मनू

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      <comment>Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260809sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]]</comment>
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[[Image:Carl von Linné.png|thumb|[[Carl Linnaeus]]]]
[[Image:Lucy Skeleton.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Reconstruction of [[Lucy (Australopithecus)|Lucy]]]]
[[Image:Early migrations mercator.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Overview of the peopling of the world by [[Early human migrations|early human migration]]]]

{{Taxobox | color = pink
|name = मनु
|fossil_range = [[Pleistocene]] - Recent
|image = human.svg
|image_caption = Image of a [[man]] and a [[woman]] on the [[Pioneer plaque]].
|regnum = [[Animal]]ia
|phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
|classis = [[Mammal]]ia
|ordo = [[Primate]]s
|familia = [[Hominidae]]
|genus = ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''
|species = '''''H. sapiens'''''
|subspecies = '''''H. s. sapiens'''''
|trinomial = ''Homo sapiens sapiens''
|trinomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
}}
'''मनु''' धागु [[निगु तुति दुगु]] [[प्राइमेट]] ख। belonging to the [[mammal]]ian species '''''Homo sapiens''''' ([[Latin]]: &quot;wise man&quot; or &quot;knowing man&quot;) in the family [[Hominidae]] (the great [[ape]]s).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Goodman M, Tagle D, Fitch D, Bailey W, Czelusniak J, Koop B, Benson P, Slightom J |title=Primate evolution at the DNA level and a classification of hominoids |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-molecular-evolution_1990-03_30_3/page/260 |journal=J Mol Evol |volume = 30 |issue=3 |pages=260 &amp;ndash; 6 |year=1990 |id=PMID 2109087}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Hominidae Classification |work=Animal Diversity Web @ UMich |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Hominidae.html |accessdate=2006-09-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; Humans have a [[encephalization|highly developed]] [[human brain|brain]] capable of abstract [[reasoning]], [[language]], and [[introspection]]. This mental capability, combined with an erect body carriage that frees their upper limbs for manipulating objects, has allowed humans to make far greater use of [[tool]]s than any other species. Humans originated in [[Africa]] about 200,000&amp;nbsp;years ago, but they now inhabit every [[continent]], [[world population|with a total population]] of over 6.6 billion [[as of 2007]]&lt;ref name=&quot;popclock&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/popclockworld.html
|title=World POPClock Projection
|accessdate=2007-06-14
|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division/International Programs Center}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==लिधंसा==
{{reflist|3}}

{{मनुया उपप्रजाति}}

[[Category:विज्ञान]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Support / तिवा वीगु / 𑐟𑐶𑐰𑐵 𑐰𑐷𑐐𑐸 */</comment>
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&lt;span style=&quot;padding-left:50px;&quot;&gt;'''धल:पौ:'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[#गुथिया बुखँपौ|१ गुथिया बुखँप
[[#यायेमाःगु ज्याखँत|२  यायेमाःगु ज्याखँत]]&lt;br /&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;padding:0px 1px 0px 8px;&quot; | 
* '''सामाजिक दबू''' (Community Portal) विकिपिडियाय् जुयाच्वंगु ज्याखँ बारे सिइकेगु मू थाय् ख: । छु ज्या यायेमानि, गुगु पुचलय् ज्या यायेमा:गु दु आदियागु बारे थन सुचं व जानकारी कयादिसँ व बियादिसँ ।
* For '''bot requests''', see  [[Project:Bot policy]].
|} 
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गुथि बुखँ पौ
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विकिपिडियाय् आः जुयाच्वंगु ज्याखँयागु धलः।  
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{{प्रतिकृया/गुथिया बुखँपौ}}
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==यायेमाःगु ज्याखँत==
*फतिंफत्तले थ्व विकिपिडियायात अप्व: स्वया अप्व: च्वसू, किपा व मेमेगु मल्टीमिडियां नं जायेका दीत सकल भाजुमय्जु पिंके इनाप दु ।
* च्वसु च्वयेबलय् लेखाधिकार हनन याना मदीत इनाप दु ।
* थन दुगु च्वसुयागु हाक: व आधिकारिकता भिंके माल ।
== Request bot flag for [[User:Alexbot|Alexbot]] ==
I request the bot flag for Alexbot:
:'''Operator''':[[:zh:User:Alexsh]]
:'''Programming Language''':Pywikipedia
:'''Functions''':Interwiki(+autonomous), double redirect fix, featured article interwiki link.
:'''Other languages''':[[:zh:User:Alexbot|All statistics in here]]
Thank you--[[छ्येलेमि:Alexsh|Alexsh]] १६:४५, २४ ज्यानुवरी २००८ (UTC)

:done, best regards, --[[छ्येलेमि:Spacebirdy|birdy]] [[छ्येलेमि_खँलाबँला:Spacebirdy|&lt;sub&gt;(:&gt; )=|&lt;/sub&gt;]] १३:३६, ५ फेब्रुवरी २००८ (UTC)

== [[User:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] ==
Hi, i request a bot flag for [[User:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]]
*'''Operator''': [[:it:Utente:Alleborgo|Alleborgo]]
*'''Automatic or Manually Assisted''': Automatic, in &quot;-autonomous&quot; mode. Sometimes the bot will run in manual assisted mode to solve interwiki conflicts.
*'''Programming Language(s)''': Pywikipedia framework daily updated to the last SVN version
*'''Function Summary''': interwiki
*'''Already has a bot flag in''': ar, am, an, ast, az, bar, bat-smg, bg, br, bm, bn, bpy, bs, ca, ce, ceb, cs, cv, cy, da, de, el, en, eo, es, et, eu, fa, fi, fiu-vro, fo, fr, frp, fy, ga, gl, he, hr, hsb, ht, hu, hy, id, is, it, iu, ja, jv, ka, kk, ko, ksh, ku, lb, li, lmo, ln, lt, lv, mk, mi, ml, mr, ms, mt, nap, nds, nds-nl, nl, nn, no, oc, pl, pms, ps, pt, ro, roa-tara, ru, scn, sco, se, sh, sk, simple, sl, sq, sr, su, sv, ta, tg, th, tl, to, tr, tt, udm, uk, ur, vec, vi, vls, vo, zh, zh-classical, zh-min-nan, zh-yue. On it.wiki has done more than 65000 edit.
Thanks  --[[छ्येलेमि:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] ११:०५, ११ नोभेम्बर २००७ (UTC)
: '''Done.''' —&lt;small&gt;[[m:User:Pathoschild|Pathoschild]] १५:१४:२५, ११ डिसेम्बर २००७ (UTC)&lt;/small&gt;

==Bot policy==

Hello. To facilitate [[m:steward|steward]] granting of bot access, I suggest implementing the [[m:Bot policy|standard bot policy]] on this wiki. This will involve creating a redirect to this page from [[Project:Bot policy]], and adding a line at the top noting that it is used here. In particular, this policy allows automatic acceptance of known interlanguage linking bots (if this page says that is acceptable), which form the vast majority of such requests.

Please read the text at [[m:Bot policy]] before commenting. If you object, please say so; it will be implemented in one week if there is no objection, since it is particularly written to streamline bot requests on wikis with little or no community interested in bot access requests. [[User:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] १०:४९, ३० नोभेम्बर २००७ (UTC)
:Bot policy implemented. --[[छ्येलेमि:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] १३:३८, ८ डिसेम्बर २००७ (UTC)

==Wikimedia Indian chapter==
As you might be aware, we are planning to start an India chapter of the Wikimedia Foundation. Please see [[meta:Wikimedia India|Wikimedia India]] for details. We're currently working on the [[meta:Wikimedia India/bylaws|draft of bylaws]]. If you are interested, please join the discussion on meta, and subscribe to the [http://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikimediaindia-l wikimediaindia-l mailing list]. [[छ्येलेमि:Utcursch|Utcursch]] १७:५८, १० डिसेम्बर २००७ (UTC)

==Betawiki: better support for your language in MediaWiki==बिदूर् क्
Dear community. I am writing to you to promote a special wiki called [[betawiki:|Betawiki]]. This wiki facilitateऋःटृःटृऍःMediaWiki interface. You may have changed many messages here to use your language in the interface, but if you would log in to for example the Japanese language Wiktionary, you would not be able to use the interface as well translated as here. In fact, of 1,736 messages in the core of MediaWiki, 2.88% of the messages have been translated. Betawiki also supports the translation of messages for 126 extensions, with 2,174 messages. Many of them are used in WMF projects and they are vital for understanding the wiki. Currently 0.17% of the WMF extension messages have been translated. Translators for over 90 languages contribute their work to MediaWiki this way every month.

If you wish to contribute to better support of your language in MediaWiki, as well as for many MediaWiki extensions, please visit [[betawiki:Translating:Intro|Betawiki]], [http://translatewiki.net/w/?title=Special:Userlogin&amp;type=signup&amp;uselang=en create an account] and [[betawiki:Betawiki:Rights|request translator privileges]]. You can see the current status of localisation of your language on [[mw:Localisation_statistics|MediaWiki.org]] and do not forget to get in touch with others that may already be [[betawiki:Translating:Languages|working on your language on Betawiki]].

If you have any further questions, [[betawiki:User_talk:Siebrand|please let me know on my talk page on Betawiki]]. We will try and assist you as much as possible, for example by [[betawiki:Import requests|importing]] all messages from a local wiki for you to start with, if you so desire.

You can also find us on the Freenode [[w:en:Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] network in the channel #mediawiki-i18n where we will be happy to help you get started.

Thank you very much for your attention and I do hope to see some of you on [[betawiki:|Betawiki]] soon! Thanks, [[betawiki:User:GerardM|GerardM@Betawiki]]

* Currently 5.93% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.18% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०७:३६, २६ अप्रिल २००८ (UTC)

== Bot Flag Request for [[:User:Purbo_T|Purbo_T]] ==
&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot;&gt;
Hi, I'd like to request a bot flag for [[:User:Purbo_T|Purbo_T]] &lt;small&gt;([[:Special:Contributions/Purbo T|contribs]])&lt;/small&gt;
*'''Operator''': [[:User:Purodha]] = [[:ksh:User:Purodha]] (b'crat @ [[:ksh:|ksh]])
*'''Function''': interwiki link maintenance
*'''Operation''':  manually-assisted, occasionally in automatic or autonomous mode, starting mostly from the [[:ksh:|Wikipedia of Ripuarian languages]]
*'''Software:''' [[:meta:pywikipedia|pywikipediabot]] framework updated daily from [http://svn.wikimedia.org/svnroot/pywikipedia/trunk/pywikipedia/ svn] to latest version
*'''Already has bot flag on:''' [[:am:|am]], [[:ar:|ar]], [[:be-x-old:|be-x-old]], [[:bn:|bn]], [[:bo:|bo]], [[:bxr:|bxr]], [[:cdo:|cdo]], [[:co:|co]], [[:crh:|crh]], [[:dsb:|dsb]], [[:dz:|dz]], [[:fa:|fa]], [[:fr:|fr]], [[:gv:|gv]], [[:hr:|hr]], [[:hsb:|hsb]], [[:ht:|ht]], [[:ig:|ig]], [[:ksh:|ksh]], [[:ku:|ku]], [[:lbe:|lbe]], [[:lmo:|lmo]], [[:ml:|ml]], [[:mr:|mr]], [[:nds:|nds]], [[:nl:|nl]], [[:pms:|pms]], [[:simple:|simple]], [[:stq:|stq]], [[:sv:|sv]], [[:tg:|tg]], [[:ts:|ts]], [[:vec:|vec]], [[:vi:|vi]], [[:vo:|vo]], more pending, [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~purodha/sample/dbswithuser.php?usr=Purbo_T recent&amp;nbsp;data] (sorry, the [[:m:toolserver|toolserver]] is having technical problems at the moment, partial data is at end of the page)
Thank you! --[[छ्येलेमि:Purodha|Purodha]] २१:५२, ३ फेब्रुवरी २००८ (UTC)
&lt;/div&gt;

== [[User:BodhisattvaBot|BodhisattvaBot]] ==
* '''Operator:''' [[User:Dalibor Bosits|Dalibor Bosits]]
* '''Purpose:''' Interwiki, auto and manually mode, from hr Wiki, daily
* '''Software:''' Pywikipedia framework
* '''Bot flagged on:''' bg, bs, cs, da, de, el, eo, et, eu, fr, gl, hr, hu, id, la, ms, nl, no, ro, ru, sh, simple, sk, sl, sr, sv, sw, uk, th, vo
thank you --[[:hr:Suradnik:Dalibor Bosits|Dalibor Bosits]][[:hr:Razgovor sa suradnikom:Dalibor Bosits| (&lt;small&gt;talk&lt;/small&gt;)]] १३:३२, २ मार्च २००८ (UTC)
:Bot flag granted. --[[छ्येलेमि:Dungodung|Dungodung]] २१:४४, २४ मार्च २००८ (UTC)

== Exemption doctrine policy ==
Hello. As you might know, the Wikimedia Foundation [[wikimedia:Resolution:Licensing policy|approved a resolution]] concerning non-free images more than a year ago. The resolution says that unless Wikimedia projects create an exemption doctrine policy (EDP) for non-free images, all of those images shall be deleted by March 23, 2008 (which was few days ago). We'd now like to gather information from the projects about their exemption policies in one place so we can check their validity, and if images on those projects are in accordance with the Foundation's resolution. Your project is one of these we don't have information about, so it'd be great if you could add it to the page listing all EDPs, [[:meta:Non-free_content]]. If you have any questions about the page or don't have an EDP yet and want one, you can use the [[:meta:talk:Non-free content|appropriate talkpage on Meta]] or just contact me directly [[:meta:user talk:timichal|on Meta]] or [[Special:emailuser/timichal|by e-mail]] (however, please note that I'm just a volunteer and therefore not in a position to give any official advice).

If you don't have any EDP in place and don't plan to use one, it might be useful and effective for your project to disable local uploads entirely and use files from Wikimedia Commons only. This method has been used by many Wikimedia projects, notably Spanish and Swedish Wikipedia and English Wiktionary, and means you wouldn't have to deal with file licensing problems anymore; if you're interested in this solution, feel free to contact me for more information.

Thanks for your cooperation! [[छ्येलेमि:Timichal|Timichal]] ०८:३३, २७ मार्च २००८ (UTC)

==Betawiki update ==
* Currently 5.85% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.13% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०८:०८, २७ मे २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 5.74% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.12% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०७:१९, ७ जुलाई २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 5.70% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.29% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १०:०७, ८ अगस्ट २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 11.12% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.2६% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ११:१३, १० सेप्टेम्बर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 13.85% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.13% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०८:५९, १६ अक्टोबर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 13.90% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.10% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:०६, १० नोभेम्बर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 13.70% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.09% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|Betawiki]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०९:४५, १५ डिसेम्बर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 14.21% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.09% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|Betawiki]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १८:४५, ११ ज्यानुवरी २००९ (UTC)
:PS Please help us complete [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&amp;task=untranslated&amp;group=core-mostused&amp;language={{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}&amp;limit=100 the most wanted messages]..

== [[User:Muro Bot|Muro Bot]] ==
*'''Operator:''' [[:es:Usuario:Muro de Aguas|es:Muro de Aguas]]
*'''Programming Language:''' Python (''interwiki.py'')
*'''Function Summary:''' Interwiki links
*'''Already has a bot flag on:''' [http://toolserver.org/~purodha/sample/dbswithuser.php?usr=Muro+Bot&amp;uselang=en 33 projects]. Total editcount: 202.000 edits.
I use the pywikipediabot framework, updated every day from SVN. Thanks! [[छ्येलेमि:Muro de Aguas|Muro de Aguas]] १४:३७, २७ जुन २००८ (UTC)

==Global bots==
Hello. The [[m:Bot policy|standard bot policy]] was updated to allow global bots, which are now technically possible. These are trusted bots that will be given bot access on all wikis that allow global bots (the local policy or request page must explicitly allow them, or they won't get access on this wiki). The [[m:Bot policy#Global_bots|current requirements]] for global bots are:
* the bot must only maintain interlanguage links or fix double-redirects;
* the bot must already be active on several wikis, with long-term contributions to back up its trustworthiness.

Does anyone object to allowing global bots on this wiki? I'll update the local policy in a week if there are no objections. Thanks. —&lt;small&gt;[[m:User:Pathoschild|Pathoschild]] ०२:१५:५३, २७ जुलाई २००८ (UTC)&lt;/small&gt;
:Done. [[छ्येलेमि:Malafaya|Malafaya]] ०९:३३, १५ सेप्टेम्बर २००८ (UTC)

== Wikimania 2009: Scholarships ==
'''{{#language:en}}''': Wikimania 2009, this year's global event devoted to [[foundation:Home|Wikimedia]] projects around the globe, is now accepting '''applications for scholarships''' to the conference.  This year's conference will be handled from August 26-28 in [[w:Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires]], [[w:Argentina|Argentina]].  The scholarship can be used to help offset the costs of travel and registration.  For more information, check the official [[wm2009:Scholarships|information page]].  Please remember that the [[wm2009:Call for Participation|Call for Participation]] is still open, please submit your papers!  Without submissions, Wikimania would not be nearly as fun!

'''{{#language:{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}}}''': ''Please translate this message into your language.'' - [[छ्येलेमि:Rjd0060|Rjd0060]] ०१:५९, ९ अप्रिल २००९ (UTC)

==The LocalisationUpdate extension has gone live==

The LocalisationUpdate extension is now enabled for all Wikimedia projects. From now on new localisations that become available in SVN will become available to your project within 24 hours. Your localisations get into SVN from [http://translatewiki.net translatewiki.net] typically within a day and at worst in two days. This is a huge improvement from the old practice where the localisations became available with new software. This could take weeks, even months.

The localisations done by our community at translatewiki.net are committed to SVN typically every day. When the system messages in English are the same as the local messages, they will now be inserted in a file and are available for use in all our projects in a timely manner

===What this means for you===
Local messages have an impact on the performance of our system. It is best when messages are as much as possible part of the system messages. In order to remove unnecessary duplication, all the messages that have a local localisation and are '''exactly''' the same as the system message will be removed.  What we ask you to do is to compare and proof read the messages in translatewiki.net and the local messages. You can then either remove local messages when the translatewiki.net message is to be preferred or, you can update the message at translatewiki.net. 

Messages that are specific to your project will have to stay as they are. You do want to check if the format and the variables of the message are still the same.

===Why localise at translatewiki.net===
When you localise at translatewiki.net, your messages will be used in all Wikimedia projects and eventually in all MediaWiki based projects. This is how we provide the standard support for your language. When messages change, at translatewiki.net you will be prompted to revisit your translations. Localising is more efficient because we have innovated the process to make you more efficient; there is text explaining about messages and we have applied AJAX technology to reduce the number of clicks you have to make.

==Translatewiki.net update==
*Currently 12.34% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.0४% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:११, ३० सेप्टेम्बर २००९ (UTC)
*Currently 12.26% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.0४% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:५१, १ नोभेम्बर २००९ (UTC)
*Currently 12.40% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.04% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १२:५२, ८ डिसेम्बर २००९ (UTC)
*Currently 12.37% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.04% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १४:१६, १८ ज्यानुवरी २०१० (UTC)

*PS Please help us complete [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&amp;task=untranslated&amp;group=core-mostused&amp;language={{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}&amp;limit=100 the most wanted messages]..

==How can we improve the usability for your language==
We expect that with the implementation of LocalisationUpdate the usability of MediaWiki for your language will improve. We are now ready to look at other aspects of usability for your language as well.  There are two questions we would like you to answer:
Are there issues with the new functionality of the Usability Initiative
Does MediaWiki support your language properly

The best way to answer the first question is to visit the translatewiki.net. Change the language to your language, select the “vector” skin and add the advanced tool bar in in the preferences and check out the new functionality. And make some changes in your user page. When there is a need to improve on the localisation, please make the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=ext-ui-0-all necessary changes]s . It should update your localisation straight away. 
We would like you to report each issue individually at http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Usability_issues.

When there are problems with the support of MediaWiki for your language, we really want to know about this. It is best to report each issue separately. In this way there will be no large mass of issues to resolve but we can address each issue on its own. Consider issues with the display of characters, the presentation of your script, the position of the side bar, the combination of text with other languages, scripts. It is best to try this in an environment like the prototype wiki as it provides you with a clean, basic and up to date environment. The prototype wiki is available for five languages but you can select any of them, change the preferences to your language and test out MediaWiki for your language.

We would like you to report each issue individually at http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Language_issues. The issues you raise will all be assessed. It is important to keep each issue separate, because this will make it easier to understand the issues and find solutions.

PS This text has been approved by Naoko, Brion and Siebrand. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:११, ३० सेप्टेम्बर २००९ (UTC)

== Wikimedia Indic language Mailing list ==

Hi, There is a Wikimedia Indic language Mailing list but I've not seen anybody from Nepal Bhasa Wikipeda. Joining this list helps solving common language problem and other things. Check this page https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikimediaindia-l --[[छ्येलेमि:Praveenp|Praveenp]] १५:४७, ६ मार्च २०१० (UTC)
[[विशेष:Contributions/115.164.236.89|115.164.236.89]] १३:२१, १९ अगस्ट २०१३ (UTC)

==creating the Sanskrit Wikisource==

I have submitted the proposal for creating the Sanskrit Wikisource. It is available at: http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikisource_Sanskrit

For time being, I have added only you two as the users interested in Sanskrit wikisource. If you know any one else interested in Sanskrit wiki source, please send me their details. Also make sure you cast your vote in the Arguments in favour section.

Please let me know in case there are any issues

Shiju Alex


[[af:Wikipedia:Gebruikersportaal]]
[[als:Wikipedia:Gemeinschafts-Portal]]
[[an:Wikipedia:Comunidá]]
[[ang:Wikipedia:Gemǣnscipe Ingang]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا:بوابة المجتمع]]
[[ast:Uiquipedia:Portal de la comunidá]]
[[bg:Уикипедия:Портал]]
[[br:Wikipedia:Kumuniezh/Degemer]]
[[bs:Wikipedia:Vrata zajednice]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia:Portal]]
[[ceb:Wikipedia:Katilingban]]
[[co:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[cs:Wikipedie:Portál Wikipedie]]
[[csb:Wiki:Pòrtal wëcmaniznë]]
[[cv:Wikipedia:Портал]]
[[da:Wikipedia:Forside]]
[[de:Wikipedia:Portal]]
[[el:Βικιπαίδεια:Πύλη Κοινότητας]]
[[eo:Vikipedio:Komunuma Portalo]]
[[es:Wikipedia:Portal de la comunidad]]
[[et:Vikipeedia:Kogukonnavärav]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیا:ورودی کاربران]]
[[fo:Wikipedia:Forsíða]]
[[fr:Wikipédia:Accueil]]
[[fy:Wikipedy:Mienskip]]
[[ga:Vicipéid:Lárionad comhphobail]]
[[gd:Wikipedia:Doras na coimhearsnachd]]
[[gl:Wikipedia:Portal da comunidade]]
[[got:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[gv:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה:שער הקהילה]]
[[hi:विकिपीडिया:समाज मुखपृष्ठ]]
[[hu:Wikipédia:Közösségi Portál]]
[[ia:Wikipedia:Portal del communitate]]
[[id:Portal:Komunitas]]
[[io:Wikipedio:Komuneso-portalo]]
[[is:Wikipedia:Samfélagsgátt]]
[[it:Portale:Comunità]]
[[ja:Wikipedia:コミュニティ・ポータル]]
[[ka:ვიკიპედია:საზოგადოების გვერდები]]
[[ko:위키백과:사용자_모임]]
[[ku:Wîkîpediya:Portala komê]]
[[la:Vicipaedia:Porta communis]]
[[lb:Wikipedia:Kommunautéitssäit]]
[[li:Wikipedia:Gebroekersportaol]]
[[lmo:Wikipedia:Purtaal da cumünitaa]]
[[lt:Wikipedia:Bendruomenė]]
[[mg:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[mi:Wikipedia:Tomokanga hapori]]
[[ml:വിക്കിപീഡിയ:വിക്കി സമൂഹം]]
[[ms:Portal:Masyarakat]]
[[na:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[nap:Wikipedia:Porta d%27%27a cummunetà]]
[[nds:Wikipedia:Portal]]
[[nds-nl:Wikipedie:Gebrukerspertaol]]
[[nl:Portaal:Gebruikersportaal]]
[[nn:Wikipedia:Brukarportal]]
[[no:Wikipedia:Portal]]
[[oc:Wikipèdia:Comunautat]]
[[pl:Wikipedia:Portal wikipedystów]]
[[pt:Wikipedia:Portal comunitário]]
[[ro:Portal:Comunitate]]
[[ru:Википедия:Портал сообщества]]
[[sc:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[scn:Porta dâ Cumunità]]
[[sco:Wikipedia:Commonty Yett]]
[[si:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[simple:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[sk:Wikipédia:Portál komunity]]
[[sl:Wikipedija:Portal občestva]]
[[sm:Wikipedia:Puso o le ʻaʻai]]
[[sr:Википедија:Радионица]]
[[su:Wikipedia:Panglawungan]]
[[sv:Wikipedia:Portalen]]
[[ta:Wikipedia:சமுதாய வலைவாசல்]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดีย:ศาลาประชาคม]]
[[tl:Wikipedia:Portal ng komunidad]]
[[tr:Vikipedi:Topluluk portalı]]
[[uk:Вікіпедія:Портал спільноти]]
[[vi:Wikipedia:Cộng đồng]]
[[zh:Wikipedia:社区主页]]
[[zh-min-nan:Wikipedia:Siā-lí mn̂g-chhùi-kháu]]
[[zh-yue:Wikipedia:社區大堂]]

== 2010 Fundraising Is Almost Here ==

[[File:Wikimedia_Foundation_RGB_logo_with_text.svg|80px|left]] Hello Wikipedians, I am Theo and I am working for the Wikimedia Foundation during the 2010 Fundraiser. My job is to be the liaison between your community and the Foundation. This year's fundraiser is intended to be a collaborative and global effort; we recognize that banner messages which may perform well in the United States don't necessarily translate well, or appeal to international audiences. &lt;Br&gt;

I'm contacting you as I am currently looking for translators who are willing to contribute to this project by helping translate and localize messages into different languages and suggesting messages that would appeal to your readers on the Fundraising Meta Page. We've started the setup on [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010 meta] for both [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010/Messages banner submission], [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010/Banner_testing statistical analysis], and [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010/Committee grouping volunteers together].&lt;br&gt;Use the talk pages on meta, talk to your local communities, talk to others, talk to us, and add your feedback to the proposed messages as well! I look forward to working with you during this year's fundraiser. If someone could translate this message I would really appreciate it so that everyone is able to understand our goals and contribute to this year's campaign.&lt;br&gt; [[user:Theo (WMF)|Theo (WMF)]] २०:४८, २० अक्टोबर २०१० (UTC)
&lt;!-- EdwardsBot 0020 --&gt;
≠

==Language support group for Newari==
The Wikimedia Foundation has brought together a new team of developers who are dedicated to language support. This team is to support all the languages and consequently it is not realistic to expect that the team members can provide proper support for your language. It is for this reason that we are looking for volunteers who will make up a [[:translatewiki:language support team|language support team]]. 

This language support team will be asked to provide us with information about their language. Such information may need to be provided either to us or on a website that we will indicate to you. Another activity will be to test software that will likely have an effect on the running of the MediaWiki software. We are looking for people who clearly identify their ability. Formal knowledge is definitely appreciated.

As much of the activity will be concentrated on [[:translatewiki:Main Page|translatewiki.net]], it will be a plus when team members know how to localise at translatewiki.net. &lt;br&gt;
Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] १३:१३, ३१ ज्यानुवरी २०१२ (UTC)

===What we can do for you already===
For the Nepali language we have two input methods and one font that we make available on the Nepali wikis. When these input methods are the same for Newari, we can easily implement them for you. First you can test them at translatewiki.net and, when it is as you need them to be, we can make them available on the Newari Wikis as well. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] १३:१३, ३१ ज्यानुवरी २०१२ (UTC)

===The Babel extension===
The Babel extension is used by people to indicate their proficiency in a language. This is used on all the Wikimedia wikis. Would you be so kind and [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=ext-babel&amp;language=new localise the Babel extension] for us? Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] १३:१३, ३१ ज्यानुवरी २०१२ (UTC)

== Updates from India Program Team ==

This is the first post from the India Program team regarding the team.  I have been posting updates on the various mailing lists - but am acutely aware that the majority of our community is on village pumps or project pages and hence this post.  Do excuse me for posting something which is not solely focused on this project, but the work we are doing has learnings that you might find useful for your project. Here are 5 important links that you might find useful

* There is an [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program India Program page] on meta - which has links to a number of important workstreams (on the right of the page)
* Here is your [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Team India Program team].  Feel free to reach out for any help or to provide any suggestion - or just to say hello!
* I submitted the following [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Mid-Year_Reports/1st_%26_2nd_Half_2011 mid-year report] to the community on January 15th 2011 - outlining the activities for 2011 and the priorities for 2012.  Strictly speaking, this wasn't a mid-year report because it covered all of 2011, but going forward, I intend to make it a half-yearly affair.  Please add your comments or suggestions [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:India_Program/Reports/Mid_Year_Reports here], or below this post.
* I have recently started [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports monthly updates].  The monthly update for February is available [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Feb_2012 here].  Please add your comments or suggestion [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Feb_2012 here].  The areas of emphasis for March are [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Mar_2012 here].  Please add your comments or [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Mar_2012 here].  This is really useful for us to ensure that we are doing what you need most.  
* I have also started a new tab on the India Program page for Learnings, called [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/gyan Gyan].  I think it is going to be a pretty cool place for us to put together a whole host of learnings, lessons, heartbreaks, Eureka moments and inspirations - gathered from all over the community.  Stay tuned for more!
* One of the essential things that India Program needs to constantly work out is keeping our community informed of the work that we are doing - so that this work is clearer but also to help cross-pollinate ideas amongst a wider set of community members who might not have been engaged on specific village pump / talk page discussion or involved in particular activities (e.g. outreach events) or wikiprojects.  I propose to have a fortnightly IRC for the community with India Program.   (For those who are not familiar with IRC, it is an Internet messaging system similar to a regular chat room.  It's very simple to use and you can join in by clicking on the following [http://webchat.freenode.net/?channels=#wikimedia-office link].  This would be done on the '''1st and 3rd Thursdays of every month at 9pm IST''' (which is GMT + 0530) - THOUGH NOT THIS MONTH - BECAUSE I HAVE MISSED THE TIMELINE.  Just for March, we will do it on '''March 15th and March 29th (both at 9pm IST''' which is GMT + 0530).  I suggest that these chats are focused on specific work streams.  As with many community meet-ups - folks will give time to attend a meet-up or participate in an IRC only if there is a topic of relevance to them.  Therefore, we will do one IRC on Indic languages and one on Outreach &amp; Communications.  The March 15th one will be focused on Indic Languages and the one on March 29th will be on Outreach &amp; Communications.  (All IRCs will start with a re-cap of India Programs activities.) There is quite a bit of overlap on these topics - so feel free to join both. Please do also invite anyone who is interested to know more about India Program or - even more importantly - interact with fellow Wikimedians.  As always, the [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/meetings logs] will be put up on meta for the benefit of those who can't attend and for the record. 

Please feel free to translate this post for the benefit of the larger audience.  In fact, I'd be really grateful if you did!

[[छ्येलेमि:Hisham|Hisham]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Hisham|talk]]) ०३:५२, १२ मार्च २०१२ (UTC)

==Support for Newari input methods in Narayam==
On this Wiki there is a local script that provides input method support for Newari. We have implemented this functionality for you in the Narayam extension. There are several benefits: we will support Narayam technically - this will ensure that it will continue to function properly and, Narayam will be available on other projects like Commons as well and obviously on any other Newari project. 

Can you [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Portal:New?uselang=new please test it] for us and let us know if we can implement it?
Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Gmeijssen|talk]]) ०७:४३, ५ अप्रिल २०१२ (UTC)

==the &quot;Main page&quot;==
When I go to the [[Main Page]], I find that the redirect does not work properly. It is clear that the Newari characters do not show properly. As I understand it, in the Newari language the shape of some Devanagari characters is different from how it is used in Nepali, Marathi and Hindi. When there are fonts that support Newari properly, we can support them in our WebFonts extension. There is one condition, the font has to be freely licensed. If you want this please get into contact. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Gmeijssen|talk]]) ०७:४३, ५ अप्रिल २०१२ (UTC)

== CIS-A2K Grant Report September 2012-June 2013 ==
&lt;code&gt; (Apologies for writing in English. You are welcome to translate this message)&lt;/code&gt;

Greetings! As many of you know that the Wikimedia Foundation approved a 22 month grant to the [[:meta:India Access To Knowledge|CIS-A2K]]. The aim of the grant is to support the growth of Wikimedia movement in India.&lt;br/&gt; 
Please find the Grant Report for the first 10 months period [[:meta:India Access To Knowledge/Reports/CIS-A2K Narrative Report: (September 2012 – June 2013)|here]].&lt;br/&gt; CIS-A2K will be happy to receive your feedback. Please let us know if you have any suggestions, questions and concerns about the report and our work. We would be glad to have this feedback [[:meta:Talk:India Access To Knowledge/Reports/CIS-A2K Narrative Report: (September 2012 – June 2013)|here]].&lt;br/&gt; We are thankful to the Wikimedia community in India, Wikimedia India Chapter and the Wikimedia Foundation for actively engaging with our work. We will continue to work upon our deficiencies, failures and successes. Thanks! --[[छ्येलेमि:Hindustanilanguage|Hindustanilanguage]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Hindustanilanguage|talk]]) ०७:४६, ६ नोभेम्बर २०१३ (UTC)

Facing problems in typing your language?

[[File:Screenshot of enabling ULS on Wikipedia.png|thumb|450px|Screenshot of enabling ULS on Wikipedia]] 
Dear friends, excuse me for writing the message in English. Please feel free to translate this message in your language.

Many of you might have experienced trouble in using the input tool - Universal Language Selector (ULS). Wikimedia Foundation's Engineering Language Engineering team is trying to resolve it as soon as possible.

However, you can enable it as an opt-in option in your [https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Preferences User preferences] (Please select the user checkbox before &quot;'''Enable the Universal Language Selector'''&quot; as shown in the picture above). [[छ्येलेमि:Hindustanilanguage|Hindustanilanguage]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Hindustanilanguage|talk]]) १०:३२, २२ ज्यानुवरी २०१४ (UTC).

==Help for translate==
Hello and sorry for writing in English. Can anyone help me translate a small article (2 paragraphs) from English to your language and create the article in your wiki? Please, fell free to answer in my talk page in your wiki anytime. Thanks! [[छ्येलेमि:Xaris333|Xaris333]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Xaris333|talk]]) ००:२५, १४ अगस्ट २०१४ (UTC)

== CIS-A2K PO Selection ==

Dear Wikipedians, &lt;br /&gt;
[[meta:India_Access_To_Knowledge|CIS-A2K]] is seeking applications for the post of Programme Officer (Institutional Partnerships). The position will be based in its Bangalore office. Programme Officer will collaboratively work with [[meta:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Team|the A2K Team]] and would report to the [[meta:User:Visdaviva|Programme Director]], Interested applicants are encouraged to deeply engage with the [[meta:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Work_plan_July_2014_-_June_2015|CIS-A2K Work Plan]] before making the application. The last date of submitting applications is November 14, 2014. You can also find the job posting on our website (http://cis-india.org/jobs/programme-officer-institutional-partnership).&lt;br /&gt;
Thank you&lt;br /&gt;
[[छ्येलेमि:రహ్మానుద్దీన్|రహ్మానుద్దీన్]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:రహ్మానుద్దీన్|talk]])&lt;br /&gt;
Program officer, CIS-A2K
==विकिविस्तार कार्यक्रम सम्बन्धमा==
आदरणीय विकिपीडियन मित्रहरू नेपाली भाषामा लेखेकोमा माफ गर्नुहोला आशा छ नेपाली भाषामा लेखेको भए पनि यसलाई सच्याएर पढ्नुहोला साथै नेपाली भाषा नबुझ्ने मित्रहरूका लागी नेपाली भाषा र नेपाल भाषाको ज्ञान भएको मित्रले यो खण्ड नेपाल भाषामा अनुवाद गरिदिनु होला भन्ने अनुरोधका साथ यहाँ आफ्नो सल्लाह राख्नु होला । हामी नेपालीहरूमा विकिपीडिया बारे ज्ञानको अभाव रहेको यहाँहरूमा अवगतनै छ । यहाँ सम्मकी विकिपीडिया भनेको के-हो भन्ने बारेमा पनि थाहा पाउन सकिरहेका छैनौं त्यसमाथी मध्यपश्चिमाञ्चल र सूदुर पश्चिममाञ्चलका नागरिकहरूमा विकिपीडिया बारे झनै जानकारी नरहेको अवस्था छ, । नेपालमा निजि दुरसंचार प्रदायक एनसेल बाट निःशुल्क विकिपीडिया प्रयोग गर्न मिल्ने भएपनी ज्ञानको अभावमा प्रयोगमा आउन सकिरहेको छैन । यो स्थिती रहन नदिन र नेपाली विकिपीडियालाइ अगाडि बढाउनुका साथै यश क्षेत्रका सर्वसाधारणहरूमा  विकिपिडिया बारे परिचय गराउन सूदुरपश्चिमाञ्चल विकास क्षेत्रको [[:ne:कैलाली जिल्ला|कैलाली]] जिल्लामा विकिपीडिया विस्तार कार्यक्रम गरियोस् भनी [[:ne:विकिपीडिया:चौतारी#विकिविस्तार कार्यक्रम सम्बन्धमा|यहाँ]] समर्थनको लागि अनुरोध गरिन्छ । साथै [https://incubator.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wp/dty/Main_Page यहाँ] सुदूर पश्चिमको प्रमुख भाषा मानिने [[:ne:डोटेली भाषा|डोटेली भाषा]] को विकिपीडिया परिक्षण पृष्ठ रहेको छ । यसमा पनि सहयोग गर्न हुन आग्रह गर्दछु । धन्यवाद ।--[[:ne:User:राम प्रसाद जोशी|&lt;font color= &quot;green&quot;&gt;आर॰पी॰जोशी&lt;/font&gt;]] [[:ne:User_talk:राम प्रसाद जोशी|&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/font&gt;]] ०८:१८, १८ नोभेम्बर २०१४ (UTC)
#Support --[[छ्येलेमि:सरोज कुमार ढकाल|सरोज कुमार ढकाल]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:सरोज कुमार ढकाल|talk]]) १८:३९, १८ नोभेम्बर २०१४ (UTC)

==Train-the-Trainer Program - 2015 (Announcement)==

Dear Wikimedians,

''Apologies for posting this in English. If any friends could translate this in Newari please help in transalting.''

As most of you are aware, the Centre for Internet and Society's Access To Knowledge program (CIS-A2K) conducted the first Wikipedia [[:m:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Events/Train_the_Trainer_Program|Train-the-Trainer]] (TTT) programme in 2013 with an aim to support and groom leadership skills in the community members. We are extremely thankful to all the senior Wikimedians who acted as Resource Persons for the 2013 event. Achal, Arjuna, Hari, Shymal, Tinu and Viswa! Without your help we could not have conducted it so successfully.

This email is to let you all know that we have scheduled to conduct the second iteration of this program at the end of February 2015. We are inviting applications from interested Indian Wikimedians. Please see [[:m:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Events/Train_the_Trainer_Program/2015|this page]] on Meta for more details.

Some important dates:
January 27, 2015 - Last date for registration.&lt;br /&gt;
January 30, 2015 - Confirmation of selected participants&lt;br /&gt;
February 26 to March 1, 2015 - TTT-2015 workshop

We are working on the schedule and other details. You are welcome to leave your suggestions and inputs [[:m:Talk:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Events/Train_the_Trainer_Program/2015|here]]. Please write to us at tanveer{{@}}cis-india.org and vishnu{{@}}cis-india.org if you have any further queries.

Best,&lt;br/&gt;--[[छ्येलेमि:Psubhashish|Psubhashish]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Psubhashish|talk]]) ०३:२६, १६ ज्यानुवरी २०१५ (UTC)&lt;br/&gt;Accesss To Knowledge (CIS-A2K), &lt;br/&gt;[http://cis-india.org Centre for Internet and Society]

== Wikimania 2015 - India Booth ==

Hi Wikimedians,
            
Apologies for posting this text in English.
            
As you people might be aware, Wikimania 2015 which is going to be held in Mexico from July 14th to 19th. We, the Indian attendees at Wikimania, would like to represent Wiki Indic Community booth in the same.  We are creating Leaflets and Posters for the [http://wikimania2015.wikimedia.org/wiki/Community_Village community village at Wikimania 2015] to display in Wikimania 2015. We would like to invite you to gather the content and design(optional) for  posters ([https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Poster_of_results,Women%27s_History_Month,India,2014.pdf Sample]) and leaflets ([https://wikimania2014.wikimedia.org/wiki/Project_Leaflets Sample])  about the Indic language project of your choice. We will take care of printing and displaying the posters/leaflets.
             
The maximum dimensions for your poster are 36 x 48 in (91.44 x 121.92 cm). We suggest using the [http://www.prepressure.com/library/paper-size/din-a0 A0 paper size], which is 33.11 x 46.81 in (~84 x 118 cm). The contents of the poster has to be in '''English'''. Posters and leaflets based on all Indic language Wikimedia projects are welcome. The design should be a media file uploaded to Wikimedia Commons. Please post the link to your content/design file on http://wiki.wikimedia.in/Wikimania_2015/Booth/Posters_Leaflets before 25th of June.  In case if you face any issues please reachout to [http://ta.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=User_talk:Dineshkumar+Ponnusamy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new Dineshkumar Ponnusamy] or [mailto:nethahussain@gmail.com Netha Hussain].

For guidelines regarding creating posters, please have a look at this link :   https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Learning_patterns/Posters_that_work
       
We look forward to receiving your posters/leaflets and displaying them while at [http://wikimania2015.wikimedia.org Wikimania 2015]! &lt;br /&gt;
''Note: This is not a competition or contest, we expect at most 1 poster and 1 leaflet from each Community.''
             
Thanks,&lt;br /&gt;
[http://wiki.wikimedia.in/Wikimania_2015#Participants Indian Wikimania 2015 Participants]

== Newari is missing ==
Newari is missing from this page:&lt;br /&gt;
https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/There_is_also_a_Wikipedia_in_your_language&lt;br /&gt;
More than 100 languages are now listed.&lt;br /&gt;
Thank you, [[छ्येलेमि:Varlaam|Varlaam]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Varlaam|talk]]) ०४:२५, १ फेब्रुवरी २०१६ (UTC)

== WikiConference India 2016 update ==

&lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0.5em; border: 2px black solid; padding: 1em;background-color:#E3F0F4&quot; &gt;
{| style=&quot;border:1px black solid; padding:2em; border-collapse:collapse; width:100%;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background-color:#FAFAFA; color:black; padding-left:2em; padding-top:.5em;&quot; align=left |

Hi, 

After an elaborate [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/City/First Bids|community participation process]], we are planning to host Wikiconference India 2016 in [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Venue|Chandigarh during August 5, 6 and 7]]. 

Please help us by

* Joining as a [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Community and Team/Volunteer Registration|volunteer]]
* Signing up for [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Community and Team/Team Role|various teams]]
* Providing feedback for [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Programs|program design]]
* Reviewing and endorsing our [[:m:Grants:PEG/Satdeep Gill/WikiConference India 2016|PEG grant request]]

We will be calling applications for travel scholarship and paper presentations soon. 

We look forward to your contribution in making this conference successful. Please sign up to our [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikiconference-india mailing list] and follow the discussion in [[:m:Talk:WikiConference India 2016|Meta]] for updates.

Thanks.

--[[छ्येलेमि:Satdeep Gill|Satdeep Gill]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Satdeep Gill|talk]]) १६:३६, ७ मे २०१६ (UTC)
WikiConference India 2016 team. 

As a stakeholder of the Wikimedia India community in India, please express your support and comments regarding the selection of host city, date and other aspects of this conference planning.

=== Support === 

=== Neutral ===

=== Oppose ===

=== Comments ===

|}&lt;/div&gt;

==The visual editor will be enabled on this wiki in some days==
''Hello again. Please excuse the English.  {{Int:Please-translate}}.  {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}}''

As per previous announcements earlier this year, '''[[:mw:VisualEditor/Portal|the visual editor]] ({{int:visualeditor}}) will be enabled at this Wikipedia in some days. It allows people to edit articles as if they were using a typical word processor. Here's a quick explanation of what is going to happen''': you can find a more detailed one, with pictures, at [[:mw:VisualEditor/Single_edit_tab|mediawiki.org]]. 

[[File:VisualEditor and wikitext side-by-side.png|alt=Side by side screenshots, showing the visual appearance of both editing systems |center|frameless|757px]]

;What's changing?
:In the new system, you get a &lt;u&gt;single edit tab which follows your preferences&lt;/u&gt;, and that therefore will launch the wikitext editor '''or''' the visual editor depending on which one you opened the last (''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-remember-last}}''). &lt;br&gt; This applies to everyone who edited recently, including anonymous users.
;How do I switch to the ''other'' editor then?
:Buttons on the toolbars of both editors were added months ago so that you can switch from one to the other every time you want to, without losing your changes and without having to save first. &lt;br&gt;The button, located on the right side of the toolbar, looks like square brackets ('''&lt;nowiki&gt;[[ ]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;''') in the visual editor, and like a pencil ([[File:OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg|20px]]) in the wikitext editor.

;Are there other options available?
:Yes. You can choose whether you want:
* ''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-prefer-ve}}'' (if you temporarily switch to the wikitext editor through the button on the toolbar, the system won't remember it; also, it only applies to namespaces where the visual editor is available).
* ''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-prefer-wt}}'' (if you temporarily switch to the visual editor through the button on the toolbar, the system won't remember it)
* ''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-multi-tab}}'' (a system in place at multiple wikis since 2013. You are familiar with this option if you have been using the visual editor here.)
**''Please note: all the users will always have the opportunity to switch to the other editor via buttons on the toolbars, for occasional edits''.

;How do I set my preference?
*If you want to try or to stay in the new system: you don't need to do anything.
*If you had explicitly disabled the visual editor in the past and want to keep it disabled: you don't need to do anything.
*All the registered users have a dropdown menu in the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|Editing tab of their Preferences]] ({{int:prefs-editing}} --&gt; {{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs}}), where they can choose from. &lt;u&gt;This only needs to be done once&lt;/u&gt;. Don't forget to save ;)
**&lt;small&gt;Users with the visual editor disabled need to re-enable it if they're interested in accessing that menu!&lt;/small&gt;
*People who use the visual editor regularly will see a pop-up &lt;u&gt;(only once after the single edit tab system is introduced)&lt;/u&gt;, and they can choose their favorite setting there. Of course, they can change their mind at any time just like the others, and pick a different setting from their Preferences.
**Anonymous users who have used the visual editor recently will also be able to choose which editor they want to edit with.
**''Reminder: all the users will always have the opportunity to switch to the other editor via buttons on the toolbars, for occasional edits''.

;Final remarks
*&lt;mark&gt;Please spread the word about this major change&lt;/mark&gt; in any way that you deem appropriate for this community, by linking to this announcement elsewhere, putting up a site notice, etc. Please note it will affect all the registered users at first, and after some days it will reach logged-out contributors as well if no major technical issues have arisen. ''' [[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]]''': given your experience with this language and this community, I appreciate your support in making sure everyone here is aware of this change. Don't hesitate to ask questions, I'll be around for a while to help! 
*Please do let us know about any anomalies you think you're experiencing, and do post any other feedback below. I'd like to thank everyone who works to make the transition easier for this community, and whoever will help me processing feedback in your language. 
*You can learn more about optimizing the visual editor experience here by [[:mw:Help:VisualEditor/VE_as_the_main_editor|reading a guide on mediawiki.org]]. 

Thank you! [[छ्येलेमि:Elitre (WMF)|Elitre (WMF)]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Elitre (WMF)|talk]]) १२:४३, २४ अगस्ट २०१६ (UTC)

== The visual editor is now active here==
''Hello again. This message is only available in English at this time: {{Int:Please-translate}}.  {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}}''
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; widths=300px&gt;
File:VisualEditor bi-directional switching pencil icon in wikitext.png|alt=The upper right corner of the wikitext editing toolbar, showing a pencil icon|thumb|In the wikitext editor, the pencil icon allows you to switch to the visual editor.
File:VisualEditor toolbar Page options - Switch to wikitext - Save.png|alt=The toolbar in the visual editor, showing the square brackets icon next to the Publish button.|thumb|In the visual editor, the &lt;nowiki&gt;[[ ]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; (square brackets) icon allows you to switch to the wikitext editor. ''Please note that the button will soon say {{int:Publishpage}} or {{int:Publishchanges}}, due to an unrelated change.''
&lt;/gallery&gt;

As some of you have noticed, '''this Wikipedia now has [[:mw:VisualEditor/Portal|the visual editor]] ({{int:visualeditor}}) enabled for all registered users'''. The rollout to logged-out users will likely happen in a week or so. 

&lt;mark&gt;For an '''explanation of how the editing system now works and how to choose/go back to your favorite setting, please see my previous announcement above'''.&lt;/mark&gt; If you wish to '''change your editing system preferences now, this can be done from [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|this link to your Preferences]] --&gt; {{int:prefs-editing}} --&gt; {{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs}}'''. 

All edits using the visual editor will be tagged with &quot;{{Int:tag-visualeditor}}&quot; in recent changes, watchlists, and page histories.  To access the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:VisualEditor/User_guide|User Guide for the visual editor]], click on the &quot;(?)&quot; icon in its toolbar. 

Please let us know if you find any problems.  You can report issues directly in [[phab:|Phabricator, the new bug tracking system]] or on at [[:mw:VisualEditor/Feedback]]; by all means, feel free to also [[:mw:User talk:Elitre (WMF)|ping or contact me directly]] if you prefer.  
In case of emergency (like an unexpected bug causing widespread problems), please contact James Forrester, the product manager, at jforrester@wikimedia.org or on [[:m:IRC|IRC]] in the #mediawiki-visualeditor channel.

Happy editing!
Respectfully, [[:mw:User:Elitre (WMF)|Elitre (WMF)]] १९:११, ३० अगस्ट २०१६ (UTC)

PS: Are you seeing interface messages that are not in this wiki's language? Please fix this by providing translations [https://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=ext-visualeditor-0-all&amp;filter=%21translated&amp;action=translate here]. Translations may be also provided for the [[:mw:Help:VisualEditor/User_guide|user guide]]. Please contact me if you want guidance in contributing translations!

:Just a heads-up that rollout of the visual editor on this wiki is now complete. Please refer to my previous messages for details. You can [[:mw:Help:VisualEditor/VE_as_the_main_editor|read the &quot;checklist&quot;]] that was written to help communities like yours in their process of adapting the visual editor to their customs and needs. Best, [[:mw:User:Elitre (WMF)|Elitre (WMF)]] १८:४०, ६ सेप्टेम्बर २०१६ (UTC)

== Call for Participation, Wikicamp Nepal 2018 ==

Hi there, Sorry for writing this in English.&lt;br /&gt;

We wanted to inform you that Call for Participation for [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018|Wikicamp Nepal 2018]], which is being held in Lahan, Nepal on November 21–23, 2018 are now being accepted. '''Call for Participation are open until 30 September 2018, 23:59:59.''' To learn more about Wikicamp Nepal 2018 Call for Participation, Please visit: [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/Call for Participation]].

To submit for call for participation, please do that '''[[:m:Wikicamp_Nepal_2018/Call_for_Participation#Submission of proposals|this way]].'''

It is highly recommended that presenters review all the material on the Call for Participation page and [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/FAQ|the associated FAQ]] before submission. If you have any questions, please contact: wikicampnepal at gmail.com or leave a message at: [[:m:Talk:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/Call for Participation]]. Please help us spread the word and translate pages, also requested to local sysop to create a [[Mediawiki:Sitenotice|Sitenotice]] about it !

Best regards, [[:m:User:Tulsi Bhagat|Tulsi Bhagat]] on the behalf of organizing team of [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018|Wikicamp Nepal 2018]]. --[[छ्येलेमि:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) १६:३१, ८ सेप्टेम्बर २०१८ (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Tulsi Bhagat@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tulsi_Bhagat/Mass_Message_Users_List&amp;oldid=18365295 --&gt;

== Wikicamp Nepal 2018/19 ==

'''Hello {{BASEPAGENAME}},'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;'''Sorry for writing in English.'''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

We are glad, you are the part of [[:m:WCN2018|WCN2018]]. So, you are WCNian. Congratulations! \o/

The Wikicamp Nepal team is currently discussing on the value and planning process of Wikicamp Nepal 2018/19, and is open until 31 May 2019. The goals are to (1) build a shared understanding of the value of Wikicamp Nepal to help guide camp planning and evaluation, and (2) gather broad community input on what new form(s) Wikicamp Nepal 2019 could take.

We'd like to hear from you on [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdymN5vLn4CNYu_sz_2pvdV380eigXqRwy-u5NK2xt6_X8BPw/viewform this multilingual survey form]. Select your language and please send us your response!

If you have any question(s), feel free to contact: wikicampnepal[at]gmail.com or leave a message at: [[:m:Talk:Wikicamp Nepal 2018|Talk:Wikicamp Nepal 2018]]. Kindly help us spread and translate this message!

Many thanks,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Tulsi Bhagat|&lt;font color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;'''Tulsi Bhagat'''&lt;/font&gt;]] &lt;small&gt;([[Special:Contributions/Tulsi Bhagat|&lt;font color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;contribs&lt;/font&gt;]] &amp;#124; [[User talk:Tulsi Bhagat|&lt;font color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/font&gt;]])&lt;/small&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
[[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/Team|WCN2018 Organizing Team]]; Message sent using [[छ्येलेमि:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) ०४:४३, १७ मे २०१९ (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Tulsi Bhagat@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tulsi_Bhagat/Mass_Message_Users_List&amp;oldid=19103078 --&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;

‍

== प्रस्तावे सहमतियु नितिं ==
विकिमिडियन पासा पि नाप छलफल, अन्तर विकि समन्वय वः विकि समुदाययु प्राथमिकता व चुनौतीतेयु बारे सहकार्ययु नितिं नेपाले नोवाइगु भाषापिनु समुदाय तेयु सम्मेलन '''विकि कार्यशालायु दोश्रो संस्करण''' – '''विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२०''' थोहे नोभेम्बर २०२० खे आयोजना यागु नितिं [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Conference/WikiCamp_Nepal_2020#Discussion मेटा]खे प्रस्ताव तयातगुजुया कृपया व प्रस्तावखे छिगु सहमति तयादितः अनुरोध याना । आयोजक पुचः

&lt;big&gt;'''विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२० समुदाय संलग्नता सर्वेक्षणखे सहभागितयु नितिं ब्वना पौ'''&lt;/big&gt;

ठ्वो समुदाय संलग्नता सर्वेक्षणखे सहभागितायु नितिं ब्वना पौ ख, गु विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२० यु आयोजनायु नितिं विकिमिडिया फाउण्डेसनखे पेश याइगु आवेदनयु मुः अंग ख। ठ्वो प्रश्नतेसँ विकिमिडियाखे छिगु अनुभव, आवश्यकता, चुनौती व विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२० खँ अपेक्षातेगु सम्बन्धी जानकारीत हासिल यात गुहाली याई। ठ्व प्रतिक्रयातेस विकि कार्यशाखायु उद्देश्य वा कार्यक्रमयु प्रारूप हाकन स्पष्ट यात गुहाली याई।

&lt;div class=&quot;notice metadata&quot; id=&quot;stub&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto; padding:5px; text-align: center; background-color: #ffffff; border: solid 1px #99CCFF; border-left: 8px solid #99CCFF;&quot;&gt;
[[File:Form OneDrive icon.svg|25px]] '''सर्वेक्षण फाराम [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeJE3o-lTsCalCrKU3TDRr1jGYZZ1qp6GNagC3Y2GAXy1muVQ/viewform ठन] दई'''। &lt;span style=&quot;padding-left:250px;&quot;&gt;सर्वेक्षण फाराम '''२५ फेब्रुअरी २०२०''' तक खुल्ला जुई।&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

==Merge==
It looks like [[सिउरी]] and [[सुरी]] are the same place.  [[छ्येलेमि:Rich Farmbrough|Rich Farmbrough]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Rich Farmbrough|talk]])

{{Discussion top|धन्यवाद--[[छ्येलेमि:BAnand (WMF)|BAnand (WMF)]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:BAnand (WMF)|talk]]) ०२:४४, ४ मार्च २०२१ (UTC)}}
==विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता (छोटकरी रूपः युसिओसी) या दोश्रो चरण सम्बन्ध्ये==
जोजोलपा विकपिडिया छ्येलेमि पासा पिः,&lt;br&gt;
[[:m:Universal Code of Conduct|विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता]]या उद्देश्य फुक्क विकिमिडिया परियोजना वः अभियान खे सह्याज्यु व्यवहारयु छगु सार्वभौमिक मापदण्ड प्रदान यागु वः विकिपिडिया त छगु सुरक्षित ठ्या देकेगु ख गुः खे न्याम्मेसि ननः उत्पीडन वः भयरहित सुरक्षित निःसे योगदान वि फेकः। ठिठि विकिमिडिया पुचः नापः परामर्श याना विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता यागु विकास यायगु ज्या जुया च्वङ्गु दु।

युसिओसी परामर्शया [[:m:Universal Code of Conduct/Initial 2020 Consultations|पहिलो चरण]] ठौने कोचाय्कि ढुँगल, गु खे झीसँ ठिठी विकिमिडिया पुचः टेगु सल्लाह सुझाव व विचारयु आधारे विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता यु [[:m:Universal Code of Conduct/Draft review|मस्यौदा पाठ]] प्रस्ताव तयार याना गु ख। वः मस्यौदाइत सन् २०२० अक्टोवर १३ खे अनुमोदन यु लागि विकिमिडिया फाउन्डेसन यु न्यासी समितिखे प्रस्तुत यानागु ख।

युसिओसी यु दोश्रो चरण खे, विकिमिडिया फाउन्डेसनन सम्पूर्ण विकिमिडिया पुचः वः अभियानयु नितिँ: विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता लागु यायेत मार्गतेयु बारे छलफल याय। ठो प्रक्रिया वः विकिमिडिया परियोजना तेत झिँगु छ्येलेमितेत छगु उपयुक्त वः सुरक्षित ठ्या देकेगु नितिँ: छिक पिनिगु विचार वः बहुमुल्य सुझाव त सिकेगु झिँगु लागि महत्वपूर्ण दु। 

ठो महत्वपूर्ण विषयके छिक पिनिगु बहुमुल्य विचार ठन तयादिफुः मखुसा छिक पिन्स जिगु खँलावँलाखे चोयादि फुः। ठुके बाहेक छिस जित banand-ctr@wikimedia.org के मेल न याना दि फुः। सुभाय्--[[छ्येलेमि:BAnand (WMF)|BAnand (WMF)]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:BAnand (WMF)|talk]]) ०२:४२, २१ ज्यानुवरी २०२१ (UTC)
{{Discussion bottom}}

== Global ban proposal for Slowking4 ==


Hello. This is to notify the community that there is an ongoing global ban proposal for [[User:Slowking4]] who has been active on this wiki. You are invited to participate at [[metawiki:Requests for comment/Global ban for Slowking4 (2)|m:Requests for comment/Global ban for Slowking4 (2)]]. Thank you. [[छ्येलेमि:Seawolf35|Seawolf35]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Seawolf35|talk]]) ०५:२८, १५ मार्च २०२४ (UTC)

== Wikimedia Technology Summit (WTS) 2024 - Scholarships  ==

''Note: Apologies for cross-posting and sending in English.'' &lt;br&gt;
[[metawiki:3rd_Wikimedia_Technology_Summit_(WTS_2024)|Wikimedia Technology Summit (WTS) 2024]] is focused on using technology to enhance inclusivity across Wikipedia and its associated projects. We aim to explore strategies for engaging underrepresented communities and languages while also strengthening the technical foundation. By fostering collaboration between developers, users, and researchers, we can unite our efforts to create, innovate, and advance the technology that drives open knowledge. &lt;br&gt;

We invite community members residing in India who are interested in attending WTS 2024 in person to apply for scholarships by July 10, 2024. The summit will be held at IIIT Hyderabad, India, in October 2024. &lt;br&gt; To apply, please fill out the application form by clicking [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeoO22CuLXrNzL10rJ2guQsxuVtgJAP82EUYuZyBI46nPAHWw/viewform this link]]. &lt;br&gt; On behalf of the WTS 2024 Scholarship Committee :  [[छ्येलेमि:Kasyap|Kasyap]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Kasyap|talk]]) ०८:४८, ११ जुन २०२४ (UTC)

== Invitation to Participate in the Wikimedia SAARC Conference Community Engagement Survey ==

Dear Community Members,

I hope this message finds you well. Please excuse the use of English; we encourage translations into your local languages to ensure inclusivity.

We are conducting a Community Engagement Survey to assess the sentiments, needs, and interests of South Asian Wikimedia communities in organizing the inaugural Wikimedia SAARC Regional Conference, proposed to be held in Kathmandu, Nepal.

This initiative aims to bring together participants from eight nations to collaborate towards shared goals. Your insights will play a vital role in shaping the event's focus, identifying priorities, and guiding the strategic planning for this landmark conference.

Survey Link: https://forms.gle/en8qSuCvaSxQVD7K6

We kindly request you to dedicate a few moments to complete the survey. Your feedback will significantly contribute to ensuring this conference addresses the community's needs and aspirations.

Deadline to Submit the Survey: 20 January 2025

Your participation is crucial in shaping the future of the Wikimedia SAARC community and fostering regional collaboration. Thank you for your time and valuable input.

Warm regards,&lt;br&gt;
[[:m:User:Biplab Anand|Biplab Anand]]
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Biplab Anand@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Biplab_Anand/lists&amp;oldid=28074658 --&gt;

== प्रचलित लिपि कनवर्टर ==

I don't speak नेपालभाषा, but
@[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh's]] making Prachalit lipi pages, it can be made into an automatic converter between the two scripts using [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Converter Language Converter at MetaWiki]. Please put your thoughts on this below:-[[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) १०:०४, ९ अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)
=== Support / तिवा वीगु / 𑐟𑐶𑐰𑐵 𑐰𑐷𑐐𑐸 ===
&lt;!-- समर्थनका मतहरू यहाँ राख्नुहोस्। --&gt;
* I support automatic conversion. The conversion is very simple between the two scripts and I see no reason why it should not be automated. --[[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh|𑐫𑐸𑐎𑐾𑐱]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) ०४:२०, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)

=== Oppose / विरोध या / 𑐰𑐶𑐬𑑀𑐢 𑐫𑐵 ===
&lt;!-- विरोधका मतहरू यहाँ राख्नुहोस्। --&gt;</text>
      <sha1>nzifsnwe9nviouqm4qq4fo3j277wng1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>1122594</id>
      <parentid>1122575</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-10T06:36:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Suwarn Vajracharya</username>
        <id>11135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Support / तिवः बियेगु / 𑐟𑐶𑐧𑑅 𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸  */</comment>
      <origin>1122594</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="78425" sha1="3h0s039pg69kqo8y2g3we354pcgiegi" xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;background-color:transparent; padding:0px;&quot; 
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;width:180px; float:left; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#fff; padding:4px 2px 4px 10px;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;padding-left:50px;&quot;&gt;'''धल:पौ:'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[#गुथिया बुखँपौ|१ गुथिया बुखँप
[[#यायेमाःगु ज्याखँत|२  यायेमाःगु ज्याखँत]]&lt;br /&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;padding:0px 1px 0px 8px;&quot; | 
* '''सामाजिक दबू''' (Community Portal) विकिपिडियाय् जुयाच्वंगु ज्याखँ बारे सिइकेगु मू थाय् ख: । छु ज्या यायेमानि, गुगु पुचलय् ज्या यायेमा:गु दु आदियागु बारे थन सुचं व जानकारी कयादिसँ व बियादिसँ ।
* For '''bot requests''', see  [[Project:Bot policy]].
|} 
&lt;!-- बुलेटिन बोर्ड --&gt;
{| id=&quot;CBB&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; width=100% style=&quot;border:2px solid #B1A3BF; padding:0px;&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#E0CEF2; text-align:center; padding:2px; border-bottom:1px #B1A3BF solid;&quot; |
&lt;h2 style=&quot;margin:.5em; margin-top:.1em; border-bottom:0; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;
गुथि बुखँ पौ
&lt;/h2&gt; &lt;!-- 3 line spacing of h2 is important for subsection edit links to work correctly, PLEASE DO NOT FIX --&gt;
विकिपिडियाय् आः जुयाच्वंगु ज्याखँयागु धलः।  
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;padding:8px 8px 0px 8px; background:#FAF5FF;&quot; | 
&lt;!-- Please add content to the CBB on that page, not here. --&gt;
{{प्रतिकृया/गुथिया बुखँपौ}}
|}

==यायेमाःगु ज्याखँत==
*फतिंफत्तले थ्व विकिपिडियायात अप्व: स्वया अप्व: च्वसू, किपा व मेमेगु मल्टीमिडियां नं जायेका दीत सकल भाजुमय्जु पिंके इनाप दु ।
* च्वसु च्वयेबलय् लेखाधिकार हनन याना मदीत इनाप दु ।
* थन दुगु च्वसुयागु हाक: व आधिकारिकता भिंके माल ।
== Request bot flag for [[User:Alexbot|Alexbot]] ==
I request the bot flag for Alexbot:
:'''Operator''':[[:zh:User:Alexsh]]
:'''Programming Language''':Pywikipedia
:'''Functions''':Interwiki(+autonomous), double redirect fix, featured article interwiki link.
:'''Other languages''':[[:zh:User:Alexbot|All statistics in here]]
Thank you--[[छ्येलेमि:Alexsh|Alexsh]] १६:४५, २४ ज्यानुवरी २००८ (UTC)

:done, best regards, --[[छ्येलेमि:Spacebirdy|birdy]] [[छ्येलेमि_खँलाबँला:Spacebirdy|&lt;sub&gt;(:&gt; )=|&lt;/sub&gt;]] १३:३६, ५ फेब्रुवरी २००८ (UTC)

== [[User:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] ==
Hi, i request a bot flag for [[User:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]]
*'''Operator''': [[:it:Utente:Alleborgo|Alleborgo]]
*'''Automatic or Manually Assisted''': Automatic, in &quot;-autonomous&quot; mode. Sometimes the bot will run in manual assisted mode to solve interwiki conflicts.
*'''Programming Language(s)''': Pywikipedia framework daily updated to the last SVN version
*'''Function Summary''': interwiki
*'''Already has a bot flag in''': ar, am, an, ast, az, bar, bat-smg, bg, br, bm, bn, bpy, bs, ca, ce, ceb, cs, cv, cy, da, de, el, en, eo, es, et, eu, fa, fi, fiu-vro, fo, fr, frp, fy, ga, gl, he, hr, hsb, ht, hu, hy, id, is, it, iu, ja, jv, ka, kk, ko, ksh, ku, lb, li, lmo, ln, lt, lv, mk, mi, ml, mr, ms, mt, nap, nds, nds-nl, nl, nn, no, oc, pl, pms, ps, pt, ro, roa-tara, ru, scn, sco, se, sh, sk, simple, sl, sq, sr, su, sv, ta, tg, th, tl, to, tr, tt, udm, uk, ur, vec, vi, vls, vo, zh, zh-classical, zh-min-nan, zh-yue. On it.wiki has done more than 65000 edit.
Thanks  --[[छ्येलेमि:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] ११:०५, ११ नोभेम्बर २००७ (UTC)
: '''Done.''' —&lt;small&gt;[[m:User:Pathoschild|Pathoschild]] १५:१४:२५, ११ डिसेम्बर २००७ (UTC)&lt;/small&gt;

==Bot policy==

Hello. To facilitate [[m:steward|steward]] granting of bot access, I suggest implementing the [[m:Bot policy|standard bot policy]] on this wiki. This will involve creating a redirect to this page from [[Project:Bot policy]], and adding a line at the top noting that it is used here. In particular, this policy allows automatic acceptance of known interlanguage linking bots (if this page says that is acceptable), which form the vast majority of such requests.

Please read the text at [[m:Bot policy]] before commenting. If you object, please say so; it will be implemented in one week if there is no objection, since it is particularly written to streamline bot requests on wikis with little or no community interested in bot access requests. [[User:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] १०:४९, ३० नोभेम्बर २००७ (UTC)
:Bot policy implemented. --[[छ्येलेमि:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] १३:३८, ८ डिसेम्बर २००७ (UTC)

==Wikimedia Indian chapter==
As you might be aware, we are planning to start an India chapter of the Wikimedia Foundation. Please see [[meta:Wikimedia India|Wikimedia India]] for details. We're currently working on the [[meta:Wikimedia India/bylaws|draft of bylaws]]. If you are interested, please join the discussion on meta, and subscribe to the [http://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikimediaindia-l wikimediaindia-l mailing list]. [[छ्येलेमि:Utcursch|Utcursch]] १७:५८, १० डिसेम्बर २००७ (UTC)

==Betawiki: better support for your language in MediaWiki==बिदूर् क्
Dear community. I am writing to you to promote a special wiki called [[betawiki:|Betawiki]]. This wiki facilitateऋःटृःटृऍःMediaWiki interface. You may have changed many messages here to use your language in the interface, but if you would log in to for example the Japanese language Wiktionary, you would not be able to use the interface as well translated as here. In fact, of 1,736 messages in the core of MediaWiki, 2.88% of the messages have been translated. Betawiki also supports the translation of messages for 126 extensions, with 2,174 messages. Many of them are used in WMF projects and they are vital for understanding the wiki. Currently 0.17% of the WMF extension messages have been translated. Translators for over 90 languages contribute their work to MediaWiki this way every month.

If you wish to contribute to better support of your language in MediaWiki, as well as for many MediaWiki extensions, please visit [[betawiki:Translating:Intro|Betawiki]], [http://translatewiki.net/w/?title=Special:Userlogin&amp;type=signup&amp;uselang=en create an account] and [[betawiki:Betawiki:Rights|request translator privileges]]. You can see the current status of localisation of your language on [[mw:Localisation_statistics|MediaWiki.org]] and do not forget to get in touch with others that may already be [[betawiki:Translating:Languages|working on your language on Betawiki]].

If you have any further questions, [[betawiki:User_talk:Siebrand|please let me know on my talk page on Betawiki]]. We will try and assist you as much as possible, for example by [[betawiki:Import requests|importing]] all messages from a local wiki for you to start with, if you so desire.

You can also find us on the Freenode [[w:en:Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] network in the channel #mediawiki-i18n where we will be happy to help you get started.

