u [[Michael Nelson]] tal-Kulleġġ ta' Rhodes isostnu li l-biċċa l-kbira tal-ħsieb kostituzzjonali, minn Madison għal Lincoln u lil hinn, iffoka fuq "il-problema tat-tirannija tal-maġġoranza". Huma kkonkludew, "il-prinċipji tal-governanza repubblikana mħaddna fil-Kostituzzjoni jirrappreżentaw sforz biex jiġi żgurat li id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għat-tfittxija tal-kuntentizza ma jiġux imkasbra mill-maġġoranzi". [[John Adams]] insista li dak li kien kritiku għall-valuri Amerikani kien li l-gvern ikun "marbut minn liġijiet fissi, li l-poplu jkollu l-jedd li jinstema' fit-tfassil tagħhom, u d-dritt għad-difiża". Meta [[Benjamin Franklin]] kien ħiereġ wara li kiteb il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti, [[Elizabeth Willing Powel]] staqsietu "Mela, Dr., x'għandna — repubblika jew monarkija?". Huwa wieġeb "Repubblika — jekk kapaċi żżommuha". ===== Demokrazija liberali ===== Id-demokrazija liberali hija demokrazija rappreżentattiva li tħaddan filosofija politika liberali, fejn il-kapaċità tar-rappreżentanti eletti li jeżerċitaw il-poter tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet hija soġġetta għall-istat tad-dritt, moderat minn kostituzzjoni jew liġijiet bħall-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet tal-individwi, u limitat sal-punt li r-rieda tal-maġġoranza ma tistax tiġi eżerċitata kontra d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. ===== Demokrazija Soċjalista ===== Il-ħsieb Soċjalista għandu diversi fehmiet differenti rigward id-demokrazija, pereżempju d-demokrazija soċjali jew is-Soċjaliżmu demokratiku. Ħafna Soċjalisti demokratiċi u demokratiċi Soċjalisti jemmnu f'forma ta' demokrazija parteċipattiva, industrijali, ekonomika u/jew tal-post tax-xogħol flimkien ma' demokrazija rappreżentattiva. ===== Demokrazija Marxista ===== It-teorija [[Karl Marx|Marxista]] tappoġġa soċjetà demokratika ċċentrata fuq il-klassi tal-ħaddiema. Xi Marxisti u Trotskyisti jemmnu fid-demokrazija diretta jew fil-kunsilli tal-ħaddiema (li xi kultant jissejħu entitajiet Sovjetiċi). Din is-sistema jaf tibda bid-demokrazija fil-post tax-xogħol u timmanifesta ruħha bħala demokrazija Sovjetika jew dittatura tal-proletarjat. Il-gruppi Trotskyisti interpretaw id-demokrazija Soċjalista bħala sinonima tar-rappreżentanza ta' diversi partiti tax-Xellug Estrem, tal-organizzazzjonijiet tal-unjins awtonomi, tal-kontroll tal-produzzjoni tal-ħaddiema, tad-demokrazija interna fi ħdan il-partiti u tal-parteċipazzjoni tal-massa tal-mases tal-ħaddiema. Xi partiti Komunisti jappoġġaw repubblika Sovjetika b'ċentraliżmu demokratiku. Fi ħdan id-demokrazija fil-Marxiżmu jaf ikun hemm ostilità għal dik li normalment tissejjaħ "demokrazija liberali". ===== Demokrazija anarkika ===== L-anarkiċi huma maqsuma f'dan id-dominju, skont jemmnux li tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hijiex tirannika jew le. Għal bosta anarkiċi, l-unika forma ta' demokrazija li titqies aċċettabbli hija d-demokrazija diretta. [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] argumenta li l-unika forma aċċettabbli ta' demokrazija diretta hija waħda fejn huwa rikonoxxut li d-deċiżjonijiet tal-maġġoranza mhumiex vinkolanti fuq il-minoranza, anke meta jkun hemm unanimità. Madankollu, l-anarkiku-Komunist [[Murray Bookchin]] ikkritika l-anarkiċi individwalisti talli opponew id-demokrazija, u sostna li t-"tmexxija tal-maġġoranza" hija konsistenti mal-anarkiżmu. Xi anarkiċi-Komunisti jopponu n-natura maġġoritarja tad-demokrazija diretta, u jħossu li tista' timpedixxi l-libertà individwali u huma favur forma mhux maġġoritarja ta' demokrazija b'konsensus, simili għall-pożizzjoni ta' Proudhon dwar id-demokrazija diretta. ===== Demokrazija każwali ===== Id-demokrazija każwali jew bix-xorti hija l-proċess tal-għażla tal-korpi tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet b'mod aleatorju. Dawn il-korpi jistgħu jkunu iktar rappreżentattivi tal-fehmiet u tal-interessi tal-poplu inġenerali milli leġiżlatura eletta jew entità oħra tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet. It-teknika kienet tintuża b'mod mifrux fid-demokrazija ta' Ateni u f'Firenze Rinaxximentali u għadha tintuża fl-għażla moderna tal-ġuriji u fil-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini. ===== Demokrazija kostituzzjonali ===== Id-demokrazija kostituzzjonali hija forma ta' demokrazija bbażata fuq il-qsim tal-poter bejn l-elit li jirrappreżenta l-gruppi soċjali fi ħdan is-soċjetà. Fl-1969, [[Arendt Lijphart]] stqarr li din kienet tistabbilizza d-demokraziji bil-fazzjonijiet. Demokrazija kostituzzjonali tippermetti li jkun hemm votazzjonijiet simultanji bil-maġġoranza f'żewġ kostitwenzi etnoreliġjużi jew iktar, u l-politiki jiġu ppromulgati biss jekk jiksbu l-appoġġ tal-maġġoranza mit-tnejn li huma jew minn kollha kemm huma. It-tmexxija b'votazzjoni ta' maġġoranza kwalifikata fil-Kunsill tal-Ministri tal-Unjoni Ewropea hija approċċ ta' demokrazija kostituzzjonali għad-demokraziji sovranazzjonali. Din is-sistema fit-[[Trattat ta' Ruma]] talloka l-voti lill-Istati Membri skont il-popolazzjonijiet tagħha, iżda hija pponderata sew favur l-istati ż-żgħar. Demokrazija kostituzzjonali tirrikjedi l-konsensus tar-rappreżentanti, filwaqt li d-demokrazija b'konsensus tirrikjedi l-konsensus tal-elettorat. ===== Demokrazija maġġoritarja ===== Id-demokrazija maġġoritarja hija forma ta' demokrazija bbażata fuq prinċipju ta' tmexxija tal-maġġoranza. Id-demokrazija maġġoritarja tikkuntrasta mad-demokrazija b'konsensus, u t-tmexxija tkun bl-akbar ammont ta' nies possibbli. ===== Demokrazija b'konsensus ===== Id-demokrazija b'konsensus tirrikjedi teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet b'konsensus u maġġoranza kbira biex jinkiseb appoġġ akbar mill-maġġoranza sempliċi. B'kuntrast ma' dan, fid-demokrazija maġġoritarja l-fehmiet tal-minoranzi potenzjalment jistgħu jiġu injorati mill-maġġoranzi li jirbħu l-votazzjoni. Il-kostituzzjonijiet tipikament jirrikjedu konsensus jew maġġoranzi kbar. ===== Demokrazija etnika ===== It-terminu demokrazija etnika, kif jintuża minn xi xjenzati politiċi, jipprova jiddeskrivi sistema ta' governanza li tgħaqqad flimkien dominanza etnika strutturata u d-drittijiet demokratiċi, politiċi u ċivili għal kulħadd. Kemm il-grupp etniku dominanti — tipikament maġġoranza etnika — u l-gruppi etniċi tal-minoranzi jkollhom iċ-ċittadinanza u jkunu jistgħu jieħdu sehem bis-sħiħ fil-proċess politiku. Madankollu, il-kritiċi tal-mudell tad-"demokrazija etnika" jsostnu li dan huwa kontradizzjoni, u b'hekk bħala kunċett iħossu li mhux adegwat; dawn il-kritiċi jallegaw li d-demokraziji etniċi, b'mod partikolari [[Iżrael]], mhumiex demokratiċi, u l-iktar l-iktar huma xorta ta' semidemokrazija. ===== Demokrazija inklużiva ===== Id-demokrazija inklużiva hija teorija politika u proġett politiku li għandhom l-għan li jiksbu d-demokrazija diretta fl-oqsma kollha tal-ħajja soċjali: demokrazija politka fil-forma ta' ġemgħat ikkonfederati wiċċ imb wiċċ, demokrazija ekonomika f'ekonomija mingħajr stat, flus u suq, demokrazija fil-qasam soċjali, jiġifieri awtoġestjoni fil-postijiet tax-xogħol u fl-edukazzjoni, u demokrazija ekoloġika li għandha l-għan li tintegra mill-ġdid is-soċjetà u n-natura. Il-proġett teoriku tad-demokrazija inklużiva feġġ mix-xogħol tal-filosfu politiku [[Takis Fotopoulos]] imsejjaħ "Lejn Demokrazija Inklużiva" u iktar 'il quddiem ġie żviluppat fil-ġurnal ''Demokrazija u Natura'' u s-suċċessur tiegħu ''Il-Ġurnal Internazzjonali tad-Demokrazija Inklużiva''. ===== Demokrazija parteċipattiva ===== Id-demokrazija parteċipattiva hija forma teorika ta' demokrazija mmexxija minn struttura integrata ta' kunsill. Il-filosofija li tiggwidaha hi li l-poplu għandu jkollu l-poter tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet b'mod proporzjonat ma' kemm se taffettwah id-deċiżjoni. Il-kunsilli lokali ta' xi 25–50 ruħ ikunu kompletament awtonomi fir-rigward ta' kwistjonijiet li jaffettwaw lilhom biss, u dawn il-kunsilli jibagħtu delegati f'kunsilli ta' livell ogħla li mill-ġdid ikunu awtonomi fir-rigward tal-kwistjonijiet li jaffettwaw biss lill-popolazzjoni affettwata minn dak il-kunsill. Qorti tal-kunsill magħmula minn ċittadini magħżula b'mod aleatorju sservi bħala kontroll fil-konfront tat-tirannija tal-maġġoranza, u tirregola liema korp jingħata l-vot fir-rigward tal-kwistjonijiet differenti. Id-delegati jistgħu jivvutaw b'mod differenti mix-xewqa tal-kunsill li jibgħathom iżda jkollhom il-mandat li jikkomunikaw ix-xewqat tagħhom lill-kunsill li jibgħathom. Id-delegati jistgħu jiġu msejħa lura fi kwalunkwe ħin. Ir-referenda jistgħu jsiru fi kwalunkwe ħin permezz ta' votazzjonijiet tal-kunsilli ta' livell inferjuri, madankollu mhux għal kollox jista' jsir referendum inkella x'aktarx li jkun ħela ta' ħin. Id-demokrazija parteċipattiva hija maħsuba biex taħdem id f'id ma' ekonomija parteċipattiva. ===== Demokrazija proċedurali ===== Id-demokrazija proċedurali jew il-proċeduraliżmu jirreferu għal proċeduri partikolari, bħal elezzjonijiet regolari bbażati fuq is-suffraġju universali, li jipproduċu gvern leġittimat b'mod elettorali. Id-demokrazija proċedurali, iċċentrata fuq il-proċessi elettorali bħala l-bażi tal-leġittimità demokratika, spiss tikkuntrasta mad-demokrazija sostantiva jew parteċipattiva, iċċentrata fuq il-parteċipazzjoni ugwali tal-gruppi kollha fis-soċjetà fil-proċess politiku bħala l-bażi tal-leġittimità. ===== Demokrazija radikali ===== Id-demokrazija radikali hija bbażata fuq l-idea li hemm relazzjonijiet ġerarkiċi u oppressivi li jeżistu fis-soċjetà. Ir-rwol tad-demokrazija radikali hu li dawk ir-relazzjonijiet tagħmilhom viżibbli u tikkontestahom billi tippermetti li jkun hemm differenzi, nuqqas ta' qbil u antagoniżmi fil-proċessi tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet. ===== Demokrazija reliġjuża ===== Id-demokrazija reliġjuża hija forma ta' demokrazija fejn il-valuri ta' reliġjon partikolari jew ta' reliġjon statali jingħataw preferenza. It-terminu japplika għall-pajjiżi demokratiċi kollha li fihom ir-reliġjon hija inkorporata fil-forma ta' governanza. ===== Demokrazija kożmopolita ===== Id-demokrazija kożmopolita, magħrufa wkoll bħala demokrazija globali jew federaliżmu dinji, hija sistema politika fejn id-demokrazija hija implimentata fuq skala globali, direttament jew permezz ta' rappreżentanti. Ġustifikazzjoni importanti għal dan it-tip ta' sistema hi li d-deċiżjonijiet meħuda fid-demokraziji nazzjonali jew reġjonali spiss jaffettwaw in-nies lil hinn mill-kostitwenza, li ma jkunux jistgħu jivvutaw. B'kuntrast għal dan, f'demokrazija kożmopolita, in-nies li jkunu affettwati mid-deċiżjonijiet jieħdu sehem fit-teħid tagħhom. Skont dawk li huma favur din id-demokrazija, kwalunkwe tentattiv biex tinstab soluzzjoni għall-problemi globali jmur kontra d-demokrazija jekk ma jkunx hemm xi forma ta' demokrazija kożmopolita. Il-prinċipju ġenerali tad-demokrazija kożmopolita hu li xi valuri u normi tad-demokrazija jew kollha kemm huma jitwessgħu, inkluż l-istat tad-dritt; is-soluzzjoni mhux vjolenti tal-kunflitti; u l-ugwaljanza fost iċ-ċittadini, lil hinn mil-limiti tal-istat. Sabiex din tiġi implimentat bis-sħiħ, tkun teħtieġ riformi fir-rigward tal-organizzazzjonijiet internazzjonali eżistenti, eż. in-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, kif ukoll il-ħolqien ta' istituzzjonijiet ġodda bħal Parlament Dinji, li idealment itejjeb il-kontroll pubbliku fuq il-politika internazzjonali u r-rendikont tal-għemil tal-politiċi. Id-demokrazija kożmopolita ġiet promossa, fost l-oħrajn, mill-fiżiku [[Albert Einstein]], mill-kittieb [[Kurt Vonnegut]], mill-artikolista fil-gazzetti [[George Monbiot]], u mill-Professuri [[David Held]] u [[Daniele Archibugi]]. Il-ħolqien tal-Qorti Kriminali Internazzjonali fl-2003 tqieset bħala pass kbir 'il quddiem minn bosta persuni li huma favur dan it-tip ta' demokrazija kożmopolita. ===== Demokrazija kreattiva ===== Id-demokrazija kreattiva ġiet deskritta mill-filosfu Amerikan [[John Dewey]]. L-idea prinċipali dwar id-demokrazija kreattiva hi li d-demokrazija tħeġġeġ il-bini tal-kapaċitajiet individwali u l-interazzjoni fis-soċjetà. Dewey isostni li d-demokrazija hija stil ta' ħajja fix-xogħol tiegħu msejjaħ ''Demokrazija Kreattiva: Il-Kompitu Quddiemna'' u esperjenza mibnija fuq il-fidi fin-natura umana, il-fidi fil-bnedmin u l-fidi fil-ħidma mal-oħrajn. Fil-fehma ta' Dewey, id-demokrazija hija ideal morali li tirrikjedi sforz reali u ħidma min-nies; mhijiex kunċett istituzzjonali li teżisti waħedha. Dewey jikkonkludi li "l-kompitu tad-demokrazija hija dejjem dik tal-ħolqien ta' esperjenza iktar libera u iktar umana fejn kulħadd jikkondividi u jikkontribwixxi". ===== Demokrazija ggwidata ===== Id-demokrazija ggwidata hija forma ta' demokrazija li tinkorpora elezzjonijiet popolari regolari, iżda li sikwit "tiggwida" bir-reqqa l-għażliet offruti lill-elettorat b'mod li jista' jnaqqas il-kapaċità tal-elettorat li tassew jiddetermina t-tip ta' governanza eżerċitata fuqu. Dawn id-demokraziji tipikament ikollhom awtorità ċentrali waħda li spiss ma tkunx soġġetta għal rieżami pubbliku reali minn xi awtorità governattiva oħra. L-istil Russu tad-demokrazija spiss ġie deskritt bħala "demokrazija ggwidata". Il-politiċi Russi rreferew għall-gvern tagħhom bħala li għandu ċentru wieħed ta' poter/awtorità, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-forom l-oħra ta' demokrazija li normalment jippruvaw jinkorporaw żewġ sorsi jew iktar li jikkompetu ma' xulxin fi ħdan l-istess gvern. === Tfittxija ta' fehim komuni === The search for a common approach to conceptualize, measure and compare democracy remains a challenge in modern political science. This challenge strikes through to measuring, assessing and comparing the quality of democracy, as Seva Gunitsky pointed in 2015 in the Washington Post, based upon his research for ''Ranking the World – Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance'', that measuring democracy can mislead as much as clarify – a problem for academics, policy-makers and anyone who cares about democracy. In his contribution ''Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics'' to ''Ranking the World'', he, on the example of former Soviet republics, examines fundamental problems with measures of democracy, observing that indices often disagree and occasionally draw contradictory conclusions from observing the same event. He argues, that this reflects inherent tradeoffs in conceptualizing democratic governance, which arise from fundamental normative disagreements about a highly contested concept. In 2011, Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al. proposed an approach to such conceptualization and measurement. In their paper ''Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: A New Approach'' they review some of the weaknesses among contemporary and older approaches, then lay out their approach, characterizing it as ''historical'', ''multidimensional'', ''disaggregated'', and ''transparent''. The authors propose to create a new set of four features to conceptualize and measure democracy. First, ''historical'', extending indicators of democracy back through modern history, wherever possible. Second, a ''multidimensional'' approach to the problem of conceptualizing democracy. Third, to collect information relevant to democracy at a highly ''disaggregated'' level. Fourth, ''transparent'', a strategy for data collection and presentation that should enhance the precision, validity, transparency, and legitimacy of the resulting indicators. They also sum up the conceptions, and/or aspects, of democracy into six – ''electoral'', ''liberal'', ''majoritarian'', ''participatory'', ''deliberative'', and ''egalitarian'', which taken together offer a fairly comprehensive accounting of the concept of democracy as it is employed today (see overview in the table below). {| class="wikitable" | colspan="5" | ---- |- | colspan="5" |Conceptions of democracy by Michael Coppedge, John Gerring et al., 2011 |- valign="top" | | |Principles |Question |Institutions |- | colspan="5" | ---- |- valign="top" |I. |'''Electoral''' |Contestation, competition |Are government offices filled by free and fair multiparty elections? |Elections, political parties, competitiveness and turnover |- valign="top" |II. |'''Liberal''' |Limited government, multiple veto points, horizontal accountability, individual rights, civil liberties, transparency |Is political power decentralized & constrained? |Multiple, independent, and decentralized, with special focus on the role of the media, interest groups, the judiciary, and a written constitution with explicit guarantees |- valign="top" |III. |'''Majoritarian''' |Majority rule, centralization, vertical accountability |Does the majority (or plurality) rule? |Consolidated and centralized, with special focus on the role of political parties |- valign="top" |IV. |'''Participatory''' |Government by the people |Do ordinary citizens participate in politics? |Election law, civil society, local government, direct democracy |- valign="top" |V. |'''Deliberative''' |Government by reason |Are political decisions the product of public deliberation? |Media, hearings, panels, other deliberative bodies |- valign="top" |VI. |'''Egalitarian''' |Political equality |Are all citizens equally empowered? |Designed to ensure equal participation, representation, protection, and politically relevant resources |- | colspan="5" | ---- |} === Measurement of democracy === Main article: Measurement of democracy Measurement of democracy varies according to the different fundamental conceptions of democracy. Minimalist democracy evaluations focus on free and fair elections, while maximalist democracy evaluates additional values, such as human rights, deliberation, economic outcomes or state capacity. == Demokrazija mhux governattiva == Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy. Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed Islamic democracy or ''Islamocracy''. There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff. === Demokrazija tal-azzjonisti === Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders. In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle. Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives. The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights. == Ġustifikazzjoni == Ingħataw diversi ġustifikazzjonijiet għad-demokrazija. === Leġittimità === Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. The public legitimacy of democracy varies by country, in some countries religious texts have more public support than the will of the people. === Teħid ta' deċiżjonijiet aħjar === Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution. === Suċċess ekonomiku === In ''Why Nations Fail'', economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. Unemployment is associated with anti-democratic beliefs. == Kritika == Democracy as a concept and as a practical form of government has been the subject of critique throughout history. Some critics consider that democratic regimes often fail to be true to the highest principles expected of them, while others reject the values promoted by constitutional democracy in whole or part. Opposition to democracy goes as far back as Plato, who argued for a 'government of the best qualified'. More recently, James Madison extensively studied historic attempts at and arguments on democracy in his preparation for the Constitutional Convention, and Winston Churchill remarked that "no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." Critics argue that modern democracies may fail to be sufficiently democratic and instead function in practice as oligarchies, insofar as governments are more responsive to the preferences of economic elites than to those of ordinary citizens. Numerous empirical studies across various western democracies including the United States, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Norway and Germany have consistently found that elected representatives tend to respond more to the preferences of very affluent citizens for policy outcomes than those of the average voter. Some critics of democracy have highlighted the concept's inconsistencies, paradoxes, and limits: drawing contrasts with other forms of government, such as epistocracy or lottocracy. Others have characterized most modern democracies as democratic polyarchies and democratic aristocracies. Yet others have identified fascist moments in modern democracies. They have termed the societies produced by modern democracies as neo-feudal and have contrasted democracy with fascism, anarcho-capitalism, theocracy, and absolute monarchy. == Tranżizzjonijiet demokratiċi == A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). === Demokratizzazzjoni === Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. The opposite process of democratic transition is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization. Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments could not do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns. Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:^{[''need quotation to verify'']} * a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) * an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence. Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07). A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26). Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750 to 1850 despite arguments to the contrary. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:<blockquote>The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.</blockquote>Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratization in 18 countries: Benin, Bolivia, Botswana, Bazil, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Guatemala, Lesotho, Mauritius, Montenegro, Poland, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste, Thailand, The Gambia, and Zambia. ===== Promozzjoni tad-demokrazija ===== Promotion of democracy can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing electoral integrity, youth suffrage and civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality, reducing presidentialism and aligning with median voter preferences. === Awtokratizzazzjoni === Democratic backsliding is a form of autocratization, a process of structural government transition toward authoritarianism in which the exercise of political power becomes less limited and more arbitrary and repressive. Democratic backsliding specifically assumes a starting point of a democratic system. The process typically restricts the space for public contest and political participation in the process of government selection. Democratic backsliding involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.^{[''citation needed'']} Steven Levitsky says: "It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That's asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters." The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratic backsliding in 44 countries: Afghanistan, Argentina, Armenia, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, El Salvador, Haiti, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Ivory Coast, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Libya, Mali, Madagascar, Mauretania, Mexico, Moldova, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Senegal, Serbia, Romania, Togo, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States. ===== Tfixkil ===== Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: * Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. * Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: ** Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état ** An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. * Royal coup, in which a monarch not normally involved in government seizes all power. For example, the 6 January Dictatorship, begun in 1929 when King Alexander I of Yugoslavia dismissed parliament and started ruling by decree. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. == Influwenza tal-midja == The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: * Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment * Meaningful agenda setting * Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy * Dialogue across a diverse range of views * Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power * Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved * A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience * A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. The ability to find effective political solutions to social problems is hampered when problems tend to be blamed on individuals rather than on structural causes. This person-centered focus may have far-reaching consequences not only for domestic problems but also for foreign policy when international conflicts are blamed on foreign heads of state rather than on political and economic structures. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. The responsiveness and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. In fact, studies show that false stories are going more viral than true stories. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. Reliable information sources are essential for the democratic process. Less democratic governments rely heavily on censorship, propaganda, and misinformation in order to stay in power, while independent sources of information are able to undermine their legitimacy. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Greċja antika]] tjzwnah286py7ydrus2ivb6jmzy4623 330272 330271 2026-05-28T10:38:38Z Trigcly 17859 /* Tfittxija ta' fehim komuni */ 330272 wikitext text/x-wiki Id-'''demokrazija''' hija forma ta' governanza li permezz tagħha l-poter [[Politika|politiku]] jinkiseb min-nies jew mill-popolazzjoni ta' stat. Skont definizzjoni minimalista tad-demokrazija, il-mexxejja jiġu eletti permezz ta' elezzjonijiet kompetittivi filwaqt li d-definizzjonijiet iktar wesgħin jew massimalisti jorbtu d-demokrazija mal-garanziji tal-libertajiet ċivili u d-drittijiet tal-[[bniedem]] apparti l-elezzjonijiet kompetittivi. F'demokrazija diretta, il-poplu jkollu l-awtorità diretta li jagħmel deliberazzjonijiet u li jiddeċiedi dwar il-leġiżlazzjoni. F'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, il-poplu jagħżel l-uffiċjali tal-governanza permezz ta' elezzjonijiet. Id-definizzjoni ta' "poplu" u l-modi kif l-awtorità tiġi kondiviża fi ħdan il-poplu jew iddelegata minnu nbidlu mal-milja taż-żminijiet u b'rati li jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor. Il-karatteristiċi tad-demokrazija spiss jinkludu l-libertà tal-ġemgħa, il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni, il-proprjetà personali, il-libertà tar-[[reliġjon]] u tal-[[kelma]], iċ-ċittadinanza, il-kunsens ta' dawk li jiġu ggvernati, id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni, il-libertà miċ-ċaħda governattiva mhux ġustifikata tad-dritt tal-ħajja u tal-libertà, u d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. In-nozzjoni tad-demokrazija evolviet b'mod konsiderevoli maż-żmien. Matul l-[[Storja|istorja]], wieħed jista' jsib evidenza ta' demokrazija diretta, fejn il-komunitajiet kienu jieħdu deċiżjonijiet permezz ta' ġemgħat popolari. Illum il-ġurnata, il-forma dominanti tad-demokrazija hija d-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, fejn iċ-ċittadini jeleġġu lill-uffiċjali tal-gvern biex jiggvernaw f'isimhom, pereżempju f'demokrazija parlamentari jew presidenzjali. Fil-varjant komuni tad-demokrazija liberali, is-setgħat tal-maġġoranza jiġu eżerċitati fi ħdan il-qafas ta' demokrazija rappreżentattiva, iżda l-kostituzzjoni u l-qorti suprema jillimitaw lill-maġġoranza u jipproteġu lill-minoranzi — normalment billi jiġi żgurat li kulħadd igawdi minn ċerti drittijiet individwali, bħal-libertà tal-kelma jew il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni. It-terminu tfaċċa fis-seklu 5 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]. fil-bliet-stati [[Greċja antika|Griegi]], b'mod partikolari f'[[Ateni]] Klassika, u kien ifisser "it-tmexxija tal-poplu", b'kuntrast mal-aristokrazija (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: ἀριστοκρατία, ''aristokratía''), li tfisser "it-tmexxija tal-elit". Prattikament fil-gvernijiet demokratiċi kollha tul l-istorja tal-qedem u moderna, iċ-ċittadinanza demokratika inizjalment kienet ristretta għal klassi tal-elit, li iktar 'il quddiem ġiet estiża għaċ-ċittadini adulti kollha. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, dan inkiseb permezz tal-movimenti tas-suffraġju tas-sekli 19 u 20. Id-demokrazija tikkuntrasta mal-forom ta' governanza fejn il-poter ma jinbitx mill-popolazzjoni ġenerali ta' stat, pereżempju s-sistemi awtoritarji. Storikament is-sistemi demokratiċi kienu forma rari u vulnerabbli ta' governanza, iżda dawn saru iktar prevalenti mis-seklu 19 'l hawn, b'mod partikolari permezz ta' diversi mewġiet ta' demokratizzazzjoni. Id-demokrazija għandha leġittimità konsiderevoli fid-dinja moderna, peress li l-opinjoni pubblika fir-reġjuni dinjin normalment huma favur is-sistemi demokratiċi ta' governanza meta mqabbla mal-alternattivi, u peress li saħansitra l-istati awtoritarji jippruvaw ipinġu lilhom infushom bħala demokratiċi. Id-demokrazija b'mod iktar konsistenti tirriżulta f'saħħa, f'[[edukazzjoni]] u f'eżiti ekonomiċi mtejba. Skont l-indiċijiet ta' ''V-Dem Democracy'' u l-Indiċi tad-Demokrazija ta' ''The Economist'', inqas minn nofs il-popolazzjoni tad-dinja tgħix f'demokrazija mill-2022. Fl-istess ħin, filwaqt li d-demokrazija rappreżentattivi tingħata valur siewi b'mod mifrux, iċ-Ċentru tar-Riċerka ta' Pew sab li l-garr rigward il-prestazzjoni demokratika huwa komuni saħansitra f'bosta demokraziji stabbiliti. == Karatteristiċi == Għalkemm id-demokrazija fid-demokraziji purament rappreżentattivi hija mifhuma b'rabta mal-votazzjoni, ma jeżisti l-ebda konsensus dwar definizzjoni preċiża tad-demokrazija. Jeżistu wisq approċċi. Kien hemm studju li identifika 2,234 aġġettiv li jintuża għad-deskrizzjoni tad-demokrazija bil-[[lingwa Ingliża]]. Minkejja dan, hemm fehim iktar profond – bħal dak ta' [[Abraham Lincoln]]: : ''"Governanza tan-nies, min-nies, għan-nies"'' jew dik ta' [[Karl Popper]] li ssostni li l-ħarsa "klassika" lejn id-demokrazija hi, "fil-qosor, it-teorija li d-demokrazija hija t-tmexxija tal-poplu u li l-poplu għandu d-dritt li jiggverna hu. Il-prinċipji demokratiċi huma riflessi fiċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha, ilkoll indaqs quddiem il-[[Dritt|liġi]] u lkoll b'aċċess ugwali għall-proċessi leġiżlattivi. Pereżempju, f'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, kull vot (fit-teorija) għandu l-istess piż, u l-libertà taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli hija żgurata permezz ta' drittijiet u libertajiet leġittimizzati li tipikament ikunu mnaqqxa f'kostituzzjoni, filwaqt li użi oħra tad-"demokrazija" jaf jħaddnu d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament fuq id-diversi kwistjonijiet li jinqalgħu. Skont in-[[Ġnus Magħquda|Nazzjonijiet Uniti]], id-demokrazija "tipprovdi ambjent li jirrispetta d-drittijiet tal-bniedem u l-libertajiet fundamentali, u fejn ir-rieda espressa liberament tal-poplu tiġi eżerċitata". Skont teorija partikolari d-demokrazija tirrikjedi tliet prinċipji fundamentali: il-kontroll 'il fuq (sovranità fl-iżjed livelli baxxi tal-awtorità), l-ugwaljanza politika, u n-normi soċjali li permezz tagħhom l-individwi u l-istituzzjonijiet iqisu biss atti aċċettabbli li jirriflettu l-ewwel żewġ prinċipji tal-kontroll 'il fuq u l-ugwaljanza politika. L-ugwaljanza legali, il-libertà politika u l-istat ta' dritt sikwit jiġu identifikati bħala l-karatteristiċi ewlenin ta' demokrazija li tiffunzjona sew. F'xi pajjiżi, b'mod partikolari fir-[[Renju Unit]] (minn fejn oriġinat is-sistema ta' Westminster), il-prinċipju dominanti hu dak tas-sovranità Parlamentari, filwaqt li tinżamm l-indipendenza ġudizzjarja. Fl-[[Indja]], is-sovranità Parlamentari hija soġġetta għall-Kostituzzjoni tal-Indja li tinkludi rieżami ġudizzjarju. Għalkemm it-terminu "demokrazija" tipikament jintuża fil-kuntest ta' stat politiku, il-prinċipji wkoll huma applikabbli potenzjalment għall-organizzazzjonijiet privati, bħal klabbs, għaqdiet u ditti. Id-demokraziji jistgħu jużaw bosta metodi differenti ta' teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet, iżda t-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hija l-forma dominanti. Mingħajr kumpens, bħal protezzjonijiet legali tad-drittijiet individwali jew kollettivi, il-minoranzi politiċi jistgħu jiġu mgħakksa mit-"tirannija tal-maġġoranza". It-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza tinvolvi approċċ kompetittiv, għad-differenza tad-demokrazija tal-konsensus, u b'hekk tinħoloq il-ħtieġa li l-elezzjonijiet, u ġeneralment id-deliberazzjoni, ikunu sostantivament u proċeduralment "ġusti" u ekwi. Fżxi pajjiżi, il-libertà tal-espressjoni politika, il-libertà tal-kelma u l-libertà tal-istampa jitqiesu bħala importanti biex jiġi żgurat li l-votanti jkunu infurmati sew, u b'hekk ikunu jistgħu jivvutaw skont l-interessi u t-twemmin tagħhom stess. Ġie ssuġġerit ukoll li karatteristika bażika tad-demokrazija hija l-kapaċità li l-votanti kollha jipparteċipaw b'mod ħieles u sħiħ fil-[[ħajja]] tas-soċjetà tagħhom. Bl-enfasi fuq in-nozzjonijiet tal-kuntratt soċjali u r-rieda kollettiva tal-votanti kollha, id-demokrazija tista' tkun ikkaratterizzata wkoll bħala forma ta' kollettiviżmu politiku peress li tiġi definita bħala forma ta' governanza fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom vuċi ugwali fit-tfassil tal-liġijiet. Ir-repubbliki, għalkemm spiss ikunu assoċjati popolarment mad-demokrazija minħabba l-prinċipju kondiviż tal-kunsens mogħti minn dawk li jiġu ggvernati għat-tmexxija, mhux neċessarjament ikunu demokraziji, għax ir-repubblikaniżmu ma jispeċifikax ''kif'' in-nies għandhom imexxu. Tradizzjonalment it-terminu "repubblika" kien iħaddan kemm id-demokraziji kif ukoll l-aristokraziji u l-varjanti tagħhom. F'sens modern, il-forma ta' governanza repubblikana hija forma ta' governanza mingħajr monarka. Minħabba f'hekk, id-demokraziji jistgħu jkunu repubbliki jew monarkiji kostituzzjonali, bħar-Renju Unit, fejn il-monarka ma jkunx il-mexxej. == Storja == Il-ġemgħat demokratiċi għandhom żmien daqs kemm għandha żmien l-ispeċi umana u ilhom jeżistu tul l-istorja umana, iżda sas-seklu 19, il-figuri [[Politiku|politiċi]] ewlenin fil-biċċa l-kbira opponew id-demokrazija. It-teoriċi repubblikani rabtu d-demokrazija ma' daqs ċkejken: iktar ma kienu jikbru fid-daqs l-unitajiet politiċi, iktar kienet tiżdied il-probabbiltà li l-gvern isir tiranniku. Fl-istess waqt, l-unitajiet politiċi żgħar kienu vulnerabbli għall-ħakma. Montesquieu kiteb, "Jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered mill-imperfezzjoni interna". Skont ix-xjenzat politiku tal-Università ta' Johns Hopkins [[Daniel Deudney]], il-ħolqien tal-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]], bid-daqs kbir u s-sistema ta' kontrolli u bilanċi tagħha, kienet soluzzjoni għall-problemi doppji tad-daqs. Fis-soċjetajiet ta' madwar id-dinja seħħew forom ta' demokrazija b'mod organiku li ma kellhom l-ebda kuntatt ma' xulxin. === Oriġini === ==== [[Greċja]] u [[Ruma]] ==== It-terminu ''demokrazija'' tfaċċa għall-ewwel darba fil-ħsieb politiku u [[Filosofija|filosofiku]] tal-Greċja Antika fil-belt-stat ta' Ateni fl-antikità klassika. Il-kelma ġejja minn ''dêmos'' li tfisser "nies (komuni)" u minn ''krátos'' li tfisser "qawwa/setgħa". Taħt Cleisthenes, f'Ateni ġie stabbilit dak li huwa maħsub bħala l-ewwel eżempju ta' tip ta' demokrazija fis-seklu 6 Q.K. (508–507 Q.K.). Cleisthenes huwa meqjus bħala "l-missier tad-demokrazija ta' Ateni". L-ewwel użu attestat tal-kelma demokrazija jinsab fix-xogħlijiet ta' proża tal-ħabta tal-430 Q.K., bħall-''Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, iżda l-użu tagħha kien eqdem b'diversi deċennji, peress li żewġ persuni minn Ateni li twieldu għall-ħabta tal-470 Q.K. kien jisimhom Democrates, isem politiku ġdid — x'aktarx b'appoġġ għad-demokrazija — li ngħata fi żmien ta' dibattiti dwar kwistjonijiet kostituzzjonali f'Ateni. Aeschylus jalludi bis-saħħa wkoll għall-kelma fid-dramm tiegħu ''Is-Supplikanti'', li ttella' għall-ħabta tal-463 Q.K., fejn isemmi "l-id tat-tmexxija tal-kotra" [''demou kratousa cheir'']. Qabel dak iż-żmien, il-kelma li kienet tiddefinixxi s-sistema politika ġdida ta' Cleisthenes x'aktarx li kienet ''isonomija'', li tfisser ugwaljanza politika. Id-demokrazija ta' Ateni ħadet is-sura ta' demokrazija diretta, u kellha żewġ karatteristiċi li jiddistingwuha: l-għażla aleatorja ta' ċittadini ordinarji biex jimlew il-ftit karigi amministrattivi u ġudizzjarji eżistenti tal-gvern, u ġemgħa leġiżlattiva li kienet tikkonsisti mill-maġġoranza taċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha kienu jitħallew jitkellmu u jivvutaw fil-ġemgħa jew fl-assemblea, fejn kienu jiġu stabbiliti l-liġijiet tal-belt-stat. Madankollu, iċ-ċittadinanza ta' Ateni ma kinitx tingħata lin-[[Mara|nisa]], lill-[[Skjavitù|ilsiera]], lill-barranin (μέτοικοι / ''métoikoi''), u liż-żgħażagħ taħt l-età tas-servizz militari. Effettivament, resident wieħed minn kull erba' f'Ateni kienu jikkwalifikaw bħala ċittadini. Is-sjieda tal-art ma kinitx rekwiżit għaċ-ċittadinanza. L-esklużjoni ta' partijiet kbar tal-popolazzjoni mill-korp taċ-ċittadini hija marbuta mill-qrib mal-fehim tal-qedem taċ-ċittadinanza. Fil-biċċa l-kbira ta' żmien il-qedem, il-benefiċċju taċ-ċittadinanza kien marbut mal-obbligu tal-ġlied fil-kampanji militari. Id-demokrazija ta' Aterni mhux biss kienet ''diretta'' fis-sens li d-deċiżjonijiet kienu jittieħdu mill-ġemgħa, iżda anke l-''iżjed diretta'' fis-sens li l-ġemgħa permezz tal-istrutturi bħall-assemblea, is-senat u l-qrati legali kienet tikkontrolla l-proċess politiku kollu u proporzjon kbir taċ-ċittadini kienu jkunu involuti b'mod kostanti fl-affarijiet pubbliċi. Minkejja li d-drittijiet tal-individwu ma kinux żgurati mill-kostituzzjoni ta' Ateni fis-sens modern (il-Griegi tal-qedem ma kellhomx kelma għal "drittijiet"), dawk li kienu ċittadini ta' Ateni kienu jgawdu l-libertajiet tagħhom mhux f'oppożizzjoni għall-gvern iżda billi jgħixu f'belt li ma kinitx soġġetta għal xi setgħa oħra u billi huma stess ma kinux soġġetti għat-tmexxija ta' ħaddieħor. Il-votazzjoni tfaċċat fi [[Sparta]] saħansitra fis-700 Q.K. L-ekkleżjastiċi ta' Sparta kienu ġemgħa tal-poplu, li kienet tiltaqa' darba fix-xahar, fejn kull ċittadini maskili ta' mill-inqas 20 sena seta' jipparteċipa. Fl-assemblea, l-Ispartani kienu jeleġġu l-mexxejja u jixħtu l-voti tagħhom bl-għajjat (il-votazzjoni kienet tiġi deċiża skont l-ikbar għajta tal-folla). [[Aristotli]] ddeskriva dan il-metodu bħala "tat-tfal", meta mqabbel mas-sistema tal-votazzjoni fuq poloz tal-ġebel użata miċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Sparta adottat din is-sistema minħabba s-sempliċità tagħha, u biex jiġi evitat kull tip ta' preġudizzju, xiri jew qerq fil-votazzjoni, li kienu predominanti fl-elezzjonijiet demokratiċi bikrin. Barra minn hekk, id-depożizzjoni tar-Renju Ruman ħolqot sistema b'element demokratiku fil-forma ta' bosta ġemgħat popolari differenti. Minkejja li r-Repubblika Rumana tat kontribut sinifikanti għal bosta aspetti tad-demokrazija, frazzjon biss mir-Rumani kienu ċittadini li kellhom il-vot fl-elezzjonijiet għall-maġistrati. Il-voti tas-setgħana kienu jingħataw iktar piż permezz ta' sistema ta' votazzjoni ponderata, għaldaqstant il-biċċa l-kbira tal-uffiċjali għoljin, inkluż il-membri tas-Senat, kienu jiġu minn ftit familji għonja u nobbli. Il-mudell Ruman ta' governanza ispira bosta ħassieba politiċi tul is-sekli. ==== Indja tal-qedem ==== Vaishali, il-[[belt kapitali]] tal-Lega ta' Vajjika (Vrijji mahajanapada) tal-Indja, titqies bħala wieħed mill-ewwel eżempji ta' repubblika għall-ħabta tas-seklu 6 Q.K. ==== Amerki ==== [[Kultura|Kulturi]] oħra, bħall-Iroquois fl-Amerki, żviluppaw ukoll forma ta' soċjetà demokratika bejn l-1450 u l-1660 (u possibbilment fl-1142), ferm qabel ma kellhom kuntatt mal-[[Ewropa|Ewropej]]. Din id-demokrazija għadha preżenti sal-lum u hija l-iżjed demokrazija rappreżentattiva antika eżistenti fid-dinja. === [[Medjuevu|Medju Evu]] === Filwaqt li l-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjuni fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu kienu mmexxijin mill-kleru jew minn sinjuri fewdali, kienu jeżistu diversi sistemi li kienu jinvolvu l-elezzjonijiet jew il-ġemgħat, għalkemm spiss kienu jinvolvu parti żgħira mill-popolazzjoni. Fl-Iskandinavja, kien hemm korpi magħrufa ta' nies ħielsa ppreseduti minn kelliem tal-liġi. Dawn il-korpi ta' deliberazzjoni kienu responsabbli għas-soluzzjoni ta' kwistjonijiet politiċi, u xi varjanti kienu jinkludu l-Althing fl-[[Iżlanda]] u l-Løgting fil-[[Gżejjer Faroe|Gżejjer Faeroe]]. Il-''veche'', fil-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]], kien korp simili għal dawk tal-Iskandinavja. Fil-[[Knisja Kattolika]] Rumana, il-[[Papa]] ilu jiġi elett minn [[konklav]] Papali magħmul mill-kardinali mill-1059. L-ewwel korp Parlamentari ddokumentat fl-Ewropa kien il-Cortes ta' [[León]]. Stabbilit minn [[Alfonsu IX|Alfonso IX]] fl-1188, il-Cortes kellu l-awtorità għall-iffissar tat-tassazzjoni, għall-affarijiet barranin u għal-leġiżlazzjoni, għalkemm in-natura eżatta tar-rwol tiegħu għadha kkontestata. Ir-Repubblika ta' [[Ragusa]], stabbilita fl-1358 u ċċentrata madwar il-belt ta' [[Dubrovnik]], ipprovdiet drittijiet ta' rappreżentanza u ta' votazzjoni lill-aristokrazija maskili tagħha biss. Diversi bliet-stati u sistemi ta' governanza Taljani kellhom forom ta' governanza repubblikani. Pereżempju, ir-Repubblika ta' [[Firenze]], stabbilita fl-1115, kienet immexxija mis-Signoria u l-membri tagħha kienu jintgħażlu bix-xorti. Fil-Frisja tas-sekli 10–15, soċjetà mhux fewdali distinta, id-dritt tal-votazzjoni dwar kwistjonijiet lokali u dwar l-uffiċjali tal-kontea kien ibbażat fuq id-daqs tal-art. Il-''Kouroukan Fouga'' qasam l-Imperu tal-[[Mali]] fi klans tat-tmexxija li kienu rrappreżentati f'ġemgħa kbira msejħa l-''Gbara''. Madankollu, id-dokument wassal biex il-Mali jkun iktar simili għal monarkija kostituzzjonali milli repubblika demokratika. Il-Parlament tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] kellu l-għeruq tiegħu fir-restrizzjonijiet tal-poter tar-rejiet miktubin fil-''Magna Carta'' (1215), li b'mod espliċitu ħarset ċerti drittijiet tas-sudditi tar-Re u b'mod impliċitu appoġġat dak li mbagħad sar id-digriet Ingliż tal-''habeas corpus'', li jissalvagwardja l-libertà individwali mill-ħabs illegali u li jagħti d-dritt tal-appell. L-ewwel assemblea nazzjonali rappreżentattiva fl-Ingilterra kienet il-Parlament ta' [[Simon de Montfort]] fl-1265. Il-preżenza tat-tressiq tal-petizzjonijiet hija fost l-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-użu tal-Parlament bħala forum biex jiġi indirizzat it-tħassib ġenerali tan-nies ordinarji. Madankollu, is-setgħa tas-sejħa tal-Parlament baqgħet f'idejn il-monarka. Xi studji kkollegaw l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjonijiet Parlamentari fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu mal-agglomerazzjonijiet urbani u mal-ħolqien ta' klassijiet ġodda, bħall-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]], kif ukoll mal-preżenza tan-nobbli u tal-eliti reliġjużi. L-istudjużi kkollegaw ukoll l-istabbiliment tal-governanza rappreżentattiva mal-frammentazzjoni politika relattiva tal-Ewropa. Ix-xjenzat politiku [[David Stasavage]] jikkollega l-frammentazzjoni tal-Ewropa, u d-demokratizzazzjoni sussegwenti tagħha, mal-mod kif sfaxxa l-[[Imperu Ruman]]: it-territorju Ruman inħakem minn gruppi frammentati żgħar ta' tribujiet Ġermaniċi, u dan wassal għall-ħolqien ta' unitajiet politiċi żgħar fejn il-mexxejja kienu relattivament dgħajfin u kienu jeħtieġu l-kunsens taċ-ċittadini tagħhom biex jifilħu għat-theddidiet barranin. Fil-[[Polonja]], id-demokrazija nobbli kienet ikkaratterizzata minn żieda fl-attività tan-nobbiltà nofsanija, li riedet iżżid is-sehem tagħha fl-eżerċitar tal-poter għas-spejjeż tal-manjati. Il-manjati ddominaw l-iżjed karigi importanti fl-istat (lajċi u ekkleżjastiċi) u kienu jinġabru fil-kunsill irjali, li iktar 'il quddiem sar is-senat. L-importanza dejjem tikber tan-nobbiltà nofsanija kellha impatt fuq l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjoni tal-art magħrufa bħala s-''sejmik'' (assemblea lokali), li sussegwentement kisbet iktar drittijiet. Matul is-seklu 15 u l-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 16, is-sejmiks ingħataw iktar u iktar poter u saru l-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tal-poter lokali. Fl-1454, [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] ta lis-sejmiks id-dritt li jiddeċiedu dwar it-taxxi u li jorganizzaw mobilizzazzjoni tal-massa fl-Istatuti ta' Nieszawa. Huwa wiegħed ukoll li ma kienx se joħloq liġijiet ġodda mingħajr il-kunsens tagħhom. === Era moderna === ==== Perjodu modern bikri ==== Fl-Ingilterra tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta. Il-Parlament tal-Ingilterra għadda l-Petizzjoni tad-Drittijiet fl-1628 li stabbiliet ċerti libertajiet għas-sudditi. Il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża (1642–1651) ġiet miġġielda bejn ir-Re u Parlament oligarkiku iżda elett, u matul dan iż-żmien iffurmat l-idea ta' partit politiku, bi gruppi jiddibattu d-drittijiet għar-rappreżentanza politika matul id-Dibattiti ta' Putney tal-1647. Sussegwentement, il-Protettorat (1653–59) u l-Integrazzjoni mill-Ġdid Ingliża (1660) integraw iktar tmexxija awtokratika, għalkemm il-Parlament għadda l-Att dwar il-''Habeas Corpus'' fl-1679 li saħħaħ il-konvenzjoni li pprojbixxiet id-detenzjoni mingħajr biżżejjed raġunijiet jew evidenza. Wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688, il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet ġiet ippromulgata fl-1689 u din ikkodifikat ċerti drittijiet u libertajiet u għadha fis-seħħ. Il-liġi stabbiliet ir-rekwiżiti li jsiru elezzjonijiet regolari, ir-regoli għal-libertà tal-kelma fil-Parlament u limitat il-poter tal-monarka, u b'hekk żgurat, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-Ewropa ta' dak iż-żmien, li l-assolutiżmu rjali ma jipprevalix. L-istoriċi ekonomiċi [[Douglass North]] u [[Barry Weingast]] ikkaratterizzaw l-istituzzjonijiet implimentati fir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża bħala suċċess kbir f'termini tar-restrizzjonijiet tal-governanza u l-iżgurar tal-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet tal-proprjetà. L-interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta, il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża, u r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża fis-seklu 17 xprunaw it-tkabbir ta' filosofija politika fil-Gżejjer Brittaniċi. [[Thomas Hobbes]] kien l-ewwel filosfu li fassal teorija dettaljata dwar il-kuntratt soċjali. Fil-''Leviathan'' (1651), Hobbes ħareġ bit-teorija li l-individwi li jgħixu fin-natura kienu jgħixu ħajja "solitarja, fqira, kerha, iebsa u qasira" u kienu jagħmlu gwerer kontinwi kontra kulħadd. Sabiex tiġi evitata l-okkorrenza tal-istat anarkiku tan-natura, Hobbes irraġuna li l-individwi kienu jċedu d-drittijiet tagħhom lil qawwa awtoritarja setgħana. Fi kliem ieħor, Hobbes tkellem favur monarkija assoluta, li fl-opinjoni tiegħu kienet l-aqwa forma ta' governanza. Iktar 'il quddiem, il-filosfu u t-[[tabib]] [[John Locke]] ħareġ b'interpretazzjoni differenti dwar it-teorija tal-kuntratt soċjali. Fiż-''Żewġ Trattati tal-Governanza'' (1689) tiegħu, Locke sostna li l-individwi kollha kellhom id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għall-proprjetà. Skont Locke, l-individwi kienu jinġabru volontarjament flimkien biex jiffurmaw stat bl-għan li jiddefendu drittijiethom. Għal Locke kienu partikolarment importanti d-drittijiet tal-proprjetà, li skont Locke kienu jirrikjedu l-ħarsien, li kien l-iskop primarju tal-gvern. Barra minn hekk, Locke sostna li l-gvernijiet kienu leġittimi biss jekk kellhom il-kunsens ta' dawk li kienu ggvernati. Skont Locke, iċ-ċittadini kellhom id-dritt jirribellaw kontra l-gvern jekk dan kien jaġixxi kontra l-interessi tagħhom jew isir tiranniku. Għalkemm ma tantx kienu moqrija matul ħajtu, ix-xogħlijiet ta' Locke jitqiesu bħala d-dokumenti li jsejsu l-ħsieb liberali u influwenzaw ferm il-mexxejja tar-Rivoluzzjoni Amerikana u iktar 'il quddiem ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża]]. Il-qafas demokratiku liberali tiegħu tal-governanza għadu l-forma ewlenija tad-demokrazija fid-dinja. Fir-repubbliki tal-Cossack tal-[[Ukrajna]] fis-sekli 16 u 17, l-Etmanat tal-Cossack u s-Sich ta' Zaporizhia, id-detentur tal-ogħla kariga ta' Hetman kien jiġi elett mir-rappreżentanti tad-distretti tal-pajjiż. Fl-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]], il-governanza rappreżentattiva bdiet f'Jamestown, Virginia, bl-elezzjoni tal-Kamra tal-Burgesses (il-prekursur tal-Assemblea Ġenerali ta' Virginia) fl-1619. Il-Puritani Ingliżi li għamlu migrazzjoni mill-1620 stabbilew kolonji f'New England, fejn kien hemm governanza lokali demokratika; il-poter ta' dawn l-assemblej lokali kien ivarja ferm tul il-perjodu kolonjali. Madankollu, uffiċjalment kellhom ammonti żgħar ta' poter devolut, peress li l-awtorità aħħarija kienet f'idejn il-monarkija u l-Parlament. Il-Puritani, il-Battisti u l-Quakers li stabbilew dawn il-kolonji applikaw l-organizzazzjoni demokratika tal-kongregazzjonijiet tagħhom anke għall-amministrazzjoni tal-komunitajiet tagħhom fil-ħajja ta' kuljum. ==== Sekli 18 u 19 ==== L-ewwel Parlament tal-Gran Brittanja ġie stabbilit fl-1707, wara l-fużjoni tar-Renju tal-Ingilterra u r-Renju tal-[[Skozja|Iskozja]] skont l-Atti tal-Unjoni. Żewġ dokumenti ewlenin tal-kostituzzjoni mhux kodifikata tar-Renju Unit, id-Dikjarazzjoni Ingliża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689 (imsejħa mill-ġdid bħala l-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689) u d-Dikjarazzjoni Skoċċiża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689, it-tnejn li huma kienu kkonsolidaw il-pożizzjoni tal-Parlament bħala l-korp suprem tat-tfassil tal-liġijiet u kienu jgħidu li "l-elezzjoni tal-membri tal-Parlament kellha tkun ħielsa". Madankollu, il-Parlament kien jiġi elett biss mis-sidien tal-art maskili, li kienu jammontaw għal 3 % tal-popolazzjoni fl-1780. L-ewwel persuna Brittanika magħrufa ta' nisel Afrikan li vvota f'elezzjoni ġenerali, [[Ignatius Sancho]], ivvota fl-1774 u fl-1780. Matul l-Era tal-Libertà fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] (1718–1772), id-drittijiet ċivili twessgħu u l-poter għadda mingħand il-monarka għall-Parlament. Ir-raħħala intaxxati kienu rrappreżentati fil-Parlament, għalkemm ma tantx kellhom influwenza, iżda n-nies komuni mingħajr proprjetà intaxxata ma kellhomx suffraġju. Il-ħolqien ta' Repubblika ta' [[Korsika]] ta' għomorha qasir fl-1755 kien tentattiv bikri li tiġi adottata kostituzzjoni demokratika (setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel u n-nisa kollha li kellhom iktar minn 25 sena). Din il-Kostituzzjoni ta' Korsika kienet l-ewwel waħda bbażata fuq il-prinċipji tal-Illuminiżmu u kienet tinkludi s-suffraġju femminili, xi ħaġa li ma kinitx inkluża fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji l-oħra sas-seklu 20. L-Amerka kolonjali kellha kwalifikazzjonijiet simili dwar il-proprjetà bħall-Brittanja, u fil-perjodu qabel l-1776 l-abbundanza u d-disponibbiltà tal-art kienet tfisser li għadd kbir ta' kolonjalisti kienu jissodisfaw tali rekwiżiti b'mill-inqas 60 fil-mija tal-irġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda li setgħu jivvutaw. Il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda kienu [[Bidwi|bdiewa]] li kienu jissodisfaw ir-rekwiżiti tas-sjieda tal-proprjetà jew tal-ħlas tat-taxxa. Bi ftit eċċezzjonijiet, l-ebda mara jew persuna b'karnaġjon sewda ma setgħu jivvutaw. Vermont, li malli ddikjarat l-indipendenza mill-Gran Brittanja fl-1777, adottat kostituzzjoni mmudellata fuq iċ-ċittadinanza u s-suffraġju demokratiku ta' Pennsylvania għall-irġiel bi proprjetà jew mingħajr proprjetà. Il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti tal-1787 hija l-eqdem kostituzzjoni governattiva kkodifikata li għadha teżisti u li għadha attiva. Il-Kostituzzjoni kienet tipprevedi gvern elett u protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet ċivili, iżda ma temmitx il-jasar u lanqas ma estendiet id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni fl-Istati Uniti, u minflok ħalliet il-kwistjoni tas-suffraġju f'idejn l-istati individwali. Ġeneralment, l-istati llimitaw is-suffraġju għas-sidien tal-proprjetà maskili u għal dawk li jħallsu t-taxxi ta' karnaġjon bajda. Meta kien hemm l-ewwel elezzjoni Presidenzjali fl-1789, madwar 6 % tal-popolazzjoni kienet eliġibbli biex tivvota. L-Att dwar in-Naturalizzazzjoni tal-1790 illimita ċ-ċittadinanza Amerikana lill-persuni ta' karnaġjon bajda biss. Il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet fl-1791 stabbiliet limiti fuq il-poter tal-gvern sabiex tħares il-libertajiet personali iżda kellha ftit impatt fuq is-sentenzi tal-qrati għall-ewwel 130 sena wara r-ratifika. Fl-1789, [[Franza]] Rivoluzzjonarja adottat id-Dikjarazzjoni tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem u taċ-Ċittadini, u għalkemm għomorha kien qasir, il-Konvenzjoni Nazzjonali kienet eletta mill-irġiel kollha biss fl-1792. Il-Kostituzzjoni Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]] tat-3 ta' Mejju 1791 ippruvat timplimenta monarkija kostituzzjonali iktar effettiva, introduċiet l-ugwaljanza politika bejn iċ-ċittadini u n-nobbli, u poġġiet ir-raħħala taħt il-protezzjoni tal-gvern, u b'hekk taffiet l-agħar abbużi kontra r-raħħala. Din damet fis-seħħ għal inqas minn 19-il xahar, u ġiet iddikjarata nulla mis-Sejm ta' Grodno li ltaqa' fl-1793. Minkejja dan, il-Kostituzzjoni tal-1791 għenet biex l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Pollakki jibqgħu ħajjin għar-restawr eventwali tas-sovranità tal-pajjiż iktar minn seklu wara. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1828 kienet l-ewwel waħda li fiha setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda li ma kinux sidien tal-proprjetà fil-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-istati. L-ammont ta' nies li ħarġu jivvutaw żdied matul is-snin 30 tas-seklu 19, u laħaq madwar 80 % tal-popolazzjoni ta' rġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda fl-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1840. North Carolina kien l-aħħar stat li abolixxa l-kwalifazzjoni abbażi tal-proprjetà fl-1856 u dan wassal għal approssimazzjoni tas-suffraġju universali tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda (madankollu r-rekwiżiti tal-ħlas tat-taxxa baqgħu jeżistu f'ħames stati fl-1860 u baqgħu jeżistu f'żewġ stati sas-seklu 20). Fiċ-ċensiment tal-Istati Uniti tal-1860, il-popolazzjoni tal-iskjavi kienet kibret għal 4 miljuni, u fir-Rikostruzzjoni wara l-Gwerra Ċivili, għaddew tliet emendi kostituzzjonali: it-13-il Emenda (1865) li temmet l-iskjavitù; l-14-il Emenda (1869) li tat iċ-ċittadinanza lin-nies ta' karnaġjon sewda, u l-15-il Emenda (1870) lil tat lill-irġiel ta' karnaġjon sewda d-dritt nominali biex jivvutaw. L-involviment sħiħ taċ-ċittadini kollha ma ġiex żgurat sa wara li l-moviment tad-drittijiet ċivili kiseb l-approvazzjoni mill-Kungress tal-Istati Uniti fir-rigward tal-Att dwar id-Drittijiet tal-Votazzjoni tal-1965. Id-dritt tal-votazzjoni fir-Renju Unit twessa' u sar iktar uniformi permezz ta' sensiela ta' riformi li bdew bl-Att dwar ir-Riformi tal-1832 u komplew fis-seklu 20, b'mod partikolari bl-Att dwar ir-Rappreżentanza tan-Nies tal-1918 u l-Att dwar l-Ugwaljanza tal-1928. Is-suffraġju maskili universali ġie stabbilit fi Franza f'Marzu 1848 fid-dawl tar-Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża tal-1848. Matul dik is-sena, faqqgħu diversi rivoluzzjonijiet fl-Ewropa peress li l-mexxejja kellhom ilaħħqu mad-domandi popolari għall-kostituzzjonijiet liberali u għal iktar governanza demokratika. Fl-1876, l-[[Imperu Ottoman]] għadda minn monarkija assoluta għal waħda kostituzzjonali, u organizza żewġ elezzjonijiet is-sena ta' wara biex jeleġġi membri fil-Parlament li kien għadu kemm ġie ffurmat. Inħarġu Regolamenti Elettorali Proviżorji, li kienu jiddikjaraw li l-membri eletti tal-Kunsilli Amministrattivi Provinċjali kellhom jeleġġu l-membri għall-ewwel Parlament. Iktar tard dik is-sena, ġiet ippromulgata kostituzzjoni ġdida, li kienet tipprevedi l-istabbiliment ta' Parlament bikamerali b'Senat maħtur mis-Sultan u Kamra tad-Deputati eletta mill-poplu. Kienu jitħallew jikkontestaw għall-elezzjoni l-irġiel biss li kellhom iktar minn 30 sena u li kienu midħla tat-Tork u li kellhom drittijiet ċivili sħaħ. Fost ir-raġunijiet ta' skwalifika kien hemm iż-żamma ta' ċittadinanza doppja, ir-reklutaġġ minn gvern barrani, il-falliment monetarju, l-impjieg bħala qaddej, jew "ir-reputazzjoni tat-twettiq ta' azzjonijiet ħżiena". Is-suffraġju universali sħiħ inkiseb fl-1934. Fl-1893, il-kolonja bl-awtogovernanza ta' [[New Zealand]] saret l-ewwel pajjiż fid-dinja (għajr għar-Repubblika ta' Korsika b'għomorha qasir tas-seklu 18 li stabbiliet is-suffraġju universali attiv billi n-nisa ngħataw id-dritt tal-votazzjoni. ==== Sekli 20 u 21 ==== It-tranżizzjonijiet tas-seklu 20 lejn id-demokrazija liberali waslu f'"mewġiet suċċessivi tad-demokrazija", u rriżultaw b'modi differenti minn gwerer, rivoluzzjonijiet, dekolonizzazzjoni, u ċirkostanzi reliġjużi u ekonomiċi. Il-mewġiet globali ta' "regressjoni demokratika" li reġġgħu lura d-demokratizzazzjoni seħħew ukoll fis-snin 20 u 30 tas-seklu 20, fis-snin 60 u 70 tas-seklu 20 u fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21. [[L-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]] u x-xoljiment tal-[[Imperu Ottoman]] u tal-Imperu Awstro-Ungariku wasslu għall-ħolqien ta' nazzjonijiet-stati ġodda fl-Ewropa, u l-biċċa l-kbira minnhom kienu mill-inqas nominalment demokratiċi. Fis-snin 20 tas-seklu 20 tkattru l-movimenti demokratiċi u s-suffraġju universali avvanza, iżda d-Dipressjoni l-Kbira ġabet magħha diżillużjoni u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Ewropa, tal-Amerka Latina u tal-[[Asja]] daru għat-tmexxija ta' rġiel b'saħħithom jew dittaturi. Il-Faxxiżmu u d-dittaturi tkattru fil-[[Ġermanja]] Nażista, fl-[[Italja]], fi [[Spanja]] u fil-[[Portugall]], kif ukoll il-gvernijiet mhux demokratiċi fil-Baltiċi, fil-Balkani, fil-[[Brażil]], f'[[Kuba]], fiċ-[[Ċina]] u fil-[[Ġappun]] fost l-oħrajn. [[It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija]] ġabet magħha treġġigħ lura definittiv ta' din it-tendenza fil-Punent tal-Ewropa. Id-demokratizzazzjoni tas-setturi Amerikani, Brittaniċi u Franċiżi tal-Ġermanja okkupata (għalkemm xi sorsi jikkontestaw dan il-punt), tal-[[Awstrija]], tal-[[Italja]], u tal-[[Ġappun]] okkupat serviet bħala mudell għat-teorija li ġiet wara tal-bidla fil-gvern. Madankollu, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Lvant tal-Ewropa, inkluż is-settur [[Unjoni Sovjetika|Sovjetiku]] tal-Ġermanja, sfat fit-territorju mhux demokratiku ddominat mis-Sovjetiċi. Wara l-gwerra kien hemm id-dekolonizzazzjoni, u mill-ġdid il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istati indipendenti ġodda kellhom kostituzzjonijiet nominalment demokratiċi. L-Indja feġġet bħala l-ikbar demokrazija fid-dinja u għadha fit-tmun. Il-pajjiżi li fl-imgħoddi kienu parti mill-Imperu Brittanika, spiss adottaw is-sistema Brittanika ta' Westminster. Fl-1948, id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem irrekjediet id-demokrazija:<blockquote>3. Ir-rieda tan-nies għandha tkun il-bażi tal-awtorità tal-governanza; din għandha tkun espressa f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom jkunu b'suffraġju universali u ugwali u dan għandu jiġi espress f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom isiru b'suffraġju universali u ndaqs u għandhom isiru permezz ta' votazzjoni sigrieta u jew bi proċeduri ekwivalenti ta' votazzjoni ħielsa.</blockquote>— Id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem, l-Artikolu 21, in-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, fl-1948 Sal-1960, il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-pajjiżi-stati nominalment kienu demokraziji, għalkemm il-biċċa l-kbira tal-popolazzjonijiet tad-dinja kienu jgħixu f'demokraziji nominali li esperjenzaw elezzjonijiet taparsi, u forom oħra ta' qerq (b'mod partikolari fl-istati "[[Komuniżmu|Komunisti]]" u l-eks kolonji). Mewġa sussegwenti ta' demokratizzazzjoni ġabet magħha kisbiet sostanzjali favur demokrazija liberali ta' vera għal bosta stati, u din ġiet imlaqqma bħala t-"tielet mewġa ta' demokrazija". Il-Portugall, Spanja u diversi mid-dittaturi militari fl-[[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t'Isfel]] reġgħu lura għat-tmexxija ċivili fis-snin 70 u 80 tas-seklu 20. Din ġiet segwita minn pajjiżi fil-Lvant u fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja sa nofs u l-aħħar tas-snin 80 tas-seklu 20. L-għawġ ekonomiku fis-snin 80 tas-seklu 20, flimkien mal-garr minħabba l-oppressjoni Sovjetika, wasslu għall-isfaxxar tal-Unjoni Sovjetika, it-tmiem assoċjata tal-[[Gwerra Bierda]], u d-demokratizzazzjoni u l-liberalizzazzjoni tal-pajjiżi tal-Lvant tal-eks Unjoni Sovjetika. L-iżjed demokraziji mid-demokraziji l-ġodda li kellhom suċċess kienu dawk li [[Ġeografija|ġeografikament]] u [[Kultura|kulturalment]] kienu l-eqreb tal-Punent tal-Ewropa, u li issa huma parti mill-[[Unjoni Ewropea]] jew huma pajjiżi kandidati. Fl-1986, wara li waqgħet l-iżjed dittatura Asjatika prominenti, l-uniku stat demokratiku tax-xorta tiegħu dak iż-żmien feġġ fil-[[Filippini]] bil-wasla ta' [[Corazon Aquino]], li iktar 'il quddiem saret magħrufa bħala omm id-demokrazija Asjatika. Ix-xejra liberali nfirxet f'uħud mill-istati Afrikani fis-snin 90 tas-seklu 20, l-iktar fl-[[Afrika t'Isfel]]. Xi eżempji reċenti ta' tentattivi ta' liberalizzazzjoni jinkludu r-Rivoluzzjoni [[Indoneżja|Indoneżjana]] tal-1998, ir-Rivoluzzjoni bil-Gafef fil-[[Jugoslavja]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ward fil-[[Ġeorġja|Georgia]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni Oranġjo fl-[[Ukrajna]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni taċ-Ċedru fil-[[Libanu]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tat-Tulipani fil-[[Kirgiżistan]] u r-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ġiżimin fit-[[Tuneżija]]. Skont Freedom House, fl-2007 kien hemm 123 demokrazija elettorali (minn 40 waħda fl-1972). Skont il-''Forum Dinji dwar id-Demokrazija'', id-demokraziji elettorali issa jirrappreżentaw 120 mill-192 pajjiż eżistenti u jikkostitwixxu 58.2 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni dinjija. Fl-istess ħin, id-demokraziji liberali, jiġifieri l-pajjiżi li Freedom House tqis bħala ħielsa u li jirrispettaw id-drittijiet tal-bniedem bażiċi u l-istat tad-dritt, jammontaw għal 85 pajjiż u jirrappreżentaw 38 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni globali. Fl-2007 ukoll, in-[[Nazzjonijiet Uniti]] ddikjaraw il-15 ta' Settembru bħala l-Jum Internazzjonali tad-Demokrazija. Bosta pajjiżi baxxew l-età tal-votazzjoni għal 18-il sena; id-demokraziji ewlenin bdew jagħmlu dan fis-snin 70 tas-seklu 20, l-ewwel nett fil-Punent tal-Ewropa u fl-Amerka ta' Fuq. Il-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji elettorali għadhom jeskludu lil dawk taħt l-età ta' 18-il sena mill-votazzjoni. L-età tal-votazzjoni tbaxxiet għal 16-il sena għall-elezzjonijiet nazzjonali f'għadd ta' pajjiżi, fosthom il-[[Brażil]], l-Awstrija, [[Kuba]] u n-[[Nikaragwa]]. F'California, proposta tal-2004 biex jingħata kwart ta' vot li dawk ta' 16-il sena fl-aħħar mill-aħħar ma għaddietx. Fl-2008, il-Parlament Ġermaniż ippropona abbozz ta' liġi li mbagħad warrab li kienet tagħti d-dritt tal-votazzjoni lil kull ċittadin mat-twelid, biex jintuża minn ġenitur sa meta l-wild ikun jista' jibda jużah. Skont Freedom House, mill-2005 kien hemm 17-il sena konsekuttiva li fihom id-drittijiet politiċi u l-libertajiet ċivili madwar id-dinja marru għall-agħar f'iktar pajjiżi milli fejn sar xi titjib, peress li l-qawwiet populisti u nazzjonalistiċi mexew 'il quddiem kullimkien, mill-[[Polonja]] (eż. il-partit tal-Liġi u l-Ġustizzja) sal-Filippini (taħt [[Rodrigo Duterte]]). F'rapport ta' Freedom House li nħareġ fl-2018, il-punteġġi rigward id-demokrazija għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi marru lura għat-12-il sena konsekuttiva. ''The Christian Science Monitor'' irrapporta li l-ideoloġiji nazzjonalistiċi u populisti kienu qed jissaħħew, a skapitu tal-istat tad-dritt, f'pajjiżi bħall-Polonja, it-[[Turkija]] u l-[[Ungerija]]. Pereżempju, fil-Polonja, il-President ħatar 27 imħallef ġdid tal-Qorti Suprema minkejja l-oġġezzjonijiet legali mill-[[Kummissjoni Ewropea]]. Fit-Turkija, eluf ta' mħallfin tneħħew mill-karigi tagħhom wara kolp ta' stat li ma rnexxiex. Iċ-"ċedimenti demokratiċi" fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21 ġew attribwiti lill-inugwaljanza ekonomika u l-garr soċjali, il-personaliżmu, il-ġestjoni batuta tal-gvernijiet fir-rigward tal-[[pandemija tal-COVID-19]], kif ukoll fatturi oħra bħall-manipolazzjoni tas-soċjetà ċivili, il-"polarizzazzjoni tossika", il-kampanji barranin tad-diżinformazzjoni, ir-razziżmu u n-nattiviżmu, is-setgħa eżekuttiva eċċessiva, u s-setgħa mnaqqsa tal-oppożizzjoni. Fi ħdan id-demokraziji tal-Punent, l-attitudnijiet ta' "protezzjoniżmu", li jiġbru flimkien il-konservattiviżmu kulturali u l-attitudnijiet ekonomiċi Xellugin, kienu l-iżjed indikatur b'saħħtu tal-appoġġ għall-modalitajiet awtoritarji ta' governanza. == Teorija == === Teorija bikrija === It-teorija demokratika ta' Aristotli kienet tpoġġi f'kuntrast it-tmexxija mill-ħafna (demokrazija/timokrazija), mat-tmexxija mill-ftit (oligarkija/aristokrazija/elitiżmu), kif ukoll mat-tmexxija minn persuna waħda (tirannija/awtokrazija/monarkija assoluta). Huwa ħaseb ukoll li kien hemm varjant tajjeb u ħażin ta' kull sistema (huwa qies id-demokrazija bħala l-kontroparti ħażina tat-timokrazija). Fehma komuni fost it-teoriċi Repubblikani bikrin u Rinaxximentali kienet li d-demokrazija setgħet tibqa' ħajja biss fil-komunitajiet politiċi ż-żgħar. Abbażi tal-lezzjonijiet meħuda mill-bidla tar-Repubblika Rumana lejn il-monarkiżmu iktar ma kibret jew ċkienet, dawn it-teoriċi Repubblikani sostnew li l-espansjoni tat-territorji u tal-popolazzjoni inevitabbilment kienu jwasslu għat-tirannija. Għaldaqstant id-demokrazija kienet fraġli ferm u rari storikament, għax setgħet tibqa' teżisti biss f'unitajiet politiċi żgħar, li minħabba d-daqs tagħhom kienu vulnerabbli għal ħakma minn unitajiet politiċi akbar. Huwa magħruf li Montesquieu qal, "jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered minn difett intern". [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] sostna, "Għaldaqstant, hija l-karatteristika naturali tal-istati żgħar li jiġu ggvernati bħala repubblika, tal-istati ta' daqs nofsani li jkunu soġġetti għal monarka, u tal-imperi kbar li jitmexxew minn prinċep tirann". === Teorija kontemporanja === Fost it-teoriji politiċi moderni, jeżistu kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. ==== Aggregazzjoni ==== It-teorija tad-demokrazija aggregattiva ssostni li l-għan tal-proċessi demokratiċi hu li jmexxu 'l quddiem il-preferenzi taċ-ċittadini u jaggregawhom flimkien biex jiddeterminaw liema politiki soċjali għandha tadotta s-soċjetà. Għaldaqstant, dawk li jħaddnu din il-fehma jsostnu li s-sehem demokratiku għandu jiffoka b'mod primarju fuq il-votazzjoni, fejn il-politiki bl-ikbar ammont ta' voti jiġu implimentati. Jeżistu varjanti differenti tad-demokrazija aggregattiva. Skont il-ħsieb tad-demokrazija minimalista, l-elezzjonijiet huma mekkaniżmu ta' kompetizzjoni bejn il-[[Politiku|politiċi]]. [[Joseph Schumpeter]] huwa magħruf li spjega dan il-ħsieb fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Kapitaliżmu, Soċjaliżmu u Demokrazija''. [[Anthony Downs]] jargumenta li l-partiti politiċi ideoloġiċi huma neċessarji biex jaġixxu bħala sensara bejn l-individwi u l-gvernijiet. Min-naħa l-oħra, id-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament rigward il-proposti leġiżlattivi, tista' turi aggregazzjoni aħjar f'każijiet ta' differenzi fil-preferenzi bejn l-elit u l-votanti. ===== Mandat medjan ===== Skont it-teorema tal-votant medjan, ir-rappreżentattività politika tista' tiġi evalwata billi jitqabbel kemm il-liġijiet u l-politiki huma qrib tal-fehmiet tal-votanti medjani tul l-ispettru politiku. Il-mandat medjan iħares lejn il-preferenzi tal-votant medjan bħala dawk li jagħtu leġittimità politika. ==== Poliarkija ==== [[Robert A. Dahl]] jargumenta li l-prinċipju demokratiku fundamentali hu li meta wieħed jasal għal deċiżjonijiet kollettivi vinkolanti, kull persuna f'komunità politika hija intitolata li l-interessi tagħha jitqiesu b'mod indaqs. Huwa juża t-terminu poliarkija ("it-tmexxija mill-ħafna") biex jirreferi għal soċjetajiet fejn jeżisti ċertu sett ta' istituzzjonijiet u proċeduri li huma perċepiti li jwasslu għal tali demokrazija. L-ewwel u qabel kollox fost dawn l-istituzzjonijiet hemm l-okkorrenza regolari ta' elezzjonijiet ħielsa u miftuħa li jsiru biex jintgħażlu r-rappreżentanti li mbagħad jiġġestixxu l-politiki pubbliċi kollha tas-soċjetà jew il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom. Madankollu, dawn il-proċeduri poliarkiċi jaf ma joħolqux demokrazija sħiħa, jekk pereżempju l-faqar ixekkel il-parteċipazzjoni politika. B'mod simili, [[Ronald Dworkin]] isostni li d-"demokrazija hija ideal sostantiv, mhux sempliċement proċedurali". ==== Deliberazzjoni ==== Id-demokrazija deliberattiva hija bbażata fuq in-nozzjoni li d-demokrazija hija governanza bid-deliberazzjoni. Għad-differenza tad-demokrazija aggregattiva, id-demokrazija deliberattiva ssostni li biex deċiżjoni demokratika tkun leġittima, din trid tkun preċeduta minn deliberazzjoni awtentika, mhux sempliċement l-aggregazzjoni tal-preferenzi li sseħħ fil-votazzjoni. Deliberazzjoni awtentika hija deliberazzjoni fost dawk li jieħdu d-deċiżjonijiet li tkun ħielsa minn distorsjonijiet tas-setgħa politika inugwali, bħas-setgħa li jikseb min jieħu d-deċiżjonijiet permezz tal-ġid ekonomiku jew l-appoġġ tal-gruppi ta' interess. Jekk dawk li jieħdu d-deċiżjonijiet ma jkunux jistgħu jaslu għal konsensus wara deliberazzjoni awtentika dwar proposta, imbagħad jivvutaw dwar il-proposta billi jużaw forma ta' tmexxija tal-maġġoranza. Il-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini jitqiesu minn bosta studjużi bħala eżempji prattiċi tad-demokrazija deliberattiva, u rapport reċenti tal-[[OECD]] jidentifika l-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini bħala mekkaniżmu popolari li kulma jmur jinvolvi liċ-ċittadini fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet governattivi. Dawk li huma favur id-demokrazija diretta jsostnu li ċ-ċittadini ma jmexxux lilhom infushom sakemm ma jiddeċidux direttament rigward il-liġijiet u l-politiki. L-attività politika tista' tkun siewja fiha nnifisha, peress li tissoċjalizza u teduka liċ-ċittadini, u l-parteċipazzjoni popolari tista' tikkontrolla l-elit setgħana. ==== Tipi ta' demokraziji governattivi ==== Id-demokrazija għandha bosta forom, kemm fit-teorija kif ukoll fil-prattika. Xi varjetajiet tad-demokrazija jipprovdu rappreżentanza aħjar u iktar libertà għaċ-ċittadini minn oħrajn. Madankollu, jekk xi demokrazija ma tkunx strutturata sabiex tipprojbixxi lill-gvern milli jeskludi lin-nies mill-proċess leġiżlattiv, jew lil kwalunkwe fergħa tal-gvern milli tibdel is-separazzjoni tal-poteri favuriha, imbagħad fergħa tas-sistema tista' takkumula wisq poter u teqred id-demokrazija. It-tipi ta' demokrazija li ġejjin ma jeskludux lil xulxin: ħafna jispeċifikaw dettalji ta' aspetti li huma indipendenti minn xulxin u jistgħu jeżistu flimkien f'sistema unika. ===== Forom bażiċi ===== Jeżistu diversi varjanti ta' demokrazija, iżda hemm żewġ forom bażiċi, u t-tnejn li huma jikkonċernaw kif il-korp kollu taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli jwettaq ir-rieda tiegħu. Forma ta' demokrazija hija d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom parteċipazzjoni attiva fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet politiċi, pereżempju billi jivvutaw direttament rigward l-inizjattivi ta' politika. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, il-korp kollu ta' ċittadini eliġibbli jibqa' l-poter sovran iżda l-poter politiku jiġi eżerċitat indirettament permezz ta' rappreżentanti eletti; din tissejjaħ demokrazija rappreżentattiva. Jekk il-kap ta' stat jiġi elett b'mod demokratiku, l-istat jissejjaħ repubblika demokratika. ====== Demokrazija diretta ====== Id-demokrazija diretta hija sistema politika fejn iċ-ċittadini jieħdu sehem fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet personalment. minflok jiddependu fuq intermedjarji jew rappreżentanti. Dawk li tkellmu favuriha bħal Jean-Jacques Rousseau jsostnu li l-approċċ dirett iżid il-leġittimità. Demokrazija diretta tagħti lill-popolazzjoni li tivvota s-setgħa li: * tibdel il-liġijiet kostituzzjonali; * tressaq inizjattivi, referenda u suġġerimenti għal liġijiet. Fi ħdan il-gvernijiet rappreżentattivi moderni, ċerti għodod elettorali bħar-referenda, l-inizjattivi taċ-ċittadini u r-referendum għat-tneħħija ta' gvern jitqiesu bħala fororm ta' demokrazija diretta. Madankollu, uħud li huma favur id-demokrazija diretta jsostnu li l-ġemgħat lokali jeħtieġu jiddiskutu wiċċ imb wiċċ. Id-demokrazija diretta bħala sistema ta' governanza attwalment teżisti fil-kantons [[Żvizzera|Żvizzeri]] ta' Appenzell Innerrhoden u Glarus, il-Muniċipalitajiet Awtonomi Zapatisti Ribelli, il-komunitajiet affiljati mas-CIPO-RFM, il-kunsilli lokali [[Bolivja|Bolivjani]] ta' FEJUVE, u l-kantons Kurdi ta' Rojava. ====== Demokrazija semidiretta ====== Xi demokraziji moderni li huma rappreżentattivi għalkollox fin-natura tagħhom jiddependu bil-kbir fuq forom ta' azzjoni politika tad-demokrazija diretta. Dawn id-demokraziji, li jużaw elementi tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva u tad-demokrazija diretta, jissejħu demokraziji semidiretti jew demokraziji parteċipattivi. Xi eżempji jinkludu l-Iżvizzera u xi stati tal-Istati Uniti, fejn isir użu frekwenti tar-referenda u tal-inizjattivi. Il-Konfederazzjoni Żvizzera hija demokrazija semidiretta. Fil-livell federali, iċ-ċittadini jistgħu jipproponu bidliet fil-kostituzzjoni (inizjattiva popolari federali) jew jitolbu li jsir referendum rigward kwalunkwe liġi vvutata mill-Parlament. Bejn Jannar 1995 u Ġunju 2005, iċ-ċittadini Żvizzeri vvutaw 31 darba, biex iwieġbu 103 domanda (matul l-istess perjodu, iċ-ċittadini Franċiżi pparteċipaw f'żewġ referenda biss). Minkejja dan, fl-aħħar 120 sena inqas minn 250 inizjattiva tressqu għal referendum. Xi eżempji jinkludu l-użu estensiv tar-referenda fl-istat Amerikan ta' California, li huwa stat b'iktar minn 20 miljun votant. F'New England spiss jintużaw laqgħat tal-belt, speċjalment fiż-żoni rurali, għall-ġestjoni tal-governanza lokali. Dan joħloq forma ibrida ta' governanza, b'demokrazija diretta lokali u gvern statali rappreżentattiv. Pereżempju, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-bliet ta' Vermont jorganizzaw laqgħat tal-bliet annwali f'Marzu fejn jiġu eletti l-uffiċjali tal-bliet, jiġu vvutati l-baġits għall-bliet u għall-iskejjel, u ċ-ċittadini jkollhom l-opportunità li jitkellmu u jinstemgħu rigward il-kwistjonijiet politiċi. ====== Sistema tax-xorti ====== L-użu ta' sistema tax-xorti, demokrazija karatteristika ta' Ateni, hija karatteristika ta' xi verżjonijiet ta' demokraziji diretti. F'din is-sistema, kompiti governattivi u amministrattivi importanti jitwettqu minn ċittadini li jittellgħu bix-xorti f'lotterija. ====== Demokrazija rappreżentattiva ====== Id-demokrazija rappreżentattiva tinvolvi l-elezzjoni tal-uffiċjali tal-gvern min-nies rappreżentati. L-iżjed mekkaniżmi komuni jinvolvu l-elezzjoni tal-kandidat mill-maġġoranza jew minn pluralità tal-voti. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Punent għandhom sistemi rappreżentattivi. Ir-rappreżentanti jistgħu jiġu eletti bħala rappreżentanti diplomatiċi minn distrett (jew kostitwenza) partikolari, jew jirrappreżentaw l-elettorat kollu permezz ta' sistemi proporzjonali. Xi demokraziji rappreżentattivi jinkorporaw ukoll elementi tad-demokrazija diretta, bħal referenda. Karatteristika tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva hi li filwaqt li r-rappreżentanti jiġu eletti min-nies biex jaġixxu fl-interess tan-nies, jibqa' jkollhom il-libertà li jeżerċitaw il-ġudizzju tagħhom stess kif jaħsbu li jkun l-aħjar. Dan wassal għal kritika fir-rigward tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, u ġew indikati kontradizzjonijiet tal-mekkaniżmi ta' rappreżentanza mad-demokrazija. ====== Demokrazija Parlamentari ====== Id-demokrazija Parlamentari hija demokrazija rappreżentattiva fejn il-gvern jinħatar jew jista' jitneħħa mir-rappreżentanti, għad-differenza tat-"tmexxija Presidenzjali" fejn il-President ikun il-kap ta' stat u l-kap tal-gvern u jiġi elett mill-votanti. F'demokrazija Parlamentari, il-governanza tiġi eżerċitata b'delega lill-eżekuttiv u tkun soġġetta għal rieżami kontinwu, verifiki u bilanċi mill-Parlament leġiżlattiv elett mill-poplu. F'sistema Parlamentari, il-Prim Ministru jista' jitneħħa mil-leġiżlatura fi kwalunkwe mument jekk ma jkunx żamm mal-istennijiet tal-leġiżlatura. Dan isir permezz ta' vut ta' sfiduċja fejn il-leġiżlatura tiddeċiedi jekk il-Prim Ministru għandux jitneħħa mill-kariga b'maġġoranza favur it-tneħħija. F'xi pajjiżi, il-Prim Ministru jista' jsejjaħ elezzjoni ukoll fi kwalunkwe ħin, tipikament meta l-Prim Ministru jemmen li jkollu l-poplu warajh biex jerġa' jiġi elett. F'demokraziji Parlamentari oħra, elezzjonijiet addizzjonali prattikament qatt ma jsiru, u jiġi ppreferut gvern ta' minoranza sal-elezzjonijiet ordinarji ta' wara. Karatteristika importanti tad-demokrazija Parlamentari hija l-kunċett tal-"oppożizzjoni leali". Il-qofol tal-kunċett hu li t-tieni l-ikbar partit politiku (jew l-oppożizzjoni) jopponi l-partit fil-gvern (jew koalizzjoni), filwaqt li jibqa' leali lejn l-istat u l-prinċipji demokratiċi tiegħu. ====== Demokrazija Presidenzjali ====== Id-demokrazija Presidenzjali hija sistema fejn il-pubbliku jeleġġi l-President permezz ta' elezzjoni. Il-President jaqdi l-funzjoni ta' kap ta' stat u ta' kap ta' gvern u jikkontrolla l-biċċa l-kbira tal-poteri eżekuttivi. Il-President iservi għal mandat speċifiku u ma jistax iservi għal iktar. Spiss il-leġiżlatura limitat il-possibbiltà li President jitneħħa mill-kariga. L-elezzjonijiet tipikament ikollhom data fissa u qajla jinbidlu. Il-President ikollu kontroll dirett fuq il-kabinett, u jaħtar speċifikament il-membri tal-kabinett. Normalment l-eżekuttiv ikollu r-responsabbiltà tat-twettiq jew tal-implimentazzjoni tal-leġiżlazzjoni u jaf ikollu poteri leġiżlattivi limitati, bħal veto. Madankollu, fergħa leġiżlattiva tgħaddi l-leġiżlazzjoni u l-baġits. B'hekk ikun hemm xi forma ta' separazzjoni tal-poteri. B'hekk, il-Presidentu u l-leġiżlatura jaf jispiċċaw ikollhom kontroll ta' partiti separati, u wieħed ikun jista' jimblokka lill-ieħor u b'hekk jindaħal mal-ħidma kif suppost tal-istat. Din jaf hija r-raġuni għalfejn id-demokrazija Presidenzjali ma tantx hija komuni 'l barra mill-Amerki, l-Afrika u l-Asja Ċentrali u tax-Xlokk. Sistema semi-Presidenzjali hija sistema ta' demokrazija fejn il-gvern jinkludi kemm Prim Ministru kif ukoll President. Is-setgħat partikolari tal-Prim Ministru u tal-President ivarjaw skont il-pajjiż. ==== Tipoloġija ==== ===== Monarkija kostituzzjonali ===== Bosta pajjiżi bħar-Renju Unit, [[Spanja]], in-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]], il-[[Belġju]], il-pajjiżi Skandinavi, it-[[Tajlandja]], il-[[Ġappun]] u l-[[Butan|Bhutan]] bidlu monarkiji setgħana f'monarkiji kostituzzjonali (spiss gradwalment) bi rwoli limitati jew simboliċi. Pereżempju, fl-istati predeċessuri tar-Renju Unit, il-monarkija kostituzzjonali bdiet tfeġġ u baqgħet teżisti bla xkiel mir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688 u minn meta għaddiet il-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689. Il-monarkiji kostituzzjonali limitati ferm, bħar-Renju Unit, ġew imsejħa bħala repubbliki monarkiċi minn [[Kittieb|kittieba]] bħal [[H. G. Wells]]. F'pajjiżi oħra, il-monarkija ġiet abolita flimkien mas-sistema aristokratika (bħal fi Franza, iċ-[[Ċina]], ir-[[Russja]], il-Ġermanja, l-Awstrija, l-Ungerija, l-Italja, il-Greċja u l-[[Eġittu]]). Persuna eletta, b'poteri sinifikanti jew mingħajrhom, saret il-kap ta' stat f'dawn il-pajjiżi. Il-familji tal-elit tal-leġiżlaturi, li spiss kellhom mandati ereditarji jew għal għomorhom, kienu komuni f'bosta stati. Maż-żmien, dawn kellhom poteri li ġew limitati (bħall-House of Lords tar-Renju Unit) jew saru elettivi u baqgħu setgħana (bħas-Senat [[Awstralja|Awstraljan]]). ===== Demokrazija repubblikana ===== It-terminu ''repubblika'' għandu bosta tifsiriet differenti, iżda llum il-ġurnata spiss jirreferi għal demokrazija rappreżentattiva b'kap ta' stat elett, bħal President, li jservi għal mandat limitat, b'kuntrast mal-istati b'monarka ereditarju bħala kap ta' stat, anke jekk dawn l-istati jkunu demokraziji rappreżentattivi b'kap ta' gvern elett jew maħtur bħal Prim Ministru. Il-Missirijiet Fundaturi tal-Istati Uniti spiss ikkritikaw id-demokrazija diretta; [[James Madison]] argumenta speċjalment f'''The Federalist'' Nru 10, li dak li ddistingwa demokrazija diretta minn waħda repubblikana kien li dik tal-ewwel kienet tiddependi fuq daqs żgħir u kienet tbati ferm mill-effetti tal-fazzjonijiet, filwaqt li dik repubblikana setgħet issir iktar b'saħħitha iktar ma tikber u minnha nnifisha tiġġieled il-fazzjonijiet permezz tal-istruttura tagħha stess. B'hekk, matul konvenzjoni f'[[Philadelphia]], Madison sejjaħ l-elezzjoni tar-rappreżentanti minn territorji kbar bħala "l-unika difiża kontra l-inkonvenjenzi tad-demokrazija konsistenti mal-forma demokratika ta' governanza". Il-Professuri [[Richard Ellis]] tal-Università ta' Willamette u [[Michael Nelson]] tal-Kulleġġ ta' Rhodes isostnu li l-biċċa l-kbira tal-ħsieb kostituzzjonali, minn Madison għal Lincoln u lil hinn, iffoka fuq "il-problema tat-tirannija tal-maġġoranza". Huma kkonkludew, "il-prinċipji tal-governanza repubblikana mħaddna fil-Kostituzzjoni jirrappreżentaw sforz biex jiġi żgurat li id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għat-tfittxija tal-kuntentizza ma jiġux imkasbra mill-maġġoranzi". [[John Adams]] insista li dak li kien kritiku għall-valuri Amerikani kien li l-gvern ikun "marbut minn liġijiet fissi, li l-poplu jkollu l-jedd li jinstema' fit-tfassil tagħhom, u d-dritt għad-difiża". Meta [[Benjamin Franklin]] kien ħiereġ wara li kiteb il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti, [[Elizabeth Willing Powel]] staqsietu "Mela, Dr., x'għandna — repubblika jew monarkija?". Huwa wieġeb "Repubblika — jekk kapaċi żżommuha". ===== Demokrazija liberali ===== Id-demokrazija liberali hija demokrazija rappreżentattiva li tħaddan filosofija politika liberali, fejn il-kapaċità tar-rappreżentanti eletti li jeżerċitaw il-poter tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet hija soġġetta għall-istat tad-dritt, moderat minn kostituzzjoni jew liġijiet bħall-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet tal-individwi, u limitat sal-punt li r-rieda tal-maġġoranza ma tistax tiġi eżerċitata kontra d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. ===== Demokrazija Soċjalista ===== Il-ħsieb Soċjalista għandu diversi fehmiet differenti rigward id-demokrazija, pereżempju d-demokrazija soċjali jew is-Soċjaliżmu demokratiku. Ħafna Soċjalisti demokratiċi u demokratiċi Soċjalisti jemmnu f'forma ta' demokrazija parteċipattiva, industrijali, ekonomika u/jew tal-post tax-xogħol flimkien ma' demokrazija rappreżentattiva. ===== Demokrazija Marxista ===== It-teorija [[Karl Marx|Marxista]] tappoġġa soċjetà demokratika ċċentrata fuq il-klassi tal-ħaddiema. Xi Marxisti u Trotskyisti jemmnu fid-demokrazija diretta jew fil-kunsilli tal-ħaddiema (li xi kultant jissejħu entitajiet Sovjetiċi). Din is-sistema jaf tibda bid-demokrazija fil-post tax-xogħol u timmanifesta ruħha bħala demokrazija Sovjetika jew dittatura tal-proletarjat. Il-gruppi Trotskyisti interpretaw id-demokrazija Soċjalista bħala sinonima tar-rappreżentanza ta' diversi partiti tax-Xellug Estrem, tal-organizzazzjonijiet tal-unjins awtonomi, tal-kontroll tal-produzzjoni tal-ħaddiema, tad-demokrazija interna fi ħdan il-partiti u tal-parteċipazzjoni tal-massa tal-mases tal-ħaddiema. Xi partiti Komunisti jappoġġaw repubblika Sovjetika b'ċentraliżmu demokratiku. Fi ħdan id-demokrazija fil-Marxiżmu jaf ikun hemm ostilità għal dik li normalment tissejjaħ "demokrazija liberali". ===== Demokrazija anarkika ===== L-anarkiċi huma maqsuma f'dan id-dominju, skont jemmnux li tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hijiex tirannika jew le. Għal bosta anarkiċi, l-unika forma ta' demokrazija li titqies aċċettabbli hija d-demokrazija diretta. [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] argumenta li l-unika forma aċċettabbli ta' demokrazija diretta hija waħda fejn huwa rikonoxxut li d-deċiżjonijiet tal-maġġoranza mhumiex vinkolanti fuq il-minoranza, anke meta jkun hemm unanimità. Madankollu, l-anarkiku-Komunist [[Murray Bookchin]] ikkritika l-anarkiċi individwalisti talli opponew id-demokrazija, u sostna li t-"tmexxija tal-maġġoranza" hija konsistenti mal-anarkiżmu. Xi anarkiċi-Komunisti jopponu n-natura maġġoritarja tad-demokrazija diretta, u jħossu li tista' timpedixxi l-libertà individwali u huma favur forma mhux maġġoritarja ta' demokrazija b'konsensus, simili għall-pożizzjoni ta' Proudhon dwar id-demokrazija diretta. ===== Demokrazija każwali ===== Id-demokrazija każwali jew bix-xorti hija l-proċess tal-għażla tal-korpi tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet b'mod aleatorju. Dawn il-korpi jistgħu jkunu iktar rappreżentattivi tal-fehmiet u tal-interessi tal-poplu inġenerali milli leġiżlatura eletta jew entità oħra tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet. It-teknika kienet tintuża b'mod mifrux fid-demokrazija ta' Ateni u f'Firenze Rinaxximentali u għadha tintuża fl-għażla moderna tal-ġuriji u fil-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini. ===== Demokrazija kostituzzjonali ===== Id-demokrazija kostituzzjonali hija forma ta' demokrazija bbażata fuq il-qsim tal-poter bejn l-elit li jirrappreżenta l-gruppi soċjali fi ħdan is-soċjetà. Fl-1969, [[Arendt Lijphart]] stqarr li din kienet tistabbilizza d-demokraziji bil-fazzjonijiet. Demokrazija kostituzzjonali tippermetti li jkun hemm votazzjonijiet simultanji bil-maġġoranza f'żewġ kostitwenzi etnoreliġjużi jew iktar, u l-politiki jiġu ppromulgati biss jekk jiksbu l-appoġġ tal-maġġoranza mit-tnejn li huma jew minn kollha kemm huma. It-tmexxija b'votazzjoni ta' maġġoranza kwalifikata fil-Kunsill tal-Ministri tal-Unjoni Ewropea hija approċċ ta' demokrazija kostituzzjonali għad-demokraziji sovranazzjonali. Din is-sistema fit-[[Trattat ta' Ruma]] talloka l-voti lill-Istati Membri skont il-popolazzjonijiet tagħha, iżda hija pponderata sew favur l-istati ż-żgħar. Demokrazija kostituzzjonali tirrikjedi l-konsensus tar-rappreżentanti, filwaqt li d-demokrazija b'konsensus tirrikjedi l-konsensus tal-elettorat. ===== Demokrazija maġġoritarja ===== Id-demokrazija maġġoritarja hija forma ta' demokrazija bbażata fuq prinċipju ta' tmexxija tal-maġġoranza. Id-demokrazija maġġoritarja tikkuntrasta mad-demokrazija b'konsensus, u t-tmexxija tkun bl-akbar ammont ta' nies possibbli. ===== Demokrazija b'konsensus ===== Id-demokrazija b'konsensus tirrikjedi teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet b'konsensus u maġġoranza kbira biex jinkiseb appoġġ akbar mill-maġġoranza sempliċi. B'kuntrast ma' dan, fid-demokrazija maġġoritarja l-fehmiet tal-minoranzi potenzjalment jistgħu jiġu injorati mill-maġġoranzi li jirbħu l-votazzjoni. Il-kostituzzjonijiet tipikament jirrikjedu konsensus jew maġġoranzi kbar. ===== Demokrazija etnika ===== It-terminu demokrazija etnika, kif jintuża minn xi xjenzati politiċi, jipprova jiddeskrivi sistema ta' governanza li tgħaqqad flimkien dominanza etnika strutturata u d-drittijiet demokratiċi, politiċi u ċivili għal kulħadd. Kemm il-grupp etniku dominanti — tipikament maġġoranza etnika — u l-gruppi etniċi tal-minoranzi jkollhom iċ-ċittadinanza u jkunu jistgħu jieħdu sehem bis-sħiħ fil-proċess politiku. Madankollu, il-kritiċi tal-mudell tad-"demokrazija etnika" jsostnu li dan huwa kontradizzjoni, u b'hekk bħala kunċett iħossu li mhux adegwat; dawn il-kritiċi jallegaw li d-demokraziji etniċi, b'mod partikolari [[Iżrael]], mhumiex demokratiċi, u l-iktar l-iktar huma xorta ta' semidemokrazija. ===== Demokrazija inklużiva ===== Id-demokrazija inklużiva hija teorija politika u proġett politiku li għandhom l-għan li jiksbu d-demokrazija diretta fl-oqsma kollha tal-ħajja soċjali: demokrazija politka fil-forma ta' ġemgħat ikkonfederati wiċċ imb wiċċ, demokrazija ekonomika f'ekonomija mingħajr stat, flus u suq, demokrazija fil-qasam soċjali, jiġifieri awtoġestjoni fil-postijiet tax-xogħol u fl-edukazzjoni, u demokrazija ekoloġika li għandha l-għan li tintegra mill-ġdid is-soċjetà u n-natura. Il-proġett teoriku tad-demokrazija inklużiva feġġ mix-xogħol tal-filosfu politiku [[Takis Fotopoulos]] imsejjaħ "Lejn Demokrazija Inklużiva" u iktar 'il quddiem ġie żviluppat fil-ġurnal ''Demokrazija u Natura'' u s-suċċessur tiegħu ''Il-Ġurnal Internazzjonali tad-Demokrazija Inklużiva''. ===== Demokrazija parteċipattiva ===== Id-demokrazija parteċipattiva hija forma teorika ta' demokrazija mmexxija minn struttura integrata ta' kunsill. Il-filosofija li tiggwidaha hi li l-poplu għandu jkollu l-poter tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet b'mod proporzjonat ma' kemm se taffettwah id-deċiżjoni. Il-kunsilli lokali ta' xi 25–50 ruħ ikunu kompletament awtonomi fir-rigward ta' kwistjonijiet li jaffettwaw lilhom biss, u dawn il-kunsilli jibagħtu delegati f'kunsilli ta' livell ogħla li mill-ġdid ikunu awtonomi fir-rigward tal-kwistjonijiet li jaffettwaw biss lill-popolazzjoni affettwata minn dak il-kunsill. Qorti tal-kunsill magħmula minn ċittadini magħżula b'mod aleatorju sservi bħala kontroll fil-konfront tat-tirannija tal-maġġoranza, u tirregola liema korp jingħata l-vot fir-rigward tal-kwistjonijiet differenti. Id-delegati jistgħu jivvutaw b'mod differenti mix-xewqa tal-kunsill li jibgħathom iżda jkollhom il-mandat li jikkomunikaw ix-xewqat tagħhom lill-kunsill li jibgħathom. Id-delegati jistgħu jiġu msejħa lura fi kwalunkwe ħin. Ir-referenda jistgħu jsiru fi kwalunkwe ħin permezz ta' votazzjonijiet tal-kunsilli ta' livell inferjuri, madankollu mhux għal kollox jista' jsir referendum inkella x'aktarx li jkun ħela ta' ħin. Id-demokrazija parteċipattiva hija maħsuba biex taħdem id f'id ma' ekonomija parteċipattiva. ===== Demokrazija proċedurali ===== Id-demokrazija proċedurali jew il-proċeduraliżmu jirreferu għal proċeduri partikolari, bħal elezzjonijiet regolari bbażati fuq is-suffraġju universali, li jipproduċu gvern leġittimat b'mod elettorali. Id-demokrazija proċedurali, iċċentrata fuq il-proċessi elettorali bħala l-bażi tal-leġittimità demokratika, spiss tikkuntrasta mad-demokrazija sostantiva jew parteċipattiva, iċċentrata fuq il-parteċipazzjoni ugwali tal-gruppi kollha fis-soċjetà fil-proċess politiku bħala l-bażi tal-leġittimità. ===== Demokrazija radikali ===== Id-demokrazija radikali hija bbażata fuq l-idea li hemm relazzjonijiet ġerarkiċi u oppressivi li jeżistu fis-soċjetà. Ir-rwol tad-demokrazija radikali hu li dawk ir-relazzjonijiet tagħmilhom viżibbli u tikkontestahom billi tippermetti li jkun hemm differenzi, nuqqas ta' qbil u antagoniżmi fil-proċessi tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet. ===== Demokrazija reliġjuża ===== Id-demokrazija reliġjuża hija forma ta' demokrazija fejn il-valuri ta' reliġjon partikolari jew ta' reliġjon statali jingħataw preferenza. It-terminu japplika għall-pajjiżi demokratiċi kollha li fihom ir-reliġjon hija inkorporata fil-forma ta' governanza. ===== Demokrazija kożmopolita ===== Id-demokrazija kożmopolita, magħrufa wkoll bħala demokrazija globali jew federaliżmu dinji, hija sistema politika fejn id-demokrazija hija implimentata fuq skala globali, direttament jew permezz ta' rappreżentanti. Ġustifikazzjoni importanti għal dan it-tip ta' sistema hi li d-deċiżjonijiet meħuda fid-demokraziji nazzjonali jew reġjonali spiss jaffettwaw in-nies lil hinn mill-kostitwenza, li ma jkunux jistgħu jivvutaw. B'kuntrast għal dan, f'demokrazija kożmopolita, in-nies li jkunu affettwati mid-deċiżjonijiet jieħdu sehem fit-teħid tagħhom. Skont dawk li huma favur din id-demokrazija, kwalunkwe tentattiv biex tinstab soluzzjoni għall-problemi globali jmur kontra d-demokrazija jekk ma jkunx hemm xi forma ta' demokrazija kożmopolita. Il-prinċipju ġenerali tad-demokrazija kożmopolita hu li xi valuri u normi tad-demokrazija jew kollha kemm huma jitwessgħu, inkluż l-istat tad-dritt; is-soluzzjoni mhux vjolenti tal-kunflitti; u l-ugwaljanza fost iċ-ċittadini, lil hinn mil-limiti tal-istat. Sabiex din tiġi implimentat bis-sħiħ, tkun teħtieġ riformi fir-rigward tal-organizzazzjonijiet internazzjonali eżistenti, eż. in-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, kif ukoll il-ħolqien ta' istituzzjonijiet ġodda bħal Parlament Dinji, li idealment itejjeb il-kontroll pubbliku fuq il-politika internazzjonali u r-rendikont tal-għemil tal-politiċi. Id-demokrazija kożmopolita ġiet promossa, fost l-oħrajn, mill-fiżiku [[Albert Einstein]], mill-kittieb [[Kurt Vonnegut]], mill-artikolista fil-gazzetti [[George Monbiot]], u mill-Professuri [[David Held]] u [[Daniele Archibugi]]. Il-ħolqien tal-Qorti Kriminali Internazzjonali fl-2003 tqieset bħala pass kbir 'il quddiem minn bosta persuni li huma favur dan it-tip ta' demokrazija kożmopolita. ===== Demokrazija kreattiva ===== Id-demokrazija kreattiva ġiet deskritta mill-filosfu Amerikan [[John Dewey]]. L-idea prinċipali dwar id-demokrazija kreattiva hi li d-demokrazija tħeġġeġ il-bini tal-kapaċitajiet individwali u l-interazzjoni fis-soċjetà. Dewey isostni li d-demokrazija hija stil ta' ħajja fix-xogħol tiegħu msejjaħ ''Demokrazija Kreattiva: Il-Kompitu Quddiemna'' u esperjenza mibnija fuq il-fidi fin-natura umana, il-fidi fil-bnedmin u l-fidi fil-ħidma mal-oħrajn. Fil-fehma ta' Dewey, id-demokrazija hija ideal morali li tirrikjedi sforz reali u ħidma min-nies; mhijiex kunċett istituzzjonali li teżisti waħedha. Dewey jikkonkludi li "l-kompitu tad-demokrazija hija dejjem dik tal-ħolqien ta' esperjenza iktar libera u iktar umana fejn kulħadd jikkondividi u jikkontribwixxi". ===== Demokrazija ggwidata ===== Id-demokrazija ggwidata hija forma ta' demokrazija li tinkorpora elezzjonijiet popolari regolari, iżda li sikwit "tiggwida" bir-reqqa l-għażliet offruti lill-elettorat b'mod li jista' jnaqqas il-kapaċità tal-elettorat li tassew jiddetermina t-tip ta' governanza eżerċitata fuqu. Dawn id-demokraziji tipikament ikollhom awtorità ċentrali waħda li spiss ma tkunx soġġetta għal rieżami pubbliku reali minn xi awtorità governattiva oħra. L-istil Russu tad-demokrazija spiss ġie deskritt bħala "demokrazija ggwidata". Il-politiċi Russi rreferew għall-gvern tagħhom bħala li għandu ċentru wieħed ta' poter/awtorità, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-forom l-oħra ta' demokrazija li normalment jippruvaw jinkorporaw żewġ sorsi jew iktar li jikkompetu ma' xulxin fi ħdan l-istess gvern. === Tfittxija ta' fehim komuni === It-tfittxija ta' approċċ komuni għall-kejl u għat-tqabbil tad-demokrazija, u għad-demokrazija bħala kunċett, għadha sfida fix-xjenza politika moderna. Din l-isfida tipprova tkejjel, tivvaluta u tqabbel il-kwalità tad-demokrazija, kif indikat minn [[Seva Gunitsky]] fl-2015 fil-Washington Post, abbażi tar-riċerka tiegħu għal ''Ranking the World – Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance'', fejn il-kejl tad-demokrazija jista' jqarraq daqs kemm jiċċara l-affarijiet – problema għall-akkademiċi, għall-fassala tal-politiki u għal kull minn għandu għall-qalbu d-demokrazija. Fil-kontribut tiegħu ''Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics'' to ''Ranking the World'', fir-rigward tal-eżempju tal-eks repubbliki Sovjetiċi, huwa jeżamina l-problemi fundamentali rigward il-kejl tad-demokrazija, u josserva li l-indiċijiet spiss ma jaqblux u okkażjonalment jaslu għal konklużjonijiet kontradittorji mill-osservazzjoni tal-istess avveniment. Huwa jsostni li dan jirrifletti d-difetti inerenti fil-kunċettwalizzazzjoni tal-governanza demokratika, li jfeġġu mid-diżgwidi normattivi fundamentali dwar kunċett ikkontestat ferm. Fl-2011, [[Michael Coppedge]], [[John Gerring]] ''et al''. ipproponew approċċ għal tali kunċettwalizzazzjoni u kejl. Fis-saġġ tagħhom ''Il-Kunċettwalizzazzjoni u l-Kejl tad-Demokrazija: Approċċ Ġdid'' huma jirrieżaminaw uħud mid-dgħufijiet fost l-approċċi kontemporanji u iktar antiki, u mbagħad jixtarru l-approċċ tagħhom, u jikkaratterizzawh bħala ''storiku'', ''multidimensjonali'', ''diżaggregat'' u ''trasparenti''. L-awturi jipproponu li jinħoloq sett ġdid ta' erba' karatteristiċi għall-kunċettwalizzazzjoni u għall-kejl tad-demokrazija. L-ewwel nett, l-approċċ ''storiku'', fejn l-indikaturi tad-demokrazija jiġu estiżi sal-istorja moderna, kull fejn ikun possibbli. It-tieni, approċċ ''multidimensjonali'' għall-problema tal-kunċettwalizzazzjoni tad-demokrazija. It-tielet, il-ġbir tal-informazzjoni rilevanti għad-demokrazija f'livell tassew ''diżaggregat''. Ir-raba', l-approċċ ''trasparenti'', strateġija għall-ġbir u għall-preżentazzjoni tad-data li għandha ttejjeb il-preċiżjoni, il-validità, it-trasparenza u l-leġittimità tal-indikaturi li jirriżultaw. Dawn jiġbru flimkien ukoll il-kunċetti u/jew l-aspetti tad-demokrazija f'sitt approċċi – ''elettorali'', ''liberali'', ''maġġoritarju'', ''parteċipattiv'', ''deliberattiv'' u ''egalitarju'', li flimkien joffru rendikont pjuttost komprensiv tal-kunċett ta' demokrazija kif jintuża llum (ara l-ħarsa ġenerali fit-tabella ta' hawn taħt). {| class="wikitable" |- | colspan="5" |Il-kunċetti tad-demokrazija ta' Michael Coppedge, John Gerring ''et al''., 2011 |- valign="top" | | |Prinċipji |Mistoqsija |Istituzzjonijiet |- | colspan="5" | ---- |- valign="top" |I. |'''Elettorali''' |Kontestazzjoni, kompetizzjoni. |Il-karigi tal-gvern huma okkupati permezz ta' elezzjonijiet ħielsa u liberi b'diversi partiti? |Elezzjonijiet, partiti politiċi, kompetittività u kemm joħorġu jivvutaw. |- valign="top" |II. |'''Liberali''' |Governanza limitata, diversi punti ta' veto, responsabbiltà orizzontali, drittijiet individwali, libertajiet ċivili, trasparenza. |Il-poter politiku huwa deċentralizzat u ristrett? |Diversi partiti, indipendenti u deċentralizzat, b'enfasi speċjali fuq ir-rwol tal-midja, tal-gruppi ta' interess, il-ġudikatura u kostituzzjoni miktuba b'garanziji espliċiti. |- valign="top" |III. |'''Maġġoritarju''' |Tmexxija tal-maġġoranza, ċentralizzazzjoni, responsabbiltà vertikali. |Il-maġġoranza (jew il-pluralità) tmexxi? |Ikkonsolidat u ċentralizzat, b'enfasi speċjali fuq ir-rwol tal-partiti politiċi. |- valign="top" |IV. |'''Parteċipattiv''' |Governanza tal-poplu. |Iċ-ċittadini ordinarji jipparteċipaw fil-politika? |Liġi elettorali, soċjetà ċivili, governanza lokali, demokrazija diretta. |- valign="top" |V. |'''Deliberattiv''' |Governanza bir-raġuni. |Id-deċiżjonijiet politiċi huma frott id-deliberazzjonijiet pubbliċi? |Midja, smigħ, panels, korpi deliberattivi oħra. |- valign="top" |VI. |'''Egalitarju''' |Ugwaljanza politika. |Iċ-ċittadini kollha għandhom setgħat indaqs? |Żgurar ta' parteċipazzjoni ndaqs, rappreżentanza, protezzjoni u riżorsi rilevanti politikament. |} === Kejl tad-demokrazija === Il-kejl tad-demokrazija jvarja skont il-kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. L-evalwazzjonijiet tad-demokrazija minimalista jiffukaw fuq l-elezzjonijiet ħielsa u ġusti, filwaqt li d-demokrazija massimalista tevalwa valuri addizzjonali, bħad-drittijiet tal-bniedem, id-deliberazzjoni, l-eżiti ekonomiċi jew il-kapaċità tal-istat. == Demokrazija mhux governattiva == Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of groups. Many non-governmental organisations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are ultimately governed by their shareholders through shareholder democracy. Corporations may also employ systems such as workplace democracy to handle internal governance. Amitai Etzioni has postulated a system that fuses elements of democracy with sharia law, termed Islamic democracy or ''Islamocracy''. There is also a growing number of Democratic educational institutions such as Sudbury schools that are co-governed by students and staff. === Demokrazija tal-azzjonisti === Shareholder democracy is a concept relating to the governance of corporations by their shareholders. In the United States, shareholders are typically granted voting rights according to the one share, one vote principle. Shareholders may vote annually to elect the company's board of directors, who themselves may choose the company's executives. The shareholder democracy framework may be inaccurate for companies which have different classes of stock that further alter the distribution of voting rights. == Ġustifikazzjoni == Ingħataw diversi ġustifikazzjonijiet għad-demokrazija. === Leġittimità === Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. The public legitimacy of democracy varies by country, in some countries religious texts have more public support than the will of the people. === Teħid ta' deċiżjonijiet aħjar === Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution. === Suċċess ekonomiku === In ''Why Nations Fail'', economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. Unemployment is associated with anti-democratic beliefs. == Kritika == Democracy as a concept and as a practical form of government has been the subject of critique throughout history. Some critics consider that democratic regimes often fail to be true to the highest principles expected of them, while others reject the values promoted by constitutional democracy in whole or part. Opposition to democracy goes as far back as Plato, who argued for a 'government of the best qualified'. More recently, James Madison extensively studied historic attempts at and arguments on democracy in his preparation for the Constitutional Convention, and Winston Churchill remarked that "no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." Critics argue that modern democracies may fail to be sufficiently democratic and instead function in practice as oligarchies, insofar as governments are more responsive to the preferences of economic elites than to those of ordinary citizens. Numerous empirical studies across various western democracies including the United States, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Norway and Germany have consistently found that elected representatives tend to respond more to the preferences of very affluent citizens for policy outcomes than those of the average voter. Some critics of democracy have highlighted the concept's inconsistencies, paradoxes, and limits: drawing contrasts with other forms of government, such as epistocracy or lottocracy. Others have characterized most modern democracies as democratic polyarchies and democratic aristocracies. Yet others have identified fascist moments in modern democracies. They have termed the societies produced by modern democracies as neo-feudal and have contrasted democracy with fascism, anarcho-capitalism, theocracy, and absolute monarchy. == Tranżizzjonijiet demokratiċi == A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). === Demokratizzazzjoni === Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. The opposite process of democratic transition is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization. Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments could not do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns. Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:^{[''need quotation to verify'']} * a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) * an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence. Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07). A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26). Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750 to 1850 despite arguments to the contrary. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:<blockquote>The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.</blockquote>Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratization in 18 countries: Benin, Bolivia, Botswana, Bazil, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Guatemala, Lesotho, Mauritius, Montenegro, Poland, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste, Thailand, The Gambia, and Zambia. ===== Promozzjoni tad-demokrazija ===== Promotion of democracy can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing electoral integrity, youth suffrage and civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality, reducing presidentialism and aligning with median voter preferences. === Awtokratizzazzjoni === Democratic backsliding is a form of autocratization, a process of structural government transition toward authoritarianism in which the exercise of political power becomes less limited and more arbitrary and repressive. Democratic backsliding specifically assumes a starting point of a democratic system. The process typically restricts the space for public contest and political participation in the process of government selection. Democratic backsliding involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.^{[''citation needed'']} Steven Levitsky says: "It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That's asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters." The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratic backsliding in 44 countries: Afghanistan, Argentina, Armenia, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, El Salvador, Haiti, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Ivory Coast, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Libya, Mali, Madagascar, Mauretania, Mexico, Moldova, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Senegal, Serbia, Romania, Togo, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States. ===== Tfixkil ===== Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: * Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. * Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: ** Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état ** An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. * Royal coup, in which a monarch not normally involved in government seizes all power. For example, the 6 January Dictatorship, begun in 1929 when King Alexander I of Yugoslavia dismissed parliament and started ruling by decree. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. == Influwenza tal-midja == The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: * Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment * Meaningful agenda setting * Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy * Dialogue across a diverse range of views * Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power * Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved * A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience * A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. The ability to find effective political solutions to social problems is hampered when problems tend to be blamed on individuals rather than on structural causes. This person-centered focus may have far-reaching consequences not only for domestic problems but also for foreign policy when international conflicts are blamed on foreign heads of state rather than on political and economic structures. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. The responsiveness and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. In fact, studies show that false stories are going more viral than true stories. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. Reliable information sources are essential for the democratic process. Less democratic governments rely heavily on censorship, propaganda, and misinformation in order to stay in power, while independent sources of information are able to undermine their legitimacy. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Greċja antika]] r2q3140fzap29ed8ehqlaxbvnzm1dbm 330273 330272 2026-05-28T10:50:13Z Trigcly 17859 /* Demokrazija mhux governattiva */ 330273 wikitext text/x-wiki Id-'''demokrazija''' hija forma ta' governanza li permezz tagħha l-poter [[Politika|politiku]] jinkiseb min-nies jew mill-popolazzjoni ta' stat. Skont definizzjoni minimalista tad-demokrazija, il-mexxejja jiġu eletti permezz ta' elezzjonijiet kompetittivi filwaqt li d-definizzjonijiet iktar wesgħin jew massimalisti jorbtu d-demokrazija mal-garanziji tal-libertajiet ċivili u d-drittijiet tal-[[bniedem]] apparti l-elezzjonijiet kompetittivi. F'demokrazija diretta, il-poplu jkollu l-awtorità diretta li jagħmel deliberazzjonijiet u li jiddeċiedi dwar il-leġiżlazzjoni. F'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, il-poplu jagħżel l-uffiċjali tal-governanza permezz ta' elezzjonijiet. Id-definizzjoni ta' "poplu" u l-modi kif l-awtorità tiġi kondiviża fi ħdan il-poplu jew iddelegata minnu nbidlu mal-milja taż-żminijiet u b'rati li jvarjaw minn pajjiż għal ieħor. Il-karatteristiċi tad-demokrazija spiss jinkludu l-libertà tal-ġemgħa, il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni, il-proprjetà personali, il-libertà tar-[[reliġjon]] u tal-[[kelma]], iċ-ċittadinanza, il-kunsens ta' dawk li jiġu ggvernati, id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni, il-libertà miċ-ċaħda governattiva mhux ġustifikata tad-dritt tal-ħajja u tal-libertà, u d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. In-nozzjoni tad-demokrazija evolviet b'mod konsiderevoli maż-żmien. Matul l-[[Storja|istorja]], wieħed jista' jsib evidenza ta' demokrazija diretta, fejn il-komunitajiet kienu jieħdu deċiżjonijiet permezz ta' ġemgħat popolari. Illum il-ġurnata, il-forma dominanti tad-demokrazija hija d-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, fejn iċ-ċittadini jeleġġu lill-uffiċjali tal-gvern biex jiggvernaw f'isimhom, pereżempju f'demokrazija parlamentari jew presidenzjali. Fil-varjant komuni tad-demokrazija liberali, is-setgħat tal-maġġoranza jiġu eżerċitati fi ħdan il-qafas ta' demokrazija rappreżentattiva, iżda l-kostituzzjoni u l-qorti suprema jillimitaw lill-maġġoranza u jipproteġu lill-minoranzi — normalment billi jiġi żgurat li kulħadd igawdi minn ċerti drittijiet individwali, bħal-libertà tal-kelma jew il-libertà tal-assoċjazzjoni. It-terminu tfaċċa fis-seklu 5 [[Ante Christum natum|Q.K]]. fil-bliet-stati [[Greċja antika|Griegi]], b'mod partikolari f'[[Ateni]] Klassika, u kien ifisser "it-tmexxija tal-poplu", b'kuntrast mal-aristokrazija (bil-[[Lingwa Griega|Grieg]]: ἀριστοκρατία, ''aristokratía''), li tfisser "it-tmexxija tal-elit". Prattikament fil-gvernijiet demokratiċi kollha tul l-istorja tal-qedem u moderna, iċ-ċittadinanza demokratika inizjalment kienet ristretta għal klassi tal-elit, li iktar 'il quddiem ġiet estiża għaċ-ċittadini adulti kollha. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, dan inkiseb permezz tal-movimenti tas-suffraġju tas-sekli 19 u 20. Id-demokrazija tikkuntrasta mal-forom ta' governanza fejn il-poter ma jinbitx mill-popolazzjoni ġenerali ta' stat, pereżempju s-sistemi awtoritarji. Storikament is-sistemi demokratiċi kienu forma rari u vulnerabbli ta' governanza, iżda dawn saru iktar prevalenti mis-seklu 19 'l hawn, b'mod partikolari permezz ta' diversi mewġiet ta' demokratizzazzjoni. Id-demokrazija għandha leġittimità konsiderevoli fid-dinja moderna, peress li l-opinjoni pubblika fir-reġjuni dinjin normalment huma favur is-sistemi demokratiċi ta' governanza meta mqabbla mal-alternattivi, u peress li saħansitra l-istati awtoritarji jippruvaw ipinġu lilhom infushom bħala demokratiċi. Id-demokrazija b'mod iktar konsistenti tirriżulta f'saħħa, f'[[edukazzjoni]] u f'eżiti ekonomiċi mtejba. Skont l-indiċijiet ta' ''V-Dem Democracy'' u l-Indiċi tad-Demokrazija ta' ''The Economist'', inqas minn nofs il-popolazzjoni tad-dinja tgħix f'demokrazija mill-2022. Fl-istess ħin, filwaqt li d-demokrazija rappreżentattivi tingħata valur siewi b'mod mifrux, iċ-Ċentru tar-Riċerka ta' Pew sab li l-garr rigward il-prestazzjoni demokratika huwa komuni saħansitra f'bosta demokraziji stabbiliti. == Karatteristiċi == Għalkemm id-demokrazija fid-demokraziji purament rappreżentattivi hija mifhuma b'rabta mal-votazzjoni, ma jeżisti l-ebda konsensus dwar definizzjoni preċiża tad-demokrazija. Jeżistu wisq approċċi. Kien hemm studju li identifika 2,234 aġġettiv li jintuża għad-deskrizzjoni tad-demokrazija bil-[[lingwa Ingliża]]. Minkejja dan, hemm fehim iktar profond – bħal dak ta' [[Abraham Lincoln]]: : ''"Governanza tan-nies, min-nies, għan-nies"'' jew dik ta' [[Karl Popper]] li ssostni li l-ħarsa "klassika" lejn id-demokrazija hi, "fil-qosor, it-teorija li d-demokrazija hija t-tmexxija tal-poplu u li l-poplu għandu d-dritt li jiggverna hu. Il-prinċipji demokratiċi huma riflessi fiċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha, ilkoll indaqs quddiem il-[[Dritt|liġi]] u lkoll b'aċċess ugwali għall-proċessi leġiżlattivi. Pereżempju, f'demokrazija rappreżentattiva, kull vot (fit-teorija) għandu l-istess piż, u l-libertà taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli hija żgurata permezz ta' drittijiet u libertajiet leġittimizzati li tipikament ikunu mnaqqxa f'kostituzzjoni, filwaqt li użi oħra tad-"demokrazija" jaf jħaddnu d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament fuq id-diversi kwistjonijiet li jinqalgħu. Skont in-[[Ġnus Magħquda|Nazzjonijiet Uniti]], id-demokrazija "tipprovdi ambjent li jirrispetta d-drittijiet tal-bniedem u l-libertajiet fundamentali, u fejn ir-rieda espressa liberament tal-poplu tiġi eżerċitata". Skont teorija partikolari d-demokrazija tirrikjedi tliet prinċipji fundamentali: il-kontroll 'il fuq (sovranità fl-iżjed livelli baxxi tal-awtorità), l-ugwaljanza politika, u n-normi soċjali li permezz tagħhom l-individwi u l-istituzzjonijiet iqisu biss atti aċċettabbli li jirriflettu l-ewwel żewġ prinċipji tal-kontroll 'il fuq u l-ugwaljanza politika. L-ugwaljanza legali, il-libertà politika u l-istat ta' dritt sikwit jiġu identifikati bħala l-karatteristiċi ewlenin ta' demokrazija li tiffunzjona sew. F'xi pajjiżi, b'mod partikolari fir-[[Renju Unit]] (minn fejn oriġinat is-sistema ta' Westminster), il-prinċipju dominanti hu dak tas-sovranità Parlamentari, filwaqt li tinżamm l-indipendenza ġudizzjarja. Fl-[[Indja]], is-sovranità Parlamentari hija soġġetta għall-Kostituzzjoni tal-Indja li tinkludi rieżami ġudizzjarju. Għalkemm it-terminu "demokrazija" tipikament jintuża fil-kuntest ta' stat politiku, il-prinċipji wkoll huma applikabbli potenzjalment għall-organizzazzjonijiet privati, bħal klabbs, għaqdiet u ditti. Id-demokraziji jistgħu jużaw bosta metodi differenti ta' teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet, iżda t-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hija l-forma dominanti. Mingħajr kumpens, bħal protezzjonijiet legali tad-drittijiet individwali jew kollettivi, il-minoranzi politiċi jistgħu jiġu mgħakksa mit-"tirannija tal-maġġoranza". It-tmexxija tal-maġġoranza tinvolvi approċċ kompetittiv, għad-differenza tad-demokrazija tal-konsensus, u b'hekk tinħoloq il-ħtieġa li l-elezzjonijiet, u ġeneralment id-deliberazzjoni, ikunu sostantivament u proċeduralment "ġusti" u ekwi. Fżxi pajjiżi, il-libertà tal-espressjoni politika, il-libertà tal-kelma u l-libertà tal-istampa jitqiesu bħala importanti biex jiġi żgurat li l-votanti jkunu infurmati sew, u b'hekk ikunu jistgħu jivvutaw skont l-interessi u t-twemmin tagħhom stess. Ġie ssuġġerit ukoll li karatteristika bażika tad-demokrazija hija l-kapaċità li l-votanti kollha jipparteċipaw b'mod ħieles u sħiħ fil-[[ħajja]] tas-soċjetà tagħhom. Bl-enfasi fuq in-nozzjonijiet tal-kuntratt soċjali u r-rieda kollettiva tal-votanti kollha, id-demokrazija tista' tkun ikkaratterizzata wkoll bħala forma ta' kollettiviżmu politiku peress li tiġi definita bħala forma ta' governanza fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom vuċi ugwali fit-tfassil tal-liġijiet. Ir-repubbliki, għalkemm spiss ikunu assoċjati popolarment mad-demokrazija minħabba l-prinċipju kondiviż tal-kunsens mogħti minn dawk li jiġu ggvernati għat-tmexxija, mhux neċessarjament ikunu demokraziji, għax ir-repubblikaniżmu ma jispeċifikax ''kif'' in-nies għandhom imexxu. Tradizzjonalment it-terminu "repubblika" kien iħaddan kemm id-demokraziji kif ukoll l-aristokraziji u l-varjanti tagħhom. F'sens modern, il-forma ta' governanza repubblikana hija forma ta' governanza mingħajr monarka. Minħabba f'hekk, id-demokraziji jistgħu jkunu repubbliki jew monarkiji kostituzzjonali, bħar-Renju Unit, fejn il-monarka ma jkunx il-mexxej. == Storja == Il-ġemgħat demokratiċi għandhom żmien daqs kemm għandha żmien l-ispeċi umana u ilhom jeżistu tul l-istorja umana, iżda sas-seklu 19, il-figuri [[Politiku|politiċi]] ewlenin fil-biċċa l-kbira opponew id-demokrazija. It-teoriċi repubblikani rabtu d-demokrazija ma' daqs ċkejken: iktar ma kienu jikbru fid-daqs l-unitajiet politiċi, iktar kienet tiżdied il-probabbiltà li l-gvern isir tiranniku. Fl-istess waqt, l-unitajiet politiċi żgħar kienu vulnerabbli għall-ħakma. Montesquieu kiteb, "Jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered mill-imperfezzjoni interna". Skont ix-xjenzat politiku tal-Università ta' Johns Hopkins [[Daniel Deudney]], il-ħolqien tal-[[Stati Uniti|Istati Uniti]], bid-daqs kbir u s-sistema ta' kontrolli u bilanċi tagħha, kienet soluzzjoni għall-problemi doppji tad-daqs. Fis-soċjetajiet ta' madwar id-dinja seħħew forom ta' demokrazija b'mod organiku li ma kellhom l-ebda kuntatt ma' xulxin. === Oriġini === ==== [[Greċja]] u [[Ruma]] ==== It-terminu ''demokrazija'' tfaċċa għall-ewwel darba fil-ħsieb politiku u [[Filosofija|filosofiku]] tal-Greċja Antika fil-belt-stat ta' Ateni fl-antikità klassika. Il-kelma ġejja minn ''dêmos'' li tfisser "nies (komuni)" u minn ''krátos'' li tfisser "qawwa/setgħa". Taħt Cleisthenes, f'Ateni ġie stabbilit dak li huwa maħsub bħala l-ewwel eżempju ta' tip ta' demokrazija fis-seklu 6 Q.K. (508–507 Q.K.). Cleisthenes huwa meqjus bħala "l-missier tad-demokrazija ta' Ateni". L-ewwel użu attestat tal-kelma demokrazija jinsab fix-xogħlijiet ta' proża tal-ħabta tal-430 Q.K., bħall-''Istorji'' ta' Erodotu, iżda l-użu tagħha kien eqdem b'diversi deċennji, peress li żewġ persuni minn Ateni li twieldu għall-ħabta tal-470 Q.K. kien jisimhom Democrates, isem politiku ġdid — x'aktarx b'appoġġ għad-demokrazija — li ngħata fi żmien ta' dibattiti dwar kwistjonijiet kostituzzjonali f'Ateni. Aeschylus jalludi bis-saħħa wkoll għall-kelma fid-dramm tiegħu ''Is-Supplikanti'', li ttella' għall-ħabta tal-463 Q.K., fejn isemmi "l-id tat-tmexxija tal-kotra" [''demou kratousa cheir'']. Qabel dak iż-żmien, il-kelma li kienet tiddefinixxi s-sistema politika ġdida ta' Cleisthenes x'aktarx li kienet ''isonomija'', li tfisser ugwaljanza politika. Id-demokrazija ta' Ateni ħadet is-sura ta' demokrazija diretta, u kellha żewġ karatteristiċi li jiddistingwuha: l-għażla aleatorja ta' ċittadini ordinarji biex jimlew il-ftit karigi amministrattivi u ġudizzjarji eżistenti tal-gvern, u ġemgħa leġiżlattiva li kienet tikkonsisti mill-maġġoranza taċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha kienu jitħallew jitkellmu u jivvutaw fil-ġemgħa jew fl-assemblea, fejn kienu jiġu stabbiliti l-liġijiet tal-belt-stat. Madankollu, iċ-ċittadinanza ta' Ateni ma kinitx tingħata lin-[[Mara|nisa]], lill-[[Skjavitù|ilsiera]], lill-barranin (μέτοικοι / ''métoikoi''), u liż-żgħażagħ taħt l-età tas-servizz militari. Effettivament, resident wieħed minn kull erba' f'Ateni kienu jikkwalifikaw bħala ċittadini. Is-sjieda tal-art ma kinitx rekwiżit għaċ-ċittadinanza. L-esklużjoni ta' partijiet kbar tal-popolazzjoni mill-korp taċ-ċittadini hija marbuta mill-qrib mal-fehim tal-qedem taċ-ċittadinanza. Fil-biċċa l-kbira ta' żmien il-qedem, il-benefiċċju taċ-ċittadinanza kien marbut mal-obbligu tal-ġlied fil-kampanji militari. Id-demokrazija ta' Aterni mhux biss kienet ''diretta'' fis-sens li d-deċiżjonijiet kienu jittieħdu mill-ġemgħa, iżda anke l-''iżjed diretta'' fis-sens li l-ġemgħa permezz tal-istrutturi bħall-assemblea, is-senat u l-qrati legali kienet tikkontrolla l-proċess politiku kollu u proporzjon kbir taċ-ċittadini kienu jkunu involuti b'mod kostanti fl-affarijiet pubbliċi. Minkejja li d-drittijiet tal-individwu ma kinux żgurati mill-kostituzzjoni ta' Ateni fis-sens modern (il-Griegi tal-qedem ma kellhomx kelma għal "drittijiet"), dawk li kienu ċittadini ta' Ateni kienu jgawdu l-libertajiet tagħhom mhux f'oppożizzjoni għall-gvern iżda billi jgħixu f'belt li ma kinitx soġġetta għal xi setgħa oħra u billi huma stess ma kinux soġġetti għat-tmexxija ta' ħaddieħor. Il-votazzjoni tfaċċat fi [[Sparta]] saħansitra fis-700 Q.K. L-ekkleżjastiċi ta' Sparta kienu ġemgħa tal-poplu, li kienet tiltaqa' darba fix-xahar, fejn kull ċittadini maskili ta' mill-inqas 20 sena seta' jipparteċipa. Fl-assemblea, l-Ispartani kienu jeleġġu l-mexxejja u jixħtu l-voti tagħhom bl-għajjat (il-votazzjoni kienet tiġi deċiża skont l-ikbar għajta tal-folla). [[Aristotli]] ddeskriva dan il-metodu bħala "tat-tfal", meta mqabbel mas-sistema tal-votazzjoni fuq poloz tal-ġebel użata miċ-ċittadini ta' Ateni. Sparta adottat din is-sistema minħabba s-sempliċità tagħha, u biex jiġi evitat kull tip ta' preġudizzju, xiri jew qerq fil-votazzjoni, li kienu predominanti fl-elezzjonijiet demokratiċi bikrin. Barra minn hekk, id-depożizzjoni tar-Renju Ruman ħolqot sistema b'element demokratiku fil-forma ta' bosta ġemgħat popolari differenti. Minkejja li r-Repubblika Rumana tat kontribut sinifikanti għal bosta aspetti tad-demokrazija, frazzjon biss mir-Rumani kienu ċittadini li kellhom il-vot fl-elezzjonijiet għall-maġistrati. Il-voti tas-setgħana kienu jingħataw iktar piż permezz ta' sistema ta' votazzjoni ponderata, għaldaqstant il-biċċa l-kbira tal-uffiċjali għoljin, inkluż il-membri tas-Senat, kienu jiġu minn ftit familji għonja u nobbli. Il-mudell Ruman ta' governanza ispira bosta ħassieba politiċi tul is-sekli. ==== Indja tal-qedem ==== Vaishali, il-[[belt kapitali]] tal-Lega ta' Vajjika (Vrijji mahajanapada) tal-Indja, titqies bħala wieħed mill-ewwel eżempji ta' repubblika għall-ħabta tas-seklu 6 Q.K. ==== Amerki ==== [[Kultura|Kulturi]] oħra, bħall-Iroquois fl-Amerki, żviluppaw ukoll forma ta' soċjetà demokratika bejn l-1450 u l-1660 (u possibbilment fl-1142), ferm qabel ma kellhom kuntatt mal-[[Ewropa|Ewropej]]. Din id-demokrazija għadha preżenti sal-lum u hija l-iżjed demokrazija rappreżentattiva antika eżistenti fid-dinja. === [[Medjuevu|Medju Evu]] === Filwaqt li l-biċċa l-kbira tar-reġjuni fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu kienu mmexxijin mill-kleru jew minn sinjuri fewdali, kienu jeżistu diversi sistemi li kienu jinvolvu l-elezzjonijiet jew il-ġemgħat, għalkemm spiss kienu jinvolvu parti żgħira mill-popolazzjoni. Fl-Iskandinavja, kien hemm korpi magħrufa ta' nies ħielsa ppreseduti minn kelliem tal-liġi. Dawn il-korpi ta' deliberazzjoni kienu responsabbli għas-soluzzjoni ta' kwistjonijiet politiċi, u xi varjanti kienu jinkludu l-Althing fl-[[Iżlanda]] u l-Løgting fil-[[Gżejjer Faroe|Gżejjer Faeroe]]. Il-''veche'', fil-[[Ewropa tal-Lvant|Lvant tal-Ewropa]], kien korp simili għal dawk tal-Iskandinavja. Fil-[[Knisja Kattolika]] Rumana, il-[[Papa]] ilu jiġi elett minn [[konklav]] Papali magħmul mill-kardinali mill-1059. L-ewwel korp Parlamentari ddokumentat fl-Ewropa kien il-Cortes ta' [[León]]. Stabbilit minn [[Alfonsu IX|Alfonso IX]] fl-1188, il-Cortes kellu l-awtorità għall-iffissar tat-tassazzjoni, għall-affarijiet barranin u għal-leġiżlazzjoni, għalkemm in-natura eżatta tar-rwol tiegħu għadha kkontestata. Ir-Repubblika ta' [[Ragusa]], stabbilita fl-1358 u ċċentrata madwar il-belt ta' [[Dubrovnik]], ipprovdiet drittijiet ta' rappreżentanza u ta' votazzjoni lill-aristokrazija maskili tagħha biss. Diversi bliet-stati u sistemi ta' governanza Taljani kellhom forom ta' governanza repubblikani. Pereżempju, ir-Repubblika ta' [[Firenze]], stabbilita fl-1115, kienet immexxija mis-Signoria u l-membri tagħha kienu jintgħażlu bix-xorti. Fil-Frisja tas-sekli 10–15, soċjetà mhux fewdali distinta, id-dritt tal-votazzjoni dwar kwistjonijiet lokali u dwar l-uffiċjali tal-kontea kien ibbażat fuq id-daqs tal-art. Il-''Kouroukan Fouga'' qasam l-Imperu tal-[[Mali]] fi klans tat-tmexxija li kienu rrappreżentati f'ġemgħa kbira msejħa l-''Gbara''. Madankollu, id-dokument wassal biex il-Mali jkun iktar simili għal monarkija kostituzzjonali milli repubblika demokratika. Il-Parlament tal-[[Renju Unit|Ingilterra]] kellu l-għeruq tiegħu fir-restrizzjonijiet tal-poter tar-rejiet miktubin fil-''Magna Carta'' (1215), li b'mod espliċitu ħarset ċerti drittijiet tas-sudditi tar-Re u b'mod impliċitu appoġġat dak li mbagħad sar id-digriet Ingliż tal-''habeas corpus'', li jissalvagwardja l-libertà individwali mill-ħabs illegali u li jagħti d-dritt tal-appell. L-ewwel assemblea nazzjonali rappreżentattiva fl-Ingilterra kienet il-Parlament ta' [[Simon de Montfort]] fl-1265. Il-preżenza tat-tressiq tal-petizzjonijiet hija fost l-iżjed evidenza bikrija tal-użu tal-Parlament bħala forum biex jiġi indirizzat it-tħassib ġenerali tan-nies ordinarji. Madankollu, is-setgħa tas-sejħa tal-Parlament baqgħet f'idejn il-monarka. Xi studji kkollegaw l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjonijiet Parlamentari fl-Ewropa matul il-Medju Evu mal-agglomerazzjonijiet urbani u mal-ħolqien ta' klassijiet ġodda, bħall-[[Artiġjan|artiġjani]], kif ukoll mal-preżenza tan-nobbli u tal-eliti reliġjużi. L-istudjużi kkollegaw ukoll l-istabbiliment tal-governanza rappreżentattiva mal-frammentazzjoni politika relattiva tal-Ewropa. Ix-xjenzat politiku [[David Stasavage]] jikkollega l-frammentazzjoni tal-Ewropa, u d-demokratizzazzjoni sussegwenti tagħha, mal-mod kif sfaxxa l-[[Imperu Ruman]]: it-territorju Ruman inħakem minn gruppi frammentati żgħar ta' tribujiet Ġermaniċi, u dan wassal għall-ħolqien ta' unitajiet politiċi żgħar fejn il-mexxejja kienu relattivament dgħajfin u kienu jeħtieġu l-kunsens taċ-ċittadini tagħhom biex jifilħu għat-theddidiet barranin. Fil-[[Polonja]], id-demokrazija nobbli kienet ikkaratterizzata minn żieda fl-attività tan-nobbiltà nofsanija, li riedet iżżid is-sehem tagħha fl-eżerċitar tal-poter għas-spejjeż tal-manjati. Il-manjati ddominaw l-iżjed karigi importanti fl-istat (lajċi u ekkleżjastiċi) u kienu jinġabru fil-kunsill irjali, li iktar 'il quddiem sar is-senat. L-importanza dejjem tikber tan-nobbiltà nofsanija kellha impatt fuq l-istabbiliment tal-istituzzjoni tal-art magħrufa bħala s-''sejmik'' (assemblea lokali), li sussegwentement kisbet iktar drittijiet. Matul is-seklu 15 u l-ewwel nofs tas-seklu 16, is-sejmiks ingħataw iktar u iktar poter u saru l-iżjed istituzzjonijiet importanti tal-poter lokali. Fl-1454, [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] ta lis-sejmiks id-dritt li jiddeċiedu dwar it-taxxi u li jorganizzaw mobilizzazzjoni tal-massa fl-Istatuti ta' Nieszawa. Huwa wiegħed ukoll li ma kienx se joħloq liġijiet ġodda mingħajr il-kunsens tagħhom. === Era moderna === ==== Perjodu modern bikri ==== Fl-Ingilterra tas-[[seklu 17]], kien hemm interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta. Il-Parlament tal-Ingilterra għadda l-Petizzjoni tad-Drittijiet fl-1628 li stabbiliet ċerti libertajiet għas-sudditi. Il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża (1642–1651) ġiet miġġielda bejn ir-Re u Parlament oligarkiku iżda elett, u matul dan iż-żmien iffurmat l-idea ta' partit politiku, bi gruppi jiddibattu d-drittijiet għar-rappreżentanza politika matul id-Dibattiti ta' Putney tal-1647. Sussegwentement, il-Protettorat (1653–59) u l-Integrazzjoni mill-Ġdid Ingliża (1660) integraw iktar tmexxija awtokratika, għalkemm il-Parlament għadda l-Att dwar il-''Habeas Corpus'' fl-1679 li saħħaħ il-konvenzjoni li pprojbixxiet id-detenzjoni mingħajr biżżejjed raġunijiet jew evidenza. Wara r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688, il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet ġiet ippromulgata fl-1689 u din ikkodifikat ċerti drittijiet u libertajiet u għadha fis-seħħ. Il-liġi stabbiliet ir-rekwiżiti li jsiru elezzjonijiet regolari, ir-regoli