Thank you very much for your attention and I do hope to see some of you on [[betawiki:|Betawiki]] soon! Thanks, [[betawiki:User:GerardM|GerardM@Betawiki]]

* Currently 5.93% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.18% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०७:३६, २६ अप्रिल २००८ (UTC)

== Bot Flag Request for [[:User:Purbo_T|Purbo_T]] ==
&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot;&gt;
Hi, I'd like to request a bot flag for [[:User:Purbo_T|Purbo_T]] &lt;small&gt;([[:Special:Contributions/Purbo T|contribs]])&lt;/small&gt;
*'''Operator''': [[:User:Purodha]] = [[:ksh:User:Purodha]] (b'crat @ [[:ksh:|ksh]])
*'''Function''': interwiki link maintenance
*'''Operation''':  manually-assisted, occasionally in automatic or autonomous mode, starting mostly from the [[:ksh:|Wikipedia of Ripuarian languages]]
*'''Software:''' [[:meta:pywikipedia|pywikipediabot]] framework updated daily from [http://svn.wikimedia.org/svnroot/pywikipedia/trunk/pywikipedia/ svn] to latest version
*'''Already has bot flag on:''' [[:am:|am]], [[:ar:|ar]], [[:be-x-old:|be-x-old]], [[:bn:|bn]], [[:bo:|bo]], [[:bxr:|bxr]], [[:cdo:|cdo]], [[:co:|co]], [[:crh:|crh]], [[:dsb:|dsb]], [[:dz:|dz]], [[:fa:|fa]], [[:fr:|fr]], [[:gv:|gv]], [[:hr:|hr]], [[:hsb:|hsb]], [[:ht:|ht]], [[:ig:|ig]], [[:ksh:|ksh]], [[:ku:|ku]], [[:lbe:|lbe]], [[:lmo:|lmo]], [[:ml:|ml]], [[:mr:|mr]], [[:nds:|nds]], [[:nl:|nl]], [[:pms:|pms]], [[:simple:|simple]], [[:stq:|stq]], [[:sv:|sv]], [[:tg:|tg]], [[:ts:|ts]], [[:vec:|vec]], [[:vi:|vi]], [[:vo:|vo]], more pending, [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~purodha/sample/dbswithuser.php?usr=Purbo_T recent&amp;nbsp;data] (sorry, the [[:m:toolserver|toolserver]] is having technical problems at the moment, partial data is at end of the page)
Thank you! --[[छ्येलेमि:Purodha|Purodha]] २१:५२, ३ फेब्रुवरी २००८ (UTC)
&lt;/div&gt;

== [[User:BodhisattvaBot|BodhisattvaBot]] ==
* '''Operator:''' [[User:Dalibor Bosits|Dalibor Bosits]]
* '''Purpose:''' Interwiki, auto and manually mode, from hr Wiki, daily
* '''Software:''' Pywikipedia framework
* '''Bot flagged on:''' bg, bs, cs, da, de, el, eo, et, eu, fr, gl, hr, hu, id, la, ms, nl, no, ro, ru, sh, simple, sk, sl, sr, sv, sw, uk, th, vo
thank you --[[:hr:Suradnik:Dalibor Bosits|Dalibor Bosits]][[:hr:Razgovor sa suradnikom:Dalibor Bosits| (&lt;small&gt;talk&lt;/small&gt;)]] १३:३२, २ मार्च २००८ (UTC)
:Bot flag granted. --[[छ्येलेमि:Dungodung|Dungodung]] २१:४४, २४ मार्च २००८ (UTC)

== Exemption doctrine policy ==
Hello. As you might know, the Wikimedia Foundation [[wikimedia:Resolution:Licensing policy|approved a resolution]] concerning non-free images more than a year ago. The resolution says that unless Wikimedia projects create an exemption doctrine policy (EDP) for non-free images, all of those images shall be deleted by March 23, 2008 (which was few days ago). We'd now like to gather information from the projects about their exemption policies in one place so we can check their validity, and if images on those projects are in accordance with the Foundation's resolution. Your project is one of these we don't have information about, so it'd be great if you could add it to the page listing all EDPs, [[:meta:Non-free_content]]. If you have any questions about the page or don't have an EDP yet and want one, you can use the [[:meta:talk:Non-free content|appropriate talkpage on Meta]] or just contact me directly [[:meta:user talk:timichal|on Meta]] or [[Special:emailuser/timichal|by e-mail]] (however, please note that I'm just a volunteer and therefore not in a position to give any official advice).

If you don't have any EDP in place and don't plan to use one, it might be useful and effective for your project to disable local uploads entirely and use files from Wikimedia Commons only. This method has been used by many Wikimedia projects, notably Spanish and Swedish Wikipedia and English Wiktionary, and means you wouldn't have to deal with file licensing problems anymore; if you're interested in this solution, feel free to contact me for more information.

Thanks for your cooperation! [[छ्येलेमि:Timichal|Timichal]] ०८:३३, २७ मार्च २००८ (UTC)

==Betawiki update ==
* Currently 5.85% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.13% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०८:०८, २७ मे २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 5.74% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.12% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०७:१९, ७ जुलाई २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 5.70% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.29% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १०:०७, ८ अगस्ट २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 11.12% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.2६% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ११:१३, १० सेप्टेम्बर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 13.85% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.13% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०८:५९, १६ अक्टोबर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 13.90% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.10% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:०६, १० नोभेम्बर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 13.70% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.09% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|Betawiki]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०९:४५, १५ डिसेम्बर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 14.21% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.09% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|Betawiki]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १८:४५, ११ ज्यानुवरी २००९ (UTC)
:PS Please help us complete [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&amp;task=untranslated&amp;group=core-mostused&amp;language={{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}&amp;limit=100 the most wanted messages]..

== [[User:Muro Bot|Muro Bot]] ==
*'''Operator:''' [[:es:Usuario:Muro de Aguas|es:Muro de Aguas]]
*'''Programming Language:''' Python (''interwiki.py'')
*'''Function Summary:''' Interwiki links
*'''Already has a bot flag on:''' [http://toolserver.org/~purodha/sample/dbswithuser.php?usr=Muro+Bot&amp;uselang=en 33 projects]. Total editcount: 202.000 edits.
I use the pywikipediabot framework, updated every day from SVN. Thanks! [[छ्येलेमि:Muro de Aguas|Muro de Aguas]] १४:३७, २७ जुन २००८ (UTC)

==Global bots==
Hello. The [[m:Bot policy|standard bot policy]] was updated to allow global bots, which are now technically possible. These are trusted bots that will be given bot access on all wikis that allow global bots (the local policy or request page must explicitly allow them, or they won't get access on this wiki). The [[m:Bot policy#Global_bots|current requirements]] for global bots are:
* the bot must only maintain interlanguage links or fix double-redirects;
* the bot must already be active on several wikis, with long-term contributions to back up its trustworthiness.

Does anyone object to allowing global bots on this wiki? I'll update the local policy in a week if there are no objections. Thanks. —&lt;small&gt;[[m:User:Pathoschild|Pathoschild]] ०२:१५:५३, २७ जुलाई २००८ (UTC)&lt;/small&gt;
:Done. [[छ्येलेमि:Malafaya|Malafaya]] ०९:३३, १५ सेप्टेम्बर २००८ (UTC)

== Wikimania 2009: Scholarships ==
'''{{#language:en}}''': Wikimania 2009, this year's global event devoted to [[foundation:Home|Wikimedia]] projects around the globe, is now accepting '''applications for scholarships''' to the conference.  This year's conference will be handled from August 26-28 in [[w:Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires]], [[w:Argentina|Argentina]].  The scholarship can be used to help offset the costs of travel and registration.  For more information, check the official [[wm2009:Scholarships|information page]].  Please remember that the [[wm2009:Call for Participation|Call for Participation]] is still open, please submit your papers!  Without submissions, Wikimania would not be nearly as fun!

'''{{#language:{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}}}''': ''Please translate this message into your language.'' - [[छ्येलेमि:Rjd0060|Rjd0060]] ०१:५९, ९ अप्रिल २००९ (UTC)

==The LocalisationUpdate extension has gone live==

The LocalisationUpdate extension is now enabled for all Wikimedia projects. From now on new localisations that become available in SVN will become available to your project within 24 hours. Your localisations get into SVN from [http://translatewiki.net translatewiki.net] typically within a day and at worst in two days. This is a huge improvement from the old practice where the localisations became available with new software. This could take weeks, even months.

The localisations done by our community at translatewiki.net are committed to SVN typically every day. When the system messages in English are the same as the local messages, they will now be inserted in a file and are available for use in all our projects in a timely manner

===What this means for you===
Local messages have an impact on the performance of our system. It is best when messages are as much as possible part of the system messages. In order to remove unnecessary duplication, all the messages that have a local localisation and are '''exactly''' the same as the system message will be removed.  What we ask you to do is to compare and proof read the messages in translatewiki.net and the local messages. You can then either remove local messages when the translatewiki.net message is to be preferred or, you can update the message at translatewiki.net. 

Messages that are specific to your project will have to stay as they are. You do want to check if the format and the variables of the message are still the same.

===Why localise at translatewiki.net===
When you localise at translatewiki.net, your messages will be used in all Wikimedia projects and eventually in all MediaWiki based projects. This is how we provide the standard support for your language. When messages change, at translatewiki.net you will be prompted to revisit your translations. Localising is more efficient because we have innovated the process to make you more efficient; there is text explaining about messages and we have applied AJAX technology to reduce the number of clicks you have to make.

==Translatewiki.net update==
*Currently 12.34% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.0४% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:११, ३० सेप्टेम्बर २००९ (UTC)
*Currently 12.26% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.0४% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:५१, १ नोभेम्बर २००९ (UTC)
*Currently 12.40% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.04% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १२:५२, ८ डिसेम्बर २००९ (UTC)
*Currently 12.37% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.04% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १४:१६, १८ ज्यानुवरी २०१० (UTC)

*PS Please help us complete [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&amp;task=untranslated&amp;group=core-mostused&amp;language={{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}&amp;limit=100 the most wanted messages]..

==How can we improve the usability for your language==
We expect that with the implementation of LocalisationUpdate the usability of MediaWiki for your language will improve. We are now ready to look at other aspects of usability for your language as well.  There are two questions we would like you to answer:
Are there issues with the new functionality of the Usability Initiative
Does MediaWiki support your language properly

The best way to answer the first question is to visit the translatewiki.net. Change the language to your language, select the “vector” skin and add the advanced tool bar in in the preferences and check out the new functionality. And make some changes in your user page. When there is a need to improve on the localisation, please make the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=ext-ui-0-all necessary changes]s . It should update your localisation straight away. 
We would like you to report each issue individually at http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Usability_issues.

When there are problems with the support of MediaWiki for your language, we really want to know about this. It is best to report each issue separately. In this way there will be no large mass of issues to resolve but we can address each issue on its own. Consider issues with the display of characters, the presentation of your script, the position of the side bar, the combination of text with other languages, scripts. It is best to try this in an environment like the prototype wiki as it provides you with a clean, basic and up to date environment. The prototype wiki is available for five languages but you can select any of them, change the preferences to your language and test out MediaWiki for your language.

We would like you to report each issue individually at http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Language_issues. The issues you raise will all be assessed. It is important to keep each issue separate, because this will make it easier to understand the issues and find solutions.

PS This text has been approved by Naoko, Brion and Siebrand. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:११, ३० सेप्टेम्बर २००९ (UTC)

== Wikimedia Indic language Mailing list ==

Hi, There is a Wikimedia Indic language Mailing list but I've not seen anybody from Nepal Bhasa Wikipeda. Joining this list helps solving common language problem and other things. Check this page https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikimediaindia-l --[[छ्येलेमि:Praveenp|Praveenp]] १५:४७, ६ मार्च २०१० (UTC)
[[विशेष:Contributions/115.164.236.89|115.164.236.89]] १३:२१, १९ अगस्ट २०१३ (UTC)

==creating the Sanskrit Wikisource==

I have submitted the proposal for creating the Sanskrit Wikisource. It is available at: http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikisource_Sanskrit

For time being, I have added only you two as the users interested in Sanskrit wikisource. If you know any one else interested in Sanskrit wiki source, please send me their details. Also make sure you cast your vote in the Arguments in favour section.

Please let me know in case there are any issues

Shiju Alex


[[af:Wikipedia:Gebruikersportaal]]
[[als:Wikipedia:Gemeinschafts-Portal]]
[[an:Wikipedia:Comunidá]]
[[ang:Wikipedia:Gemǣnscipe Ingang]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا:بوابة المجتمع]]
[[ast:Uiquipedia:Portal de la comunidá]]
[[bg:Уикипедия:Портал]]
[[br:Wikipedia:Kumuniezh/Degemer]]
[[bs:Wikipedia:Vrata zajednice]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia:Portal]]
[[ceb:Wikipedia:Katilingban]]
[[co:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[cs:Wikipedie:Portál Wikipedie]]
[[csb:Wiki:Pòrtal wëcmaniznë]]
[[cv:Wikipedia:Портал]]
[[da:Wikipedia:Forside]]
[[de:Wikipedia:Portal]]
[[el:Βικιπαίδεια:Πύλη Κοινότητας]]
[[eo:Vikipedio:Komunuma Portalo]]
[[es:Wikipedia:Portal de la comunidad]]
[[et:Vikipeedia:Kogukonnavärav]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیا:ورودی کاربران]]
[[fo:Wikipedia:Forsíða]]
[[fr:Wikipédia:Accueil]]
[[fy:Wikipedy:Mienskip]]
[[ga:Vicipéid:Lárionad comhphobail]]
[[gd:Wikipedia:Doras na coimhearsnachd]]
[[gl:Wikipedia:Portal da comunidade]]
[[got:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[gv:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה:שער הקהילה]]
[[hi:विकिपीडिया:समाज मुखपृष्ठ]]
[[hu:Wikipédia:Közösségi Portál]]
[[ia:Wikipedia:Portal del communitate]]
[[id:Portal:Komunitas]]
[[io:Wikipedio:Komuneso-portalo]]
[[is:Wikipedia:Samfélagsgátt]]
[[it:Portale:Comunità]]
[[ja:Wikipedia:コミュニティ・ポータル]]
[[ka:ვიკიპედია:საზოგადოების გვერდები]]
[[ko:위키백과:사용자_모임]]
[[ku:Wîkîpediya:Portala komê]]
[[la:Vicipaedia:Porta communis]]
[[lb:Wikipedia:Kommunautéitssäit]]
[[li:Wikipedia:Gebroekersportaol]]
[[lmo:Wikipedia:Purtaal da cumünitaa]]
[[lt:Wikipedia:Bendruomenė]]
[[mg:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[mi:Wikipedia:Tomokanga hapori]]
[[ml:വിക്കിപീഡിയ:വിക്കി സമൂഹം]]
[[ms:Portal:Masyarakat]]
[[na:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[nap:Wikipedia:Porta d%27%27a cummunetà]]
[[nds:Wikipedia:Portal]]
[[nds-nl:Wikipedie:Gebrukerspertaol]]
[[nl:Portaal:Gebruikersportaal]]
[[nn:Wikipedia:Brukarportal]]
[[no:Wikipedia:Portal]]
[[oc:Wikipèdia:Comunautat]]
[[pl:Wikipedia:Portal wikipedystów]]
[[pt:Wikipedia:Portal comunitário]]
[[ro:Portal:Comunitate]]
[[ru:Википедия:Портал сообщества]]
[[sc:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[scn:Porta dâ Cumunità]]
[[sco:Wikipedia:Commonty Yett]]
[[si:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[simple:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[sk:Wikipédia:Portál komunity]]
[[sl:Wikipedija:Portal občestva]]
[[sm:Wikipedia:Puso o le ʻaʻai]]
[[sr:Википедија:Радионица]]
[[su:Wikipedia:Panglawungan]]
[[sv:Wikipedia:Portalen]]
[[ta:Wikipedia:சமுதாய வலைவாசல்]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดีย:ศาลาประชาคม]]
[[tl:Wikipedia:Portal ng komunidad]]
[[tr:Vikipedi:Topluluk portalı]]
[[uk:Вікіпедія:Портал спільноти]]
[[vi:Wikipedia:Cộng đồng]]
[[zh:Wikipedia:社区主页]]
[[zh-min-nan:Wikipedia:Siā-lí mn̂g-chhùi-kháu]]
[[zh-yue:Wikipedia:社區大堂]]

== 2010 Fundraising Is Almost Here ==

[[File:Wikimedia_Foundation_RGB_logo_with_text.svg|80px|left]] Hello Wikipedians, I am Theo and I am working for the Wikimedia Foundation during the 2010 Fundraiser. My job is to be the liaison between your community and the Foundation. This year's fundraiser is intended to be a collaborative and global effort; we recognize that banner messages which may perform well in the United States don't necessarily translate well, or appeal to international audiences. &lt;Br&gt;

I'm contacting you as I am currently looking for translators who are willing to contribute to this project by helping translate and localize messages into different languages and suggesting messages that would appeal to your readers on the Fundraising Meta Page. We've started the setup on [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010 meta] for both [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010/Messages banner submission], [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010/Banner_testing statistical analysis], and [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010/Committee grouping volunteers together].&lt;br&gt;Use the talk pages on meta, talk to your local communities, talk to others, talk to us, and add your feedback to the proposed messages as well! I look forward to working with you during this year's fundraiser. If someone could translate this message I would really appreciate it so that everyone is able to understand our goals and contribute to this year's campaign.&lt;br&gt; [[user:Theo (WMF)|Theo (WMF)]] २०:४८, २० अक्टोबर २०१० (UTC)
&lt;!-- EdwardsBot 0020 --&gt;
≠

==Language support group for Newari==
The Wikimedia Foundation has brought together a new team of developers who are dedicated to language support. This team is to support all the languages and consequently it is not realistic to expect that the team members can provide proper support for your language. It is for this reason that we are looking for volunteers who will make up a [[:translatewiki:language support team|language support team]]. 

This language support team will be asked to provide us with information about their language. Such information may need to be provided either to us or on a website that we will indicate to you. Another activity will be to test software that will likely have an effect on the running of the MediaWiki software. We are looking for people who clearly identify their ability. Formal knowledge is definitely appreciated.

As much of the activity will be concentrated on [[:translatewiki:Main Page|translatewiki.net]], it will be a plus when team members know how to localise at translatewiki.net. &lt;br&gt;
Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] १३:१३, ३१ ज्यानुवरी २०१२ (UTC)

===What we can do for you already===
For the Nepali language we have two input methods and one font that we make available on the Nepali wikis. When these input methods are the same for Newari, we can easily implement them for you. First you can test them at translatewiki.net and, when it is as you need them to be, we can make them available on the Newari Wikis as well. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] १३:१३, ३१ ज्यानुवरी २०१२ (UTC)

===The Babel extension===
The Babel extension is used by people to indicate their proficiency in a language. This is used on all the Wikimedia wikis. Would you be so kind and [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=ext-babel&amp;language=new localise the Babel extension] for us? Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] १३:१३, ३१ ज्यानुवरी २०१२ (UTC)

== Updates from India Program Team ==

This is the first post from the India Program team regarding the team.  I have been posting updates on the various mailing lists - but am acutely aware that the majority of our community is on village pumps or project pages and hence this post.  Do excuse me for posting something which is not solely focused on this project, but the work we are doing has learnings that you might find useful for your project. Here are 5 important links that you might find useful

* There is an [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program India Program page] on meta - which has links to a number of important workstreams (on the right of the page)
* Here is your [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Team India Program team].  Feel free to reach out for any help or to provide any suggestion - or just to say hello!
* I submitted the following [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Mid-Year_Reports/1st_%26_2nd_Half_2011 mid-year report] to the community on January 15th 2011 - outlining the activities for 2011 and the priorities for 2012.  Strictly speaking, this wasn't a mid-year report because it covered all of 2011, but going forward, I intend to make it a half-yearly affair.  Please add your comments or suggestions [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:India_Program/Reports/Mid_Year_Reports here], or below this post.
* I have recently started [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports monthly updates].  The monthly update for February is available [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Feb_2012 here].  Please add your comments or suggestion [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Feb_2012 here].  The areas of emphasis for March are [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Mar_2012 here].  Please add your comments or [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Mar_2012 here].  This is really useful for us to ensure that we are doing what you need most.  
* I have also started a new tab on the India Program page for Learnings, called [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/gyan Gyan].  I think it is going to be a pretty cool place for us to put together a whole host of learnings, lessons, heartbreaks, Eureka moments and inspirations - gathered from all over the community.  Stay tuned for more!
* One of the essential things that India Program needs to constantly work out is keeping our community informed of the work that we are doing - so that this work is clearer but also to help cross-pollinate ideas amongst a wider set of community members who might not have been engaged on specific village pump / talk page discussion or involved in particular activities (e.g. outreach events) or wikiprojects.  I propose to have a fortnightly IRC for the community with India Program.   (For those who are not familiar with IRC, it is an Internet messaging system similar to a regular chat room.  It's very simple to use and you can join in by clicking on the following [http://webchat.freenode.net/?channels=#wikimedia-office link].  This would be done on the '''1st and 3rd Thursdays of every month at 9pm IST''' (which is GMT + 0530) - THOUGH NOT THIS MONTH - BECAUSE I HAVE MISSED THE TIMELINE.  Just for March, we will do it on '''March 15th and March 29th (both at 9pm IST''' which is GMT + 0530).  I suggest that these chats are focused on specific work streams.  As with many community meet-ups - folks will give time to attend a meet-up or participate in an IRC only if there is a topic of relevance to them.  Therefore, we will do one IRC on Indic languages and one on Outreach &amp; Communications.  The March 15th one will be focused on Indic Languages and the one on March 29th will be on Outreach &amp; Communications.  (All IRCs will start with a re-cap of India Programs activities.) There is quite a bit of overlap on these topics - so feel free to join both. Please do also invite anyone who is interested to know more about India Program or - even more importantly - interact with fellow Wikimedians.  As always, the [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/meetings logs] will be put up on meta for the benefit of those who can't attend and for the record. 

Please feel free to translate this post for the benefit of the larger audience.  In fact, I'd be really grateful if you did!

[[छ्येलेमि:Hisham|Hisham]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Hisham|talk]]) ०३:५२, १२ मार्च २०१२ (UTC)

==Support for Newari input methods in Narayam==
On this Wiki there is a local script that provides input method support for Newari. We have implemented this functionality for you in the Narayam extension. There are several benefits: we will support Narayam technically - this will ensure that it will continue to function properly and, Narayam will be available on other projects like Commons as well and obviously on any other Newari project. 

Can you [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Portal:New?uselang=new please test it] for us and let us know if we can implement it?
Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Gmeijssen|talk]]) ०७:४३, ५ अप्रिल २०१२ (UTC)

==the &quot;Main page&quot;==
When I go to the [[Main Page]], I find that the redirect does not work properly. It is clear that the Newari characters do not show properly. As I understand it, in the Newari language the shape of some Devanagari characters is different from how it is used in Nepali, Marathi and Hindi. When there are fonts that support Newari properly, we can support them in our WebFonts extension. There is one condition, the font has to be freely licensed. If you want this please get into contact. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Gmeijssen|talk]]) ०७:४३, ५ अप्रिल २०१२ (UTC)

== CIS-A2K Grant Report September 2012-June 2013 ==
&lt;code&gt; (Apologies for writing in English. You are welcome to translate this message)&lt;/code&gt;

Greetings! As many of you know that the Wikimedia Foundation approved a 22 month grant to the [[:meta:India Access To Knowledge|CIS-A2K]]. The aim of the grant is to support the growth of Wikimedia movement in India.&lt;br/&gt; 
Please find the Grant Report for the first 10 months period [[:meta:India Access To Knowledge/Reports/CIS-A2K Narrative Report: (September 2012 – June 2013)|here]].&lt;br/&gt; CIS-A2K will be happy to receive your feedback. Please let us know if you have any suggestions, questions and concerns about the report and our work. We would be glad to have this feedback [[:meta:Talk:India Access To Knowledge/Reports/CIS-A2K Narrative Report: (September 2012 – June 2013)|here]].&lt;br/&gt; We are thankful to the Wikimedia community in India, Wikimedia India Chapter and the Wikimedia Foundation for actively engaging with our work. We will continue to work upon our deficiencies, failures and successes. Thanks! --[[छ्येलेमि:Hindustanilanguage|Hindustanilanguage]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Hindustanilanguage|talk]]) ०७:४६, ६ नोभेम्बर २०१३ (UTC)

Facing problems in typing your language?

[[File:Screenshot of enabling ULS on Wikipedia.png|thumb|450px|Screenshot of enabling ULS on Wikipedia]] 
Dear friends, excuse me for writing the message in English. Please feel free to translate this message in your language.

Many of you might have experienced trouble in using the input tool - Universal Language Selector (ULS). Wikimedia Foundation's Engineering Language Engineering team is trying to resolve it as soon as possible.

However, you can enable it as an opt-in option in your [https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Preferences User preferences] (Please select the user checkbox before &quot;'''Enable the Universal Language Selector'''&quot; as shown in the picture above). [[छ्येलेमि:Hindustanilanguage|Hindustanilanguage]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Hindustanilanguage|talk]]) १०:३२, २२ ज्यानुवरी २०१४ (UTC).

==Help for translate==
Hello and sorry for writing in English. Can anyone help me translate a small article (2 paragraphs) from English to your language and create the article in your wiki? Please, fell free to answer in my talk page in your wiki anytime. Thanks! [[छ्येलेमि:Xaris333|Xaris333]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Xaris333|talk]]) ००:२५, १४ अगस्ट २०१४ (UTC)

== CIS-A2K PO Selection ==

Dear Wikipedians, &lt;br /&gt;
[[meta:India_Access_To_Knowledge|CIS-A2K]] is seeking applications for the post of Programme Officer (Institutional Partnerships). The position will be based in its Bangalore office. Programme Officer will collaboratively work with [[meta:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Team|the A2K Team]] and would report to the [[meta:User:Visdaviva|Programme Director]], Interested applicants are encouraged to deeply engage with the [[meta:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Work_plan_July_2014_-_June_2015|CIS-A2K Work Plan]] before making the application. The last date of submitting applications is November 14, 2014. You can also find the job posting on our website (http://cis-india.org/jobs/programme-officer-institutional-partnership).&lt;br /&gt;
Thank you&lt;br /&gt;
[[छ्येलेमि:రహ్మానుద్దీన్|రహ్మానుద్దీన్]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:రహ్మానుద్దీన్|talk]])&lt;br /&gt;
Program officer, CIS-A2K
==विकिविस्तार कार्यक्रम सम्बन्धमा==
आदरणीय विकिपीडियन मित्रहरू नेपाली भाषामा लेखेकोमा माफ गर्नुहोला आशा छ नेपाली भाषामा लेखेको भए पनि यसलाई सच्याएर पढ्नुहोला साथै नेपाली भाषा नबुझ्ने मित्रहरूका लागी नेपाली भाषा र नेपाल भाषाको ज्ञान भएको मित्रले यो खण्ड नेपाल भाषामा अनुवाद गरिदिनु होला भन्ने अनुरोधका साथ यहाँ आफ्नो सल्लाह राख्नु होला । हामी नेपालीहरूमा विकिपीडिया बारे ज्ञानको अभाव रहेको यहाँहरूमा अवगतनै छ । यहाँ सम्मकी विकिपीडिया भनेको के-हो भन्ने बारेमा पनि थाहा पाउन सकिरहेका छैनौं त्यसमाथी मध्यपश्चिमाञ्चल र सूदुर पश्चिममाञ्चलका नागरिकहरूमा विकिपीडिया बारे झनै जानकारी नरहेको अवस्था छ, । नेपालमा निजि दुरसंचार प्रदायक एनसेल बाट निःशुल्क विकिपीडिया प्रयोग गर्न मिल्ने भएपनी ज्ञानको अभावमा प्रयोगमा आउन सकिरहेको छैन । यो स्थिती रहन नदिन र नेपाली विकिपीडियालाइ अगाडि बढाउनुका साथै यश क्षेत्रका सर्वसाधारणहरूमा  विकिपिडिया बारे परिचय गराउन सूदुरपश्चिमाञ्चल विकास क्षेत्रको [[:ne:कैलाली जिल्ला|कैलाली]] जिल्लामा विकिपीडिया विस्तार कार्यक्रम गरियोस् भनी [[:ne:विकिपीडिया:चौतारी#विकिविस्तार कार्यक्रम सम्बन्धमा|यहाँ]] समर्थनको लागि अनुरोध गरिन्छ । साथै [https://incubator.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wp/dty/Main_Page यहाँ] सुदूर पश्चिमको प्रमुख भाषा मानिने [[:ne:डोटेली भाषा|डोटेली भाषा]] को विकिपीडिया परिक्षण पृष्ठ रहेको छ । यसमा पनि सहयोग गर्न हुन आग्रह गर्दछु । धन्यवाद ।--[[:ne:User:राम प्रसाद जोशी|&lt;font color= &quot;green&quot;&gt;आर॰पी॰जोशी&lt;/font&gt;]] [[:ne:User_talk:राम प्रसाद जोशी|&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/font&gt;]] ०८:१८, १८ नोभेम्बर २०१४ (UTC)
#Support --[[छ्येलेमि:सरोज कुमार ढकाल|सरोज कुमार ढकाल]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:सरोज कुमार ढकाल|talk]]) १८:३९, १८ नोभेम्बर २०१४ (UTC)

==Train-the-Trainer Program - 2015 (Announcement)==

Dear Wikimedians,

''Apologies for posting this in English. If any friends could translate this in Newari please help in transalting.''

As most of you are aware, the Centre for Internet and Society's Access To Knowledge program (CIS-A2K) conducted the first Wikipedia [[:m:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Events/Train_the_Trainer_Program|Train-the-Trainer]] (TTT) programme in 2013 with an aim to support and groom leadership skills in the community members. We are extremely thankful to all the senior Wikimedians who acted as Resource Persons for the 2013 event. Achal, Arjuna, Hari, Shymal, Tinu and Viswa! Without your help we could not have conducted it so successfully.

This email is to let you all know that we have scheduled to conduct the second iteration of this program at the end of February 2015. We are inviting applications from interested Indian Wikimedians. Please see [[:m:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Events/Train_the_Trainer_Program/2015|this page]] on Meta for more details.

Some important dates:
January 27, 2015 - Last date for registration.&lt;br /&gt;
January 30, 2015 - Confirmation of selected participants&lt;br /&gt;
February 26 to March 1, 2015 - TTT-2015 workshop

We are working on the schedule and other details. You are welcome to leave your suggestions and inputs [[:m:Talk:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Events/Train_the_Trainer_Program/2015|here]]. Please write to us at tanveer{{@}}cis-india.org and vishnu{{@}}cis-india.org if you have any further queries.

Best,&lt;br/&gt;--[[छ्येलेमि:Psubhashish|Psubhashish]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Psubhashish|talk]]) ०३:२६, १६ ज्यानुवरी २०१५ (UTC)&lt;br/&gt;Accesss To Knowledge (CIS-A2K), &lt;br/&gt;[http://cis-india.org Centre for Internet and Society]

== Wikimania 2015 - India Booth ==

Hi Wikimedians,
            
Apologies for posting this text in English.
            
As you people might be aware, Wikimania 2015 which is going to be held in Mexico from July 14th to 19th. We, the Indian attendees at Wikimania, would like to represent Wiki Indic Community booth in the same.  We are creating Leaflets and Posters for the [http://wikimania2015.wikimedia.org/wiki/Community_Village community village at Wikimania 2015] to display in Wikimania 2015. We would like to invite you to gather the content and design(optional) for  posters ([https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Poster_of_results,Women%27s_History_Month,India,2014.pdf Sample]) and leaflets ([https://wikimania2014.wikimedia.org/wiki/Project_Leaflets Sample])  about the Indic language project of your choice. We will take care of printing and displaying the posters/leaflets.
             
The maximum dimensions for your poster are 36 x 48 in (91.44 x 121.92 cm). We suggest using the [http://www.prepressure.com/library/paper-size/din-a0 A0 paper size], which is 33.11 x 46.81 in (~84 x 118 cm). The contents of the poster has to be in '''English'''. Posters and leaflets based on all Indic language Wikimedia projects are welcome. The design should be a media file uploaded to Wikimedia Commons. Please post the link to your content/design file on http://wiki.wikimedia.in/Wikimania_2015/Booth/Posters_Leaflets before 25th of June.  In case if you face any issues please reachout to [http://ta.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=User_talk:Dineshkumar+Ponnusamy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new Dineshkumar Ponnusamy] or [mailto:nethahussain@gmail.com Netha Hussain].

For guidelines regarding creating posters, please have a look at this link :   https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Learning_patterns/Posters_that_work
       
We look forward to receiving your posters/leaflets and displaying them while at [http://wikimania2015.wikimedia.org Wikimania 2015]! &lt;br /&gt;
''Note: This is not a competition or contest, we expect at most 1 poster and 1 leaflet from each Community.''
             
Thanks,&lt;br /&gt;
[http://wiki.wikimedia.in/Wikimania_2015#Participants Indian Wikimania 2015 Participants]

== Newari is missing ==
Newari is missing from this page:&lt;br /&gt;
https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/There_is_also_a_Wikipedia_in_your_language&lt;br /&gt;
More than 100 languages are now listed.&lt;br /&gt;
Thank you, [[छ्येलेमि:Varlaam|Varlaam]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Varlaam|talk]]) ०४:२५, १ फेब्रुवरी २०१६ (UTC)

== WikiConference India 2016 update ==

&lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0.5em; border: 2px black solid; padding: 1em;background-color:#E3F0F4&quot; &gt;
{| style=&quot;border:1px black solid; padding:2em; border-collapse:collapse; width:100%;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background-color:#FAFAFA; color:black; padding-left:2em; padding-top:.5em;&quot; align=left |

Hi, 

After an elaborate [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/City/First Bids|community participation process]], we are planning to host Wikiconference India 2016 in [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Venue|Chandigarh during August 5, 6 and 7]]. 

Please help us by

* Joining as a [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Community and Team/Volunteer Registration|volunteer]]
* Signing up for [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Community and Team/Team Role|various teams]]
* Providing feedback for [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Programs|program design]]
* Reviewing and endorsing our [[:m:Grants:PEG/Satdeep Gill/WikiConference India 2016|PEG grant request]]

We will be calling applications for travel scholarship and paper presentations soon. 

We look forward to your contribution in making this conference successful. Please sign up to our [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikiconference-india mailing list] and follow the discussion in [[:m:Talk:WikiConference India 2016|Meta]] for updates.

Thanks.

--[[छ्येलेमि:Satdeep Gill|Satdeep Gill]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Satdeep Gill|talk]]) १६:३६, ७ मे २०१६ (UTC)
WikiConference India 2016 team. 

As a stakeholder of the Wikimedia India community in India, please express your support and comments regarding the selection of host city, date and other aspects of this conference planning.

=== Support === 

=== Neutral ===

=== Oppose ===

=== Comments ===

|}&lt;/div&gt;

==The visual editor will be enabled on this wiki in some days==
''Hello again. Please excuse the English.  {{Int:Please-translate}}.  {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}}''

As per previous announcements earlier this year, '''[[:mw:VisualEditor/Portal|the visual editor]] ({{int:visualeditor}}) will be enabled at this Wikipedia in some days. It allows people to edit articles as if they were using a typical word processor. Here's a quick explanation of what is going to happen''': you can find a more detailed one, with pictures, at [[:mw:VisualEditor/Single_edit_tab|mediawiki.org]]. 

[[File:VisualEditor and wikitext side-by-side.png|alt=Side by side screenshots, showing the visual appearance of both editing systems |center|frameless|757px]]

;What's changing?
:In the new system, you get a &lt;u&gt;single edit tab which follows your preferences&lt;/u&gt;, and that therefore will launch the wikitext editor '''or''' the visual editor depending on which one you opened the last (''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-remember-last}}''). &lt;br&gt; This applies to everyone who edited recently, including anonymous users.
;How do I switch to the ''other'' editor then?
:Buttons on the toolbars of both editors were added months ago so that you can switch from one to the other every time you want to, without losing your changes and without having to save first. &lt;br&gt;The button, located on the right side of the toolbar, looks like square brackets ('''&lt;nowiki&gt;[[ ]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;''') in the visual editor, and like a pencil ([[File:OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg|20px]]) in the wikitext editor.

;Are there other options available?
:Yes. You can choose whether you want:
* ''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-prefer-ve}}'' (if you temporarily switch to the wikitext editor through the button on the toolbar, the system won't remember it; also, it only applies to namespaces where the visual editor is available).
* ''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-prefer-wt}}'' (if you temporarily switch to the visual editor through the button on the toolbar, the system won't remember it)
* ''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-multi-tab}}'' (a system in place at multiple wikis since 2013. You are familiar with this option if you have been using the visual editor here.)
**''Please note: all the users will always have the opportunity to switch to the other editor via buttons on the toolbars, for occasional edits''.

;How do I set my preference?
*If you want to try or to stay in the new system: you don't need to do anything.
*If you had explicitly disabled the visual editor in the past and want to keep it disabled: you don't need to do anything.
*All the registered users have a dropdown menu in the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|Editing tab of their Preferences]] ({{int:prefs-editing}} --&gt; {{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs}}), where they can choose from. &lt;u&gt;This only needs to be done once&lt;/u&gt;. Don't forget to save ;)
**&lt;small&gt;Users with the visual editor disabled need to re-enable it if they're interested in accessing that menu!&lt;/small&gt;
*People who use the visual editor regularly will see a pop-up &lt;u&gt;(only once after the single edit tab system is introduced)&lt;/u&gt;, and they can choose their favorite setting there. Of course, they can change their mind at any time just like the others, and pick a different setting from their Preferences.
**Anonymous users who have used the visual editor recently will also be able to choose which editor they want to edit with.
**''Reminder: all the users will always have the opportunity to switch to the other editor via buttons on the toolbars, for occasional edits''.

;Final remarks
*&lt;mark&gt;Please spread the word about this major change&lt;/mark&gt; in any way that you deem appropriate for this community, by linking to this announcement elsewhere, putting up a site notice, etc. Please note it will affect all the registered users at first, and after some days it will reach logged-out contributors as well if no major technical issues have arisen. ''' [[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]]''': given your experience with this language and this community, I appreciate your support in making sure everyone here is aware of this change. Don't hesitate to ask questions, I'll be around for a while to help! 
*Please do let us know about any anomalies you think you're experiencing, and do post any other feedback below. I'd like to thank everyone who works to make the transition easier for this community, and whoever will help me processing feedback in your language. 
*You can learn more about optimizing the visual editor experience here by [[:mw:Help:VisualEditor/VE_as_the_main_editor|reading a guide on mediawiki.org]]. 

Thank you! [[छ्येलेमि:Elitre (WMF)|Elitre (WMF)]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Elitre (WMF)|talk]]) १२:४३, २४ अगस्ट २०१६ (UTC)

== The visual editor is now active here==
''Hello again. This message is only available in English at this time: {{Int:Please-translate}}.  {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}}''
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; widths=300px&gt;
File:VisualEditor bi-directional switching pencil icon in wikitext.png|alt=The upper right corner of the wikitext editing toolbar, showing a pencil icon|thumb|In the wikitext editor, the pencil icon allows you to switch to the visual editor.
File:VisualEditor toolbar Page options - Switch to wikitext - Save.png|alt=The toolbar in the visual editor, showing the square brackets icon next to the Publish button.|thumb|In the visual editor, the &lt;nowiki&gt;[[ ]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; (square brackets) icon allows you to switch to the wikitext editor. ''Please note that the button will soon say {{int:Publishpage}} or {{int:Publishchanges}}, due to an unrelated change.''
&lt;/gallery&gt;

As some of you have noticed, '''this Wikipedia now has [[:mw:VisualEditor/Portal|the visual editor]] ({{int:visualeditor}}) enabled for all registered users'''. The rollout to logged-out users will likely happen in a week or so. 

&lt;mark&gt;For an '''explanation of how the editing system now works and how to choose/go back to your favorite setting, please see my previous announcement above'''.&lt;/mark&gt; If you wish to '''change your editing system preferences now, this can be done from [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|this link to your Preferences]] --&gt; {{int:prefs-editing}} --&gt; {{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs}}'''. 

All edits using the visual editor will be tagged with &quot;{{Int:tag-visualeditor}}&quot; in recent changes, watchlists, and page histories.  To access the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:VisualEditor/User_guide|User Guide for the visual editor]], click on the &quot;(?)&quot; icon in its toolbar. 

Please let us know if you find any problems.  You can report issues directly in [[phab:|Phabricator, the new bug tracking system]] or on at [[:mw:VisualEditor/Feedback]]; by all means, feel free to also [[:mw:User talk:Elitre (WMF)|ping or contact me directly]] if you prefer.  
In case of emergency (like an unexpected bug causing widespread problems), please contact James Forrester, the product manager, at jforrester@wikimedia.org or on [[:m:IRC|IRC]] in the #mediawiki-visualeditor channel.

Happy editing!
Respectfully, [[:mw:User:Elitre (WMF)|Elitre (WMF)]] १९:११, ३० अगस्ट २०१६ (UTC)

PS: Are you seeing interface messages that are not in this wiki's language? Please fix this by providing translations [https://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=ext-visualeditor-0-all&amp;filter=%21translated&amp;action=translate here]. Translations may be also provided for the [[:mw:Help:VisualEditor/User_guide|user guide]]. Please contact me if you want guidance in contributing translations!

:Just a heads-up that rollout of the visual editor on this wiki is now complete. Please refer to my previous messages for details. You can [[:mw:Help:VisualEditor/VE_as_the_main_editor|read the &quot;checklist&quot;]] that was written to help communities like yours in their process of adapting the visual editor to their customs and needs. Best, [[:mw:User:Elitre (WMF)|Elitre (WMF)]] १८:४०, ६ सेप्टेम्बर २०१६ (UTC)

== Call for Participation, Wikicamp Nepal 2018 ==

Hi there, Sorry for writing this in English.&lt;br /&gt;

We wanted to inform you that Call for Participation for [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018|Wikicamp Nepal 2018]], which is being held in Lahan, Nepal on November 21–23, 2018 are now being accepted. '''Call for Participation are open until 30 September 2018, 23:59:59.''' To learn more about Wikicamp Nepal 2018 Call for Participation, Please visit: [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/Call for Participation]].

To submit for call for participation, please do that '''[[:m:Wikicamp_Nepal_2018/Call_for_Participation#Submission of proposals|this way]].'''

It is highly recommended that presenters review all the material on the Call for Participation page and [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/FAQ|the associated FAQ]] before submission. If you have any questions, please contact: wikicampnepal at gmail.com or leave a message at: [[:m:Talk:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/Call for Participation]]. Please help us spread the word and translate pages, also requested to local sysop to create a [[Mediawiki:Sitenotice|Sitenotice]] about it !

Best regards, [[:m:User:Tulsi Bhagat|Tulsi Bhagat]] on the behalf of organizing team of [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018|Wikicamp Nepal 2018]]. --[[छ्येलेमि:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) १६:३१, ८ सेप्टेम्बर २०१८ (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Tulsi Bhagat@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tulsi_Bhagat/Mass_Message_Users_List&amp;oldid=18365295 --&gt;

== Wikicamp Nepal 2018/19 ==

'''Hello {{BASEPAGENAME}},'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;'''Sorry for writing in English.'''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

We are glad, you are the part of [[:m:WCN2018|WCN2018]]. So, you are WCNian. Congratulations! \o/

The Wikicamp Nepal team is currently discussing on the value and planning process of Wikicamp Nepal 2018/19, and is open until 31 May 2019. The goals are to (1) build a shared understanding of the value of Wikicamp Nepal to help guide camp planning and evaluation, and (2) gather broad community input on what new form(s) Wikicamp Nepal 2019 could take.

We'd like to hear from you on [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdymN5vLn4CNYu_sz_2pvdV380eigXqRwy-u5NK2xt6_X8BPw/viewform this multilingual survey form]. Select your language and please send us your response!

If you have any question(s), feel free to contact: wikicampnepal[at]gmail.com or leave a message at: [[:m:Talk:Wikicamp Nepal 2018|Talk:Wikicamp Nepal 2018]]. Kindly help us spread and translate this message!

Many thanks,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Tulsi Bhagat|&lt;font color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;'''Tulsi Bhagat'''&lt;/font&gt;]] &lt;small&gt;([[Special:Contributions/Tulsi Bhagat|&lt;font color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;contribs&lt;/font&gt;]] &amp;#124; [[User talk:Tulsi Bhagat|&lt;font color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/font&gt;]])&lt;/small&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
[[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/Team|WCN2018 Organizing Team]]; Message sent using [[छ्येलेमि:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) ०४:४३, १७ मे २०१९ (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Tulsi Bhagat@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tulsi_Bhagat/Mass_Message_Users_List&amp;oldid=19103078 --&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;

‍

== प्रस्तावे सहमतियु नितिं ==
विकिमिडियन पासा पि नाप छलफल, अन्तर विकि समन्वय वः विकि समुदाययु प्राथमिकता व चुनौतीतेयु बारे सहकार्ययु नितिं नेपाले नोवाइगु भाषापिनु समुदाय तेयु सम्मेलन '''विकि कार्यशालायु दोश्रो संस्करण''' – '''विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२०''' थोहे नोभेम्बर २०२० खे आयोजना यागु नितिं [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Conference/WikiCamp_Nepal_2020#Discussion मेटा]खे प्रस्ताव तयातगुजुया कृपया व प्रस्तावखे छिगु सहमति तयादितः अनुरोध याना । आयोजक पुचः

&lt;big&gt;'''विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२० समुदाय संलग्नता सर्वेक्षणखे सहभागितयु नितिं ब्वना पौ'''&lt;/big&gt;

ठ्वो समुदाय संलग्नता सर्वेक्षणखे सहभागितायु नितिं ब्वना पौ ख, गु विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२० यु आयोजनायु नितिं विकिमिडिया फाउण्डेसनखे पेश याइगु आवेदनयु मुः अंग ख। ठ्वो प्रश्नतेसँ विकिमिडियाखे छिगु अनुभव, आवश्यकता, चुनौती व विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२० खँ अपेक्षातेगु सम्बन्धी जानकारीत हासिल यात गुहाली याई। ठ्व प्रतिक्रयातेस विकि कार्यशाखायु उद्देश्य वा कार्यक्रमयु प्रारूप हाकन स्पष्ट यात गुहाली याई।

&lt;div class=&quot;notice metadata&quot; id=&quot;stub&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto; padding:5px; text-align: center; background-color: #ffffff; border: solid 1px #99CCFF; border-left: 8px solid #99CCFF;&quot;&gt;
[[File:Form OneDrive icon.svg|25px]] '''सर्वेक्षण फाराम [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeJE3o-lTsCalCrKU3TDRr1jGYZZ1qp6GNagC3Y2GAXy1muVQ/viewform ठन] दई'''। &lt;span style=&quot;padding-left:250px;&quot;&gt;सर्वेक्षण फाराम '''२५ फेब्रुअरी २०२०''' तक खुल्ला जुई।&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

==Merge==
It looks like [[सिउरी]] and [[सुरी]] are the same place.  [[छ्येलेमि:Rich Farmbrough|Rich Farmbrough]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Rich Farmbrough|talk]])

{{Discussion top|धन्यवाद--[[छ्येलेमि:BAnand (WMF)|BAnand (WMF)]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:BAnand (WMF)|talk]]) ०२:४४, ४ मार्च २०२१ (UTC)}}
==विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता (छोटकरी रूपः युसिओसी) या दोश्रो चरण सम्बन्ध्ये==
जोजोलपा विकपिडिया छ्येलेमि पासा पिः,&lt;br&gt;
[[:m:Universal Code of Conduct|विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता]]या उद्देश्य फुक्क विकिमिडिया परियोजना वः अभियान खे सह्याज्यु व्यवहारयु छगु सार्वभौमिक मापदण्ड प्रदान यागु वः विकिपिडिया त छगु सुरक्षित ठ्या देकेगु ख गुः खे न्याम्मेसि ननः उत्पीडन वः भयरहित सुरक्षित निःसे योगदान वि फेकः। ठिठि विकिमिडिया पुचः नापः परामर्श याना विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता यागु विकास यायगु ज्या जुया च्वङ्गु दु।

युसिओसी परामर्शया [[:m:Universal Code of Conduct/Initial 2020 Consultations|पहिलो चरण]] ठौने कोचाय्कि ढुँगल, गु खे झीसँ ठिठी विकिमिडिया पुचः टेगु सल्लाह सुझाव व विचारयु आधारे विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता यु [[:m:Universal Code of Conduct/Draft review|मस्यौदा पाठ]] प्रस्ताव तयार याना गु ख। वः मस्यौदाइत सन् २०२० अक्टोवर १३ खे अनुमोदन यु लागि विकिमिडिया फाउन्डेसन यु न्यासी समितिखे प्रस्तुत यानागु ख।

युसिओसी यु दोश्रो चरण खे, विकिमिडिया फाउन्डेसनन सम्पूर्ण विकिमिडिया पुचः वः अभियानयु नितिँ: विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता लागु यायेत मार्गतेयु बारे छलफल याय। ठो प्रक्रिया वः विकिमिडिया परियोजना तेत झिँगु छ्येलेमितेत छगु उपयुक्त वः सुरक्षित ठ्या देकेगु नितिँ: छिक पिनिगु विचार वः बहुमुल्य सुझाव त सिकेगु झिँगु लागि महत्वपूर्ण दु। 

ठो महत्वपूर्ण विषयके छिक पिनिगु बहुमुल्य विचार ठन तयादिफुः मखुसा छिक पिन्स जिगु खँलावँलाखे चोयादि फुः। ठुके बाहेक छिस जित banand-ctr@wikimedia.org के मेल न याना दि फुः। सुभाय्--[[छ्येलेमि:BAnand (WMF)|BAnand (WMF)]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:BAnand (WMF)|talk]]) ०२:४२, २१ ज्यानुवरी २०२१ (UTC)
{{Discussion bottom}}

== Global ban proposal for Slowking4 ==


Hello. This is to notify the community that there is an ongoing global ban proposal for [[User:Slowking4]] who has been active on this wiki. You are invited to participate at [[metawiki:Requests for comment/Global ban for Slowking4 (2)|m:Requests for comment/Global ban for Slowking4 (2)]]. Thank you. [[छ्येलेमि:Seawolf35|Seawolf35]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Seawolf35|talk]]) ०५:२८, १५ मार्च २०२४ (UTC)

== Wikimedia Technology Summit (WTS) 2024 - Scholarships  ==

''Note: Apologies for cross-posting and sending in English.'' &lt;br&gt;
[[metawiki:3rd_Wikimedia_Technology_Summit_(WTS_2024)|Wikimedia Technology Summit (WTS) 2024]] is focused on using technology to enhance inclusivity across Wikipedia and its associated projects. We aim to explore strategies for engaging underrepresented communities and languages while also strengthening the technical foundation. By fostering collaboration between developers, users, and researchers, we can unite our efforts to create, innovate, and advance the technology that drives open knowledge. &lt;br&gt;

We invite community members residing in India who are interested in attending WTS 2024 in person to apply for scholarships by July 10, 2024. The summit will be held at IIIT Hyderabad, India, in October 2024. &lt;br&gt; To apply, please fill out the application form by clicking [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeoO22CuLXrNzL10rJ2guQsxuVtgJAP82EUYuZyBI46nPAHWw/viewform this link]]. &lt;br&gt; On behalf of the WTS 2024 Scholarship Committee :  [[छ्येलेमि:Kasyap|Kasyap]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Kasyap|talk]]) ०८:४८, ११ जुन २०२४ (UTC)

== Invitation to Participate in the Wikimedia SAARC Conference Community Engagement Survey ==

Dear Community Members,

I hope this message finds you well. Please excuse the use of English; we encourage translations into your local languages to ensure inclusivity.

We are conducting a Community Engagement Survey to assess the sentiments, needs, and interests of South Asian Wikimedia communities in organizing the inaugural Wikimedia SAARC Regional Conference, proposed to be held in Kathmandu, Nepal.

This initiative aims to bring together participants from eight nations to collaborate towards shared goals. Your insights will play a vital role in shaping the event's focus, identifying priorities, and guiding the strategic planning for this landmark conference.

Survey Link: https://forms.gle/en8qSuCvaSxQVD7K6

We kindly request you to dedicate a few moments to complete the survey. Your feedback will significantly contribute to ensuring this conference addresses the community's needs and aspirations.

Deadline to Submit the Survey: 20 January 2025

Your participation is crucial in shaping the future of the Wikimedia SAARC community and fostering regional collaboration. Thank you for your time and valuable input.

Warm regards,&lt;br&gt;
[[:m:User:Biplab Anand|Biplab Anand]]
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Biplab Anand@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Biplab_Anand/lists&amp;oldid=28074658 --&gt;

== प्रचलित लिपि कनवर्टर ==

I don't speak नेपालभाषा, but
@[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh's]] making Prachalit lipi pages, it can be made into an automatic converter between the two scripts using [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Converter Language Converter at MetaWiki]. Please put your thoughts on this below:-[[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) १०:०४, ९ अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)
=== Support / तिबः बियेगु / 𑐟𑐶𑐧𑑅 𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 ===
&lt;!-- समर्थनका मतहरू यहाँ राख्नुहोस्। --&gt;
* I support automatic conversion. The conversion is very simple between the two scripts and I see no reason why it should not be automated. --[[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh|𑐫𑐸𑐎𑐾𑐱]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) ०४:२०, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)

*I wholeheartedly support automatic conversion between Nepal Lipi and Devanagari scripts. Nepal Lipi is the original script of Nepal Bhasa. Devanagari script has been adopted to write Nepal Bhasa simply because we didn't have a Unicode Nepal Lipi script until recently to use in computers, websites, and mobile devices. Thanks to the creation of the Noto Sans Newa font, it is now being used in all the above devices.

I am very grateful to Wikipedia's new effort to provide auto-conversion between Nepal Lipi and Devanagari scripts. It will be like the Chinese language providing Simplified Chinese and Traditional Chinese characters.

May I also remind the concerned members of the Wikipedia Nepal Bhasa project that Nepal Lipi is the original script of Nepal, while Ranjana and Bhujimol are styles of Nepal Lipi. The term &quot;Prachalit&quot; is an adjective (like prachalit kanun = mostly used law) for this original script, not a noun. Nepal Lipi got this adjective title of &quot;Prachalit&quot; because the script is the most popular and used in the Nepal Mandala. Therefore, it will be perfect to use the terms &quot;Nepal Lipi / Devanagari&quot; for the conversion buttons, rather than &quot;Prachalit / Devanagari.&quot;
--[[छ्येलेमि:Suwarn|𑐳𑐸𑐰𑐣𑑂]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) NS 1146.09.27 (Dillaga-Ekadasi) / 6:27 am, August 10, 2026 (UTC)

=== Oppose / विरोध या / 𑐰𑐶𑐬𑑀𑐢 𑐫𑐵 ===
&lt;!-- विरोधका मतहरू यहाँ राख्नुहोस्। --&gt;</text>
      <sha1>3h0s039pg69kqo8y2g3we354pcgiegi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>1122595</id>
      <parentid>1122594</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-10T06:40:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Suwarn Vajracharya</username>
        <id>11135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Oppose / विरोध मत / 𑐰𑐶𑐬𑑀𑐢 𑐩𑐟 */</comment>
      <origin>1122595</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="78455" sha1="fpgvynk1t5oj2cxem3nsuvgid7rt68q" xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;background-color:transparent; padding:0px;&quot; 
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;width:180px; float:left; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#fff; padding:4px 2px 4px 10px;&quot; |
&lt;span style=&quot;padding-left:50px;&quot;&gt;'''धल:पौ:'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[#गुथिया बुखँपौ|१ गुथिया बुखँप
[[#यायेमाःगु ज्याखँत|२  यायेमाःगु ज्याखँत]]&lt;br /&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;padding:0px 1px 0px 8px;&quot; | 
* '''सामाजिक दबू''' (Community Portal) विकिपिडियाय् जुयाच्वंगु ज्याखँ बारे सिइकेगु मू थाय् ख: । छु ज्या यायेमानि, गुगु पुचलय् ज्या यायेमा:गु दु आदियागु बारे थन सुचं व जानकारी कयादिसँ व बियादिसँ ।
* For '''bot requests''', see  [[Project:Bot policy]].
|} 
&lt;!-- बुलेटिन बोर्ड --&gt;
{| id=&quot;CBB&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; width=100% style=&quot;border:2px solid #B1A3BF; padding:0px;&quot;
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गुथि बुखँ पौ
&lt;/h2&gt; &lt;!-- 3 line spacing of h2 is important for subsection edit links to work correctly, PLEASE DO NOT FIX --&gt;
विकिपिडियाय् आः जुयाच्वंगु ज्याखँयागु धलः।  
|-
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&lt;!-- Please add content to the CBB on that page, not here. --&gt;
{{प्रतिकृया/गुथिया बुखँपौ}}
|}

==यायेमाःगु ज्याखँत==
*फतिंफत्तले थ्व विकिपिडियायात अप्व: स्वया अप्व: च्वसू, किपा व मेमेगु मल्टीमिडियां नं जायेका दीत सकल भाजुमय्जु पिंके इनाप दु ।
* च्वसु च्वयेबलय् लेखाधिकार हनन याना मदीत इनाप दु ।
* थन दुगु च्वसुयागु हाक: व आधिकारिकता भिंके माल ।
== Request bot flag for [[User:Alexbot|Alexbot]] ==
I request the bot flag for Alexbot:
:'''Operator''':[[:zh:User:Alexsh]]
:'''Programming Language''':Pywikipedia
:'''Functions''':Interwiki(+autonomous), double redirect fix, featured article interwiki link.
:'''Other languages''':[[:zh:User:Alexbot|All statistics in here]]
Thank you--[[छ्येलेमि:Alexsh|Alexsh]] १६:४५, २४ ज्यानुवरी २००८ (UTC)

:done, best regards, --[[छ्येलेमि:Spacebirdy|birdy]] [[छ्येलेमि_खँलाबँला:Spacebirdy|&lt;sub&gt;(:&gt; )=|&lt;/sub&gt;]] १३:३६, ५ फेब्रुवरी २००८ (UTC)

== [[User:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] ==
Hi, i request a bot flag for [[User:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]]
*'''Operator''': [[:it:Utente:Alleborgo|Alleborgo]]
*'''Automatic or Manually Assisted''': Automatic, in &quot;-autonomous&quot; mode. Sometimes the bot will run in manual assisted mode to solve interwiki conflicts.
*'''Programming Language(s)''': Pywikipedia framework daily updated to the last SVN version
*'''Function Summary''': interwiki
*'''Already has a bot flag in''': ar, am, an, ast, az, bar, bat-smg, bg, br, bm, bn, bpy, bs, ca, ce, ceb, cs, cv, cy, da, de, el, en, eo, es, et, eu, fa, fi, fiu-vro, fo, fr, frp, fy, ga, gl, he, hr, hsb, ht, hu, hy, id, is, it, iu, ja, jv, ka, kk, ko, ksh, ku, lb, li, lmo, ln, lt, lv, mk, mi, ml, mr, ms, mt, nap, nds, nds-nl, nl, nn, no, oc, pl, pms, ps, pt, ro, roa-tara, ru, scn, sco, se, sh, sk, simple, sl, sq, sr, su, sv, ta, tg, th, tl, to, tr, tt, udm, uk, ur, vec, vi, vls, vo, zh, zh-classical, zh-min-nan, zh-yue. On it.wiki has done more than 65000 edit.
Thanks  --[[छ्येलेमि:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] ११:०५, ११ नोभेम्बर २००७ (UTC)
: '''Done.''' —&lt;small&gt;[[m:User:Pathoschild|Pathoschild]] १५:१४:२५, ११ डिसेम्बर २००७ (UTC)&lt;/small&gt;

==Bot policy==

Hello. To facilitate [[m:steward|steward]] granting of bot access, I suggest implementing the [[m:Bot policy|standard bot policy]] on this wiki. This will involve creating a redirect to this page from [[Project:Bot policy]], and adding a line at the top noting that it is used here. In particular, this policy allows automatic acceptance of known interlanguage linking bots (if this page says that is acceptable), which form the vast majority of such requests.

Please read the text at [[m:Bot policy]] before commenting. If you object, please say so; it will be implemented in one week if there is no objection, since it is particularly written to streamline bot requests on wikis with little or no community interested in bot access requests. [[User:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] १०:४९, ३० नोभेम्बर २००७ (UTC)
:Bot policy implemented. --[[छ्येलेमि:AlleborgoBot|AlleborgoBot]] १३:३८, ८ डिसेम्बर २००७ (UTC)

==Wikimedia Indian chapter==
As you might be aware, we are planning to start an India chapter of the Wikimedia Foundation. Please see [[meta:Wikimedia India|Wikimedia India]] for details. We're currently working on the [[meta:Wikimedia India/bylaws|draft of bylaws]]. If you are interested, please join the discussion on meta, and subscribe to the [http://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikimediaindia-l wikimediaindia-l mailing list]. [[छ्येलेमि:Utcursch|Utcursch]] १७:५८, १० डिसेम्बर २००७ (UTC)

==Betawiki: better support for your language in MediaWiki==बिदूर् क्
Dear community. I am writing to you to promote a special wiki called [[betawiki:|Betawiki]]. This wiki facilitateऋःटृःटृऍःMediaWiki interface. You may have changed many messages here to use your language in the interface, but if you would log in to for example the Japanese language Wiktionary, you would not be able to use the interface as well translated as here. In fact, of 1,736 messages in the core of MediaWiki, 2.88% of the messages have been translated. Betawiki also supports the translation of messages for 126 extensions, with 2,174 messages. Many of them are used in WMF projects and they are vital for understanding the wiki. Currently 0.17% of the WMF extension messages have been translated. Translators for over 90 languages contribute their work to MediaWiki this way every month.

If you wish to contribute to better support of your language in MediaWiki, as well as for many MediaWiki extensions, please visit [[betawiki:Translating:Intro|Betawiki]], [http://translatewiki.net/w/?title=Special:Userlogin&amp;type=signup&amp;uselang=en create an account] and [[betawiki:Betawiki:Rights|request translator privileges]]. You can see the current status of localisation of your language on [[mw:Localisation_statistics|MediaWiki.org]] and do not forget to get in touch with others that may already be [[betawiki:Translating:Languages|working on your language on Betawiki]].

If you have any further questions, [[betawiki:User_talk:Siebrand|please let me know on my talk page on Betawiki]]. We will try and assist you as much as possible, for example by [[betawiki:Import requests|importing]] all messages from a local wiki for you to start with, if you so desire.

You can also find us on the Freenode [[w:en:Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] network in the channel #mediawiki-i18n where we will be happy to help you get started.

Thank you very much for your attention and I do hope to see some of you on [[betawiki:|Betawiki]] soon! Thanks, [[betawiki:User:GerardM|GerardM@Betawiki]]

* Currently 5.93% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.18% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०७:३६, २६ अप्रिल २००८ (UTC)

== Bot Flag Request for [[:User:Purbo_T|Purbo_T]] ==
&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot;&gt;
Hi, I'd like to request a bot flag for [[:User:Purbo_T|Purbo_T]] &lt;small&gt;([[:Special:Contributions/Purbo T|contribs]])&lt;/small&gt;
*'''Operator''': [[:User:Purodha]] = [[:ksh:User:Purodha]] (b'crat @ [[:ksh:|ksh]])
*'''Function''': interwiki link maintenance
*'''Operation''':  manually-assisted, occasionally in automatic or autonomous mode, starting mostly from the [[:ksh:|Wikipedia of Ripuarian languages]]
*'''Software:''' [[:meta:pywikipedia|pywikipediabot]] framework updated daily from [http://svn.wikimedia.org/svnroot/pywikipedia/trunk/pywikipedia/ svn] to latest version
*'''Already has bot flag on:''' [[:am:|am]], [[:ar:|ar]], [[:be-x-old:|be-x-old]], [[:bn:|bn]], [[:bo:|bo]], [[:bxr:|bxr]], [[:cdo:|cdo]], [[:co:|co]], [[:crh:|crh]], [[:dsb:|dsb]], [[:dz:|dz]], [[:fa:|fa]], [[:fr:|fr]], [[:gv:|gv]], [[:hr:|hr]], [[:hsb:|hsb]], [[:ht:|ht]], [[:ig:|ig]], [[:ksh:|ksh]], [[:ku:|ku]], [[:lbe:|lbe]], [[:lmo:|lmo]], [[:ml:|ml]], [[:mr:|mr]], [[:nds:|nds]], [[:nl:|nl]], [[:pms:|pms]], [[:simple:|simple]], [[:stq:|stq]], [[:sv:|sv]], [[:tg:|tg]], [[:ts:|ts]], [[:vec:|vec]], [[:vi:|vi]], [[:vo:|vo]], more pending, [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~purodha/sample/dbswithuser.php?usr=Purbo_T recent&amp;nbsp;data] (sorry, the [[:m:toolserver|toolserver]] is having technical problems at the moment, partial data is at end of the page)
Thank you! --[[छ्येलेमि:Purodha|Purodha]] २१:५२, ३ फेब्रुवरी २००८ (UTC)
&lt;/div&gt;

== [[User:BodhisattvaBot|BodhisattvaBot]] ==
* '''Operator:''' [[User:Dalibor Bosits|Dalibor Bosits]]
* '''Purpose:''' Interwiki, auto and manually mode, from hr Wiki, daily
* '''Software:''' Pywikipedia framework
* '''Bot flagged on:''' bg, bs, cs, da, de, el, eo, et, eu, fr, gl, hr, hu, id, la, ms, nl, no, ro, ru, sh, simple, sk, sl, sr, sv, sw, uk, th, vo
thank you --[[:hr:Suradnik:Dalibor Bosits|Dalibor Bosits]][[:hr:Razgovor sa suradnikom:Dalibor Bosits| (&lt;small&gt;talk&lt;/small&gt;)]] १३:३२, २ मार्च २००८ (UTC)
:Bot flag granted. --[[छ्येलेमि:Dungodung|Dungodung]] २१:४४, २४ मार्च २००८ (UTC)

== Exemption doctrine policy ==
Hello. As you might know, the Wikimedia Foundation [[wikimedia:Resolution:Licensing policy|approved a resolution]] concerning non-free images more than a year ago. The resolution says that unless Wikimedia projects create an exemption doctrine policy (EDP) for non-free images, all of those images shall be deleted by March 23, 2008 (which was few days ago). We'd now like to gather information from the projects about their exemption policies in one place so we can check their validity, and if images on those projects are in accordance with the Foundation's resolution. Your project is one of these we don't have information about, so it'd be great if you could add it to the page listing all EDPs, [[:meta:Non-free_content]]. If you have any questions about the page or don't have an EDP yet and want one, you can use the [[:meta:talk:Non-free content|appropriate talkpage on Meta]] or just contact me directly [[:meta:user talk:timichal|on Meta]] or [[Special:emailuser/timichal|by e-mail]] (however, please note that I'm just a volunteer and therefore not in a position to give any official advice).

If you don't have any EDP in place and don't plan to use one, it might be useful and effective for your project to disable local uploads entirely and use files from Wikimedia Commons only. This method has been used by many Wikimedia projects, notably Spanish and Swedish Wikipedia and English Wiktionary, and means you wouldn't have to deal with file licensing problems anymore; if you're interested in this solution, feel free to contact me for more information.

Thanks for your cooperation! [[छ्येलेमि:Timichal|Timichal]] ०८:३३, २७ मार्च २००८ (UTC)

==Betawiki update ==
* Currently 5.85% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.13% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०८:०८, २७ मे २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 5.74% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.12% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०७:१९, ७ जुलाई २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 5.70% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.29% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १०:०७, ८ अगस्ट २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 11.12% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.2६% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ११:१३, १० सेप्टेम्बर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 13.85% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.13% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०८:५९, १६ अक्टोबर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 13.90% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.10% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising at [http://translatewiki.net Betawiki]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;namespace=8&amp;trailer=%2Fnew recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:०६, १० नोभेम्बर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 13.70% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.09% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|Betawiki]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] ०९:४५, १५ डिसेम्बर २००८ (UTC)
* Currently 14.21% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.09% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|Betawiki]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १८:४५, ११ ज्यानुवरी २००९ (UTC)
:PS Please help us complete [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&amp;task=untranslated&amp;group=core-mostused&amp;language={{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}&amp;limit=100 the most wanted messages]..

== [[User:Muro Bot|Muro Bot]] ==
*'''Operator:''' [[:es:Usuario:Muro de Aguas|es:Muro de Aguas]]
*'''Programming Language:''' Python (''interwiki.py'')
*'''Function Summary:''' Interwiki links
*'''Already has a bot flag on:''' [http://toolserver.org/~purodha/sample/dbswithuser.php?usr=Muro+Bot&amp;uselang=en 33 projects]. Total editcount: 202.000 edits.
I use the pywikipediabot framework, updated every day from SVN. Thanks! [[छ्येलेमि:Muro de Aguas|Muro de Aguas]] १४:३७, २७ जुन २००८ (UTC)

==Global bots==
Hello. The [[m:Bot policy|standard bot policy]] was updated to allow global bots, which are now technically possible. These are trusted bots that will be given bot access on all wikis that allow global bots (the local policy or request page must explicitly allow them, or they won't get access on this wiki). The [[m:Bot policy#Global_bots|current requirements]] for global bots are:
* the bot must only maintain interlanguage links or fix double-redirects;
* the bot must already be active on several wikis, with long-term contributions to back up its trustworthiness.

Does anyone object to allowing global bots on this wiki? I'll update the local policy in a week if there are no objections. Thanks. —&lt;small&gt;[[m:User:Pathoschild|Pathoschild]] ०२:१५:५३, २७ जुलाई २००८ (UTC)&lt;/small&gt;
:Done. [[छ्येलेमि:Malafaya|Malafaya]] ०९:३३, १५ सेप्टेम्बर २००८ (UTC)

== Wikimania 2009: Scholarships ==
'''{{#language:en}}''': Wikimania 2009, this year's global event devoted to [[foundation:Home|Wikimedia]] projects around the globe, is now accepting '''applications for scholarships''' to the conference.  This year's conference will be handled from August 26-28 in [[w:Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires]], [[w:Argentina|Argentina]].  The scholarship can be used to help offset the costs of travel and registration.  For more information, check the official [[wm2009:Scholarships|information page]].  Please remember that the [[wm2009:Call for Participation|Call for Participation]] is still open, please submit your papers!  Without submissions, Wikimania would not be nearly as fun!

'''{{#language:{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}}}''': ''Please translate this message into your language.'' - [[छ्येलेमि:Rjd0060|Rjd0060]] ०१:५९, ९ अप्रिल २००९ (UTC)

==The LocalisationUpdate extension has gone live==

The LocalisationUpdate extension is now enabled for all Wikimedia projects. From now on new localisations that become available in SVN will become available to your project within 24 hours. Your localisations get into SVN from [http://translatewiki.net translatewiki.net] typically within a day and at worst in two days. This is a huge improvement from the old practice where the localisations became available with new software. This could take weeks, even months.

The localisations done by our community at translatewiki.net are committed to SVN typically every day. When the system messages in English are the same as the local messages, they will now be inserted in a file and are available for use in all our projects in a timely manner

===What this means for you===
Local messages have an impact on the performance of our system. It is best when messages are as much as possible part of the system messages. In order to remove unnecessary duplication, all the messages that have a local localisation and are '''exactly''' the same as the system message will be removed.  What we ask you to do is to compare and proof read the messages in translatewiki.net and the local messages. You can then either remove local messages when the translatewiki.net message is to be preferred or, you can update the message at translatewiki.net. 

Messages that are specific to your project will have to stay as they are. You do want to check if the format and the variables of the message are still the same.

===Why localise at translatewiki.net===
When you localise at translatewiki.net, your messages will be used in all Wikimedia projects and eventually in all MediaWiki based projects. This is how we provide the standard support for your language. When messages change, at translatewiki.net you will be prompted to revisit your translations. Localising is more efficient because we have innovated the process to make you more efficient; there is text explaining about messages and we have applied AJAX technology to reduce the number of clicks you have to make.

==Translatewiki.net update==
*Currently 12.34% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.0४% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:११, ३० सेप्टेम्बर २००९ (UTC)
*Currently 12.26% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.0४% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:५१, १ नोभेम्बर २००९ (UTC)
*Currently 12.40% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.04% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १२:५२, ८ डिसेम्बर २००९ (UTC)
*Currently 12.37% of the MediaWiki messages and 0.04% of the messages of the extensions used by the Wikimedia Foundation projects have been localised. Please help us help your language by localising and proof reading at [[betawiki:Special:LanguageStats/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}|translatewiki.net]]. This is the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&amp;translations=only&amp;trailer=/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}} recent localisation activity] for your language. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १४:१६, १८ ज्यानुवरी २०१० (UTC)

*PS Please help us complete [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&amp;task=untranslated&amp;group=core-mostused&amp;language={{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}&amp;limit=100 the most wanted messages]..

==How can we improve the usability for your language==
We expect that with the implementation of LocalisationUpdate the usability of MediaWiki for your language will improve. We are now ready to look at other aspects of usability for your language as well.  There are two questions we would like you to answer:
Are there issues with the new functionality of the Usability Initiative
Does MediaWiki support your language properly

The best way to answer the first question is to visit the translatewiki.net. Change the language to your language, select the “vector” skin and add the advanced tool bar in in the preferences and check out the new functionality. And make some changes in your user page. When there is a need to improve on the localisation, please make the [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=ext-ui-0-all necessary changes]s . It should update your localisation straight away. 
We would like you to report each issue individually at http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Usability_issues.

When there are problems with the support of MediaWiki for your language, we really want to know about this. It is best to report each issue separately. In this way there will be no large mass of issues to resolve but we can address each issue on its own. Consider issues with the display of characters, the presentation of your script, the position of the side bar, the combination of text with other languages, scripts. It is best to try this in an environment like the prototype wiki as it provides you with a clean, basic and up to date environment. The prototype wiki is available for five languages but you can select any of them, change the preferences to your language and test out MediaWiki for your language.

We would like you to report each issue individually at http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Language_issues. The issues you raise will all be assessed. It is important to keep each issue separate, because this will make it easier to understand the issues and find solutions.

PS This text has been approved by Naoko, Brion and Siebrand. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:GerardM|GerardM]] १३:११, ३० सेप्टेम्बर २००९ (UTC)

== Wikimedia Indic language Mailing list ==

Hi, There is a Wikimedia Indic language Mailing list but I've not seen anybody from Nepal Bhasa Wikipeda. Joining this list helps solving common language problem and other things. Check this page https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikimediaindia-l --[[छ्येलेमि:Praveenp|Praveenp]] १५:४७, ६ मार्च २०१० (UTC)
[[विशेष:Contributions/115.164.236.89|115.164.236.89]] १३:२१, १९ अगस्ट २०१३ (UTC)

==creating the Sanskrit Wikisource==

I have submitted the proposal for creating the Sanskrit Wikisource. It is available at: http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikisource_Sanskrit

For time being, I have added only you two as the users interested in Sanskrit wikisource. If you know any one else interested in Sanskrit wiki source, please send me their details. Also make sure you cast your vote in the Arguments in favour section.

Please let me know in case there are any issues

Shiju Alex


[[af:Wikipedia:Gebruikersportaal]]
[[als:Wikipedia:Gemeinschafts-Portal]]
[[an:Wikipedia:Comunidá]]
[[ang:Wikipedia:Gemǣnscipe Ingang]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا:بوابة المجتمع]]
[[ast:Uiquipedia:Portal de la comunidá]]
[[bg:Уикипедия:Портал]]
[[br:Wikipedia:Kumuniezh/Degemer]]
[[bs:Wikipedia:Vrata zajednice]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia:Portal]]
[[ceb:Wikipedia:Katilingban]]
[[co:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[cs:Wikipedie:Portál Wikipedie]]
[[csb:Wiki:Pòrtal wëcmaniznë]]
[[cv:Wikipedia:Портал]]
[[da:Wikipedia:Forside]]
[[de:Wikipedia:Portal]]
[[el:Βικιπαίδεια:Πύλη Κοινότητας]]
[[eo:Vikipedio:Komunuma Portalo]]
[[es:Wikipedia:Portal de la comunidad]]
[[et:Vikipeedia:Kogukonnavärav]]
[[fa:ویکی‌پدیا:ورودی کاربران]]
[[fo:Wikipedia:Forsíða]]
[[fr:Wikipédia:Accueil]]
[[fy:Wikipedy:Mienskip]]
[[ga:Vicipéid:Lárionad comhphobail]]
[[gd:Wikipedia:Doras na coimhearsnachd]]
[[gl:Wikipedia:Portal da comunidade]]
[[got:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[gv:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה:שער הקהילה]]
[[hi:विकिपीडिया:समाज मुखपृष्ठ]]
[[hu:Wikipédia:Közösségi Portál]]
[[ia:Wikipedia:Portal del communitate]]
[[id:Portal:Komunitas]]
[[io:Wikipedio:Komuneso-portalo]]
[[is:Wikipedia:Samfélagsgátt]]
[[it:Portale:Comunità]]
[[ja:Wikipedia:コミュニティ・ポータル]]
[[ka:ვიკიპედია:საზოგადოების გვერდები]]
[[ko:위키백과:사용자_모임]]
[[ku:Wîkîpediya:Portala komê]]
[[la:Vicipaedia:Porta communis]]
[[lb:Wikipedia:Kommunautéitssäit]]
[[li:Wikipedia:Gebroekersportaol]]
[[lmo:Wikipedia:Purtaal da cumünitaa]]
[[lt:Wikipedia:Bendruomenė]]
[[mg:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[mi:Wikipedia:Tomokanga hapori]]
[[ml:വിക്കിപീഡിയ:വിക്കി സമൂഹം]]
[[ms:Portal:Masyarakat]]
[[na:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[nap:Wikipedia:Porta d%27%27a cummunetà]]
[[nds:Wikipedia:Portal]]
[[nds-nl:Wikipedie:Gebrukerspertaol]]
[[nl:Portaal:Gebruikersportaal]]
[[nn:Wikipedia:Brukarportal]]
[[no:Wikipedia:Portal]]
[[oc:Wikipèdia:Comunautat]]
[[pl:Wikipedia:Portal wikipedystów]]
[[pt:Wikipedia:Portal comunitário]]
[[ro:Portal:Comunitate]]
[[ru:Википедия:Портал сообщества]]
[[sc:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[scn:Porta dâ Cumunità]]
[[sco:Wikipedia:Commonty Yett]]
[[si:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[simple:Wikipedia:Community Portal]]
[[sk:Wikipédia:Portál komunity]]
[[sl:Wikipedija:Portal občestva]]
[[sm:Wikipedia:Puso o le ʻaʻai]]
[[sr:Википедија:Радионица]]
[[su:Wikipedia:Panglawungan]]
[[sv:Wikipedia:Portalen]]
[[ta:Wikipedia:சமுதாய வலைவாசல்]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดีย:ศาลาประชาคม]]
[[tl:Wikipedia:Portal ng komunidad]]
[[tr:Vikipedi:Topluluk portalı]]
[[uk:Вікіпедія:Портал спільноти]]
[[vi:Wikipedia:Cộng đồng]]
[[zh:Wikipedia:社区主页]]
[[zh-min-nan:Wikipedia:Siā-lí mn̂g-chhùi-kháu]]
[[zh-yue:Wikipedia:社區大堂]]

== 2010 Fundraising Is Almost Here ==

[[File:Wikimedia_Foundation_RGB_logo_with_text.svg|80px|left]] Hello Wikipedians, I am Theo and I am working for the Wikimedia Foundation during the 2010 Fundraiser. My job is to be the liaison between your community and the Foundation. This year's fundraiser is intended to be a collaborative and global effort; we recognize that banner messages which may perform well in the United States don't necessarily translate well, or appeal to international audiences. &lt;Br&gt;

I'm contacting you as I am currently looking for translators who are willing to contribute to this project by helping translate and localize messages into different languages and suggesting messages that would appeal to your readers on the Fundraising Meta Page. We've started the setup on [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010 meta] for both [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010/Messages banner submission], [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010/Banner_testing statistical analysis], and [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fundraising_2010/Committee grouping volunteers together].&lt;br&gt;Use the talk pages on meta, talk to your local communities, talk to others, talk to us, and add your feedback to the proposed messages as well! I look forward to working with you during this year's fundraiser. If someone could translate this message I would really appreciate it so that everyone is able to understand our goals and contribute to this year's campaign.&lt;br&gt; [[user:Theo (WMF)|Theo (WMF)]] २०:४८, २० अक्टोबर २०१० (UTC)
&lt;!-- EdwardsBot 0020 --&gt;
≠

==Language support group for Newari==
The Wikimedia Foundation has brought together a new team of developers who are dedicated to language support. This team is to support all the languages and consequently it is not realistic to expect that the team members can provide proper support for your language. It is for this reason that we are looking for volunteers who will make up a [[:translatewiki:language support team|language support team]]. 

This language support team will be asked to provide us with information about their language. Such information may need to be provided either to us or on a website that we will indicate to you. Another activity will be to test software that will likely have an effect on the running of the MediaWiki software. We are looking for people who clearly identify their ability. Formal knowledge is definitely appreciated.

As much of the activity will be concentrated on [[:translatewiki:Main Page|translatewiki.net]], it will be a plus when team members know how to localise at translatewiki.net. &lt;br&gt;
Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] १३:१३, ३१ ज्यानुवरी २०१२ (UTC)

===What we can do for you already===
For the Nepali language we have two input methods and one font that we make available on the Nepali wikis. When these input methods are the same for Newari, we can easily implement them for you. First you can test them at translatewiki.net and, when it is as you need them to be, we can make them available on the Newari Wikis as well. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] १३:१३, ३१ ज्यानुवरी २०१२ (UTC)

===The Babel extension===
The Babel extension is used by people to indicate their proficiency in a language. This is used on all the Wikimedia wikis. Would you be so kind and [http://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=ext-babel&amp;language=new localise the Babel extension] for us? Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] १३:१३, ३१ ज्यानुवरी २०१२ (UTC)

== Updates from India Program Team ==

This is the first post from the India Program team regarding the team.  I have been posting updates on the various mailing lists - but am acutely aware that the majority of our community is on village pumps or project pages and hence this post.  Do excuse me for posting something which is not solely focused on this project, but the work we are doing has learnings that you might find useful for your project. Here are 5 important links that you might find useful

* There is an [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program India Program page] on meta - which has links to a number of important workstreams (on the right of the page)
* Here is your [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Team India Program team].  Feel free to reach out for any help or to provide any suggestion - or just to say hello!
* I submitted the following [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Mid-Year_Reports/1st_%26_2nd_Half_2011 mid-year report] to the community on January 15th 2011 - outlining the activities for 2011 and the priorities for 2012.  Strictly speaking, this wasn't a mid-year report because it covered all of 2011, but going forward, I intend to make it a half-yearly affair.  Please add your comments or suggestions [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:India_Program/Reports/Mid_Year_Reports here], or below this post.
* I have recently started [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports monthly updates].  The monthly update for February is available [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Feb_2012 here].  Please add your comments or suggestion [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Feb_2012 here].  The areas of emphasis for March are [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Mar_2012 here].  Please add your comments or [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:India_Program/Reports/Community_Monthly_Reports/Mar_2012 here].  This is really useful for us to ensure that we are doing what you need most.  
* I have also started a new tab on the India Program page for Learnings, called [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/gyan Gyan].  I think it is going to be a pretty cool place for us to put together a whole host of learnings, lessons, heartbreaks, Eureka moments and inspirations - gathered from all over the community.  Stay tuned for more!
* One of the essential things that India Program needs to constantly work out is keeping our community informed of the work that we are doing - so that this work is clearer but also to help cross-pollinate ideas amongst a wider set of community members who might not have been engaged on specific village pump / talk page discussion or involved in particular activities (e.g. outreach events) or wikiprojects.  I propose to have a fortnightly IRC for the community with India Program.   (For those who are not familiar with IRC, it is an Internet messaging system similar to a regular chat room.  It's very simple to use and you can join in by clicking on the following [http://webchat.freenode.net/?channels=#wikimedia-office link].  This would be done on the '''1st and 3rd Thursdays of every month at 9pm IST''' (which is GMT + 0530) - THOUGH NOT THIS MONTH - BECAUSE I HAVE MISSED THE TIMELINE.  Just for March, we will do it on '''March 15th and March 29th (both at 9pm IST''' which is GMT + 0530).  I suggest that these chats are focused on specific work streams.  As with many community meet-ups - folks will give time to attend a meet-up or participate in an IRC only if there is a topic of relevance to them.  Therefore, we will do one IRC on Indic languages and one on Outreach &amp; Communications.  The March 15th one will be focused on Indic Languages and the one on March 29th will be on Outreach &amp; Communications.  (All IRCs will start with a re-cap of India Programs activities.) There is quite a bit of overlap on these topics - so feel free to join both. Please do also invite anyone who is interested to know more about India Program or - even more importantly - interact with fellow Wikimedians.  As always, the [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/India_Program/meetings logs] will be put up on meta for the benefit of those who can't attend and for the record. 

Please feel free to translate this post for the benefit of the larger audience.  In fact, I'd be really grateful if you did!

[[छ्येलेमि:Hisham|Hisham]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Hisham|talk]]) ०३:५२, १२ मार्च २०१२ (UTC)

==Support for Newari input methods in Narayam==
On this Wiki there is a local script that provides input method support for Newari. We have implemented this functionality for you in the Narayam extension. There are several benefits: we will support Narayam technically - this will ensure that it will continue to function properly and, Narayam will be available on other projects like Commons as well and obviously on any other Newari project. 

Can you [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Portal:New?uselang=new please test it] for us and let us know if we can implement it?
Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Gmeijssen|talk]]) ०७:४३, ५ अप्रिल २०१२ (UTC)

==the &quot;Main page&quot;==
When I go to the [[Main Page]], I find that the redirect does not work properly. It is clear that the Newari characters do not show properly. As I understand it, in the Newari language the shape of some Devanagari characters is different from how it is used in Nepali, Marathi and Hindi. When there are fonts that support Newari properly, we can support them in our WebFonts extension. There is one condition, the font has to be freely licensed. If you want this please get into contact. Thanks, [[छ्येलेमि:Gmeijssen|Gmeijssen]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Gmeijssen|talk]]) ०७:४३, ५ अप्रिल २०१२ (UTC)

== CIS-A2K Grant Report September 2012-June 2013 ==
&lt;code&gt; (Apologies for writing in English. You are welcome to translate this message)&lt;/code&gt;

Greetings! As many of you know that the Wikimedia Foundation approved a 22 month grant to the [[:meta:India Access To Knowledge|CIS-A2K]]. The aim of the grant is to support the growth of Wikimedia movement in India.&lt;br/&gt; 
Please find the Grant Report for the first 10 months period [[:meta:India Access To Knowledge/Reports/CIS-A2K Narrative Report: (September 2012 – June 2013)|here]].&lt;br/&gt; CIS-A2K will be happy to receive your feedback. Please let us know if you have any suggestions, questions and concerns about the report and our work. We would be glad to have this feedback [[:meta:Talk:India Access To Knowledge/Reports/CIS-A2K Narrative Report: (September 2012 – June 2013)|here]].&lt;br/&gt; We are thankful to the Wikimedia community in India, Wikimedia India Chapter and the Wikimedia Foundation for actively engaging with our work. We will continue to work upon our deficiencies, failures and successes. Thanks! --[[छ्येलेमि:Hindustanilanguage|Hindustanilanguage]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Hindustanilanguage|talk]]) ०७:४६, ६ नोभेम्बर २०१३ (UTC)

Facing problems in typing your language?

[[File:Screenshot of enabling ULS on Wikipedia.png|thumb|450px|Screenshot of enabling ULS on Wikipedia]] 
Dear friends, excuse me for writing the message in English. Please feel free to translate this message in your language.

Many of you might have experienced trouble in using the input tool - Universal Language Selector (ULS). Wikimedia Foundation's Engineering Language Engineering team is trying to resolve it as soon as possible.

However, you can enable it as an opt-in option in your [https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Preferences User preferences] (Please select the user checkbox before &quot;'''Enable the Universal Language Selector'''&quot; as shown in the picture above). [[छ्येलेमि:Hindustanilanguage|Hindustanilanguage]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Hindustanilanguage|talk]]) १०:३२, २२ ज्यानुवरी २०१४ (UTC).

==Help for translate==
Hello and sorry for writing in English. Can anyone help me translate a small article (2 paragraphs) from English to your language and create the article in your wiki? Please, fell free to answer in my talk page in your wiki anytime. Thanks! [[छ्येलेमि:Xaris333|Xaris333]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Xaris333|talk]]) ००:२५, १४ अगस्ट २०१४ (UTC)

== CIS-A2K PO Selection ==

Dear Wikipedians, &lt;br /&gt;
[[meta:India_Access_To_Knowledge|CIS-A2K]] is seeking applications for the post of Programme Officer (Institutional Partnerships). The position will be based in its Bangalore office. Programme Officer will collaboratively work with [[meta:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Team|the A2K Team]] and would report to the [[meta:User:Visdaviva|Programme Director]], Interested applicants are encouraged to deeply engage with the [[meta:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Work_plan_July_2014_-_June_2015|CIS-A2K Work Plan]] before making the application. The last date of submitting applications is November 14, 2014. You can also find the job posting on our website (http://cis-india.org/jobs/programme-officer-institutional-partnership).&lt;br /&gt;
Thank you&lt;br /&gt;
[[छ्येलेमि:రహ్మానుద్దీన్|రహ్మానుద్దీన్]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:రహ్మానుద్దీన్|talk]])&lt;br /&gt;
Program officer, CIS-A2K
==विकिविस्तार कार्यक्रम सम्बन्धमा==
आदरणीय विकिपीडियन मित्रहरू नेपाली भाषामा लेखेकोमा माफ गर्नुहोला आशा छ नेपाली भाषामा लेखेको भए पनि यसलाई सच्याएर पढ्नुहोला साथै नेपाली भाषा नबुझ्ने मित्रहरूका लागी नेपाली भाषा र नेपाल भाषाको ज्ञान भएको मित्रले यो खण्ड नेपाल भाषामा अनुवाद गरिदिनु होला भन्ने अनुरोधका साथ यहाँ आफ्नो सल्लाह राख्नु होला । हामी नेपालीहरूमा विकिपीडिया बारे ज्ञानको अभाव रहेको यहाँहरूमा अवगतनै छ । यहाँ सम्मकी विकिपीडिया भनेको के-हो भन्ने बारेमा पनि थाहा पाउन सकिरहेका छैनौं त्यसमाथी मध्यपश्चिमाञ्चल र सूदुर पश्चिममाञ्चलका नागरिकहरूमा विकिपीडिया बारे झनै जानकारी नरहेको अवस्था छ, । नेपालमा निजि दुरसंचार प्रदायक एनसेल बाट निःशुल्क विकिपीडिया प्रयोग गर्न मिल्ने भएपनी ज्ञानको अभावमा प्रयोगमा आउन सकिरहेको छैन । यो स्थिती रहन नदिन र नेपाली विकिपीडियालाइ अगाडि बढाउनुका साथै यश क्षेत्रका सर्वसाधारणहरूमा  विकिपिडिया बारे परिचय गराउन सूदुरपश्चिमाञ्चल विकास क्षेत्रको [[:ne:कैलाली जिल्ला|कैलाली]] जिल्लामा विकिपीडिया विस्तार कार्यक्रम गरियोस् भनी [[:ne:विकिपीडिया:चौतारी#विकिविस्तार कार्यक्रम सम्बन्धमा|यहाँ]] समर्थनको लागि अनुरोध गरिन्छ । साथै [https://incubator.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wp/dty/Main_Page यहाँ] सुदूर पश्चिमको प्रमुख भाषा मानिने [[:ne:डोटेली भाषा|डोटेली भाषा]] को विकिपीडिया परिक्षण पृष्ठ रहेको छ । यसमा पनि सहयोग गर्न हुन आग्रह गर्दछु । धन्यवाद ।--[[:ne:User:राम प्रसाद जोशी|&lt;font color= &quot;green&quot;&gt;आर॰पी॰जोशी&lt;/font&gt;]] [[:ne:User_talk:राम प्रसाद जोशी|&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/font&gt;]] ०८:१८, १८ नोभेम्बर २०१४ (UTC)
#Support --[[छ्येलेमि:सरोज कुमार ढकाल|सरोज कुमार ढकाल]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:सरोज कुमार ढकाल|talk]]) १८:३९, १८ नोभेम्बर २०१४ (UTC)

==Train-the-Trainer Program - 2015 (Announcement)==

Dear Wikimedians,

''Apologies for posting this in English. If any friends could translate this in Newari please help in transalting.''

As most of you are aware, the Centre for Internet and Society's Access To Knowledge program (CIS-A2K) conducted the first Wikipedia [[:m:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Events/Train_the_Trainer_Program|Train-the-Trainer]] (TTT) programme in 2013 with an aim to support and groom leadership skills in the community members. We are extremely thankful to all the senior Wikimedians who acted as Resource Persons for the 2013 event. Achal, Arjuna, Hari, Shymal, Tinu and Viswa! Without your help we could not have conducted it so successfully.

This email is to let you all know that we have scheduled to conduct the second iteration of this program at the end of February 2015. We are inviting applications from interested Indian Wikimedians. Please see [[:m:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Events/Train_the_Trainer_Program/2015|this page]] on Meta for more details.

Some important dates:
January 27, 2015 - Last date for registration.&lt;br /&gt;
January 30, 2015 - Confirmation of selected participants&lt;br /&gt;
February 26 to March 1, 2015 - TTT-2015 workshop

We are working on the schedule and other details. You are welcome to leave your suggestions and inputs [[:m:Talk:India_Access_To_Knowledge/Events/Train_the_Trainer_Program/2015|here]]. Please write to us at tanveer{{@}}cis-india.org and vishnu{{@}}cis-india.org if you have any further queries.

Best,&lt;br/&gt;--[[छ्येलेमि:Psubhashish|Psubhashish]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Psubhashish|talk]]) ०३:२६, १६ ज्यानुवरी २०१५ (UTC)&lt;br/&gt;Accesss To Knowledge (CIS-A2K), &lt;br/&gt;[http://cis-india.org Centre for Internet and Society]

== Wikimania 2015 - India Booth ==

Hi Wikimedians,
            
Apologies for posting this text in English.
            
As you people might be aware, Wikimania 2015 which is going to be held in Mexico from July 14th to 19th. We, the Indian attendees at Wikimania, would like to represent Wiki Indic Community booth in the same.  We are creating Leaflets and Posters for the [http://wikimania2015.wikimedia.org/wiki/Community_Village community village at Wikimania 2015] to display in Wikimania 2015. We would like to invite you to gather the content and design(optional) for  posters ([https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Poster_of_results,Women%27s_History_Month,India,2014.pdf Sample]) and leaflets ([https://wikimania2014.wikimedia.org/wiki/Project_Leaflets Sample])  about the Indic language project of your choice. We will take care of printing and displaying the posters/leaflets.
             
The maximum dimensions for your poster are 36 x 48 in (91.44 x 121.92 cm). We suggest using the [http://www.prepressure.com/library/paper-size/din-a0 A0 paper size], which is 33.11 x 46.81 in (~84 x 118 cm). The contents of the poster has to be in '''English'''. Posters and leaflets based on all Indic language Wikimedia projects are welcome. The design should be a media file uploaded to Wikimedia Commons. Please post the link to your content/design file on http://wiki.wikimedia.in/Wikimania_2015/Booth/Posters_Leaflets before 25th of June.  In case if you face any issues please reachout to [http://ta.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=User_talk:Dineshkumar+Ponnusamy&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new Dineshkumar Ponnusamy] or [mailto:nethahussain@gmail.com Netha Hussain].

For guidelines regarding creating posters, please have a look at this link :   https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Learning_patterns/Posters_that_work
       
We look forward to receiving your posters/leaflets and displaying them while at [http://wikimania2015.wikimedia.org Wikimania 2015]! &lt;br /&gt;
''Note: This is not a competition or contest, we expect at most 1 poster and 1 leaflet from each Community.''
             
Thanks,&lt;br /&gt;
[http://wiki.wikimedia.in/Wikimania_2015#Participants Indian Wikimania 2015 Participants]

== Newari is missing ==
Newari is missing from this page:&lt;br /&gt;
https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/There_is_also_a_Wikipedia_in_your_language&lt;br /&gt;
More than 100 languages are now listed.&lt;br /&gt;
Thank you, [[छ्येलेमि:Varlaam|Varlaam]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Varlaam|talk]]) ०४:२५, १ फेब्रुवरी २०१६ (UTC)

== WikiConference India 2016 update ==

&lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0.5em; border: 2px black solid; padding: 1em;background-color:#E3F0F4&quot; &gt;
{| style=&quot;border:1px black solid; padding:2em; border-collapse:collapse; width:100%;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background-color:#FAFAFA; color:black; padding-left:2em; padding-top:.5em;&quot; align=left |

Hi, 

After an elaborate [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/City/First Bids|community participation process]], we are planning to host Wikiconference India 2016 in [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Venue|Chandigarh during August 5, 6 and 7]]. 

Please help us by

* Joining as a [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Community and Team/Volunteer Registration|volunteer]]
* Signing up for [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Community and Team/Team Role|various teams]]
* Providing feedback for [[:m:WikiConference India 2016/Programs|program design]]
* Reviewing and endorsing our [[:m:Grants:PEG/Satdeep Gill/WikiConference India 2016|PEG grant request]]

We will be calling applications for travel scholarship and paper presentations soon. 

We look forward to your contribution in making this conference successful. Please sign up to our [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikiconference-india mailing list] and follow the discussion in [[:m:Talk:WikiConference India 2016|Meta]] for updates.

Thanks.

--[[छ्येलेमि:Satdeep Gill|Satdeep Gill]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Satdeep Gill|talk]]) १६:३६, ७ मे २०१६ (UTC)
WikiConference India 2016 team. 

As a stakeholder of the Wikimedia India community in India, please express your support and comments regarding the selection of host city, date and other aspects of this conference planning.

=== Support === 

=== Neutral ===

=== Oppose ===

=== Comments ===

|}&lt;/div&gt;

==The visual editor will be enabled on this wiki in some days==
''Hello again. Please excuse the English.  {{Int:Please-translate}}.  {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}}''

As per previous announcements earlier this year, '''[[:mw:VisualEditor/Portal|the visual editor]] ({{int:visualeditor}}) will be enabled at this Wikipedia in some days. It allows people to edit articles as if they were using a typical word processor. Here's a quick explanation of what is going to happen''': you can find a more detailed one, with pictures, at [[:mw:VisualEditor/Single_edit_tab|mediawiki.org]]. 

[[File:VisualEditor and wikitext side-by-side.png|alt=Side by side screenshots, showing the visual appearance of both editing systems |center|frameless|757px]]

;What's changing?
:In the new system, you get a &lt;u&gt;single edit tab which follows your preferences&lt;/u&gt;, and that therefore will launch the wikitext editor '''or''' the visual editor depending on which one you opened the last (''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-remember-last}}''). &lt;br&gt; This applies to everyone who edited recently, including anonymous users.
;How do I switch to the ''other'' editor then?
:Buttons on the toolbars of both editors were added months ago so that you can switch from one to the other every time you want to, without losing your changes and without having to save first. &lt;br&gt;The button, located on the right side of the toolbar, looks like square brackets ('''&lt;nowiki&gt;[[ ]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;''') in the visual editor, and like a pencil ([[File:OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg|20px]]) in the wikitext editor.

;Are there other options available?
:Yes. You can choose whether you want:
* ''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-prefer-ve}}'' (if you temporarily switch to the wikitext editor through the button on the toolbar, the system won't remember it; also, it only applies to namespaces where the visual editor is available).
* ''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-prefer-wt}}'' (if you temporarily switch to the visual editor through the button on the toolbar, the system won't remember it)
* ''{{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs-multi-tab}}'' (a system in place at multiple wikis since 2013. You are familiar with this option if you have been using the visual editor here.)
**''Please note: all the users will always have the opportunity to switch to the other editor via buttons on the toolbars, for occasional edits''.

;How do I set my preference?
*If you want to try or to stay in the new system: you don't need to do anything.
*If you had explicitly disabled the visual editor in the past and want to keep it disabled: you don't need to do anything.
*All the registered users have a dropdown menu in the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|Editing tab of their Preferences]] ({{int:prefs-editing}} --&gt; {{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs}}), where they can choose from. &lt;u&gt;This only needs to be done once&lt;/u&gt;. Don't forget to save ;)
**&lt;small&gt;Users with the visual editor disabled need to re-enable it if they're interested in accessing that menu!&lt;/small&gt;
*People who use the visual editor regularly will see a pop-up &lt;u&gt;(only once after the single edit tab system is introduced)&lt;/u&gt;, and they can choose their favorite setting there. Of course, they can change their mind at any time just like the others, and pick a different setting from their Preferences.
**Anonymous users who have used the visual editor recently will also be able to choose which editor they want to edit with.
**''Reminder: all the users will always have the opportunity to switch to the other editor via buttons on the toolbars, for occasional edits''.

;Final remarks
*&lt;mark&gt;Please spread the word about this major change&lt;/mark&gt; in any way that you deem appropriate for this community, by linking to this announcement elsewhere, putting up a site notice, etc. Please note it will affect all the registered users at first, and after some days it will reach logged-out contributors as well if no major technical issues have arisen. ''' [[User:Eukesh|Eukesh]]''': given your experience with this language and this community, I appreciate your support in making sure everyone here is aware of this change. Don't hesitate to ask questions, I'll be around for a while to help! 
*Please do let us know about any anomalies you think you're experiencing, and do post any other feedback below. I'd like to thank everyone who works to make the transition easier for this community, and whoever will help me processing feedback in your language. 
*You can learn more about optimizing the visual editor experience here by [[:mw:Help:VisualEditor/VE_as_the_main_editor|reading a guide on mediawiki.org]]. 

Thank you! [[छ्येलेमि:Elitre (WMF)|Elitre (WMF)]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Elitre (WMF)|talk]]) १२:४३, २४ अगस्ट २०१६ (UTC)

== The visual editor is now active here==
''Hello again. This message is only available in English at this time: {{Int:Please-translate}}.  {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}}''
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;nolines&quot; widths=300px&gt;
File:VisualEditor bi-directional switching pencil icon in wikitext.png|alt=The upper right corner of the wikitext editing toolbar, showing a pencil icon|thumb|In the wikitext editor, the pencil icon allows you to switch to the visual editor.
File:VisualEditor toolbar Page options - Switch to wikitext - Save.png|alt=The toolbar in the visual editor, showing the square brackets icon next to the Publish button.|thumb|In the visual editor, the &lt;nowiki&gt;[[ ]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; (square brackets) icon allows you to switch to the wikitext editor. ''Please note that the button will soon say {{int:Publishpage}} or {{int:Publishchanges}}, due to an unrelated change.''
&lt;/gallery&gt;

As some of you have noticed, '''this Wikipedia now has [[:mw:VisualEditor/Portal|the visual editor]] ({{int:visualeditor}}) enabled for all registered users'''. The rollout to logged-out users will likely happen in a week or so. 

&lt;mark&gt;For an '''explanation of how the editing system now works and how to choose/go back to your favorite setting, please see my previous announcement above'''.&lt;/mark&gt; If you wish to '''change your editing system preferences now, this can be done from [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|this link to your Preferences]] --&gt; {{int:prefs-editing}} --&gt; {{int:visualeditor-preference-tabs}}'''. 

All edits using the visual editor will be tagged with &quot;{{Int:tag-visualeditor}}&quot; in recent changes, watchlists, and page histories.  To access the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:VisualEditor/User_guide|User Guide for the visual editor]], click on the &quot;(?)&quot; icon in its toolbar. 

Please let us know if you find any problems.  You can report issues directly in [[phab:|Phabricator, the new bug tracking system]] or on at [[:mw:VisualEditor/Feedback]]; by all means, feel free to also [[:mw:User talk:Elitre (WMF)|ping or contact me directly]] if you prefer.  
In case of emergency (like an unexpected bug causing widespread problems), please contact James Forrester, the product manager, at jforrester@wikimedia.org or on [[:m:IRC|IRC]] in the #mediawiki-visualeditor channel.

Happy editing!
Respectfully, [[:mw:User:Elitre (WMF)|Elitre (WMF)]] १९:११, ३० अगस्ट २०१६ (UTC)

PS: Are you seeing interface messages that are not in this wiki's language? Please fix this by providing translations [https://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=ext-visualeditor-0-all&amp;filter=%21translated&amp;action=translate here]. Translations may be also provided for the [[:mw:Help:VisualEditor/User_guide|user guide]]. Please contact me if you want guidance in contributing translations!

:Just a heads-up that rollout of the visual editor on this wiki is now complete. Please refer to my previous messages for details. You can [[:mw:Help:VisualEditor/VE_as_the_main_editor|read the &quot;checklist&quot;]] that was written to help communities like yours in their process of adapting the visual editor to their customs and needs. Best, [[:mw:User:Elitre (WMF)|Elitre (WMF)]] १८:४०, ६ सेप्टेम्बर २०१६ (UTC)

== Call for Participation, Wikicamp Nepal 2018 ==

Hi there, Sorry for writing this in English.&lt;br /&gt;

We wanted to inform you that Call for Participation for [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018|Wikicamp Nepal 2018]], which is being held in Lahan, Nepal on November 21–23, 2018 are now being accepted. '''Call for Participation are open until 30 September 2018, 23:59:59.''' To learn more about Wikicamp Nepal 2018 Call for Participation, Please visit: [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/Call for Participation]].

To submit for call for participation, please do that '''[[:m:Wikicamp_Nepal_2018/Call_for_Participation#Submission of proposals|this way]].'''

It is highly recommended that presenters review all the material on the Call for Participation page and [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/FAQ|the associated FAQ]] before submission. If you have any questions, please contact: wikicampnepal at gmail.com or leave a message at: [[:m:Talk:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/Call for Participation]]. Please help us spread the word and translate pages, also requested to local sysop to create a [[Mediawiki:Sitenotice|Sitenotice]] about it !

Best regards, [[:m:User:Tulsi Bhagat|Tulsi Bhagat]] on the behalf of organizing team of [[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018|Wikicamp Nepal 2018]]. --[[छ्येलेमि:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) १६:३१, ८ सेप्टेम्बर २०१८ (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Tulsi Bhagat@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tulsi_Bhagat/Mass_Message_Users_List&amp;oldid=18365295 --&gt;

== Wikicamp Nepal 2018/19 ==

'''Hello {{BASEPAGENAME}},'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;'''Sorry for writing in English.'''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

We are glad, you are the part of [[:m:WCN2018|WCN2018]]. So, you are WCNian. Congratulations! \o/

The Wikicamp Nepal team is currently discussing on the value and planning process of Wikicamp Nepal 2018/19, and is open until 31 May 2019. The goals are to (1) build a shared understanding of the value of Wikicamp Nepal to help guide camp planning and evaluation, and (2) gather broad community input on what new form(s) Wikicamp Nepal 2019 could take.

We'd like to hear from you on [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdymN5vLn4CNYu_sz_2pvdV380eigXqRwy-u5NK2xt6_X8BPw/viewform this multilingual survey form]. Select your language and please send us your response!

If you have any question(s), feel free to contact: wikicampnepal[at]gmail.com or leave a message at: [[:m:Talk:Wikicamp Nepal 2018|Talk:Wikicamp Nepal 2018]]. Kindly help us spread and translate this message!

Many thanks,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Tulsi Bhagat|&lt;font color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;'''Tulsi Bhagat'''&lt;/font&gt;]] &lt;small&gt;([[Special:Contributions/Tulsi Bhagat|&lt;font color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;contribs&lt;/font&gt;]] &amp;#124; [[User talk:Tulsi Bhagat|&lt;font color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/font&gt;]])&lt;/small&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
[[:m:Wikicamp Nepal 2018/Team|WCN2018 Organizing Team]]; Message sent using [[छ्येलेमि:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) ०४:४३, १७ मे २०१९ (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Tulsi Bhagat@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tulsi_Bhagat/Mass_Message_Users_List&amp;oldid=19103078 --&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;

‍

== प्रस्तावे सहमतियु नितिं ==
विकिमिडियन पासा पि नाप छलफल, अन्तर विकि समन्वय वः विकि समुदाययु प्राथमिकता व चुनौतीतेयु बारे सहकार्ययु नितिं नेपाले नोवाइगु भाषापिनु समुदाय तेयु सम्मेलन '''विकि कार्यशालायु दोश्रो संस्करण''' – '''विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२०''' थोहे नोभेम्बर २०२० खे आयोजना यागु नितिं [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Conference/WikiCamp_Nepal_2020#Discussion मेटा]खे प्रस्ताव तयातगुजुया कृपया व प्रस्तावखे छिगु सहमति तयादितः अनुरोध याना । आयोजक पुचः

&lt;big&gt;'''विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२० समुदाय संलग्नता सर्वेक्षणखे सहभागितयु नितिं ब्वना पौ'''&lt;/big&gt;

ठ्वो समुदाय संलग्नता सर्वेक्षणखे सहभागितायु नितिं ब्वना पौ ख, गु विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२० यु आयोजनायु नितिं विकिमिडिया फाउण्डेसनखे पेश याइगु आवेदनयु मुः अंग ख। ठ्वो प्रश्नतेसँ विकिमिडियाखे छिगु अनुभव, आवश्यकता, चुनौती व विकि कार्यशाला नेपाल २०२० खँ अपेक्षातेगु सम्बन्धी जानकारीत हासिल यात गुहाली याई। ठ्व प्रतिक्रयातेस विकि कार्यशाखायु उद्देश्य वा कार्यक्रमयु प्रारूप हाकन स्पष्ट यात गुहाली याई।

&lt;div class=&quot;notice metadata&quot; id=&quot;stub&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto; padding:5px; text-align: center; background-color: #ffffff; border: solid 1px #99CCFF; border-left: 8px solid #99CCFF;&quot;&gt;
[[File:Form OneDrive icon.svg|25px]] '''सर्वेक्षण फाराम [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeJE3o-lTsCalCrKU3TDRr1jGYZZ1qp6GNagC3Y2GAXy1muVQ/viewform ठन] दई'''। &lt;span style=&quot;padding-left:250px;&quot;&gt;सर्वेक्षण फाराम '''२५ फेब्रुअरी २०२०''' तक खुल्ला जुई।&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

==Merge==
It looks like [[सिउरी]] and [[सुरी]] are the same place.  [[छ्येलेमि:Rich Farmbrough|Rich Farmbrough]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Rich Farmbrough|talk]])

{{Discussion top|धन्यवाद--[[छ्येलेमि:BAnand (WMF)|BAnand (WMF)]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:BAnand (WMF)|talk]]) ०२:४४, ४ मार्च २०२१ (UTC)}}
==विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता (छोटकरी रूपः युसिओसी) या दोश्रो चरण सम्बन्ध्ये==
जोजोलपा विकपिडिया छ्येलेमि पासा पिः,&lt;br&gt;
[[:m:Universal Code of Conduct|विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता]]या उद्देश्य फुक्क विकिमिडिया परियोजना वः अभियान खे सह्याज्यु व्यवहारयु छगु सार्वभौमिक मापदण्ड प्रदान यागु वः विकिपिडिया त छगु सुरक्षित ठ्या देकेगु ख गुः खे न्याम्मेसि ननः उत्पीडन वः भयरहित सुरक्षित निःसे योगदान वि फेकः। ठिठि विकिमिडिया पुचः नापः परामर्श याना विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता यागु विकास यायगु ज्या जुया च्वङ्गु दु।

युसिओसी परामर्शया [[:m:Universal Code of Conduct/Initial 2020 Consultations|पहिलो चरण]] ठौने कोचाय्कि ढुँगल, गु खे झीसँ ठिठी विकिमिडिया पुचः टेगु सल्लाह सुझाव व विचारयु आधारे विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता यु [[:m:Universal Code of Conduct/Draft review|मस्यौदा पाठ]] प्रस्ताव तयार याना गु ख। वः मस्यौदाइत सन् २०२० अक्टोवर १३ खे अनुमोदन यु लागि विकिमिडिया फाउन्डेसन यु न्यासी समितिखे प्रस्तुत यानागु ख।

युसिओसी यु दोश्रो चरण खे, विकिमिडिया फाउन्डेसनन सम्पूर्ण विकिमिडिया पुचः वः अभियानयु नितिँ: विश्वव्यापी आचार संहिता लागु यायेत मार्गतेयु बारे छलफल याय। ठो प्रक्रिया वः विकिमिडिया परियोजना तेत झिँगु छ्येलेमितेत छगु उपयुक्त वः सुरक्षित ठ्या देकेगु नितिँ: छिक पिनिगु विचार वः बहुमुल्य सुझाव त सिकेगु झिँगु लागि महत्वपूर्ण दु। 

ठो महत्वपूर्ण विषयके छिक पिनिगु बहुमुल्य विचार ठन तयादिफुः मखुसा छिक पिन्स जिगु खँलावँलाखे चोयादि फुः। ठुके बाहेक छिस जित banand-ctr@wikimedia.org के मेल न याना दि फुः। सुभाय्--[[छ्येलेमि:BAnand (WMF)|BAnand (WMF)]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:BAnand (WMF)|talk]]) ०२:४२, २१ ज्यानुवरी २०२१ (UTC)
{{Discussion bottom}}

== Global ban proposal for Slowking4 ==


Hello. This is to notify the community that there is an ongoing global ban proposal for [[User:Slowking4]] who has been active on this wiki. You are invited to participate at [[metawiki:Requests for comment/Global ban for Slowking4 (2)|m:Requests for comment/Global ban for Slowking4 (2)]]. Thank you. [[छ्येलेमि:Seawolf35|Seawolf35]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Seawolf35|talk]]) ०५:२८, १५ मार्च २०२४ (UTC)

== Wikimedia Technology Summit (WTS) 2024 - Scholarships  ==

''Note: Apologies for cross-posting and sending in English.'' &lt;br&gt;
[[metawiki:3rd_Wikimedia_Technology_Summit_(WTS_2024)|Wikimedia Technology Summit (WTS) 2024]] is focused on using technology to enhance inclusivity across Wikipedia and its associated projects. We aim to explore strategies for engaging underrepresented communities and languages while also strengthening the technical foundation. By fostering collaboration between developers, users, and researchers, we can unite our efforts to create, innovate, and advance the technology that drives open knowledge. &lt;br&gt;

We invite community members residing in India who are interested in attending WTS 2024 in person to apply for scholarships by July 10, 2024. The summit will be held at IIIT Hyderabad, India, in October 2024. &lt;br&gt; To apply, please fill out the application form by clicking [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeoO22CuLXrNzL10rJ2guQsxuVtgJAP82EUYuZyBI46nPAHWw/viewform this link]]. &lt;br&gt; On behalf of the WTS 2024 Scholarship Committee :  [[छ्येलेमि:Kasyap|Kasyap]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Kasyap|talk]]) ०८:४८, ११ जुन २०२४ (UTC)

== Invitation to Participate in the Wikimedia SAARC Conference Community Engagement Survey ==

Dear Community Members,

I hope this message finds you well. Please excuse the use of English; we encourage translations into your local languages to ensure inclusivity.

We are conducting a Community Engagement Survey to assess the sentiments, needs, and interests of South Asian Wikimedia communities in organizing the inaugural Wikimedia SAARC Regional Conference, proposed to be held in Kathmandu, Nepal.

This initiative aims to bring together participants from eight nations to collaborate towards shared goals. Your insights will play a vital role in shaping the event's focus, identifying priorities, and guiding the strategic planning for this landmark conference.

Survey Link: https://forms.gle/en8qSuCvaSxQVD7K6

We kindly request you to dedicate a few moments to complete the survey. Your feedback will significantly contribute to ensuring this conference addresses the community's needs and aspirations.

Deadline to Submit the Survey: 20 January 2025

Your participation is crucial in shaping the future of the Wikimedia SAARC community and fostering regional collaboration. Thank you for your time and valuable input.

Warm regards,&lt;br&gt;
[[:m:User:Biplab Anand|Biplab Anand]]
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Biplab Anand@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Biplab_Anand/lists&amp;oldid=28074658 --&gt;

== प्रचलित लिपि कनवर्टर ==

I don't speak नेपालभाषा, but
@[[User:Eukesh|Eukesh's]] making Prachalit lipi pages, it can be made into an automatic converter between the two scripts using [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Converter Language Converter at MetaWiki]. Please put your thoughts on this below:-[[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) १०:०४, ९ अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)
=== Support / तिबः बियेगु / 𑐟𑐶𑐧𑑅 𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 ===
&lt;!-- समर्थनका मतहरू यहाँ राख्नुहोस्। --&gt;
* I support automatic conversion. The conversion is very simple between the two scripts and I see no reason why it should not be automated. --[[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh|𑐫𑐸𑐎𑐾𑐱]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) ०४:२०, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)

*I wholeheartedly support automatic conversion between Nepal Lipi and Devanagari scripts. Nepal Lipi is the original script of Nepal Bhasa. Devanagari script has been adopted to write Nepal Bhasa simply because we didn't have a Unicode Nepal Lipi script until recently to use in computers, websites, and mobile devices. Thanks to the creation of the Noto Sans Newa font, it is now being used in all the above devices.

I am very grateful to Wikipedia's new effort to provide auto-conversion between Nepal Lipi and Devanagari scripts. It will be like the Chinese language providing Simplified Chinese and Traditional Chinese characters.

May I also remind the concerned members of the Wikipedia Nepal Bhasa project that Nepal Lipi is the original script of Nepal, while Ranjana and Bhujimol are styles of Nepal Lipi. The term &quot;Prachalit&quot; is an adjective (like prachalit kanun = mostly used law) for this original script, not a noun. Nepal Lipi got this adjective title of &quot;Prachalit&quot; because the script is the most popular and used in the Nepal Mandala. Therefore, it will be perfect to use the terms &quot;Nepal Lipi / Devanagari&quot; for the conversion buttons, rather than &quot;Prachalit / Devanagari.&quot;
--[[छ्येलेमि:Suwarn|𑐳𑐸𑐰𑐣𑑂]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) NS 1146.09.27 (Dillaga-Ekadasi) / 6:27 am, August 10, 2026 (UTC)

=== Oppose / विरोध मत दुसा / 𑐰𑐶𑐬𑑀𑐢 𑐩𑐟 𑐡𑐸𑐳𑐵 ===
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{{नेपाललिपि|𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵}}

[[Image:Beowulf Cotton MS Vitellius A XV f. 132r.jpg|thumb|Manuscript (written in [[uncial script]]]]
[[Image:Great Vowel Shift2a.svg|thumb|Illustration of the [[Great Vowel Shift]]]]

{{Infobox Language
| name=अंग्रेज़ी 
| familycolor=Indo-European
| pronunciation=/ɪŋglɪʃ/
| states= [[अस्त्रेलिया]],&lt;/br&gt; [[क्यानादा]], &lt;/br&gt;[[गणतन्त्र आयरल्यान्द]],&lt;/br&gt; [[न्यु जिल्यान्द]],&lt;/br&gt; [[बेलायत]],&lt;/br&gt; [[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]],&lt;/br&gt; व मेमेगु देय्&lt;br /&gt;
| speakers=मांभाय्: 354 million&lt;ref&gt;[[Guinness World Records]] 2006&lt;/ref&gt; 
| rank= 4 as a native language;&lt;br /&gt;2 in overall speakers
| fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
| fam5=[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| script=[[Latin alphabet]]
| nation=''De jure, exclusive'': [[लाइबेरिय]], &lt;/br&gt;थीथी कमनवेल्थ देय् &lt;br /&gt;''De jure, non-exclusive'': [[क्यानाडा]], &lt;/br&gt;[[हङ्ग कङ्ग]], &lt;/br&gt;[[आयरल्यान्द]], &lt;/br&gt;[[साउथ अफ्रिका]], &lt;/br&gt;[[भारत]], &lt;/br&gt;[[पाकिस्तान]], &lt;/br&gt;[[फिलिपिन्स]], &lt;/br&gt;[[सिंगापोर]], &lt;/br&gt;[[इजरायल]], &lt;/br&gt;[[कोसोभो]],&lt;/br&gt; [[युरोपियन युनियन]] &lt;br /&gt;''De facto, exclusive'': [[अस्त्रेलिया]] &lt;br /&gt;''De facto, non-exclusive'': [[न्यु जिल्यान्द]], &lt;/br&gt;[[बेलायत]], &lt;/br&gt;[[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]]
| iso1=en|iso2=eng|iso3=eng
|map=[[किपा:Detailed SVG map of the Anglophone world.svg|center|frameless|upright=1.5]]&lt;center&gt;&lt;small&gt;गाढा वचु: &lt;/br&gt;दि फ्याक्तो आधिकारिक, &lt;/br&gt;यांगु वचु: सह-आधिकारिक&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
}}

'''अंग्रेजी''' छगू पश्चिम जर्मानिक भाषा ख। थ्व भाषा दकलय् न्ह्यः एङ्ग्लो-स्याक्सनतेसं मध्यकालीन इंग्ल्यान्दय् ल्हाइगु जुसां आः वया थ्व भाय् विश्यया लिङ्गुआ फ्राङ्का जूगु दु। &lt;ref&gt;[[#refOstler2010|Ostler]], p.&amp;nbsp;1–4.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Global English: gift or curse&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Global English: gift or curse? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_english-today_2005-04_21_2/page/n65 |doi=10.1017/S0266078405002075 |year=2005 |last1=Smith |first1=Ross |journal=English Today |volume=21 |issue=2 |page=56}}&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व भाय् हलिंया यक्व देसय् प्रथम भाषाया रुपय् छ्यलिगु या। थ्व देय्‌या धलखय् [[संयुक्त अधिराज्य]], [[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]], [[क्यानादा]], [[अस्त्रेलिया]], [[गणतन्त्र आयरल्यान्द]], [[न्यु जिल्यान्द]] व छुं क्यारिबियन देय्‌त ला। नापं, थ्व भाय् करिब ६०गु देय्‌या आधिकारिक भाषा नं ख। थ्व भाय् मन्दारिन चिनिया व स्पेनी भाषा धुंका हलिंया दकलय् अप्व मनूतेगु मांभाय् नं ख।&lt;ref name=&quot;ethnologue&quot; /&gt; थ्व भाय् विश्वय् व्यापक रुपय् निक्वगु भाय्‌या कथं सयेकिगु या। नापं, थ्व भाय् [[संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघ]], [[युरोपियन युनियन]], कमनवेल्थ अफ नेसन्स आदि अन्तराष्ट्रिय संघ-संस्थातेगु (यकःति वा मंका) आधिकारिक भाषा नं ख। 

अंग्रेजी भाषाया शुरुवात एंग्लो-स्याक्सन राज्यय् (वर्तमान इंग्ल्यान्द व दक्षिणपूर्व स्कतल्यान्द) जूगु ख। १७गु शदीनिसें २०गु शदीतक्क हलिमय् ग्रेत ब्रितेन, संयुक्त अधिराज्य व बेलायती साम्राज्यया व्यापक प्रभावं थ्व भाय् हलिमय् यक्व थासय् थ्यन।&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAmmon2006|Ammon]], pp.&amp;nbsp;2245–2247.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchneider2007|Schneider]], p.&amp;nbsp;1.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMazrui1998|Mazrui]], p.&amp;nbsp;21.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHowatt2004|Howatt]], pp.&amp;nbsp;127–133.&lt;/ref&gt; नापं, संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिकाया प्रभावशाली मिदिया व प्रविधिया&lt;ref&gt;Hjarvard, Stig (2004) [https://web.archive.org/web/20080908064103/http://www.nordicom.gu.se/common/publ_pdf/157_075-098.pdf &quot;The globalization of language: How the media contribute to the spread of English and the emergence of medialects&quot;] Trans. Charly Hultén. ''Nordicom Review''. Retrieved 30 December 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; कारणं अंग्रेजी हलिंया यक्व थासय् अन्तराष्ट्रिय संवादया भाय् जूगु दु। &lt;ref&gt;[[#refCrystal1997|Crystal]], pp.&amp;nbsp;87–89.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWardhaugh2006|Wardhaugh]], p.&amp;nbsp;60.&lt;/ref&gt;

ऐतिहासिक रुपं अंग्रेजीया उद्गम् पुलां अंग्रेजीया क्वातुक स्वापू दूगु भाषिकातेगु संयोजनं जूल। थुकियात ग्रेत ब्रितेनया पूर्वी तटय् जर्मानिक आप्रवासी(एंग्लो-स्याक्सन)तेसं ५गु शदीइ हल। अंग्रेजीइ थ्व भाय्‌या नां इंग्लिश (''English'') धाःगु खँग्वः एङ्ग्लेस(Angles) खँग्वलं वःगु ख,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/English |title=English&amp;nbsp;– Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=25 April 2007 |accessdate=4 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; एङ्ग्लेस खँग्वः इमिगु पुर्ख्यौली क्षेत्र एङ्गेल्न् (वर्तमान [[Schleswig-Holstein]]) धाःगु थाय्‌या नामं वःगु ख। थ्व भासय् पुलां नर्स भाय्‌या प्रभाव भाइकिंग अधिग्रहणया हुनिइ ९गु व १०गु शदीइ जूगु खनेदु।

११गु शदीइ इंग्ल्यान्दयात नर्म्यानतेसं त्याकेधुंका थ्व भासय् नर्म्यान फ्रेञ्चया तःच्वगु प्रभाव लात। थ्व ईलय् अंग्रेजीइ नर्म्यान फ्रेञ्चं प्रचुर शब्दावलीया आयात जुल; नापं, अंग्रेजी छगू रोमान्स भाय्‌ मखुसां थ्व ईलय् खँग्वःया विन्यास आदि लातिनं बुयावःगु रोमान्स भाय्‌त थें जुवन।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab13 |title=Words on the brain: from 1&amp;nbsp;million years ago?
|work=History of language |accessdate=5 September 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.orbilat.com/Influences_of_Romance/English/RIFL-English-Latin-The_Inflluences_on_Old_English.html |title=Latin Influences on Old English |author=Baugh, Albert C. and Cable, Thomas |year=1978 |work=An excerpt from Foreign Influences on Old English |accessdate=5 September 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; थन्यागु नर्म्यान प्रभावित अंग्रेजीयात मध्य अंग्रेजी धाइ। दक्षिण इंग्ल्यान्दय् १५गु शदीइ खनेदूगु &quot;तःच्वःगु यासु हिला&quot; (Great Vowel Shift) मध्य अंग्रेजीं आधुनिक अंग्रेजीइ भाय्‌ हिलावंगु यक्व ऐतिहासिक झाकाय् छगू मू झाका ख।

एङ्ग्लो-स्याक्सनया आन्तरिक खँग्वः, नर्म्यान फ्रेञ्चया पाहां खँग्वः नापं छुं अंग्रेजी खँग्वःया जरा [[लातिन भाषा]]य् दयाच्वंगु दु। थ्व भाय् ऐतिहासिक रुपय् ख्रिस्त धर्म व युरोपेली बौद्धिक वर्गया भाय्‌ जूगुलिं थ्व प्रभाव खनेदूगु ख। &lt;ref name=&quot;Weissbort&quot;&gt;Daniel Weissbort (2006). &quot;Translation: theory and practice : a historical reader&quot;. p.100. Oxford University Press, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; नापं, लातिन भाषाया खँग्वः वर्तमान ईलय् नं वैज्ञानिक व प्राविधिक शब्दावलीइ वयाप्त दु। 

यक्व भाय्‌या यक्व पाहाँ खँग्वः दुकाःगुलिं आधुनिक अंग्रेजी भाय्‌या शब्दावली वृहद्, जटिल व विन्यास, विशेषयाना माआखःया। अनियमित दु। आधुनिक अंग्रेजीं युरोपेली भाय्‌तेगु जक्क मजुसें हलिंया यक्व थाय्‌या खँग्वः दुकाःगु दु। अक्स्फर्द इंग्लिश दिस्नरी कथं अंग्रेजीइ, प्राविधिक, वैज्ञानिक व स्ल्याङ्ग (slang) मन्युसें २,५०,००० स्वया अप्व पृथक खँग्वःत दु।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |title=How many words are there in the English Language? |publisher=Oxforddictionaries.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.vistawide.com/languages/language_statistics.htm |title=Vista Worldwide Language Statistics |publisher=Vistawide.com |accessdate=31 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;


==ब्वथला==
थ्व भाषाया विकासक्रम थथे दु:
{{tree list}}
* [[प्रोटो-पश्चिम जर्मनिक]]
** [[एंग्लो-फ्रिजियन भाय्]]
*** [[एङ्गलिक भाषा|एङ्गलिक]]
**** [[अंग्रेजी भाषा]] ([[अंग्रेजी भाषाया भाषिकातेगु धलः|भाषिका]])
***** [[पुलां अंग्रेजी भाषा|पुलां अंग्रेजी]]†
****** [[मध्य अंग्रेजी]]† ([[पुलां फ्रेन्च]] पाखें यक्व पाहाँ-खँग्वःत दुथ्याःगु)
******* [[न्हापांगु आधुनिक अंग्रेजी]]†
******** [[आधुनिक अंग्रेजी]]
********* [[ब्रिटिश अंग्रेजी]] ([[अंग्रेजी अंग्रेजी]], [[उत्तरी इंग्लैंड अंग्रेजी|उत्तरी अंग्रेजी]], [[पूर्वी मिडल्यान्दस अंग्रेजी]], [[पश्चिम मिडल्यान्दस अंग्रेजी]], [[दक्षिणी अंग्रेजी अंग्रेजी|दक्षिणी अंग्रेजी]], व मेमेगु, [[वेल्श अंग्रेजी]], [[स्कटिश अंग्रेजी]], [[आइरिश अंग्रेजी]]) 
********* [[उत्तर अमेरिकी अंग्रेजी]] ([[अमेरिकन अंग्रेजी]] व [[कनेदियन अंग्रेजी]])
********* [[अस्ट्रेलियन अंग्रेजी]] व [[न्युजिल्याण्ड अंग्रेजी]]
********* [[दक्षिण अफ्रिकी अंग्रेजी]]
********* [[जिम्बाब्वेया अंग्रेजी]]
********* दक्षिण एसियाली अंग्रेजी ([[भारतीय अंग्रेजी]])
********* दक्षिण पूर्व एसियाली अंग्रेजी ([[फिलिपिनी अंग्रेजी]], [[सिंगापुर अंग्रेजी]], [[मलेशियन अंग्रेजी]])
********* [[पश्चिम भारतीय अंग्रेजी]] ([[क्यारिबियन अंग्रेजी]])
{{tree list/end}}


===भाषिका===
अंग्रेजीया यक्व भाषिका/जनबोली दु। हलिमय् दकलय् नां जाःगु अंग्रेजीया भाषिकात थ्व कथं दु-
* बेलायती भाषिकापुचः
** गेलिक (स्कतिश, आइरिश)
** इङ्ग्लिश (कक्नि)
* अमेरिकी भाषिकापुचः
** न्यु इङ्ग्लान्द
** न्यु यर्क
** दक्षिण
** मिदल्यान्द
** वेस्तकोस्त
** इबोनिक
* कनेदियन भाषिका
* अस्त्रेलियन भाषिका
* न्यु जिल्यान्द भाषिका
* दक्षिण अफ्रिकी भाषिका
* क्यारिबियन भाषिका
* भारतीय उपमहाद्विप भाषिका

== स्वयादिसँ ==
* [[बेलायत]]
{{Commonscat|English language}}
{{भाषाधलः}}

== लिधंसा ==
{{लिधंसा}}
[[पुचः:भाषा]]</text>
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[[Image:BNF Fr 4274 8v knight detail.jpg|thumb|[[Investiture]]]]
[[Image:Slovakia Oravsky Podzamok.jpg|thumb|[[Orava Castle]]]]


[[किपा:BNF_Fr_4274_8v_knight_detail.jpg|thumb| छम्ह नाइटया इन्भेस्तिच्युर ( नेपल्सया लुइस १ नं १३५२ स पलिस्था याःगु अर्डर अफ द नटया किपा)]]
'''सामन्तवाद''', गुकियात '''सामन्ती व्यवस्था''' नं धाइ, ९गु निसें १५गु शताब्दी मध्यकालीन युरोपय् कानूनी, आर्थिक, सैन्य, सांस्कृतिक व राजनीतिक तजिलजिया संयोजन ख। व्यापक रुपं परिभाषित यायेगु खःसा सेवा वा श्रमया बदलाय् जग्गाया स्वामित्वं वःगु सम्बन्धया चाकःलिं समाजयात संरचना यायेगु छगू कथं खः ।

क्लासिक परिभाषा, फ्रान्कोइस लुइस गानशोफ (१९४४) द्वारा,  योद्धा कुलीन वर्गया पारस्परिक कानूनी व सैन्य दायित्वया छगू सेटया वर्णन याइ व प्रभु, दास व फिफया मू अवधारणाया चाकःलिइ चाःहिलाच्वंगु दु। &lt;ref name=&quot;ganshof&quot;&gt; {{Cite book
| publisher = Longmans, Green
| last = Ganshof
| first = François Louis
| title = Feudalism
| url = https://archive.org/details/feudalism00gans
| url-access = registration
| location = London; New York
| year = 1952
| isbn = 978-0-8020-7158-3
}} 
&lt;/ref&gt;
छगू व्यापक परिभाषा, मार्क ब्लच (१९३९) नं वर्णन यानादिल, गुकिलि योद्धा कुलीन वर्गया दायित्व जक्क मखु तर राज्यया स्वंगुलिं सत्ताया दायित्व नं दुथ्या: थ्व स्वंगु सत्ता कुलीन वर्ग, पादरी, व किसान वर्ग ख, गुपिं सकलें कुलीनवादया छगू व्यवस्थां नाप चिनातःगु दइ। थ्व व्यवस्था दूगु समाजयात गबलें गबलें &quot;सामन्ती समाज&quot; नं धाइ।

सामन्तवादयात अंग्रेजीइ फ्युदलिजम धाइ। थ्व लाटिन खँग्वः {{Lang|la|feodum}}  बाय् {{Lang|la|feudum}} (fief),  वःगु खः। थ्व खँग्वः मध्यकालीन ईले छ्येलिगु या।  ''फ्युदलिजम वा सामन्तवाद'' खँग्वः व थुकिलि वर्णन यानातःगु व्यवस्थायात मध्य युगय् म्वानाच्वंपिं मनुतेसं औपचारिक राजनीतिक व्यवस्थाया रुपय् कल्पना यागु मखुसें अबिलेया परम्पराय् आधारित व्यवस्था ख।  एलिजाबेथ एआर ब्राउनया &quot;द टायरानी अफ ए कन्स्ट्रक्ट&quot; (१९७४) व सुसान रेनोल्ड्सया ''फिफ्स एण्ड भ्यासल्स'' (१९९४) पिहां वयेधुंका मध्यकालीन इतिहासकारतेगु दथुइ मध्यकालीन समाजयात थुइकेत सामन्तवाद छगू उपयोगी निर्माण ख: कि मखु धइगु बारे निष्कर्षहीन चर्चा जुयाच्वंगु दु। {{refn|&lt;ref name=ebo&gt;[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9034150/feudalism &quot;Feudalism&quot;], by [[Elizabeth A. R. Brown]]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]''.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=ebrown&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/1869563 |volume=79|issue=4 |pages=1063–1088 |last=Brown |first=Elizabeth A. R. |title=The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_1974-10_79_4/page/1063 |journal=[[The American Historical Review]] |date=October 1974 |jstor=1869563}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=reynolds&gt;{{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Susan |title=Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted |url=https://archive.org/details/fiefsvassalsmedi0000reyn |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=1994 |isbn=0-19-820648-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;halsall&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1i.html#Feudalism |title=Feudalism? |first=Paul |last=Halsall |author-link=Paul Halsall |website=[[Internet Medieval Sourcebook]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018025458/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1i.html#Feudalism |archive-date=18 October 2014 |access-date=4 November 2007 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.wku.edu/~rob.harbison/projects/Gfeudal.html |title=The Problem of Feudalism: An Historiographical Essay |first=Robert |last=Harbison |date=1996 |website=[[Western Kentucky University]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080229034347/http://www.wku.edu/~rob.harbison/projects/Gfeudal.html |archive-date=29 February 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Charles |last=West |title=[[Reframing the Feudal Revolution: Political and Social Transformation Between Marne and Moselle, c. 800–c. 1100]] |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}


[[पुचः:आर्थिक व्यवस्था]]
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[[पुचः:सामाजिक व्यवस्था]]</text>
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      <text bytes="28492" sha1="qpunz3gksi0k1hc64xuoqpu99dcp6y8" xml:space="preserve">{{नेपाललिपिपरिक्षण|छ्येलेमि:Eukesh/Auto/NepalScript/बंगलादेश}}

{{Infobox Country or territory
|native_name              = &lt;span style=&quot;line-height:1.33em;&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt; গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ &lt;/big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''गोणोप्रोजातोन्त्री बांग्लादेश''&lt;/span&gt;
|conventional_long_name   = &lt;span style=&quot;line-height:1.33em;&quot;&gt;जनतातेगु गणतन्त्र बंगलादेश&lt;/span&gt;
|common_name              = बंगलादेश
|image_flag               = Flag of Bangladesh.svg
|image_coat               = Coat of arms of Bangladesh.svg
|symbol_type              = Coat of arms
|national_motto           = none
|national_anthem          = ''[[अमार शोनार बांग्ला]]''&lt;small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&quot;जिगु लुंयागु बंगाल&quot;&lt;/small&gt;
|image_map                = Bangladesh in its region.svg
|official_languages       = [[बंगाली भाषा|बंगाली (बांग्ला)]]
|capital                  = [[ढाका]]
|latd=23|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=90|longm=22|longEW=E
|government_type          = [[संसदीय व्यवस्था|संसदीय गणतन्त्र]]
|leader_title1            = [[बंगलादेशेए राष्ट्रपतितेगु धलः|राष्ट्रपति]]
|leader_title2            = [[बंगलादेशयागु प्रधानमन्त्री|प्रधान मन्त्री]]
|leader_title3            = [[Caretaker government|Chief of Caretaker Govt.]]
|leader_name1             = [[इयाजुद्दीन एह्मद]]
|leader_name2             = vacant
|leader_name3             = [[डा. फख्रुद्दीन एह्मद]]
|largest_city             = ढाका
|area                     = १४४,०००
|areami²                  = ५५,६२२ 
|area_rank                = ९४औं
|area_magnitude           = 
|percent_water            = ७.०
|population_estimate      = १४७,३६५,३५२   
|population_estimate_year = २००६
|population_estimate_rank = ७औ
|population_census        = १२९,२४७,२३३&lt;ref&gt;एड्जस्टेड जनसंख्या, p.4,
{{cite web
 | url       = http://www.bbsgov.org/Population%20Census%202001.PDF
 | publisher = Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
 | title     = Population Census 2001, Preliminary Report
 | date      = २००१-०८
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|population_census_year   = २००१
|population_density       = 998.6&lt;ref name=&quot;WorldBank&quot;&gt;[[World Bank Group|World Bank]] Development Indicators Database, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;
|population_densitymi²    = 2,639&lt;ref name=&quot;WorldBank&quot;/&gt; &lt;!--Don't remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|population_density_rank  = ७औं
|GDP_PPP_year             = २००५
|GDP_PPP                  = $305.9&amp;nbsp;[[1 E9|billion]]
|GDP_PPP_rank             = 31st
|GDP_PPP_per_capita       = $2100
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank  = 141st
|HDI_year                 = 2004
|HDI                      = 0.530
|HDI_rank                 = 137th
|HDI_category             = &lt;font style=&quot;color:#fc0&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|sovereignty_type         = [[बंगलादेशयागु इतिहास|स्वतन्त्रता]]
|sovereignty_note         = [[पाकिस्तान]]नं
|established_event1       = Declared
|established_event2       = [[विजय दिवस (बंगलादेश)|विजय दिवस]]
|established_date1        = [[मार्च २६]] [[१९७१]]
|established_date2        = [[डिसेम्बर १६]] [[१९७१]]
|currency                 = [[बंगलादेशी टाका|टाका]]
|currency_code            = BDT
|time_zone                = BDT
|utc_offset               = +6
|time_zone_DST            = ''not observed''
|utc_offset_DST           = +६
|cctld                    = [[.bd]]
|calling_code             = ८८० - [[बंगलादेश कलिंग सब-कोडत|सबकोडत]]
|nationality              = बंगलादेशी
}}
'''गणतन्त्र बंगलादेश''' [[दक्षिण एसिया]]यागु छगु देय् खः। थ्व देय् यागु उत्तर, पूर्व व पश्चिम सीमानाय् [[भारत]] दु धाःसा दक्षिण-पूर्व सीमानाय् [[म्यानमार]]; दक्षिणय् [[बंगाल सागर]] दु। बंगलादेश व भारतीय राज्य [[पश्चिम बंगाल]] मंका कथं छगु बांग्लाभाषी अञ्चल गठन याई, थुकियात ऐतिहासिक कथं “बङ्ग” वा “बांग्ला” धाई। 

== इतिहास ==
[[१९४७]] सालय् [[भारतीय बायेज्या (१९४७)|भारत विभाजन]] या ईले [[पाकिस्तान]]या पूर्व अंश (पूर्व पाकिस्तान)या हिसाबं बंगलादेशया लागा निर्धारित जुल। औशतय् पूर्व व [[पाकिस्तान|पश्चिम पाकिस्तान]]या दथुई १६००[[किलोमिटर|किमि]] (१००० माइल) दूरी जुसां निगुगु पाकिस्तानतेगु मंका धर्म ([[इस्लाम धर्म]]) छगु जूगुलिं देय्‌या पलिस्था जुल। तर निगु देय्‌ दथुई जातिगत व भाषागत व्यवहारय् यक्व अमेल खनेदत। थ्व अमेलं याना [[१९७१]] सालय् भारतया ग्वहालिइ छगु रक्तपातपूर्ण [[बंगलादेशया स्वतन्त्रता संग्राम|युद्ध]]या माध्यमं बंगलादेशं स्वतन्त्रता कायेफत। बंगलादेश स्वाधिन जुई धुंका बाँमलागु राजनैतिक अवस्थां याना आ तक्क प्यक [[बंगलादेशय् सैनिक शाषण|सैनिक शाषण]] वये धुंकल।

== भूगोल व जलवायु ==
[[किपा:Satellite image of Bangladesh in October 2001.jpg|thumb|180px|left|स्यटेलाइटं काःगु बंगलादेशया किपा]]
दक्षिण एशियाया तःधंगु खुसि [[गङ्गा खुसि]] व [[ब्रह्मपुत्र खुसि|ब्रह्मपुत्रं]] देकूगु देल्टाय् बंगलादेश ला। भौगलिक रुपय् बंगलादेश [[दक्षिण एशिया|दक्षिण एशियाय्‌]] [[भारत]] व [[म्यानमार]]या दथुइ ला। थ्व दे‌या क्षेत्रफल १ लख ४७ द्व ५७० वर्ग किलोमिटर दु। बंगलादेशया पश्चिम व उत्तरय् भारत, पूर्वय् भारत व म्यानमार व दखिनय् बंगाली खाडी ला। बंगलादेशयअ पश्चिमय् भारतया [[पश्चिम बङ्गाल]] राज्य, उत्तरय् पश्चिमबङ्गाल, [[आसाम]], [[मेघालय]] राज्य, पूर्वय् आसाम, [[त्रिपुरा]], [[मिजोराम]]। व म्यान्मार (बर्मा) नाप सीमा दु। दक्षिणय् [[बङ्गालया खाडी]] ला। बङ्गलादेशया सीमायार ४,२४६ किलोमिटरय् ९४ प्रतिशत (९४%) भारतनाप व ६ प्रतिशत म्यानमारनाप दु। बांलादेशया तटरेखाया हाकः ५८० किलोमिटर दु। 