għal-libertà tal-kelma fil-Parlament u limitat il-poter tal-monarka, u b'hekk żgurat, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-Ewropa ta' dak iż-żmien, li l-assolutiżmu rjali ma jipprevalix. L-istoriċi ekonomiċi [[Douglass North]] u [[Barry Weingast]] ikkaratterizzaw l-istituzzjonijiet implimentati fir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża bħala suċċess kbir f'termini tar-restrizzjonijiet tal-governanza u l-iżgurar tal-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet tal-proprjetà. L-interess imġedded fil-Manja Karta, il-Gwerra Ċivili Ingliża, u r-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża fis-seklu 17 xprunaw it-tkabbir ta' filosofija politika fil-Gżejjer Brittaniċi. [[Thomas Hobbes]] kien l-ewwel filosfu li fassal teorija dettaljata dwar il-kuntratt soċjali. Fil-''Leviathan'' (1651), Hobbes ħareġ bit-teorija li l-individwi li jgħixu fin-natura kienu jgħixu ħajja "solitarja, fqira, kerha, iebsa u qasira" u kienu jagħmlu gwerer kontinwi kontra kulħadd. Sabiex tiġi evitata l-okkorrenza tal-istat anarkiku tan-natura, Hobbes irraġuna li l-individwi kienu jċedu d-drittijiet tagħhom lil qawwa awtoritarja setgħana. Fi kliem ieħor, Hobbes tkellem favur monarkija assoluta, li fl-opinjoni tiegħu kienet l-aqwa forma ta' governanza. Iktar 'il quddiem, il-filosfu u t-[[tabib]] [[John Locke]] ħareġ b'interpretazzjoni differenti dwar it-teorija tal-kuntratt soċjali. Fiż-''Żewġ Trattati tal-Governanza'' (1689) tiegħu, Locke sostna li l-individwi kollha kellhom id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għall-proprjetà. Skont Locke, l-individwi kienu jinġabru volontarjament flimkien biex jiffurmaw stat bl-għan li jiddefendu drittijiethom. Għal Locke kienu partikolarment importanti d-drittijiet tal-proprjetà, li skont Locke kienu jirrikjedu l-ħarsien, li kien l-iskop primarju tal-gvern. Barra minn hekk, Locke sostna li l-gvernijiet kienu leġittimi biss jekk kellhom il-kunsens ta' dawk li kienu ggvernati. Skont Locke, iċ-ċittadini kellhom id-dritt jirribellaw kontra l-gvern jekk dan kien jaġixxi kontra l-interessi tagħhom jew isir tiranniku. Għalkemm ma tantx kienu moqrija matul ħajtu, ix-xogħlijiet ta' Locke jitqiesu bħala d-dokumenti li jsejsu l-ħsieb liberali u influwenzaw ferm il-mexxejja tar-Rivoluzzjoni Amerikana u iktar 'il quddiem ir-[[Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża]]. Il-qafas demokratiku liberali tiegħu tal-governanza għadu l-forma ewlenija tad-demokrazija fid-dinja. Fir-repubbliki tal-Cossack tal-[[Ukrajna]] fis-sekli 16 u 17, l-Etmanat tal-Cossack u s-Sich ta' Zaporizhia, id-detentur tal-ogħla kariga ta' Hetman kien jiġi elett mir-rappreżentanti tad-distretti tal-pajjiż. Fl-[[L-Amerika ta' Fuq|Amerka ta' Fuq]], il-governanza rappreżentattiva bdiet f'Jamestown, Virginia, bl-elezzjoni tal-Kamra tal-Burgesses (il-prekursur tal-Assemblea Ġenerali ta' Virginia) fl-1619. Il-Puritani Ingliżi li għamlu migrazzjoni mill-1620 stabbilew kolonji f'New England, fejn kien hemm governanza lokali demokratika; il-poter ta' dawn l-assemblej lokali kien ivarja ferm tul il-perjodu kolonjali. Madankollu, uffiċjalment kellhom ammonti żgħar ta' poter devolut, peress li l-awtorità aħħarija kienet f'idejn il-monarkija u l-Parlament. Il-Puritani, il-Battisti u l-Quakers li stabbilew dawn il-kolonji applikaw l-organizzazzjoni demokratika tal-kongregazzjonijiet tagħhom anke għall-amministrazzjoni tal-komunitajiet tagħhom fil-ħajja ta' kuljum. ==== Sekli 18 u 19 ==== L-ewwel Parlament tal-Gran Brittanja ġie stabbilit fl-1707, wara l-fużjoni tar-Renju tal-Ingilterra u r-Renju tal-[[Skozja|Iskozja]] skont l-Atti tal-Unjoni. Żewġ dokumenti ewlenin tal-kostituzzjoni mhux kodifikata tar-Renju Unit, id-Dikjarazzjoni Ingliża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689 (imsejħa mill-ġdid bħala l-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689) u d-Dikjarazzjoni Skoċċiża tad-Drittijiet tal-1689, it-tnejn li huma kienu kkonsolidaw il-pożizzjoni tal-Parlament bħala l-korp suprem tat-tfassil tal-liġijiet u kienu jgħidu li "l-elezzjoni tal-membri tal-Parlament kellha tkun ħielsa". Madankollu, il-Parlament kien jiġi elett biss mis-sidien tal-art maskili, li kienu jammontaw għal 3 % tal-popolazzjoni fl-1780. L-ewwel persuna Brittanika magħrufa ta' nisel Afrikan li vvota f'elezzjoni ġenerali, [[Ignatius Sancho]], ivvota fl-1774 u fl-1780. Matul l-Era tal-Libertà fl-[[Żvezja|Iżvezja]] (1718–1772), id-drittijiet ċivili twessgħu u l-poter għadda mingħand il-monarka għall-Parlament. Ir-raħħala intaxxati kienu rrappreżentati fil-Parlament, għalkemm ma tantx kellhom influwenza, iżda n-nies komuni mingħajr proprjetà intaxxata ma kellhomx suffraġju. Il-ħolqien ta' Repubblika ta' [[Korsika]] ta' għomorha qasir fl-1755 kien tentattiv bikri li tiġi adottata kostituzzjoni demokratika (setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel u n-nisa kollha li kellhom iktar minn 25 sena). Din il-Kostituzzjoni ta' Korsika kienet l-ewwel waħda bbażata fuq il-prinċipji tal-Illuminiżmu u kienet tinkludi s-suffraġju femminili, xi ħaġa li ma kinitx inkluża fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji l-oħra sas-seklu 20. L-Amerka kolonjali kellha kwalifikazzjonijiet simili dwar il-proprjetà bħall-Brittanja, u fil-perjodu qabel l-1776 l-abbundanza u d-disponibbiltà tal-art kienet tfisser li għadd kbir ta' kolonjalisti kienu jissodisfaw tali rekwiżiti b'mill-inqas 60 fil-mija tal-irġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda li setgħu jivvutaw. Il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda kienu [[Bidwi|bdiewa]] li kienu jissodisfaw ir-rekwiżiti tas-sjieda tal-proprjetà jew tal-ħlas tat-taxxa. Bi ftit eċċezzjonijiet, l-ebda mara jew persuna b'karnaġjon sewda ma setgħu jivvutaw. Vermont, li malli ddikjarat l-indipendenza mill-Gran Brittanja fl-1777, adottat kostituzzjoni mmudellata fuq iċ-ċittadinanza u s-suffraġju demokratiku ta' Pennsylvania għall-irġiel bi proprjetà jew mingħajr proprjetà. Il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti tal-1787 hija l-eqdem kostituzzjoni governattiva kkodifikata li għadha teżisti u li għadha attiva. Il-Kostituzzjoni kienet tipprevedi gvern elett u protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet ċivili, iżda ma temmitx il-jasar u lanqas ma estendiet id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni fl-Istati Uniti, u minflok ħalliet il-kwistjoni tas-suffraġju f'idejn l-istati individwali. Ġeneralment, l-istati llimitaw is-suffraġju għas-sidien tal-proprjetà maskili u għal dawk li jħallsu t-taxxi ta' karnaġjon bajda. Meta kien hemm l-ewwel elezzjoni Presidenzjali fl-1789, madwar 6 % tal-popolazzjoni kienet eliġibbli biex tivvota. L-Att dwar in-Naturalizzazzjoni tal-1790 illimita ċ-ċittadinanza Amerikana lill-persuni ta' karnaġjon bajda biss. Il-Liġi tad-Drittijiet fl-1791 stabbiliet limiti fuq il-poter tal-gvern sabiex tħares il-libertajiet personali iżda kellha ftit impatt fuq is-sentenzi tal-qrati għall-ewwel 130 sena wara r-ratifika. Fl-1789, [[Franza]] Rivoluzzjonarja adottat id-Dikjarazzjoni tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem u taċ-Ċittadini, u għalkemm għomorha kien qasir, il-Konvenzjoni Nazzjonali kienet eletta mill-irġiel kollha biss fl-1792. Il-Kostituzzjoni Pollakka-[[Litwanja|Litwana]] tat-3 ta' Mejju 1791 ippruvat timplimenta monarkija kostituzzjonali iktar effettiva, introduċiet l-ugwaljanza politika bejn iċ-ċittadini u n-nobbli, u poġġiet ir-raħħala taħt il-protezzjoni tal-gvern, u b'hekk taffiet l-agħar abbużi kontra r-raħħala. Din damet fis-seħħ għal inqas minn 19-il xahar, u ġiet iddikjarata nulla mis-Sejm ta' Grodno li ltaqa' fl-1793. Minkejja dan, il-Kostituzzjoni tal-1791 għenet biex l-aspirazzjonijiet tal-Pollakki jibqgħu ħajjin għar-restawr eventwali tas-sovranità tal-pajjiż iktar minn seklu wara. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1828 kienet l-ewwel waħda li fiha setgħu jivvutaw l-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda li ma kinux sidien tal-proprjetà fil-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-istati. L-ammont ta' nies li ħarġu jivvutaw żdied matul is-snin 30 tas-seklu 19, u laħaq madwar 80 % tal-popolazzjoni ta' rġiel adulti ta' karnaġjon bajda fl-elezzjoni Presidenzjali tal-1840. North Carolina kien l-aħħar stat li abolixxa l-kwalifazzjoni abbażi tal-proprjetà fl-1856 u dan wassal għal approssimazzjoni tas-suffraġju universali tal-irġiel ta' karnaġjon bajda (madankollu r-rekwiżiti tal-ħlas tat-taxxa baqgħu jeżistu f'ħames stati fl-1860 u baqgħu jeżistu f'żewġ stati sas-seklu 20). Fiċ-ċensiment tal-Istati Uniti tal-1860, il-popolazzjoni tal-iskjavi kienet kibret għal 4 miljuni, u fir-Rikostruzzjoni wara l-Gwerra Ċivili, għaddew tliet emendi kostituzzjonali: it-13-il Emenda (1865) li temmet l-iskjavitù; l-14-il Emenda (1869) li tat iċ-ċittadinanza lin-nies ta' karnaġjon sewda, u l-15-il Emenda (1870) lil tat lill-irġiel ta' karnaġjon sewda d-dritt nominali biex jivvutaw. L-involviment sħiħ taċ-ċittadini kollha ma ġiex żgurat sa wara li l-moviment tad-drittijiet ċivili kiseb l-approvazzjoni mill-Kungress tal-Istati Uniti fir-rigward tal-Att dwar id-Drittijiet tal-Votazzjoni tal-1965. Id-dritt tal-votazzjoni fir-Renju Unit twessa' u sar iktar uniformi permezz ta' sensiela ta' riformi li bdew bl-Att dwar ir-Riformi tal-1832 u komplew fis-seklu 20, b'mod partikolari bl-Att dwar ir-Rappreżentanza tan-Nies tal-1918 u l-Att dwar l-Ugwaljanza tal-1928. Is-suffraġju maskili universali ġie stabbilit fi Franza f'Marzu 1848 fid-dawl tar-Rivoluzzjoni Franċiża tal-1848. Matul dik is-sena, faqqgħu diversi rivoluzzjonijiet fl-Ewropa peress li l-mexxejja kellhom ilaħħqu mad-domandi popolari għall-kostituzzjonijiet liberali u għal iktar governanza demokratika. Fl-1876, l-[[Imperu Ottoman]] għadda minn monarkija assoluta għal waħda kostituzzjonali, u organizza żewġ elezzjonijiet is-sena ta' wara biex jeleġġi membri fil-Parlament li kien għadu kemm ġie ffurmat. Inħarġu Regolamenti Elettorali Proviżorji, li kienu jiddikjaraw li l-membri eletti tal-Kunsilli Amministrattivi Provinċjali kellhom jeleġġu l-membri għall-ewwel Parlament. Iktar tard dik is-sena, ġiet ippromulgata kostituzzjoni ġdida, li kienet tipprevedi l-istabbiliment ta' Parlament bikamerali b'Senat maħtur mis-Sultan u Kamra tad-Deputati eletta mill-poplu. Kienu jitħallew jikkontestaw għall-elezzjoni l-irġiel biss li kellhom iktar minn 30 sena u li kienu midħla tat-Tork u li kellhom drittijiet ċivili sħaħ. Fost ir-raġunijiet ta' skwalifika kien hemm iż-żamma ta' ċittadinanza doppja, ir-reklutaġġ minn gvern barrani, il-falliment monetarju, l-impjieg bħala qaddej, jew "ir-reputazzjoni tat-twettiq ta' azzjonijiet ħżiena". Is-suffraġju universali sħiħ inkiseb fl-1934. Fl-1893, il-kolonja bl-awtogovernanza ta' [[New Zealand]] saret l-ewwel pajjiż fid-dinja (għajr għar-Repubblika ta' Korsika b'għomorha qasir tas-seklu 18 li stabbiliet is-suffraġju universali attiv billi n-nisa ngħataw id-dritt tal-votazzjoni. ==== Sekli 20 u 21 ==== It-tranżizzjonijiet tas-seklu 20 lejn id-demokrazija liberali waslu f'"mewġiet suċċessivi tad-demokrazija", u rriżultaw b'modi differenti minn gwerer, rivoluzzjonijiet, dekolonizzazzjoni, u ċirkostanzi reliġjużi u ekonomiċi. Il-mewġiet globali ta' "regressjoni demokratika" li reġġgħu lura d-demokratizzazzjoni seħħew ukoll fis-snin 20 u 30 tas-seklu 20, fis-snin 60 u 70 tas-seklu 20 u fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21. [[L-Ewwel Gwerra Dinjija]] u x-xoljiment tal-[[Imperu Ottoman]] u tal-Imperu Awstro-Ungariku wasslu għall-ħolqien ta' nazzjonijiet-stati ġodda fl-Ewropa, u l-biċċa l-kbira minnhom kienu mill-inqas nominalment demokratiċi. Fis-snin 20 tas-seklu 20 tkattru l-movimenti demokratiċi u s-suffraġju universali avvanza, iżda d-Dipressjoni l-Kbira ġabet magħha diżillużjoni u l-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Ewropa, tal-Amerka Latina u tal-[[Asja]] daru għat-tmexxija ta' rġiel b'saħħithom jew dittaturi. Il-Faxxiżmu u d-dittaturi tkattru fil-[[Ġermanja]] Nażista, fl-[[Italja]], fi [[Spanja]] u fil-[[Portugall]], kif ukoll il-gvernijiet mhux demokratiċi fil-Baltiċi, fil-Balkani, fil-[[Brażil]], f'[[Kuba]], fiċ-[[Ċina]] u fil-[[Ġappun]] fost l-oħrajn. [[It-Tieni Gwerra Dinjija]] ġabet magħha treġġigħ lura definittiv ta' din it-tendenza fil-Punent tal-Ewropa. Id-demokratizzazzjoni tas-setturi Amerikani, Brittaniċi u Franċiżi tal-Ġermanja okkupata (għalkemm xi sorsi jikkontestaw dan il-punt), tal-[[Awstrija]], tal-[[Italja]], u tal-[[Ġappun]] okkupat serviet bħala mudell għat-teorija li ġiet wara tal-bidla fil-gvern. Madankollu, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-Lvant tal-Ewropa, inkluż is-settur [[Unjoni Sovjetika|Sovjetiku]] tal-Ġermanja, sfat fit-territorju mhux demokratiku ddominat mis-Sovjetiċi. Wara l-gwerra kien hemm id-dekolonizzazzjoni, u mill-ġdid il-biċċa l-kbira tal-istati indipendenti ġodda kellhom kostituzzjonijiet nominalment demokratiċi. L-Indja feġġet bħala l-ikbar demokrazija fid-dinja u għadha fit-tmun. Il-pajjiżi li fl-imgħoddi kienu parti mill-Imperu Brittanika, spiss adottaw is-sistema Brittanika ta' Westminster. Fl-1948, id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem irrekjediet id-demokrazija:<blockquote>3. Ir-rieda tan-nies għandha tkun il-bażi tal-awtorità tal-governanza; din għandha tkun espressa f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom jkunu b'suffraġju universali u ugwali u dan għandu jiġi espress f'elezzjonijiet perjodiċi u ġenwini li għandhom isiru b'suffraġju universali u ndaqs u għandhom isiru permezz ta' votazzjoni sigrieta u jew bi proċeduri ekwivalenti ta' votazzjoni ħielsa.</blockquote>— Id-Dikjarazzjoni Universali tad-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem, l-Artikolu 21, in-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, fl-1948 Sal-1960, il-maġġoranza l-kbira tal-pajjiżi-stati nominalment kienu demokraziji, għalkemm il-biċċa l-kbira tal-popolazzjonijiet tad-dinja kienu jgħixu f'demokraziji nominali li esperjenzaw elezzjonijiet taparsi, u forom oħra ta' qerq (b'mod partikolari fl-istati "[[Komuniżmu|Komunisti]]" u l-eks kolonji). Mewġa sussegwenti ta' demokratizzazzjoni ġabet magħha kisbiet sostanzjali favur demokrazija liberali ta' vera għal bosta stati, u din ġiet imlaqqma bħala t-"tielet mewġa ta' demokrazija". Il-Portugall, Spanja u diversi mid-dittaturi militari fl-[[L-Amerika t'Isfel|Amerka t'Isfel]] reġgħu lura għat-tmexxija ċivili fis-snin 70 u 80 tas-seklu 20. Din ġiet segwita minn pajjiżi fil-Lvant u fin-Nofsinhar tal-Asja sa nofs u l-aħħar tas-snin 80 tas-seklu 20. L-għawġ ekonomiku fis-snin 80 tas-seklu 20, flimkien mal-garr minħabba l-oppressjoni Sovjetika, wasslu għall-isfaxxar tal-Unjoni Sovjetika, it-tmiem assoċjata tal-[[Gwerra Bierda]], u d-demokratizzazzjoni u l-liberalizzazzjoni tal-pajjiżi tal-Lvant tal-eks Unjoni Sovjetika. L-iżjed demokraziji mid-demokraziji l-ġodda li kellhom suċċess kienu dawk li [[Ġeografija|ġeografikament]] u [[Kultura|kulturalment]] kienu l-eqreb tal-Punent tal-Ewropa, u li issa huma parti mill-[[Unjoni Ewropea]] jew huma pajjiżi kandidati. Fl-1986, wara li waqgħet l-iżjed dittatura Asjatika prominenti, l-uniku stat demokratiku tax-xorta tiegħu dak iż-żmien feġġ fil-[[Filippini]] bil-wasla ta' [[Corazon Aquino]], li iktar 'il quddiem saret magħrufa bħala omm id-demokrazija Asjatika. Ix-xejra liberali nfirxet f'uħud mill-istati Afrikani fis-snin 90 tas-seklu 20, l-iktar fl-[[Afrika t'Isfel]]. Xi eżempji reċenti ta' tentattivi ta' liberalizzazzjoni jinkludu r-Rivoluzzjoni [[Indoneżja|Indoneżjana]] tal-1998, ir-Rivoluzzjoni bil-Gafef fil-[[Jugoslavja]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ward fil-[[Ġeorġja|Georgia]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni Oranġjo fl-[[Ukrajna]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni taċ-Ċedru fil-[[Libanu]], ir-Rivoluzzjoni tat-Tulipani fil-[[Kirgiżistan]] u r-Rivoluzzjoni tal-Ġiżimin fit-[[Tuneżija]]. Skont Freedom House, fl-2007 kien hemm 123 demokrazija elettorali (minn 40 waħda fl-1972). Skont il-''Forum Dinji dwar id-Demokrazija'', id-demokraziji elettorali issa jirrappreżentaw 120 mill-192 pajjiż eżistenti u jikkostitwixxu 58.2 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni dinjija. Fl-istess ħin, id-demokraziji liberali, jiġifieri l-pajjiżi li Freedom House tqis bħala ħielsa u li jirrispettaw id-drittijiet tal-bniedem bażiċi u l-istat tad-dritt, jammontaw għal 85 pajjiż u jirrappreżentaw 38 fil-mija tal-popolazzjoni globali. Fl-2007 ukoll, in-[[Nazzjonijiet Uniti]] ddikjaraw il-15 ta' Settembru bħala l-Jum Internazzjonali tad-Demokrazija. Bosta pajjiżi baxxew l-età tal-votazzjoni għal 18-il sena; id-demokraziji ewlenin bdew jagħmlu dan fis-snin 70 tas-seklu 20, l-ewwel nett fil-Punent tal-Ewropa u fl-Amerka ta' Fuq. Il-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji elettorali għadhom jeskludu lil dawk taħt l-età ta' 18-il sena mill-votazzjoni. L-età tal-votazzjoni tbaxxiet għal 16-il sena għall-elezzjonijiet nazzjonali f'għadd ta' pajjiżi, fosthom il-[[Brażil]], l-Awstrija, [[Kuba]] u n-[[Nikaragwa]]. F'California, proposta tal-2004 biex jingħata kwart ta' vot li dawk ta' 16-il sena fl-aħħar mill-aħħar ma għaddietx. Fl-2008, il-Parlament Ġermaniż ippropona abbozz ta' liġi li mbagħad warrab li kienet tagħti d-dritt tal-votazzjoni lil kull ċittadin mat-twelid, biex jintuża minn ġenitur sa meta l-wild ikun jista' jibda jużah. Skont Freedom House, mill-2005 kien hemm 17-il sena konsekuttiva li fihom id-drittijiet politiċi u l-libertajiet ċivili madwar id-dinja marru għall-agħar f'iktar pajjiżi milli fejn sar xi titjib, peress li l-qawwiet populisti u nazzjonalistiċi mexew 'il quddiem kullimkien, mill-[[Polonja]] (eż. il-partit tal-Liġi u l-Ġustizzja) sal-Filippini (taħt [[Rodrigo Duterte]]). F'rapport ta' Freedom House li nħareġ fl-2018, il-punteġġi rigward id-demokrazija għall-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi marru lura għat-12-il sena konsekuttiva. ''The Christian Science Monitor'' irrapporta li l-ideoloġiji nazzjonalistiċi u populisti kienu qed jissaħħew, a skapitu tal-istat tad-dritt, f'pajjiżi bħall-Polonja, it-[[Turkija]] u l-[[Ungerija]]. Pereżempju, fil-Polonja, il-President ħatar 27 imħallef ġdid tal-Qorti Suprema minkejja l-oġġezzjonijiet legali mill-[[Kummissjoni Ewropea]]. Fit-Turkija, eluf ta' mħallfin tneħħew mill-karigi tagħhom wara kolp ta' stat li ma rnexxiex. Iċ-"ċedimenti demokratiċi" fis-snin 10 tas-seklu 21 ġew attribwiti lill-inugwaljanza ekonomika u l-garr soċjali, il-personaliżmu, il-ġestjoni batuta tal-gvernijiet fir-rigward tal-[[pandemija tal-COVID-19]], kif ukoll fatturi oħra bħall-manipolazzjoni tas-soċjetà ċivili, il-"polarizzazzjoni tossika", il-kampanji barranin tad-diżinformazzjoni, ir-razziżmu u n-nattiviżmu, is-setgħa eżekuttiva eċċessiva, u s-setgħa mnaqqsa tal-oppożizzjoni. Fi ħdan id-demokraziji tal-Punent, l-attitudnijiet ta' "protezzjoniżmu", li jiġbru flimkien il-konservattiviżmu kulturali u l-attitudnijiet ekonomiċi Xellugin, kienu l-iżjed indikatur b'saħħtu tal-appoġġ għall-modalitajiet awtoritarji ta' governanza. == Teorija == === Teorija bikrija === It-teorija demokratika ta' Aristotli kienet tpoġġi f'kuntrast it-tmexxija mill-ħafna (demokrazija/timokrazija), mat-tmexxija mill-ftit (oligarkija/aristokrazija/elitiżmu), kif ukoll mat-tmexxija minn persuna waħda (tirannija/awtokrazija/monarkija assoluta). Huwa ħaseb ukoll li kien hemm varjant tajjeb u ħażin ta' kull sistema (huwa qies id-demokrazija bħala l-kontroparti ħażina tat-timokrazija). Fehma komuni fost it-teoriċi Repubblikani bikrin u Rinaxximentali kienet li d-demokrazija setgħet tibqa' ħajja biss fil-komunitajiet politiċi ż-żgħar. Abbażi tal-lezzjonijiet meħuda mill-bidla tar-Repubblika Rumana lejn il-monarkiżmu iktar ma kibret jew ċkienet, dawn it-teoriċi Repubblikani sostnew li l-espansjoni tat-territorji u tal-popolazzjoni inevitabbilment kienu jwasslu għat-tirannija. Għaldaqstant id-demokrazija kienet fraġli ferm u rari storikament, għax setgħet tibqa' teżisti biss f'unitajiet politiċi żgħar, li minħabba d-daqs tagħhom kienu vulnerabbli għal ħakma minn unitajiet politiċi akbar. Huwa magħruf li Montesquieu qal, "jekk repubblika tkun żgħira, tinqered minn qawwa barranija; jekk tkun kbira, tinqered minn difett intern". [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] sostna, "Għaldaqstant, hija l-karatteristika naturali tal-istati żgħar li jiġu ggvernati bħala repubblika, tal-istati ta' daqs nofsani li jkunu soġġetti għal monarka, u tal-imperi kbar li jitmexxew minn prinċep tirann". === Teorija kontemporanja === Fost it-teoriji politiċi moderni, jeżistu kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. ==== Aggregazzjoni ==== It-teorija tad-demokrazija aggregattiva ssostni li l-għan tal-proċessi demokratiċi hu li jmexxu 'l quddiem il-preferenzi taċ-ċittadini u jaggregawhom flimkien biex jiddeterminaw liema politiki soċjali għandha tadotta s-soċjetà. Għaldaqstant, dawk li jħaddnu din il-fehma jsostnu li s-sehem demokratiku għandu jiffoka b'mod primarju fuq il-votazzjoni, fejn il-politiki bl-ikbar ammont ta' voti jiġu implimentati. Jeżistu varjanti differenti tad-demokrazija aggregattiva. Skont il-ħsieb tad-demokrazija minimalista, l-elezzjonijiet huma mekkaniżmu ta' kompetizzjoni bejn il-[[Politiku|politiċi]]. [[Joseph Schumpeter]] huwa magħruf li spjega dan il-ħsieb fil-ktieb tiegħu ''Kapitaliżmu, Soċjaliżmu u Demokrazija''. [[Anthony Downs]] jargumenta li l-partiti politiċi ideoloġiċi huma neċessarji biex jaġixxu bħala sensara bejn l-individwi u l-gvernijiet. Min-naħa l-oħra, id-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini jivvutaw direttament rigward il-proposti leġiżlattivi, tista' turi aggregazzjoni aħjar f'każijiet ta' differenzi fil-preferenzi bejn l-elit u l-votanti. ===== Mandat medjan ===== Skont it-teorema tal-votant medjan, ir-rappreżentattività politika tista' tiġi evalwata billi jitqabbel kemm il-liġijiet u l-politiki huma qrib tal-fehmiet tal-votanti medjani tul l-ispettru politiku. Il-mandat medjan iħares lejn il-preferenzi tal-votant medjan bħala dawk li jagħtu leġittimità politika. ==== Poliarkija ==== [[Robert A. Dahl]] jargumenta li l-prinċipju demokratiku fundamentali hu li meta wieħed jasal għal deċiżjonijiet kollettivi vinkolanti, kull persuna f'komunità politika hija intitolata li l-interessi tagħha jitqiesu b'mod indaqs. Huwa juża t-terminu poliarkija ("it-tmexxija mill-ħafna") biex jirreferi għal soċjetajiet fejn jeżisti ċertu sett ta' istituzzjonijiet u proċeduri li huma perċepiti li jwasslu għal tali demokrazija. L-ewwel u qabel kollox fost dawn l-istituzzjonijiet hemm l-okkorrenza regolari ta' elezzjonijiet ħielsa u miftuħa li jsiru biex jintgħażlu r-rappreżentanti li mbagħad jiġġestixxu l-politiki pubbliċi kollha tas-soċjetà jew il-biċċa l-kbira minnhom. Madankollu, dawn il-proċeduri poliarkiċi jaf ma joħolqux demokrazija sħiħa, jekk pereżempju l-faqar ixekkel il-parteċipazzjoni politika. B'mod simili, [[Ronald Dworkin]] isostni li d-"demokrazija hija ideal sostantiv, mhux sempliċement proċedurali". ==== Deliberazzjoni ==== Id-demokrazija deliberattiva hija bbażata fuq in-nozzjoni li d-demokrazija hija governanza bid-deliberazzjoni. Għad-differenza tad-demokrazija aggregattiva, id-demokrazija deliberattiva ssostni li biex deċiżjoni demokratika tkun leġittima, din trid tkun preċeduta minn deliberazzjoni awtentika, mhux sempliċement l-aggregazzjoni tal-preferenzi li sseħħ fil-votazzjoni. Deliberazzjoni awtentika hija deliberazzjoni fost dawk li jieħdu d-deċiżjonijiet li tkun ħielsa minn distorsjonijiet tas-setgħa politika inugwali, bħas-setgħa li jikseb min jieħu d-deċiżjonijiet permezz tal-ġid ekonomiku jew l-appoġġ tal-gruppi ta' interess. Jekk dawk li jieħdu d-deċiżjonijiet ma jkunux jistgħu jaslu għal konsensus wara deliberazzjoni awtentika dwar proposta, imbagħad jivvutaw dwar il-proposta billi jużaw forma ta' tmexxija tal-maġġoranza. Il-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini jitqiesu minn bosta studjużi bħala eżempji prattiċi tad-demokrazija deliberattiva, u rapport reċenti tal-[[OECD]] jidentifika l-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini bħala mekkaniżmu popolari li kulma jmur jinvolvi liċ-ċittadini fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet governattivi. Dawk li huma favur id-demokrazija diretta jsostnu li ċ-ċittadini ma jmexxux lilhom infushom sakemm ma jiddeċidux direttament rigward il-liġijiet u l-politiki. L-attività politika tista' tkun siewja fiha nnifisha, peress li tissoċjalizza u teduka liċ-ċittadini, u l-parteċipazzjoni popolari tista' tikkontrolla l-elit setgħana. ==== Tipi ta' demokraziji governattivi ==== Id-demokrazija għandha bosta forom, kemm fit-teorija kif ukoll fil-prattika. Xi varjetajiet tad-demokrazija jipprovdu rappreżentanza aħjar u iktar libertà għaċ-ċittadini minn oħrajn. Madankollu, jekk xi demokrazija ma tkunx strutturata sabiex tipprojbixxi lill-gvern milli jeskludi lin-nies mill-proċess leġiżlattiv, jew lil kwalunkwe fergħa tal-gvern milli tibdel is-separazzjoni tal-poteri favuriha, imbagħad fergħa tas-sistema tista' takkumula wisq poter u teqred id-demokrazija. It-tipi ta' demokrazija li ġejjin ma jeskludux lil xulxin: ħafna jispeċifikaw dettalji ta' aspetti li huma indipendenti minn xulxin u jistgħu jeżistu flimkien f'sistema unika. ===== Forom bażiċi ===== Jeżistu diversi varjanti ta' demokrazija, iżda hemm żewġ forom bażiċi, u t-tnejn li huma jikkonċernaw kif il-korp kollu taċ-ċittadini eliġibbli jwettaq ir-rieda tiegħu. Forma ta' demokrazija hija d-demokrazija diretta, fejn iċ-ċittadini eliġibbli kollha jkollhom parteċipazzjoni attiva fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet politiċi, pereżempju billi jivvutaw direttament rigward l-inizjattivi ta' politika. Fil-biċċa l-kbira tad-demokraziji moderni, il-korp kollu ta' ċittadini