बंगलादेशया अधिकांश इलाका समूद्र सतह स्वया १० मिटर जक्क च्वे ला। समुद्र सतह १ मिटर जक्क व्रृदि जुसां थ्व देय्‌या ५०% इलाका लखे दुने लाःवनि।
&lt;ref name=ali&gt;{{cite journal
 | last = Ali
 | first = A
 | year = 1996
 | title = Vulnerability of Bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and storm surges
 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_water-air-and-soil-pollution_1996-11_92_1-2/page/171
 | journal = Water, Air, &amp; Soil Pollution 
 | volume = 92
 | issue = 1-2
 | pages = 171-179
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
बंगलादेशया उच्चतम थाय्‌ देय्‌या दक्षिण-पूर्वाञ्चलय् दूगु [[पार्वत्य चट्टग्राम]] ख। थ्व छगू मोडक पर्वत श्रृङ्खलाया च्वका ख थुकिया जाः १,०५२ मिटर (३,४५१&amp;nbsp;फुट) दु।&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20130725020735/http://www.sol.co.uk/v/viewfinder/elevmisquotes.html#keok Summit Elevations: Frequent Internet Errors.] Retrieved 2006-04-13.&lt;/ref&gt; बङ्गालया खाडीइ दूगु [[सुन्दरबन]] हलिमया दक्ले तःधंगु [[म्यानग्रोभ]] वन ख। थ्व थासय् [[रोयल बंगाल धुं]], [[चित्तल हरिण]] आदि यक्व प्रकारया प्राणीतेसं बसोबास याइ। [[१९९७]]य् थ्व थाय्‌यात विश्व सम्पदा सूचीइ सूचीकृत यात। 
&lt;ref name=sundarbans&gt;{{cite journal
 | last = IUCN
 | year = 1997
 | title = Sundarban wildlife sanctuaries Bangladesh
 | journal = World Heritage Nomination-IUCN Technical Evaluation
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

बांलादेशया जलवायु सबट्रपिकल दु। थ्व देशय् ६गु ऋतु दु-[[ग्रीष्म]], [[वर्खा]], [[शरद]], [[हेमन्त]], [[शीत]] व [[वसन्त]]। थनया वार्षिक वृष्टि १५००-२५००मि.मि./६०-१००इञ्च दु; पूर्वी लागाय्‌ थ्व मात्रा ३७५० मि.मि./१५०इञ्च अप्व। बंगलादेशय दथुं [[कर्कट रेखा]] वनि। नोभेम्बर निसें मार्चतक्क थन शीत मौसम,मार्च निसें जुन तक्क ग्रीष्म काल, जुन निसें अक्टोबर तक्क बर्षा मौसम दै। व‍खाय् मौसमी वायुं थन प्रचुर वृष्टि जुइ। वा अप्व वया थन प्राकृतिक प्रकोप दसु चलः, टोर्नेडो आदि वनिगु या।

== प्रशासनिक विभाजन ==
बंगलादेश  ६गु  प्रशासनिक विभागय् विभक्त दु।&lt;ref name=divisions&gt;{{cite web | title = CIA World Fact Book, 2005 | url = http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2051.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व ख

{| style=&quot;background:transparent;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2px&quot;
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{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; font-size:95%&quot;
|- style=&quot;font-size:100%; text-align:left&quot;
!!width=&quot;140px&quot;| [[बंगलादेशया प्रशासनिक विभाजन|प्रशासनिक विभाजन]] !!width=&quot;80px&quot;| मू नगर !!width=&quot;80px&quot;| क्षेत्रफल&lt;br /&gt;(वर्ग कि.मि.)  !!width=&quot;80px&quot;| जनसंख्या (२००५)
|-
| [[ढाका विभाग]] || [[ढाका]] || style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|३१११९.९७ || style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|३,८६७,७८७
|-
|[[चट्टग्राम विभाग]] || [[चट्टग्राम]] || style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|३३७७१.१३ || style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|२३,९९९,३४५
|-
|[[राजशाही विभाग]] || [[राजशाही]] ||style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|३४५१३ || style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|२९,९९२,९५५
|-
|[[बरिशाल विभाग]] || [[बरिशाल]] || style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|१३२९५.५५ || style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|८,११२,४३५
|-
|[[खुलना विभाग]] || [[खुलना]] || style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|२२२७३.२१ || style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|१४,४६८,८१९
|-
|[[सिलेट विभाग]] || [[सिलेट]] ||style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|१२५९५.९५ || style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;|७,८९९,८१६
|}
|
[[किपा:Bangladesh divisions nepalbhasa.png|right|thumb|170px|बंगलादेशया विभागीय मानकिपा]]
|}
सकल विभाग जिल्लाय् विभक्त दु। बंगलादेशया सकल जिल्लाया ल्याखँ ६४ दु। जिल्लाया प्रशासनया निंतिं उपजिल्ला नं दयेकातःगु दु। सकल देय्‌या [[उपजिल्ला]] व [[थाना]] ल्याखँ ५०७ दु। सकल थानाय् ४,४८४गु युनियन, ५९,९९०गु मौजा, एव ८७,३१९गु ग्रामय् विभक्त दु। विभाग, जिल्ला, व थानाया प्रशासनय् निर्वाचित प्रतिनिधि मदु; सरकारं नियुक्त याइगु प्रशासकया अधीनय् थ्व परिचालित जुइ। युनियन, वा पौरसभाय् धाःसा निर्वाचित जनप्रतिनिधि उपस्थिति दै। १९९७ सालया ऐन कथं युनियनय् २५% मिसातेत संरक्षण कोटा दु। &lt;ref name=unionwomen&gt;''Local Government Act'', No. 20, 1997.&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व बाहेक नगराञ्चलय् ६गु  सिटि कर्पोरेशन  (ढाका, चट्टग्राम, खुलना, राजशाही, सिलेट, बरिशाल), व २२३गु पौरसभा दु। थ्व सकलं मेयर व जनप्रतिनिधि निर्वाचन कथं थःगु जनप्रतिनिधि ल्येइगु याइ। राजधानी [[ढाका]] बंगलादेशया दक्ले तःधंगु नगर ख। मेमेगु उल्लेखनीय नगरय् [[चट्टग्राम]], [[राजशाही]], [[खुलना]], [[सिलेट]], [[बरिशाल]],  [[कक्सबाजार]], [[कुमिल्ला]], [[मयमनसिंह]], [[रङपुर जेला|रङपुर]],  [[यशोर]], [[टङ्गी]], [[गाजीपुर जिल्ला|गाजीपुर]] व [[नारायणगञ्ज]] ला।

== जनसंख्या ==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:1em; padding:0em; width:220px; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:98%; clear:right&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:105%;&quot;| '''बंगलादेशया राष्ट्रिय चिं'''
|- 
|style=&quot;padding-left:1em;&quot;| '''म्ये'''   || [[आमार सोनार बांग्ला]]&lt;/tr&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:1em;&quot;| '''प्राणी'''   || [[रोयल बंगाल टाइगार]]&lt;/tr&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:1em;&quot;| '''झंगः'''     || [[ओरियन्टल म्यागपाइ रबिन]]&lt;/tr&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:1em;&quot;| '''न्या'''     || [[हिल्सा]]&lt;/tr&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:1em;&quot;| '''स्वां'''   || [[व्हाइट वाटर लिलि]]&lt;/tr&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:1em;&quot;| '''सि'''    || [[ज्याकफ्रुट]]&lt;/tr&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:1em;&quot;| '''कासा'''    || [[कबड्डी]]&lt;/tr&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:1em;&quot;| '''पात्रो''' || [[बंगाली पात्रो]]&lt;/tr&gt;
|}

बंगलादेशया सन् २००५या जनसंख्या १४ कोटि ६० लख दु। 
&lt;ref name=who&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.who.int/whr/2005/en/
 | title = World Health Report 2005
 | publisher = World Health Organization
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
जनसंख्या कथं थ्व हलिमया ८गु तःधंगु देय्‌ ख। थ्व देय्‌या जनघनत्त्व प्रति वर्ग किलोमिटर १०५५ दु। नगर राष्ट्र बाहेक थ्व हलिमया दक्ले अप्व जनघनत्त्व दूगु देय्‌ ख। थ्व देय्‌या जनसंख्या बृद्धिदर २.२% दु। &lt;ref name=who/&gt; (२००५ साल कथं)।  बंगलादेशया मिसा व मिजंया लैङ्गिक अनुपात  १००:१०६ दु।  देशया अधिकांश मनु मचा व ल्याम्ह दु (०–२५ दंया जनसंख्या ६०%, ६५ दं स्वया अप्व ३%)। थ्व देय्‌या मिजं व मिसाया औशत आयु ६३ दं दु। &lt;ref name=who/&gt;

जातिगत रुपय् बंगलादेशेया ९८% मनु बंगाली ख। बाकि २% मनु बिहारी मूलया वा विभिन्न उपजातिया दु। पार्वत्य चट्टग्राम इलाकाय् १३गु उपजाति मनु दु। थुकिलि [[चाकमा]] उपजाति मू ख।  पार्वत्य चट्टग्रामया बाइरेर उपजातिय् [[गारो]] व [[साँओताल]]या उल्लेखयोग्य जनसंख्या दु। 

देय्‌या ९९% मनुतेगु मातृभाषा [[बंगाली भाषा|बंगाली]] ख, व देय्‌या राष्ट्रभाषा नं थ्व हे ख। सरकारी काजकाजय् धाःसा अंग्रेजी नं छ्येलिगु या।  तबे १९८७ साल धुंका मेमेगु भाषा स्वया नं सरकारी ज्याय् बंगाली भाषायात मू कथं छ्येलिगु कुतः न्ह्यथन।

बंगलादेशया प्रमुख धर्मविश्वास [[इस्लाम]] (८८%) ख। थ्व धुंका दक्ले तःधंगु धर्म [[हिन्दु धर्म]](११%) ख। बाकि १% मनु [[बौद्ध धर्म|बौद्ध]], [[ख्रिस्ट धर्म|ख्रिस्टी]], व  अग्निपूजक धर्मय् विश्वास या। सकल जनसंख्याया २१.४% शहरय् च्वमि धाःसा बाकि ७८.६% गामय् च्वनि। 

सरकारी व गैह्रसरकारी रुपय् गरिवी निवारण व जनस्वास्थया यक्व ज्या जुयाच्वंगु दु। अथे जुसं बंगलादेशया जनसंख्याया छगू बिशाल अंश गरिवी रेखा स्वया क्वे ला । सकल जनसंख्याया बच्छि जनसंख्या न्हिच्छिया १ [[अमेरिकन डलर]]स्वया म्हो आयय् म्वानाच्वंगु दु (२००५)।
&lt;ref name=usaid&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2005/ane/bd.html
 | title = Congressional Budget Justification - FY 2005
 | publisher = [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]]
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
आर्सेनिकया बिष प्रक्रिया बंगलादेशया छगू मू उसाँय्‌ समस्या ख।
&lt;ref name=arsenic&gt;{{cite journal
 | last = Nickson
 | first = R
 | coauthors = J McArthur, W Burgess, KM Ahmed, P Ravenscroft, M Rahman
 | year = 1998
 | title = Arsenic poisoning of Bangladesh groundwater
 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1998-09-24_395_6700/page/338
 | journal = Nature
 | issue = 6700
 | pages = 338
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
थ्व बाहेक थन [मलेरिया]] व [[डेङ्गु]] ल्वेया नं प्रादुर्भाव दु

२००५ सालया हिसाबय् बंगलादेशय् साक्षरता ४१% दु। 
&lt;ref name=undp&gt;{{cite web
 | url = http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/countries.cfm?c=BGD
 | title = 2005 Human Development Report
 | publisher = [[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]]
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[युनिसेफ]]कथं २००४ सालय् मिजंतेगु साक्षरता दर ५०% व मिसातेगु ३१% दु। 
&lt;ref name=&quot;unicef&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20151219134729/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/bangladesh_bangladesh_statistics.html UNICEF: Bangladesh Statistics].&lt;/ref&gt;
साक्षरताया निंतिं सरकारं न्हुगु ज्याझ्वः देकुगु दु गुकिलि १९९३ सालय् न्ह्यथंगु ''शिक्षार बिनिमय़े खाद्य''(ब्वंवनि पिन्त नकिगु ज्याझ्वः) दकले सुथां ला।
&lt;ref name=ahmed&gt;{{cite book
 | last = Ahmed
 | first = A
 | coauthors = C del Nino
 | year = 2002
 | title = The food for education program in Bangladesh: An evaluation of its impact on educational attainment and food security, FCND DP No. 138
 | publisher = International Food Policy Research Institute
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
एछाड़ा मेय़ेदेर शिक्षार जन्य प्राथमिक ओ माध्यमिक पर्याय़े बृत्ति प्रदान कर्मसूची नारीशिक्षाके एगिय़े निच्छे।
&lt;ref name=female_stipend&gt;{{cite book
 | last = Khandker
 | first = S 
 | coauthors = M Pitt, N Fuwa
 | year = 2003
 | title = Subsidy to Promote Girls’ Secondary Education: the Female Stipend Program in Bangladesh
 | publisher = World Bank, Washington, DC
}}&lt;/ref&gt;


== अर्थतन्त्र ==
[[किपा:SilkRoad BD..Raw jute of Faridpur.JPG|thumb|220px|जुत बंगलादेशया छगू मू बुं पैदावर ख।]]
[[किपा:Rice Field.jpg|thumb|220px|जाकि सयेकाच्वंम्ह बुंज्यामि]]

बंगलादेश छगू विकासोन्मुख देय् ख। देय्‌तेगु विकास धलखय् थ्व देय्‌यात दकलय् म्हो विकशित देय्‌ (Least Developed Country)या रुपय् कायेगु या। सन् २०१४या शुरुइ १००० टाका अमेरिकी दलरय् हिलय् बिलय् करिब १३ दलर जु (१ दलर = ७८ टाका)। थ्व देय्‌या बैदेशिक मुद्रा रिजर्भ १९ बिलियन दलर दु।

== राजनीति ==
बंगलादेशया मू राजनैतिक खलः थ्व कथं दु-
* [[बांग्लादेश नेशनलिस्ट पार्टी]]
* [[आवामी लीग]]
* [[जमात-ए-इस्लामी]]
* [[जातीय पार्टी]]
* [[कम्युनिस्ट पार्टी ऑफ बांग्लादेश]]

==मू नगर==
बंगलादेशया मू नगरत थ्व कथं दु-
१।*[[ढाका]]
२।*[[चट्टग्राम]]
३।*[[राजशाही]]
४।*[[खुलना]]
५।*[[सिलेट]]
६।*[[बरिशाल]]
७।*[[रंपुर]]
८।[[कुमिल्ला]]
९।[[कक्सबाजार]]
१०।[[ब्राह्मनबाड़ीय़ा]]
११।[[फेनी]]
१२।[[दिनाजपुर]]
१३।[[गाजीपुर]]
१४।[[यशोर]]
१५।[[फरिदपुर]]
१६।[[बगुड़ा]]
१७।[[ठाकुरगाँओ]]
१८।[[नीलफामारी]]
१९।[[लालमनिरहाट]]
२०।[[कुड़िग्राम]]
२१।[[गाइबान्धा]]
२२।[[जय़पुरहाट]]
२३।[[नओगाँ]]
२४।[[चाँपाइनबाबगञ्ज]]
२५।[[जामालपुर]]
२६।[[शेरपुर]]
२७।[[नेत्रकोना]]
२८।[[मय़मनसिंह]]
२९।[[टाङ्गाइल]]
३०।[[नाटर]]
३१।[[सिराजगञ्ज]]
३२।[[किशोरगञ्ज]]
३३।[[हबिगञ्ज]]
३४।[[मौलभीबाजार]]
३५।[[सुनामगञ्ज]]
३६।[[सिराजगञ्ज]]
३७।[[पाबना]]
३८।[[कुष्टिय़ा]]
३९।[[चुय़ाडाङ्गा]]
४०।[[मेहेरपुर]]
४१।[[राजबाड़ी]]
४२।[[मानिकगञ्ज]]
४३।[[मागुरा]]
४४।[[लक्ष्मीपुर]]
४५।[[मुन्सिगञ्ज]]
४६।[[नाराय़णगञ्ज]]
४७।[[नरसिंदी]]
४८।[[नोय़ाखाली]]
४९।[[शरीय़तपुर]]
५०।[[चाँदपुर]]
५१।[[मादारीपुर]]
५२।[[गोपालगञ्ज]]
५३।[[यशोर]]
५४।[[नड़ाइल]]
५५।[[सातक्षीरा]]
५६।[[बागेरहाट]]
५७।[[झालकाठि]]
५८।[[पिरोजपुर]]
५९।[[पटुय़ाखाली]]
६०।[[बरगुना]]
६१।[[भोला]]
६२।[[बान्दारबान]]
६३।[[खागड़ाछड़ि]]
६४।[[राङ्गामाटि]]

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा}}

{{देय्‌ च्वसु|बंगलादेश}}

{{बंगलादेशया प्रशासनिक विभाजन}}
{{Commonscat|Bangladesh}}

[[पुचः:देय्]]
[[पुचः:सन् १९७१य् पलिस्था]]</text>
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[[Image:Admiring Matisse (cropped).jpg|upright=1.4|thumb|alt=Two women admiring a painting|The nature of aesthetic experiences, like the admiration of artworks, is a central topic of aesthetics.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto9&quot;&gt;{{multiref | {{harvnb|Audi|1999|pp=11–12}} | {{harvnb|Beauchamp|2005|p=13}} | {{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2004|pp=17–18}} | {{harvnb|Robinson|2006|pp=72–73}} }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[Image:Aesthetic concepts.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of a person looking at a flower with the labels &quot;aesthetic experience&quot;, &quot;aesthetic attitude&quot;, and &quot;aesthetic object&quot;|Diagram of the relation between aesthetic concepts. Philosophers debate whether aesthetic objects are [[Material object|material]]
[[Image:Immanuel Kant - Gemaelde 1.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|left|alt=Oil painting of Immanuel Kant|In his 1790 book ''[[Critique of Judgment]]

'''सौन्दर्य दर्शन''' (वा सौन्दर्यशास्त्र) [[सौन्दर्य]]या प्रकृति व प्रकृतिनाप स्वापू दूगु [[दर्शन]]या कचा ख व व्यापक अर्थय् कलाया दर्शन ख। सौन्दर्यशास्त्रं सौन्दर्यताया दर्शनया अध्ययन जुइ।  थुकथं सौन्दर्य दर्शन वा शास्त्रया ज्या &quot;कला, संस्कृति व प्रकृतिया आलोचनात्मक चिन्तन &quot; ख। &lt;ref&gt;Kelly (1998), p. ix.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title = Review of ''Encyclopedia of Aesthetics 4 vol.'' Michael Kelly|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_art-documentation-bulletin-of-the-art-libraries-society_fall-1999_18_2/page/48|first = Tom|last = Riedel |journal = Art Documentation: Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America |volume = 18|issue = 2 |date =Fall 1999|page = 48|doi = 10.1086/adx.18.2.27949030}}&lt;/ref&gt;

सौन्दर्यशास्त्रं अनुभवया थीथी  स्रोत (प्राकृतिक व कृत्रिम) व मनुतेसं उगु अनुभवया स्रोतया बारेय् गथे यानाः निर्णय याइ धइगु अध्ययन जुइ। थुकी झीसं दृश्य कला स्वयेगु, संगीत न्यनेगु, चिनाखँ ब्वनेगु, प्याखंया अनुभव यायेगु, फेसन शो, संकिपा स्वयेगु, कासा स्वयेगु वा प्रकृतिया थीथी पक्षया अन्वेषण यायेगु थेंज्याःगु वस्तु वा वातावरणलिसे संलग्न जुइबलय् झीगु मनय् छु जुइ धइगु खँय् बिचाः याइ।

कला दर्शनय् विशेष कथं कलाकारतेसं गथे कलाकृतिया कल्पना, सिर्जना व प्रदर्शन याइ धैगु खँया मालेज्या जुइ। नापं मनुतेसं कलायात गथे छ्येलि, आनन्द काइ व आलोचना याइ धइगु खँ अध्ययन जुइ। सौन्दर्यशास्त्रं मनूतय्त छुं कलाकृति छाय् यःगु व मेमेगु कलाकृति छाय् मयःगु, नापं कलां झीगु भाव व झीगु विश्वासय् गुकथं लिच्वः लाकेफु धइगु खँय् नं बिचाः जुइ। सौन्दर्यशास्त्र व कला दर्शन निगुलिं कला वास्तवय् छु खः व बांलाःगु कला छु जुइ धइगु लिसः मालेगु कुतः याइ।

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

{{Commonscat|Aesthetics}}

[[पुचः:संस्कृति]]</text>
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[[किपा:Leaf 1 web.jpg|thumb|right|250px| वांगु पौ, फोटो सिन्थेसिसया निंतिं मू अंग ख।]]
सजीव कोशिकातेसं [[जः]]या [[उर्जा]]यात [[रासायनिक ऊर्जा]]य् हिलेगु प्रक्रियायात '''फोटोसिन्थेसिस''' धाइ। फोटोसिन्थेसिस प्रक्रियाय् वनस्पतितेसं थःगु वांगु अंग दसु [[हः]]य् [[सूर्द्यः]]या [[जः]]या उपस्थितिइ [[वायु|वायुं]] [[कार्बनडाइअक्साइड]] व बुं नं [[लः]] कया कम्प्लेक्स अर्‍ग्यानिक पदार्थ दसु [[कार्बोहाइड्रेट्स]]या निर्माण याइ व [[अक्सिजन]] ग्यास (O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) पिकाइ। फोटोसिन्थेसिस प्रक्रियाय् सूर्द्यःया जःया उपस्थितिइ वनस्पतिया वांगु हःय् दूगु सेलया दुने कार्बन डाइआक्साइड व लः स्वाना न्हापा [[साधारण कार्बोहाइड्रेट]] व लिपा [[जटिल काबोहाइड्रेट]]या देकेज्या जुइ। थ्व कथं अक्सिजन व ऊर्जा तःमि कार्बोहाइड्रेट ([[सूक्रोज]], [[ग्लूकोज]], [[स्टार्च]] आदिया निर्माण जुइ व अक्सिजन ग्यास पिहां वै। लः, कार्बनडाइअक्साइड, सूर्द्यःया जः व [[क्लोरोफिल]] फोटोसिन्थेसिसयात मदेकः मगाः। थुकिलि लः व कार्बनडाइअक्साइड फोटोसिन्थेसिसया कच्चा पदार्थ ख। फोटोसिन्थेसिसया प्रक्रिया दक्ले महत्वपूर्ण जैवरासायनिक प्रकृयाय् छगू ख।&lt;ref name=bryantfrigaard&gt;{{cite journal
|author=D.A. Bryant &amp; N.-U. Frigaard
|month=November
|year=2006
|title=Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated
|journal=Trends Microbiol.
|volume=14
|issue=11
|pages=488
|doi=10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001
}}&lt;/ref&gt; छुं नं छुं रुपय् हलिमया सकल प्राणी थ्व हे प्रक्रियाय् आश्रित जु। &lt;br /&gt;

== रासायनिक समीकरण ==
फोटोसिन्थेसिसया सरलीकृत रासायनिक अभिकृयायात थ्व कथं कायेगु या:

:6 CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 12 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; + प्रकाश + क्लोरोफिल  → [[ग्लूकोज|C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;]]&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; + 6 O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; + क्लोरोफिल
[[कार्बन डाइअक्साइड]] + [[लः]] + [[जः]] + [[क्लोरोफिल]] → [[ग्लुकोज]] + [[अक्सिजन]] + [[लः]] + क्लोरोफिल &lt;br /&gt;
जः थ्व केमिकल रियाक्सनय् ब्वति मकासां जःया उपस्थिति थ्व रियाक्सनया निंतिं मा। थ्व रासायनिक क्रियाय् कार्बनडाइअक्साइडया ६ अणु व लःया १२ अणुया दथुइ रासायनिक प्रक्रिया जुइ गुकिया लिच्वःया कथं ग्लुकोजया छगू अणु, लःया ६ अणु व अक्सिजनया ६ अणु दया वै। थ्व प्रक्रियाय् मू उत्पादन ग्लूकोजया जुइ व अक्सिजन व लः साइडप्रडक्टया रूपं मुक्त जुइ। थ्व प्रतिक्रियाय् उत्पन्न लःयात सेलतेसं अवशोषित याइ व थ्व लः हानं जैव-रासायनिक प्रतिक्रियाय् छ्येलि। मुक्त जूगु अक्सिजन धाःसा वातावरणय् वनि। थ्व मुक्त अक्सिजनया  स्रोत लःया अणु ख, कार्बनडाइअक्साइडया अणु मखु। रेडियो आइसोटप मालेज्यां थ्व खं लुया वःगु ख। थ्व रियाक्सनय् सूर्द्यःया विकिरण ऊर्जा रासायनिक ऊर्जाय् हिला वनि। थथे हिलावंगु उर्जा ग्लुकोजया अणुइ स्वथनिगु जुइ। फोटोसिन्थेसिसं वनस्पतितेसं प्रति दं लगभग १०० टेरावाटया सौर्य ऊर्जायात रासायनिक ऊर्जाया रूपय् अणुइ स्वथःनिगु याइ।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Nealson KH, Conrad PG |title=Life: past, present and future |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=354 |issue=1392 |pages=1923–39 |year=1999 |month=December |pmid=10670014 |pmc=1692713 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1999.0532 |url=http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/7r10hqn3rp1g1vag/}}&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व ऊर्जाया परिमाण सकल मनु सभ्यताया वार्षिक ऊर्जा खर्च स्वया ७ गुणा अप्वः जु।&lt;ref name=EIA&gt;{{cite web | publisher= Energy Information Administration |url= http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xls | title =  World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups , 1980-2004 | format = XLS | date = July 31, 2006 | access date=2007-01-20|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20041111015455/http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xls|archivedate=November 11, 2004}}&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व ऊर्जा स्ट्याटिक ऊर्जाया रूपय्  संचित जुइ। अतः फोटोसिन्थेसिसयात ऊर्जा बंधनया प्रक्रिया नं धाइ। थ्व कथं फोटोसिन्थेसिस याइपिं प्राणीतेसं लगभग १0000000000 टन कार्बनयात प्रति दं जैव-पदार्थय् हिला छ्वइ।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Field CB, Behrenfeld MJ, Randerson JT, Falkowski P |title=Primary production of the biosphere: integrating terrestrial and oceanic components |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1998-07-10_281_5374/page/237 |journal=Science (journal) |volume=281 |issue=5374 |pages=237–40 |year=1998 |month=July |pmid=9657713 |doi=10.1126/science.281.5374.237}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ऐतिहासिक पृष्ठभूमि ==
प्राचीन काल निसें वनस्पतितेसं थःगु पोषण जरां याइ धाःगु खं मनुतेसं थुयावःगु दु। [[१७७२]]य् [[स्टिफन हेलेस]] नं वनस्पतिया हः [[वायु]] नं भोजन ग्रहण याइगु व थ्व क्रियाय् [[जः]]या महत्व दूगु खं प्रकाशित यानादिल। प्रिस्ट्लें [[१७७२]]य् दक्ले न्ह्यः सीकादिल कि थ्व प्रक्रिया बिले उत्पन्न वायुय् मैनमतो च्याकेछिं। मैनमतो च्यायेधुंका हानं वहे वायुलि म्वाम्ह छुं तःसा व छुं सी धकाः नं वय्‌कलं सीका दिल। वय्‌कलं [[१७७५]]य् हानं प्रकाशित यानादिल कि वनस्पतिं न्हिन्हे पिकाइगु ग्यास अक्सिजन ख। थ्व धुंका इंजन हाउसं [[१७७९]]य् सीकादिल कि वांगु वनस्पतिं [[सूर्द्य]]या जः दुबिले co&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ग्रहण याइ व अक्सिजन पिकाइ। डि. सासूरं [[१८०४]]य् वनस्पतितेसं न्हिन्हे जक्क co&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ग्रहण याइगु व o&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; पिकाइगु व नापं २४ घौय् हे अक्सिजन ग्रहण याना co&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; पिकाइगु वा [[सासः ल्हाइगु]] या धकाः सीकादिल। सासं [[१८८७]]य् लुइकादिल कि वांगु वनस्पतिया co&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ग्रहण याइगु व o&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; पिकाइगु प्रक्रियां वनस्पतिइ [[स्टार्च]]या निर्माण जुइ।

== महत्त्व ==
वांगु वनस्पतिइ जुइगु फोटोसिन्थेसिस प्रक्रिया सकल प्राणीतेगु निंतिं छगू महत्त्वपूर्ण प्रक्रिया ख। थ्व प्रक्रियाय् वनस्पतिं सूर्द्यःया जःया उर्जायात रासायनिक उर्जाय् हिलाछ्वइ व CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; लः थें न्याःगु साधारण पदार्थं जटिल कार्बन यौगिक कार्बोहाइड्रेट्स देकी। थ्व  कार्बोहाइड्रेट्सं हे मनु व प्राणितेसं भोजन प्राप्त याइ। थ्व कथं वनस्पतितेसं फोटोसिन्थेसिस प्रक्रियाद्वारा सकल प्राणी जगतया निंतिं भोजन-व्यवस्था याइ। सकल अर्‍ग्यानिक कम्पाउन्ड दसु कार्बोहाइड्रेट्स, [[प्रोटिन]], फ्याट व [[भाइटामिन]] आदि प्रत्यक्ष-परोक्ष कथं थ्व हे प्रक्रियां दयावइ। रबर, प्लास्टिक, चिकं, सेल्युलोज व यक्व वासः आदि नं थ्व हे प्रक्रियाया लिच्व ख। वांगु वनस्पतिं फोटोसिन्थेसिसया  प्रक्रियाय् कार्बन डाईअक्साइड कया अक्सिजन पिकाइ, अतः, थ्व कथं थ्व प्रक्रियां वातावरणया होमियोस्ट्यासिस नं देकातइ। अक्सिजन सकल जन्तुतेत सासः ल्ह्यायेत मा। [[वातावरण]]या संरक्षणया निंतिं नं थ्व प्रक्रियाया यक्व महत्व दु।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.hindimilap.com/articles/240/1/aaaaaa-aa-aaaaaaaa-aaaaaaa/Page1.html|title= आवश्यक है पर्यावरण संरक्षण|accessmonthday=[[२२ दिसंबर]]|accessyear=[[२००८]]|format= एचटीएमएल|publisher= हिन्दी मिलाप|language=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://pustak.org/bs/home.php?bookid=1685|title=आधुनिक जीवन व पर्यावरण|accessmonthday=[[२२ दिसंबर]]|accessyear=[[२००८]]|format= पीएचपी|publisher= भारतीय साहित्य संग्रह|language=}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[मत्स्य-पालन]]या निंतिं नं फोटोसिन्थेसिसया तःधंगु महत्त्व दु। फोटोसिन्थेसिसया प्रक्रिया म्हो जुइबिले लखे कार्बन डाई अक्साइडया मात्रा अप्वइ। लखे सिओटु ५ सी॰सी॰ प्रतिलीटर स्वया अप्व जुसा मत्स्य पालनय् प्रतिकुल हानिकारक असर जुइ।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://uttara.in/hindi/fisheries/related_info/chemicals.html|title= मत्स्य पालन सम्बंधी जानकारी: भौतिक, रासायनिक एवं जैविक घटक |accessmonthday=[[२२ डिसेम्बर]]|accessyear=[[२००८]]|format= एचटीएमएल|publisher= मत्स्य पालन विभाग, उत्तराखण्ड
|language=}}&lt;/ref&gt; फोटोसिन्थेसिस [[जैविक इन्धन]] देकेयात नं सहायक जुइ। थ्व प्रक्रियां वनस्पतितेसं सौर ऊर्जाद्वारा जैव इन्धनया उत्पादन याइ। थ्व जैव ईंधन विभिन्न प्रक्रिया जुया विविध ऊर्जा स्रोततेगु उत्पादन याइ। दसु पशुतेगु गोबर, [[कृषि]] अवशेषं जा भुतुलि जा थुइत देकिगु ग्यास आदि।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.indg.in/rural-energy/rural-energy/sources-of-energy/91c948935-908902927928/view?set_language=hi|title= जैव ईंधन|accessmonthday=[[२२ दिसंबर]]|accessyear=[[२००८]]|format=|publisher=भारत विकास प्रवेशद्वार
|language=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== प्रक्रिया विधि : विभिन्न मत ==
{{main|फोटोसिन्थेसिस प्रक्रिया विधि : थी-थी मत}}
[[किपा:Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg|thumb|200px|फोटोसिन्थेसिस, लःयात तछ्याना O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; पिकाइगु व CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;यात ग्लुकोजय् हिलाछ्वइ।]] फोटोसिन्थेसिसया प्रक्रिया वांगु वनस्पतिइ जुइ व थुकिया समीकरण अत्यन्त साधारण दु। अथे जुसां CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; व लः थें न्याःगु सरल पदार्थं गथे याना कार्बोहाइड्रेट्स थें न्याःगु जटिल पदार्थया निर्माण याइ धाःगु विषय धाःसा विवादास्पद दु। ई-ईले थी-थी विज्ञतेसं थ्व प्रक्रियायात थुइत थः-थःगु विभिन्न मत प्रकट याःगु दु। थुकिलि बैयर, विल्सटेटर व स्टाल व आरनोनया मत प्रमुख दु। बैयर, विल्सटेटर व स्टालया मत ऐतिहासिक रुपय् जक्क महत्व जु। थ्व विचाः लिपाया ईले याःगु परीक्षणय् पाय्‌छि मजूगु खने दत। [[१९६७]]य् आरनोनं क्लोरोप्लास्टय् दैगु प्रोटिन फैरोडोक्सिन फोटोसिन्थेसिस प्रक्रियाय् मू ज्या याइ धका प्रस्ताव तयादिल। आधुनिक युगय् सकल वैज्ञानिकतेगु मान्यता दु कि फोटोसिन्थेसिसय् स्वतन्त्र अक्सिजन लखं वइ। आधुनिक कालय् अनेक प्रयोगतेगु आधारय् थ्व सिद्ध जुइ धुंकल कि फोटोसिन्थेसिस प्रक्रिया निगु चरणय् सम्पन्न जुइ। न्हापांगु चरणय् जः प्रक्रिया वा हिल प्रक्रिया वा फोटोकेमिकल प्रक्रिया जुइ धाःसा निगुगु चरणय् ख्युं प्रक्रिया वा ब्ल्याकम्यान प्रक्रिया वा जः मदूगु प्रक्रिया जुइ। फोटोसिन्थेसिस प्रक्रियाय् निगु हे प्रक्रिया छगू लिपा मेगु कथं जुइ। जः प्रक्रिया ख्युं प्रक्रियाया उपेक्षाय् याकनं जु।

फोटोसिन्थेसिसया प्रक्रिया वनस्पतिया सकल क्लोरोप्लास्ट युक्त कोशिकाय् जुइ। अर्थात वनपतिया सकल वांगु भागय् जुइ। थ्व प्रक्रिया विशेषतः हःया मेसोफिलय् जुइ। मेसोफिलया प्यारेन्काइमाय् मेमेगु थासय् स्वया अप्व क्लोरोफिल दइगुलिं थथे जूगु ख।

== जः प्रक्रिया ==
[[किपा:Thylakoid membrane.svg|thumb|300px|right|क्लोपोप्लास्टय् जुइगु जः प्रक्रिया]] फोटोसिन्थेसिस प्रक्रियाय् जःया उपस्थितिइ जुइगु प्रक्रिया फोटोकेमिकल प्रक्रिया ख। थ्व प्रक्रियायात हिल आदि अन्य वैज्ञानिकतेसं अध्ययन याःगु दु। जः प्रक्रियाया दथुया ईले ख्युं प्रक्रियात सीमाबद्ध कारकया ज्या याइ। जः प्रक्रिया निगु चरणय् जुइ: फोटोलाइसिस व हाइड्रोजनया पलिस्था। फोटोलाइसिसया  प्रक्रियाय् जः क्लोरोफिलया अणुद्वारा फोटोनया रूपय् अवशोषित जुइ। क्लोरोफिलया अणुया छगू क्वान्टम जः शोषित यायेधुंका क्लोरोफिलया  मेगु अणुं न्हापाया उर्जा फोटोसिन्थेसिसय् मछ्यःतल्ले मेगु जः शोषित याइमखु। क्लोरोफिलं थ्व कथं शोषित जःया फोटोन उच्च ऊर्जा स्तरय् छगू [[इलेक्ट्रोन]] पिकाइ व थ्व शक्ति फस्फेटया स्वंगुगु स्वापू(बण्ड)लि स्थित जुया उच्च ऊर्जाया एडिनोसाइन ट्राइफास्फेटया रूपय् प्रकट जुइ। थ्व कथं क्लोरोफिलं जःया उपस्थितिइ एटिपि (ATP) देकी। थ्व प्रक्रियायात फोस्फोरिलेशन धाइ। थ्व कथं सूर्द्यःया जःया ऊर्जा एटिपिया रुपय् रसायनिक ऊर्जाय् हिलावनि। थ्व कथं क्लोरोफिल अणुइ निर्मित एटिपि क्लोरोफिल अणु स्वया पृथक जुया मेमेगु यक्व रसायनिक प्रक्रियाय् उर्जा बीगु ज्याय् सहायक जुइ। क्लोरोफिल धाःसा एटीपी स्वतन्त्र जुइ धुंका हानं अक्रिय जुइ। वान नील फ्र्यांक, विशनिक कथं थ्व क्रियाशील क्लोरोफिलया स्वापूलि लः वःसा लः रिड्युस्ड H व अक्सिजनेटेड OHय् बाना वनि।&lt;br /&gt;
क्लोरोफिल + जः → सक्रिय क्लोरोफिल&lt;br /&gt;
H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + सक्रिय क्लोरोफिल → H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
थ्व फोटोलाइसिस प्रक्रियाय् O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; लः स्वया स्वतन्त्र जुइ व हाइड्रोजन नं हाइड्रोजन काइगु इन्टिटिइ वनि।&lt;br /&gt;
2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 2A → 2AH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;br /&gt;
थ्व कथं स्वामा/सिमाया फोटोसिन्थेसिस प्रक्रियां पिहां वःगु सकल अक्सिजन लखं वइ। हिल,रूबेन आदिं थ्व विचाःया समर्थन यानादिल नापं अक्सिजनया आइसोटोप O&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt; छ्येला थ्व विचाःयात प्रमाणित नं यानादिल। थ्व विचाःया लिच्वः छु जुल धाःसा  CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;या अनुपस्थितिइ अक्सिजनया उत्पादन जुइ फु तर थुकिया निंतिं हाइड्रोजन काइगु छगू केमिकल इन्टिटि दये मा। थुकिया निंतिं वनस्पतिइ एनएडिपिं (NADP) निगु NADPH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; देकिगु खने दु। &lt;br /&gt;
2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O+2NADP=2NADPH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;+O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

== फोस्फोरिलेसन ==
आरननया मतानुसार जः प्रक्रिया मू कथं एडिनोसाइन ट्राई फोस्फेट निर्माण नाप स्वापू दूगु प्रक्रिया ख। एटिपि छगू जः ऊर्जा अणु ख। थ्व  एडीपीइ छगू फस्फेट ग्रुप स्वाये धुंका दैगु ख। थ्व प्रक्रियायात फोटोसिन्थेसिसय् फोस्फोरिलेसन धाइ। एडिपिया फोस्फोरिलेसनय् जः ऊर्जाया  मा। अतः, थ्व प्रक्रियायात फोटो-फोस्फोरिलेसन नं धाइ।

थ्व छगू जटिल प्रक्रिया ख। आरनन कथं जः प्र प्रक्रिया निगु स्टेपय् जुइ। 

अयुग्म फोटो-फोस्फोरीलेशन व युग्म फोटो-फोस्फोरीलेशन&lt;br /&gt;
'''अयुग्म फोटो-फोस्फोरीलेशन'''य् लःया [[अपघटन]]या कारणं इलेक्ट्रोन निरन्तर प्राप्त जुइ तथा फोटो-फोस्फोरीलेशनं क्लोरोफिलय् जः ऊर्जां एटीपीया निर्माण जुयाच्वनि। थ्व कथं क्लोरोफिल ‘a’ सक्रिय जुइबिलय् फेरेडोक्सिनं इलेक्ट्रन ग्राहीया ज्या याइ। थुकियात एनएडीपी नांया coenzymeया ग्वहालिं एनएडी लः द्वारा त्वतुगु हाइड्रोजनयात ज्वना NADPH&lt;sub&gt;२&lt;/sub&gt;य् हिलावनि।&lt;br /&gt;
:24H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O → 24OH + 24H&lt;br /&gt;
:12NADP + 24H → 12NADPH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
:24OH → 12H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 6O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
थ्व कथं लःया विघटनं वःगु मुक्त इलेक्ट्रन क्लोरोफिल ‘b’यात उत्तेजित याना उच्च ऊर्जा स्तरय् थ्यनि। थ्व इलेक्ट्रन हानं गथे क्लोरोफिल ‘a’य् थ्यनि, थ्व खँ धाःसा पूवंकः मस्युनि। तर थ्व विश्वास दुकि प्लास्टोकविनोन नामक इलेक्ट्रोन ग्राहीं  इलेक्ट्रोनतयेत ज्वना साइटोक्रोम द्वारा पुनः क्लोरोफिल ‘a’य् थ्यंकि। थुकिलि नापं एटीपीया नं निर्माण जुइ।&lt;br /&gt;
'''युग्म फोटो-फोस्फोरीलेशन'''या क्रियाय् सूर्द्यःया प्रकाशं क्लोरोफिल ‘a’ सक्रिय जुया इलेक्ट्रनयात पिने वांछ्वइ गुकियात क्लोरोफिलय् दूगु फैरीडाक्सीनं ज्वना तै। थ्व इलेक्ट्रोन मुक्त जुइ धुंका प्लास्टोक्वीनोन नामक इलेक्ट्रोन ग्राहीं ज्वनि। थ्व क्रियाया दथुइ एडीपी, एटीपीइ परिवर्तित जुइ व इलेक्ट्रोन पुनः मुक्त जुया साइटोक्रोम विकर जुया क्लोरोफिल ‘a’य् लिहां वनि। थ्व क्रियाय् नं एडीपी, एटीपीइ हिलावनि। थ्व क्रियाय् पिनेया इलेक्ट्रोन प्रयोग जुइमखु तथा क्लोरोफिलं इलेक्ट्रोन पिहांवया हानं लिहां वनि।
थ्व कथं अयुग्म व युग्म प्रक्रियां लः विघटित जुइ गुकिलिं अक्सीजन ग्यास स्वतन्त्र जुइ तथा [[हाइड्रोजन]], हाइड्रोजन ग्राही एनएडीपीं ज्वना, नापं ऊर्जा वर्गीकृत जुइ। थुकिया प्रयोग रासायनिक प्रक्रिया वा अप्रकाशीय प्रतिक्रियाय् जुइ।&lt;br /&gt;
'''अक्सीजन तथा प्रकाश-संश्लेषण'''&lt;br /&gt;
* वनस्पतिइ श्वसनया ज्या न्हिने-बहनिइ सकल इलय् जुयाच्वनि। श्वसनया ज्याय् वनस्पति मेमेगु सजीवतयेसं थें हे अकसीजन छ्यला कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड उत्पन्न याइ। परन्तु न्हिया इलय् श्वसन नापं  प्रकाश-संश्लेषणया ज्या नं जुइ। वनस्पतिं न्हिया इलय् अक्सीजन मुक्त याइ छाय्‌धाःसा प्रकाश-संश्लेषणय् उत्पन्न अक्सीजन गैसया परिमाण श्वसनय् खर्च जुइगु ऑक्सीजन स्वया अप्व जुइ।
* प्रकाश-संश्लेषणं मुक्त जुइगु अक्सीजन ग्यास प्रकाशीय अभिक्रियाय् उत्पन्न जुइ। थ्व कार्वनया स्वांगीकरणय् उत्पन्न जुइमखु। अतः, अक्सीजनया स्त्रोत लः ख कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड मखु।

== ख्युंगु प्रक्रिया, ब्लेकमैन प्रक्रिया वा प्रकाशहीन प्रक्रिया ==
[[किपा:calvin-cycle3.png|thumb|right|350px|केल्विन चक्र या अंधेरी प्रक्रियाया किपा]]
{{अनुवाद|हिन्दी}}
इस प्रक्रिया के लिए प्रकाश की आवश्यकता नहीं होती है। इस प्रक्रिया में प्रायः कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड का अवकरण होता है। इस प्रक्रिया में पत्ती के स्टोमेटा द्वारा ग्रहण की गई कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड, पानी से निकली हाइड्रोजन (प्रकाश प्रक्रिया के अन्तर्गत) प्रकाश की ऊर्जा (जो क्लोरोफिल द्वारा प्रकाश क्रिया में प्राप्त की गई है) के कारण मिलकर एक स्थायी द्रव्य बनाता है।&lt;br /&gt;
::CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2AH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; → CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 2A + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;br /&gt;
CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O, यह एक कार्बोहाइड्रेट्स की इकाई अणु है। केल्विन व बैनसन ने रेडियो आइसोटोपिक तकनीक का प्रयोग कर बताया कि प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की प्रक्रिया में पहला स्थाई यौगिक एक ३ कार्बन वाला 3-फोस्फोग्लिसेरिक अम्ल (पीजीए) बनता है।
क्लोरोल्ला एवं सिनडेसमस नामक शैवालों में रेडियो एक्टिव C&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; की उपस्थिति में कुछ समय के लिए प्रकाश-संश्लेषण कराया गया तथा इनमें भी पहला स्थाई द्रव्य  फोस्फोग्लिसेरिक अम्ल बना। यह फोस्फोग्लिसेरिक अम्ल बाद में ग्लूकोज बनाता है।
इस प्रकार केल्विन तथा उसके सहकर्मियों के कार्यों से यह सिद्ध हो गया कि प्रकाश-संश्लेषण प्रक्रिया में CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ग्लूकोज में परिवर्तित हो जाती है। उन्होंने इस प्रयोग में [[कार्बन]] के [[समस्थानिक]] (C&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;) का प्रयोग किया।
क्लोरोफिल में राइबुलोज-1,5 विसफास्फेट उपस्थित रहता है। अब वायुमण्डलीय CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; पत्ती के स्टोमेटा द्वारा प्रवेश कर अन्दर पहुँचती है तथा तुरन्त ही (४/१0000000 सेकेण्ड में) राइबुलोज-1,5 विसफास्फेट के साथ मिलकर एक अस्थाई यौगिक का निर्माण कती है। इस प्रकार बना अस्थाई यौगिक जो ५-कार्बन सुगर है शीघ्र ही फास्फोग्लाइसेरिक एसिड (PGA) के २ अणुओं में टूट जाता है। अब यहां पर NADPH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; द्वारा हाइड्रोजन मुक्त किये जाने पर पीजीए को पीजीएएल (phosphoglyceric aldehyde) में परिवर्तित कर देता है। इस क्रिया में ऊर्जा एटीपी से प्राप्त होती है। इस प्रकार CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; से कार्बोहाइड्रेट्स निर्माण हो जाते हैं।&lt;br /&gt;
=== C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; व C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; पौधे ===
[[किपा:HatchSlackpathway.png|thumb|right|250px|C4 पौधों में कार्बन का स्थिरीकरण]]
प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की अंधेरी प्रक्रिया में जिन पौधों में पहला स्थाई यौगिक फास्फोग्लिसरिक अम्ल बनता है उन्हें C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; पौधा कहते हैं। फास्फोग्लिसरिक अम्ल एक ३ कार्बन वाला योगिक है इसलिए इन पौधों का ऐसा नामकरण है। जिन पौधों में पहला स्थाई यौगिक ४ कार्बन वाला यौगिक बनता है उनको C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; पौधा कहते हैं। साधारणतः ४ कार्बन वाला यौगिक ओक्सैलोएसिटिक अम्ल (ओएए) बनता है। पहले ऐसा विश्वास किया जाता था कि प्रकाश-संश्लेषण में कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड के स्थिरीकरण या यौगिकीकरण के समय केवल C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; या केल्विन चक्र ही होता था अर्थात पहला स्थाई  यौगिक फास्फोग्लिसरिक अम्ल ही बनता है। लेकिन [[१९६६]] में हैच एवं स्लैक ने बताया कि कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड के स्थिरीकरण का एक दूसरा पथ भी है। उन्होंने [[गन्ना]], [[मक्का]], अमेरेन्थस आदि पौधों में अध्ययन कर बताया कि फोस्फोइनोल पाइरूविक अम्ल जो कि ३ कार्बन विशिष्ठ यौगिक है कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड से संयुक्त होकर ४ कार्बन विशिष्ठ यौगिक ओक्सैलोएसिटिक अम्ल बनाता है। इस क्रिया में फोस्फोइनोल पाइरूवेट कार्बोक्सिलेज इन्जाइम उत्प्रेरक का कार्य करता है।

== अवयव, उनके स्रोत व कार्य ==
प्रकाश-संश्नेषण की क्रिया में चार मुख्य अवयव हैं, जल, कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड, प्रकाश एवं पर्ण हरिम। इन चारों की उपस्थिति इस क्रिया के लिए अति आवश्यक है। इनमें से जल एवं कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड को प्रकाश-संश्लेषण का कच्चा माल कहते हैं क्योंकि इनके रचनात्मक अवयवों द्वारा ही प्रकाश-संश्लेषण के मुख्य उत्पाद कार्बोहाइड्रेट की रचना होती है। इन अवयवो को पौधा अपने आस-पास के वातावरण से ग्रहण करता है।

'''कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड''' प्रकाश-संश्लेषण का एक मुख्य अवयव तथा कच्चा पदार्थ है। वायुमंडल में कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड गैस श्वसन, दहन, [[किण्वन]], विघटन आदि क्रियाओं के द्वारा मुक्त होती है। वायु में इसकी मात्रा 0.0३ %  से 0.0४ % होती है। स्थलीय पौधे इसे सीधे ही वायु से ग्रहण कर लेते हैं। इन पौधों की पत्तियों में छोटे छिद्र होते हैं जिन्हे पर्णरन्ध्र कहते हैं। कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड इन्हीं पर्णरन्ध्रों से पौधे की पत्तियों में प्रवेश करती है। जलमग्न पौधे जल में घुली कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड को अपनी शारीरिक सतह से विसरण द्वारा ग्रहण करते हैं। जल में कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड का स्रोत जलीय जन्तु हैं, जिनके श्वसन में यह गैस उत्पन्न होती है। जल के भीतर चट्टानों में उपस्थित कार्बोनेट तथा बाइकार्बोनेट के विघटन से भी  कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड उत्पन्न होती है जिसको जलीय पौधे प्रकाश-संश्लेषण में ग्रहण करते हैं। प्रकाश-संश्लेषण में ग्लूकोज (C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;) नामक कार्बोहाइड्रेट का निर्माण होता है। इसमें कार्बन (C) तथा ऑक्सीजन (C) तत्व के परमाणु कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) से ही प्राप्त होते हैं।

'''क्लोरोफिल''' क्लोरोफिल एक प्रोटीनयुक्त जटिल रासायनिक यौगिक है। यह प्रकाश-संश्लेषण का मुख्य वर्णक है। क्लोरोफिल ए तथा क्लोरोफिल बी दो प्रकार का होता है। यह सभी स्वपोषी हरे पौधों के क्लोरोप्लास्ट में पाया जाता है। क्लोरोफिल के अणु सूर्य के प्रकाशीय ऊर्जा को अवशोषित कर उसे रासायनिक ऊर्जा में रूपान्तरित करते हैं। सूर्य के प्रकाशीय ऊर्जा को अवशोषित करके क्लोरोफिल का अणु उत्तेजित हो जाते हैं। ये सक्रिय अणु जल के अणुओं को H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; तथा  OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; आयन में विघटित कर देते हैं। इस प्रकार क्लोरोफिल के अणु प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की जैव-रसायनिक क्रिया को प्रारम्भ करते हैं।

'''प्रकाश''' सूर्य  का प्रकाश प्रकाश-संश्लेषण के लिए आवश्यक है। बल्ब आदि के तीव्र कृत्रिम प्रकाश में भी प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की क्रिया होती है। [[लाल रंग]] के प्रकाश में यह क्रिया सबसे अधिक होती है। लाल के बाद [[बैगनी रंग]] के प्रकाश में यह क्रिया सबसे अधिक होती है। ये दोनों रंग क्लोरोफिल द्वारा सर्वाधिक अधिक मात्रा में अवशोषित किए जाते हैं। [[हरे रंग]] को क्लोरोफिल पूरी तरह परावर्तित कर देते हैं अतः हर रंग के प्रकाश में प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की क्रिया पूरी तरह रूक जाती है।

'''जल''' जल प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की क्रिया का कच्चा माल है। स्थलीय पौधे इसे मिट्टी से जड़ के मूलरोमों द्वारा अवशोषित करते हैं। जलीय पौधे अपने जल के सम्पर्क वाले भागों की बाह्य सतह से जल का अवशोषण करते हैं। [[ऑर्किड]] जैसे उपररोही पौधे अपने वायवीय मूलों द्वारा वायुमंडलीय जलवाष्प को ग्रहण करते हैं। प्रकाश-संश्लेषण के प्रकाशीय अभिक्रिया में जल के प्रकाशीय विघटन से ऑक्सीजन उत्पन्न होता है। यही ऑक्सीजन उपपदार्थ के रूप में वातावरण में मुक्त होता है। अधेरी अभिक्रिया में बनने वाली ग्लूकोज के अणुओं में हाइड्रोजन तत्व के अणु जल से ही प्राप्त होते हैं। प्रकाश-संश्लेषण के समय जल अप्रत्यक्ष रूप से भी कई कार्य करता है। यह जीवद्रव्य की क्रियाशीलता तथा इनजाइम की सक्रियता को बनाए रखता है।

== प्रभावित करने वाले कारक ==
{{main|प्रकाश-संश्लेषण को प्रभावित करने वाले कारक}}
प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की क्रिया अनेक कारकों द्वारा प्रभावित होती है। इसके कुछ कारक बाह्य होते हैं तथा कुछ आंतरिक। इसके अतिरिक्त कुछ सीमाबद्ध कारक भी होते हैं। बाह्य कारण वे होते है जो प्रकृति व पर्यावरण में स्थित होते हुए फोटोसिन्थेसिस को प्रभावित करते हैं जैसे [[प्रकाश]], चूँकि सूर्य के प्रकाश से पौधा इस क्रिया के लिए ऊर्जा प्राप्त करता है तथा अंधेरे से यह क्रिया सम्भव ही नहीं है। [[कार्बनडाई ऑक्साइड]], क्यों कि ऐसा देखा गया है कि यदि अन्य सभी कारक पौधे को उच्चतम मात्रा में प्राप्त हों तथा वायुमंडल में CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; की मात्रा धीरे-धीरे बढ़ाई जाये तो प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की दर भी बढ़ जाती है। [[तापमान]], क्यो कि देखा गया है कि पौधों में प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की क्रिया के लिये एक निश्चित तापक्रम की भी आवश्यकता होती है  तथा [[जल]],पानी फोटोकेमिकल प्रक्रियाओं के अत्यंत आवश्यक है व यह इस क्रिया के समय अनेक रासायनिक परिवर्तनों में सहयोग करता है। आंतरिक कारण वे होते हैं जो पत्तियों में स्थित होते हुए फोटोसिन्थेसिस की क्रिया को प्रभावित करते हैं जैसे- [[पर्ण हरिम]] या क्लोरोफ़िल जिसके द्वारा प्रकाश ऊर्जा रासायनिक ऊर्जा में परिवर्तित होती है। [[प्ररस]] या प्रोटोप्लाज्म जिसमें पाए जाने वाले विकर प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की क्रिया को प्रभावित करते हैं। भोज्य पदार्थ का जमाव, क्यों कि प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की क्रिया में बना भोजन यदि स्थानीय कोशिकाओं में एकत्रित होता रहे तो प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की दर धीमी हो जाती है। पत्तियों की आंतरिक संरचना क्यों कि प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की दर पत्तियों में उपस्थित स्टोमेटा या रंध्रों की संख्या तथा उनके बंद एवं खुलने के समय पर निर्भर करती है।  पत्तियों की आयु, क्यों कि  नई पत्तियों में पुरानी पत्तियों की अपक्षा प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की दर अधिक होती है। इसके अतिरिक्त फोटोसिन्थेसिस को इन सभी वस्तुओं की अलग-अलग गति भी प्रभावित करती है। जब फोटोसिन्थेसिस की एक क्रिया विभिन्न कारकों द्वारा नियन्त्रित होती है तब फोटोसिन्थेसिस की गति सबसे मन्द कारक द्वारा नियंत्रित होती है। प्रकाश, कार्बनडाइऑक्साइड, जल, क्लोरोफिल इत्यादि में से जो भी उचित परिमाण से कम परिमाण में होता है, वह पूरी क्रिया की गति को नियन्त्रित रखता है। यह कारक समय विशेष के लिए सीमाबद्ध कारक कहा जाता है।

== लिधंसा==
{{reflist}}

== पिनेया स्वापू ==
{{Commonscat|Photosynthesis}}
* [http://www.iari.res.in/krishisewa/Center26/Center26.htm पादप कार्यिकी विज्ञान संस्थान, दिल्ली] 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050316052050/http://www.biochemweb.org/metabolism.shtml जैवरासायनिक स्तरय् फोटोसिन्थेसिसया विवरण]
* [http://www.chemsoc.org/networks/learnnet/cfb/Photosynthesis.htm फोटोसिन्थेसिसया जानकारी, उच्च-माध्यमिक स्तरया विद्यार्थीतेगु निंतिं]
* [http://www.life.uiuc.edu/govindjee/photosynBook.html फोटोसिन्थेसिसया प्रक्रिया विधिइ ऊर्जाया रूपान्तरण]

[[पुचः:विज्ञान]]
[[पुचः:वनस्पति विज्ञान]]
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[[जीवशास्त्र]]य '''विकासक्रम''' वा इभोलुसन धाःगु छगू प्रजातिया प्राणीया छगू पुस्तां मेगु पुस्ताय जैविक गुणय वइगु वंशानुगत हिउपा ख। थन्यागु हिउपा स्वंगु मू प्रक्रियां जुइगु या : भेरियसन (भिन्नता), प्रजनन व चयन। प्राणीइ दइगु [[जिन]] प्राणीतयेसं थःगु मस्तेत हस्तान्तरण याइ व थन्यागु जिनया अभिव्यक्तिं विकासक्रम न्ह्यथनि। थन्याःगु वंशानुगत गुण छगू जनसंख्याया दुने पाइ व प्राणीतयेगु गुणय् [[वंशानुगत भिन्नता]] दयाच्वनि। प्राणीतयेसं प्रजनन याइबिले इमिगु मचाय् मां-अबु स्वया पाःगु वा न्हुगु गुण दयेफु। थन्यागु वंशानुगत गुणय् भिन्नता निगु प्रक्रियां वयेफु- प्राणीया जिनय् [[म्युटेसन]] जुया वा जनसंख्या व प्रजातिया दथुइ जिनया बियेकाये ज्यां। मैथुनिय प्रजनन याइगु प्राणीइ जीनया न्हुगु मिश्रण आनुवंशीय पुनर्संयोजन (जेनेटिक रिकम्बिनेसनं) जुइफु गुकिलिं प्राणीतयेगु भिन्नता अप्वयका बी। सामान्य कथं थन्यागु प्रक्रियाया आवृत्ति अप्वसा वा म्हो जुसा विकासक्रम न्ह्यथनि। 

प्राणीतयेगु विकासक्रम निगु मू पद्धतिं जुइ। प्रथम पद्धति [[प्राकृतिक चयन]] ख। थ्व प्रक्रियां याना वातावरणय् म्वायेत माःगु वंशानुगत गुण दुपिं प्राणी थःगु वातावरणय् बांलाक्क म्वाइ व अप्व मचा-खाचा दयेकि। थ्व कथं थन्यागु वंशानुगत गुण दुपिं प्राणीतयेगु जनसंख्या अप्वइ धाःसा वातावरणनाप मेल मजूगु गुण दुपिं प्राणीत बांलाक्क म्वायेखनि मखु, यक्व ल्वचं कइ व प्रजनन सापेक्षिक कथं म्हो जुइगुलिं बिस्तारं लोप जुजुं वनि व इमिगु वंशानुगत गुण बिस्तार म्हो जुया वनि। &lt;ref name=Futuyma/&gt;&lt;ref name=Lande&gt;{{cite journal |author=Lande R, Arnold SJ |year=1983 |title=The measurement of selection on correlated characters |journal=Evolution |volume=37 |pages=1210–26} |doi=10.2307/2408842}}&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व प्रक्रिया न्थ्यथंगु यक्व ई व पुस्ता धुंका [[अनूकुलन]] जुयावनि। अनूकुलन प्रक्रिया गुणय् लगातार चिधंगु अनिश्चित हिउपां न्ह्यथनि व थन्याःगु ह्युपाय् प्राकृतिक चयन जुया वातावरणय् झन् बांलाक्क म्वायेफूगु प्राणीतयेगु पुचःतयेगु जनसंख्या अप्वइ।&lt;ref name=&quot;Ayala&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Ayala FJ |title=Darwin's greatest discovery: design without designer |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=8567–73 |year=2007 |pmid=17494753 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/104/suppl_1/8567 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0701072104}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

विकासक्रमया मेगु मू प्रक्रिया [[आनुवंशिक प्रवाह]] (जेनेटिक ड्रिफ्ट) ख। थ्व छगू स्वतन्त्र प्रक्रिया ख गुकिलिं छगू जनसंख्याय् गुणया आवृत्तिइ अनिश्चित हिउपा हइ। प्राणीत म्वाना प्रजनन याइबिले छगू निश्चित वंशानुगत गुण इमिगु सन्ततिइ हस्तान्तरण जुइगु संभावताया लिच्वया कथं आनुवंशिक प्रवाह जुइ। छगू पुस्ताय् प्रहावय् वैगु हिउपा म्हो जुसां पुस्तौं-पुस्ताय् थन्यागु हे म्हो हिउपा मुना वं-वं यक्व समय धुंका प्राणीइ तधंगु हिउपा वै। थन्यागु हिउपाया मंकां [[प्रजातिकरण|प्राणीया न्हुगु प्रजाति]] दया वै। &lt;ref&gt;{{wikiref |id=Gould-2002 |text=Gould 2002}}&lt;/ref&gt; आ तक्क लूगु सकल प्राणीतयेगु संरचनाया अध्ययनं सकल प्राणी छगू हे प्रकारया प्राणीं उत्त्पत्ति जूया आनुवंशिक प्रवाहया कारणं भिन्नता दयावःगु धैगु खं क्यं। &lt;ref name=Futuyma&gt;{{cite book |last=Futuyma |first=Douglas J. |authorlink=Douglas J. Futuyma |year=2005 |title=Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu |publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc |location=Sunderland, Massachusetts |isbn=0-87893-187-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

[[विकासक्रमीय जीवविज्ञान]]या विज्ञतयेसं विकासक्रमया तथ्यात्मक दस्ताबेज दयेकिगु व थन्यागु तथ्यया कारण व्याख्या याइगु सिद्धान्ततयेगु परिक्षण याइगु ज्या याइ। विकासक्रमीय जीवशास्त्रया सीकेज्या मध्य-१९गु शताब्दीइ न्ह्यथंगु ख। थ्व ईले जीवाश्म (fossil)तयेगु अध्ययन व जैविक विविधताया सीकेज्यां यक्व वैज्ञानिकतयेत प्रजातित समयनाप हिलावनि धैगु खंया छुमा बिल। &lt;ref name=EarlyModernGeology&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/darwin/sect2.htm |title=History of Science: Early Modern Geology |accessdate=2008-01-15 |author=Ian C. Johnston |year=1999 |work= |publisher=[[Malaspina University-College]] }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Bowler|first=Peter J.|authorlink=Peter J. Bowler|title=Evolution:The History of an Idea|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8|publisher=University of California Press|year=2003|isbn=0-52023693-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; तर प्रजातितयेगु भिन्नता व हिलावनिगु प्रक्रियाया बारेय् छुं विचा न्ह्यने वःसां मूलप्रवाह वैज्ञानिकतयेगु तर्क व प्रयोगं अन्यागु विचातयेत गलत प्रमाणित यानाबिल। सन् १८५९इ स्व॰ [[चार्ल्स डार्विन]]या [[अन द ओरिजिन अफ स्पिसिज]] नांया सफू पिथन व् अथ्व सफूलि विकासक्रम प्राकृतिक चयनं जुइगु विचा न्ह्यथन। &lt;ref name=Darwin&gt;{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink = Charles Darwin |year=1859 |title=On the Origin of Species |place=London |publisher=John Murray |edition=1st |pages=1 |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&amp;viewtype=text&amp;pageseq=16}}. Related earlier ideas were acknowledged in {{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink = Charles Darwin |year=1861 |title=On the Origin of Species |place=London |publisher=John Murray |edition=3rd |pages=xiii |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F381&amp;viewtype=text&amp;pageseq=20 |nopp=true}}&lt;/ref&gt; डार्विनया विचायात तत्कालीन वैज्ञानिक समुदायं अत्याधिक रुपय् समर्थन यात। &lt;ref name=&quot;AAAS1922Resolution&quot;&gt;{{ cite web | url=http://archives.aaas.org/docs/resolutions.php?doc_id=450 | title=AAAS Resolution: Present Scientific Status of the Theory of Evolution | date=December 26, 1922 | author=AAAS Council | publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;IAP2006Statement&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.interacademies.net/Object.File/Master/6/150/Evolution%20statement.pdf |format=PDF| title=IAP Statement on the Teaching of Evolution |year=2006 |publisher=The Interacademy Panel on International Issues |accessdate=2007-04-25}} बेलायतया रोयल सोसाइटीनापं हलिमया ६७गु देय्‌या राष्ट्रिय वैज्ञानिक एकेदमिं पिथंगु संयुक्त वक्तव्य।&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AAAS2006Statement&quot;&gt;{{ cite web | url=http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf |format=PDF| title=Statement on the Teaching of Evolution | date=2006-02-16 | author=Board of Directors, American Association for the Advancement of Science | publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science }} from the world's largest general scientific society&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NCSEStatementsFromScientificOrgs&quot;&gt;{{ cite web | url=http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8408_statements_from_scientific_and_12_19_2002.asp | title=Statements from Scientific and Scholarly Organizations | publisher=National Center for Science Education }}&lt;/ref&gt; सन् १९३०या दशकय् डार्विनया प्राकृतिक चयनया सिद्धान्तयात ग्रेगर मेण्डलया इन्हेरिटेन्स सिद्धान्त नाप स्वाना आधुनिक विकासक्रमीय सिन्थेसिस दयेकेज्या जुल&lt;ref name=Kutschera/&gt; गुकिलिं विकासक्रमया इकाइ (जीन)यात विकासक्रमया प्रकृया (प्राकृतिक चयन)नाप स्वानाबिल। थ्व शक्तिशाली व्याख्यात्मक व नि‍र्धारात्मक सिद्धान्तं विकासक्रमया मालेज्यायात निर्देशित याइगु जक मखुसें आधुनिक जीवशास्त्रया जैविक विविधताया केन्द्रिय संयोजक सिद्धान्तया रुपय् पलिस्था जुया च्वंगुदु। &lt;ref name=&quot;IAP2006Statement&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AAAS2006Statement&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NewScientistJan2008SpecialReport&quot;&gt;{{ cite web | url=http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/evolution | title=Special report on evolution | publisher=New Scientist | date=2008-01-19 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== वंशानुगत ==
[[किपा:ADN static.png|thumb|right|200px|डिएनए संरचना। दथुइ [[न्युक्लियोबेस|बेस]] व फस्फेट सुगर चेन सिथय् जाना [[डबल हेलिक्स]] दयेकी।]]
प्राणीइ इभोलुसन वंशानुगत [[गुण (जीवशास्त्र)|गुण]]य् वइगु हिउपां जुइ। दसुया निंतिं मनुया [[मिखाया रंग]] छगू वंशानुगत गुण ख। थ्व गुण मनुतयेसं थःगु मां-अबुया गुणं इन्हेरिट याइ।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Sturm RA, Frudakis TN |title=Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-genetics_2004-08_20_8/page/n6 |journal=Trends Genet. |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=327–32 |year=2004 |pmid=15262401 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2004.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt; इन्हेरिट याःगु गुणत [[जीन]]या नियन्त्रणय् दै व छगू प्राणीय् दइगु सकल जीनोमया सेटयात प्राणीया जिनोटाइप धाइ। &lt;ref name=Pearson_2006&gt;{{cite journal |author=Pearson H |title=Genetics: what is a gene? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-05-25_441_7092/page/398 |journal=Nature |volume=441 |issue=7092 |pages=398–401 |year=2006 |pmid=16724031 |doi=10.1038/441398a}}&lt;/ref&gt;

प्राणीया संरचना व व्यवहार दयेकिगु व खनेदैगु गुणतयेगु छगू पूर्ण सेटयात प्राणीया [[फेनोटाइप]] धाइ। थन्याःगु गुण प्राणीया वारावरण नापया अन्तरक्रियां निर्माण जुइ। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Visscher PM, Hill WG, Wray NR |title=Heritability in the genomics era--concepts and misconceptions |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=255–66 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=18319743 |doi=10.1038/nrg2322}}&lt;/ref&gt; मेगु कथं धायेगु खःसा प्राणीया एक्स्प्रेस जूगु जीनतयेगु पुचःया पूवंगु सेट हे प्राणीया फेनोटाइप ख। फेनोटाइप वातावरण कथं पाइगु जूगुलिं सकल प्राणीतयेगु फेनोटाइप पाइ। दसुया निंतिं निभाले च्वना हाकुइगु धाःगु निभाया जलं मनुया छ्यंगुलि लाइबिले मनुया छ्यंगुलि दइगु मेलानोसाइटतयेसं मेलानिन धाःगु हाकूगु पदार्थ पिकाना जुइगु प्रक्रिया ख। छगू हे जीन दुपिं मनुत (दसु आइडेन्टिकल ट्विन्स)नं छम्ह निभाले जक्क च्वन व मेम्ह निभा मदूगु थासय् च्वन धाःसा (मेलानिन दयेकेज्याय् छुं व्याधि मदुसा) निभाले च्वनिम्ह जुडुवा, छगू हे जीन दसां मेम्ह स्वया हाकुइ। अथे जुसां हानं निभाया गुलि जलं मनु गुलि हाकुइगु धइगु परिमाण धाःसा हानं मनुया जीनं हे निर्धारण याइ। दसुया निंतिं छुं मनुइ मेलानोसाइटं मेलानिन हे दयेकिमख्। थन्यापिं मनुतयेसं [[अल्बिनिजम]] धाःगु गुण इन्हेरिट याइ। थन्याःगु गुण इन्हेरिट यापिं मनुतयेगु छ्यंगु न्ह्याक्वः निभाले च्वंसा भुइसे हे च्वनि। मेलानिन मदूगुलिं जःया विकिरणं याइगु विध्वंसात्मक प्रक्रियां थन्यापिं मनुतयेत अप्व असर याइ। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Oetting WS, Brilliant MH, King RA |title=The clinical spectrum of albinism in humans |journal=Molecular medicine today |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=330–35 |year=1996 |pmid=8796918 |doi=10.1016/1357-4310(96)81798-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

वंशानुगत गुण छगू पुस्तां मेगु पुस्ताय् [[डिएनए]] धाःगु छगू [[मोलेक्युल]]या मार्फतं थ्यनि। थ्व मोलेक्युलय् जेनेटिक सूचंया सूत्र स्वथनाच्वंगु दै। &lt;ref name=Pearson_2006/&gt; डिएनए धाःगु छगू [[पोलिमर]] ख। थ्व पोलिमरय् प्यंगु प्रकारया [[न्युक्लियोबेस|बेस]] दै। डिएनएय् दैगु बेसतयेगु सिक्वेन्सं जेनेटिक सूचं निर्धारण याइ। थ्व प्रक्रिया छगू खँग्वल्य् आखःया सिक्वेन्सं खँग्वःया अर्थ निर्धारण याइगु थें हे ख। छगू फंक्सनल युनिट दयेकिगु डिएनए मोलेक्युलया सिक्वेन्सयात [[जीन]] धाइ। थी-थी जीनया थी-थी बेस सिक्वेन्स दै। सेल बायोलोजीइ डिएनएया छगू ताःहाकःगु कन्डेन्स्ड संरचनायात क्रोमोजम धाइ। छगू क्रोमोजमया निश्चित थाय्‌यात [[लोकस]] धाइ। छगू लोकसय् डिएनएया सिक्वेन्स मनुदथुइ पाःसा उकियात [[एलिल]] धाइ। अतः, एलिल धाःगु क्रोमोजमया छगू हे निश्चित थासय् दइगु व छगू हे ज्या याइगु जीन (दसु मिखाया रंग बीगु जीन)या थी-थी प्रकार ख। डिएनए श्रृङ्खलाय् [[म्युटेसन]] जुया एलिलय् हिउपा वयेफु। थथे म्युटेसन वःसा न्हुगु एलिलं प्राणीया फेनोटाइप वंशानुगत फेनोटाइप स्वया हिलाछ्वये फु।  

एलिल व गुणया थ्व साधारण अन्तरक्रिया छुं थासय् पाय्‌छि जुसां यक्व गुण थ्व साधारण अन्तरक्रिया स्वया जटिल प्रक्रियां [[मात्रात्मक गुण लोकस|यक्व जीनया अन्तरक्रियां]] निर्धारण जुइ व सकल जीनया छुं भूमिका दःसां अन्ततः वैगु गुण धाःसा सकलया अन्तरक्रियाया लिच्वः जुइ। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Phillips PC |title=Epistasis--the essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=855–67 |year=2008 |month=November |pmid=18852697 |doi=10.1038/nrg2452}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Lin&gt;{{cite journal |author=Wu R, Lin M |title=Functional mapping - how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=229–37 |year=2006 |pmid=16485021 |doi=10.1038/nrg1804}}&lt;/ref&gt; थन्याःगु जटिल गुणतयेगु सीकेज्या धाःसा आःया समयया जेनेटिक मालेज्याया छगू मू ख्यः ख। जेनेटिक्सया छगू मेगु आजुचाइगु ख्यः [[इपिजेनेटिक्स]] ख गुकिलि वंशानुगत गुणय् जीनय् हिउपा मवेकःहे प्राणीया वंशानुगत गुणय् हिउपा वै। थ्व ख्यः नं जेनेटिक्सया छगू मू मालेज्याया ख्यः ख। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Richards EJ |title=Inherited epigenetic variation--revisiting soft inheritance |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=395–401 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16534512 |doi=10.1038/nrg1834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== भिन्नता ==
छम्ह प्राणीया [[फेनोटाइप]] प्राणीया [[जेनोटाइप]] व वातावरणया अन्तरक्रियाया लिच्वः ख। फेनोटाइपया भिन्नता आपालं जेनोटाइपया भिन्नताया लिच्व ख। &lt;ref name=Lin/&gt; [[आधुनिक विकासक्रम संश्लेषण]]या परिभाषा कथं विकासक्रम वा इभोलुसन धाःगु जेनेटिक भिन्नताय् समयनाप वइगु हिउपा ख। छगू प्रकारया एलिलया फ्रिक्वेन्सी समय नाप पाना वनि व मेमेगु एलिलया तुलनाय् सापेक्षिक रुपय् वातावरणनापया अन्तरक्रियाया लिच्वःया कथं पाइ। विकासक्रम थ्व हे एलिलया फ्रिक्वेन्सीया हिउपा व म्युटेसनया आधारय् न्ह्यने बढेजुइ। भिन्नता सामान्यतया उपस्थित जुसां छगू एलिल [[फिक्सेसन (जनसंख्या जेनेटिक्स)|फिक्सेसन]]या फुतिइ थ्यन वा छगू एलिल बाहेक मेगु एलिल दक्वं नास जुयावन धाःसा तनावनि। &lt;ref name=Amos&gt;{{cite journal |author=Harwood AJ |title=Factors affecting levels of genetic diversity in natural populations |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=353 |issue=1366 |pages=177–86 |year=1998 |pmid=9533122 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=9533122 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1998.0200}}&lt;/ref&gt;

भिन्नता [[आनुवंशिक पदार्थ]]य् (genetic material) म्युटेसन, प्राणीया जनसंख्याया स्थानान्तरणं जुइगु जीन बहाव (gene flow) व [[मैथुनिक प्रजनन|मैथुनिक प्रजननं]] जुइगु जिनया फेरबदल (reshuffling)या लिच्वःया कथं वै। भिन्नता, विशेषयाना [[एककोशिक]] प्राणीइ थी-थी प्राणीतयेगु दथुइ जुइगु जीन हिजेज्यां नं वै। दसु ब्याक्टेरियाय् जुइगु [[क्षैतिज जिन प्रदान]] (horizontal gene transfer) व स्वांमाय् याइगु वर्ण संकरन प्रक्रिया (hybridization)। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Draghi J, Turner P |title=DNA secretion and gene-level selection in bacteria |journal=Microbiology (Reading, Engl.) |volume=152 |issue=Pt 9 |pages=2683–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16946263}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal |author=Mallet J |title=Hybrid speciation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2007-03-15_446_7133/page/279 |journal=Nature |volume=446 |issue=7133 |pages=279–83 |year=2007 |pmid=17361174 |doi=10.1038/nature05706}}&lt;/ref&gt; थन्यागु प्रविधिं निरन्तर रुपय् भिन्नता हयातःसां छगू प्रजातिया आपालं [[जेनोम]] व हे प्रजातिया मेमेपिं प्राणीतनाप मेल न। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author=Butlin RK, Tregenza T |title=Levels of genetic polymorphism: marker loci versus quantitative traits |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=353 |issue=1366 |pages=187–98 |year=1998 |pmid=9533123 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=9533123 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1998.0201}}&lt;/ref&gt; नापं, जेनोटाइपय् म्हो जक्क हिउपा वःसां फेनोटाइपय् नाटकीय रुपान्तरण जुइ। दसुया निंतिं चिम्पाञ्जी व मनुया जेनोम ५% जक्क पा तर चिम्पाञ्जी व मनुतयेगु फेनोटाइप यक्व हे पा। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Wetterbom A, Sevov M, Cavelier L, Bergström TF |title=Comparative genomic analysis of human and chimpanzee indicates a key role for indels in primate evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-molecular-evolution_2006-11_63_5/page/682 |journal= J. Mol. Evol. |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=682–90 |year=2006 |pmid=17075697 |doi=10.1007/s00239-006-0045-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== म्युतेसन ===
[[किपा:Gene-duplication.svg|thumb|100px|left|क्रोमोजमया छगू भागया दुप्लिकेसन।]]
जेनेतिक भिन्न्ता प्राणीतयेगु जेनोमय् जुइगु अक्रमिक (random) म्युतेसनया लिच्वः ख। म्युतेसन धाःगु थी-थी कारणं (दसु- विकिरण, भाइरस, त्रान्स्पोजोन, म्युताजेनिक रसायन, मायोसिस व दिएनए रेप्लिकेसनय् जुइगु गलती आदि) प्राणीया दिएनए सिक्वेन्सय् वैगु परिवर्तन ख। &lt;ref name=Bertram&gt;{{cite journal |author=Bertram J |title=The molecular biology of cancer |journal=Mol. Aspects Med. |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=167–223 |year=2000 |pmid=11173079 |doi=10.1016/S0098-2997(00)00007-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Aminetzach YT, Macpherson JM, Petrov DA |title=Pesticide resistance via transposition-mediated adaptive gene truncation in Drosophila |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2005-07-29_309_5735/page/764 |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5735 |pages=764–67 |year=2005 |pmid=16051794 |doi=10.1126/science.1112699}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Burrus&gt;{{cite journal |author=Burrus V, Waldor M |title=Shaping bacterial genomes with integrative and conjugative elements |url=https://archive.org/details/research-in-microbiology_2004-06_155_5/page/376 |journal=Res. Microbiol. |volume=155 |issue=5 |pages=376–86 |year=2004 |pmid=15207870 |doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2004.01.012}}&lt;/ref&gt; म्युतेसन याकिगु तत्त्वयात म्युताजेन धाइ। थन्यागु म्युतेसनं दिएनए सिक्वेन्सय् थी-थी कथंया परिवर्तन हयेफु। म्युताजेन्सं छुं असर मयायेगु, जीनया उत्पादयात स्यंकिगु, जीनयात ज्या यायेमबिगु आदि हिउपा हयेफु। म्युतेसनं आपालं ध्वंसात्मक हिउपा हैगुलिं प्राणीतयेसं म्युतेसन म्हो यायेत थी-थी विकासक्रमात्मक पद्दति दयेकावःगु दु। &lt;ref name=Bertram/&gt; अतः, म्युतेसन दर म्युतेसन याइगु तत्त्व व म्युतेसन पनिगु तत्त्वया लिच्वलं निर्धारण याइ। &lt;ref name=Sniegowski&gt;{{cite journal |author=Sniegowski P, Gerrish P, Johnson T, Shaver A |title=The evolution of mutation rates: separating causes from consequences |journal=Bioessays |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=1057–66 |year=2000 |pmid=11084621 |doi=10.1002/1521-1878(200012)22:12&lt;1057::AID-BIES3&gt;3.0.CO;2-W}}&lt;/ref&gt; छुं प्रजाति दसु रेर्तोभाइरसय् यक्व म्युतेसन खनेदु व अन्यागु प्राणीतयेगु यक्व मचातयेके म्युतेतेद जिन दैगु या। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Drake JW, Charlesworth B, Charlesworth D, Crow JF |title=Rates of spontaneous mutation |journal=Genetics |volume=148 |issue=4 |pages=1667–86 |year=1998 |pmid=9560386 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=9560386}}&lt;/ref&gt; थन्यागु तच्वः गतिया म्युतेसन थ्व प्राणीया निंतिं लाभात्मक जु छाय्धाःसा थ्व प्राणीं त्च्वःगु गतिं विकशित जुया मनुया प्रतिरोधात्मक व्यवस्थाया कारवाहीयात पनेफु व थन्यागु त्च्वःगु म्युतेसन मदूगु जुसा थ्व प्राणी लोप जुइत थाकू मजु।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Holland J, Spindler K, Horodyski F, Grabau E, Nichol S, VandePol S |title=Rapid evolution of RNA genomes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1982-03-26_215_4540/page/1577 |journal=Science |volume=215 |issue=4540 |pages=1577–85 |year=1982 |pmid=7041255 |doi=10.1126/science.7041255}}&lt;/ref&gt;

म्युतेसन दुप्लिकेसन जुयाच्वंगु दिएनएया तःधंगु खण्डय् जुइफु गुकिलिं विकासक्रमय् न्हुगु जिन उत्पादन यायेत ग्वहालि याइ।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Carroll SB, Grenier J, Weatherbee SD |title=From DNA to Diversity: Molecular Genetics and the Evolution of Animal Design. Second Edition |url=https://archive.org/details/fromdnatodiversi0000carr |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2005 |location=Oxford |isbn=1-4051-1950-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most genes belong to larger [[gene family|families of genes]] of [[homology (biology)|shared ancestry]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Harrison P, Gerstein M |title=Studying genomes through the aeons: protein families, pseudogenes and proteome evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-molecular-biology_2002-05-17_318_5/page/1155 |journal=J Mol Biol |volume=318 |issue=5 |pages=1155–74 |year=2002 |pmid=12083509 |doi=10.1016/S0022-2836(02)00109-2}}&lt;/ref&gt; Novel genes are produced by several methods, commonly through the duplication and mutation of an ancestral gene, or by recombining parts of different genes to form new combinations with new functions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Orengo CA, Thornton JM |title=Protein families and their evolution-a structural perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-biochemistry_2005_74/page/867 |journal=Annu. Rev. Biochem. |volume=74 |issue= |pages=867–900 |year=2005 |pmid=15954844 |doi=10.1146/annurev.biochem.74.082803.133029}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Long M, Betrán E, Thornton K, Wang W |title=The origin of new genes: glimpses from the young and old |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=865–75 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14634634 |doi=10.1038/nrg1204}}&lt;/ref&gt; Here, [[protein domain|domains]] act as modules, each with a particular and independent function, that can be mixed together to produce genes encoding new proteins with novel properties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Wang M, Caetano-Anollés G |title=The evolutionary mechanics of domain organization in proteomes and the rise of modularity in the protein world |journal=Structure |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=66–78 |year=2009 |doi=doi:10.1016/j.str.2008.11.008}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for [[Cone cell|color vision]] and one for [[Rod cell|night vision]]; all four arose from a single ancestral gene.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Bowmaker JK |title=Evolution of colour vision in vertebrates |journal=Eye (London, England) |volume=12 (Pt 3b) |pages=541–47 |year=1998 |pmid=9775215}}&lt;/ref&gt; Another advantage of duplicating a gene (or even an [[Polyploidy|entire genome]]) is that overlapping or [[Redundancy (engineering)|redundant functions]] in multiple genes allows alleles to be retained that would otherwise be harmful, thus increasing genetic diversity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Gregory TR, Hebert PD |title=The modulation of DNA content: proximate causes and ultimate consequences |url=http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/9/4/317 |journal=Genome Res. |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=317–24 |year=1999 |pmid=10207154}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Changes in chromosome number may involve even larger mutations, where segments of the DNA within chromosomes break and then rearrange. For example, two chromosomes in the [[Homo (genus)|''Homo'']] [[genus]] fused to produce human [[chromosome 2 (human)|chromosome 2]]; this fusion did not occur in the [[Lineage (evolution)|lineage]] of the other apes, and they retain these separate chromosomes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Zhang J, Wang X, Podlaha O |title=Testing the chromosomal speciation hypothesis for humans and chimpanzees |doi= 10.1101/gr.1891104 |journal=Genome Res. |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=845–51 |year=2004 |pmid=15123584}}&lt;/ref&gt; In evolution, the most important role of such chromosomal rearrangements may be to accelerate the divergence of a population into new species by making populations less likely to interbreed, and thereby preserving genetic differences between these populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Ayala FJ, Coluzzi M |title=Chromosome speciation: humans, Drosophila, and mosquitoes |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/102/suppl_1/6535 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=102 Supplement 1 |issue= |pages=6535–42 |year=2005 |pmid=15851677 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0501847102}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sequences of DNA that can move about the genome, such as [[transposon]]s, make up a major fraction of the genetic material of plants and animals, and may have been important in the evolution of genomes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Hurst GD, Werren JH |title=The role of selfish genetic elements in eukaryotic evolution |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=597–606 |year=2001 |pmid=11483984 |doi=10.1038/35084545}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, more than a million copies of the [[Alu sequence]] are present in the [[human genome]], and these sequences have now been recruited to perform functions such as regulating [[gene expression]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Häsler J, Strub K |title=Alu elements as regulators of gene expression |journal=Nucleic Acids Res. |volume=34 |issue=19 |pages=5491–97 |year=2006 |pmid=17020921 |doi=10.1093/nar/gkl706}}&lt;/ref&gt; Another effect of these mobile DNA sequences is that when they move within a genome, they can mutate or delete existing genes and thereby produce genetic diversity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Aminetzach YT, Macpherson JM, Petrov DA |title=Pesticide resistance via transposition-mediated adaptive gene truncation in Drosophila |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2005-07-29_309_5735/page/764 |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5735 |pages=764–67 |year=2005 |pmid=16051794 |doi=10.1126/science.1112699}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Sex and recombination ===
{{details more|Genetic recombination|Sexual reproduction}}
In asexual organisms, genes are inherited together, or ''linked'', as they cannot mix with genes in other organisms during reproduction. However, the offspring of [[sex]]ual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents' chromosomes that are produced through [[independent assortment]]. In the related process of [[genetic recombination]], sexual organisms can also exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Radding C |title=Homologous pairing and strand exchange in genetic recombination |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-genetics_1982_16/page/405 |journal=Annu. Rev. Genet. |volume=16 |pages=405–37 |year=1982 |pmid=6297377 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ge.16.120182.002201}}&lt;/ref&gt; Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles.&lt;ref name=Agrawal&gt;{{cite journal |author=Agrawal AF |title=Evolution of sex: why do organisms shuffle their genotypes? |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=16 |issue=17 |pages=R696 |year=2006 |pmid=16950096 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2006.07.063}}&lt;/ref&gt; While this process increases the variation in any individual's offspring, genetic mixing can be predicted to either have no effect, increase, or decrease the [[Genetic diversity|genetic variation]] in the population, depending on how the various alleles in the population are distributed. For example, if two alleles are randomly distributed in a population, then sex will have no effect on variation; however, if two alleles tend to be found as a pair, then genetic mixing will even out this non-random distribution and over time make the organisms in the population more similar to each other.&lt;ref name=Agrawal/&gt; The overall effect of sex on natural variation remains unclear, but recent research suggests that sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Peters AD, Otto SP |title=Liberating genetic variance through sex |journal=Bioessays |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=533–7 |year=2003 |pmid=12766942 |doi=10.1002/bies.10291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Goddard MR, Godfray HC, Burt A |title=Sex increases the efficacy of natural selection in experimental yeast populations |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-03-31_434_7033/page/636 |journal=Nature |volume=434 |issue=7033 |pages=636–40 |year=2005 |pmid=15800622 |doi=10.1038/nature03405}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Recombination allows even alleles that are close together in a strand of DNA to be [[Mendelian inheritance#Mendel.27s law of segregation|inherited independently]]. However, the rate of recombination is low, since in humans in a stretch of DNA one million [[base pair]]s long there is about a one in a hundred chance of a recombination event occurring per generation. As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other, and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Lien S, Szyda J, Schechinger B, Rappold G, Arnheim N |title=Evidence for heterogeneity in recombination in the human pseudoautosomal region: high resolution analysis by sperm typing and radiation-hybrid mapping |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=10677316 |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=557–66 |year=2000 |pmid=10677316 |doi=10.1086/302754}}&lt;/ref&gt; This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles of different genes occur together, which is called their [[linkage disequilibrium]]. A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a [[haplotype]].

Sexual reproduction helps to remove harmful mutations and retain beneficial mutations.&lt;ref name=Otto&gt;{{cite journal |author=Otto S |title=The advantages of segregation and the evolution of sex |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=12871918 |journal=Genetics |volume=164 |issue=3 |pages=1099–118 |year=2003 |pmid=12871918}}&lt;/ref&gt; Consequently, when alleles cannot be separated by recombination – such as in mammalian [[Y chromosome]]s, which pass intact from fathers to sons – harmful [[Muller's ratchet|mutations accumulate]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Muller H |title=The relation of recombination to mutational advance |journal=Mutat. Res. |volume=106 |issue= |pages=2–9 |year=1964 |pmid=14195748}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Charlesworth B, Charlesworth D |title=The degeneration of Y chromosomes |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=11127901 |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=355 |issue=1403 |pages=1563–72 |year=2000 |pmid=11127901 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.0717}}&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, recombination and reassortment can produce individuals with new and advantageous gene combinations. These positive effects are balanced by the fact that this process can cause mutations and separate beneficial combinations of genes.&lt;ref name=Otto/&gt;

=== Population genetics ===
{{Double image stack |right|Biston.betularia.7200.jpg |Biston.betularia.f.carbonaria.7209.jpg|200| White [[peppered moth]] |Black morph in [[peppered moth evolution]]}}

From a genetic viewpoint, evolution is a ''generation-to-generation change in the frequencies of alleles within a population that shares a common gene pool''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Stoltzfus A |title=Mutationism and the dual causation of evolutionary change |journal=Evol. Dev. |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=304–17 |year=2006 |pmid=16686641 |doi=10.1111/j.1525-142X.2006.00101.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; A [[population]] is a localized group of individuals belonging to the same species. For example, all of the moths of the same species living in an isolated forest represent a population. A single gene in this population may have several alternate forms, which account for variations between the phenotypes of the organisms. An example might be a gene for coloration in moths that has two alleles: black and white. A [[gene pool]] is the complete set of alleles in a single population, so each allele occurs a certain number of times in a gene pool. The fraction of genes within the gene pool that are a particular allele is called the [[allele frequency]]. Evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms; for example the allele for black color in a population of moths becoming more common.

To understand the mechanisms that cause a population to evolve, it is useful to consider what conditions are required for a population not to evolve. The ''[[Hardy-Weinberg principle]]'' states that the frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) in a sufficiently large population will remain constant if the only forces acting on that population are the random reshuffling of alleles during the formation of the sperm or egg, and the random combination of the alleles in these sex cells during [[Fertilisation|fertilization]].&lt;ref name=oneil&gt;{{cite web |url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/synthetic/synth_2.htm|title= Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Model|accessdate=2008-01-06 |last= O'Neil |first=Dennis |year=2008 |work= The synthetic theory of evolution: An introduction to modern evolutionary concepts and theories|publisher=Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such a population is said to be in ''Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium'' - it is not evolving.&lt;ref name= Teach2&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.evoled.org/lessons/speciation.htm|title= Causes of evolution|accessdate=2007-12-30 |last= Bright |first=Kerry |year=2006 |work= Teach Evolution and Make It Relevant |publisher=National Science Foundation}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mechanisms ==
The three main mechanisms that produce evolution are [[natural selection]], [[genetic drift]], and [[gene flow]]. Natural selection favors genes that improve capacity for survival and reproduction. Genetic drift is random change in the frequency of alleles, caused by the random sampling of a generation's genes during reproduction. Gene flow is the transfer of genes within and between populations. The relative importance of natural selection and genetic drift in a population varies depending on the strength of the selection and the [[effective population size]], which is the number of individuals capable of breeding.&lt;ref name=Whitlock&gt;{{cite journal |author=Whitlock M |title=Fixation probability and time in subdivided populations |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=12807795 |journal=Genetics |volume=164 |issue=2 |pages=767–79 |year=2003 |pmid=12807795}}&lt;/ref&gt; Natural selection usually predominates in large populations, while genetic drift dominates in small populations. The dominance of genetic drift in small populations can even lead to the fixation of slightly deleterious mutations.&lt;ref name=Ohta&gt;{{cite journal |author=Ohta T |title=Near-neutrality in evolution of genes and gene regulation |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/252626899v1 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=99 |issue=25 |pages=16134–37 |year=2002 |doi=10.1073/pnas.252626899 |pmid=12461171}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, changing population size can dramatically influence the course of evolution. [[Population bottleneck]]s, where the population shrinks temporarily and therefore loses genetic variation, result in a more uniform population.&lt;ref name=Amos/&gt; Bottlenecks also result from alterations in gene flow such as decreased migration, [[founder effect|expansions into new habitats]], or population subdivision.&lt;ref name=Whitlock/&gt;

=== Natural selection ===
{{details more|Natural selection|Fitness (biology)}}
[[किपा:Mutation and selection diagram.svg|thumb|right|300px|[[Natural selection]] of a population for dark coloration.]]

[[Natural selection]] is the process by which genetic mutations that enhance reproduction become, and remain, more common in successive generations of a population. It has often been called a &quot;self-evident&quot; mechanism because it necessarily follows from three simple facts:
* Heritable variation exists within populations of organisms.
* Organisms produce more offspring than can survive.
* These offspring vary in their ability to survive and reproduce.

These conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction. Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors pass these advantageous traits on, while traits that do not confer an advantage are not passed on to the next generation.&lt;ref name=Hurst&gt;{{cite journal |author=Hurst LD |title=Fundamental concepts in genetics: genetics and the understanding of selection |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=83–93 |year=2009 |month=February |pmid=19119264 |doi=10.1038/nrg2506}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The central concept of natural selection is the [[fitness (biology)|evolutionary fitness]] of an organism. This measures the organism's genetic contribution to the next generation. However, this is not the same as the total number of offspring: instead fitness measures the proportion of subsequent generations that carry an organism's genes.&lt;ref name=Haldane&gt;{{cite journal |author=Haldane J |title=The theory of natural selection today |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1959-03-14_183_4663/page/710 |journal=Nature |volume=183 |issue=4663 |pages=710–13 |year=1959 |pmid=13644170 | doi=10.1038/183710a0}}&lt;/ref&gt; Consequently, if an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene, then with each generation this allele will become more common within the population. These traits are said to be &quot;selected ''for''&quot;. Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival, and increased [[fecundity]]. Conversely, the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele becoming rarer — they are &quot;selected ''against''&quot;.&lt;ref name=Lande/&gt; Importantly, the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic, if the environment changes, previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful.&lt;ref name=&quot;Futuyma&quot;/&gt;

Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such as height, can be categorized into three different types. The first is [[directional selection]], which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time — for example organisms slowly getting taller.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Hoekstra H, Hoekstra J, Berrigan D, Vignieri S, Hoang A, Hill C, Beerli P, Kingsolver J |title=Strength and tempo of directional selection in the wild |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=11470913 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=98 |issue=16 |pages=9157–60 |year=2001 |pmid=11470913 |doi=10.1073/pnas.161281098}}&lt;/ref&gt; Secondly, [[disruptive selection]] is selection for extreme trait values and often results in [[bimodal distribution|two different values]] becoming most common, with selection against the average value. This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of medium height. Finally, in [[stabilizing selection]] there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in [[variance]] around the average value and less diversity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Felsenstein |title=Excursions along the Interface between Disruptive and Stabilizing Selection |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=17248980 |journal=Genetics |volume=93 |issue=3 |pages=773–95 |year=1979 |pmid=17248980}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hurst/&gt; This would, for example, cause organisms to slowly become all the same height.

A special case of natural selection is [[sexual selection]], which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Andersson M, Simmons L |title=Sexual selection and mate choice |journal=Trends Ecol. Evol. (Amst.) |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=296–302 |year=2006 |pmid=16769428 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2006.03.015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent in males of some animal species, despite traits such as cumbersome antlers, mating calls or bright colors that attract predators, decreasing the survival of individual males.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Kokko H, Brooks R, McNamara J, Houston A |title=The sexual selection continuum |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1691039&amp;blobtype=pdf |journal=Proc. Biol. Sci. |volume=269 |issue=1498 |pages=1331–40 |year=2002 |pmid=12079655 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2002.2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these [[Handicap principle|hard to fake]], sexually selected traits.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Hunt J, Brooks R, Jennions M, Smith M, Bentsen C, Bussière L |title=High-quality male field crickets invest heavily in sexual display but die young |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_december-23-30-2004_432_7020/page/1024 |journal=Nature |volume=432 |issue=7020 |pages=1024–27 |year=2004 |pmid=15616562 | doi=10.1038/nature03084}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals, and individual traits, are more or less likely to survive.  &quot;Nature&quot; in this sense refers to an [[ecosystem]], that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other element, [[abiotic|physical]] as well as [[biotic|biological]], in their local [[environment (biophysical)|environment]]. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, defined an ecosystem as: &quot;Any unit that includes all of the organisms...in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (ie: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Odum1971&quot;&gt;Odum, EP (1971) Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York&lt;/ref&gt;  Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct [[niche]], or position, with distinct relationships to other parts of the system.  These relationships involve the life history of the organism, its position in the [[food chain]], and its geographic range. This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection. 

An active area of research is the [[unit of selection]], with natural selection being proposed to work at the level of genes, cells, individual organisms, groups of organisms and even species.&lt;ref name=Gould&gt;{{cite journal |author=Gould SJ |title=Gulliver's further travels: the necessity and difficulty of a hierarchical theory of selection |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=9533127 |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=353 |issue=1366 |pages=307–14 |year=1998 |pmid=9533127 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1998.0211}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Mayr E |title=The objects of selection |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1997-03-18_94_6/page/2091 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.94.6.2091 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=2091–94 |year=1997 |pmid=9122151}}&lt;/ref&gt; None of these are mutually exclusive and selection may act on multiple levels simultaneously.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Maynard Smith J |title=The units of selection |journal=Novartis Found. Symp. |volume=213 |pages=203–11; discussion 211–17 |year=1998 |pmid=9653725}}&lt;/ref&gt; An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called [[transposon]]s, which can replicate and spread throughout a [[genome]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Hickey DA |title=Evolutionary dynamics of transposable elements in prokaryotes and eukaryotes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_genetica_1992_86_1-3/page/269 |journal=Genetica |volume=86 |issue=1–3 |pages=269–74 |year=1992 |pmid=1334911 | doi=10.1007/BF00133725}}&lt;/ref&gt; Selection at a level above the individual, such as [[group selection]], may allow the evolution of co-operation, as discussed below.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Gould SJ, Lloyd EA |title=Individuality and adaptation across levels of selection: how shall we name and generalize the unit of Darwinism? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1999-10-12_96_21/page/11904 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.96.21.11904 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=96 |issue=21 |pages=11904–09 |year=1999 |pmid=10518549}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Genetic drift ===
{{details more|Genetic drift|Effective population size}}
[[किपा:Allele-frequency.png|thumb|right|250px| Simulation of [[genetic drift]] of 20 unlinked alleles in populations of 10 (top) and 100 (bottom). Drift to [[Fixation (population genetics)|fixation]] is more rapid in the smaller population.]]
Genetic drift is the change in allele frequency from one generation to the next that occurs because alleles in offspring are a [[sampling (statistics)|random sample]] of those in the parents, as well as from the role that chance plays in determining whether a given individual will survive and reproduce.&lt;ref name=Amos/&gt; In mathematical terms, alleles are subject to [[sampling error]]. As a result, when selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies tend to &quot;drift&quot; upward or downward randomly (in a [[random walk]]). This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes [[Fixation (population genetics)|fixed]], either by disappearing from the population, or replacing the other alleles entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate populations that began with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Lande R |title=Fisherian and Wrightian theories of speciation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_genome_1989_31_1/page/221 |journal=Genome |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=221–27 |year=1989 |pmid=2687093}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The time for an allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size, with fixation occurring more rapidly in smaller populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Otto S, Whitlock M |title=The probability of fixation in populations of changing size |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=9178020 |journal=Genetics |volume=146 |issue=2 |pages=723–33 |year=1997 |pmid=9178020}}&lt;/ref&gt; The precise measure of population that is important is called the [[effective population size]]. The effective population is always smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding, the number of animals that are too old or young to breed, and the lower probability of animals that live far apart managing to mate with each other.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Charlesworth B |title=Fundamental concepts in genetics: Effective population size and patterns of molecular evolution and variation |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=10 |pages=195-205 |year=2009 |month=March |pmid=19204717 |doi=10.1038/nrg2526}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Although natural selection is responsible for adaptation, the relative importance of the two forces of natural selection and genetic drift in driving evolutionary change in general is an area of current research in evolutionary biology.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Nei M |title=Selectionism and neutralism in molecular evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_2005-12_22_12/page/2318 |doi= 10.1093/molbev/msi242 |journal=Mol. Biol. Evol. |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=2318–42 |year=2005 |pmid=16120807}}&lt;/ref&gt; These investigations were prompted by the [[neutral theory of molecular evolution]], which proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of [[neutral mutation]]s that do not have any immediate effects on the fitness of an organism.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Kimura M |title=The neutral theory of molecular evolution: a review of recent evidence |url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjg/66/4/66_367/_article |journal=Jpn. J. Genet. |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=367–86 |year=1991 |pmid=1954033 |doi=10.1266/jjg.66.367}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hence, in this model, most genetic changes in a population are the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Kimura M |title=The neutral theory of molecular evolution and the world view of the neutralists |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_genome_1989_31_1/page/24 |journal=Genome |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=24–31 |year=1989 |pmid=2687096}}&lt;/ref&gt; This form of the neutral theory is now largely abandoned, since it does not seem to fit the genetic variation seen in nature.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Kreitman M |title=The neutral theory is dead. Long live the neutral theory |journal=Bioessays |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=678–83; discussion 683 |year=1996 |month=August |pmid=8760341 |doi=10.1002/bies.950180812 |url=http://www.cs.ucsb.edu/~ambuj/Courses/bioinformatics/neutral-theory}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Leigh E.G. (Jr) | year=2007| title=Neutral theory: a historical perspective.| journal=[[Journal of Evolutionary Biology]] |volume=20 |pages=2075–2091| doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01410.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, a more recent and better-supported version of this model is the [[nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution|nearly-neutral theory]], where most mutations only have small effects on fitness.&lt;ref name=Hurst/&gt;

=== Gene flow ===
{{details more|Gene flow|Hybrid (biology)|Horizontal gene transfer}}
[[किपा:Lion waiting in Namibia.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Male [[lion]]s leave the pride where they are born and take over a new pride to mate. This results in [[gene flow]] between prides.]]
[[Gene flow]] is the exchange of genes between populations, which are usually of the same species.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Morjan C, Rieseberg L |title=How species evolve collectively: implications of gene flow and selection for the spread of advantageous alleles |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-ecology_2004-06_13_6/page/1341 |journal=Mol. Ecol. |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=1341–56 |year=2004 |pmid=15140081 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02164.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; Examples of gene flow within a species include the migration and then breeding of organisms, or the exchange of [[pollen]]. Gene transfer between species includes the formation of [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] organisms and [[horizontal gene transfer]].

Migration into or out of a population can change allele frequencies, as well as introducing genetic variation into a population. Immigration may add new genetic material to the established [[gene pool]] of a population. Conversely, emigration may remove genetic material. As [[reproductive isolation|barriers to reproduction]] between two diverging populations are required for the populations to [[speciation|become new species]], gene flow may slow this process by spreading genetic differences between the populations. Gene flow is hindered by mountain ranges, oceans and deserts or even man-made structures such as the [[Great Wall of China]], which has hindered the flow of plant genes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Su H, Qu L, He K, Zhang Z, Wang J, Chen Z, Gu H |title=The Great Wall of China: a physical barrier to gene flow? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_heredity_2003-03_90_3/page/212 |journal=Heredity |volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=212–19 |year=2003 |pmid=12634804 |doi=10.1038/sj.hdy.6800237}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Depending on how far two species have diverged since their [[most recent common ancestor]], it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with [[horse]]s and [[donkey]]s mating to produce [[mule]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Short RV |title=The contribution of the mule to scientific thought |journal=J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. |issue=23 |pages=359–64 |year=1975 |pmid=1107543}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] are generally [[infertility|infertile]], due to the two different sets of chromosomes being unable to pair up during [[meiosis]]. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Gross B, Rieseberg L |title=The ecological genetics of homoploid hybrid speciation |doi= 10.1093/jhered/esi026 |journal=J. Hered. |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=241–52 |year=2005 |pmid=15618301}}&lt;/ref&gt; The importance of hybridization in creating [[hybrid speciation|new species]] of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Burke JM, Arnold ML |title=Genetics and the fitness of hybrids |journal=Annu. Rev. Genet. |volume=35 |issue= |pages=31–52 |year=2001 |pmid=11700276 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.35.102401.085719 }}&lt;/ref&gt; with the [[gray tree frog]] being a particularly well-studied example.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Vrijenhoek RC |title=Polyploid hybrids: multiple origins of a treefrog species |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=16 |issue=7 | pages = R245 |year=2006 |pmid=16581499 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2006.03.005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Hybridization is, however, an important means of speciation in plants, since [[polyploidy]] (having more than two copies of each chromosome) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals.&lt;ref name=Wendel&gt;{{cite journal |author=Wendel J |title=Genome evolution in polyploids |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_plant-molecular-biology_2000-01_42_1/page/225 |journal=Plant Mol. Biol. |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=225–49 |year=2000 |pmid=10688139 |doi=10.1023/A:1006392424384 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Semon&gt;{{cite journal |author=Sémon M, Wolfe KH |title=Consequences of genome duplication |journal=Curr Opin Genet Dev |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=505–12  |year=2007 |pmid=18006297 |doi=10.1016/j.gde.2007.09.007 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical partner during meiosis.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Comai L |title=The advantages and disadvantages of being polyploid |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=836–46 |year=2005 |pmid=16304599 |doi=10.1038/nrg1711 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Polyploids also have more genetic diversity, which allows them to avoid [[inbreeding depression]] in small populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Soltis P, Soltis D |title=The role of genetic and genomic attributes in the success of polyploids |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=10860970 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=97 |issue=13 |pages=7051–57 |year=2000 |pmid=10860970 |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.13.7051 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Horizontal gene transfer]] is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among [[bacteria]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Boucher Y, Douady CJ, Papke RT, Walsh DA, Boudreau ME, Nesbo CL, Case RJ, Doolittle WF |title=Lateral gene transfer and the origins of prokaryotic groups |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.37.050503.084247 |journal=Annu Rev Genet |volume=37 |pages=283–328 |year=2003 |pmid=14616063}}&lt;/ref&gt; In medicine, this contributes to the spread of [[antibiotic resistance]], as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Walsh T |title=Combinatorial genetic evolution of multiresistance |journal=Curr. Opin. Microbiol. |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=476–82 |year=2006 |pmid=16942901 |doi=10.1016/j.mib.2006.08.009 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' and the adzuki bean beetle ''Callosobruchus chinensis'' may also have occurred.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Kondo N, Nikoh N, Ijichi N, Shimada M, Fukatsu T |title=Genome fragment of Wolbachia endosymbiont transferred to X chromosome of host insect |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2002-10-29_99_22/page/14280 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=99 |issue=22 |pages=14280–85 |year=2002 |pmid=12386340 |doi=10.1073/pnas.222228199 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Sprague G |title=Genetic exchange between kingdoms |journal=Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=530–33 |year=1991 |pmid=1822285 |doi=10.1016/S0959-437X(05)80203-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic [[Bdelloidea|bdelloid rotifers]], which appear to have  received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi, and plants.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Gladyshev EA, Meselson M, Arkhipova IR |title=Massive horizontal gene transfer in bdelloid rotifers |journal=Science (journal) |volume=320 |issue=5880 |pages=1210–3 |year=2008 |month=May |pmid=18511688 |doi=10.1126/science.1156407}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Virus]]es can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across [[domain (biology)|biological domains]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Baldo A, McClure M |title=Evolution and horizontal transfer of dUTPase-encoding genes in viruses and their hosts |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=10438861 |journal=J. Virol. |volume=73 |issue=9 |pages=7710–21 |year=1999 |pmid=10438861}}&lt;/ref&gt; Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of [[eukaryote|eukaryotic cells]] and prokaryotes, during the acquisition of [[chloroplast]]s and [[Mitochondrion|mitochondria]].&lt;ref name = &quot;rgruqh&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Poole A, Penny D |title=Evaluating hypotheses for the origin of eukaryotes |journal=Bioessays |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=74–84 |year=2007 |pmid=17187354  |doi=10.1002/bies.20516 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Outcomes ==
Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behavior of organisms. Most prominent are the specific behavioral and physical [[adaptation]]s that are the outcome of natural selection. These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food, avoiding predators or attracting mates. Organisms can also respond to selection by [[Co-operation (evolution)|co-operating]] with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial [[symbiosis]]. In the longer term, evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that cannot or will not interbreed.

These outcomes of evolution are sometimes divided into [[macroevolution]], which is evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, such as [[extinction]] and [[speciation]], and [[microevolution]], which is smaller evolutionary changes, such as adaptations, within a species or population. In general, macroevolution is regarded as the outcome of long periods of microevolution.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Hendry AP, Kinnison MT |title=An introduction to microevolution: rate, pattern, process |journal=Genetica |volume=112–113 |issue= |pages=1–8 |year=2001 |pmid=11838760 |doi=10.1023/A:1013368628607}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one - the difference is simply the time involved.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Leroi AM |title=The scale independence of evolution |journal=Evol. Dev. |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=67–77 |year=2000 |pmid=11258392 |doi=10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00044.x }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important. For instance, a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new habitats, lessening the chance of it going extinct, while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation, by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated. In this sense, microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels - with microevolution acting on genes and organisms, versus macroevolutionary processes acting on entire species and affecting the rate of speciation and extinction.&lt;ref&gt;{{wikiref |id=Gould-2002 |text=Gould 2002, pp. 657–658}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Gould SJ |title=Tempo and mode in the macroevolutionary reconstruction of Darwinism |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=91 |issue=15 |pages=6764–71 |year=1994 |month=July |pmid=8041695 |pmc=44281 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=8041695}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Jablonski2000&gt;{{cite journal | author = Jablonski, D. | year = 2000 | title = Micro- and macroevolution: scale and hierarchy in evolutionary biology and paleobiology | journal = Paleobiology | volume = 26 | issue = sp4 | pages = 15–52 | doi = 10.1666/0094-8373(2000)26[15:MAMSAH]2.0.CO;2 | url = http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A common misconception is that evolution is &quot;progressive,&quot; but natural selection has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity.&lt;ref name=sciam&gt;Michael J. Dougherty. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=is-the-human-race-evolvin Is the human race evolving or devolving?] ''[[Scientific American]]'' July 20, 1998.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[TalkOrigins Archive]] response to [[Creationist]] claims - [http://www.toarchive.org/indexcc/CB/CB932.html Claim CB932: Evolution of degenerate forms]&lt;/ref&gt; Although [[evolution of complexity|complex species]] have evolved, this occurs as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing, and simple forms of life remain more common.&lt;ref name=Carroll&gt;{{cite journal |author=Carroll SB |title=Chance and necessity: the evolution of morphological complexity and diversity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-02-22_409_6823/page/1102 |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6823 |pages=1102–09 |year=2001 |pmid=11234024 |doi=10.1038/35059227 }}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic [[prokaryote]]s, which form about half the world's [[biomass]] despite their small size,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Whitman W, Coleman D, Wiebe W |title=Prokaryotes: the unseen majority |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1998-06-09_95_12/page/6578 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578 |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S a |volume=95 |issue=12 |pages=6578–83 |year=1998|pmid=9618454}}&lt;/ref&gt; and constitute the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity.&lt;ref name=Schloss&gt;{{cite journal |author=Schloss P, Handelsman J |title=Status of the microbial census |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=15590780#r6 |journal=Microbiol Mol Biol Rev |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=686–91 |year=2004 |pmid=15590780 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.68.4.686-691.2004 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day, with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is [[biased sample|more noticeable]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Nealson K |title=Post-Viking microbiology: new approaches, new data, new insights |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_origins-of-life-and-evolution-of-biospheres_1999-01_29_1/page/73 |journal=Orig Life Evol Biosph |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=73–93 |year=1999 |pmid=11536899 |doi=10.1023/A:1006515817767 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Adaptation ===
{{details|Adaptation}}
Adaptations are structures or behaviors that enhance a specific function, causing organisms to become better at surviving and reproducing.&lt;ref name=Darwin/&gt; They are produced by a combination of the continuous production of small, random changes in traits, followed by natural selection of the variants best-suited for their environment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Orr H |title=The genetic theory of adaptation: a brief history |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=119–27 |year=2005 |pmid=15716908 |doi=10.1038/nrg1523 }}&lt;/ref&gt; This process can cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral feature. An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to [[antibiotic]] selection, with genetic changes causing [[antibiotic resistance]] by both modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Nakajima A, Sugimoto Y, Yoneyama H, Nakae T |title=High-level fluoroquinolone resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa due to interplay of the MexAB-OprM efflux pump and the DNA gyrase mutation |url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/mandi/46/6/46_391/_article/-char/en |journal=Microbiol. Immunol. |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=391–95 |year=2002 |pmid=12153116}}&lt;/ref&gt; Other striking examples are the bacteria ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' evolving the ability to use [[citric acid]] as a nutrient in a [[E. coli long-term evolution experiment|long-term laboratory experiment]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Blount ZD, Borland CZ, Lenski RE |title=Inaugural Article: Historical contingency and the evolution of a key innovation in an experimental population of Escherichia coli |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=105 |issue=23 |pages=7899–7906 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18524956 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0803151105 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=18524956}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[Flavobacterium]]'' evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of [[nylon]] manufacturing,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Okada H, Negoro S, Kimura H, Nakamura S |title=Evolutionary adaptation of plasmid-encoded enzymes for degrading nylon oligomers |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1983-11-10_306_5939/page/n136 |journal=Nature |volume=306 |issue=5939 |pages=203–6 |year=1983 |pmid=6646204 |doi=10.1038/306203a0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Ohno S |title=Birth of a unique enzyme from an alternative reading frame of the preexisted, internally repetitious coding sequence |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=81 |issue=8 |pages=2421–5 |year=1984 |month=April |pmid=6585807 |pmc=345072 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=6585807 |doi=10.1073/pnas.81.8.2421}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the soil bacterium ''[[Sphingobium]]'' evolving an entirely new [[metabolic pathway]] that degrades the synthetic [[pesticide]] [[pentachlorophenol]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Copley SD |title=Evolution of a metabolic pathway for degradation of a toxic xenobiotic: the patchwork approach |journal=Trends Biochem. Sci. |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=261–5 |year=2000 |month=June |pmid=10838562 |doi=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Crawford RL, Jung CM, Strap JL |title=The recent evolution of pentachlorophenol (PCP)-4-monooxygenase (PcpB) and associated pathways for bacterial degradation of PCP |journal=Biodegradation |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=525–39 |year=2007 |month=October |pmid=17123025 |doi=10.1007/s10532-006-9090-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact [[exaptation]]s: structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process.&lt;ref name=GouldStructP1235&gt;{{wikiref |id=Gould-2002 |text=Gould 2002, pp. 1235–1236}} &lt;/ref&gt; One example is the African lizard ''Holaspis guentheri'', which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives. However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree—an [[exaptation]].&lt;ref name=GouldStructP1235/&gt; Another is the recruitment of enzymes from [[glycolysis]] and [[xenobiotic metabolism]] to serve as structural proteins called [[crystallin]]s within the lenses of organisms' [[eye]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Piatigorsky J, Kantorow M, Gopal-Srivastava R, Tomarev SI |title=Recruitment of enzymes and stress proteins as lens crystallins |journal=EXS |volume=71 |pages=241–50 |year=1994 |pmid=8032155}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Wistow G |title=Lens crystallins: gene recruitment and evolutionary dynamism |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-biochemical-sciences_1993-08_18_8/page/301 |journal=Trends Biochem. Sci. |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=301–6 |year=1993 |month=August |pmid=8236445 |doi=10.1016/0968-0004(93)90041-K}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[किपा:Whale skeleton.png|350px|thumb|right|A [[baleen whale]] skeleton, ''a'' and ''b'' label [[flipper (anatomy)|flipper]] bones, which were [[adaptation|adapted]] from front [[leg]] bones: while ''c'' indicates [[Vestigiality|vestigial]] leg bones.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Bejder L, Hall BK |title=Limbs in whales and limblessness in other vertebrates: mechanisms of evolutionary and developmental transformation and loss |journal=Evol. Dev. |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=445–58 |year=2002 |pmid=12492145 |doi=10.1046/j.1525-142X.2002.02033.x }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
As adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures, structures with similar internal organization may have very different functions in related organisms. This is the result of a single [[homology (biology)|ancestral structure]] being adapted to function in different ways. The bones within bat wings, for example, are structurally similar to both human hands and seal flippers, due to the common descent of these structures from an ancestor that also had five digits at the end of each forelimb. Other idiosyncratic anatomical features, such as [[sesamoid bone|bones in the wrist]] of the [[Giant Panda|panda]] being formed into a false &quot;thumb,&quot; indicate that an organism's evolutionary lineage can limit what adaptations are possible.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Salesa MJ, Antón M, Peigné S, Morales J |title=Evidence of a false thumb in a fossil carnivore clarifies the evolution of pandas |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/103/2/379 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.]] |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=379–82 |year=2006 |pmid=16387860 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0504899102}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During adaptation, some structures may lose their original function and become [[vestigial structure]]s.&lt;ref name=Fong&gt;{{cite journal |author=Fong D, Kane T, Culver D |title=Vestigialization and Loss of Nonfunctional Characters |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0066-4162%281995%2926%3C249%3AVALONC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 |journal=Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. |volume=26 |pages=249–68 |year=1995 |doi=10.1146/annurev.es.26.110195.001341}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples include [[pseudogene]]s,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Zhang Z, Gerstein M |title=Large-scale analysis of pseudogenes in the human genome |journal=Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=328–35 |year=2004 |month=August |pmid=15261647 |doi=10.1016/j.gde.2004.06.003}}&lt;/ref&gt; the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Jeffery WR |title=Adaptive evolution of eye degeneration in the Mexican blind cavefish |doi= 10.1093/jhered/esi028 |journal=J. Hered. |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=185–96 |year=2005 |pmid=15653557}}&lt;/ref&gt; wings in flightless birds,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Maxwell EE, Larsson HC |title=Osteology and myology of the wing of the Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), and its bearing on the evolution of vestigial structures |journal=J. Morphol. |volume=268 |issue=5 |pages=423–41 |year=2007 |pmid=17390336 |doi=10.1002/jmor.10527 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Bejder L, Hall BK |title=Limbs in whales and limblessness in other vertebrates: mechanisms of evolutionary and developmental transformation and loss |journal=Evol. Dev. |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=445–58 |year=2002 |pmid=12492145 |doi=10.1046/j.1525-142X.2002.02033.x }}&lt;/ref&gt; Examples of vestigial structures in humans include [[wisdom teeth]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Silvestri AR, Singh I |title=The unresolved problem of the third molar: would people be better off without it? |url=http://jada.ada.org/cgi/content/full/134/4/450 |journal=Journal of the American Dental Association (1939) |volume=134 |issue=4 |pages=450–55 |year=2003 |pmid=12733778 |doi=10.1146/annurev.es.26.110195.001341}}&lt;/ref&gt; the [[coccyx]],&lt;ref name=Fong/&gt; and the [[vermiform appendix]].&lt;ref name=Fong/&gt;

A critical principle of [[ecology]] is that of [[competitive exclusion principle|competitive exclusion]]: no two species can occupy the same niche in the same environment for a long time.&lt;ref&gt;[[Garrett Hardin|Hardin, G.]] (1960).  The Competitive Exclusion Principle.  ''Science'' '''131''', 1292-1297.&lt;/ref&gt; Consequently, natural selection will tend to force species to adapt to different [[ecological niche]]s. This may mean that, for example, two species of [[cichlid]] fish adapt to live in different [[habitat]]s, which will minimize the competition between them for food.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Kocher TD |title=Adaptive evolution and explosive speciation: the cichlid fish model |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=288–98 |year=2004 |month=April |pmid=15131652 |doi=10.1038/nrg1316 |url=http://hcgs.unh.edu/staff/kocher/pdfs/Kocher2004.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

An area of current investigation in [[evolutionary developmental biology]] is the [[Developmental biology|developmental]] basis of adaptations and exaptations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Johnson NA, Porter AH |title=Toward a new synthesis: population genetics and evolutionary developmental biology |journal=Genetica |volume=112–113 |issue= |pages=45–58 |year=2001 |pmid=11838782 |doi=10.1023/A:1013371201773}}&lt;/ref&gt; This research addresses the origin and evolution of [[Embryogenesis|embryonic development]] and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Baguñà J, Garcia-Fernàndez J |title=Evo-Devo: the long and winding road |url=http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper.php?doi=14756346 |journal=Int. J. Dev. Biol. |volume=47 |issue=7–8 |pages=705–13 |year=2003 |pmid=14756346}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal | author = Love AC. | year = 2003 | title = Evolutionary Morphology, Innovation, and the Synthesis of Evolutionary and Developmental Biology | journal = Biology and Philosophy | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 309–345 | doi = 10.1023/A:1023940220348 | url = http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00000375/00/LondonPaper.doc}}&lt;/ref&gt; These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to create new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Allin EF |title=Evolution of the mammalian middle ear |journal=J. Morphol. |volume=147 |issue=4 |pages=403–37 |year=1975 |pmid=1202224 |doi=10.1002/jmor.1051470404 }}&lt;/ref&gt; It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes, such as a mutation in [[chicken]]s causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of [[crocodile]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Harris MP, Hasso SM, Ferguson MW, Fallon JF |title=The development of archosaurian first-generation teeth in a chicken mutant |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=371–77 |year=2006 |pmid=16488870 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2005.12.047 }}&lt;/ref&gt; It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in the level and timing of the expression of a small set of conserved genes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Carroll SB |title=Evo-devo and an expanding evolutionary synthesis: a genetic theory of morphological evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2008-07-11_134_1/page/25 |journal=Cell |volume=134 |issue=1 |pages=25–36 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18614008 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2008.06.030}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Co-evolution ===
{{details more|Co-evolution}}
Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and co-operation. When the interaction is between pairs of species, such as a [[pathogen]] and a [[host (biology)|host]], or a [[Predation|predator]] and its prey, these species can develop matched sets of adaptations. Here, the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species. These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species. This cycle of selection and response is called [[co-evolution]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Wade MJ |title=The co-evolutionary genetics of ecological communities |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=185–95 |year=2007 |pmid=17279094 |doi=10.1038/nrg2031 }}&lt;/ref&gt; An example is the production of [[tetrodotoxin]] in the [[rough-skinned newt]] and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator, the [[Common Garter Snake|common garter snake]]. In this predator-prey pair, an [[evolutionary arms race]] has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of resistance in the snake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Geffeney S, Brodie ED, Ruben PC, Brodie ED |title=Mechanisms of adaptation in a predator-prey arms race: TTX-resistant sodium channels |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2002-08-23_297_5585/page/1336 |journal=Science |volume=297 |issue=5585 |pages=1336–9 |year=2002 |pmid=12193784 |doi=10.1126/science.1074310 }}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal |author=Brodie ED, Ridenhour BJ, Brodie ED |title=The evolutionary response of predators to dangerous prey: hotspots and coldspots in the geographic mosaic of coevolution between garter snakes and newts |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution_2002-10_56_10/page/2067 |journal=Evolution |volume=56 |issue=10 |pages=2067–82 |year=2002 |pmid=12449493}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Co-operation ===
{{details more|Co-operation (evolution)}}
However, not all interactions between species involve conflict.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Sachs J |title=Cooperation within and among species |journal=J. Evol. Biol. |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=1415–8; discussion 1426–36 |year=2006 |pmid=16910971 |doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2006.01152.x }}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal |author=Nowak M |title=Five rules for the evolution of cooperation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-12-08_314_5805/page/1560 |journal=Science |volume=314 |issue=5805 |pages=1560–63 |year=2006 |pmid=17158317 |doi=10.1126/science.1133755 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved. For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal fungi]] that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Paszkowski U |title=Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses |journal=Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=364–70 |year=2006 |pmid=16713732 |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2006.05.008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; This is a [[Reciprocity (evolution)|reciprocal]] relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from photosynthesis. Here, the fungi actually grow inside plant cells, allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts, while sending [[signal transduction|signals]] that suppress the plant [[immune system]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Hause B, Fester T |title=Molecular and cell biology of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis |url=https://archive.org/details/planta_2005-05_221_2/page/184 |journal=Planta |volume=221 |issue=2 |pages=184–96 |year=2005 |pmid=15871030 |doi=10.1007/s00425-004-1436-x }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved. An extreme case is the [[eusociality]] found in [[Eusociality|social insects]], such as [[bee]]s, [[termite]]s and [[ant]]s, where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a [[Colony (biology)|colony]] that are able to reproduce. On an even smaller scale, the [[somatic cell]]s that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism, which then supports a small number of the animal's [[germ cell]]s to produce offspring. Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die. If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately, their uncontrolled growth [[carcinogenesis|causes cancer]].&lt;ref name=Bertram/&gt;

These examples of cooperation within species are thought to have evolved through the process of [[kin selection]], which is where one organism acts to help raise a relative's offspring.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Reeve HK, Hölldobler B |title=The emergence of a superorganism through intergroup competition |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2007-06-05_104_23/page/9736 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0703466104 |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. |volume=104 |issue=23 |pages=9736–40 |year=2007 |pmid=17517608}}&lt;/ref&gt; This activity is selected for because if the ''helping'' individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity, it is likely that its kin will ''also'' contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Axelrod R, Hamilton W |title=The evolution of cooperation |journal=Science |volume=211 |issue=4489 |pages=1390–96 | year = 2005 |pmid=7466396 |doi=10.1126/science.7466396 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Other processes that may promote cooperation include [[group selection]], where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Wilson EO, Hölldobler B |title=Eusociality: origin and consequences |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2005-09-20_102_38/page/13367 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0505858102 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=102 |issue=38 |pages=13367–71 |year=2005 |pmid=16157878}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Speciation ===
{{details more|Speciation}}
[[किपा:Speciation modes edit.svg|left|thumb|350px|The four mechanisms of [[speciation]].]]
[[Speciation]] is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species.&lt;ref name=Gavrilets&gt;{{cite journal |author=Gavrilets S |title=Perspective: models of speciation: what have we learned in 40 years? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution_2003-10_57_10/page/n2 |journal=Evolution |volume=57 |issue=10 |pages=2197–215 |year=2003 |pmid=14628909 |doi=10.1554/02-727}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Evolutionary biologists view species as statistical phenomena and not categories or types. This view is counterintuitive since the classical idea of species is still widely-held, with a species seen as a class of organisms exemplified by a &quot;[[Biological type|type specimen]]&quot; that bears all the traits common to this species. Instead, a species is now defined as a separately evolving lineage that forms a single [[gene pool]]. Although properties such as genetics and morphology are used to help separate closely-related lineages, this definition has fuzzy boundaries.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=De Queiroz K |title=Species concepts and species delimitation |journal=Syst. Biol. |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=879–86 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18027281 |doi=10.1080/10635150701701083}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the exact definition of the term &quot;species&quot; is still controversial, particularly in prokaryotes,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Fraser C, Alm EJ, Polz MF, Spratt BG, Hanage WP |title=The bacterial species challenge: making sense of genetic and ecological diversity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2009-02-06_323_5915/page/n68 |journal=Science (journal) |volume=323 |issue=5915 |pages=741–6 |year=2009 |month=February |pmid=19197054 |doi=10.1126/science.1159388}}&lt;/ref&gt; and this is called the [[species problem]].&lt;ref name=Queiroz&gt;{{cite journal |author=de Queiroz K |title=Ernst Mayr and the modern concept of species |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=102 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=6600–7 |year=2005 |month=May |pmid=15851674 |pmc=1131873 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0502030102 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=15851674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Biologists have proposed a range of more precise definitions, but the definition used is a pragmatic choice that depends on the particularities of the species concerned.&lt;ref name=Queiroz/&gt; Typically the actual focus on biological study is the [[population]], an observable ''interacting'' group of organisms, rather than a [[species]], an observable ''similar'' group of individuals.

Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions and in nature.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author = Rice, W.R. | coauthors = Hostert, E.E. | year = 1993 | title = Laboratory experiments on speciation: what have we learned in 40 years | journal = Evolution | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 1637–1653
 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0014-3820(199312)47%3A6%3C1637%3ALEOSWH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T  | accessdate = 2008-05-19 | doi = 10.2307/2410209
}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal |author=Jiggins CD, Bridle JR |title=Speciation in the apple maggot fly: a blend of vintages? |journal=Trends Ecol. Evol. (Amst.) |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=111–4 |year=2004 |pmid=16701238 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2003.12.008}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite web|author=Boxhorn, J|year=1995|url=http://www.toarchive.org/faqs/faq-speciation.html|title=Observed Instances of Speciation|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|accessdate=2008-12-26}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal |author=Weinberg JR, Starczak VR, Jorg, D |title=Evidence for Rapid Speciation Following a Founder Event in the Laboratory |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution_1992-08_46_4/page/1214 |journal=Evolution |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=1214–20 |year=1992 |doi=10.2307/2409766}}&lt;/ref&gt; In sexually reproducing organisms, speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are four mechanisms for speciation. The most common in animals is [[allopatric speciation]], which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by [[habitat fragmentation]] or migration. Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=2008 |title=Rapid large-scale evolutionary divergence in morphology and performance associated with exploitation of a different dietary resource |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2008-03-25_105_12/page/4792 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=105 |issue=12 |pages=4792–5 |pmid=18344323 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0711998105 | author= Herrel, A.; Huyghe, K.; Vanhooydonck, B.; Backeljau, T.; Breugelmans, K.; Grbac, I.; Van Damme, R.; Irschick, D.J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Losos1997&gt;{{cite journal |year=1997 |title=Adaptive differentiation following experimental island colonization in Anolis lizards|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1997-05-01_387_6628/page/70 | journal=Nature |volume=387 |issue=6628 |pages=70–73 |doi=10.1038/387070a0 |author=Losos, J.B. Warhelt, K.I. Schoener, T.W.}}&lt;/ref&gt; As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may eventually produce organisms that cannot interbreed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Hoskin CJ, Higgle M, McDonald KR, Moritz C |year=2005 |title=Reinforcement drives rapid allopatric speciation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-10-27_437_7063/page/1353 |journal=Nature |volume=437 |pages =1353–356|doi=10.1038/nature04004}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The second mechanism of speciation is [[peripatric speciation]], which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment. This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population. Here, the [[founder effect]] causes rapid speciation through both rapid genetic drift and selection on a small gene pool.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Templeton AR |title=The theory of speciation via the founder principle |url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint/94/4/1011 |journal=Genetics |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=1011–38 |year=1980 |pmid=6777243}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The third mechanism of speciation is [[parapatric speciation]]. This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations. Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations.&lt;ref name=Gavrilets/&gt; Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat. One example is the grass ''[[Anthoxanthum|Anthoxanthum odoratum]]'', which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localized metal pollution from mines.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Antonovics J |title=Evolution in closely adjacent plant populations X: long-term persistence of prereproductive isolation at a mine boundary |journal=Heredity |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=33–37 |year=2006 |pmid=16639420 |url=http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v97/n1/full/6800835a.html |doi=10.1038/sj.hdy.6800835 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil. Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produces a change in flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, causing reproductive isolation. Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause ''reinforcement'', which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species, as well as [[character displacement]], which is when two species become more distinct in appearance.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Nosil P, Crespi B, Gries R, Gries G |title=Natural selection and divergence in mate preference during speciation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_genetica_2007-03_129_3/page/309 |journal=Genetica |volume=129 |issue=3 |pages=309–27 |year=2007 |pmid=16900317 |doi=10.1007/s10709-006-0013-6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[किपा:Darwin's finches cropped.jpeg|frame|right|[[Geographical isolation]] of [[Darwin's finches|finches]] on the [[Galápagos Islands]] produced over a dozen new species.]]

Finally, in [[sympatric speciation]] species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of [[gene flow]] may remove genetic differences between parts of a population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Savolainen V, Anstett M-C, Lexer C, Hutton I, Clarkson JJ, Norup MV, Powell MP, Springate D, Salamin N, Baker WJr |year=2006 |title=Sympatric speciation in palms on an oceanic island |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-05-11_441_7090/page/210 |journal=Nature |volume=441 |pages=210–13 | pmid=16467788 |doi=10.1038/nature04566}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal| author=Barluenga M, Stölting KN, Salzburger W, Muschick M, Meyer A |year=2006 |title=Sympatric speciation in Nicaraguan crater lake cichlid fish | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-02-09_439_7077/page/719 |journal=Nature |volume=439 |pages=719–723 |pmid=16467837 |doi=10.1038/nature04325}}&lt;/ref&gt; Generally, sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both [[Polymorphism (biology)|genetic differences]] and [[assortative mating|non-random mating]], to allow reproductive isolation to evolve.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Gavrilets S |title=The Maynard Smith model of sympatric speciation |journal=J. Theor. Biol. |volume=239 |issue=2 |pages=172–82 |year=2006 |pmid=16242727 |doi=10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.08.041 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One type of sympatric speciation involves cross-breeding of two related species to produce a new [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] species. This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile. This is because during [[meiosis]] the [[homologous chromosome]]s from each parent are from different species and cannot successfully pair. However, it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes, to form [[polyploidy|polyploids]]. This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form a matching pair during meiosis, since as each parent's chromosomes is represented by a pair already.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Hegarty Mf, Hiscock SJ |title=Genomic clues to the evolutionary success of polyploid plants |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=435–44 |year=2008 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.03.043}}&lt;/ref&gt; An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'' and ''Arabidopsis arenosa'' cross-bred to give the new species ''Arabidopsis suecica''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Jakobsson M, Hagenblad J, Tavaré S, ''et al'' |title=A unique recent origin of the allotetraploid species Arabidopsis suecica: Evidence from nuclear DNA markers |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_2006-06_23_6/page/1217 |journal=Mol. Biol. Evol. |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=1217–31 |year=2006 |pmid=16549398 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msk006 }}&lt;/ref&gt; This happened about 20,000 years ago,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Säll T, Jakobsson M, Lind-Halldén C, Halldén C |title=Chloroplast DNA indicates a single origin of the allotetraploid Arabidopsis suecica |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-evolutionary-biology_2003-09_16_5/page/1019 |journal=J. Evol. Biol. |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=1019–29 |year=2003 |pmid=14635917 |doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00554.x }}&lt;/ref&gt; and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory, which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Bomblies K, Weigel D |title=Arabidopsis-a model genus for speciation |journal=Curr Opin Genet Dev |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=500–504 |year=2007 |pmid=18006296 |doi=10.1016/j.gde.2007.09.006 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.&lt;ref name=Semon/&gt;

Speciation events are important in the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]], which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short &quot;bursts&quot; of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis, where species remain relatively unchanged.&lt;ref name=pe1972&gt;Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould, 1972. [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/classictexts/eldredge.asp &quot;Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism&quot;] In T.J.M. Schopf, ed., ''Models in Paleobiology''. San Francisco: Freeman Cooper. pp. 82-115. Reprinted in N. Eldredge ''Time frames''. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press. 1985&lt;/ref&gt; In this theory, speciation and rapid evolution are linked, with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations. As a result, the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population, and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats, and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Gould SJ |title=Tempo and mode in the macroevolutionary reconstruction of Darwinism |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1994-07-19_91_15/page/6764 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.91.15.6764 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=91 |issue=15 |pages=6764–71 |year=1994 |pmid=8041695}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Extinction ===
{{details more|Extinction}}
[[किपा:Tarbosaurus museum Muenster.jpg|thumb|left|225px|''[[Tarbosaurus]]'' fossil. Non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s died out in the [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event]] at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period.]]
[[Extinction]] is the disappearance of an entire species. Extinction is not an unusual event, as species regularly appear through speciation, and disappear through extinction.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Benton MJ |title=Diversification and extinction in the history of life |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-04-07_268_5207/page/52 |journal=Science |volume=268 |issue=5207 |pages=52–58 |year=1995 |pmid=7701342 |doi=10.1126/science.7701342 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Indeed, virtually all animal and plant species that have lived on earth are now extinct,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Raup DM |title=Biological extinction in earth history |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1986-03-28_231_4745/page/1528 |journal=Science |volume=231 |issue= |pages=1528–33 |year=1986 |pmid=11542058 |doi=10.1126/science.11542058 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Avise JC, Hubbell SP, Ayala FJ. |title=In the light of evolution II: Biodiversity and extinction |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.  |volume=105 |issue=S1 |pages=11453–11457 |year=2008 |pmid=18695213 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0802504105 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/105/suppl.1/11453.full}}&lt;/ref&gt; These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass [[extinction event]]s.&lt;ref name=Raup&gt;{{cite journal |author=Raup DM |title=The role of extinction in evolution |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/91/15/6758.pdf |format=PDF|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=91 |issue=15 |pages=6758–63 |year=1994 |pmid=8041694 |doi=10.1073/pnas.91.15.6758 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event]], during which the dinosaurs went extinct, is the most well-known, but the earlier [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]] was even more severe, with approximately 96 percent of species driven to extinction.&lt;ref name=Raup/&gt; The [[Holocene extinction event]] is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years. Present-day extinction rates are 100-1000 times greater than the background rate, and up to 30 percent of species may be extinct by the mid 21st century.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Novacek MJ, Cleland EE |title=The current biodiversity extinction event: scenarios for mitigation and recovery |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2001-05-08_98_10/page/5466 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.091093698 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=98 |issue=10 |pages=5466–70 |year=2001 |pmid=11344295}}&lt;/ref&gt; Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction event;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Pimm S, Raven P, Peterson A, Sekercioglu CH, Ehrlich PR |title=Human impacts on the rates of recent, present, and future bird extinctions |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2006-07-18_103_29/page/10941 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0604181103 |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=103 |issue=29 |pages=10941–6 |year=2006 |pmid=16829570}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal |author=Barnosky AD, Koch PL, Feranec RS, Wing SL, Shabel AB |title=Assessing the causes of late Pleistocene extinctions on the continents |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2004-10-01_306_5693/page/70 |journal=Science |volume=306 |issue=5693 |pages=70–05 |year=2004 |pmid=15459379 |doi=10.1126/science.1101476 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[global warming]] may further accelerate it in the future.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Lewis OT |title=Climate change, species-area curves and the extinction crisis |url=http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/content/711761513317h856/fulltext.pdf |format=PDF|journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=361 |issue=1465 |pages=163–71 |year=2006 |pmid=16553315 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2005.1712}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The role of extinction in evolution depends on which type is considered. The causes of the continuous &quot;low-level&quot; extinction events, which form the majority of extinctions, are not well understood and may be the result of competition between species for limited resources ([[competitive exclusion]]).&lt;ref name=Kutschera/&gt; If competition from other species does alter the probability that a species will become extinct, this could produce [[Unit of selection#Species selection and selection at higher taxonomic levels|species selection]] as a level of natural selection.&lt;ref name=Gould/&gt; The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of [[Adaptive radiation|rapid evolution]] and speciation in survivors.&lt;ref name=Raup/&gt;
{{-}}
== Evolutionary history of life ==
{{Main|Evolutionary history of life}}

=== Origin of life ===
{{details more|Abiogenesis|RNA world hypothesis}}
The origin of [[life]] is a necessary precursor for biological evolution, but understanding that evolution occurred once organisms appeared and investigating how this happens does not depend on understanding exactly how life began.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Isaak |first=Mark |year=2005 |title=Claim CB090: Evolution without abiogenesis |publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]] |url=http://www.toarchive.org/indexcc/CB/CB090.html |accessdate=2008-12-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; The current [[scientific consensus]] is that the complex [[biochemistry]] that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions, but it is unclear how this occurred.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Peretó J |title=Controversies on the origin of life |url=http://www.im.microbios.org/0801/0801023.pdf |format=PDF|journal=Int. Microbiol. |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=23–31 |year=2005 |pmid=15906258}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not much is certain about the earliest developments in life, the structure of the first living things, or the identity and nature of any [[last universal ancestor|last universal common ancestor]] or ancestral gene pool.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Luisi PL, Ferri F, Stano P |title=Approaches to semi-synthetic minimal cells: a review |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |year=2006 |pmid=16292523 |doi=10.1007/s00114-005-0056-z }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Trevors JT, Abel DL |title=Chance and necessity do not explain the origin of life |journal=Cell Biol. Int. |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=729–39 |year=2004 |pmid=15563395 |doi=10.1016/j.cellbi.2004.06.006 }}{{cite journal |author=Forterre P, Benachenhou-Lahfa N, Confalonieri F, Duguet M, Elie C, Labedan B |title=The nature of the last universal ancestor and the root of the tree of life, still open questions |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bio-systems_1992_28_1-3/page/15 |journal=BioSystems |volume=28 |issue=1–3 |pages=15–32 |year=1992 |pmid=1337989 |doi=10.1016/0303-2647(92)90004-I }}&lt;/ref&gt; Consequently, there is no scientific consensus on how life began, but proposals include self-replicating molecules such as [[RNA]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Joyce GF |title=The antiquity of RNA-based evolution |journal=Nature |volume=418 |issue=6894 |pages=214–21 |year=2002 |pmid=12110897 |doi=10.1038/418214a }}&lt;/ref&gt; and the assembly of simple cells.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Trevors JT, Psenner R |title=From self-assembly of life to present-day bacteria: a possible role for nanocells |journal=FEMS Microbiol. Rev. |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=573–82 |year=2001 |pmid=11742692 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00592.x }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Common descent ===
{{details more|Evidence of common descent|Common descent|Homology (biology)}}
[[किपा:Ape skeletons.png|right|320px|thumbnail|The [[Ape|hominoids]] are descendants of a [[common descent|common ancestor]].]]
All [[organism]]s on [[Earth]] are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Penny D, Poole A |title=The nature of the last universal common ancestor |journal=Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=672–77 |year=1999 |pmid=10607605 |doi=10.1016/S0959-437X(99)00020-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Bapteste E, Walsh DA |title=Does the 'Ring of Life' ring true? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-microbiology_2005-06_13_6/page/256 |journal=Trends Microbiol. |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=256–61 |year=2005 |pmid=15936656 |doi=10.1016/j.tim.2005.03.012 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[common descent]] of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits, and finally, that organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups - similar to a family tree.&lt;ref name=Darwin/&gt; However, modern research has suggested that, due to horizontal gene transfer, this &quot;[[Tree of life (science)|tree of life]]&quot; may be more complicated than a simple branching tree since some genes have spread independently between distantly-related species.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Doolittle WF, Bapteste E |title=Pattern pluralism and the Tree of Life hypothesis |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 |issue=7 |pages=2043–9 |year=2007 |month=February |pmid=17261804 |pmc=1892968 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0610699104 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=17261804}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Kunin V, Goldovsky L, Darzentas N, Ouzounis CA |title=The net of life: reconstructing the microbial phylogenetic network |journal=Genome Res. |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=954–9 |year=2005 |pmid=15965028 |url=http://www.genome.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=15965028 |doi =10.1101/gr.3666505}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. [[Fossil]]s, along with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record.&lt;ref name=Jablonski&gt;{{cite journal |author=Jablonski D |title=The future of the fossil record |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1999-06-25_284_5423/page/2114 |journal=Science |volume=284 |issue=5423 |pages=2114–16 |year=1999 |pmid=10381868 |doi=10.1126/science.284.5423.2114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as [[bacteria]] and [[archaea]] share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry.