eliġibbli jibqa' l-poter sovran iżda l-poter politiku jiġi eżerċitat indirettament permezz ta' rappreżentanti eletti; din tissejjaħ demokrazija rappreżentattiva. Jekk il-kap ta' stat jiġi elett b'mod demokratiku, l-istat jissejjaħ repubblika demokratika. ====== Demokrazija diretta ====== Id-demokrazija diretta hija sistema politika fejn iċ-ċittadini jieħdu sehem fit-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet personalment. minflok jiddependu fuq intermedjarji jew rappreżentanti. Dawk li tkellmu favuriha bħal Jean-Jacques Rousseau jsostnu li l-approċċ dirett iżid il-leġittimità. Demokrazija diretta tagħti lill-popolazzjoni li tivvota s-setgħa li: * tibdel il-liġijiet kostituzzjonali; * tressaq inizjattivi, referenda u suġġerimenti għal liġijiet. Fi ħdan il-gvernijiet rappreżentattivi moderni, ċerti għodod elettorali bħar-referenda, l-inizjattivi taċ-ċittadini u r-referendum għat-tneħħija ta' gvern jitqiesu bħala fororm ta' demokrazija diretta. Madankollu, uħud li huma favur id-demokrazija diretta jsostnu li l-ġemgħat lokali jeħtieġu jiddiskutu wiċċ imb wiċċ. Id-demokrazija diretta bħala sistema ta' governanza attwalment teżisti fil-kantons [[Żvizzera|Żvizzeri]] ta' Appenzell Innerrhoden u Glarus, il-Muniċipalitajiet Awtonomi Zapatisti Ribelli, il-komunitajiet affiljati mas-CIPO-RFM, il-kunsilli lokali [[Bolivja|Bolivjani]] ta' FEJUVE, u l-kantons Kurdi ta' Rojava. ====== Demokrazija semidiretta ====== Xi demokraziji moderni li huma rappreżentattivi għalkollox fin-natura tagħhom jiddependu bil-kbir fuq forom ta' azzjoni politika tad-demokrazija diretta. Dawn id-demokraziji, li jużaw elementi tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva u tad-demokrazija diretta, jissejħu demokraziji semidiretti jew demokraziji parteċipattivi. Xi eżempji jinkludu l-Iżvizzera u xi stati tal-Istati Uniti, fejn isir użu frekwenti tar-referenda u tal-inizjattivi. Il-Konfederazzjoni Żvizzera hija demokrazija semidiretta. Fil-livell federali, iċ-ċittadini jistgħu jipproponu bidliet fil-kostituzzjoni (inizjattiva popolari federali) jew jitolbu li jsir referendum rigward kwalunkwe liġi vvutata mill-Parlament. Bejn Jannar 1995 u Ġunju 2005, iċ-ċittadini Żvizzeri vvutaw 31 darba, biex iwieġbu 103 domanda (matul l-istess perjodu, iċ-ċittadini Franċiżi pparteċipaw f'żewġ referenda biss). Minkejja dan, fl-aħħar 120 sena inqas minn 250 inizjattiva tressqu għal referendum. Xi eżempji jinkludu l-użu estensiv tar-referenda fl-istat Amerikan ta' California, li huwa stat b'iktar minn 20 miljun votant. F'New England spiss jintużaw laqgħat tal-belt, speċjalment fiż-żoni rurali, għall-ġestjoni tal-governanza lokali. Dan joħloq forma ibrida ta' governanza, b'demokrazija diretta lokali u gvern statali rappreżentattiv. Pereżempju, il-biċċa l-kbira tal-bliet ta' Vermont jorganizzaw laqgħat tal-bliet annwali f'Marzu fejn jiġu eletti l-uffiċjali tal-bliet, jiġu vvutati l-baġits għall-bliet u għall-iskejjel, u ċ-ċittadini jkollhom l-opportunità li jitkellmu u jinstemgħu rigward il-kwistjonijiet politiċi. ====== Sistema tax-xorti ====== L-użu ta' sistema tax-xorti, demokrazija karatteristika ta' Ateni, hija karatteristika ta' xi verżjonijiet ta' demokraziji diretti. F'din is-sistema, kompiti governattivi u amministrattivi importanti jitwettqu minn ċittadini li jittellgħu bix-xorti f'lotterija. ====== Demokrazija rappreżentattiva ====== Id-demokrazija rappreżentattiva tinvolvi l-elezzjoni tal-uffiċjali tal-gvern min-nies rappreżentati. L-iżjed mekkaniżmi komuni jinvolvu l-elezzjoni tal-kandidat mill-maġġoranza jew minn pluralità tal-voti. Il-biċċa l-kbira tal-pajjiżi tal-Punent għandhom sistemi rappreżentattivi. Ir-rappreżentanti jistgħu jiġu eletti bħala rappreżentanti diplomatiċi minn distrett (jew kostitwenza) partikolari, jew jirrappreżentaw l-elettorat kollu permezz ta' sistemi proporzjonali. Xi demokraziji rappreżentattivi jinkorporaw ukoll elementi tad-demokrazija diretta, bħal referenda. Karatteristika tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva hi li filwaqt li r-rappreżentanti jiġu eletti min-nies biex jaġixxu fl-interess tan-nies, jibqa' jkollhom il-libertà li jeżerċitaw il-ġudizzju tagħhom stess kif jaħsbu li jkun l-aħjar. Dan wassal għal kritika fir-rigward tad-demokrazija rappreżentattiva, u ġew indikati kontradizzjonijiet tal-mekkaniżmi ta' rappreżentanza mad-demokrazija. ====== Demokrazija Parlamentari ====== Id-demokrazija Parlamentari hija demokrazija rappreżentattiva fejn il-gvern jinħatar jew jista' jitneħħa mir-rappreżentanti, għad-differenza tat-"tmexxija Presidenzjali" fejn il-President ikun il-kap ta' stat u l-kap tal-gvern u jiġi elett mill-votanti. F'demokrazija Parlamentari, il-governanza tiġi eżerċitata b'delega lill-eżekuttiv u tkun soġġetta għal rieżami kontinwu, verifiki u bilanċi mill-Parlament leġiżlattiv elett mill-poplu. F'sistema Parlamentari, il-Prim Ministru jista' jitneħħa mil-leġiżlatura fi kwalunkwe mument jekk ma jkunx żamm mal-istennijiet tal-leġiżlatura. Dan isir permezz ta' vut ta' sfiduċja fejn il-leġiżlatura tiddeċiedi jekk il-Prim Ministru għandux jitneħħa mill-kariga b'maġġoranza favur it-tneħħija. F'xi pajjiżi, il-Prim Ministru jista' jsejjaħ elezzjoni ukoll fi kwalunkwe ħin, tipikament meta l-Prim Ministru jemmen li jkollu l-poplu warajh biex jerġa' jiġi elett. F'demokraziji Parlamentari oħra, elezzjonijiet addizzjonali prattikament qatt ma jsiru, u jiġi ppreferut gvern ta' minoranza sal-elezzjonijiet ordinarji ta' wara. Karatteristika importanti tad-demokrazija Parlamentari hija l-kunċett tal-"oppożizzjoni leali". Il-qofol tal-kunċett hu li t-tieni l-ikbar partit politiku (jew l-oppożizzjoni) jopponi l-partit fil-gvern (jew koalizzjoni), filwaqt li jibqa' leali lejn l-istat u l-prinċipji demokratiċi tiegħu. ====== Demokrazija Presidenzjali ====== Id-demokrazija Presidenzjali hija sistema fejn il-pubbliku jeleġġi l-President permezz ta' elezzjoni. Il-President jaqdi l-funzjoni ta' kap ta' stat u ta' kap ta' gvern u jikkontrolla l-biċċa l-kbira tal-poteri eżekuttivi. Il-President iservi għal mandat speċifiku u ma jistax iservi għal iktar. Spiss il-leġiżlatura limitat il-possibbiltà li President jitneħħa mill-kariga. L-elezzjonijiet tipikament ikollhom data fissa u qajla jinbidlu. Il-President ikollu kontroll dirett fuq il-kabinett, u jaħtar speċifikament il-membri tal-kabinett. Normalment l-eżekuttiv ikollu r-responsabbiltà tat-twettiq jew tal-implimentazzjoni tal-leġiżlazzjoni u jaf ikollu poteri leġiżlattivi limitati, bħal veto. Madankollu, fergħa leġiżlattiva tgħaddi l-leġiżlazzjoni u l-baġits. B'hekk ikun hemm xi forma ta' separazzjoni tal-poteri. B'hekk, il-Presidentu u l-leġiżlatura jaf jispiċċaw ikollhom kontroll ta' partiti separati, u wieħed ikun jista' jimblokka lill-ieħor u b'hekk jindaħal mal-ħidma kif suppost tal-istat. Din jaf hija r-raġuni għalfejn id-demokrazija Presidenzjali ma tantx hija komuni 'l barra mill-Amerki, l-Afrika u l-Asja Ċentrali u tax-Xlokk. Sistema semi-Presidenzjali hija sistema ta' demokrazija fejn il-gvern jinkludi kemm Prim Ministru kif ukoll President. Is-setgħat partikolari tal-Prim Ministru u tal-President ivarjaw skont il-pajjiż. ==== Tipoloġija ==== ===== Monarkija kostituzzjonali ===== Bosta pajjiżi bħar-Renju Unit, [[Spanja]], in-[[Pajjiżi l-Baxxi|Netherlands]], il-[[Belġju]], il-pajjiżi Skandinavi, it-[[Tajlandja]], il-[[Ġappun]] u l-[[Butan|Bhutan]] bidlu monarkiji setgħana f'monarkiji kostituzzjonali (spiss gradwalment) bi rwoli limitati jew simboliċi. Pereżempju, fl-istati predeċessuri tar-Renju Unit, il-monarkija kostituzzjonali bdiet tfeġġ u baqgħet teżisti bla xkiel mir-Rivoluzzjoni Glorjuża tal-1688 u minn meta għaddiet il-Liġi dwar id-Drittijiet tal-1689. Il-monarkiji kostituzzjonali limitati ferm, bħar-Renju Unit, ġew imsejħa bħala repubbliki monarkiċi minn [[Kittieb|kittieba]] bħal [[H. G. Wells]]. F'pajjiżi oħra, il-monarkija ġiet abolita flimkien mas-sistema aristokratika (bħal fi Franza, iċ-[[Ċina]], ir-[[Russja]], il-Ġermanja, l-Awstrija, l-Ungerija, l-Italja, il-Greċja u l-[[Eġittu]]). Persuna eletta, b'poteri sinifikanti jew mingħajrhom, saret il-kap ta' stat f'dawn il-pajjiżi. Il-familji tal-elit tal-leġiżlaturi, li spiss kellhom mandati ereditarji jew għal għomorhom, kienu komuni f'bosta stati. Maż-żmien, dawn kellhom poteri li ġew limitati (bħall-House of Lords tar-Renju Unit) jew saru elettivi u baqgħu setgħana (bħas-Senat [[Awstralja|Awstraljan]]). ===== Demokrazija repubblikana ===== It-terminu ''repubblika'' għandu bosta tifsiriet differenti, iżda llum il-ġurnata spiss jirreferi għal demokrazija rappreżentattiva b'kap ta' stat elett, bħal President, li jservi għal mandat limitat, b'kuntrast mal-istati b'monarka ereditarju bħala kap ta' stat, anke jekk dawn l-istati jkunu demokraziji rappreżentattivi b'kap ta' gvern elett jew maħtur bħal Prim Ministru. Il-Missirijiet Fundaturi tal-Istati Uniti spiss ikkritikaw id-demokrazija diretta; [[James Madison]] argumenta speċjalment f'''The Federalist'' Nru 10, li dak li ddistingwa demokrazija diretta minn waħda repubblikana kien li dik tal-ewwel kienet tiddependi fuq daqs żgħir u kienet tbati ferm mill-effetti tal-fazzjonijiet, filwaqt li dik repubblikana setgħet issir iktar b'saħħitha iktar ma tikber u minnha nnifisha tiġġieled il-fazzjonijiet permezz tal-istruttura tagħha stess. B'hekk, matul konvenzjoni f'[[Philadelphia]], Madison sejjaħ l-elezzjoni tar-rappreżentanti minn territorji kbar bħala "l-unika difiża kontra l-inkonvenjenzi tad-demokrazija konsistenti mal-forma demokratika ta' governanza". Il-Professuri [[Richard Ellis]] tal-Università ta' Willamette u [[Michael Nelson]] tal-Kulleġġ ta' Rhodes isostnu li l-biċċa l-kbira tal-ħsieb kostituzzjonali, minn Madison għal Lincoln u lil hinn, iffoka fuq "il-problema tat-tirannija tal-maġġoranza". Huma kkonkludew, "il-prinċipji tal-governanza repubblikana mħaddna fil-Kostituzzjoni jirrappreżentaw sforz biex jiġi żgurat li id-drittijiet inaljenabbli għall-ħajja, għal-libertà u għat-tfittxija tal-kuntentizza ma jiġux imkasbra mill-maġġoranzi". [[John Adams]] insista li dak li kien kritiku għall-valuri Amerikani kien li l-gvern ikun "marbut minn liġijiet fissi, li l-poplu jkollu l-jedd li jinstema' fit-tfassil tagħhom, u d-dritt għad-difiża". Meta [[Benjamin Franklin]] kien ħiereġ wara li kiteb il-Kostituzzjoni tal-Istati Uniti, [[Elizabeth Willing Powel]] staqsietu "Mela, Dr., x'għandna — repubblika jew monarkija?". Huwa wieġeb "Repubblika — jekk kapaċi żżommuha". ===== Demokrazija liberali ===== Id-demokrazija liberali hija demokrazija rappreżentattiva li tħaddan filosofija politika liberali, fejn il-kapaċità tar-rappreżentanti eletti li jeżerċitaw il-poter tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet hija soġġetta għall-istat tad-dritt, moderat minn kostituzzjoni jew liġijiet bħall-protezzjoni tad-drittijiet u tal-libertajiet tal-individwi, u limitat sal-punt li r-rieda tal-maġġoranza ma tistax tiġi eżerċitata kontra d-drittijiet tal-minoranzi. ===== Demokrazija Soċjalista ===== Il-ħsieb Soċjalista għandu diversi fehmiet differenti rigward id-demokrazija, pereżempju d-demokrazija soċjali jew is-Soċjaliżmu demokratiku. Ħafna Soċjalisti demokratiċi u demokratiċi Soċjalisti jemmnu f'forma ta' demokrazija parteċipattiva, industrijali, ekonomika u/jew tal-post tax-xogħol flimkien ma' demokrazija rappreżentattiva. ===== Demokrazija Marxista ===== It-teorija [[Karl Marx|Marxista]] tappoġġa soċjetà demokratika ċċentrata fuq il-klassi tal-ħaddiema. Xi Marxisti u Trotskyisti jemmnu fid-demokrazija diretta jew fil-kunsilli tal-ħaddiema (li xi kultant jissejħu entitajiet Sovjetiċi). Din is-sistema jaf tibda bid-demokrazija fil-post tax-xogħol u timmanifesta ruħha bħala demokrazija Sovjetika jew dittatura tal-proletarjat. Il-gruppi Trotskyisti interpretaw id-demokrazija Soċjalista bħala sinonima tar-rappreżentanza ta' diversi partiti tax-Xellug Estrem, tal-organizzazzjonijiet tal-unions awtonomi, tal-kontroll tal-produzzjoni tal-ħaddiema, tad-demokrazija interna fi ħdan il-partiti u tal-parteċipazzjoni tal-massa tal-mases tal-ħaddiema. Xi partiti Komunisti jappoġġaw repubblika Sovjetika b'ċentraliżmu demokratiku. Fi ħdan id-demokrazija fil-Marxiżmu jaf ikun hemm ostilità għal dik li normalment tissejjaħ "demokrazija liberali". ===== Demokrazija anarkika ===== L-anarkiċi huma maqsuma f'dan id-dominju, skont jemmnux li tmexxija tal-maġġoranza hijiex tirannika jew le. Għal bosta anarkiċi, l-unika forma ta' demokrazija li titqies aċċettabbli hija d-demokrazija diretta. [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] argumenta li l-unika forma aċċettabbli ta' demokrazija diretta hija waħda fejn huwa rikonoxxut li d-deċiżjonijiet tal-maġġoranza mhumiex vinkolanti fuq il-minoranza, anke meta jkun hemm unanimità. Madankollu, l-anarkiku-Komunist [[Murray Bookchin]] ikkritika l-anarkiċi individwalisti talli opponew id-demokrazija, u sostna li t-"tmexxija tal-maġġoranza" hija konsistenti mal-anarkiżmu. Xi anarkiċi-Komunisti jopponu n-natura maġġoritarja tad-demokrazija diretta, u jħossu li tista' timpedixxi l-libertà individwali u huma favur forma mhux maġġoritarja ta' demokrazija b'konsensus, simili għall-pożizzjoni ta' Proudhon dwar id-demokrazija diretta. ===== Demokrazija każwali ===== Id-demokrazija każwali jew bix-xorti hija l-proċess tal-għażla tal-korpi tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet b'mod aleatorju. Dawn il-korpi jistgħu jkunu iktar rappreżentattivi tal-fehmiet u tal-interessi tal-poplu inġenerali milli leġiżlatura eletta jew entità oħra tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet. It-teknika kienet tintuża b'mod mifrux fid-demokrazija ta' Ateni u f'Firenze Rinaxximentali u għadha tintuża fl-għażla moderna tal-ġuriji u fil-ġemgħat taċ-ċittadini. ===== Demokrazija kostituzzjonali ===== Id-demokrazija kostituzzjonali hija forma ta' demokrazija bbażata fuq il-qsim tal-poter bejn l-elit li jirrappreżenta l-gruppi soċjali fi ħdan is-soċjetà. Fl-1969, [[Arendt Lijphart]] stqarr li din kienet tistabbilizza d-demokraziji bil-fazzjonijiet. Demokrazija kostituzzjonali tippermetti li jkun hemm votazzjonijiet simultanji bil-maġġoranza f'żewġ kostitwenzi etnoreliġjużi jew iktar, u l-politiki jiġu ppromulgati biss jekk jiksbu l-appoġġ tal-maġġoranza mit-tnejn li huma jew minn kollha kemm huma. It-tmexxija b'votazzjoni ta' maġġoranza kwalifikata fil-Kunsill tal-Ministri tal-Unjoni Ewropea hija approċċ ta' demokrazija kostituzzjonali għad-demokraziji sovranazzjonali. Din is-sistema fit-[[Trattat ta' Ruma]] talloka l-voti lill-Istati Membri skont il-popolazzjonijiet tagħha, iżda hija pponderata sew favur l-istati ż-żgħar. Demokrazija kostituzzjonali tirrikjedi l-konsensus tar-rappreżentanti, filwaqt li d-demokrazija b'konsensus tirrikjedi l-konsensus tal-elettorat. ===== Demokrazija maġġoritarja ===== Id-demokrazija maġġoritarja hija forma ta' demokrazija bbażata fuq prinċipju ta' tmexxija tal-maġġoranza. Id-demokrazija maġġoritarja tikkuntrasta mad-demokrazija b'konsensus, u t-tmexxija tkun bl-akbar ammont ta' nies possibbli. ===== Demokrazija b'konsensus ===== Id-demokrazija b'konsensus tirrikjedi teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet b'konsensus u maġġoranza kbira biex jinkiseb appoġġ akbar mill-maġġoranza sempliċi. B'kuntrast ma' dan, fid-demokrazija maġġoritarja l-fehmiet tal-minoranzi potenzjalment jistgħu jiġu injorati mill-maġġoranzi li jirbħu l-votazzjoni. Il-kostituzzjonijiet tipikament jirrikjedu konsensus jew maġġoranzi kbar. ===== Demokrazija etnika ===== It-terminu demokrazija etnika, kif jintuża minn xi xjenzati politiċi, jipprova jiddeskrivi sistema ta' governanza li tgħaqqad flimkien dominanza etnika strutturata u d-drittijiet demokratiċi, politiċi u ċivili għal kulħadd. Kemm il-grupp etniku dominanti — tipikament maġġoranza etnika — u l-gruppi etniċi tal-minoranzi jkollhom iċ-ċittadinanza u jkunu jistgħu jieħdu sehem bis-sħiħ fil-proċess politiku. Madankollu, il-kritiċi tal-mudell tad-"demokrazija etnika" jsostnu li dan huwa kontradizzjoni, u b'hekk bħala kunċett iħossu li mhux adegwat; dawn il-kritiċi jallegaw li d-demokraziji etniċi, b'mod partikolari [[Iżrael]], mhumiex demokratiċi, u l-iktar l-iktar huma xorta ta' semidemokrazija. ===== Demokrazija inklużiva ===== Id-demokrazija inklużiva hija teorija politika u proġett politiku li għandhom l-għan li jiksbu d-demokrazija diretta fl-oqsma kollha tal-ħajja soċjali: demokrazija politka fil-forma ta' ġemgħat ikkonfederati wiċċ imb wiċċ, demokrazija ekonomika f'ekonomija mingħajr stat, flus u suq, demokrazija fil-qasam soċjali, jiġifieri awtoġestjoni fil-postijiet tax-xogħol u fl-edukazzjoni, u demokrazija ekoloġika li għandha l-għan li tintegra mill-ġdid is-soċjetà u n-natura. Il-proġett teoriku tad-demokrazija inklużiva feġġ mix-xogħol tal-filosfu politiku [[Takis Fotopoulos]] imsejjaħ "Lejn Demokrazija Inklużiva" u iktar 'il quddiem ġie żviluppat fil-ġurnal ''Demokrazija u Natura'' u s-suċċessur tiegħu ''Il-Ġurnal Internazzjonali tad-Demokrazija Inklużiva''. ===== Demokrazija parteċipattiva ===== Id-demokrazija parteċipattiva hija forma teorika ta' demokrazija mmexxija minn struttura integrata ta' kunsill. Il-filosofija li tiggwidaha hi li l-poplu għandu jkollu l-poter tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet b'mod proporzjonat ma' kemm se taffettwah id-deċiżjoni. Il-kunsilli lokali ta' xi 25–50 ruħ ikunu kompletament awtonomi fir-rigward ta' kwistjonijiet li jaffettwaw lilhom biss, u dawn il-kunsilli jibagħtu delegati f'kunsilli ta' livell ogħla li mill-ġdid ikunu awtonomi fir-rigward tal-kwistjonijiet li jaffettwaw biss lill-popolazzjoni affettwata minn dak il-kunsill. Qorti tal-kunsill magħmula minn ċittadini magħżula b'mod aleatorju sservi bħala kontroll fil-konfront tat-tirannija tal-maġġoranza, u tirregola liema korp jingħata l-vot fir-rigward tal-kwistjonijiet differenti. Id-delegati jistgħu jivvutaw b'mod differenti mix-xewqa tal-kunsill li jibgħathom iżda jkollhom il-mandat li jikkomunikaw ix-xewqat tagħhom lill-kunsill li jibgħathom. Id-delegati jistgħu jiġu msejħa lura fi kwalunkwe ħin. Ir-referenda jistgħu jsiru fi kwalunkwe ħin permezz ta' votazzjonijiet tal-kunsilli ta' livell inferjuri, madankollu mhux għal kollox jista' jsir referendum inkella x'aktarx li jkun ħela ta' ħin. Id-demokrazija parteċipattiva hija maħsuba biex taħdem id f'id ma' ekonomija parteċipattiva. ===== Demokrazija proċedurali ===== Id-demokrazija proċedurali jew il-proċeduraliżmu jirreferu għal proċeduri partikolari, bħal elezzjonijiet regolari bbażati fuq is-suffraġju universali, li jipproduċu gvern leġittimat b'mod elettorali. Id-demokrazija proċedurali, iċċentrata fuq il-proċessi elettorali bħala l-bażi tal-leġittimità demokratika, spiss tikkuntrasta mad-demokrazija sostantiva jew parteċipattiva, iċċentrata fuq il-parteċipazzjoni ugwali tal-gruppi kollha fis-soċjetà fil-proċess politiku bħala l-bażi tal-leġittimità. ===== Demokrazija radikali ===== Id-demokrazija radikali hija bbażata fuq l-idea li hemm relazzjonijiet ġerarkiċi u oppressivi li jeżistu fis-soċjetà. Ir-rwol tad-demokrazija radikali hu li dawk ir-relazzjonijiet tagħmilhom viżibbli u tikkontestahom billi tippermetti li jkun hemm differenzi, nuqqas ta' qbil u antagoniżmi fil-proċessi tat-teħid tad-deċiżjonijiet. ===== Demokrazija reliġjuża ===== Id-demokrazija reliġjuża hija forma ta' demokrazija fejn il-valuri ta' reliġjon partikolari jew ta' reliġjon statali jingħataw preferenza. It-terminu japplika għall-pajjiżi demokratiċi kollha li fihom ir-reliġjon hija inkorporata fil-forma ta' governanza. ===== Demokrazija kożmopolita ===== Id-demokrazija kożmopolita, magħrufa wkoll bħala demokrazija globali jew federaliżmu dinji, hija sistema politika fejn id-demokrazija hija implimentata fuq skala globali, direttament jew permezz ta' rappreżentanti. Ġustifikazzjoni importanti għal dan it-tip ta' sistema hi li d-deċiżjonijiet meħuda fid-demokraziji nazzjonali jew reġjonali spiss jaffettwaw in-nies lil hinn mill-kostitwenza, li ma jkunux jistgħu jivvutaw. B'kuntrast għal dan, f'demokrazija kożmopolita, in-nies li jkunu affettwati mid-deċiżjonijiet jieħdu sehem fit-teħid tagħhom. Skont dawk li huma favur din id-demokrazija, kwalunkwe tentattiv biex tinstab soluzzjoni għall-problemi globali jmur kontra d-demokrazija jekk ma jkunx hemm xi forma ta' demokrazija kożmopolita. Il-prinċipju ġenerali tad-demokrazija kożmopolita hu li xi valuri u normi tad-demokrazija jew kollha kemm huma jitwessgħu, inkluż l-istat tad-dritt; is-soluzzjoni mhux vjolenti tal-kunflitti; u l-ugwaljanza fost iċ-ċittadini, lil hinn mil-limiti tal-istat. Sabiex din tiġi implimentat bis-sħiħ, tkun teħtieġ riformi fir-rigward tal-organizzazzjonijiet internazzjonali eżistenti, eż. in-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, kif ukoll il-ħolqien ta' istituzzjonijiet ġodda bħal Parlament Dinji, li idealment itejjeb il-kontroll pubbliku fuq il-politika internazzjonali u r-rendikont tal-għemil tal-politiċi. Id-demokrazija kożmopolita ġiet promossa, fost l-oħrajn, mill-fiżiku [[Albert Einstein]], mill-kittieb [[Kurt Vonnegut]], mill-artikolista fil-gazzetti [[George Monbiot]], u mill-Professuri [[David Held]] u [[Daniele Archibugi]]. Il-ħolqien tal-Qorti Kriminali Internazzjonali fl-2003 tqieset bħala pass kbir 'il quddiem minn bosta persuni li huma favur dan it-tip ta' demokrazija kożmopolita. ===== Demokrazija kreattiva ===== Id-demokrazija kreattiva ġiet deskritta mill-filosfu Amerikan [[John Dewey]]. L-idea prinċipali dwar id-demokrazija kreattiva hi li d-demokrazija tħeġġeġ il-bini tal-kapaċitajiet individwali u l-interazzjoni fis-soċjetà. Dewey isostni li d-demokrazija hija stil ta' ħajja fix-xogħol tiegħu msejjaħ ''Demokrazija Kreattiva: Il-Kompitu Quddiemna'' u esperjenza mibnija fuq il-fidi fin-natura umana, il-fidi fil-bnedmin u l-fidi fil-ħidma mal-oħrajn. Fil-fehma ta' Dewey, id-demokrazija hija ideal morali li tirrikjedi sforz reali u ħidma min-nies; mhijiex kunċett istituzzjonali li teżisti waħedha. Dewey jikkonkludi li "l-kompitu tad-demokrazija hija dejjem dik tal-ħolqien ta' esperjenza iktar libera u iktar umana fejn kulħadd jikkondividi u jikkontribwixxi". ===== Demokrazija ggwidata ===== Id-demokrazija ggwidata hija forma ta' demokrazija li tinkorpora elezzjonijiet popolari regolari, iżda li sikwit "tiggwida" bir-reqqa l-għażliet offruti lill-elettorat b'mod li jista' jnaqqas il-kapaċità tal-elettorat li tassew jiddetermina t-tip ta' governanza eżerċitata fuqu. Dawn id-demokraziji tipikament ikollhom awtorità ċentrali waħda li spiss ma tkunx soġġetta għal rieżami pubbliku reali minn xi awtorità governattiva oħra. L-istil Russu tad-demokrazija spiss ġie deskritt bħala "demokrazija ggwidata". Il-politiċi Russi rreferew għall-gvern tagħhom bħala li għandu ċentru wieħed ta' poter/awtorità, għad-differenza tal-biċċa l-kbira tal-forom l-oħra ta' demokrazija li normalment jippruvaw jinkorporaw żewġ sorsi jew iktar li jikkompetu ma' xulxin fi ħdan l-istess gvern. === Tfittxija ta' fehim komuni === It-tfittxija ta' approċċ komuni għall-kejl u għat-tqabbil tad-demokrazija, u għad-demokrazija bħala kunċett, għadha sfida fix-xjenza politika moderna. Din l-isfida tipprova tkejjel, tivvaluta u tqabbel il-kwalità tad-demokrazija, kif indikat minn [[Seva Gunitsky]] fl-2015 fil-Washington Post, abbażi tar-riċerka tiegħu għal ''Ranking the World – Grading States as a Tool of Global Governance'', fejn il-kejl tad-demokrazija jista' jqarraq daqs kemm jiċċara l-affarijiet – problema għall-akkademiċi, għall-fassala tal-politiki u għal kull minn għandu għall-qalbu d-demokrazija. Fil-kontribut tiegħu ''Lost in the Gray Zone: Competing Measures of Democracy in the Former Soviet Republics'' to ''Ranking the World'', fir-rigward tal-eżempju tal-eks repubbliki Sovjetiċi, huwa jeżamina l-problemi fundamentali rigward il-kejl tad-demokrazija, u josserva li l-indiċijiet spiss ma jaqblux u okkażjonalment jaslu għal konklużjonijiet kontradittorji mill-osservazzjoni tal-istess avveniment. Huwa jsostni li dan jirrifletti d-difetti inerenti fil-kunċettwalizzazzjoni tal-governanza demokratika, li jfeġġu mid-diżgwidi normattivi fundamentali dwar kunċett ikkontestat ferm. Fl-2011, [[Michael Coppedge]], [[John Gerring]] ''et al''. ipproponew approċċ għal tali kunċettwalizzazzjoni u kejl. Fis-saġġ tagħhom ''Il-Kunċettwalizzazzjoni u l-Kejl tad-Demokrazija: Approċċ Ġdid'' huma jirrieżaminaw uħud mid-dgħufijiet fost l-approċċi kontemporanji u iktar antiki, u mbagħad jixtarru l-approċċ tagħhom, u jikkaratterizzawh bħala ''storiku'', ''multidimensjonali'', ''diżaggregat'' u ''trasparenti''. L-awturi jipproponu li jinħoloq sett ġdid ta' erba' karatteristiċi għall-kunċettwalizzazzjoni u għall-kejl tad-demokrazija. L-ewwel nett, l-approċċ ''storiku'', fejn l-indikaturi tad-demokrazija jiġu estiżi sal-istorja moderna, kull fejn ikun possibbli. It-tieni, approċċ ''multidimensjonali'' għall-problema tal-kunċettwalizzazzjoni tad-demokrazija. It-tielet, il-ġbir tal-informazzjoni rilevanti għad-demokrazija f'livell tassew ''diżaggregat''. Ir-raba', l-approċċ ''trasparenti'', strateġija għall-ġbir u għall-preżentazzjoni tad-data li għandha ttejjeb il-preċiżjoni, il-validità, it-trasparenza u l-leġittimità tal-indikaturi li jirriżultaw. Dawn jiġbru flimkien ukoll il-kunċetti u/jew l-aspetti tad-demokrazija f'sitt approċċi – ''elettorali'', ''liberali'', ''maġġoritarju'', ''parteċipattiv'', ''deliberattiv'' u ''egalitarju'', li flimkien joffru rendikont pjuttost komprensiv tal-kunċett ta' demokrazija kif jintuża llum (ara l-ħarsa ġenerali fit-tabella ta' hawn taħt). {| class="wikitable" |- | colspan="5" |Il-kunċetti tad-demokrazija ta' Michael Coppedge, John Gerring ''et al''., 2011 |- valign="top" | | |Prinċipji |Mistoqsija |Istituzzjonijiet |- | colspan="5" | ---- |- valign="top" |I. |'''Elettorali''' |Kontestazzjoni, kompetizzjoni. |Il-karigi tal-gvern huma okkupati