More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of [[biochemistry|biochemical]] similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of [[nucleotide]]s and [[amino acid]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Mason SF |title=Origins of biomolecular handedness |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1984-09-06_311_5981/page/19 |journal=Nature |volume=311 |issue=5981 |pages=19–23 |year=1984 |pmid=6472461 |doi=10.1038/311019a0 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The development of [[molecular genetics]] has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms' [[genome]]s: dating when species diverged through the [[molecular clock]] produced by mutations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Wolf YI, Rogozin IB, Grishin NV, Koonin EV |title=Genome trees and the tree of life |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-genetics_2002-09_18_9/page/472 |journal=Trends Genet. |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=472–79 |year=2002 |pmid=12175808 |doi=10.1016/S0168-9525(02)02744-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed the close genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees and shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Varki A, Altheide TK |title=Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack |journal=Genome Res. |volume=15 |issue=12 |pages=1746–58 |year=2005 |pmid=16339373 |doi=10.1101/gr.3737405 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Evolution of life ===
{{details|Timeline of evolution}}
{{PhylomapA|size=400px|align=left|caption=[[Phylogenetic tree|Evolutionary tree]] showing the divergence of modern species from their common ancestor in the center.&lt;ref name=Ciccarelli&gt;{{cite journal |author=Ciccarelli FD, Doerks T, von Mering C, Creevey CJ, Snel B, Bork P |title=Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-03-03_311_5765/page/1283 |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5765 |pages=1283–87 |year=2006 |pmid=16513982 |doi=10.1126/science.1123061 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The three [[Domain (biology)|domains]] are colored, with [[bacteria]] blue, [[archaea]] green, and [[eukaryote]]s red.}}
Despite the uncertainty on how life began, it is generally accepted that [[prokaryote]]s inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago.&lt;ref name=Cavalier-Smith&gt;{{cite journal |author=Cavalier-Smith T |title=Cell evolution and Earth history: stasis and revolution |url=http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/content/0164755512w92302/fulltext.pdf |format=PDF|journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=969–1006 |year=2006 |pmid=16754610 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1842}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Schopf J |title=Fossil evidence of Archaean life |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=869–85 |year=2006 |pmid=16754604 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1834}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal |author=Altermann W, Kazmierczak J |title=Archean microfossils: a reappraisal of early life on Earth |url=https://archive.org/details/research-in-microbiology_2003-11_154_9/page/611 |journal=Res Microbiol |volume=154 |issue=9 |pages=611–17 |year=2003 |pmid=14596897 |doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2003.08.006 }}&lt;/ref&gt; No obvious changes in [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] or cellular organization occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Schopf J |title=Disparate rates, differing fates: tempo and mode of evolution changed from the Precambrian to the Phanerozoic |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1994-07-19_91_15/page/6735 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.91.15.6735 |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S a |volume=91 |issue=15 |pages=6735–42 |year=1994 |pmid=8041691}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[eukaryote]]s were the next major change in cell structure. These came from ancient bacteria being engulfed by the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association called [[endosymbiont|endosymbiosis]].&lt;ref name = &quot;rgruqh&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=Dyall&gt;{{cite journal |author=Dyall S, Brown M, Johnson P |title= Ancient invasions: from endosymbionts to organelles |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2004-04-09_304_5668/page/253 |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5668 |pages=253–57 |year=2004 |pmid=15073369 |doi=10.1126/science.1094884 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent co-evolution, with the bacteria evolving into either [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] or [[hydrogenosome]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Martin W |title=The missing link between hydrogenosomes and mitochondria |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-microbiology_2005-10_13_10/page/457 |journal=Trends Microbiol. |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=457–59 |year=2005 |pmid=16109488 |doi=10.1016/j.tim.2005.08.005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; An independent second engulfment of [[cyanobacteria]]l-like organisms led to the formation of [[chloroplast]]s in algae and plants.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Lang B, Gray M, Burger G |title=Mitochondrial genome evolution and the origin of eukaryotes |journal=Annu Rev Genet |volume=33 |pages=351–97 |year=1999 |pmid=10690412 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.33.1.351 }}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal |author=McFadden G |title=Endosymbiosis and evolution of the plant cell |journal=Curr Opin Plant Biol |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages= 513–19 |year=1999 |pmid=10607659 |doi=10.1016/S1369-5266(99)00025-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is unknown when the first eukaryotic cells appeared though they first emerged between 1.6 - 2.7 billion years ago.

The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the [[Ediacara biota|Ediacaran]] period.&lt;ref name=Cavalier-Smith/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=DeLong E, Pace N |title=Environmental diversity of bacteria and archaea |journal=Syst Biol |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=470–8 |year=2001|pmid=12116647 |doi=10.1080/106351501750435040}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[evolution of multicellularity]] occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as diverse as [[sponge]]s, [[brown algae]], [[cyanobacteria]], [[slime mold|slime moulds]] and [[myxobacteria]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Kaiser D |title=Building a multicellular organism |journal=Annu. Rev. Genet. |volume=35 |pages=103–23 |year=2001 |pmid=11700279 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.35.102401.090145 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called the [[Cambrian explosion]]. Here, the majority of [[Phylum|types]] of modern animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct.&lt;ref name=Valentine&gt;{{cite journal |author=Valentine JW, Jablonski D, Erwin DH |title=Fossils, molecules and embryos: new perspectives on the Cambrian explosion |url=http://dev.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/126/5/851 |journal=Development |volume=126 |issue=5 |pages=851–9 |year=1999 |pmid=9927587}}&lt;/ref&gt; Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of [[oxygen]] in the [[atmosphere]] from [[photosynthesis]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Ohno S |title=The reason for as well as the consequence of the Cambrian explosion in animal evolution |journal=J. Mol. Evol. |volume=44 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S23–7 |year=1997 |pmid=9071008 |doi=10.1007/PL00000055}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal |author=Valentine J, Jablonski D |title=Morphological and developmental macroevolution: a paleontological perspective |url=http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper.php?doi=14756327 |journal=Int. J. Dev. Biol. |volume=47 |issue=7–8 |pages=517–22 |year=2003 |pmid=14756327}}&lt;/ref&gt; About 500 million years ago, [[plant]]s and [[fungus|fungi]] colonized the land, and were soon followed by [[arthropod]]s and other animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Waters ER |title=Molecular adaptation and the origin of land plants |url=https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2003-12_29_3/page/456 |journal=Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=456–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14615186 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2003.07.018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Amphibian]]s first appeared around 300 million years ago, followed by early [[amniote]]s, then [[mammal]]s around 200 million years ago and [[bird]]s around 100 million years ago (both from &quot;[[reptile]]&quot;-like lineages). However, despite the evolution of these large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] and species being prokaryotes.&lt;ref name=Schloss/&gt;

== History of evolutionary thought ==
{{details|History of evolutionary thought}}
[[किपा:Charles Darwin aged 51 crop.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Charles Darwin]] at age 51, just after publishing ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.]]
Evolutionary ideas such as [[common descent]] and the [[transmutation of species]] have existed since at least the 6th century BC, when they were expounded by the [[Greek philosophy|Greek philosopher]] [[Anaximander]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Wright, S|year=1984|title=Evolution and the Genetics of Populations, Volume 1: Genetic and Biometric Foundations|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|isbn=0-226-91038-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; Others who considered such ideas included the Greek philosopher [[Empedocles]], the [[History of Western philosophy|Roman philosopher-poet]] [[Lucretius]], the [[Islamic science|Arab biologist]] [[Al-Jahiz]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Zirkle C |title=Natural Selection before the &quot;Origin of Species&quot; |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=71–123 |year=1941}}&lt;/ref&gt; the [[Early Islamic philosophy|Persian philosopher]] [[Ibn Miskawayh]], the [[Brethren of Purity]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Muhammad Hamidullah]] and Afzal Iqbal (1993), ''The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity'', p. 143-144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.&lt;/ref&gt; and the Chinese philosopher [[Zhuangzi]].&lt;ref&gt; &quot;A Source Book In Chinese Philosophy&quot;, Chan, Wing-Tsit, p. 204, 1962. &lt;/ref&gt;  As biological knowledge grew in the 18th century, evolutionary ideas were set out by a few natural philosophers including [[Pierre Louis Maupertuis|Pierre Maupertuis]] in 1745 and [[Erasmus Darwin]] in 1796.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Terrall, M|year=2002|title=The Man Who Flattened the Earth: Maupertuis and the Sciences in the Enlightenment|url=https://archive.org/details/manwhoflattenede00mary|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226793610}}&lt;/ref&gt; The ideas of the biologist [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] about [[transmutation of species]] had wide influence. [[Charles Darwin]] formulated his idea of [[natural selection]] in 1838 and was still developing his theory in 1858 when [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] sent him a similar theory, and both were presented to the [[Linnean Society of London]] in [[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|separate papers]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Wallace, A|coauthors= Darwin, C|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F350&amp;viewtype=text&amp;pageseq=1|title=On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties, and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|journal=Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology|volume=3|year=1858|pages=53–62|accessdate=2007-05-13|doi=10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171}}&lt;/ref&gt; At the end of 1859 Darwin's publication of ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' explained natural selection in detail and presented evidence leading to increasingly wide acceptance of the occurrence of evolution.

Debate about the mechanisms of evolution continued, and Darwin could not explain the source of the heritable variations which would be acted on by natural selection. Like Lamarck, he thought that parents [[inheritance of acquired characters|passed on adaptations acquired]] during their lifetimes,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&amp;itemID=F391&amp;pageseq=136 |title=Effects of the increased Use and Disuse of Parts, as controlled by Natural Selection |accessdate=2007-12-28 |author=Darwin, Charles |authorlink=Charles Darwin |year=1872 |work=[[On the Origin of Species|The Origin of Species]]. 6th edition, p. 108 |publisher=John Murray }}&lt;/ref&gt; a theory which was subsequently dubbed [[Lamarckism]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Leakey, Richard E.; Darwin, Charles |title=The illustrated origin of species |url=https://archive.org/details/theoriginofspeci00darw |publisher=Faber |location=London |year=1979 |pages= |isbn=0-571-14586-8 |oclc= |doi=}} p. 17-18 &lt;!--superseded source {{cite journal |author=Stafleu F |title=Lamarck: The birth of biology |journal=Taxon |volume=20 |issue= |pages=397–442 |year=1971 |pmid=11636092 |doi=10.2307/1218244 }}--&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; In the 1880s [[August Weismann|August Weismann's]] experiments indicated that changes from use and disuse were not heritable, and Lamarckism gradually fell from favour.&lt;ref name= ImaginaryLamarck&gt;{{citation |last =Ghiselin | first = Michael T.|authorlink=Michael Ghiselin | publication-date = September/October 1994| contribution =Nonsense in schoolbooks: 'The Imaginary Lamarck' | contribution-url =http://www.textbookleague.org/54marck.htm| title =The Textbook Letter | publisher =The Textbook League | url =http://www.textbookleague.org/|accessdate=2008-01-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Magner, LN|year=2002|title=A History of the Life Sciences, Third Edition, Revised and Expanded|url=https://archive.org/details/historyoflifesci0000magn_n3c5|publisher=CRC|isbn=978-0824708245}}&lt;/ref&gt; More significantly, Darwin could not account for how traits were passed down from generation to generation. In 1865 [[Gregor Mendel]] found that traits were [[Mendelian inheritance|inherited]] in a predictable manner.&lt;ref name=Weiling&gt;{{cite journal |author=Weiling F |title=Historical study: Johann Gregor Mendel 1822–1884 |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–25; discussion 26 |year=1991 |pmid=1887835 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.1320400103 }}&lt;/ref&gt; When Mendel's work was rediscovered in 1900s, disagreements over the rate of evolution predicted by early geneticists and [[biostatistics|biometricians]] led to a rift between the Mendelian and Darwinian models of evolution.

Yet it was the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel’s pioneering work on the fundamentals of genetics (of which Darwin and Wallace were unaware) by [[Hugo de Vries]] and others in the early 1900s that provided the impetus for a better understanding of how variation occurs in plant and animal traits. That variation is the main fuel used by natural selection to shape the wide variety of adaptive traits observed in organic life. Even though [[Hugo de Vries]] and other early geneticists were very critical of the theory of evolution, their rediscovery of and subsequent work on genetics eventually provided a solid basis on which the theory of evolution stood even more convincingly than when it was originally proposed.&lt;ref&gt;Quammen, D. (2006). [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/27/books/review/Desmond.t.html?n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/People/D/Darwin,%20Charles%20Robert ''The reluctant Mr. Darwin: An intimate portrait of Charles Darwin and the making of his theory of evolution.''] New York, NY: W.W. Norton &amp; Company.&lt;/ref&gt;

The apparent contradiction between Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and Mendel’s work was reconciled in the 1920s and 1930s by evolutionary biologists such as [[J.B.S. Haldane]], [[Sewall Wright]], and particularly [[Ronald Fisher]], who set the foundations for the establishment of the field of [[population genetics]]. The end result was a combination of evolution by natural selection and Mendelian inheritance, the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last = Bowler | first = Peter J. | authorlink = Peter J. Bowler | year = 1989 | title = The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergence of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society | url = https://archive.org/details/mendelianrevolut0000bowl | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | location = Baltimore|isbn=978-0801838880}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the 1940s, the identification of [[DNA]] as the genetic material by [[Oswald Avery]] and colleagues and the subsequent publication of the structure of DNA by [[James D. Watson|James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] in 1953, demonstrated the physical basis for inheritance. Since then, [[genetics]] and [[molecular biology]] have become core parts of [[evolutionary biology]] and have revolutionized the field of [[phylogenetics]].&lt;ref name=Kutschera&gt;{{cite journal |author=Kutschera U, Niklas K |title=The modern theory of biological evolution: an expanded synthesis |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=91 |issue=6 |pages=255–76 |year=2004 |pmid=15241603 |doi=10.1007/s00114-004-0515-y }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In its early history, evolutionary biology primarily drew in scientists from traditional taxonomically oriented disciplines, whose specialist training in particular organisms addressed general questions in evolution. As evolutionary biology expanded as an academic discipline, particularly after the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis, it began to draw more widely from the biological sciences.&lt;ref name=Kutschera/&gt; Currently the study of evolutionary biology involves scientists from fields as diverse as [[biochemistry]], [[ecology]], [[genetics]] and [[physiology]], and evolutionary concepts are used in even more distant disciplines such as [[psychology]], [[medicine]], [[philosophy]] and [[computer science]].

== Social and cultural responses ==
{{details more|Social effect of evolutionary theory}}
[[किपा:Darwin ape.jpg|right|150px|thumb|As &quot;[[Darwinism]]&quot; became widely accepted in the 1870s, [[caricature]]s of [[Charles Darwin]] with a [[quadrupedal]] [[ape]] or [[monkey]] body symbolised evolution.&lt;ref name=Browne2003e&gt;{{cite book|author=Browne, Janet |title=Charles Darwin: The Power of Place |url=https://archive.org/details/charlesdarwin0000jane |publisher=Pimlico |location=London |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/charlesdarwin0000jane/page/376 376]–379 |isbn=0-7126-6837-3 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
In the 19th century, particularly after the publication of ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'', the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centered on the philosophical, social and religious implications of evolution. Nowadays, the fact that organisms evolve is uncontested in the [[scientific literature]] and the modern evolutionary synthesis is widely accepted by scientists. However, evolution remains a contentious concept for some religious groups.&lt;ref&gt;For an overview of the philosophical, religious, and cosmological controversies, see: {{cite book|authorlink=Daniel Dennett|last=Dennett|first=D|title=[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea|Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life]]|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|year=1995|isbn=978-0684824710}}&lt;br /&gt;*For the scientific and social reception of evolution in the 19th and early 20th centuries, see: {{cite web | last = Johnston | first = Ian C. | title = History of Science: Origins of Evolutionary Theory | work = And Still We Evolve | publisher = Liberal Studies Department, Malaspina University College | url =http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/darwin/sect3.htm| accessdate =2007-05-24}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite book|authorlink=Peter J. Bowler|last=Bowler|first=PJ|title=Evolution: The History of an Idea, Third Edition, Completely Revised and Expanded|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520236936|year=2003}}&lt;br /&gt;*{{cite journal |author=Zuckerkandl E |title=Intelligent design and biological complexity |journal=Gene |volume=385 |issue= |pages=2–18 |year=2006 |pmid=17011142 |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2006.03.025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

While [[Level of support for evolution#Support for evolution by religious bodies|many religions and denominations]] have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through various concepts of [[theistic evolution]], there are many [[creationism|creationists]] who believe that evolution is contradicted by the [[creation myth]]s found in their respective religions.&lt;ref name=Ross2005&gt;{{cite journal | author = Ross, M.R. | year = 2005 | title = Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism | journal = Journal of Geoscience Education | volume = 53 | issue = 3 | pages = 319 | url = http://www.nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Ross_v53n3p319.pdf  |format=PDF| accessdate = 2008-04-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; As Darwin recognized early on, the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is its implications for [[human evolution|human origins]]. In some countries—notably the United States—these tensions between science and religion have fueled the ongoing [[creation-evolution controversy|creation–evolution controversy]], a religious conflict focusing on [[politics of creationism|politics]] and [[creation and evolution in public education|public education]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author = Spergel D. N. |title=Science communication. Public acceptance of evolution | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-08-11_313_5788/page/765 |journal=Science |volume=313 |issue=5788 |pages=765–66 |year=2006 |pmid=16902112 |doi=10.1126/science.1126746 }}&lt;/ref&gt; While other scientific fields such as [[physical cosmology|cosmology]]&lt;ref name=&quot;wmap&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | doi=10.1086/377226 | title = First-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters | first = D. N. | last = Spergel | coauthors = et al. | journal = The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series | volume = 148 | year = 2003 | pages = 175–94}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[earth science]]&lt;ref name=&quot;zircon&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Wilde SA, Valley JW, Peck WH, Graham CM |title=Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-01-11_409_6817/page/175 |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6817 |pages=175–78 |year=2001 |pmid=11196637 |doi=10.1038/35051550 }}&lt;/ref&gt; also conflict with literal interpretations of many religious texts, evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists.

Another example associated with evolutionary theory that is now widely regarded as unwarranted is misnamed &quot;[[Social Darwinism]],&quot; a term given to the 19th century [[British Whig Party|Whig]] [[Malthusianism|Malthusian]] theory developed by [[Herbert Spencer]] into ideas about &quot;[[survival of the fittest]]&quot; in commerce and human societies as a whole, and by others into claims that [[social inequality]], racism, and [[imperialism]] were justified.&lt;ref&gt;On the history of eugenics and evolution, see {{cite book|authorlink=Daniel Kevles |first=D |last=Kevles |year=1998 |title=In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674445574}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, these ideas contradict [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s own views, and contemporary scientists and philosophers consider these ideas to be neither mandated by evolutionary theory nor supported by data.&lt;ref&gt;[[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] strongly disagreed with attempts by Herbert Spencer and others to extrapolate evolutionary ideas to all possible subjects; see {{cite book|authorlink=Mary Midgley|first=M|last=Midgley|year=2004|title=The Myths we Live By|publisher=Routledge|pages=62|isbn=978-0415340779}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Allhoff F |title=Evolutionary ethics from Darwin to Moore |journal=History and philosophy of the life sciences |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=51–79 |year=2003 |pmid=15293515 |doi=10.1080/03919710312331272945}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Applications ==
{{details more|Artificial selection|Evolutionary computation}}

A major technological application of evolution is [[artificial selection]], which is the intentional selection of certain traits in a population of organisms. Humans have used artificial selection for thousands of years in the [[domestication]] of plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Doebley JF, Gaut BS, Smith BD |title=The molecular genetics of crop domestication |url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2006-12-29_127_7/page/1309 |journal=Cell |volume=127 |issue=7 |pages=1309–21 |year=2006 |pmid=17190597 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2006.12.006 }}&lt;/ref&gt; More recently, such selection has become a vital part of [[genetic engineering]], with [[selectable marker]]s such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA in [[molecular biology]].

As evolution can produce highly optimized processes and networks, it has many applications in [[computer science]]. Here, simulations of evolution using [[evolutionary algorithm]]s and [[artificial life]] started with the work of Nils Aall Barricelli in the 1960s, and was extended by [[Alex Fraser (scientist)|Alex Fraser]], who published a series of papers on simulation of [[artificial selection]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Fraser AS |title=Monte Carlo analyses of genetic models |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1958-01-18_181_4603/page/208 |journal=Nature |volume=181 |issue=4603 |pages=208–9 |year=1958 |pmid=13504138 |doi=10.1038/181208a0 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Evolutionary algorithm|Artificial evolution]] became a widely recognized optimization method as a result of the work of [[Ingo Rechenberg]] in the 1960s and early 1970s, who used [[Evolution strategy|evolution strategies]] to solve complex engineering problems.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Rechenberg |first=Ingo |year=1973 |title=Evolutionsstrategie - Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution (PhD thesis) |publisher=Fromman-Holzboog | language = German}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Genetic algorithm]]s in particular became popular through the writing of [[John Henry Holland|John Holland]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Holland |first=John H. |year=1975 |title=Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems |url=https://archive.org/details/adaptationinnatu0000holl | publisher=University of Michigan Press | isbn = 0262581116}}&lt;/ref&gt; As academic interest grew, dramatic increases in the power of computers allowed practical applications, including the automatic evolution of computer programs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Koza|first=John R. |year=1992 |title=Genetic Programming|url=https://archive.org/details/geneticprogrammi0000koza| subtitle=On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection | publisher=MIT Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers, and also to optimize the design of systems.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Jamshidi M |title=Tools for intelligent control: fuzzy controllers, neural networks and genetic algorithms |journal=Philosophical transactions. Series A, Mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences |volume=361 |issue=1809 |pages=1781–808 |year=2003 |pmid=12952685 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2003.1225}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== लिधंसा ==
{{reflist|2}}

== ब्वनादिसँ ==
'''म्हसीका सफू'''
* {{cite book |author=Carroll, S. |authorlink=Sean B. Carroll |title=Endless Forms Most Beautiful |url=https://archive.org/details/endlessformsmost00carr_0 |publisher=W.W. Norton |location=New York |year=2005 |isbn=0-393-06016-0}}
* {{cite book |author=[[Brian Charlesworth|Charlesworth, C.B.]] and [[Deborah Charlesworth|Charlesworth, D.]] |title=Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionverysho0000char |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxfordshire |year=2003 |isbn=0-192-80251-8}}
* {{cite book |author=Dawkins, R. |authorlink=Richard Dawkins |title=[[The Selfish Gene|The Selfish Gene: 30th Anniversary Edition]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0199291152 }}
* {{cite book |author=Gould, S.J. |authorlink=Stephen Jay Gould |title=[[Wonderful Life (book)|Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History]] |publisher=W.W. Norton |location=New York |year=1989 |isbn=0-393-30700-X}}
* {{cite book |author=Jones, S. |authorlink = Steve Jones (biologist) |title=[[Almost Like a Whale|Almost Like a Whale: The Origin of Species Updated]]. (''American title:'' ''Darwin's Ghost'') |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=0-345-42277-5}}
* {{cite book |author=Maynard Smith, J. |authorlink=John Maynard Smith |title=[[The Theory of Evolution|The Theory of Evolution: Canto Edition]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1993 |isbn=0-521-45128-0}}
* {{cite book |author=Pallen, M.J. |title=The Rough Guide to Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/roughguidetoevol0000pall |publisher=[[Rough Guides]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-85828-946-5}}
* {{cite book |author=Smith, C.B. and Sullivan, C. |title=The Top 10 Myths about Evolution |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-59102-479-8}}

'''विकासक्रमीय विचारधाराया इतिहास'''
* {{cite book |author=Larson, E.J. |authorlink=Edward Larson |title=Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars |publisher=Modern Library |location=New York |year=2004 |isbn=0-679-64288-9}}
* {{cite book |author=Zimmer, C. |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutiontriumph0000zimm_r0k2 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |year=2001 |isbn=0-060-19906-7}}

'''विशिष्टिकृत ब्वनेज्या'''
* {{cite book |author=[[Nick Barton|Barton, N.H.]], [[Derek Briggs|Briggs, D.E.G.]], Eisen, J.A., Goldstein, D.B. and Patel, N.H. |title=Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/evolution0000unse_x9v3 |publisher=[[Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=0-879-69684-2}}
* {{cite book |author=[[Jerry Coyne|Coyne, J.A.]] and [[H. Allen Orr|Orr, H.A.]] |title=Speciation |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland |year=2004 |isbn=0-878-93089-2}}
* {{cite book |author=Futuyma, D.J. |authorlink=Douglas J. Futuyma |title=Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland |year=2005 |isbn=0-878-93187-2}}
* {{cite book | author=Gould, S.J. |authorlink=Stephen Jay Gould |title=[[The Structure of Evolutionary Theory]] |publisher=Belknap Press (Harvard University Press) |location=Cambridge |year=2002 |isbn=0-674-00613-5}}
* {{cite book |author=[[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith, J.]] and [[Eörs Szathmáry|Szathmáry, E.]] |title=[[The Major Transitions in Evolution]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxfordshire |year=1997 |isbn=0-198-50294-X}}
* {{cite book |author=Mayr, E. |authorlink=Ernst W. Mayr |title=What Evolution Is |url=https://archive.org/details/whatevolutionis0000mayr_u8r4 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=0-465-04426-3}}

== External links ==
&lt;!-- IMPORTANT! Please do not add any links before discussing them on the talk page. --&gt;
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Evolution.ogg|2005-04-18}} &lt;!-- updated changed sections 2005-04-18 --&gt;
{{Sisterlinks|evolution}}
'''General information'''
* [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/evolution Everything you wanted to know about evolution by ''New Scientist'']
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/evolution.htm/printable Howstuffworks.com — How Evolution Works]
* [http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/ National Academies Evolution Resources]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090806034821/http://anthro.palomar.edu/synthetic/ Synthetic Theory Of Evolution: An Introduction to Modern Evolutionary Concepts and Theories]
* [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ Understanding Evolution from University of California, Berkeley]

'''History of evolutionary thought'''
* [http://darwin-online.org.uk The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online]
* [http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/understanding_evolution.htm Understanding Evolution: History, Theory, Evidence, and Implications]

'''On-line lectures'''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090130054532/http://ascb.org/ibioseminars/brenner/brenner1.cfm What Genomes Can Tell Us About the Past] - lecture by [[Sydney Brenner]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090123064222/http://ascb.org/ibioseminars/Kirschner/kirschner1.cfm The Origin of Vertebrates] - lecture by [[Marc Kirschner]]

{{portal|Evolutionary biology|Charles Darwin aged 51 crop.jpg|25}}
{{evolution}}

{{Commonscat|Evolution}}

[[पुचः:Evolution| ]]
[[पुचः:Biology theories]]
[[पुचः:Evolutionary biology|*]]
[[पुचः:विज्ञान]]</text>
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[[Image:Possible long-term effects of ethanol.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Some of the possible [[long-term effects of ethanol]]]]
[[Image:A maniacal man is visited in prison by his children, all rui Wellcome V0019408.jpg|thumb|[[The Bottle (etchings)|&quot;The bottle has done its work&quot;]]]]
[[Image:Mental health as a risk factor for alcohol dependency or abuse, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=2|Mental health as a risk factor for alcohol dependence or abuse]]

अल्कोहोलिजम धाःगु, [[जोर्नल अफ द अमेरिकन मेडिकल असोसिएसन]]कथं &quot;छगु प्राथमिक, पुलांगु तोनिगु बानि, ड्रग अल्कोहल पापं व्यस्तता, प्रतिकूल परिणामतय्गु बावजूद ऐलायु छ्यलाबुला, व सोचय् विकृति द्वारा विशेषता।&quot; ख। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Morse RM, Flavin DK |title=The definition of alcoholism. The Joint Committee of the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence and the American Society of Addiction Medicine to Study the Definition and Criteria for the Diagnosis of Alcoholism |journal=JAMA : the journal of the American Medical Association |volume=268 |issue=8 |pages=1012–4 |year=1992 |month=August |pmid=1501306 |doi=10.1001/jama.268.8.1012 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_1992-08-26_268_8/page/1012}}&lt;/ref&gt; 


==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[उसाँय्‌|उसाँय्]]
{{Commonscat|Alcoholism}}

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    <title>इमू (प्राणी)</title>
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[[Image:Red Ant - March 2025.jpg|thumb|Bright red ant, likely part of the ''[[Formica pallidefulva]]]]
[[Image:Ants in amber.jpg|thumb|right|Ants fossilised in [[Baltic amber]]]]
[[Image:Scheme ant worker anatomy-en.svg|thumb|450px|left|Diagram of a worker ant (''[[Neoponera verenae]]]]

{{Taxobox
| name = इमू
| fossil_range = {{fossilrange|150|0}} [[Jurassic]]&amp;nbsp;– Recent
| image = Ant bridge.jpg
| image_caption = [[Army ant]]s forming a bridge
| regnum = [[पशु|Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| ordo = [[Hymenoptera]]
| subordo = [[Apocrita]]
| superfamilia = [[Vespoidea]]
| familia = '''Formicidae'''
| familia_authority = [[:en:Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1809
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision =
* [[Aenictogitoninae]]
* [[Agroecomyrmecinae]]
* [[Amblyoponinae]] (incl. &quot;[[Apomyrminae]]&quot;)
* [[Aneuretinae]]
* [[Cerapachyinae]]
* [[Dolichoderinae]]
* [[Ecitoninae]] (incl. &quot;[[Dorylinae]]&quot; and &quot;[[Aenictinae]]&quot;)
* [[Ectatomminae]]
* [[Formiciinae]]
* [[Formicinae]]
* [[Heteroponerinae]]
* [[Leptanillinae]]
* [[Leptanilloidinae]]
* [[Martialinae]]
* [[Myrmeciinae]] (incl. &quot;[[Nothomyrmeciinae]]&quot;)
* [[Myrmicinae]]
* [[Paraponerinae]]
* [[Ponerinae]]
* [[Proceratiinae]]
* [[Pseudomyrmecinae]]
{{hidden|headerstyle=background:#D3D3A4; text-size:90%;|[[Cladogram]] of ant [[subfamily|subfamilies]]|
{{clade|style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%
   |1={{clade|
      |1=[[Martialinae]]
      |2=[[Leptanillinae]]
      |3=[[Amblyoponinae]]
      |4=[[Paraponerinae]]
      |5=[[Agroecomyrmecinae]]
      |6=[[Ponerinae]]
      |7=[[Proceratiinae]]
      |8={{clade|
         |1={{clade|
            |1={{clade|
               |1=[[Ecitoninae]]
               |2=[[Aenictinae]]
               |3={{clade|
                  |1=[[Dorylini]]
                  |2=[[Aenictogitoninae]]
                  }}
               }}
             |2=[[Cerapachyinae]]*
             |3=[[Leptanilloidinae]]
             }}
         |2={{clade|
            |1={{clade|
               |1={{clade|
                  |1=[[Dolichoderinae]]
                  |2=[[Aneuretinae]]
                  }}
               |2={{clade|
                  |1=[[Pseudomyrmecinae]]
                  |2=[[Myrmeciinae]]
                  }}
               }}
            |2={{clade|
               |1={{clade|
                  |1=[[Ectatomminae]]
                  |2=[[Heteroponerinae]]
                  }}
               |2=[[Myrmicinae]]
               |3=[[Formicinae]]
               }}
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
&lt;small&gt;A [[phylogeny]] of the extant ant [[subfamily|subfamilies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Ward |first=Philip S |title=Phylogeny, classification, and species-level taxonomy of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) |journal=[[Zootaxa]] |volume=1668 | year=2007 |pages=549–563| url=http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2007f/zt01668p563.pdf|format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=martialis&gt;{{cite journal|author=Rabeling C, Brown JM &amp; Verhaagh M|year=2008|title=Newly discovered sister lineage sheds light on early ant evolution|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2008-09-30_105_39/page/14913|journal=PNAS|doi=10.1073/pnas.0806187105|volume=105|page=14913|pmid=18794530|issue=39|pmc=2567467|bibcode = 2008PNAS..10514913R|pages=14913–7 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;Cerapachyinae is [[paraphyletic]]&lt;/small&gt;
}}
}}

'''इमू''' छ्गु प्रकारया [[की]] ख। [[बपिकाता]], [[सपानि]] थी-थी कथंया इमू ख। थ्व छता सामाजिक की ख।  

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[की]]
{{Commonscat|Formicidae}}

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[[Image:Old Abe, the live war eagle of Wisconsin, from the Centennial.jpg|thumb|An Eagle named in honor of Abraham Lincoln and was the mascot of 8th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment, at the time of the U.S. Centennial]]

{{Taxobox
| name = इमा
| image = Haliaeetus_leucocephalus-tree-USFWS.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[बाल्ड इगल]] 
| regnum = [[एनिमलिया]]
| phylum = [[कोर्डाटा]]
| classis = [[एभ्स]]
| ordo = [[फाल्कनिफर्मस]] (or [[Accipitriformes]], q.v.)
| familia = [[Accipitridae]]
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = Several, [[Eagle#Taxonomy|see text]].
}}

'''इमा''' छगू प्रकारया पंक्षी ख। थ्व छगू प्रकारया शिकारी पंक्षी ख। थ्व पंक्षी एसिपित्रिदे (Accipitridae) परिवारया थी-थी नापंया स्वापू दूगु जेनेराय् ला। थ्व प्राणीया ६० स्वया अप्व प्रजातिइ आपालं प्रजाति युरेसिया व अफ्रिकाय् ला। 
&lt;ref&gt;del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. &amp; Sargatal, J. (editors). (1994). ''[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]] Volume 2'': New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-15-6&lt;/ref&gt; 
थ्व लागा स्वया पिने थ्व प्राणीया निगु जक्क प्रजाति बाल्द इगल व गोल्देन इगल उत्तर व मध्य अमेरिकाय् व स्वंगु प्रजाति अस्ट्रेलियाय् खनेदु। 

== प्रजाति ==

[[File:Martial_Eagle_in_Namibia.jpg|thumb|नामिबियाय् मार्शल इमा]]
[[किपा:Pithecophaga_jefferyi.jpg|thumb|दक्षिणी फिलिपिन्सय् फिलिपिन इमा ( ''पिथेकोफागा जेफरी'' )]]
[[किपा:WedgetailEagleCarrion.jpg|thumb|अष्ट्रेलियाय् वेज तेल्द इमा]]
[[किपा:עיט_ניצי.jpg|right|thumb|इजरायलया पूर्वी इम्पेरियल इमा]]
इमा ब्वथलाया मू न्हुगु अनुसन्धानं महत्त्वपूर्ण जेनेरा ''एक्विला'' व ''हिएराएटस'' दकलय् लिक्कया थःथिति प्रजातितेसं दयेकूगु मखु धका क्यनि। थ्व जुइफु कि थ्व जेनेराया पुनर्वर्गीकरण याकनं हे जुइ, गुकिलि छुं प्रजातित ''लोफेतस'' वा ''इक्टिनाएटसय्'' हिला छ्वइ। &lt;ref name=&quot;LM2005&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lerner|first=H. R. L.|year=2005|title=Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA|url=https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2005_37_2/page/327|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|pmid=15925523|issue=2|pages=327–346|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010|volume=37}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* बोनेलीया इमा व अफ्रिकी हक-इमायात ''हिएराएटसं'' ''अक्विलाय्'' यंकूगु दु ।
* ग्रेतर स्पतेद इमा व लेसर स्पतेद इमा ''अक्विलापाखें'' ''लोफेटसय्'' लङ-क्रस्टेड ईगललिसे स्वापू दूगु जुइफु, वा, सम्भवतः, थ्व स्वंगुलिं प्रजातित हाकु इमा लिसे ''इक्टिनाएटसय्'' ब्वथलेमा।
* स्टेप इमा व ताउनी इमा, छगू इलय् conspecific धकाः बिचाः यानातःगु जुसां इपिं छम्ह मेम्हया लिक्कया थःथिति प्रजाति तकं मखुगु खनेदु।

'''माचाछि एक्सिपिट्रिडे'''
[[किपा:CircaetusGallicus.jpg|thumb|चिहाकःगु तुति दुम्ह ताहाः इमा ब्वयाच्वंगु किपा।]]
** जीनस &quot;स्टेफानोएटस&quot;
***क्राउन्द इमा , &quot;स्टेफानोएटस कोरोनाटस&quot;
***मालागासि क्राउन्द इमा, &quot;स्टेफानोएटस माहेरी&quot;
** जीनस &quot;निसाएटस&quot; - न्हापा &quot;स्पाइजेटस&quot;य् दुथ्याःपिं प्रजातिपिं।
***चेञ्जेबल हक-इमा, ''एन. सिरहटस
****फ्लोरेस हक-इमा ''एन. फ्लोरिस'' – न्हापा छगू उपप्रजाति, ''एस. सि. फ्लोरिस''
***सुलावेसी हक-इमा, ''एन. लान्सियोलेटस''
***पर्वः हक-इमा, ''एन. निपलेन्सिस''
****लेग्गेया हक-इमा, ''निसाएटस केलाआरती'' – न्हापा ''एस. निपलेन्सिस''
***ब्लाइथया हक-इमा, ''एन. एल्बोनिगर''
***जाभाया हक-इमा, ''एन. बर्टेलसी''
***(उत्तरी) फिलिपिन हक-इमा, ''एन. फिलिपेन्सिस
****पिन्स्करया हक-इमा (दक्षिणी फिलिपिन्सया हक-इमा), ''निसाएटस पिन्सकेरी'' 
***वालेसया हक-इमा, ''एन. नानुस''

* '''उपमाचाछि सर्केटिना''' : ताहाः-इमा
** जीनस ''स्पिलोर्निस''
*** क्रेस्टेड सर्पेन्त ईगल, ''स्पिलोर्निस चीला''
**** मध्य निकोबार सर्पेन्त इमा, ''एस. मिनिमस'' (उपप्रजाति बाय् प्रजाति)
*** तःधंम्ह निकोबार बि इमा, ''एस क्लोसि''
*** पर्वतीय बि इमा, ''एस किनाबालुएन्सिस''
*** सुलावेसी बि इमाबि इमा&lt;/a&gt;, ''एस.''
*** फिलिपिन बि इमा, ''एस होलोस्पिलस''
*** अन्दमान बि इमा, ''एस एल्गिनी .''
** जीनस ''पिथेकोफागा''
*** फिलिपिन्स इमा, ''पिथेकोफागा जेफरी''
** जीनस ''तेराथोपियस''
*** ब्यातेल्यूर, ''तेराथोपियस इकाउडेटस''
** जीनस ''सर्केतस''
*** चीहाकःगु तुति दुम्ह बि इमा, ''सर्केटस ग्यालिकस''
*** बुदांयाबि इमा, ''सर्केटस ब्यूडुइनि''
*** हाकुगु नुगपाः दुम्ह बि इमा ''सि. पेक्टोरलिस''
*** सियुगु बि इमा ''सि. सिनेरियस''
*** फासिएतेद बि इमा, ''सि. फ्यासिओलेटस''
*** पश्चिमी ब्याण्ड दुम्ह बि इमा, ''सि. सिनेरासेन्स''
** जीनस ''ड्रयोट्रिओर्चिस''
*** कङ्गो बि इमा, ''डि. स्पेक्टाबिलिस''
** जीनस ''यूट्रिओर्चिस'' - थाय् अनिश्चित, जाइपेटिना बाय् पर्निनाया ब्व जुइफु
*** मादागास्कर बि इमा ''यूट्रिओर्चिस एस्टुर''
* उपमाचाछि हार्पिना – हार्पिज, न्हापा बुटिओनिनाय् दुथ्याःगु
** जीनस ''मर्फनस''
*** क्रेस्टेड इमा''मर्फनस गुआनेन्सिस''
** जीनस ''हार्प्योप्सिस''
*** पपुवामि इमा  ''हार्पियोप्सिस नोभाएगुइनी''
** जीनस ''हार्पिया''
*** हार्पि इमा, ''हार्पिया हार्पिजा''

== लिधंसा ==
&lt;references/&gt;
{{Commonscat|Eagles}}

[[पुचः:जीवविज्ञान]]
[[पुचः:झंगः]]</text>
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[[Image:Batfossil.jpg|thumb|upright|The early [[Eocene]]]]
[[Image:Cynocephalus doguera - 1700-1880 - Print - Iconographia Zoologica - Special Collections University of Amsterdam - (white background).tiff|50px]]
[[Image:Mole white background.jpg|60px| ]]

{{Taxobox
| name = चिकंलापा
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|52|0}}&lt;small&gt;Early [[Eocene]] – Recent&lt;/small&gt;
| image = Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = [[Townsend's big-eared bat]], ''Corynorhinus townsendii''
| regnum = [[पशु|Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| infraclassis = [[Eutheria]]
| superordo = [[Laurasiatheria]]&lt;ref name=&quot;classification&quot;&gt;{{cite journal| quote=Several molecular studies have shown that Chiroptera belong to the Laurasiatheria (represented by carnivores, pangolins, cetartiodactyls, eulipotyphlans, and perissodactyls) and are only distantly related to dermopterans, scandentians, and primates (Nikaido et al. 2000; Lin and Penny 2001; Madsen et al. 2001; Murphy et al. 2001''a'', 2001''b''; Van Den Bussche and Hoofer 2004).| title=A Nuclear DNA Phylogenetic Perspective on the Evolution of Echolocation and Historical Biogeography of Extant Bats (Chiroptera)| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_2005-09_22_9/page/1869| doi=10.1093/molbev/msi180| year=2005 |author=Eick et al.| journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution| volume=22| page=1869| pmid=15930153| last2=Jacobs| first2=DS| last3=Matthee| first3=CA| issue=9| pages=1869–86}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| ordo = '''Chiroptera'''
| ordo_authority = [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach]], 1779
| subdivision_ranks = Suborders
| subdivision =
''See article''
| range_map = Bat range.png
| range_map_caption = Worldwide distribution of bat species
}}

'''चिकंलापा''' धागु छगु ब्वैगु स्तनधारी प्राणी खः।

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[प्राणी]]
{{Commonscat|Chiroptera}}

[[पुचः:प्राणी]]</text>
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[[Image:Dogs, jackals, wolves, and foxes (Plate I).png|50 px]]

{{Taxobox
| name          = लहि खिचा 
| fossil_range  = {{Fossil range|0.015|0}}&lt;small&gt;[[Pleistocene|प्लेस्तोसिन]]&amp;nbsp;– [[Recent|वर्तमान]]&lt;/small&gt;
| status        = DOM
| image         = Coat types 3.jpg  &lt;!-- Please do not change lead image without discussion --&gt;
| image_width   = 260px
| image_caption = [[commons:Category:Dogs|खिचाया मेमेगु किपा]]
| regnum        = [[पशु]]
| phylum        = [[कर्देता]]
| classis       = [[म्यामलिया]]
| ordo          = [[कार्निभोरा]]
| familia       = [[क्यानिदे]]
| genus         = ''[[क्यानिस]]''
| species       = ''[[भुयु गुँखिचा|लुपस]]''
| subspecies    = '''''C. l. familiaris''''' and '''''C. l. dingo'''''.&lt;ref name = &quot;MSW3 Lupus&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.bucknell.edu/MSW3/browse.asp?id=14000738 |title=Mammal Species of the World - Browse: lupus |publisher=Bucknell.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3 Dingo&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.bucknell.edu/MSW3/browse.asp?id=14000751 |title=Mammal Species of the World - Browse: dingo |publisher=Bucknell.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| trinomial     = ''Canis lupus familiaris'' and ''Canis lupus dingo''&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3 Lupus&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3  Dingo&quot;/&gt;
| synonyms      = *''Canis familiaris''
* ''Canis familiaris domesticus''
}}

'''लहि खिचा''' ( ''क्यानिस लुपस फ्यामिलियारिस'' ''Canis lupus familiaris''&lt;ref name=&quot;ADW&quot;&gt;Dewey, T. and S. Bhagat. 2002. &quot;[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Canis_lupus_familiaris.html Canis lupus familiaris]&quot;, Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 6 January 2009.&lt;/ref&gt;  व ''क्यानिस लुपस दिङ्गो'' ''[[Canis lupus dingo]]''&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3 Lupus&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3  Dingo&quot;/&gt;) कार्निभोरा अर्दरया क्यानिदे परिवारया छगू प्रकारया[[भुयु गुँखिचा]] ख। थ्व नां भुस्याहा व लहिनातःगु निगु हे प्रकारया खिचाया निंतिं छ्येलिगु या। खिचा सम्भवतः मानव प्रजातिं दक्ले न्ह्यः लहिनातःगु प्राणी ख। थ्व प्राणीयात खिचाज्या, सिकार व पासाप्राणीया निंतिं मनुं लहिनातःगु खनेदु। 

खिचाया वर्तमान प्रजाति मनुं करिब १५,००० दँ निसें लहिनातःगु भुयु गुँखिचाया सन्तति ख। &lt;ref name=&quot;science2002&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Savolainen P, Zhang YP, Luo J, Lundeberg J, Leitner T |title=Genetic evidence for an East Asian origin of domestic dogs |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2002-11-22_298_5598/page/1610 |journal=Science |volume=298 |issue=5598 |pages=1610–3 |year=2002 |month=November |pmid=12446907 |doi=10.1126/science.1073906 |bibcode=2002Sci...298.1610S}}&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व प्राणीं मानव सभ्यताय् काःगु भूमिका स्वेबिले प्राचीन मानव बस्ती नापं कमजोर अवस्थाय् दयाच्वंगु प्राणी जुइमा। थ्व प्राणी लिपा वना सिकार यायेत, चौपाया स्वेत, मालसामाल सालेत, सुरक्षा यायेत, सिपाहीं ज्या यायेत, हताःय्, पासाप्राणीया रुपय् व अशक्त व अपाङ्गया ग्वहालिया निंतिं ज्या वल। थ्व प्राणीं मनुजातिया निंतिं याःगु ज्याया लागि थ्व प्राणीयात यक्व भाषा व संस्कृतिइ मनुया दक्कले यःम्ह पासा (&quot;Man's Best Friend&quot;) या रुपय् नालेगु नं या। सन् २००१या आंकलन कथं हलिमय् करिल ४० कोटी खिचा दु। 
&lt;ref name=&quot;Coppinger&quot;&gt;{{Cite book| author=Coppinger, Ray|title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution| url=https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym|year=2001|isbn=0684855305|publisher=Scribner|location= New York|page = 352}}&lt;/ref&gt;

१५,००० दँया कालखण्डय् थ्व प्राणी सिक्क म्हो प्रजाति दूगु पुचः ल्यान्दरेस (landrace)या छगू प्राणीया रुपय् पलिस्था जुल। थ्व पुचले थन्यागु प्राणी ला गुकिया व्यवहार, संरचना आदि वातावरणीय प्रभाव व कार्यात्मक भूमिकां पाना वन। मानवीय चयनया लिच्वःया कथं थी-थी नश्लया खिचा विकशित जुल गुकिया व्यवहारिक व भौतिक रुप मेमेगु स्तनधारी प्राणीस्वया पाना वन।
&lt;ref name=&quot;spady&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|author=Spady TC, Ostrander EA |title=Canine behavioral genetics: pointing out the phenotypes and herding up the genes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-human-genetics_2008-01_82_1/page/n8 |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=10–8 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18179880 |pmc=2253978 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.12.001}}&lt;/ref&gt; खिचाया जा छुं इञ्चया चिहुआहुआ निसें छुं फितया आइरिश वुल्फहाउन्द तक्क, रंग तुगु निसें भुयु (वांगु नं धाइगु या) निसें हाकुगु तक्क, सियु निसें ह्यांगु तक्क, थी-थी बुट्टाया छ्यंगु व सं आदि थ्व प्राणीइ मानवीय कारणं वःगु हिउपाया छुं दसु ख। 
&lt;ref name=&quot;The Complete Dog&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Complete dog book: the photograph, history, and official standard of every breed admitted to AKC registration, and the selection, training, breeding, care, and feeding of pure-bred dogs |url=https://archive.org/details/completedogbook00amer |publisher=Howell Book House |location=New York, N.Y |year=1992 |isbn=0-87605-464-5}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
[[File:YellowLabradorLooking new.jpg|thumb|left|म्हासुगु [[ल्याब्रेदोर रित्रिभर]], अमेरिकन केनल क्लबय् दक्कले यक्व पञ्जीकृत खिचा।]]
[[File:Indian spitz.jpg|thumb|left]]
==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}
{{Commonscat|Dogs}}

[[पुचः:विज्ञान]]</text>
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[[Image:Diamant gisements.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Main diamond producing countries]]
[[Image:Carbon-phase-diagramp.svg|thumb|Theoretically predicted [[phase diagram]]]]

{{Infobox mineral
| name    = हेरा
| category  = नेटिभ खनिज
| boxwidth  = 
| boxbgcolor = 
| image    = Brillanten.jpg
| imagesize  = 300 &lt;!-- this value is in px --&gt;
| caption   = छगू स्क्याटरिङ चाकःलाःगु-ब्रिलियन्ट कट हेरां यक्व रिफ्लेक्टिङ फसेट क्यनि।
| formula   = C
| molweight  = 12.01 u
| color    = Typically yellow, brown or gray to colorless. Less often in blue, green, black, translucent white, pink, violet, orange, purple and red.&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;/&gt;
| habit    = [[अक्टाहेड्रल]]
| system   = आइसोमेट्रिक-हेक्साक्टाहेड्रल (क्युबिक)
| twinning  = 
| cleavage  = १११ (perfect in four directions)
| fracture  = [[कङ्कोइडल]] - स्वाने थें
| tenacity  =
| mohs    = १०&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;/&gt;
| luster   = [[एडमन्टिन]]&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;/&gt;
| polish   = [[एडमन्टिन]]&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;&gt;[[जेमोलोजे इन्स्स्टिच्युट अफ अमेरिका]], ''GIA Gem Reference Guide'' 1995, ISBN 0-87311-019-6&lt;/ref&gt; 
| refractive = 2.4175–2.4178
| opticalprop = Singly Refractive&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;/&gt;
| birefringence = मदुगु&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;/&gt;
| dispersion = .044&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;/&gt;
| pleochroism = मदुगु&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;/&gt;
| fluorescence= रङ्गहीन निसें म्हासुगु पत्थर - inert to strong in long wave, and typically blue. Weaker in short wave.&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;/&gt;
| absorption = In pale yellow stones a 415.5 nm line is typical. Irradiated and annealed diamonds often show a line around 594 nm when cooled to low temperatures.&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;/&gt;
| streak   = तुयुगु 
| gravity   = 3.52 (+/- .01)&lt;ref name=&quot;GRG&quot;/&gt;
| density   = 3.5-3.53 g/cm³
| melt    = 
| fusibility = 
| diagnostic = 
| solubility = 
| diaphaneity = ट्रान्स्प्यारेन्ट निसें सबट्रान्सप्यारेन्ट निसें ट्रान्सलुसेन्ट 
| other    = 
}}

&lt;!--First paragraph Chemistry and Material Properties, Industry Size--&gt;
'''हेरा''' [[कार्बोन]]या छगू [[एलोट्रोप]] खः। थुकिलि कार्बोनयागु सकल प्येंगु भ्यालेन्ट [[एलेक्ट्रोन]] [[को-भ्यालेन्ट बन्ड]] देका च्वनि। थन्यागु बोन्डंयाना थुकिया स्वरूप आइसोमेट्रिक-हेक्सोक्टाहेड्रल क्रिस्टल ल्याटिस जुइ। थुकिया कडापना व तच्वःगु [[जः]]या [[डिस्पर्सन|डिस्पर्सनं]] याना थुकियात औद्योगिक व [[तिसा]]य् छ्येलिगु या। हेरा प्रकृतिइ दैगु दक्ले [[कडा]] [[खनिज]] ख। साधारण हेरायात तच्वःगु प्रेसर व तच्वःगु तापक्रमया कम्बिनेसन बिया टाइप-II हेरा देकेछिं। थन्यागु हेरा मेमेगु हेरा स्वया अप्व कडा जुइ व थुकियात हार्डनेस गजय् छ्येलि।&lt;ref name=&quot;Smithsonian&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author = Boser, Ulrich |month = June | year = 2008 | title = Diamonds on Demand | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_smithsonian_2008-06_39_3/page/52 | journal = Smithsonian | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 52–59 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  आया ईले मात्र [[एग्रेगेटेड हेरा नानोरड]] (C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;), [[अल्ट्राहार्ड फुलेराइट]] छ्येला देकातःगु वस्तु थ्व स्वया कडा जुगु पुष्टि जूगु दु। 

हेराया भौतिक गुणया निंतिं हेरा विशेष कथं नांजाःगु वस्तु ख; हेरां भिंगु [[एब्रेसिभ]] देकी छायेधासा हेरायात मेगु हेरा, [[बोराजोन]], अल्ट्राहार्ड फुलेराइट, र्हेनियम डाइबोराइड, वा एग्रेगेटेड हेरा [[न्यानोरड]] नं जक्क स्क्र्याच यायेफइ। थुकिया अर्थ थ्व नं खः कि हेरां पालिस बांलाक्क काइ व थःगु [[लस्चर (मिनरलोजी)|लस्चर]] तया तै। थ्यं-मथ्यं १३०&amp;nbsp;मिलियन [[क्यारेट (मात्रा)|क्यारेट]] हेरा दें-दच्छिं खानिं लिकाइगु जुइ गुकिया सकल मू [[युएस डलर|USD $]]९&amp;nbsp;[[अर्ब]] जुइ, नापं करीब {{convert|100000|kg|abbr=on}} हेरा वार्षिक रुपय् देकिगु ज्या जुइ।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last = Yarnell|first=Amanda|title=The Many Facets of Man-Made Diamonds|journal=Chemical and Engineering News|volume=82|issue=5|pages=26–31|publisher=American Chemical Society|year=2004|url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8205/8205diamonds.html|id =ISSN 0009-2347|accessdate=2006-10-03 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;!--Second paragraph: Etymology and Applications--&gt;
''हेरा'' धाःगु खँग्वः संस्कृत खँग्वः ''हिरा'' नं वःगु ख। प्राचीन भारतय् थुकियात धार्मिक वस्तुया रुपय् दक्ले न्ह्यः छ्यलातःगु खने दु। अब्लेया ई निसें हे थुकियात [[जेमस्टोन]]या कथं छ्येलातःगु खने दु। थुकियात ज्याभःया कथं छ्य्‌लिगु व्यवस्था नं प्राचीनकाल निसें हे जूगु खने दु।  &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title = Natural History: A Selection |year = 1991 |url = https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryse0000plin | author = [[Pliny the Elder]] | publisher = Penguin Classics | pages = p. 371 | isbn = 0140444130}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=ancient_China&gt;{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4555235.stm | title = Chinese made first use of diamond | publisher = BBC News | date=  2005-05-17 | accessdate = 2007-03-21}}&lt;/ref&gt; १९गु शताब्दी निसें हेराया प्रसिद्धि अप्वया वल। थथे जुगुया मू कारण हेराया अप्वःगु सप्लाइ, बांलाःगु कटिङ व पलिशिङ प्रविधि, हलिम अर्थतन्त्रय् वृद्धि, व इनोभेटिभ व सफल विज्ञापन क्याम्पेन आदि ख। हेरायात साधारण कथं “प्यंगु C”इ जांचेयाइ : ''क्या‍रेट'', ''क्ल्यारिटी'', ''कलर'', व ''कट''।

&lt;!--Third paragraph: Mining and Distribution--&gt;
हलिमया करिब ४९% हेरा मध्य व दक्षिणी अफ्रिकां उत्पादन जुइ। हेराया खनिजया तधंगु स्रोत क्यानाडा, भारत, रुस, [[ब्राजिल]], व अस्ट्रेलियाय् नं खने दु। हेराया क्रिस्टल [[किम्बरलाइट]] व [[ल्याम्प्रोइट]] [[भोल्क्यानिक पाइन]] छ्येला पृथ्वीया गर्वं लिकाइ। पृथ्वीया गर्वय् तच्वःगु प्रेसर व तापक्रम दैगुलिं अन हेरा दयाच्वनि। प्राकृतिक हेराया माइनिङ व इनेज्या यक्व वादविवादयअ विषय ख दसुया कथं [[कन्फ्लिक्ट हेरा]] वा (''हि हेरा'') मीगु अफ्रिकी [[अर्धसैन्य]] पुचःतेत कायेछिं। 

==वस्तुया गुण==
{{main|हेराया तात्विक गुण}}
{{seealso|हेराया क्रिस्टलोग्राफिक डिफेक्ट}}
[[Image:Diamond and graphite.jpg|thumb|हेरा व ग्राफाइट कार्बोनया निगु एलोट्रप (संरचना पाःगु छगू हे तत्त्वया निगु शुद्ध प्रकार) ख।]]
हेरा छगू [[टेट्राहेड्रल-अक्टाहेड्रल हनिकुम्ब|टेट्राहेड्रल कथं]] स्वाना च्वंगु कार्बोन अणुया [[ट्रान्सप्यारेन्ट (अप्टिक्स)|ट्रान्सप्यारेन्ट]] [[क्रिस्टल]] ख। थ्व फेस सेन्टर्ड क्युबिक डायमण्ड ल्याटिसय् क्रिस्टलाइज जुइ। हेराया अद्वितीय भौतिक गुणं याना हेरातेत यक्व ज्याया निंतिं छ्येलिगु या। थुकिया भौतिक गुणय् दक्ले नांजागु गुण थुकिया तच्वगु कडापना, थुकिया तधंगु [[डिस्पर्सन (अप्टिक्स)|डिस्पर्सन]] इन्डेक्स, व सिक्क तच्वगु [[थर्मल कन्डक्टिभिटी]] (९०० – २३२० W/m K) आदि ला। १७०० °से (१९७३ के / ३५८३ °फ) स्वया च्वे, हेरा [[ग्राफाइट]]य् हिला वनि&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Radovic, Ljubisa R.; Walker, Philip M.; Thrower, Peter A. |title=Chemistry and physics of carbon: a series of advances |url=https://archive.org/details/chemistryphysics0028unse |publisher=Marcel Dekker |location=New York, N.Y |year=1965 |pages= |isbn=0-8247-0987-X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}&lt;/ref&gt;। प्राकृतिक हेराया घनत्त्व ३.१५ निसें ३.५३ ग्राम/सेमि³ दै, सिक्क शुद्ध हेराया घनत्त्व करिब ३.५२ g/cm³ दै।

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[नांजाःगु हेरातेगु धलः]]
* [[हेरा क्युबिक]]
* [[हेरा ड्रिलिङ]]
* [[खनिजतेगु धलः]]
* [[इमराल्ड]]
* [[रुबी]]
* [[सफायर]]

==नोट==
{{reflist|2}}

==लिधँसा==
&lt;div class=&quot;references-2column&quot;&gt;
* David, Joshua (September 2003). [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.09/diamond.html &quot;The New Diamond Age&quot;]. ''Wired'', issue 11.09.
* De Beers Group. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081219182238/http://www.debeersgroup.com/debeersweb &quot;De Beers Group&quot;]. Retrieved March 14, 2005.
* Epstein, Edward Jay (February 1982). [http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/82feb/8202diamond1.htm &quot;Have You Ever Tried To Sell a Diamond?&quot;] (subscription required). ''The Atlantic Monthly''.
* Epstein, Edward Jay (1982). [https://web.archive.org/web/20210211085452/http://edwardjayepstein.com/diamond/prologue.htm &quot;THE DIAMOND INVENTION&quot;] (Complete book, includes &quot;Chapter 20: [http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/198202/diamond Have you ever tried to sell a diamond?]&quot; )
* Chaim Evevn-Zohar (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20200310081831/http://www.mine2mistress.com/ &quot;From Mine to Mistress - Corporate Strategies and Government Policies in the International Diamond Industry&quot;] (Second edition of the book on the world diamond industry) Mining Journal Press.
* Eppler, W.F. ''Praktische Gemmologie''. Rühle-Diebner-Verlag, 1989
* Government of Gujarat (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20121117043238/http://www.vibrantgujarat.com/ &quot;Vibrant Gujarat: Sector Profiles&quot;]. Retrieved March 14, 2005.
* Kjarsgaard, B.A. and Levinson, A. A. (2002). Diamonds in Canada. ''Gems &amp; Gemology'', Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 208&amp;ndash;238.
* Kunz, George Frederick, ''Curious Lore of Precious Stones'', Lippincott Co., 1913 
* Pagel - Theisen, Verena. ''Diamond Grading ABC: the Manual'' Rubin &amp; Son, Antwerp, Belgium, 2001. ISBN 3-9800434-6-0
* Streeter - ''The Great Diamonds of the World'' , London, George Bell &amp; Sons, 1882
* Taylor, W.R., Lynton A.J. &amp; Ridd, M., (1990) [http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM75/AM75_1290.pdf Nitrogen defect aggregation of some Australasian diamonds: Time-temperature constraints on the source regions of pipe and alluvial diamonds.] ''American Mineralogist'', 75, pp. 1290–1310.
* Tolkowsky, Marcel (1919). ''Diamond Design: A Study of the Reflection and Refraction of Light in a Diamond.'' London: E. &amp; F.N. Spon, Ltd. ([http://www.folds.net/diamond/index.html Web edition] as edited by Jasper Paulsen, Seattle, 2001)
* Tyson, Peter (November 2000). [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/diamond/sky.html &quot;Diamonds in the Sky&quot;]. Retrieved March 10, 2005.
* United Nations Department of Public Information (March 21, 2001). [http://www.un.org/peace/africa/Diamond.html &quot;Conflict Diamonds&quot;]. Retrieved March 10, 2005.
* Weiner, K.L., Hochleitner, R., Weiss, S., Voelstadt H. ''Diamant'', Lapis, München, 1994.
* Yarnell, Amanda (February 2, 2004). [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8205//8205diamonds.html &quot;The Many Facets of Man-Made Diamonds&quot;]. ''[[Chemical &amp; Engineering News]]'', vol. 82, no. 5, pp 26&amp;ndash;31.
* American Museum of Natural History. [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/diamonds/index.html &quot;The Nature of Diamonds&quot;]. Retrieved October 21, 2005.
* Carnegie Institution.[https://web.archive.org/web/20081026014029/http://www.carnegieinstitution.org/diamond-13may2005/ &quot;Very Large Diamonds Produced Very Fast&quot;]. Retrieved November 1, 2005.
* Williams, Gardner, ''The Diamond Mines of South Africa'', New York, B.F. Buck &amp; Co., 1905
* World Diamond Council. [http://www.worlddiamondcouncil.com/aboutwdc.shtml &quot;About The WDC&quot;]. Retrieved November 19, 2006.
* Wise, Richard W. &quot;Secrets Of The Gem Trade, The Connoisseur's Guide To Precious Gemstones&quot;. (2003) Brunswick House Press. Website of book: [http://www.secretsofthegemtrade.com Secrets of the Gem Trade]
*GIA [http://www.gia.edu/pdfs/W97_fluoresce.pdf &quot;A Contribution to the Understanding of Blue Fluorescence on the Appearance of Diamonds&quot;]. (2007) GIA
&lt;/div&gt;

==पिनेया स्वापू==
{{portalpar|Gemology and Jewelry|AEW diamond solo white.gif|35}}
{{commons|Diamond}}
{{wiktionary}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20200813074403/http://www.eurostardiamond.com/diamonds/index.html Video: How a Diamond is Cut and Polished at Eurostar Diamonds International]
*[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/diamonds/formation.html Diamond formation phase diagrams and geotherms]
*[http://newton.ex.ac.uk/people/sque/diamond/structure/structure.html Interactive structure of bulk diamond] (Java applet)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090517050037/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/diamonds/index.html PBS Nature: Diamonds]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121227070600/http://www.mnh.si.edu/exhibits/si-gems/ Smithsonian's Splendour of Diamonds exhibit]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081021074313/http://www.farlang.com/diamonds-references Historical Diamond Books/References, 5000 pages] Most of the books mentioned as references, found online here.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101130151905/http://thexodirectory.com/2007/12/astronomers-discovered-largest-diamond.html]

{{कार्बोनया एलोट्रोप}}
{{तिसा सामाग्री}}

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[[Image:Onde electromagnetique.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|A [[linear polarization|linearly polarized]]]]
[[Image:VisibleEmrWavelengths.svg|thumb|The relative wavelengths of the electromagnetic waves of three different colours of [[Visible light|light]]]]

'''विद्युतचुम्बकिय विकिरण''' छगू कथंया उर्जा ख। थ्व उर्जाया इमिसन व एब्जर्प्सन चार्ज्ड पार्टिकलं याइ। स्पेसय् वनिबिले थुकिलिं तरङ्ग थें न्यागु व्यवहार क्यनि। विचु विकिरणया विद्युतीय व चुम्बकीय ख्यः दै। थ्व निगु ख्यः फेजय् उर्जा व तरङ्गया परिवहन व थःदथुइ पर्पेन्डिकुलर कथं दैगु या। भ्याक्युमय् थ्व तरङ्ग जःया गतिइ प्रभाहित जुइ। 

== विद्युतचुम्बकिय स्पेक्त्रम ==

[[किपा:Light_spectrum.svg|right|frame|'''लिखँ:'''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; γ = गामा रे&lt;br /&gt; HX (एच एकस)= हार्ड एक्सरे&lt;br /&gt; SXएसएक्स =  एक्सरे&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; EUV इयूभि = चरम - अल्ट्राभायोलेट&lt;br /&gt; NUV एनयूभि = निकट-अल्ट्राभायोलेट&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; [[जः|खनेदइगु जः]] (रंगया हाकः)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; NIR एनआइआर = सत्तिक- [[इन्फ्रारेड]]&lt;br /&gt; MIR एमआईआर = मध्य-इन्फ्रारेड&lt;br /&gt; FIR एफआइआर = तापाः-इन्फ्रारेड&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; EHF ईएचएफ = तसकं तच्वःगु फ्रिक्वेन्सी (माइक्रोवेभ)&lt;br /&gt; SHF एसएचएफ = सुपर-हाइ फ्रिक्वेन्सी (माइक्रोवेभ)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; UHF यूएचएफ = अल्ट्राहाइ फ्रिक्वेन्सी (रेडियो तरंग)&lt;br /&gt; VHF भिएचएफ = तसकं तच्वःगु फ्रिक्वेन्सी (रेडियो)&lt;br /&gt; HF एचएफ = उच्च फ्रिक्वेन्सी&lt;/a&gt; (रेडियो)&lt;br /&gt; MF एमएफ = मध्यम फ्रिक्वेन्सी (रेडियो)&lt;br /&gt; LF एलएफ = म्ह्व फ्रिक्वेन्सी (रेडियो)&lt;br /&gt; VLF भिएलएफ = तसकं म्ह्व फ्रिक्वेन्सी (रेडियो)&lt;br /&gt; VF भिएफ = सःया फ्रिक्वेन्सी&lt;br /&gt; ULF यूएलएफ = अल्ट्रा-लो फ्रिक्वेन्सी (रेडियो)&lt;br /&gt; SLF एसएलएफ = सुपर-लो फ्रिक्वेन्सी (रेडियो)&lt;br /&gt; ELF ईएलएफ = तसकं म्ह्व फ्रिक्वेन्सी (रेडियो)]]
ईएम विकिरणयात तरङ्ग हाकःया आधारय् रेडियो, माइक्रोवेभ, [[इन्फ्रारेड]], [[भिजिबल स्पेक्ट्रम|खनेदूगु जःझ्वः]], अल्ट्राभायोलेत, एक्स-रे, व गामा जःय् ब्वथलेछिं। छुं नं विद्युत चुम्बकीय तरंगयात फोरियर विश्लेषणं साइनोसोइदल तरंग ( मोनोक्रोमेटिक रेडिएशन )या रुपय् म्हसीकेछिं, गुकिलि दुथ्याःगु  प्रत्येक रेदिएशनयात ईएमआर स्पेक्ट्रमया क्षेत्रय् ब्वथलेछिं।

=== रेडियो व माइक्रोवेभ ===
छगू मिटर निसें छगू मिलिमिटर तक्कया तरङ्ग दैगु विद्युत चुम्बकीय विकिरणयात माइक्रोवेभ धाइ; इमिगु फ्रिक्वेन्सी ३००&amp;nbsp;मेगाहर्ज (०.३&amp;nbsp;गिगाहर्ज) व ३००&amp;nbsp;गिगाहर्ज या दथुइ दयाच्वनि। रेदियोवेभ छगू इलेक्त्रिकल कन्दक्तर(चालक पदार्थ ?)या स्वापूलि वइबिले, इपिं कन्दकतर नाप स्वाना, कन्दक्तरलिसे हे सञ्चालन जुइ बाय् सनि, व चालक पदार्थया इलेक्ट्रोनयात सहसंबंधित चार्जया पुचलय् न्ह्याकाः चालक सतहय् विद्युत प्रवाह प्रेरित याइ । रेडियो व माइक्रोवेभ फ्रिक्वेन्सीइ इलेक्त्रोम्याग्नेतिक विकिरणं पदार्थनाप यक्व ल्याखय् प्रभावित परमाणुइ न्यनाच्वंगु चार्जया बल्क पुचःया रुपय् अन्तरक्रिया याइ। विद्युत चालकय्, थन्यागु प्रेरित चार्जया बल्क मूभमेन्त ( [[विद्युतीय बाहा|विद्युत धारा]] )या लिच्वः कथं थन्याःगु विकिरणया अवशोषण (absorption) जुइ, वा मखुसा चार्जया पृथक्करण जुइ गुकिलिं न्हुगु रेदियसन दयावइ। छगू दसु एन्टेनां याइगु रेडियो तरंगया अवशोषण वा उत्सर्जन ख, वा विद्युतीय दाइपोल मोमेन्त दूगु लः वा मेमेगु अणुतेसं माइक्रोवेभया अवशोषण ख। थुगु अन्तरक्रियां विद्युत प्रवाह बाय् ताप, बाय् नित्तां पिकाइ।

=== इन्फ्रारेद ===
रेडियो व माइक्रोवेभ थें इन्फ्रारेड (IR) जः धातुतेसं प्रतिबिम्बित याइ। अथे जुसां लोअर-फ्रिक्वेन्सी रेडियो व माइक्रोवेभ रेडिएशन स्वया भिन्न इन्फ्रारेद आपालं छगू मोलेक्युलय् दूगु दाइपोलनाप अन्तरक्रिया याइ, गुकि छगू हे रासायनिक बन्दया अन्त्यय् एतम कम्पन जुइवं हिलाच्वनि। थुकिया लिच्वः कथं थुकियात यक्व पदार्थं एब्जर्ब याइ। थथे छुं पदार्थं एबजर्ब याइबिले एब्जर्ब याइगु पदार्थया दुने अप्वइगु कम्पन तापया रुपय् मदया वनीगुलिं इमिगु तापक्रम अप्वइ। थ्व हे प्रक्रिया, अःखः बाय् रिभर्सय् सनिबिले, पदार्थतेसं इन्फ्रारेडयात स्वतःस्फूर्त रुपं पिकाइ।

इन्फ्रारेड विकिरणयात स्पेक्ट्रल सबरिजनय् ब्वथलातःगु दु । थी-थी उपविभाजन पद्धति दयाच्वंसां &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Henderson|first=Roy|url=http://info.tuwien.ac.at/iflt/safety/section1/1_1_1.htm|title=Wavelength considerations|publisher=Instituts für Umform- und Hochleistungs}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/Outreach/Edu/Regions/irregions.html|title=Near, Mid and Far-Infrared|publisher=NASA IPAC}}&lt;/ref&gt; स्पेक्ट्रमयात सामान्यतया थुकिया स्पेक्त्रमयात निकट-इन्फ्रारेड (०.७५–१.४&amp;nbsp;माइक्रोमिटर) , चीहाकःगु इन्फ्रारेड (१.४–३&amp;nbsp;माइक्रोमिटर), दथु-हाकःगु इन्फ्रारेड (३–८&amp;nbsp;माइक्रोमिटर), ताःहाकःगु इन्फ्रारेड (८–१५&amp;nbsp;माइक्रोमिटर) व तापाःगु इन्फ्रारेड (१५–१०००&amp;nbsp;μm) कथं विभाजित याइ। &lt;ref name=&quot;Byrnes&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Byrnes|first=James|title=Unexploded Ordnance Detection and Mitigation|url=https://archive.org/details/unexplodedordnan00abry|publisher=Springer}}&lt;/ref&gt;

छुं प्राणी, गथेकि बि बाय् सर्पया म्हय् जः-म्हसीकेगु भः (पित अर्ग्यान) दइ गुकिलिं तापक्रमया भिन्नता म्हसीकेफु, गुकियाइ छ्यला इमित इन्फ्रारेड विकिरण अनुभूति यायेफु। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2010|title=Molecular basis of infrared detection by snakes|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2010-04-15_464_7291/page/1006|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=464|issue=7291|pages=1006–1011|doi=10.1038/nature08943|issn=0028-0836|pmid=20228791}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== खनेदइगु जः ===
प्राकृतिक स्रोतं थ्व इलेक्त्रोम्याग्नेतिक स्पेक्ट्रमय् विकिरण दयेकी। थ्व स्पेक्त्रमय् थ्यं-मथ्यं ४०० एनएम व ७००&amp;nbsp;एनएमया दथुइ तरङ्ग हाकः दुगु जः [[मनुयागु मिखा|मनूया मिखां]] तप्यंक खनीगु जूगुलिं थ्व जःयात खनेदइगु जः धकाः म्हसीकि। मेगु तरङ्ग-हाकः, विशेष यानाः थ्व स्पेक्त्रमया लिक्कसं च्वंगु इन्फ्रारेड (७००&amp;nbsp;एनएम स्वयां ताःहाकः) व अल्ट्राभायोलेट (४००&amp;nbsp;एनएम स्वयां चीहाकः)यात गबलें गबलें जः धाइगु नं या।

=== अल्ट्राभायोलेट ===
अल्ट्राभायोलेटय् विकिरणया फ्रिक्वेन्सी अप्वया वनेवं फोतोनं छुं दबल बन्द दूगु मोलेक्युलयात उत्तेजित यासें स्थायी रसायनिक हिलाः हयेफु। थ्व झ्वलय् लगभग स्व (३) इलेक्ट्रोन भोल्ट वा व स्वया अप्व उर्जा दइ। थन्याःगु उर्जां [[डी एन ए|डिएनए]]य् स्थायी क्षति यायेफु। अल्ट्राभायोलेट ए (यूभीए) विकिरणं उत्पादित रिएक्टिभ अक्सिजन प्रजातिं  अप्रत्यक्ष रुपं डिएनएयात क्षति याइ। इमिसं डिएनएयात प्रत्यक्ष रुपं क्षति यायेत गाक्क इमिके उर्जा मदु। थ्व हे कारणं फुक्क तरङ्ग हाकःया अल्ट्राभायोलेटं डीएनएयात क्षति यायेफु, व क्यान्सर यायेफु। नापं,  यूभीबी धाःगु अल्त्राभायोलेत विकिरणं छ्यंगु छ्वयेकेगु (सनबर्न) ज्या यायेफु गुगु छ्यंगुलि साधारण ताप प्रभावं उत्पादन जुइगु प्रभाव स्वया यक्व मभिं।

=== एक्सरे व गामा जः ===
न्यूनतम-आयनीकरण ऊर्जा वा अप्व ऊर्जा दूगु इलेक्त्रोम्याग्नेतिक रेदियसनयात आयोनाइजिङ्ग रेदियसन धाइ। थुकिलि चिहाकःगु तरङ्गया मुक्कं स्पेक्ट्रम दुथ्याइ। इलेक्त्रोम्याग्नेतिक रेदियसन स्वया पिने नं यक्व मेमेगु आयोनाइजिङ्ग रेदियसनत दु। इलेक्त्रोम्याग्नेतिक -ताजिया आयोनाइजिङ्ग रेदियस दुने चरम अल्ट्राभायोलेट स्वया अप्वःगु सकल उच्च आवृत्ति व चिहाकःगु तरङ्ग हाकःया रेदियसन दुथ्याः, दसु सकल एक्स-रे व गामा रे। थ्व दकलय् गम्भीर प्रकारया आणविक क्षति यायेफूगु रेदियसन ख, गुकिलिं जीवविज्ञानया छुं नं बायोमोलेक्युलयात क्षति यायेफु। थुकिलिं म्युतेसन व क्यान्सर थें न्याःगु लिच्वः पिकायेफु। &lt;ref name=&quot;Baeyens-2023&quot;&gt;{{Citation|last1=Baeyens|first1=Ans|title=Basic Concepts of Radiation Biology|date=2023|pages=25–81|editor-last=Baatout|editor-first=Sarah|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-18810-7_2|access-date=2025-03-24|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-18810-7_2|isbn=978-3-031-18810-7|last2=Abrantes|first2=Ana Margarida|last3=Ahire|first3=Vidhula|last4=Ainsbury|first4=Elizabeth A.|last5=Baatout|first5=Sarah|last6=Baselet|first6=Bjorn|last7=Botelho|first7=Maria Filomena|last8=Boterberg|first8=Tom|last9=Chevalier|first9=Francois}}&lt;/ref&gt; थन्याःगु विकिरण आपालं छ्यंगुया दुनेया म्हकुचाय् असर यायेफु छाय् धाःसा एक्स-रे स्पेक्ट्रम व गामा रे स्पेक्ट्रमया फुक्कं जः, छ्येंगु पुलाः म्हया दुनेया पदार्थय् दुहां वना असर यायेफु।

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[उर्जा]]
* [[भौतिकशास्त्र]]
{{Commonscat|Electromagnetic spectrum}}

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

[[पुचः:विज्ञान]]
[[पुचः:जः म्हसीका]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>क्यापासिट्यान्स</title>
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[[Image:Plate CapacitorII.svg|125px]]
[[Image:Cylindrical CapacitorII.svg|130px]]
[[Image:Eccentric capacitor.svg|130px]]

{{अनुवाद}}
{{electromagnetism3|enet=true}}
'''क्यापासिट्यान्स''' छगू बियातःगु [[इलेक्ट्रिकल पोटेन्सियल]]य् स्वथनातःगु (वा बायातःगु) [[इलेक्ट्रिकल चार्ज]]या मात्राया आंकलन ख। थुकिया दक्ले साधारण रुप टु-प्लेट [[क्यापासितर|क्यापासिटर]] ख। यदि प्लेटय् दूगु चार्ज +Q व −Q, व V प्लेटतेगु दथुया भोल्ट जुसा, क्यापासिट्यान्स थ्व कथं लिकायेछिं

::&lt;math&gt;C = \frac{Q}{V}&lt;/math&gt;

क्यापासिट्यान्सया [[एस आइ]] युनिट [[फराड]] ख; १ फराड = १ [[कोलुम्ब]] प्रति [[भोल्त|भोल्ट]]।

== उर्जा==
क्यापासिटरय् मुंकातःगु [[उर्जा]] (जुलय् लनिगु) थुकियात चार्ज यायेत याःगु ज्या बराबर जुइ। छगू क्यापासिटेन्स C , छगू ​​प्लेटय् चार्ज +q व मेगु प्लेटय् -q तयातःगु बिचाः यानादिसँ। चार्जया चिधंगु तत्त्वयात &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{d}q&lt;/math&gt; छगू प्लेटं मेगु प्लेटय् पोटेन्शियल डिफरेन्स ''V = q/C'' विरुद्ध यायेमाःगु [[ज्या]] 
&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{d}W&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{d}W = \frac{q}{C}\,\mathrm{d}q &lt;/math&gt;

गन

:''W'' धयागु जूलय् दाना स्वइगु ज्या खः

:''q'' धयागु कुलोम्बय् दाना स्वइगु चार्ज खः 

:''C'' धयागु क्यापासिटेन्स खः, गुकियात फाराडय् दाना स्वइ 

थुगु समीकरणयात [[इन्तेग्रल|एकीकृत]] यानाः झीसं क्यापासिटेन्सय् मुंकातःगु उर्जा लुइके फै । अनचार्ज क्यापासिटेन्स (''q''=0) निसें न्ह्याकेगु व प्लेटय् चार्ज ''+Q'' व ''-Q'' मवःतले छगू प्लेटं मेगु प्लेटय् चार्ज यंकेगु ज्या ''W'':

:&lt;math&gt; W_{charging} = \int_{0}^{Q} \frac{q}{C} \, \mathrm{d}q = \frac{1}{2}\frac{Q^2}{C} = \frac{1}{2}CV^2 = W_{stored}&lt;/math&gt;

फ्लाट-प्लेट क्यापासिटरया क्यापासिटेन्सया निंतिं थुकियात च्वय् बियातःगु समीकरणलिसे स्वानाः झीसं कायेखनी :

:&lt;math&gt; W_{stored} = \frac{1}{2} C V^2 = \frac{1}{2} \epsilon \frac{A}{d} V^2&lt;/math&gt; 

गन

:''W'' धयागु जूलय् दाना स्वइगु उर्जा खः।

:''C'' धयागु क्यापासिटेन्स खः, गुकियात फाराडय् दाना स्वइ।

:''V'' धयागु भोल्टय् दाना स्वइगु भोल्टेज खः।

== क्यापासिट्यान्स व 'डिस्प्लेस्मेन्ट करेन्ट' ==
भौतिकविज्ञान शास्त्री जेम्स क्लार्क म्याक्सवेलं विस्थापन करेन्टया अवधारणा दयेकादिल,
&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \vec{D}}{\partial t}&lt;/math&gt;,
गुकिलिं चार्ज मुंकाच्वंगु अवस्थाय्, दसु क्यापासिटरय्, चार्जया संरक्षणनाप एम्पियरया नियमयात ज्व नयेगु ज्या यात। वय्कलं थ्वयात, दक्व थासय् (भ्याकुमय् नं) चार्जया वास्तविक गतिया रुपय् व्याख्या यानादिल। वय्कलं थ्वयात ईथरय् [[दाइपोल]] चार्जया गतिनाप मेल खनि धकाः अनुमान यानादिल। वर्तमान भौतिकशास्त्रय् थ्व व्याख्या त्वःते धुंकूसां म्याक्सवेलं एम्पेयरया नियमय् याःगु सुधार धाःसा मान्य जुयाच्वंगु दु (हिलाच्वंगु विद्युत क्षेत्रं चुम्बकीय क्षेत्र दयेकी)।

म्याक्सवेलया समीकरणयात एम्पियरया नियमयात विस्थापन करेन्ट अवधारणालिसे स्वानाः थुकथं बियातःगु दु
&lt;math&gt;\vec{\nabla} \times \vec{H} = \vec{J} + \frac{\partial \vec{D}}{\partial t}&lt;/math&gt;।
(निगुलिं पक्षयात एकीकृत यानाः,&lt;math&gt;\vec{\nabla}\times \vec{H}&lt;/math&gt; यात हिलेछिं &amp;mdash; स्टोक्सया प्रमेयया सौजन्यं &amp;mdash; &lt;math&gt;\vec{H} \cdot \mathrm{d} \vec{l}&lt;/math&gt;या इन्टिग्रल छगू बन्द काउन्टरय्, गुकिलिं एम्पियरया फर्मुलेसनया इन्तरकनेक्सन क्यनि। )

== कोइफिसियन्ट अफ पोटेन्सियल ==
The discussion above is limited to the case of two conducting plates, although of arbitrary size and shape.  The definition C=Q/V still holds if only one plate is given a charge, provided that we recognize that the field lines produced by that charge terminate as if the plate were at the center of an oppositely charged sphere at infinity. 

C=Q/V does not apply when there are more than two charged plates, or when the net charge on the two plates is non-zero.  To handle this case, Maxwell introduced his &quot;coefficients of potential&quot;.  If three plates are given charges &lt;math&gt;Q_1, Q_2, Q_3&lt;/math&gt;, then the voltage of plate 1 is given by 

:&lt;math&gt; V_1 = p_{11} Q_1 + p_{12} Q_2 + p_{13} Q_3 &lt;/math&gt; ,

and similarly for the other voltages.  Maxwell showed that the coefficients of potential are symmetric, so that &lt;math&gt;p_{12}=p_{21}&lt;/math&gt;, etc. 

== क्यापासिट्यान्स/इन्डक्ट्यान्स द्वैधता==
गणितीय पदय् आदर्श क्यापासिटेन्सयात आदर्श इन्डक्टेन्सया उल्टा कथं कायेछिं , छाय् धाःसा निगु घटनाया भोल्टेज-करेन्ट समीकरणयात भोल्टेज व करेन्ट पदया आदानप्रदान याना छगू मेगुलिइ हिलेछिं।

== सेल्फ-क्यापासिट्यान्स ==
In electrical circuits, the term ''capacitance'' is usually a shorthand for the ''[[mutual capacitance]]'' between two adjacent conductors, such as the two plates of a capacitor. There also exists a property called ''self-capacitance'', which is the amount of electrical charge that must be added to an isolated conductor to raise its ''[[electrical potential]]'' by one volt. The reference point for this potential is a theoretical hollow conducting sphere, of infinite radius, centred on the conductor. Using this method, the self-capacitance of a conducting sphere of radius ''R'' is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;C=4\pi\epsilon_0R \,&lt;/math&gt; [https://web.archive.org/web/20090226225105/http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/COURSES/FIRST_YEAR/pdf%20files/5Capacitanceanddielectr.pdf]

Typical values of self-capacitance are:
* for the top &quot;plate&quot; of a van de Graaf generator, typically a sphere 20 cm in radius: 20 pF
* the planet [[Earth]]: about 710 µF

== इल्यास्ट्यान्स ==
क्यापासित्यान्सया अःखःयात इलेक्त्रिकल इलास्तान्स धाइ व थुकिया इकाइ रेसिप्रोकल फराद बाय् अःखः फराद (reciprocal farad) ख।

== स्ट्रे क्यापासिट्यान्स ==
Any two adjacent conductors can be considered as a capacitor, although the capacitance will be small unless the conductors are close together or long. This (unwanted) effect is termed &quot;stray capacitance&quot;. Stray capacitance can allow signals to leak between otherwise isolated circuits (an effect called [[Crosstalk (electronics)|crosstalk]]), and it can be a limiting factor for proper functioning of circuits at [[high frequency]].

Stray capacitance is often encountered in amplifier circuits in the form of &quot;feedthrough&quot; capacitance that interconnects the input and output nodes (both defined relative to a common ground). It is often convenient for analytical purposes to replace this capacitance with a combination of one input-to-ground capacitance and one output-to-ground capacitance. (The original configuration &amp;mdash; including the input-to-output capacitance &amp;mdash; is often referred to as a pi-configuration.) Miller's theorem can be used to effect this replacement. [[Miller's theorem]] states that, if the gain ratio of two nodes is 1:K, then an [[electrical impedance|impedance]] of Z connecting the two nodes can be replaced with a Z/(1-k) impedance between the first node and ground and a KZ/(K-1) impedance between the second node and ground. (Since impedance varies inversely with capacitance, the internode capacitance, C, will be seen to have been replaced by a capacitance of KC from input to ground and a capacitance of (K-1)C/K from output to ground.) When the input-to-output gain is very large, the equivalent input-to-ground impedance is very small while the output-to-ground impedance is essentially equal to the original (input-to-output) impedance.

== क्यापासिटर ==
{{main|क्यापासिटर}}
'''क्यापासितर''' (पुलांगु नां '''कन्देन्सर''') इलेक्त्रिक फिल्दय् इनर्जी स्वथनेत छयलिगु छगू प्यासिभ निगु-तर्मिनल इलेक्त्रिकल कम्पोनेन्त ख। व्यवहारिक क्यापासितरया थी-थी रुप दु। अथे जुसां दक्वं क्यापासितरय् दाइइलेक्त्रिकं (इन्सुलेतर) बायातःगु निगु वा अप्व इलेक्त्रिकल कन्दक्तर दइ। धातुया निगु पाताचा चिब्याःगु इन्सुलेतिङ्ग फिल्दं बायातःगु रुपयात छगू साधारण दसुया रुपय् कायेछिं। यक्व साधारण विद्युतीय ज्याभलय् क्यापासितरत इलेक्त्रिक सर्कितया कथं छ्यलिगु या। 

[[File:Capacitor schematic with dielectric.svg|thumb|left|प्यारेलल-प्लेत क्यापासितरय् चार्ज सेपेरेसनं आन्तरिक इलेक्त्रिक फिल्द दयेकी। दाइइलेक्त्रिकं (सन्त्रासी रङ्ग) इलेक्त्रिक फिल्द क्वकाइ व क्यापासितेन्स तच्वयेकि।]]
[[File:Plattenkondensator hg.jpg|right|thumb|प्यारालल-प्लेत क्यापासितरया साधारण दसु।]]

क्यापासितरय् निगु इलेक्त्रिकल कन्दक्तरतयेत नन-कन्दक्सन ख्यलं बायातइ। &lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p168&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.168&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व कन्दक्सन मयाइगु ख्यःयात [[दाइइलेक्त्रिक]] धाइ। साधारण भासय्, दाइ इलेक्त्रिक छगू इलेक्त्रिकल इन्सुलेतर जक्क ख। दाइइलेक्त्रिक मिदियाया दसुया कथं खा, फे, भ्वं, [[भ्याक्युम]], व सेमिकन्दक्तर दिप्लिसन क्षेत्र आदि काये छिं। छगू आदर्श क्यापासितर आइसोलेतेद व सेल्फ-कन्तेन्द जुइ, गुकिलि नेत इलेक्त्रिक चार्ज दइमखु व पिनेया इलेक्त्रिक ख्यःया छुं प्रभाव दइमखु। क्यापासितरया कन्दक्तरतयेसं, अथे जूगुलिं समकक्षी पाताय् समान व विपरित चार्ज दयेकातइ &lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p157&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.157&lt;/ref&gt;व दाइइलेक्त्रिकं इलेक्त्रिक फिल्द दयेकी। क्यापासितरया ज्या अर्थात क्यापासित्यान्सयात फरादय् लनिगु याइ। एस आइ युनितय् छफराद क्यापासितान्स धाःगु सकल कन्दक्तर पाताय् छगु कोलम्ब चार्जं ज्याभलय् छ[[भोल्त]] भोल्तेज दयेकी।&lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p169&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.169&lt;/ref&gt;

क्यापासितर इलेक्त्रिक सर्कितय् इलेक्त्रिक फिल्दया छगू साधारण दसु ख। छगू आदर्श क्यापासितरया ज्या निरन्तर मपाक्क क्यापासित्यान्स ''C'' बीगु ख, क्यापासित्यान्स धागु सकल कन्दक्तरय् दइगु चार्ज ±''Q'' व इमिगु दथुइ दइगु भोल्तेज ''V'' या अनुपात ख:&lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p168&quot; /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;C= \frac{Q}{V}&lt;/math&gt;

गब्लें-गब्लें क्यापासितरय् चार्ज मुंकातइबिलय् चार्जंयाना क्यापासितरय् भौतिक असर वयेफु। थुकिलिं क्यापासितरया क्यापासित्यान्स पायेफु। थथे जुसा क्यापासित्यान्सयात इन्क्रिमेन्तल चेन्जेसया आधारय् परिभाषित याइ:
:&lt;math&gt;C= \frac{\mathrm{d}q}{\mathrm{d}v}&lt;/math&gt;

== फूटनोट ==
{{reflist}}

== स्वयादिसँ ==
* [[क्यापासितर|क्यापासिटर]]
* [[इलेक्ट्रोम्याग्नेटिजम]]
* [[इलेक्ट्रिसिटी]]
* [[इलेक्त्रोनिक्स|इलेक्ट्रोनिक्स]]
* [[इन्डक्टर]]
* [[ट्रान्सक्यापासिट्यान्स]]

== लिधंसा ==
* Tipler, Paul (1998). ''Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 2: Electricity and Magnetism, Light'' (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-492-6
* Serway, Raymond; Jewett, John (2003). ''Physics for Scientists and Engineers'' (6 ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7
* Saslow, Wayne M.(2002). ''Electricity, Magnetism, and Light''. Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-12-619455-6. See Chapter 8, and especially pp.255-259 for coefficients of potential.

== पिनेया स्वापू ==
* [http://paginas.fe.up.pt/~fff/eBook/MDA/Teo_Miller.html Miller's Theorem]

[[पुचः:Fundamental physics concepts]]
[[पुचः:Physical quantities]]
[[पुचः:Electricity]]
[[पुचः:Electronics terms]]
[[पुचः:प्रविधि]]</text>
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[[Image:Plate CapacitorII.svg|125px]]
[[Image:Cylindrical CapacitorII.svg|130px]]
[[Image:Eccentric capacitor.svg|130px]]

{{अनुवाद}}
{{electromagnetism3|enet=true}}
'''क्यापासिट्यान्स''' छगू बियातःगु [[इलेक्ट्रिकल पोटेन्सियल]]य् स्वथनातःगु (वा बायातःगु) [[इलेक्ट्रिकल चार्ज]]या मात्राया आंकलन ख। थुकिया दक्ले साधारण रुप टु-प्लेट [[क्यापासितर|क्यापासिटर]] ख। यदि प्लेटय् दूगु चार्ज +Q व −Q, व V प्लेटतेगु दथुया भोल्ट जुसा, क्यापासिट्यान्स थ्व कथं लिकायेछिं

::&lt;math&gt;C = \frac{Q}{V}&lt;/math&gt;

क्यापासिट्यान्सया [[एस आइ]] युनिट [[फराड]] ख; १ फराड = १ [[कोलुम्ब]] प्रति [[भोल्त|भोल्ट]]।

== उर्जा==
क्यापासिटरय् मुंकातःगु [[उर्जा]] (जुलय् लनिगु) थुकियात चार्ज यायेत याःगु ज्या बराबर जुइ। छगू क्यापासिटेन्स C , छगू ​​प्लेटय् चार्ज +q व मेगु प्लेटय् -q तयातःगु बिचाः यानादिसँ। चार्जया चिधंगु तत्त्वयात &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{d}q&lt;/math&gt; छगू प्लेटं मेगु प्लेटय् पोटेन्शियल डिफरेन्स ''V = q/C'' विरुद्ध यायेमाःगु [[ज्या]] 
&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{d}W&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{d}W = \frac{q}{C}\,\mathrm{d}q &lt;/math&gt;

गन

:''W'' धयागु जूलय् दाना स्वइगु ज्या खः

:''q'' धयागु कुलोम्बय् दाना स्वइगु चार्ज खः 

:''C'' धयागु क्यापासिटेन्स खः, गुकियात फाराडय् दाना स्वइ 

थुगु समीकरणयात [[इन्तेग्रल|एकीकृत]] यानाः झीसं क्यापासिटेन्सय् मुंकातःगु उर्जा लुइके फै । अनचार्ज क्यापासिटेन्स (''q''=0) निसें न्ह्याकेगु व प्लेटय् चार्ज ''+Q'' व ''-Q'' मवःतले छगू प्लेटं मेगु प्लेटय् चार्ज यंकेगु ज्या ''W'':

:&lt;math&gt; W_{charging} = \int_{0}^{Q} \frac{q}{C} \, \mathrm{d}q = \frac{1}{2}\frac{Q^2}{C} = \frac{1}{2}CV^2 = W_{stored}&lt;/math&gt;

फ्लाट-प्लेट क्यापासिटरया क्यापासिटेन्सया निंतिं थुकियात च्वय् बियातःगु समीकरणलिसे स्वानाः झीसं कायेखनी :

:&lt;math&gt; W_{stored} = \frac{1}{2} C V^2 = \frac{1}{2} \epsilon \frac{A}{d} V^2&lt;/math&gt; 

गन

:''W'' धयागु जूलय् दाना स्वइगु उर्जा खः।

:''C'' धयागु क्यापासिटेन्स खः, गुकियात फाराडय् दाना स्वइ।

:''V'' धयागु भोल्टय् दाना स्वइगु भोल्टेज खः।

== क्यापासिट्यान्स व 'डिस्प्लेस्मेन्ट करेन्ट' ==
भौतिकविज्ञान शास्त्री जेम्स क्लार्क म्याक्सवेलं विस्थापन करेन्टया अवधारणा दयेकादिल,
&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \vec{D}}{\partial t}&lt;/math&gt;,
गुकिलिं चार्ज मुंकाच्वंगु अवस्थाय्, दसु क्यापासिटरय्, चार्जया संरक्षणनाप एम्पियरया नियमयात ज्व नयेगु ज्या यात। वय्कलं थ्वयात, दक्व थासय् (भ्याकुमय् नं) चार्जया वास्तविक गतिया रुपय् व्याख्या यानादिल। वय्कलं थ्वयात ईथरय् [[दाइपोल]] चार्जया गतिनाप मेल खनि धकाः अनुमान यानादिल। वर्तमान भौतिकशास्त्रय् थ्व व्याख्या त्वःते धुंकूसां म्याक्सवेलं एम्पेयरया नियमय् याःगु सुधार धाःसा मान्य जुयाच्वंगु दु (हिलाच्वंगु विद्युत क्षेत्रं चुम्बकीय क्षेत्र दयेकी)।

म्याक्सवेलया समीकरणयात एम्पियरया नियमयात विस्थापन करेन्ट अवधारणालिसे स्वानाः थुकथं बियातःगु दु
&lt;math&gt;\vec{\nabla} \times \vec{H} = \vec{J} + \frac{\partial \vec{D}}{\partial t}&lt;/math&gt;।
(निगुलिं पक्षयात एकीकृत यानाः,&lt;math&gt;\vec{\nabla}\times \vec{H}&lt;/math&gt; यात हिलेछिं &amp;mdash; स्टोक्सया प्रमेयया सौजन्यं &amp;mdash; &lt;math&gt;\vec{H} \cdot \mathrm{d} \vec{l}&lt;/math&gt;या इन्टिग्रल छगू बन्द काउन्टरय्, गुकिलिं एम्पियरया फर्मुलेसनया इन्तरकनेक्सन क्यनि। )

== कोइफिसियन्ट अफ पोटेन्सियल ==
The discussion above is limited to the case of two conducting plates, although of arbitrary size and shape.  The definition C=Q/V still holds if only one plate is given a charge, provided that we recognize that the field lines produced by that charge terminate as if the plate were at the center of an oppositely charged sphere at infinity. 

C=Q/V does not apply when there are more than two charged plates, or when the net charge on the two plates is non-zero.  To handle this case, Maxwell introduced his &quot;coefficients of potential&quot;.  If three plates are given charges &lt;math&gt;Q_1, Q_2, Q_3&lt;/math&gt;, then the voltage of plate 1 is given by 

:&lt;math&gt; V_1 = p_{11} Q_1 + p_{12} Q_2 + p_{13} Q_3 &lt;/math&gt; ,

and similarly for the other voltages.  Maxwell showed that the coefficients of potential are symmetric, so that &lt;math&gt;p_{12}=p_{21}&lt;/math&gt;, etc. 

== क्यापासिट्यान्स/इन्डक्ट्यान्स द्वैधता==
गणितीय पदय् आदर्श क्यापासिटेन्सयात आदर्श इन्डक्टेन्सया उल्टा कथं कायेछिं , छाय् धाःसा निगु घटनाया भोल्टेज-करेन्ट समीकरणयात भोल्टेज व करेन्ट पदया आदानप्रदान याना छगू मेगुलिइ हिलेछिं।

== सेल्फ-क्यापासिट्यान्स ==
In electrical circuits, the term ''capacitance'' is usually a shorthand for the ''[[mutual capacitance]]'' between two adjacent conductors, such as the two plates of a capacitor. There also exists a property called ''self-capacitance'', which is the amount of electrical charge that must be added to an isolated conductor to raise its ''[[electrical potential]]'' by one volt. The reference point for this potential is a theoretical hollow conducting sphere, of infinite radius, centred on the conductor. Using this method, the self-capacitance of a conducting sphere of radius ''R'' is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;C=4\pi\epsilon_0R \,&lt;/math&gt; [https://web.archive.org/web/20090226225105/http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/COURSES/FIRST_YEAR/pdf%20files/5Capacitanceanddielectr.pdf]

Typical values of self-capacitance are:
* for the top &quot;plate&quot; of a van de Graaf generator, typically a sphere 20 cm in radius: 20 pF
* the planet [[Earth]]: about 710 µF

== इल्यास्ट्यान्स ==
क्यापासित्यान्सया अःखःयात इलेक्त्रिकल इलास्तान्स धाइ व थुकिया इकाइ रेसिप्रोकल फराद बाय् अःखः फराद (reciprocal farad) ख।

== स्ट्रे क्यापासिट्यान्स ==
Any two adjacent conductors can be considered as a capacitor, although the capacitance will be small unless the conductors are close together or long. This (unwanted) effect is termed &quot;stray capacitance&quot;. Stray capacitance can allow signals to leak between otherwise isolated circuits (an effect called [[Crosstalk (electronics)|crosstalk]]), and it can be a limiting factor for proper functioning of circuits at [[high frequency]].

Stray capacitance is often encountered in amplifier circuits in the form of &quot;feedthrough&quot; capacitance that interconnects the input and output nodes (both defined relative to a common ground). It is often convenient for analytical purposes to replace this capacitance with a combination of one input-to-ground capacitance and one output-to-ground capacitance. (The original configuration &amp;mdash; including the input-to-output capacitance &amp;mdash; is often referred to as a pi-configuration.) Miller's theorem can be used to effect this replacement. [[Miller's theorem]] states that, if the gain ratio of two nodes is 1:K, then an [[electrical impedance|impedance]] of Z connecting the two nodes can be replaced with a Z/(1-k) impedance between the first node and ground and a KZ/(K-1) impedance between the second node and ground. (Since impedance varies inversely with capacitance, the internode capacitance, C, will be seen to have been replaced by a capacitance of KC from input to ground and a capacitance of (K-1)C/K from output to ground.) When the input-to-output gain is very large, the equivalent input-to-ground impedance is very small while the output-to-ground impedance is essentially equal to the original (input-to-output) impedance.

== क्यापासिटर ==
{{main|क्यापासिटर}}
'''क्यापासितर''' (पुलांगु नां '''कन्देन्सर''') इलेक्त्रिक फिल्दय् इनर्जी स्वथनेत छयलिगु छगू प्यासिभ निगु-तर्मिनल इलेक्त्रिकल कम्पोनेन्त ख। व्यवहारिक क्यापासितरया थी-थी रुप दु। अथे जुसां दक्वं क्यापासितरय् दाइइलेक्त्रिकं (इन्सुलेतर) बायातःगु निगु वा अप्व इलेक्त्रिकल कन्दक्तर दइ। धातुया निगु पाताचा चिब्याःगु इन्सुलेतिङ्ग फिल्दं बायातःगु रुपयात छगू साधारण दसुया रुपय् कायेछिं। यक्व साधारण विद्युतीय ज्याभलय् क्यापासितरत इलेक्त्रिक सर्कितया कथं छ्यलिगु या। 

[[File:Capacitor schematic with dielectric.svg|thumb|left|प्यारेलल-प्लेत क्यापासितरय् चार्ज सेपेरेसनं आन्तरिक इलेक्त्रिक फिल्द दयेकी। दाइइलेक्त्रिकं (सन्त्रासी रङ्ग) इलेक्त्रिक फिल्द क्वकाइ व क्यापासितेन्स तच्वयेकि।]]
[[File:Plattenkondensator hg.jpg|right|thumb|प्यारालल-प्लेत क्यापासितरया साधारण दसु।]]

क्यापासितरय् निगु इलेक्त्रिकल कन्दक्तरतयेत नन-कन्दक्सन ख्यलं बायातइ। &lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p168&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.168&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व कन्दक्सन मयाइगु ख्यःयात [[दाइइलेक्त्रिक]] धाइ। साधारण भासय्, दाइ इलेक्त्रिक छगू इलेक्त्रिकल इन्सुलेतर जक्क ख। दाइइलेक्त्रिक मिदियाया दसुया कथं खा, फे, भ्वं, [[भ्याक्युम]], व सेमिकन्दक्तर दिप्लिसन क्षेत्र आदि काये छिं। छगू आदर्श क्यापासितर आइसोलेतेद व सेल्फ-कन्तेन्द जुइ, गुकिलि नेत इलेक्त्रिक चार्ज दइमखु व पिनेया इलेक्त्रिक ख्यःया छुं प्रभाव दइमखु। क्यापासितरया कन्दक्तरतयेसं, अथे जूगुलिं समकक्षी पाताय् समान व विपरित चार्ज दयेकातइ &lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p157&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.157&lt;/ref&gt;व दाइइलेक्त्रिकं इलेक्त्रिक फिल्द दयेकी। क्यापासितरया ज्या अर्थात क्यापासित्यान्सयात फरादय् लनिगु याइ। एस आइ युनितय् छफराद क्यापासितान्स धाःगु सकल कन्दक्तर पाताय् छगु कोलम्ब चार्जं ज्याभलय् छ[[भोल्त]] भोल्तेज दयेकी।&lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p169&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.169&lt;/ref&gt;

क्यापासितर इलेक्त्रिक सर्कितय् इलेक्त्रिक फिल्दया छगू साधारण दसु ख। छगू आदर्श क्यापासितरया ज्या निरन्तर मपाक्क क्यापासित्यान्स ''C'' बीगु ख, क्यापासित्यान्स धागु सकल कन्दक्तरय् दइगु चार्ज ±''Q'' व इमिगु दथुइ दइगु भोल्तेज ''V'' या अनुपात ख:&lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p168&quot; /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;C= \frac{Q}{V}&lt;/math&gt;

गब्लें-गब्लें क्यापासितरय् चार्ज मुंकातइबिलय् चार्जंयाना क्यापासितरय् भौतिक असर वयेफु। थुकिलिं क्यापासितरया क्यापासित्यान्स पायेफु। थथे जुसा क्यापासित्यान्सयात इन्क्रिमेन्तल चेन्जेसया आधारय् परिभाषित याइ:
:&lt;math&gt;C= \frac{\mathrm{d}q}{\mathrm{d}v}&lt;/math&gt;

== लिधंसा ==
{{reflist}}

== स्वयादिसँ ==
* [[क्यापासितर|क्यापासिटर]]
* [[इलेक्ट्रोम्याग्नेटिजम]]
* [[इलेक्ट्रिसिटी]]
* [[इलेक्त्रोनिक्स|इलेक्ट्रोनिक्स]]
* [[इन्डक्टर]]
* [[ट्रान्सक्यापासिट्यान्स]]

== लिधंसा ==
* Tipler, Paul (1998). ''Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 2: Electricity and Magnetism, Light'' (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-492-6
* Serway, Raymond; Jewett, John (2003). ''Physics for Scientists and Engineers'' (6 ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7
* Saslow, Wayne M.(2002). ''Electricity, Magnetism, and Light''. Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-12-619455-6. See Chapter 8, and especially pp.255-259 for coefficients of potential.

== पिनेया स्वापू ==
* [http://paginas.fe.up.pt/~fff/eBook/MDA/Teo_Miller.html Miller's Theorem]

[[पुचः:Fundamental physics concepts]]
[[पुचः:Physical quantities]]
[[पुचः:Electricity]]
[[पुचः:Electronics terms]]
[[पुचः:प्रविधि]]</text>
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{{Infobox electronic component
|
|photo=[[File:Photo-SMDcapacitors.jpg|250px]]
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[[File:Condensador electrolitico 150 microF 400V.jpg|thumb|साधारण [[इलेक्त्रोलाइतिक क्यापासितर]]]]

'''क्यापासितर''' (पुलांगु नां '''कन्देन्सर''') इलेक्त्रिक फिल्दय् इनर्जी स्वथनेत छयलिगु छगू प्यासिभ निगु-तर्मिनल इलेक्त्रिकल कम्पोनेन्त ख। व्यवहारिक क्यापासितरया थी-थी रुप दु। अथे जुसां दक्वं क्यापासितरय् दाइइलेक्त्रिकं (इन्सुलेतर) बायातःगु निगु वा अप्व इलेक्त्रिकल कन्दक्तर दइ। धातुया निगु पाताचा चिब्याःगु इन्सुलेतिङ्ग फिल्दं बायातःगु रुपयात छगू साधारण दसुया रुपय् कायेछिं। यक्व साधारण विद्युतीय ज्याभलय् क्यापासितरत इलेक्त्रिक सर्कितया कथं छ्यलिगु या। 

==सिद्धान्त==
[[File:Capacitor schematic with dielectric.svg|thumb|left|प्यारेलल-प्लेत क्यापासितरय् चार्ज सेपेरेसनं आन्तरिक इलेक्त्रिक फिल्द दयेकी। दाइइलेक्त्रिकं (सन्त्रासी रङ्ग) इलेक्त्रिक फिल्द क्वकाइ व क्यापासितेन्स तच्वयेकि।]]
[[File:Plattenkondensator hg.jpg|right|thumb|प्यारालल-प्लेत क्यापासितरया साधारण दसु।]]

क्यापासितरय् निगु इलेक्त्रिकल कन्दक्तरतयेत नन-कन्दक्सन ख्यलं बायातइ। &lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p168&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.168&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व कन्दक्सन मयाइगु ख्यःयात [[दाइइलेक्त्रिक]] धाइ। साधारण भासय्, दाइ इलेक्त्रिक छगू इलेक्त्रिकल इन्सुलेतर जक्क ख। दाइइलेक्त्रिक मिदियाया दसुया कथं खा, फे, भ्वं, [[भ्याक्युम]], व सेमिकन्दक्तर दिप्लिसन क्षेत्र आदि काये छिं। छगू आदर्श क्यापासितर आइसोलेतेद व सेल्फ-कन्तेन्द जुइ, गुकिलि नेत इलेक्त्रिक चार्ज दइमखु व पिनेया इलेक्त्रिक ख्यःया छुं प्रभाव दइमखु। क्यापासितरया कन्दक्तरतयेसं, अथे जूगुलिं समकक्षी पाताय् समान व विपरित चार्ज दयेकातइ &lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p157&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.157&lt;/ref&gt;व दाइइलेक्त्रिकं इलेक्त्रिक फिल्द दयेकी। क्यापासितरया ज्या अर्थात क्यापासित्यान्सयात फरादय् लनिगु याइ। एस आइ युनितय् छफराद क्यापासितान्स धाःगु सकल कन्दक्तर पाताय् छगु कोलम्ब चार्जं ज्याभलय् छ[[भोल्त]] भोल्तेज दयेकी।&lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p169&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.169&lt;/ref&gt;

क्यापासितर इलेक्त्रिक सर्कितय् इलेक्त्रिक फिल्दया छगू साधारण दसु ख। छगू आदर्श क्यापासितरया ज्या निरन्तर मपाक्क क्यापासित्यान्स ''C'' बीगु ख, क्यापासित्यान्स धागु सकल कन्दक्तरय् दइगु चार्ज ±''Q'' व इमिगु दथुइ दइगु भोल्तेज ''V'' या अनुपात ख:&lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p168&quot; /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;C= \frac{Q}{V}&lt;/math&gt;

गब्लें-गब्लें क्यापासितरय् चार्ज मुंकातइबिलय् चार्जंयाना क्यापासितरय् भौतिक असर वयेफु। थुकिलिं क्यापासितरया क्यापासित्यान्स पायेफु। थथे जुसा क्यापासित्यान्सयात इन्क्रिमेन्तल चेन्जेसया आधारय् परिभाषित याइ:
:&lt;math&gt;C= \frac{\mathrm{d}q}{\mathrm{d}v}&lt;/math&gt;

==छ्यला==
छ्यलाया छुं दसु:
* '''फिल्टरिङ:''' [[न्ह्यासा]] (Engine) वा विद्युत उपकरणय् वइगु अनावश्यक 'नोइज' (Noise) पनेत।
* '''ऊर्जा स्वथना:''' क्यामराया फ्ल्यास (Flash) च्याकेत छकलं तःधंगु ऊर्जा उपलब्ध याकेत।
* '''ट्युनिङ:''' रेडियो वा टेलिभिजनया फ्रिक्वेन्सी पाय्छि यायेत।

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[त्रान्जिस्तर]]
{{Commonscat|Capacitors}}

[[पुचः:प्रविधि]]</text>
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[[Image:Diode symbol.svg|150px]]
[[Image:Dioden.JPG|thumb|Various semiconductor diodes. Left: A four-diode [[bridge rectifier]]]]

[[image:Diode-photo.JPG|thumb|right|270px|डायोडयागु प्रकार]]

'''दायोद''' छगु इलेक्ट्रोनिक भः ख। थ्व भलं करेन्टयात छगु जक दिशाय् बा वने बी। इलेक्त्रोनिक्सय् दायोद निगु-तर्मिनल इलेक्त्रोनिक कम्पोनेन्त ख गुकिलि असिमेत्रिक त्रान्सफर गुण दै। थुकिलि छगू दिशाय् करेन्तया निंतिं म्हो (वा ०) प्रतिरोध/रेजिस्त्यान्स दइ धाःस मेगु दिशाय् सिक्क अप्व (आदर्श रुपय् अल्याख) प्रतिरोध दइ। थौंकन्हे छ्यलिगु दकलय् साधारण दायोद सेमिकन्दक्तर दायोद ख। थ्व दायोद छगु सेमिकन्दक्तरया क्रिस्तलिन तुक्रा ख। थुकिलि निगु इलेक्त्रिकल तर्मिनलय् स्वानातःगु निगु p-n जंक्सन दै। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.element-14.com/community/docs/DOC-22519/l/physical-explanation--general-semiconductors |title=Physical Explanation – General Semiconductors |date=2010-05-25 |accessdate=2010-08-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; भ्याक्युम त्युब दायोद धाःगु नेगु दायोदय् धाःसा निगु इलेक्त्रोद (छता प्लेत एनोद व हितेद क्याथोद) दूगु भ्याक्युम त्युब दइ।

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[त्रान्जिस्तर]]
* [[क्यापासितर]]
* [[रेजिस्तर]]
{{Commonscat|Diodes}}

[[पुचः:प्रविधि]]</text>
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[[Image:Transistor symbol npn no circle.svg|80px]]

[[किपा:Transistors-white.jpg|thumb|right|]]
'''त्रान्जिस्तर''' धाःगु छगू सेमिकन्दक्तर [[ज्याभः|भः]] ख। थ्व भःयात इलेक्त्रोनिक सिग्नल व इलेक्त्रिक पावर एम्प्लिफाइ व स्विच यायेत छ्यलि। त्रान्जिस्तर सेमिकन्दक्तर वस्तुं दयेकातःगु दै। थुकिलि पिनेया सर्कितय् स्वायेत म्होय् नं स्वंगु तर्मिनल दइ। त्रान्जिस्तरया छजु तर्मिनलय् भोल्तेज वा करेन्त छ्वइबिलय् मेगु छजु तर्मिनलय् करेन्त बाहा पाइ। नियन्त्रित (आउतपुत) पावर नियन्त्रण याइगु (इन्पुत) पावर स्वया अप्व जुइगुजुलिं त्रान्जिस्तरयात सिग्नल एम्प्लिफिकेसनया निंतिं छ्यलेज्यु। थौंकन्हे छुं त्रान्जिस्तरत अलग्ग वःसां यक्व त्रान्जिस्तरत इन्तेग्रेतेद सर्कितया भागया रुपय् वइगु या। 
त्रान्जिस्तर आधुनिक इलेक्त्रोनिक ज्याभःया आधारभूत पूर्जा ख। थ्व पूर्जा आधुनिक इलेक्त्रोनिक ज्याभलय् न्ह्याथासय् नं खनेदु। सन् १९५०या दशकय् जूगु त्रान्जिस्तरया विकास धुंका थ्व भलं इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया ख्यलय् हिउपा हल। थुकिया लिच्वया कथं चिधंगु व दंगु रेदियो, क्याल्कुलेतर, कम्प्युतर आदि दयेकेछिन।  

==ज्या==
[[Image:Transistor_Simple_Circuit_Diagram_with_NPN_Labels.svg|thumb|एनपिएन बाइपोलर त्रान्जिस्तरया सिम्पल सर्कित किपा।]]
चिधंगु सिग्नल छज्व तर्मिनलय् छयला मेगु छज्व तर्मिनलय् तच्वःगु सिग्नल नियन्त्रण यायेफूगु क्षमता हे त्रान्जिस्तरया ज्याया सार ख। त्रान्जिस्तरया थ्व गुणयात [[गेन]] धाइ। त्रान्जिस्तरं थःगु आउतपुत, वःगु इन्पुतया मात्रा कथं नियन्त्रण यायेफु। थ्व गुणया कारणं त्रान्जिस्तरं एम्प्लिफायरया ज्या यायेफु। नापं, त्रान्जिस्तरयात सर्कितय् करेन्त अन वा अफ याकेत इलेक्त्रिकल नियन्त्रित स्विचया रुपय् छयले छिं। 

त्रान्जिस्तरया निगु रुप दु। थ्व निगु रुप सर्कितय् छ्यलिगु रुपया आधारय् भति-भति पा। ''[[बाइपोलार त्रान्जिस्तर]]''य् तर्मिनलतयेत '''बेस''', '''कलेक्तर''', व '''इमितर''' धाइ। चिबाहा करेन्त बेस तर्मिनलय् (बेस व इमितरया दथुइ) बीबलय् कलेक्तर व इमितरया दथुइ तच्वःगु करेन्त नियन्त्रण वा स्विच यायेछिं। ''[[फिल्द-इफेक्त त्रान्जिस्तर]]''य् तर्मिनलतयेत '''गेत''', '''सोर्स''', व '''द्रेन''' धाइ, व गेतय् भोल्तेज बिया सोर्स व द्रेनया दथुया करेन्त नियन्त्रण यायेछिं।  

जवःया किपाय् सर्कितय् साधारण बाइपोलार त्रान्जिस्तर क्यनातःगु दु। बेसय् दूगु करेन्तया आधारय् इमितर व कलेक्तर तर्मिनलया दथुइ चार्ज बाहा वनि। आन्तरिक कथं बेस व इमितर स्वापूं सेमिकन्दक्तर दायोदया रुपय् ज्या याइगु जुलिं बेस करेन्त दइबिलय् बेस व इमितरया दथुइ भोल्तेज द्रप जुइ। थ्व भोल्तेजया मात्रा त्रान्जिस्तर दयेकूगु वस्तुं निर्धारण याइ व थुकियात ''V''&lt;sub&gt;BE&lt;/sub&gt; धाइ।

त्रान्जिस्तरयात सर्कितय् निगु प्रकारं छ्यलेछिं
* स्विचया रुपय् त्रान्जिस्तर
* एम्प्लिफायरया रुपय् त्रान्जिस्तर

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[कम्प्युतर]]
* [[ल्याःज्या|गणित]]
* [[सेमिकन्दक्तर]]

{{commonscat|Transistors}}

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[[Image:ACS scheme.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.35|Classification of acute coronary syndromes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Alpert2000&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Alpert JS, Thygesen K, Antman E, Bassand JP | title=Myocardial infarction redefined--a consensus document of The Joint European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Committee for the redefinition of myocardial infarction |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-college-of-cardiology_2000-09_36_3/page/959 | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year=2000 | volume=36 | issue=3 | pages=959–69 | pmid=10987628 | doi=10.1016/S0735-1097(00)00804-4| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[Image:ACS abbreviations engl.png|thumb]]
[[Image:ACS abbreviations.png|thumb]]

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'''एक्युट कोरोनरी सिन्ड्रोम''' (ACS) नुगःया लक्षणतेगु छगू सिन्ड्रोम ख। ACS [[एक्युट मायोकार्डियल इस्केमिया]] नाप मेल नः &lt;ref name=&quot;urlAcute Coronary Syndrome&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3010002 |title=Acute Coronary Syndrome |format= |work= |accessdate=}}&lt;/ref&gt; तर थ्व उकिया प्याथोग्नोमिक धाःसा मखु। एक्युट कोरोनरी सिन्द्रमय् स्वता अवस्था दयाच्वनि-
* अन्‌स्तेबल अञ्जाइना
* नन-एस्‌ति एलेभेसन मायोकार्दियल इन्फार्कसन्
* एस्‌ति एलेभेसन मायोकार्दियल इन्फार्क्सन्

==लिधंसा==
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[[Image:ComeWail009.jpg|thumb|upright|1963 performance flyer, promoting surf musicians]]
[[Image:Sullivan Beach Boys.jpg|thumb|right|[[The Beach Boys]]
[[Image:Little Deuce Coupe.jpg|thumb|right|The [[1932 Ford]]

{{Infobox music genre
|name= सर्फ रक
|color             = white
|bgcolor           = crimson
|stylistic_origins = [[Rock and roll]], [[jump blues]], [[rockabilly]], [[Middle Eastern music|Middle Eastern]], [[Arabic music|Arabic]], [[Mexican music|Mexican]], [[hawaiian music|Hawaiian]]
|cultural_origins  = Early 1960s, United States
|instruments       = [[Guitar]], [[Bass guitar|bass]], [[Drum kit|drums]], [[keyboard instrument|keyboards]]
|popularity        = Significant regional mainstream success in the early 1960s, revival in late 1980s and 1990s
|derivatives       = [[Rautalanka]], [[string (Thai pop)]], [[garage rock]],&lt;ref&gt;R. Sabin, ''Punk rock: so what? : the cultural legacy of punk'' (Routledge, 1999), p. 159.&lt;/ref&gt; [[protopunk]], [[punk rock]],&lt;ref&gt;Marcel Danesi, &quot;Forever young: the teen-aging of modern culture&quot; (University of Toronto Press, 2003), ISBN 0-8020-8620-9, p. 83.&lt;/ref&gt; [[pop punk]],&lt;ref&gt;Besssman (1993), p. 16; Marcus (1979), p. 114; Simpson (2003), p. 72; McNeil (1997), p. 206.&lt;/ref&gt; [[garage punk]],&lt;ref name=&quot;pms&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal| last=Bovey | first=Seth | title= Don't Tread on Me: The Ethos of '60s Garage Punk | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-music-and-society_2006-10_29_4/page/451 | journal=Popular Music &amp; Society | volume=29 | issue=4 | pages=451–459 | publisher=Routledge | year=2006 | doi=10.1080/03007760600787515}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;RS&quot;&gt;{{Cite book| last=Sabin | first=Roger | authorlink=Roger Sabin | title=Punk Rock, So What?: The Cultural Legacy of Punk | publisher=[[Routledge]] | year=1999 | pages=99 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=IGJOE_FI-XEC&amp;pg=RA3-PA99 | isbn=0-415-17029-X}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]]&lt;ref name=&quot;amg_dale&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Huey|first=Steve|title=Dick Dale|url=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/dick-dale-mn0000820232|publisher=[[Allmusic]]|accessdate=25 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|subgenres         = Surf rock - Surf pop - Hot rod rock
}}

'''सर्फ रक''' छगु प्रकारयागु [[रक संगीत]] खः।

==लिधंसा==
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{{रक संगीत}}
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  Name           = ब्रोंकियल आज्मा |
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'''आज्मा'''  वा आस्थ्मा [[रेस्पिरेटरी सिस्टम]]यागु छगु [[क्रोनिक]] ल्वे ख। थ्व ल्वेय् मनुयागु [[स्वँ|एअरवे]] कन्स्ट्रिक्ट जुइ, [[इन्फ्लामेसन]] जुइ व सोंय् [[म्युकस]] प्येपुना च्वनि। थन्यागु इपिसोड थ्व ल्वे छगु वा येक्व ट्रिगरं याना जुइ। थ्व ल्वेयागु ट्रिगर एलरजेन, ख्वांगु फे, मोइस्ट फे, व्यायाम, एक्जर्सन, इमोसनल स्ट्रेस आदि ख। मचातेगु दथुइ थ्व ल्वय् भाइरल संक्रमणं (गथे कि-सेखं चाइगु याना अप्व जुगु खने दु)। &lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=Zhao&gt;Zhao J, Takamura M, Yamaoka A, Odajima Y, Iikura Y. Altered eosinophil levels as a result of viral infection in asthma exacerbation in childhood. ''J Pediatr Allergy Immunol''. 2002 Feb;13(1):47–50. PMID 12000498&lt;/ref&gt;  थ्व कथंया एअरवे न्यारोविङ (airway narrowing)तेसं [[व्हीज]], [[डिस्प्निया]], [[नुगःपा कस्सेजुइगु]], व [[मुसु]] वैगु थेंन्यागु [[लक्षण]] क्येनि। थ्व लक्षणतेत [[ब्रोंकोडाइलेटर]] बिया लंके ज्यु। थन्यागु एपिसोडतेगु दथुइ अप्व उसाँय् मदुपिं बांलागु थें जुइ तर गब्लें-गब्लें सासः ल्हाय् थाकुगु थें जुइफु।   

The symptoms of asthma, which can range from mild to life threatening, can usually be controlled with a combination of [[medication|drugs]] and environmental changes.

Public attention in the [[developed country|developed world]] has recently focused on asthma because of its rapidly increasing [[prevalence]], affecting up to one in four urban children.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=Lilly&gt;Lilly CM. Diversity of asthma: Evolving concepts of pathophysiology and lessons from genetics. ''J Allergy Clin Immunol''. 2005;115 (4 Suppl):S526-31. PMID 15806035&lt;/ref&gt;

== इतिहास ==
आज्मा धागु खंग्व [[प्राचीन यवन|युनानी]] खंग्व ''आजीन'' नं वगु ख,थ्व खंग्वयाग अर्थ &quot;शार्प (sharp) सासः&quot; ख। थ्व खँग्व दक्ले न्ह्य [[होमर]]यागु इलियाडय् च्वयातगु खने दु।&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=Marketos&gt;Marketos SG, Ballas CN. Bronchial asthma in the medical literature of Greek antiquity. ''J Asthma''. 1982;19(4):263-9. PMID 6757243&lt;/ref&gt;
[[हिपोक्रेटिज]] नं थ्व खँग्वयात ल्वेयागु रुपे ४५० बी सीय् दक्ले न्ह्य छ्येलादिल। हिप्पोक्रेटिजयागु विचा कथं थ्व ल्वे अप्व याना टेलर, एन्ग्लर्स व मेटलवर्करय् खने दु। ६ शताब्दी धुंका [[ग्यालेन]]नं आज्मायागु बारेय् येक्व च्वव्या दिल। वेकलं थ्व ल्वे ब्रोंकसयागु आंशिक वा पूर्ण रुपे अब्स्ट्रक्सन जुया जुइगु धैगु खं विचा याना दिल। ११९० ए डीय् [[मोसेस मोइमोनिडेज]], छम्ह मध्ययुगीय [[र्‍याबाइ]], दार्शनिक, व चिकित्सकं थुकियागु बारेय् येक्व च्वया दिल व थ्व अवस्थायागु प्रिभेन्सन, डायग्नोसिस् व ट्रिट्मेन्टयागु बारेय् च्वया दिल।&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=Rosner&gt;Rosner F. Moses Maimonides' treatise on asthma. ''Thorax''. 1981;36:245–251. PMID 7025335&lt;/ref&gt;
१७औं शताव्दीय् [[बर्नार्डिनो रामाजिनी]] नं अर्ग्यानिक धु व थ्व ल्वेयागु छुं सम्बन्ध दुगु खं सीका दिल। [[ब्रोंकोडाइलेटर]]यागु छ्येलेज्या १९०१ निसें न्ह्येथन तर १९६०यागु दशक तक्क नं थ्व ल्वेयागु इन्फ्लामेटरी भागयागु बारेय् चिकित्सकत अनभिज्ञ जुल। थ्व भाग सी धुंका [[एन्टि-इन्फ्लामेटरी]] वास नं थ्व ल्वेयागु रेजिमेनय् तेनिगु ज्या जुल।

== लक्षण ==
छुं मनुय् आज्मा क्रोनिक रेस्पिरेटरी इम्पेयरमेन्टयागु रुपे खने दै। मेमेपिंय् थ्व ल्वे इन्टर्मिटेन्ट ल्वेयागु रुपे खने दै व थ्व ल्वेयागु लक्षण इन्टरमिटेन्ट कथलं अपर रेस्पिरेटरी संक्रमण, तनाव, वायुय् दैगु एलर्जेन, वायु प्रदुषक (दसु कुं) वा व्यायामं याना जुइ। 

आज्मायागु एक्युट एट्याकयाट ''आज्मा अट्याक'' धाई। थन्यागु अट्याकयागु हलमार्क [[डिस्प्निया]] व [[व्हीज]] वा [[स्ट्राइडर]]य् छगु जुइ। Although the former is &quot;often regarded as the ''[[sine qua non]]'' of asthma,&quot;&lt;ref name=McFadden&gt;McFadden ER, Jr. &quot;Asthma&quot;. In Kasper DL, Fauci AS, Longo DL, et al (eds). ''Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine'', 16&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ed., pp. 1508–1516. New York: McGraw-Hill;2004.&lt;/ref&gt;
some patients present primarily with [[cough]]ing, and in the late stages of an attack, air motion may be so impaired that no wheezing may be heard. When present the cough may sometimes produce clear [[sputum]]. The onset may be sudden, with a sense of constriction in the chest, breathing becomes difficult, and wheezing occurs (primarily upon expiration, but can be in both [[Respiration (physiology)|respiratory]] phases).   

[[Sign (medicine)|Signs]] of an asthmatic episode include [[wheeze|wheezing]], rapid breathing ([[tachypnea]]), prolonged expiration, a rapid heart rate ([[tachycardia]]), [[rhonchus|rhonchous]] lung sounds (audible through a [[stethoscope]]), and over-inflation of the chest. During a serious asthma attack, the accessory [[muscle]]s of respiration (sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles of the neck) may be used, shown as in-drawing of [[biological tissue|tissues]] between the ribs and above the [[sternum]] and [[clavicle]]s, and the presence of a [[paradoxical pulse]] (a pulse that is weaker during inhalation and stronger during exhalation).

During very severe attacks, an asthma sufferer can [[cyanosis|turn blue]] from lack of oxygen, and can experience [[chest pain]] or even loss of [[consciousness]]. Just before loss of consciousness, there is a chance that the patient will feel numbness in the limbs and palms may start to sweat. Feet may become icy cold. Severe asthma attacks may lead to respiratory arrest and death. Despite the severity of symptoms during an asthmatic episode, between attacks an asthmatic may show few signs of the disease.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Longmore |first=Murray ''et al'' |title=Oxford Handbook of Clinical Medicine |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_m8y0 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= |edition=7&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ed.|year=2007 |pages= |isbn=978-0198568377 |oclc= |doi=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== डायाग्नोसिस ==
आज्मायात छगु रिभर्सिबल एअरवे अब्स्ट्रक्सनया कथं परिभाषित यानातगु दु। Reversibility थमंतुं (spontaneously) वा निदान (treatment) याना जुइ। थुकिया दक्ले आधारभूत [[पीक एक्स्पिरेटरी फ्लो रेट]]या लनेज्या  व क्वय् बियातगु क्राइटेरियायात [[ब्रिटिस थोर्‍यासिक सोसाइटी]] नं आज्माया डायग्नोसिसया आधार कागु दु:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Pinnock H, Shah R|title=Asthma|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-medical-journal_2007-04-21_334_7598/page/847|journal=Br Med J|year=2007|volume=334|issue=7598|pages=847–50|doi=10.1136/bmj.39140.634896.BE}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ≥२०% difference on at least three days in a week for at least two weeks;
* ≥२०% improvement of peak flow following treatment, दसु:
** १० मिनेट इन्हेल्ड &amp;बेटा;-अगोनिस्ट (दसु., [[साल्ब्युतामोल]]);
** ६ (खु) वातक्क इन्हेल्ड [[कर्तिकोस्तेरोइद]] (दसु, [[बेक्लोमेथासोन]]);
** १४ न्हु ३०mg [[प्रेद्निसोलोन]].
* ≥२०% decrease in peak flow following exposure to a trigger (e.g., exercise).

In many cases, a physician can [[diagnosis|diagnose]] asthma on the basis of typical findings in a patient's clinical history and examination. Asthma is strongly suspected if a patient suffers from [[eczema]] or other [[allergy|allergic]] conditions—suggesting a general [[atopy|atopic constitution]]—or has a [[Family history (medicine)|family history]] of asthma. While measurement of airway function is possible for adults, most new cases are diagnosed in children who are unable to perform such tests. Diagnosis in children is based on a careful compilation and analysis of the patient's [[medical history]] and subsequent improvement with an inhaled [[bronchodilator]] medication. In adults, diagnosis can be made with a [[peak flow meter]] (which tests airway restriction), looking at both the diurnal [[Circadian rhythm|variation]] and any reversibility following inhaled [[bronchodilator]] [[Asthma#Rapid relief|medication]]. 

Testing peak flow at rest (or baseline) and after exercise can be helpful, especially in young asthmatics who may experience only [[exercise-induced asthma]]. If the diagnosis is in doubt, a more formal [[spirometry|lung function test]] may be conducted. Once a diagnosis of asthma is made, a patient can use [[peak flow meter]] testing to monitor the severity of the disease.

In the Emergency Department doctors may use a [[capnography]] PMID 16187465 which measures the amount of exhaled [[carbon dioxide]] along with [[pulse oximetry]] which shows the amount of oxygen dissolved in the blood, to determine the severity of an asthma attack as well as the response to treatment.  

=== Differential diagnosis ===
Before diagnosing someone as asthmatic, [[differential diagnosis|alternative possibilities]] should be considered. A physician taking a history should check whether the patient is using any known bronchoconstrictors (substances that cause narrowing of the airways, e.g., certain [[anti-inflammatory]] agents or [[beta-blockers]]).

[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], which closely resembles asthma, is correlated with more exposure to cigarette smoke, an older patient, less symptom reversibility after bronchodilator administration (as measured by [[spirometry]]), and decreased likelihood of family history of [[atopy]].

[[Pulmonary aspiration]], whether '''direct''' due to [[dysphagia]] (swallowing disorder) or '''indirect''' (due to acid reflux), can show similar symptoms to asthma. However, with aspiration, fevers might also indicate [[aspiration pneumonia]]. Direct aspiration (dysphagia) can be diagnosed by performing a Modified Barium Swallow test and treated with feeding therapy by a qualified [[speech therapist]]. If the aspiration is indirect (from acid reflux) then treatment directed at this is indicated.

A majority of children who are asthma sufferers have an identifiable [[allergy]] trigger. Specifically, in a 2004 study, 71% had positive test results for more than 1 allergen, and 42% had positive test results for more than 3 allergens.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Vargas |first=PA |title=Characteristics of children with asthma who are enrolled in a Head Start program |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&amp;cmd=Retrieve&amp;dopt=AbstractPlus&amp;list_uids=15356547&amp;query_hl=23&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum |journal= J Allergy Clin Immunol |date=September 2004 |pages=499–504 |pmid=15356547 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The majority of these triggers can often be identified from the history; for instance, asthmatics with [[hay fever]] or [[pollen]] allergy will have seasonal symptoms, those with allergies to [[pet]]s may experience an abatement of symptoms when away from home, and those with occupational asthma may improve during leave from work. Occasionally, [[allergy#Diagnosis|allergy tests]] are warranted and, if positive, may help in identifying avoidable symptom triggers. 

After a [[pulmonary function test]] has been carried out, radiological tests, such as a [[chest X-ray]] or [[computed tomography|CT scan]], may be required to exclude the possibility of other lung diseases. In some people, asthma may be triggered by [[gastroesophageal reflux disease]], which can be treated with suitable [[antacid]]s. Very occasionally, specialized tests after inhalation of [[methacholine challenge test|methacholine]] — or, even less commonly, [[histamine]] — may be performed.

Asthma is categorized by the United States [[National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute]] as falling into one of four categories: mild intermittent, mild persistent, moderate persistent and severe persistent.  The diagnosis of &quot;severe persistent asthma&quot; occurs when symptoms are continual with frequent exacerbations and frequent nighttime symptoms, result in limited physical activity and when lung function as measured by PEV or FEV&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; tests is less than 60% predicted with PEF variability greater than 30%.

There is no cure for asthma. Doctors have only found ways to prevent attacks and relieve the symptoms such as tightness of the chest and trouble breathing.

== Pathophysiology ==
[[किपा:Asthma before-after.png|thumb|right|470px|'''Inflamed airways and bronchoconstriction in asthma'''. Airways narrowed as a result of the inflammatory response cause wheezing.]]
=== Bronchoconstriction ===
During an asthma episode, inflamed [[bronchiole|airways]] react to environmental triggers such as smoke, dust, or pollen. The airways narrow and produce excess [[mucus]], making it difficult to breathe.
In essence, asthma is the result of an [[immune response]] in the [[bronchial]] airways.&lt;ref name=Maddox&gt;Maddox L, Schwartz DA. The Pathophysiology of Asthma. ''Annu. Rev. Med.'' 2002, 53:477-98. PMID 11818486&lt;/ref&gt;

The airways of asthmatics are &quot;[[hypersensitivity|hypersensitive]]&quot; to certain triggers, also known as ''stimuli'' (see below). In response to exposure to these triggers, the [[bronchi]] (large airways) contract into [[spasm]] (an &quot;asthma attack&quot;). [[Inflammation]] soon follows, leading to a further narrowing of the airways and excessive [[mucus]] production, which leads to coughing and other breathing difficulties.

=== Stimuli ===
There are many different categories of stimuli: 
* [[Allergen]]ic [[Pollution|air pollution]], from nature, typically inhaled, which include waste from common household pests, such as the [[house dust mite]] and [[cockroach]], [[pollen|grass pollen]], [[mould]] spores, and pet [[epithelium|epithelial cells]]; 
* Indoor [[Allergen]]ic [[Pollution|air pollution]] from [[Volatile organic compound]]s, including [perfume]s and perfumed products.  Examples include soap, dishwashing liquid, laundry detergent, fabric softener, paper tissues, paper towels, toilet paper, shampoo, hairspray, hair gel, cosmetics, facial cream, sun cream, deodorant, cologne, shaving cream, aftershave lotion, air freshener and candles, and products such as oil-based paint.  
* [[Medication]]s, including [[aspirin]],&lt;ref name=Jenkins&gt;Jenkins C, Costello J, Hodge L. [[Systematic review]] of prevalence of aspirin induced asthma and its implications for clinical practice. ''[[British Medical Journal|BMJ]]'' 2004;328:434. PMID 14976098&lt;/ref&gt; [[beta blocker|β-adrenergic antagonists]] (beta blockers), and [[penicillin]].
* [[Food allergy|Food allergies]] such as [[milk]], [[peanut]]s, and [[egg (food)|eggs]].  However, asthma is rarely the only symptom, and not all people with food or other allergies have asthma. 
* Use of [[fossil fuel]] related [[allergen]]ic [[Pollution|air pollution]], such as [[ozone]], [[smog]], [[summer smog]], [[nitrogen dioxide]], and [[sulfur dioxide]], which is thought to be one of the major reasons for the high prevalence of asthma in [[Urban area|urban]] areas;
* Various industrial compounds and other chemicals, notably [[sulfites]]; [[क्लोरिन|chlorinated]] swimming pools generate [[chloramine]]s—monochloramine (NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Cl), dichloramine (NHCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and trichloramine (NCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)—in the air around them, which are known to induce asthma.&lt;ref name=Nemery&gt;Nemery B, Hoet PH, Nowak D. Indoor swimming pools, water chlorination and respiratory health. ''Eur Respir J''. 2002;19(5):790-3. PMID 12030714&lt;/ref&gt;
* Early childhood [[infection]]s, especially [[virus|viral]] [[URTI|respiratory infections]].  However, persons of any age can have asthma triggered by [[colds]] and other respiratory infections even though their normal stimuli might be from another category (e.g. pollen) and absent at the time of infection. 80% of asthma attacks in adults and 60% in children are caused by respiratory viruses.
* [[Exercise]], the effects of which differ somewhat from those of the other triggers;
* [[Allergen]]ic indoor [[Pollution|air pollution]] from [[newsprint]] &amp; other literature such as, [[Direct marketing|junk mail]] leaflets &amp; glossy [[magazine]]s (in some countries).
* [[Hormone|Hormonal]] changes in [[adolescent]] girls and adult women associated with their [[menstrual cycle]] can lead to a worsening of asthma.  Some women also experience a worsening of their asthma during [[pregnancy]] whereas others find no significant changes, and in other women their asthma improves during their pregnancy.
* [[Stress (medicine)|Emotional stress]] which is poorly understood as a trigger.

=== Bronchial inflammation ===
The mechanisms behind allergic asthma—i.e., asthma resulting from an [[immune response]] to inhaled [[allergen]]s—are the best understood of the causal factors. In both asthmatics and non-asthmatics, inhaled allergens that find their way to the inner [[bronchiole|airways]] are [[phagocytosis|ingested]] by a type of cell known as [[antigen presenting cell]]s, or APCs. APCs then &quot;present&quot; pieces of the allergen to other [[immune system]] cells. In most people, these other immune cells ([[T helper cell|T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;0 cells]]) &quot;check&quot; and usually ignore the allergen molecules. In asthmatics, however, these cells [[differentiation|transform]] into a different type of cell (T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;2), for reasons that are not well understood. The resultant T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;2 cells activate an important arm of the immune system, known as the [[humoral immunity|humoral immune system]]. The humoral immune system produces [[antibody|antibodies]] against the inhaled allergen. Later, when an asthmatic inhales the same allergen, these antibodies &quot;recognize&quot; it and activate a [[Humoral immune response|humoral response]]. [[Inflammation]] results: chemicals are produced that cause the airways to constrict and release more mucus, and the cell-mediated arm of the immune system is activated. The inflammatory response is responsible for the clinical manifestations of an asthma attack. The following section describes this complex series of events in more detail.

=== Pathogenesis ===
The fundamental problem in asthma appears to be [[immunology|immunological]]: young children in the early stages of asthma show signs of excessive inflammation in their airways. [[Epidemiology|Epidemiological findings]] give clues as to the [[pathogenesis]]: the incidence of asthma seems to be increasing worldwide, and asthma is now very much more common in affluent countries.

In 1968 Andor Szentivanyi first described ''The Beta Adrenergic Theory of Asthma''; in which blockage of the Beta-2 receptors of pulmonary smooth muscle cells causes asthma.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author=Szentivanyi, Andor | title=The Beta Adrenergic Theory of the Atopic Abnormality in Asthma | url=https://archive.org/details/szentivanyi-1968 | jounal=J.Allergy | year=1968}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Szentivanyi's Beta Adrenergic Theory is a citation classic&lt;ref name=Tribute&gt;Lockey, Richard, In lasting tribute: Andor Szentivanyi, MD. ''J. Allergy and Clinical Immunology'', January, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; and has been cited more times than any other article in the history of the Journal of Allergy.