permezz ta' elezzjonijiet ħielsa u liberi b'diversi partiti? |Elezzjonijiet, partiti politiċi, kompetittività u kemm joħorġu jivvutaw. |- valign="top" |II. |'''Liberali''' |Governanza limitata, diversi punti ta' veto, responsabbiltà orizzontali, drittijiet individwali, libertajiet ċivili, trasparenza. |Il-poter politiku huwa deċentralizzat u ristrett? |Diversi partiti, indipendenti u deċentralizzat, b'enfasi speċjali fuq ir-rwol tal-midja, tal-gruppi ta' interess, il-ġudikatura u kostituzzjoni miktuba b'garanziji espliċiti. |- valign="top" |III. |'''Maġġoritarju''' |Tmexxija tal-maġġoranza, ċentralizzazzjoni, responsabbiltà vertikali. |Il-maġġoranza (jew il-pluralità) tmexxi? |Ikkonsolidat u ċentralizzat, b'enfasi speċjali fuq ir-rwol tal-partiti politiċi. |- valign="top" |IV. |'''Parteċipattiv''' |Governanza tal-poplu. |Iċ-ċittadini ordinarji jipparteċipaw fil-politika? |Liġi elettorali, soċjetà ċivili, governanza lokali, demokrazija diretta. |- valign="top" |V. |'''Deliberattiv''' |Governanza bir-raġuni. |Id-deċiżjonijiet politiċi huma frott id-deliberazzjonijiet pubbliċi? |Midja, smigħ, panels, korpi deliberattivi oħra. |- valign="top" |VI. |'''Egalitarju''' |Ugwaljanza politika. |Iċ-ċittadini kollha għandhom setgħat indaqs? |Żgurar ta' parteċipazzjoni ndaqs, rappreżentanza, protezzjoni u riżorsi rilevanti politikament. |} === Kejl tad-demokrazija === Il-kejl tad-demokrazija jvarja skont il-kunċetti fundamentali differenti tad-demokrazija. L-evalwazzjonijiet tad-demokrazija minimalista jiffukaw fuq l-elezzjonijiet ħielsa u ġusti, filwaqt li d-demokrazija massimalista tevalwa valuri addizzjonali, bħad-drittijiet tal-bniedem, id-deliberazzjoni, l-eżiti ekonomiċi jew il-kapaċità tal-istat. == Demokrazija mhux governattiva == Apparti l-isfera pubblika, intużaw prinċipji u mekkaniżmi demokratiċi simili tal-votazzjoni u tar-rappreżentanza biex jirregolaw tipi oħra ta' gruppi. Bosta organizzazzjonijiet mhux governattivi jiddeċiedu dwar il-politiki u t-tmexxija permezz tal-votazzjoni. Il-biċċa l-kbira tat-trade unions u tal-kooperattivi huma rregolati b'elezzjonijiet demokratiċi. Fl-aħħar mill-aħħar il-korporazzjonijiet jiġu rregolati mill-azzjonisti tagħhom permezz tad-demokrazija tal-azzjonisti. Il-korporazzjonijiet jistgħu jużaw sistemi bħad-demokrazija tal-post tax-xogħol biex jindirizzaw il-governanza interna. [[Amitai Etzioni]] fassal sistema li tgħaqqad l-elementi tad-demokrazija mal-liġi tax-xarija, imsejħa demokrazija [[Iżlam|Iżlamika]] jew Iżlamokrazija. Kulma jmur hemm għadd dejjem jikber ta' istituzzjonijiet edukattivi demokratiċi bħall-iskejjel ta' Sudbury li huma koregolati mill-istudenti u mill-persunal tal-iskejjel. === Demokrazija tal-azzjonisti === Id-demokrazija tal-azzjonisti hija kunċett relatat mal-governanza tal-korporazzjonijiet mill-azzjonisti tagħhom. Fl-Istati Uniti, l-azzjonisti tipikament jingħataw id-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni skont il-prinċipju ta' sehem wieħed, vot wieħed. L-azzjonisti jkunu jistgħu jivvutaw kull sena biex jeleġġu l-bord tad-diretturi tal-kumpanija, li mbagħad jagħżlu huma stess il-membri eżekuttivi tal-kumpanija. Il-qafas tad-demokrazija tal-azzjonisti jaf ma jkunx tajjeb għall-kumpaniji bi klassijiet differenti ta' stocks li jkomplu jibdlu iktar id-distribuzzjoni tad-drittijiet tal-votazzjoni. == Ġustifikazzjoni == Ingħataw diversi ġustifikazzjonijiet għad-demokrazija. === Leġittimità === Social contract theory argues that the legitimacy of government is based on consent of the governed, i.e. an election, and that political decisions must reflect the general will. The public legitimacy of democracy varies by country, in some countries religious texts have more public support than the will of the people. === Teħid ta' deċiżjonijiet aħjar === Condorcet's jury theorem is logical proof that if each decision-maker has a better than chance probability of making the right decision, then having the largest number of decision-makers, i.e. a democracy, will result in the best decisions. This has also been argued by theories of the wisdom of the crowd. Democracy tends to improve conflict resolution. === Suċċess ekonomiku === In ''Why Nations Fail'', economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that democracies are more economically successful because undemocratic political systems tend to limit markets and favor monopolies at the expense of the creative destruction which is necessary for sustained economic growth. A 2019 study by Acemoglu and others estimated that countries switching to democratic from authoritarian rule had on average a 20% higher GDP after 25 years than if they had remained authoritarian. The study examined 122 transitions to democracy and 71 transitions to authoritarian rule, occurring from 1960 to 2010. Acemoglu said this was because democracies tended to invest more in health care and human capital, and reduce special treatment of regime allies. A 2023 study analyzed the long-term effects of democracy on economic prosperity using new data on GDP per capita and democracy for a dataset between 1789 and 2019. The results indicate that democracy substantially increases economic development. Unemployment is associated with anti-democratic beliefs. == Kritika == Democracy as a concept and as a practical form of government has been the subject of critique throughout history. Some critics consider that democratic regimes often fail to be true to the highest principles expected of them, while others reject the values promoted by constitutional democracy in whole or part. Opposition to democracy goes as far back as Plato, who argued for a 'government of the best qualified'. More recently, James Madison extensively studied historic attempts at and arguments on democracy in his preparation for the Constitutional Convention, and Winston Churchill remarked that "no one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time." Critics argue that modern democracies may fail to be sufficiently democratic and instead function in practice as oligarchies, insofar as governments are more responsive to the preferences of economic elites than to those of ordinary citizens. Numerous empirical studies across various western democracies including the United States, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, Norway and Germany have consistently found that elected representatives tend to respond more to the preferences of very affluent citizens for policy outcomes than those of the average voter. Some critics of democracy have highlighted the concept's inconsistencies, paradoxes, and limits: drawing contrasts with other forms of government, such as epistocracy or lottocracy. Others have characterized most modern democracies as democratic polyarchies and democratic aristocracies. Yet others have identified fascist moments in modern democracies. They have termed the societies produced by modern democracies as neo-feudal and have contrasted democracy with fascism, anarcho-capitalism, theocracy, and absolute monarchy. == Tranżizzjonijiet demokratiċi == A democratic transition describes a phase in a country's political system, often created as a result of an incomplete change from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one (or vice versa). === Demokratizzazzjoni === Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. The opposite process of democratic transition is known as democratic backsliding or autocratization. Whether and to what extent democratization occurs can be influenced by various factors, including economic development, historical legacies, civil society, and international processes. Some accounts of democratization emphasize how elites drove democratization, whereas other accounts emphasize grassroots bottom-up processes. How democratization occurs has also been used to explain other political phenomena, such as whether a country goes to a war or whether its economy grows. Several philosophers and researchers have outlined historical and social factors seen as supporting the evolution of democracy. Other commentators have mentioned the influence of economic development. In a related theory, Ronald Inglehart suggests that improved living-standards in modern developed countries can convince people that they can take their basic survival for granted, leading to increased emphasis on self-expression values, which correlates closely with democracy. Douglas M. Gibler and Andrew Owsiak in their study argued about the importance of peace and stable borders for the development of democracy. It has often been assumed that democracy causes peace, but this study shows that, historically, peace has almost always predated the establishment of democracy. Carroll Quigley concludes that the characteristics of weapons are the main predictor of democracy: Democracy—this scenario—tends to emerge only when the best weapons available are easy for individuals to obtain and use. By the 1800s, guns were the best personal weapons available, and in the United States of America (already nominally democratic), almost everyone could afford to buy a gun, and could learn how to use it fairly easily. Governments could not do any better: it became the age of mass armies of citizen soldiers with guns. Similarly, Periclean Greece was an age of the citizen soldier and democracy. Other theories stressed the relevance of education and of human capital—and within them of cognitive ability to increasing tolerance, rationality, political literacy and participation. Two effects of education and cognitive ability are distinguished:^{[''need quotation to verify'']} * a cognitive effect (competence to make rational choices, better information-processing) * an ethical effect (support of democratic values, freedom, human rights etc.), which itself depends on intelligence. Evidence consistent with conventional theories of why democracy emerges and is sustained has been hard to come by. Statistical analyses have challenged modernisation theory by demonstrating that there is no reliable evidence for the claim that democracy is more likely to emerge when countries become wealthier, more educated, or less unequal. In fact, empirical evidence shows that economic growth and education may not lead to increased demand for democratization as modernization theory suggests: historically, most countries attained high levels of access to primary education well before transitioning to democracy. Rather than acting as a catalyst for democratization, in some situations education provision may instead be used by non-democratic regimes to indoctrinate their subjects and strengthen their power. The assumed link between education and economic growth is called into question when analyzing empirical evidence. Across different countries, the correlation between education attainment and math test scores is very weak (.07). A similarly weak relationship exists between per-pupil expenditures and math competency (.26). Additionally, historical evidence suggests that average human capital (measured using literacy rates) of the masses does not explain the onset of industrialization in France from 1750 to 1850 despite arguments to the contrary. Together, these findings show that education does not always promote human capital and economic growth as is generally argued to be the case. Instead, the evidence implies that education provision often falls short of its expressed goals, or, alternatively, that political actors use education to promote goals other than economic growth and development. Some scholars have searched for the "deep" determinants of contemporary political institutions, be they geographical or demographic. An example of this is the disease environment. Places with different mortality rates had different populations and productivity levels around the world. For example, in Africa, the tsetse fly—which afflicts humans and livestock—reduced the ability of Africans to plough the land. This made Africa less settled. As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with economic development thanks to the benefits of trade. Trade brought economic development, which in turn, broadened power. Rulers wanting to increase revenues had to protect property-rights to create incentives for people to invest. As more people had more power, more concessions had to be made by the ruler and in many places this process lead to democracy. These determinants defined the structure of the society moving the balance of political power. Robert Michels asserts that although democracy can never be fully realised, democracy may be developed automatically in the act of striving for democracy:<blockquote>The peasant in the fable, when on his deathbed, tells his sons that a treasure is buried in the field. After the old man's death the sons dig everywhere in order to discover the treasure. They do not find it. But their indefatigable labor improves the soil and secures for them a comparative well-being. The treasure in the fable may well symbolise democracy.</blockquote>Democracy in modern times has almost always faced opposition from the previously existing government, and many times it has faced opposition from social elites. The implementation of a democratic government from a non-democratic state is typically brought by peaceful or violent democratic revolution. The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratization in 18 countries: Benin, Bolivia, Botswana, Bazil, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Guatemala, Lesotho, Mauritius, Montenegro, Poland, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Timor-Leste, Thailand, The Gambia, and Zambia. ===== Promozzjoni tad-demokrazija ===== Promotion of democracy can increase the quality of already existing democracies, reduce political apathy, and the chance of democratic backsliding. Democracy promotion measures include voting advice applications, participatory democracy, increasing electoral integrity, youth suffrage and civic education, reducing barriers to entry for new political parties, increasing proportionality, reducing presidentialism and aligning with median voter preferences. === Awtokratizzazzjoni === Democratic backsliding is a form of autocratization, a process of structural government transition toward authoritarianism in which the exercise of political power becomes less limited and more arbitrary and repressive. Democratic backsliding specifically assumes a starting point of a democratic system. The process typically restricts the space for public contest and political participation in the process of government selection. Democratic backsliding involves the weakening of democratic institutions, such as the peaceful transition of power or free and fair elections, or the violation of individual rights that underpin democracies, especially freedom of expression. Democratic backsliding is the opposite of democratization.^{[''citation needed'']} Steven Levitsky says: "It's not up to voters to defend a democracy. That's asking far, far too much of voters, to cast their ballot on the basis of some set of abstract principles or procedures. With the exception of a handful of cases, voters never, ever — in any society, in any culture — prioritize democracy over all else. Individual voters worry about much more mundane things, as is their right. It is up to élites and institutions to protect democracy — not voters." The V-Dem Institute found 2026 ongoing democratic backsliding in 44 countries: Afghanistan, Argentina, Armenia, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, El Salvador, Haiti, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Ivory Coast, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Libya, Mali, Madagascar, Mauretania, Mexico, Moldova, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Senegal, Serbia, Romania, Togo, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States. ===== Tfixkil ===== Some democratic governments have experienced sudden state collapse and regime change to an undemocratic form of government. Domestic military coups or rebellions are the most common means by which democratic governments have been overthrown. (See List of coups and coup attempts by country and List of civil wars.) Examples include the Spanish Civil War, the Coup of 18 Brumaire that ended the French First Republic, and the 28 May 1926 coup d'état which ended the First Portuguese Republic. Some military coups are supported by foreign governments, such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. Other types of a sudden end to democracy include: * Invasion, for example the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the fall of South Vietnam. * Self-coup, in which the leader of the government extra-legally seizes all power or unlawfully extends the term in office. This can be done through: ** Suspension of the constitution by decree, such as with the 1992 Peruvian coup d'état ** An "electoral self-coup" using election fraud to obtain re-election of a previously fairly elected official or political party. For example, in the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election, 2003 Russian legislative election, and 2004 Russian presidential election. * Royal coup, in which a monarch not normally involved in government seizes all power. For example, the 6 January Dictatorship, begun in 1929 when King Alexander I of Yugoslavia dismissed parliament and started ruling by decree. Democratic backsliding can end democracy in a gradual manner, by increasing emphasis on national security and eroding free and fair elections, freedom of expression, independence of the judiciary, rule of law. A famous example is the Enabling Act of 1933, which lawfully ended democracy in Weimar Germany and marked the transition to Nazi Germany. Temporary or long-term political violence and government interference can prevent free and fair elections, which erode the democratic nature of governments. This has happened on a local level even in well-established democracies like the United States; for example, the Wilmington insurrection of 1898 and African-American disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era. == Influwenza tal-midja == The theory of democracy relies on the implicit assumption that voters are well informed about social issues, policies, and candidates so that they can make a truly informed decision. Since the late 20th century there has been a growing concern that voters may be poorly informed due to the news media's focusing more on entertainment and gossip and less on serious journalistic research on political issues. The media professors Michael Gurevitch and Jay Blumler have proposed a number of functions that the mass media are expected to fulfill in a democracy: * Surveillance of the sociopolitical environment * Meaningful agenda setting * Platforms for an intelligible and illuminating advocacy * Dialogue across a diverse range of views * Mechanisms for holding officials to account for how they have exercised power * Incentives for citizens to learn, choose, and become involved * A principled resistance to the efforts of forces outside the media to subvert their independence, integrity, and ability to serve the audience * A sense of respect for the audience member, as potentially concerned and able to make sense of his or her political environment This proposal has inspired a lot of discussions over whether the news media are actually fulfilling the requirements that a well functioning democracy requires. Commercial mass media are generally not accountable to anybody but their owners, and they have no obligation to serve a democratic function. They are controlled mainly by economic market forces. Fierce economic competition may force the mass media to divert themselves from any democratic ideals and focus entirely on how to survive the competition. The tabloidization and popularization of the news media is seen in an increasing focus on human examples rather than statistics and principles. There is more focus on politicians as personalities and less focus on political issues in the popular media. Election campaigns are covered more as horse races and less as debates about ideologies and issues. The dominating media focus on spin, conflict, and competitive strategies has made voters perceive the politicians as egoists rather than idealists. This fosters mistrust and a cynical attitude to politics, less civic engagement, and less interest in voting. The ability to find effective political solutions to social problems is hampered when problems tend to be blamed on individuals rather than on structural causes. This person-centered focus may have far-reaching consequences not only for domestic problems but also for foreign policy when international conflicts are blamed on foreign heads of state rather than on political and economic structures. A strong media focus on fear and terrorism has allowed military logic to penetrate public institutions, leading to increased surveillance and the erosion of civil rights. The responsiveness and accountability of the democratic system is compromised when lack of access to substantive, diverse, and undistorted information is handicapping the citizens' capability of evaluating the political process. The fast pace and trivialization in the competitive news media is dumbing down the political debate. Thorough and balanced investigation of complex political issues does not fit into this format. The political communication is characterized by short time horizons, short slogans, simple explanations, and simple solutions. This is conducive to political populism rather than serious deliberation. Commercial mass media are often differentiated along the political spectrum so that people can hear mainly opinions that they already agree with. Too much controversy and diverse opinions are not always profitable for the commercial news media. Political polarization is emerging when different people read different news and watch different TV channels. This polarization has been worsened by the emergence of the social media that allow people to communicate mainly with groups of like-minded people, the so-called echo chambers. Extreme political polarization may undermine the trust in democratic institutions, leading to erosion of civil rights and free speech and in some cases even reversion to autocracy. Many media scholars have discussed non-commercial news media with public service obligations as a means to improve the democratic process by providing the kind of political contents that a free market does not provide. The World Bank has recommended public service broadcasting in order to strengthen democracy in developing countries. These broadcasting services should be accountable to an independent regulatory body that is adequately protected from interference from political and economic interests. Public service media have an obligation to provide reliable information to voters. Many countries have publicly funded radio and television stations with public service obligations, especially in Europe and Japan, while such media are weak or non-existent in other countries including the US. Several studies have shown that the stronger the dominance of commercial broadcast media over public service media, the less the amount of policy-relevant information in the media and the more focus on horse race journalism, personalities, and the pecadillos of politicians. Public service broadcasters are characterized by more policy-relevant information and more respect for journalistic norms and impartiality than the commercial media. However, the trend of deregulation has put the public service model under increased pressure from competition with commercial media. The emergence of the internet and the social media has profoundly altered the conditions for political communication. The social media have given ordinary citizens easy access to voice their opinion and share information while bypassing the filters of the large news media. This is often seen as an advantage for democracy. The new possibilities for communication have fundamentally changed the way social movements and protest movements operate and organize. The internet and social media have provided powerful new tools for democracy movements in developing countries and emerging democracies, enabling them to bypass censorship, voice their opinions, and organize protests. A serious problem with the social media is that they have no truth filters. The established news media have to guard their reputation as trustworthy, while ordinary citizens may post unreliable information. In fact, studies show that false stories are going more viral than true stories. The proliferation of false stories and conspiracy theories may undermine public trust in the political system and public officials. Reliable information sources are essential for the democratic process. Less democratic governments rely heavily on censorship, propaganda, and misinformation in order to stay in power, while independent sources of information are able to undermine their legitimacy. == Referenzi == [[Kategorija:Greċja antika]] a3n5jxn4wlmu7royu3ac8tj2djrheud 0 34463 330261 330253 2026-05-27T11:59:01Z Dwardu 405 330261 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Stub|bijografija}} '''Mikelina Camilleri''' hija [[Għana|għannejja Maltija]]. [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Kantanti Maltin]] isscu3ksa37xqlw2c60u7jmy07e1ck4 330262 330261 2026-05-27T12:01:31Z Dwardu 405 added [[Category:Nisa]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 330262 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Stub|bijografija}} '''Mikelina Camilleri''' hija [[Għana|għannejja Maltija]]. [[Kategorija:Nies ħajjin]] [[Kategorija:Kantanti Maltin]] [[Kategorija:Nisa]] iav5a7xpl7dukahky98l2yo690mflmu