In 1995 Szentivanyi and colleagues demonstrated that IgE blocks beta-2 receptors.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author=Szentivanyi A., Ali K., Calderon EG., Brooks SM., Coffey RG., Lockey RF. | title=The ''in vitro'' effect of Imunnoglobulin E {IgE} on cyclic AMP concentrations in A549 human pulmonary epithelial cells with or without beta adrenergic stimulation | journal=J. Allergy Clin Immunol. | volume=91 | pages=379 | year=1993}} - Part of Abstracts from:&lt;br /&gt;
{{cite journal | author = | title = 50th Anniversary of the American Academy of Allergy and Immunology. 49th Annual Meeting. Chicago, Illinois, March 12–17, 1993. Abstracts. | journal = J Allergy Clin Immunol | volume = 91 | issue = 1 Pt 2 | pages = 141–379 | year = 1993 | id = PMID 8421135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Since overproduction of IgE is central to all atopic diseases, this was a watershed moment in the world of Allergy.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | editor=Kowalak JP, Hughes AS et al (eds) | title=Professional Guide To Diseases | edition=7th ed. | year=2001 | publisher=Springhouse}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Beta-Adrenergic Theory has been cited in the scholarship of such noted investigators as [[Richard F. Lockey]] (former President of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology),&lt;ref name=Richard_F_Lockey&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.worldallergy.org/professional/allergic_diseases_center/anaphylaxis/anaphylaxissynopsis.shtml | title = Anaphylaxis: Synopsis | accessmonthday = September 23 | accessyear = 2006 | last = Lockey | first = Richard F. | date = 2006-04-28 | work = Allergic Diseases Resource Center | publisher = World Allergy Organization }}&lt;/ref&gt; Charles Reed (Chief of Allergy at Mayo Medical School),&lt;ref name=Charles_Reed&gt;{{cite journal | first = J. J. | last = Ouellette | coauthors = C. E. Reed | year = 1967 | month = March | title =  The effect of partial beta adrenergic blockade on the bronchial response of hay fever subjects to ragweed aerosol. | journal = Journal of Allergy | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 160-6 | id = {{PMID|5227155}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Craig Venter (Human Genome Project).&lt;ref name=Craig_Venter&gt;{{cite journal | last = Fraser | first = Claire M. | coauthors = [[Craig Venter|J. Craig Venter]] | date = [[May 14]], [[1980]] | title = The synthesis of beta-adrenergic receptors in cultured human lung cells: induction by glucocorticoids. | journal = Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications | volume = 94 | issue = 1 | pages = 390–397 | doi = 10.1016/S0006-291X(80)80233-6 | id = {{PMID|6248064}} | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6WBK-4G0VNMJ-S8&amp;_coverDate=05%2F14%2F1980&amp;_alid=454587819&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_fmt=&amp;_orig=search&amp;_qd=1&amp;_cdi=6713&amp;_sort=d&amp;view=c&amp;_acct=C000050221&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=10&amp;md5=f3bc10fca4f32364a318857c0262f252 | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-09-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!--I know that this is A J. Craig Venter, but I do not know which one.--&gt;

==== कारक ====
येक्व स्टडिज कथलं मस्तय् आज्मा, [[ब्रोंकाइटिस]], व एक्युट रेस्पिरेटरी ल्वेयात वायुयागु क्वालिटी नाप स्वापू दुगु खं क्यंगु दु।&lt;ref name=asthma_air_quality&gt;{{cite web | url = http://ewg.org/sites/asthmaindex/about/kidshealth.php | title = Asthma and Air Quality}}&lt;/ref&gt; One of the largest of these studies is the California Children's Health Study.&lt;ref name=childrens_health_study&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.arb.ca.gov/research/chs/chs.htm | title = California Children's Health Study}}&lt;/ref&gt; From the press release [http://www.arb.ca.gov/newsrel/nr013102.htm]{{Dead link|date=April 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;blockquote&gt;The study showed that children in the high ozone communities who played three or more sports developed asthma at a rate three times higher than those in the low ozone communities. Because participation in some sports can result in a child drawing up to 17 times the “normal” amount of air into the lungs, young athletes are more likely to develop asthma.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Note that concentrations of ozone have risen steadily in Europe since 1870. [http://www.eoearth.org/image/Histconc.gif] 

Another theory of [[pathogenesis]] is that asthma is a disease of hygiene. In nature, babies are exposed to [[bacteria]] and other [[antigen]]s soon after birth, &quot;switching on&quot; the T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;1 [[lymphocyte]] cells of the [[immune system]] that deal with bacterial infection. If this stimulus is insufficient, as it may be in modern, clean environments, then T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;2 cells predominate, and asthma and other allergic diseases may develop. This &quot;[[hygiene hypothesis]]&quot; may explain the increase in asthma in affluent populations. The T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;2 lymphocytes and [[eosinophil]] cells that protect us against [[parasite]]s and other infectious agents are the same cells responsible for the allergic reaction. The [[Charcot-Leyden crystals]] are formed when the crystalline material in eosinophils coalesce. These crystals are significant in sputum samples of people with asthma. In the developed world, these [[parasite]]s are now rarely encountered, but the immune response remains and is wrongly triggered in some individuals by certain allergens.

Finally, it has been postulated that some forms of asthma may be related to infection, in particular by ''[[Chlamydophila pneumoniae|Chlamydia pneumoniae]]''.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Thorax2006-Terttu&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author=Terttu HH, Leinonen M, Nokso-Koivisto J, Korhonen T, Raty R, He Q, Hovi T, Mertsola J, Bloigu A, Rytila P, Saikku P | title=Non-random distribution of pathogenic bacteria and viruses in induced sputum or pharyngeal secretions of adults with stable asthma | journal=Thorax | year=2006 | pages= | volume= | id=PMID 16517571}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This issue remains controversial, as the relationship is not borne out by [[meta-analysis]] of the research.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane2005-Richeldi&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author=Richeldi L, Ferrara G, Fabbri LM, Lasserson TJ, Gibson PG | title=Macrolides for chronic asthma | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year=2005 | pages=CD002997 | volume= | issue=4 | id=PMID 16235309}}&lt;/ref&gt;
The correlation seems to be not with the onset, but rather with accelerated loss of lung function in adults with new onset of non-atopic asthma.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;JAllergyClinImmunol2005-Pasternack&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author=Pasternack R, Huhtala H, Karjalainen J | title=Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae serology and asthma in adults: a longitudinal analysis | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-allergy-and-clinical-immunology_2005-11_116_5/page/1123 | journal=J Allergy Clin Immunol | year=2005 | pages=1123–8 | volume=116 | issue=5 | id=PMID 16275386}}&lt;/ref&gt;
One possible explanation is that some asthmatics may have altered immune response that facilitates  long-term chlamydia pneumonia infection.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;PediatrAllergyImmunol2005-Ronchetti&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author=Ronchetti R, Biscione GL, Ronchetti F, Ronchetti MP, Martella S, Falasca C, Casini C, Barreto M, Villa MP | title=Why Chlamydia pneumoniae is associated with asthma and other chronic conditions? Suggestions from a survey in unselected 9 years old schoolchildren | journal=Pediatr Allergy Immunol | year=2005 | pages=145-50 | volume=16 | issue=2 | id=PMID 15787872}}&lt;/ref&gt;
The response to targeting with [[macrolide]] antibiotics has been investigated, but the temporary benefit reported in some studies may reflect just their anti-inflammatory activities rather than their antimicrobic action.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane2005-Richeldi&quot; /&gt;

=== Asthma and sleep apnea ===
{{main|sleep apnea}}
It is recognized with increasing frequency, that patients who have both obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and bronchial asthma, often improve tremendously when the sleep apnea is diagnosed and treated.&lt;ref name=sleep_anpea1&gt;{{cite press release | title = Breathing disorders during sleep are common among asthmatics, may help predict severe asthma | publisher = University of Michigan Health System | date = May 25, 2005 | url = http://www.med.umich.edu/opm/newspage/2005/asthmasleep.htm | accessdate = 2006-09-23 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[CPAP]] is not effective in patients with nocturnal asthma only.&lt;ref name=CPAP_not_an_anti-asthmatic&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.sleepapnea.org/resources/pubs/asthma-osa.html | title = Asthma and OSA | accessmonthday = September 23 | accessyear = 2006 | last = Basner | first = Robert C. | date = 2006-07-25 | work = ASAA Resources &gt; Publications | publisher = American Sleep Apnea Association}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Asthma and gastro-esophageal reflux disease ===
{{main|gastro-esophageal reflux disease}}
If gastro-esophageal reflux disease is present, the patient may have repetitive episodes of acid aspiration, which results in airway inflammation and &quot;irritant-induced&quot; asthma.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} GERD may be common in difficult-to-control asthma, but generally speaking, treating it does not seem to affect the asthma.&lt;ref name=Leggett_et_al_2005&gt;{{cite journal | last = Leggett | first = Julian J. | coauthors = Brian T. Johnston, Moyra Mills, Jackie Gamble, and Liam G. Heaney | year = 2005 | month = April | title = Prevalence of Gastroesophageal Reflux in Difficult Asthma | journal = Chest | volume = 127 | issue = 4 | pages = 1227–1231 | id = {{PMID|15821199}} | url = http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/127/4/1227 | accessdate = 2006-09-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Treatment ==
The most effective treatment for asthma is identifying triggers, such as pets or aspirin, and limiting or eliminating exposure to them. [[Desensitization (medicine)|Desensitization]] to allergens has been shown to be a treatment option for certain patients.&lt;ref&gt;American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 1995;151:969–74.&lt;/ref&gt;

As is common with respiratory disease, [[tobacco smoking|smoking]] adversely affects asthmatics in several ways, including an increased severity of symptoms, a more rapid decline of lung function, and decreased response to preventive medications.&lt;ref name=thomson&gt;Thomson NC, Spears M. The influence of smoking on the treatment response in patients with asthma. ''Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol''. 2005;5(1):57–63. PMID 15643345&lt;/ref&gt;
Asthmatics who smoke typically require additional medications to help control their disease. Furthermore, exposure of both non-smokers and smokers to [[second-hand smoke]] is detrimental, resulting in more severe asthma, more [[emergency room]] visits, and more asthma-related hospital admissions.&lt;ref name=eisner&gt;Eisner MD, Yelin EH, Katz PP, ''et al.'' Exposure to indoor combustion and adult asthma outcomes: environmental tobacco smoke, gas stoves, and wood-smoke. ''Thorax''. 2002;57(11):973-8. PMID 12403881&lt;/ref&gt;
Smoking cessation and avoidance of second-hand smoke is strongly encouraged in asthmatics.&lt;ref name=epr2&gt;National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. ''Expert Panel Report: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma''. National Institutes of Health pub no 97–4051. Bethesda, MD, 1997. ([http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.pdf PDF])&lt;/ref&gt;

The specific medical treatment recommended to patients with asthma depends on the severity of their illness and the frequency of their symptoms. Specific treatments for asthma are broadly classified as relievers, preventers and emergency treatment. The ''Expert Panel Report 2: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma'' (EPR-2)&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=epr2 /&gt;
of the U.S. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program, and the ''British Guideline on the Management of Asthma''&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=SIGN&gt;British Thoracic Society &amp; Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). ''British Guideline on the Management of Asthma''. Guideline No. 63. Edinburgh:SIGN; 2004. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20060618093345/http://www.sign.ac.uk/guidelines/fulltext/63/index.html HTML], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060724153838/http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign63.pdf Full PDF], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060724154104/http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/qrg63.pdf Summary PDF])&lt;/ref&gt;
are broadly used and supported by many doctors. A new draft Full Report of Expert Panel: Guidelines fo the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma (EPR-3) was posted on the NHLBI web site for public review and comment but has been withdrawn from the NIH website pending formal dissemination,  although comments submitted by the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology about the proposed revised NHLBI asthma guidelines are still available online.  Bronchodilators are recommended for short-term relief in all patients. For those who experience occasional attacks, no other medication is needed. For those with mild persistent disease (more than two attacks a week), low-dose inhaled glucocorticoids or alternatively, an oral leukotriene modifier, a mast-cell stabilizer, or theophylline may be administered. For those who suffer daily attacks, a higher dose of glucocorticoid in conjunction with a long-acting inhaled β-2 agonist may be prescribed; alternatively, a leukotriene modifier or theophylline may substitute for the β-2 agonist. In severe asthmatics, oral glucocorticoids may be added to these treatments during severe attacks.

For those in whom exercise can trigger an asthma attack ([[exercise-induced asthma]]), higher levels of ventilation and cold, dry air tend to exacerbate attacks. For this reason, activities in which a patient breathes large amounts of cold air, such as skiing and running, tend to be worse for asthmatics, whereas swimming in an indoor, heated pool, with warm, humid air, is less likely to provoke a response.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=McFadden /&gt;

Researchers at Harvard Medical School (HMS) have come up with convincing evidence that the answer to what causes asthma lies in a special type of natural &quot;killer&quot; cell. This finding means that physicians may not be treating asthma sufferers with the right kinds of drugs. For example, natural killer T cells seem to be resistant to the corticosteroids in widely used inhalers.&lt;ref name=Harvard_cracks_asthma&gt;{{cite news | first = William J. | last = Cromie | title = Researchers uncover cause of asthma | url = http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2006/03.16/01-asthma.html | work = Harvard University Gazette | publisher = Harvard News Office | date = 2006-03-16 | accessdate = 2006-09-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A novel therapeutic target currently under investigation is the A&lt;sub&gt;2B&lt;/sub&gt; receptor, a cell surface G-protein coupled receptor expressed in the lungs and in inflammatory cells expressed in asthma. Several animal models have confirmed the a critical role for A&lt;sub&gt;2B&lt;/sub&gt; antagonists in pulmonary inflammation, fibrosis and airway remodelling.&lt;ref&gt; {{cite web | author=D. Zeng &amp; R. Polosa |year=2006 | title=A Novel Therapeutic Target in Asthma - The A&lt;sub&gt;2B&lt;/sub&gt; Adenosine Agonist|url=http://www.touchrespiratorydisease.com/articles.cfm?article_id=6169&amp;level=2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Relief medication ===
Symptomatic control of episodes of wheezing and shortness of breath is generally achieved with fast-acting [[bronchodilator]]s. These are typically provided in pocket-sized, metered-dose [[inhaler]]s (MDIs). In young sufferers, who may have difficulty with the coordination necessary to use inhalers, or those with a poor ability to hold their breath for 10 seconds after inhaler use (generally the elderly), an [[asthma spacer]] (see top image) is used. The spacer is a plastic cylinder that mixes the medication with air in a simple tube, making it easier for patients to receive a full dose of the drug and allows for the active agent to be dispersed into smaller, more fully inhaled bits. A [[nebulizer]] which provides a larger, continuous dose can also be used. Nebulizers work by vaporizing a dose of medication in a saline solution into a steady stream of foggy vapour, which the patient inhales continuously until the full dosage is administered. There is no clear evidence, however, that they are more effective than inhalers used with a spacer. Nebulizers may be helpful to some patients experiencing a severe attack. Such patients may not be able to inhale deeply, so regular inhalers may not deliver medication deeply into the lungs, even on repeated attempts. Since a nebulizer delivers the medication continuously, it is thought that the first few inhalations may relax the airways enough to allow the following inhalations to draw in more medication.  

Relievers include:
* Short-acting, selective [[Beta2-adrenergic receptor agonist|beta&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-adrenoceptor agonists]], such as [[salbutamol]] (''albuterol'' [[United States Adopted Name|USAN]]), [[levalbuterol]], [[terbutaline]] and  [[bitolterol]].&lt;br /&gt;[[tremor|Tremors]], the major side effect, have been greatly reduced by inhaled delivery, which allows the drug to target the lungs specifically; oral and injected medications are delivered throughout the body. There may also be [[cardiac]] side effects at higher doses (due to Beta-1 agonist activity), such as elevated heart rate or blood pressure; with the advent of selective agents, these side effects have become less common. Patients must be cautioned against using these medicines too frequently, as with such use their efficacy may decline, producing [[desensitization]] resulting in an exacerbation of symptoms which may lead to refractory asthma and death.
* Older, less selective [[adrenergic receptor|adrenergic agonists]], such as inhaled [[epinephrine]] and [[ephedrine]] tablets, have also been used. Cardiac side effects occur with these agents at either similar or lesser rates to albuterol.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=Hendeles&gt;Hendeles L, Marshik PL, ''et al.'' Response to nonprescription epinephrine inhaler during nocturnal asthma. ''Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol.'' 2005 Dec;95(6):530-4. PMID 16400891&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=Rodrigo&gt;Rodrigo GJ, Nannini LJ. Comparison between nebulized adrenaline and beta2 agonists for the treatment of acute asthma. A meta-analysis of randomized trials. ''Am J Emerg Med.'' 2006 Mar;24(2):217-22. PMID 16490653&lt;/ref&gt;  When used solely as a relief medication, inhaled epinephrine has been shown to be an effective agent to terminate an acute asthmatic exacerbation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hendeles&quot; /&gt;  In emergencies, these drugs were sometimes administered by injection.  Their use via injection has declined due to related adverse effects.
* [[Anticholinergic]] medications, such as [[ipratropium bromide]] may be used instead. They have no cardiac side effects and thus can be used in patients with heart disease; however, they take up to an hour to achieve their full effect and are not as powerful as the β&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-adrenoreceptor agonists.

=== Prevention medication ===
Current treatment protocols recommend prevention medications such as an inhaled [[corticosteroid]], which helps to suppress [[inflammation]] and reduces the swelling of the lining of the airways, in anyone who has frequent (greater than twice a week) need of relievers or who has severe symptoms. If symptoms persist, additional preventive drugs are added until the asthma is controlled. With the proper use of prevention drugs, asthmatics can avoid the complications that result from overuse of relief medications.

Asthmatics sometimes stop taking their preventive medication when they feel fine and have no problems breathing. This often results in further attacks, and no long-term improvement.

Preventive agents include the following.
* Inhaled [[glucocorticoid]]s are the most widely used of the prevention medications and normally come as inhaler devices ([[ciclesonide]], [[beclomethasone]], [[budesonide]],  [[flunisolide]], [[fluticasone]], [[mometasone furoate|mometasone]], and [[triamcinolone]]).&lt;br /&gt;Long-term use of corticosteroids can have many side effects including a redistribution of fat, increased [[appetite]], blood [[glucose]] problems and weight gain. In particular high doses of steroids may cause [[osteoporosis]]. For this reasons inhaled steroids are generally used for prevention, as their smaller doses are targeted to the lungs unlike the higher doses of oral preparations. Nevertheless, patients on high doses of inhaled steroids may still require prophylactic treatment to prevent osteoporosis.&lt;br /&gt;Deposition of steroids in the mouth may cause a [[dysphonia|hoarse voice]] or [[oral thrush]] (due to decreased immunity). This may be minimised by rinsing the mouth with water after inhaler use, as well as by using a [[spacer]] which increases the amount of drug that reaches the lungs.
* [[Leukotriene]] modifiers ([[montelukast]], [[zafirlukast]], [[pranlukast]], and [[zileuton]]).
* [[Mast cell]] stabilizers ([[cromoglicate]] (cromolyn), and [[nedocromil]]).
* Antimuscarinics/anticholinergics ([[ipratropium]], [[oxitropium]], and [[tiotropium]]), which have a mixed reliever and preventer effect. (These are rarely used in preventive treatment of asthma, except in patients who do not tolerate beta-2-agonists.)
* Methylxanthines ([[theophylline]] and [[aminophylline]]), which are sometimes considered if sufficient control cannot be achieved with inhaled glucocorticoids and long-acting β-agonists alone.
* [[Antihistamine]]s, often used to treat allergic symptoms that may underlie the chronic inflammation.  In more severe cases, [[hyposensitization]] (&quot;allergy shots&quot;) may be recommended.
* [[Omalizumab]], an [[immunoglobulin E|IgE]] blocker; this can help patients with severe allergic asthma that does not respond to other drugs. However, it is expensive and must be injected.
* [[Methotrexate]] is occasionally used in some difficult-to-treat patients.
* If chronic acid indigestion ([[Gastroesophageal reflux disease|GERD]]) contributes to a patient's asthma, it should also be treated, because it may prolong the respiratory problem.

Additionally, the antidepressant [[tianeptine]] has shown significant efficacy in children with asthma.

=== Long-acting β&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-agonists ===
[[किपा:AsthmaInhaler.jpg|thumb|180px|A typical [[inhaler]], of [[salmeterol|Serevent (salmeterol)]], a long-acting bronchodilator.]]
Long-acting bronchodilators (LABD) are similar in structure to short-acting selective beta&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-adrenoceptor agonists, but have much longer sidechains resulting in a 12-hour effect, and are used to give a smoothed symptomatic relief (used morning and night). While patients report improved symptom control, these drugs do not replace the need for routine preventers, and their slow onset means the short-acting dilators may still be required. In November of 2005, the American [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] released a health advisory alerting the public to findings that show the use of long-acting β&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-agonists could lead to a worsening of symptoms, and in some cases death.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=FDA&quot;LABD&quot;&gt;{{cite web | year=[[2006-03-03]] | title=Serevent Diskus, Advair Diskus, and Foradil Information (Long Acting Beta Agonists) - Drug information | publisher=FDA | url=http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/infopage/LABA/default.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Currently available [[long acting beta-adrenoceptor agonist|long-acting beta&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-adrenoceptor agonists]] include [[salmeterol]], [[formoterol]], [[bambuterol]], and sustained-release oral [[albuterol]]. Combinations of inhaled steroids and long-acting bronchodilators are becoming more widespread; the most common combination currently in use is fluticasone/salmeterol ([[Advair]] in the United States, and [[Seretide]] in the United Kingdom).

A recent meta-analysis of the roles of long-acting beta-agonists may indicate a danger to asthma patients. &quot;These agents can improve symptoms through bronchodilation at the same time as increasing underlying inflammation and bronchial hyper-responsiveness, thus worsening asthma control without any warning of increased symptoms,&quot; said Shelley Salpeter in a Cornell study. The study goes on to say that &quot;Three common asthma inhalers containing the drugs salmeterol or formoterol may be causing four out of five US asthma-related deaths per year and should be taken off the market&quot;.&lt;ref name=Down_with_Serevent&gt;{{cite web | first = Krishna | last = Ramanujan | title = Common asthma inhalers cause up to 80 percent of asthma-related deaths, Cornell and Stanford researchers assert | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/June06/AsthmaDeaths.kr.html | work = Cornell Chronicle Online | publisher = Cornell News Service | date = 2006-06-09 | accessdate = 2006-09-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; This assertion has drawn criticism from many asthma specialists for being inaccurate.  As Dr. Hal Nelson points out in a recent letter to the Annals of Internal Medicine,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''&quot;Salpeter and colleagues also assert that salmeterol may be responsible for 4000 of the 5000 asthma-related deaths that occur in the United States annually. However, when salmeterol was introduced in 1994, more than 5000 asthma-related deaths occurred per year. Since the peak of asthma deaths in 1996, salmeterol sales have increased about 5-fold, while overall asthma mortality rates have decreased by about 25%, despite a continued increase in asthma diagnoses. In fact, according to the most recent data from the National Center for Health Statistics, U.S. asthma mortality rates peaked in 1996 (with 5667 deaths) and have decreased steadily since. The last available data, from 2004, indicate that 3780 deaths occurred. Thus, the suggestion that a vast majority of asthma deaths could be attributable to LABA use is inconsistent with the facts.&quot;''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;  Dr. Salpeter has since tempered her comments regarding LABAs

=== Emergency treatment ===
When an asthma attack is unresponsive to a patient's usual medication, other treatments are available to the physician or hospital:&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=rodrigo&gt;Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C, Hall JB. Acute asthma in adults: a review. ''Chest''. 2004;125(3):1081-102. PMID 15006973&lt;/ref&gt; 
* [[अक्सिजन|oxygen]] to alleviate the hypoxia (but not the asthma ''per se'') that results from extreme asthma attacks; 
* nebulized [[salbutamol]] or [[terbutaline]] (short-acting beta-2-agonists), often combined with ipratropium (an anticholinergic);
* systemic steroids, oral or intravenous ([[prednisone]], [[prednisolone]], [[methylprednisolone]], [[dexamethasone]], or [[hydrocortisone]]). Some research has looked into an alternative inhaled route.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Rodrigo G |title=Comparison of inhaled fluticasone with intravenous hydrocortisone in the treatment of adult acute asthma |journal=Am J Respir Crit Care Med |volume=171 |issue=11 |pages=1231–6 |year=2005 |pmid=15764724}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* other bronchodilators that are occasionally effective when the usual drugs fail:
** intravenous salbutamol
** nonspecific beta-agonists, injected or inhaled ([[epinephrine]], [[isoetharine]], [[isoproterenol]], [[metaproterenol]]);
** anticholinergics, IV or nebulized, with systemic effects ([[glycopyrrolate]], [[atropine]], [[ipratropium]]);
** methylxanthines ([[theophylline]], [[aminophylline]]);
** inhalation anesthetics that have a bronchodilatory effect ([[isoflurane]], [[halothane]], [[enflurane]]);
** the dissociative anaesthetic [[ketamine]], often used in [[endotracheal tube]] induction
** [[magnesium sulfate]], intravenous; and
* intubation and mechanical ventilation, for patients in or approaching respiratory arrest.
* Heliox, a mixture of helium and oxygen, may be used in a hospital setting.  It has a more laminar flow than ambient air and moves more easily through constricted airways

=== Alternative and complementary medicine ===
Many asthmatics, like those who suffer from other chronic disorders, use alternative treatments; surveys show that roughly 50% of asthma patients use some form of unconventional therapy.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=blanc&gt;Blanc PD, Trupin L, Earnest G, ''et al.'' Alternative therapies among adults with a reported diagnosis of asthma or rhinosinusitis: data from a population-based survey. ''Chest''. 2001;120(5):1461–7. PMID 11713120&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=shenfield&gt;Shenfield G, Lim E, Allen H. Survey of the use of complementary medicines and therapies in children with asthma. ''J Paediatr Child Health''. 2002;38(3):252-7. PMID 12047692&lt;/ref&gt;
There are little data to support the effectiveness of most of these therapies. A [[Cochrane Collaboration|Cochrane]] [[Evidence-based medicine|systematic review]] of acupuncture for asthma found no evidence of efficacy.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=mccartney&gt;McCarney RW, Brinkhaus B, Lasserson TJ, ''et al.'' Acupuncture for chronic asthma. ''Cochrane Database Syst Rev''. 2004;(1):CD000008. PMID 14973944&lt;/ref&gt;
A similar review of [[air ioniser]]s found no evidence that they improve asthma symptoms or benefit lung function; this applied equally to positive and negative ion generators.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=blackhall&gt;Blackhall K, Appleton S, Cates CJ. Ionisers for chronic asthma. ''Cochrane Database Syst Rev.'' 2003;(3):CD002986 PMID 12917939&lt;/ref&gt;
A study of &quot;manual therapies&quot; for asthma, including [[osteopathic]], [[chiropractic]], [[physiotherapy|physiotherapeutic]] and [[respiratory therapy|respiratory therapeutic]] manoeuvers, found there is insufficient evidence to support or refute their use in treating asthma;&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=hondras&gt;Hondras MA, Linde K, Jones AP. Manual therapy for asthma. ''Cochrane Database Syst Rev''. 2005;(2):CD001002. PMID 15846609&lt;/ref&gt;
these manoeuvers include various osteopathic and chiropractic techniques to &quot;increase movement in the rib cage and the spine to try and improve the working of the lungs and circulation&quot;; chest tapping, shaking, vibration, and the use of &quot;postures to help shift and cough up phlegm.&quot; On the other hand, one [[meta-analysis]] found that [[homeopathy]] has a potentially mild benefit in reducing symptom intensity;&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=reilly&gt;Reilly D, Taylor MA, Beattie NG, ''et al.'' Is evidence for homoeopathy reproducible? ''Lancet.'' 1994;344(8937):1601–6. PMID 7983994&lt;/ref&gt;
however, the number of patients involved in the analysis was small, and subsequent studies have not supported this finding.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=white&gt;White A, Slade P, Hunt C, ''et al.'' Individualised homeopathy as an adjunct in the treatment of childhood asthma: a randomised placebo controlled trial. ''Thorax.'' 2003;58(4):317-21. PMID 12668794&lt;/ref&gt;
Several small trials have suggested some benefit from various [[yoga]] practices, ranging from integrated yoga programs&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=nagendra&gt;Nagendra HR, Nagarathna R. An integrated approach of yoga therapy for bronchial asthma: a 3-54-month prospective study. ''J Asthma.'' 1986;23(3):123-37. PMID 3745111&lt;/ref&gt;
—&quot;yogasanas, Pranayama, [[meditation]], and kriyas&quot;—to ''sahaja'' yoga,&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=manocha&gt;Manocha R, Marks GB, Kenchington P, ''et al.'' Sahaja yoga in the management of moderate to severe asthma: a randomised controlled trial. ''Thorax.'' 2002;57(2):110-5. PMID 11828038&lt;/ref&gt; a form of meditation. Ayurveda recommends use of herbs such as Ajwain, Harad, Hing, Ajamoda, Lavanga, Sunthi and others.&lt;ref name=&quot;ayushveda&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070607232504/http://www.ayushveda.com/health/asthma.htm Asthma Treatment]&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Buteyko method]], a Russian therapy based on breathing exercises, has been investigated. A randomized, controlled trial of just 39 patients in 1998 showed a substantial reduction in the need for beta-agonists and a 50% reduction in the need for inhaled steroids. Lung function remained the same despite the decrease in medication.&lt;!-- 
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=bowler&gt;Bowler SD, Green A, Mitchell CA. Buteyko breathing techniques in asthma: a blinded randomised controlled trial. ''Med J Aust''. 1998;169(11-12):575-8. PMID 9887897. [https://web.archive.org/web/20091223043106/http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/xmas98/bowler/bowler.html Free full text]&lt;/ref&gt;  
A trial in New Zealand in 2003 showed an 85% reduction in the use of beta-agonist medication and a 50% reduction in inhaled steroid use after six months.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=mchugh&gt;McHugh P, Aitcheson F, Duncan B, Houghton F. Buteyko Breathing Technique for asthma: an effective intervention. ''NZ Med J. '' 2003;116:1187 PMID 14752538. [https://web.archive.org/web/20091227220913/http://www.nzma.org.nz/journal/116-1187/710/ Free full text]&lt;/ref&gt;

Given that some [[Hookworm#Hookworm in therapy|research]] has identified a negative association between [[helminth]] infection ([[hookworm]]) and asthma and hay fever, some have suggested that hookworm infestation, although not medically sanctioned, would cure asthma. There is anectdotal evidence to support this.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;&quot;&gt;{{cite news | title=Worm infestation 'beats asthma'| date=[[2001-11-02]] | publisher=BBC News | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1632863.stm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Guaifenesin]], an expectorant available over the counter, may have a small effect in managing thickened bronchial mucus.

See also ''[[Complementary and alternative medicine]]''.

== प्रोग्नोसिस ==
आज्माया प्रोग्नोसिस बांला, विशेषयाना माइल्ड ल्वय् दुगु मचातेत। मचाबिले डायग्नोसिस जुगु आज्माय् ५४%य् थ्व डायग्नोसिस १०दं धुंका दैमखु। आज्मातिक्सय् extent of permanent lung damage गुलि दु धका बांलाक्क जानकारी मदुनि। Airway remodelling खनेदै तर थुकिलिं म्हयात द्याइ वा त्याइ धका आतक्क धाय्‌ मछिं।&lt;ref name=Maddox /&gt; Although conclusions from studies are mixed, most studies show that early treatment with glucocorticoids prevents or ameliorates decline in lung function as measured by several parameters.&lt;ref name=beckett&gt;Beckett PA, Howarth PH. Pharmacotherapy and airway remodelling in asthma? ''Thorax''. 2003;58(2):163-74. PMID 12554904&lt;/ref&gt;
For those who continue to suffer from mild symptoms, corticosteroids can help most to live their lives with few [[disabilities]]. The mortality rate for asthma is low, with around 6000 deaths per year in a population of some 10 million patients in the United States.&lt;ref name=McFadden /&gt;
Better control of the condition may help prevent some of these deaths.

== Epidemiology ==
[[किपा:asthma_prevalence.png|thumb|right|350px|The [[prevalence]] of childhood asthma has increased since 1980, especially in younger children.]]
More than 6% of children in the United States have been diagnosed with asthma, a 75% increase in recent decades. The rate soars to 40% among some populations of urban children.
Asthma is usually diagnosed in childhood. The risk factors for asthma include:
* a personal or family [[history]] of asthma or [[atopy]];
* triggers (see ''[[Asthma#Pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]'' above);
* premature birth or low birth weight; 
* viral [[URTI|respiratory infection]] in early childhood; 
* maternal smoking;  
* being male, for asthma in prepubertal children; and
* being female, for persistence of asthma into adulthood.

There is a reduced occurrence of asthma in people who were breast-fed as babies. Current research suggests that the [[prevalence]] of childhood asthma has been increasing. According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]'s National Health Interview Surveys, some 9% of US children below 18 years of age had asthma in 2001, compared with just 3.6% in 1980 (see figure). The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) reports that some 8% of the Swiss population suffers from asthma today, compared with just 2% some 25–30 years ago.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=WHO&gt;{{cite web |  author=World Health Organization | authorlink=World Health Organization | title=Bronchial asthma: scope of the problem | url=http://www.who.int/entity/respiratory/asthma/scope/en/index.html | accessdate=2005-08-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Although asthma is more common in affluent countries, it is by no means a problem restricted to the affluent; the WHO estimate that there are between 15 and 20 million asthmatics in India. In the U.S., urban residents, Hispanics, and African Americans are affected more than the population as a whole. Globally, asthma is responsible for around 180,000 deaths annually.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=WHO /&gt;

On the remote South Atlantic island [[Tristan da Cunha]], 50% of the population are asthmatics due to heredity transmission of a mutation in the gene CC16.

=== Socioeconomic factors ===

The incidence of asthma is higher among low-income populations within a society (it is not more common in [[developed countries]] than [[developing countries]][http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/]), which in the western world are disproportionately minority, and more likely to live near industrial areas.  Additionally, asthma has been strongly associated with the presence of cockroaches in living quarters, which is more likely in such neighborhoods.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=AAAAAI&gt;{{cite web | title=Patient/Public Education: Fast Facts - Asthma Demographics/Statistics | publisher= American Academy of Allergy Asthma &amp; Immunology | url=http://www.aaaai.org/patients/resources/fastfacts/asthma_demographics.stm | accessdate=2006-05-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The quality of asthma treatment varies along racial lines, likely because many low-income people cannot afford health insurance and because there is still a correlation between class and race.  For example, black Americans are less likely to receive outpatient treatment for asthma despite having a higher prevalence of the disease. They are much more likely to have emergency room visits or hospitalization for asthma, and are three times as likely to die from an asthma attack compared to whites.  The prevalence of &quot;severe persistent&quot; asthma is also greater in low-income communities compared with communities with better access to treatment.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NIH2004&quot;&gt;{{cite web | author=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute | title=Morbidity &amp; Mortality: 2004 Chart Book On Cardiovascular, Lung, and Blood Diseases | year=[[May 2004]] | publisher=National Institutes of Health | url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/04_chtbk.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CDC2002&quot;&gt;{{cite web | author=National Center for Health Statistics | title=Asthma Prevalence, Health Care Use and Mortality, 2002 | year=07 [[April 2006]] | publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | url=http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/asthma/asthma.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Asthma and athletics ===
Asthma appears to be more prevalent in athletes than in the general population. One survey of participants in the 1996 [[Summer Olympic Games]], in [[Atlanta, Georgia]], U.S., showed that 15% had been diagnosed with asthma, and that 10% were on asthma medication.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=olympics&gt;Weiler JM, Layton T, Hunt M. Asthma in United States Olympic athletes who participated in the 1996 Summer Games. ''J Allergy Clin Immunol''. 1998;102(5):722-6. PMID 9819287&lt;/ref&gt;
These statistics have been questioned on at least two bases. Athletes with mild asthma may be more likely to be diagnosed with the condition than non-athletes, because even subtle symptoms may interfere with their performance and lead to pursuit of a diagnosis. It has also been suggested that some professional athletes who do not suffer from asthma claim to do so in order to obtain special permits to use certain performance-enhancing drugs.

There appears to be a relatively high incidence of asthma in sports such as [[cycling]], mountain biking, and long-distance [[running]], and a relatively lower incidence in weightlifting and diving. It is unclear how much of these disparities are from the effects of training in the sport, and from self-selection of sports that may appear to minimize the triggering of asthma.&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=olympics /&gt;&lt;!--
  --&gt;&lt;ref name=athletes&gt;Helenius I, Haahtela T. Allergy and asthma in elite summer sport athletes. ''J Allergy Clin Immunol''. 2000;106(3):444-52 PMID 10984362&lt;/ref&gt;

In addition, there exists a variant of asthma called [[exercise-induced asthma]] that shares many features with allergic asthma. It may occur either independently, or concurrent with the latter.  Exercise studies may be helpful in diagnosing and assessing this condition.

== स्वया दिसँ ==
{{commonscat|Asthma}}
* [[रियाक्टिभ एअरवे ल्वे]]
* [[अटोपी]]
* [[हप्किन्स सिन्ड्रम]]
* [[हाइजिन हाइपोथेसिस]]
* [[इम्युन रेस्पोन्स]]

== References ==
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== पिनेया स्वापूत ==
* [http://www.who.int/respiratory/asthma/en/ World Health Organization site on asthma]
* [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/ World Health Organization fact sheet on asthma]
* [http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/lung/index.htm#asthma National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute — Asthma] – U.S. NHLBI Information for Patients and the Public page.
* [http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/lung/index.htm#asthma National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute — Asthma] – U.S. NHLBI Information for Health Professionals page.
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/asthma.html MedLinePlus: Asthma] – a U.S. National Library of Medicine page.
* [http://www.aaaai.org American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology] – a U.S. organization of medical professionals with a special interest in treating and researching conditions such as allergic rhinitis, asthma, atopic dermatitis/eczema, and anaphylaxis.
* [http://www.aafa.org Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America] – national nonprofit patient advocacy organization with information about asthma.
* [http://www.asthma.org.uk Asthma UK] – a patient-oriented site with information on asthma and ways that UK residents can help improve asthma-related policy.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130817064301/http://asthmaqld.org.au/ Asthma Foundation of Queensland] Information and education for Australian asthma sufferers. 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060923222345/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/asthma/ Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM):  Environmental Triggers of Asthma] – Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928050600/http://www.asthma.ge/links.htm Asthma as Neurogenic Inflammatory Disease] Neurogenic aspects of asthma. Pathophysiological links with other inflammatory disorders. 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927115338/http://tauac.typepad.com/ac/2007/03/tau_researchers.html Asthma and Socio-economic Status]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200703223935/http://www.asthmacure.com/ India Asthma Care Society] Easy to understand asthma information site for patients. 
* [http://www.segal.org/asthma/ The Segal Guide to Asthma] by Michael Segal MD PhD.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070601181917/http://www.fitness-and-nutrition-news.com/fish-and-pregnancy.html A New Found Advantage Between Apples, Fish And Pregnancy]

{{Respiratory pathology}}

[[पुचः:आज्मा]]
[[पुचः:ल्वय्]]</text>
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[[Image:Nanda Empire, c.325 BCE.png|thumb|right|Dhana Nanda's empire, {{circa|323 BCE}}]]
[[Image:Chanakya artistic depiction.jpg|thumb]]

'''चाणक्य''' ( [[इ॰पू॰ ३५०]]-[[इ॰पू॰ २८३]]) प्रथम [[मयुर साम्राज्य|मयुर]] सम्राट [[चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य]] (३४०-२९३ इ पू)या सल्लाहकार व [[प्रधानमन्त्री]] ख।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | first = Roger | last = Boesche | year = 2003 | month = January | title = Kautilya's ''Arthaśāstra'' on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-military-history_2003-01_67_1/page/9 | journal = The Journal of Military History | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–37 | id = ISSN 0899-3718 }} &quot;Kautilya [is] sometimes called a chancellor or prime minister to Chandragupta, something like a Bismarck…&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;। वय्‌कः सम्राट चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्यया उदयया सूत्रधार नं ख। वय्‌कःया राजनैतिक सफू [[अर्थशास्त्र]]य् वय्‌कःया नां '''कौटिल्य''' व '''विष्णुगुप्त''' धका च्वयातगु दु। &lt;ref name=Mabbett&gt;{{cite journal | first = I. W. | last = Mabbett | year = 1964 | month = April | title = The Date of the Arthaśhāstra | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_april-june-1964_84_2/page/162 | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 162–169 | id = ISSN 0003-0279 }}&lt;/ref&gt; वय्‌कःयात छुं विज्ञतेसं &quot;हलिमया प्रथम [[अर्थशास्त्री]]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;L. K. Jha, K. N. Jha (1998). &quot;Chanakya: the pioneer economist of the world&quot;, ''International Journal of Social Economics'' '''25''' (2-4), p. 267-282.&lt;/ref&gt; व &quot;[[भारत]]या [[निकोलो मेशियाभेली]]&quot;या कथं काय्‌गु नं या।&lt;ref&gt;Herbert H. Gowen (1929). &quot;The Indian Machiavelli&quot; or Political Theory in India Two Thousand Years Ago, ''Political Science Quarterly'' '''44''' (2), p. 173-192.&lt;/ref&gt; वय्‌कः [[तक्षिला विश्वविद्यालय]]य् [[प्राध्यापक]] नं ख। भारतया ऐतिहासिक पुष्टि दुगु प्रथम साम्राज्यया सूत्रधारया कथं वय्‌कःयात काय्‌गु नं या।

== लिधंसा ==
{{reflist|3}}

[[पुचः:जीवनी]]


चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ]: प्रथम अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: First Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : द्वितीय अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Second Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : तीसरा अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Third Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : चौथा अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Fourth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : पांचवा अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Fifth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : छठवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Sixth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : सातवां ध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Seventh Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : आठवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Eighth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : नवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Ninth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : दसवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Tenth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : ग्यारहवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Eleventh Chapter 
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : बारहवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Twelfth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : तेरहवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Thirteenth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : चौदहवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]:Fourteenth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : पन्द्रहवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]:Fifteenth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : सोलहवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]: Sixteenth Chapter
चाणक्य नीति [ हिंदी में ] : सत्रहवां अध्याय | Chanakya Neeti [In Hindi]:Seventeenth Chapter</text>
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{{Taxobox | color = lightgrey
| name = ''हेलिकोब्याक्टर पाइलोरी''
| image = EMpylori.jpg
| image_width=300px
| regnum = [[ब्याक्टेरिया]]
| phylum = [[प्रोटेब्याक्टेरिया]]
| classis = एप्साइलन प्रोटेब्याक्टेरिया
| ordo = [[क्याम्पाइलोब्याक्टेरेल्स]]
| familia = [[हेलिकोब्याक्टेरेसी]]
| genus = ''[[हेलिकोब्याक्टर]]''
| species = '''''एच. पाइलोरी'''''
| binomial = ''हेलिकोब्याक्टर पाइलोरी''
| binomial_authority = ((मार्शल ''et al.'' १९८५) गूडविन ''et al.'' १९८९)
ICD-9 code: 041.86
}}
'''''हेलिकोब्याक्टर पाइलोरी''''' छगू [[हेलिक्स|हेलिकल]] आकारया [[ग्राम नेगेटिभ]] [[ब्याक्टेरियम]] ख। थ्व ब्याक्टेरियमं [[प्वा]] व [[ड्युडेनम]]या थाय्‌थासे [[संक्रमण]] याइ। [[पेप्टिक अल्सर]], [[ग्यास्ट्राइटिस]], [[ड्योडेनाइटिस]], व सम्भवतः छुं [[क्यान्सर ब्याक्टेरिया|क्यान्सर]]या कारक ''एच॰ पाइलोरी'' संक्रमण ख। अथे जुसां थुकिया संक्रमण जुइपिं यक्व मनुतेसं [[ल्वे]]या छुं नं लक्षण मक्यं। ''हेलिकोब्याक्टर'' स्पिसिज जक्क छगू माइक्रोअर्‍ग्यानिजम ख गुकियात प्वाया उच्च [[अम्ल|अम्लीय]] वातावरणं असर मया।  थुकिया हेलिकल आकार, गुकिलिं थुकिया [[जेनस]]या नां वल, या विकास थुकिया [[म्युकस]]या जेल सतहय् [[मोतिलिती]] व पेनेत्रेसन देकेयात जुगु धैगु विश्वास दु।&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.section.1336 Chapter 23: ''Campylobacter'' and ''Helicobacter''] from [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed ''Medical Microbiology'', 4th ed.], by Samuel Baron (editor), 1996&lt;/ref&gt;

== इतिहास ==
१८७५य् [[जर्मनी|जर्मन]] वैज्ञानिकतेसं [[हेलिकल]] आकरया [[ब्याक्टेरिया]]यात मनुया [[प्वाः]]या लाइनिङय् लुइकल।  थ्व ब्याक्टेरिया [[कल्चर]]य् बुइके मछिंगुलिं थ्व लिपा लोमना वन।&lt;ref name=Blaser_2005&gt;{{cite journal|author=Blaser MJ|title=An Endangered Species in the Stomach|journal=[[Scientific American]]|year=2005|volume=292|issue=2|pages=38–45|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00024948-2764-11E8-A28583414B7F0000&amp;ref=sciam&amp;chanID=sa006|id=PMID 15715390}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

१९८३य् [[इटाली|इटालिमि]] अन्वेषक [[गुइलियो बिजोजेरो]] नं [[खिचा]]या प्वाःया अम्लीय वातावरणय् दुगु हेलिकल आकारया ब्याक्टेरियायागु बारेय् वर्णन यानादिल।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Bizzozero |first=Giulio |authorlink=Giulio Bizzozero |year=1893 |title=Ueber die schlauchförmigen Drüsen des Magendarmkanals und die Beziehungen ihres Epitheles zu dem Oberflächenepithel der Schleimhaut |journal=Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie |volume=42 |pages=82–152
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[जागिएल्लोनियन विश्वविद्यालय]], [[क्राको]]या प्राध्यापक [[वार्ले जावोर्स्की]] नं मनुया [[ग्यास्ट्रिक]] वाशिङया सेडिमेन्टतेत १८९९य् अध्ययन यानादिल। छुं रड-थें न्यागु ब्याक्टेरियाया दथुइ वय्‌कलं हेलिकल आकारया छुं ब्याक्टेरिया नं लुइकादिल। थ्व प्राणीतेत वय्‌कलं ''भिब्रियो रुगुला''या नां बियादिल। वय्‌कः थ्व प्राणीं ग्यास्ट्रिक ल्वय्‌या कारक जुइफुगु वर्णन यानादिम्ह न्हापांम्ह मनु ख। थ्व ज्या &quot;Handbook of Gastric Diseases&quot;य् प्रकाशित जुल तर वय्‌कःया च्वसु [[पोलिश भाषा]]य् जुगुलिं उकिया अप्व असर मजुल।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Konturek JW|title=Discovery by Jaworski of Helicobacter pylori and its pathogenetic role in peptic ulcer, gastritis and gastric cancer|journal=J Physiol Pharmacol. |year=2003 Dec|volume=54 Suppl 3|pages=23–41|url=http://www.jpp.krakow.pl/journal/archive/1203_s3/articles/03_article.html|id=PMID 15075463}}&lt;/ref&gt;

थ्व ब्याक्टेरियम हानं १९७९य् हानं [[अस्ट्रेलिया]]मि प्याथोलोजिस्ट [[रबिन वारेन]]जुं लुइका दिल। वय्‌कलं [[ब्यारी मार्शल]]जु नाप १९८१या पूर्वार्धय् थुकिया बारेय् अन्वेषण यानादिल। वय्‌कःपिंसं थ्व प्राणीयात मनुया प्वाया म्युकोजल स्पेसिमेनं आइसोलेट यानादिल व थ्व प्राणीया सफलतापूर्वक सर्वप्रथम कल्चर नं यानादिल।&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20060819092225/http://tallpoppies.net.au/cavalcade/marshall.htm Barry Marshall biography], The Tall Poppy Campaign. Accessed 9 September 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; वय्‌कःपिनिगु ओरिजिनल पेपरय्&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Marshall BJ|title=Unidentified curved bacillus on gastric epithelium in active chronic gastritis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_1983-06-04_1_8336/page/1273|journal=[[Lancet]]|year=1983|volume=1|issue=8336|pages=1273–1275|id=PMID 6134060}}&lt;/ref&gt; वय्‌कःपिंसं यक्व स्टोमाक अल्सर व ग्यास्ट्राइटिसया कारक थ्व ब्याक्टेरियाया संक्रमण जुगु व [[तनाव (चिकित्सा)|तनाव]] वा [[मसला दुगु नसात्वँसा]]या थ्व ल्वय्‌य् असर मदुगु धका च्वयादिल।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Marshall BJ, Warren JR|title=Unidentified curved bacilli in the stomach patients with gastritis and peptic ulceration|journal=Lancet|year=1984|volume=1|issue=8390|pages=1311–1315|id=PMID 6145023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

चिकित्सा समाजय् थ्व [[ब्याक्टेरियम]]या [[पेप्टिक अल्सर]] व [[ग्यास्ट्राइटिस]]य् भूमिकाया बारेय् चिन्तन बिस्तारं जक्क जुल। इमिसं प्वाःया अम्लीय वातावरणय् छुं नं प्राणीत म्वाय् मफुगु विचारय् ज्या याना च्वन। चिकित्सा समाजं मेमेगु शोधकार्य धुंका थुकिया बारेय् बिचा तल। छगू शोधकार्यय् मार्शलं पेट्री डिशं ''एच. पाइलोरी'' म्हुतुंघुतुका दिल, लिपा वय्‌कःया म्हय् ग्यास्ट्राइटिस विकास जुल, व ब्याक्टेरिया वय्‌कःया प्वाःया लाइनिङं लुइकल, अतः, [[कोच पोस्टुलेट]]या प्यंगु पोस्टुलेटय् स्वंगु पुष्टि जुल। प्यंगुगू पोस्टुलेटया पुष्टि १०न्हु लिपाया छगू इन्डोस्कोपीं जुल गुकिलि ''एच॰ पाइलोरी''या उपस्थिति व ग्यास्ट्राइटिसया लक्षण खने दत। मार्शलं लिपा थःयात १४न्हुया [[बिस्मथ]] व [[मेट्रोनिद्याजोल]]या द्वैध थेरापीं थ्व ल्वय् लंकादिल। मार्शल व वारेनं ग्यास्ट्राइटिसया यक्व अवस्थाय् एन्टिबायोटिकतेसं लंकेफुगु क्यनादिल। १९९४य् [[न्याशनल इन्स्टिच्युट अफ हेल्थ]] (USA) नं छगू विचाः ध्वाया प्रकाशित यात कि अप्वयाना ग्यास्ट्रिक अल्सरया कारक ''एच. पाइलोरी'' ख, व थ्व ल्वय् लंकेयात [[एन्टिबायोटिक]]या रेजिम छ्य्‌लेयात सुझाव बिल।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Helicobacter pylori in peptic ulcer disease|work=NIH Consensus Statement Online Jan 7–9;12(1):1-23|accessdate=2004-12-21|url=http://consensus.nih.gov/1994/1994HelicobacterPyloriUlcer094html.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt;   [[ड्युओडेनल अल्सर]]या नं ''एच॰ पाइलोरी'' संक्रमण नाप स्वापू दुगुया बारेय् प्रमाणत लुया वयाच्वंगु दु।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Pietroiusti A, Luzzi I, Gomez MJ, Magrini A, Bergamaschi A, Forlini A, Galante A.|title=Helicobacter pylori duodenal colonization is a strong risk factor for the development of duodenal ulcer.|month=April|year=2005|id=PMID 15801926}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://gut.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/52/6/797 Helicobacter pylori infection induces duodenitis and superficial duodenal ulcer in Mongolian gerbils]&lt;/ref&gt; सन् [[२००५]]य् वारेन व मार्शलयात वय्‌कःतेगु ''एच॰ पाइलोरी''या ज्याया निंति [[चिकित्साय् नोबेल सिरपा]] लल्हात।&lt;ref&gt;[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/2005/index.html The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2005] awarded to Barry J. Marshall and J. Robin Warren &quot;for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;

थ्व ब्याक्टेरियमया असरया बारेय् सीके न्ह्यः पेप्टिक अल्सरयात लंकेयात [[ग्यास्ट्रिक एसिड]]यात न्युट्रलाइज यायेगु वा थुकियागु उत्पादन म्हो यायेगु वासःत छ्य्‌लातगु जुल। थ्व प्रक्रियां बांलाक्क ज्या याःसां यक्व अवस्थाय् अल्सर हानं लिपा वैगु जुल। अब्ले अल्सरया बिरुद्धय् दक्ले अप्व छ्य्‌लिगु वासः [[बिस्मथ सबस्यालिसाइलेट]] ख। थ्व वासः प्रभावकारी जुसां थुकिया मेक्यानिजम अफ एक्सन बांलाक्क मथुगुलिं लिपा थुकिया छ्य्‌लेज्या म्हो जुवन। आवया बिस्मथया साल्ट(क्षार)तेसं एन्टिबायोटिकया ज्यायागु खँ प्रष्ट जुगु दु। थौंकन्हे पेप्टिक अल्सरया उपचार ''एच॰ पाइलोरी'' बिरुद्धय् असर याय्‌गु इन्टिबायोटिक छ्य्‌ला याइ।

थ्व ब्याक्टेरियाया पुलांगु नां '''''क्याम्पाइलोब्याक्टर पाइलोरिडिस''''', लिपा '''''सी॰ पाइलोरी''''' ([[ल्याटिन व्याकरण]]य् मिलेयाना)  जुवंगु ख। १९८९य् [[डि एन ए सिक्वेन्सिङ]] व मेगु डाटाया आधारय् थ्व ब्याक्टेरियम ''[[क्याम्पाइलोब्याक्टर]]'' जेनसय् मलागु खने दत। अतः, थुकिया निंति छगू न्हुगु [[जेनस]] ''[[हेलिकोब्याक्टर]]''या देकेज्या जुल। ''पाइलोरी'' खँग्वःया अर्थ &quot;पाइलोरसयागु&quot; वा [[पाइलोरिक भल्भ]] ख (थ्व खँग्वः [[युनानी भाषा|युनानी]]या खँग्वः ''πυλωρός'', गुकिया अर्थ &quot;पाले&quot; नं वगु ख)

''एच॰ पाइलोरी'' [[चिकित्सा]]य् दक्ले अप्व महत्त्व दुगु प्वाथय् च्वनिगु [[ब्याक्टेरिया]] ख। थ्व जेनसया मेमेगु प्रजातित मेमेगु [[स्तनधारी प्राणी]] व [[झंग]]य् लुयावगु दु व थ्व प्रजातितेसं नं मनुइ संक्रमण यायेफुगु खने दु।{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ''हेलिकोब्याक्टर'' प्रजातित स्तनधारी प्राणीतेगु [[सें]]य् नं च्वनेफुगु व अन नं ल्वय् यायेफुगु खने दु।&lt;ref name=Starzyñska_2006&gt;{{cite journal |author=Starzyñska T, Malfertheiner P |title=''Helicobacter'' and digestive malignancies |journal=Helicobacter |volume=11 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=32-5 |year=2006 |id=PMID 16925609}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== संरचना ==
''एच॰ पाइलोरी'' छगू हेलिकल आकारया [[ग्राम नेगेटिभ]] ब्याक्टेरिया ख। थ्व करिब [[१ E-४ m|३ माइक्रोमिटर]] ताहाक व थुकिया व्यास करिब ०.५ माइक्रोमिटरया दु। थुकिया ४–६ [[फ्लाजेलम]]त दु। थ्व [[माइक्रोएरोफिलिक]] वा पृथ्वीया वातावरणय् स्वया म्हो [[अक्सिजन]] दुसा गागु प्राणी ख। थुकिलि [[हाइड्रोजनेज]] दु गुकियात मेमेगु ब्याक्टेरियां देकुगु मोलेकुलर [[हाइड्रोजन]] (H&lt;sub&gt;२&lt;/sub&gt;)यात अक्सिडाइज याना उर्जा देकेछिं।&lt;ref&gt;Jonathan W. Olson and Robert J. Maier. Molecular Hydrogen as an energy source for Helicobacter pylori. ''Science'' 298.5599 (Nov 29, 2002): pp.1788–1790. PMID 12459589&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व ब्याक्टेरिया [[अक्सिडेज टेस्ट|अक्सिडेज]], [[क्याटालेज]], व [[युरिएज]] पोजिटिभ दु। थुकिलिं [[बायोफिल्म]] नं देकेफु।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Stark RM, Gerwig GJ, Pitman RS, Potts LF, Williams NA, Greenman J, Weinzweig IP, Hirst TR, Millar MR |title=Biofilm formation by Helicobacter pylori.|year=1999|id=PMID 10063642}}&lt;/ref&gt; व हेलिकलं [[कोक्कस]]य् नं परिवर्तन जुइफु।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Chan WY, Hui PK, Leung KM, Chow J, Kwok F, Ng CS|title=Coccoid forms of Helicobacter pylori in the human stomach.|year=1994|id=PMID 7524304}}&lt;/ref&gt;, निगुलिं रुपं थ्व ब्याक्टेरियाया अस्तित्व व [[इपिडेमियोलोजी]]यात ग्वाहालि याइ।  थुकिया कोक्कोइड रुप आतक्क कल्चर मजुनि। तर थ्व रुप [[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका]]या वाटर सप्लाइय् खने दु। थ्व रुप ग्यास्ट्रिक इपिथेलियल कोषय् [[इन भिट्रो]] एड्हेर जुगु नं खने दु।

[[किपा:Helicobacter Pylori Urease.png|thumb|250px|''एच॰ पाइलोरी'' युरिएज इन्जाइमया मोलेकुलर मोडेल]]

== कोलोनाइजेसन ==

थ्व ब्याक्टेरियां थगु [[फ्लाजेल्ला]] छ्य्‌ला प्वाःया ल्युमेनय् सनी व प्वाःया [[म्युकस]] [[जेल]] सतहय् बाया (ड्रिल याना) वनी। थ्व धुंका ब्याक्टेरियां प्वाःया थाय्‌थासय् च्वनेयात स्वइ।  थ्व ब्याक्टेरिया च्वनिगु मू थाय् खः: म्युकस जेल सतहया दुने ([[सतही]] लागाय् अप्व ), [[इपिथेलियल]] [[कोष]]या च्वय्, व एच पाइलोरीं इपिथेलियल कोषय् देकुगु [[भ्याकुओल]]तेगु दुने। एच पाइलोरीं [[एड्‌हेसिन]] देकी गुकिलिंयाना थ्व मेम्ब्रेन एसोसियटेड [[लिपिड]] व [[कार्बोहाइड्रेट]] नाप स्वापू (बन्ड) तइ व इपिथेलियल कोष नाप एड्‌हेसन देकी। थ्व ब्याक्टेरियां यक्व मात्राय् [[युरिएज]] [[इन्जाइम]] देकी। थ्व इन्जाइम ब्याक्टेरियाया दुने व पिने दयाच्वनि। युरिएजं प्वाअथय् सेक्रिट [[युरिया]]यात मेटाबोलाइज याइ व [[कार्बन डाइअक्साइड]] व [[एमोनिया]] देकी। थुकिलिं ग्यास्ट्रिक एसिडयात न्युट्रलाइज याइ। अतः, हेलिकोब्याक्टर पाइलोरीयात प्वथय् म्वायेयात युरिएज मदेकं मगाः। थुकिलिं देकिगु एमोनिया धाःसा प्वाथया इपिथेलियल कोषतेत [[टक्सिक]] जु। नापं हेलिकोब्याक्टर पाइलोरीं देकिगु मेमेगु पदार्थ, दसु [[प्रोतिएज]], [[क्यातालेज]], व [[फोस्पोलाइपेज]] आदिं नं प्वाथया कोषतेत हानि याइ। 

ब्याक्टेरियाया छुं [[स्ट्रेन]]तेसं थगु [[सेल वाल]]नं [[पेप्टिडोग्लाइक्यान]]यात इपिथेलियल कोषय् ''इन्जेक्ट'' याःगु नं खने दु। थ्व फ्याक्तरं होस्त तन्तु संक्रमणय् ज्या यायेफु।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Viala, Jérôme; Chaput, Catherine; Boneca, Ivo G; Cardona, Ana; Girardin, Stephen E; Moran, Anthony P; Athman, Rafika; Memet, Sylvie; Huerre, Michel R; Coyle, Anthony J; DiStefano, Peter S; Sansonetti, Philippe J; Labigne, Agnès; Bertin, John; Philpott, Dana J; Ferrero, Richard L|title=Nod1 responds to peptidoglycan delivered by the ''Helicobacter pylori'' cag pathogenicity island|journal=Nature Immunol|year=2004|volume=5|pages=1166–74|url=http://www.nature.com/ni/journal/v5/n11/abs/ni1131.html|id={{doi|10.1038/ni1131}}, PMID 15489856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== संक्रमणया डायग्नोसिस ==
[[किपा:Immunohistochemical detection of Helicobacter pylori histopathology.jpg|thumb|190px|[[प्वाः|ग्यास्त्रिक]] [[बायोप्सी]]या [[इम्युनोहिस्तोकेमिस्त्री|इम्युनोहिस्तोकेमिकल]] स्तेनिङय् एच॰ पाइलोरी।]]

संक्रमणया डायग्नोसिस [[दिस्पेप्सिया]]या लक्षण दुपिंत एच॰ पाइलोरीया संक्रमणया जाँच याना जुइ। नन-इन्भेसिभ कथं एच॰ पाइलोरीया संक्रमण [[ब्लद एन्तिबदी तेस्त]], [[स्तुल एन्तिजेन तेस्त]], [[युरिया ब्रेथ तेस्त]] आदिं यायेछिं। युरिया ब्रेथ तेस्तय् म्हमफुमेसित [[कार्बोन-१४|&lt;sup&gt;१४&lt;/sup&gt;C]]- वा [[कार्बोन-१३|&lt;sup&gt;१३&lt;/sup&gt;C]]-लेबल्द [[युरिया]] त्वंकी। थुकियात ब्याक्तेरियमं मेताबोलाइज याना लेबल्द [[कार्बोन दाइअक्साइद]] देकी, गुकियात उसाँय्‌या सासःय् दितेक्त याये छिं। तर एच॰ पाइलोरीया दक्ले भलसा काय्‌छिंगु पद्धति [[इन्दोस्कोपी]] बिले [[र्‍यापिद युरिएज तेस्त]]नाप [[बायोप्सी]] काय्‌गु व उकिया [[हिस्तोलोजिकल]] जाँच, व माइक्रोबियल कल्चर यायेगु ख। बायोप्सी पलेसा मेमेगु जाँचत पूर्ण तवं पाय्‌छि लिच्वः मबी फु। दसु कथं ब्लद एन्तिबदी तेस्तया सेन्सितिभिती ७६% निसें ८४% तक्क दु। छुं वासतेसं एच॰ पाइलोरीया युरिएज जाँचय् असर यायेफु व &quot;फल्स नेगेतिभ&quot; लिच्वः बिफु।

संक्रमणं लक्षण क्येने वा मक्येने फु। ७०% तक्क संक्रमणं लक्षण मक्येनिगु व हलिमया २/३ मनुतेत थ्व ब्याक्टेरियां संक्रमण यागु विश्वास दु। अतः, थ्व हलिमय् दक्ले अप्व खनेदुफु छगू संक्रमण नं ख। संक्रमणया वास्तविक रेट देय् पिच्छे हे पाःगु खने दु। पश्चिम (पश्चिमी युरोप, उत्तरी अमेरिका, अस्ट्रेलेसिया)य् थ्व ब्याक्टेरियाया संक्रमण २५% ति दु धाःसा थर्द वर्ल्दय् थुकिया संक्रमण अझ अप्व दु। थर्द वर्ल्दय् अप्व संक्रमणया कारक बांमलागु उसांय्‌या व्यवस्था ख। संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिकाय् थ्व संक्रमण आपालं वृद्ध अवस्थाय् (५०% ति ६० दं स्वया अप्वय् खनेदु धाःसा २०% ४०दं स्वया म्होय् खने दु) व गरिबय् खने दु।

थुकिया मू कारण बांलागु उसाँय् व एन्तिबायोतिकया बाँलागु छ्य्‌‌ला ख। तर हेलिकोब्याक्तर पाइलोरीइ [[एन्तिबायोतिक रेजिस्त्यान्स]] अप्वया वयाच्वंगु दु।&lt;ref&gt;[http://gut.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/53/9/1374 H pylori antibiotic resistance: prevalence, importance, and advances in testing]&lt;/ref&gt; आया ईले हे युरोप, अमेरिका व यक्व विकासोन्मुख देय्‌य् [[मेत्रोनिद्याजोल]] रेजिस्त्यान्स खनाच्वंगु दु।

थ्व ब्याक्तेरिया [[खि]], [[इ]] व [[देन्तल प्लाक]]य् खंगु दु। थुकिलिं थ्व ब्याक्तेरियाया ग्यास्त्रो-ओरल वा फेको-ओरल संक्रमण रूट जुइफुगु संकेत या।  

हेलिकोब्याक्तर पाइलोरीया ग्यास्त्रिक निशेय् संक्रमण धुंका उपचार मयासा थुकिया संक्रमण मनु म्वाइबिलेतक्क खने दे फु।  वृद्धावस्थाय् प्वाया म्युकोसा अत्रोपी जुइ धुंका धाःसा थ्व संक्रमण फुयावने फु। एक्युत इन्फेक्सनया गुलि मात्रा लिपा तक्क दयाच्वनि धैगु प्रमाण ला मदु तर गब्लें-गब्लें संक्रमण थमंतुं निदान जुगु नं खंगु दु। &lt;ref name=Goodman_2005&gt;{{cite journal | author = Goodman K, O'rourke K, Day R, Wang C, Nurgalieva Z, Phillips C, Aragaki C, Campos A, de la Rosa J | title = Dynamics of ''Helicobacter pylori'' infection in a US-Mexico cohort during the first two years of life. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-epidemiology_2005-12_34_6/page/1348 | journal = Int J Epidemiol | volume = 34 | issue = 6 | pages = 1348–55 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16076858}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Goodman_2001&gt;{{cite journal | author = Goodman K, Cockburn M | title = The role of epidemiology in understanding the health effects of ''Helicobacter pylori''. | journal = Epidemiology | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 266-71 | year = 2001 | id = PMID 11246592}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== संक्रमणया उपचार ==
[[किपा:pylorigastritis.jpg|thumb|300 px|रिजेनेरेटिभ इपिथेलियमय् ''एच॰ पाइलोरी''या संक्रमण (वारथिन-स्टारीया सिल्भर स्टेनया किपा)]]
[[पेप्तिक अल्सर]]या ल्वगिइ संक्रमण लुया वःसा एच पाइलोरीयात निदान याना [[अल्सर]]यात लंकिगु कुतः जुइ। थुकिया निंति फस्त लाइन थेरापी छगू वाया निंति ''त्रिपल थेरापी'' बीगु ख। सिद्नीया ग्यास्त्रोइन्तेरोलोजिस्त [[थोमस बोरोदी]]जुं थ्व थेरापी सन् १९८७य् दक्ले न्ह्य पत्ता यानादिगु ख। &lt;ref name=Borody_1989&gt;{{cite journal | last = Borody | first = Thomas J. | coauthors = | P. Cole, S. Noonan, A. Morgan, J. Lenne, L. Hyland, S. Brandl, E. G. Borody, and L. L. George | date = [[October 16]], [[1989]] | title = Recurrence of duodenal ulcer and Campylobacter pylori infection after eradication | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-journal-of-australia_1989-10-16_151_8/page/431 | journal = Medical Journal of Australia | volume = 151 | issue = 8 | pages = 431–435 | id = {{PMID|2687668}} }}&lt;/ref&gt; थौं कन्हे बीगु स्त्यान्दर्द त्रिपल थेरापीइ [[एमोक्सिसिलिन]], [[क्ल्यारिथोमाइसिन]] व छगू [[प्रोतोन पम्प इन्हिबितर]] दसु- [[ओमेप्राजोल]] बीगु या।&lt;ref name=Mirbagheri_et_al_2006&gt;{{cite journal | last = Mirbagheri | first = Seyed Amir | coauthors = Mehrdad Hasibi, Mehdi Abouzari, and Armin Rashidi | date = [[August 14]], [[2006]] | title = Triple, standard quadruple and [[ampicillin]]-[[sulbactam]]-based quadruple therapies for H pylori eradication: A comparative three-armed randomized clinical trial | journal = World Journal of Gastroenterology | volume = 12 | issue = 30 | pages = 4888–4891
 | id = {{PMID|16937475}} | url = http://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/12/4888.asp | accessdate = 2006-09-30}}&lt;/ref&gt; थ्रिपल थेरापीया मेमेगु संस्करण नं विकास जुगु दु। दसु- [[प्रोतोन पम्प इन्हिबितर]]य् ओमेप्राजोलया थासय् [[प्यान्तोप्याक]], वा पेनिसिलिन एलर्जी दुपिन्त एमोक्सिसिलिनया थासय् [[मेत्रोनिद्याजोल]] बीगु आदि।&lt;ref name=Maastricht_2_Consensus_Report&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.noster.com/fReport.htm | title = 
Current Concepts in the Management of Helicobacter pylori Infection | accessmonthday = September 30 | accessyear = 2006 | author = European Helicobacter Pylori Study Group | work = The Maastricht 2-2000 Consensus Report }}&lt;/ref&gt; थन्यागु थेरापीं पेप्तिक अल्सरया उपचारय् ह्युपा हगु दु व ल्वय्‌या निदान सम्भव यागु दु। &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1971318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Rauws EA, Tytgat GN |title=Cure of duodenal ulcer associated with eradication of Helicobacter pylori |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_1990-05-26_335_8700/page/1233 |journal=Lancet |volume=335 |issue=8700 |pages=1233-5 |year=1990 |pmid=1971318 |doi=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1854110&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Graham DY, Lew GM, Evans DG, Evans DJ, Klein PD |title=Effect of triple therapy (antibiotics plus bismuth) on duodenal ulcer healing. A randomized controlled trial |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_1991-08-15_115_4/page/266 |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=266-9 |year=1991 |pmid=1854110 |doi=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ''हेलिकोब्याक्टर'' व क्यान्सर ==
[[ग्यास्त्रिक क्यान्सर]] व ग्यास्त्रिक [[माल्त लिम्फोमा]]या एच पाइलोरीनाप स्वापू दुगु खने दु। थ्व ब्याक्टेरियायात [[इन्टरन्यासनल एजेन्सी फर रिसर्च अन क्यान्सर]] संस्थां ग्रुप I [[कार्सिनोजेन]]य् सूचीकृत यागु दु। थुकिया स्वापू खने दुसां छगू स्पष्ट प्रामाणिक स्वापू धाःसा लुइके मफुनि। 

थ्व ब्याक्टेरियां संक्रमण याइगु निगु लंपु वैज्ञानिकतेसं न्ह्यथंगु दु व थुकिलि मालेज्या जुयाच्वंगु दु। छगू लंपू (mechanism) कथं एच पाइलोरीं नापं दैगु [[फ्रि र्‍यादिकल]]या अप्वगु मात्रां होस्त कोषय् [[म्युतेसन]] याइ। मेगु लंपुयात &quot;पेरिजेनेतिक पाथवे&quot; धाइ&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tsuji S, Kawai N, Tsujii M, Kawano S, Hori M|title=Review article: inflammation-related promotion of gastrointestinal carcinogenesis - a perigenetic pathway|journal=Aliment Pharmacol Ther|year=2003|volume=18|issue=Suppl 1|pages=82–9|id=PMID 12925144}}&lt;/ref&gt; व थ्व लंपू कथं त्रास्फम्द होस्त सेल फेनोताइपया सेल प्रोतिन(दसु- सेल एद्‌हेसन प्रोतिन)यात अल्तर याइ। थ्व ब्याक्तेरियां इन्फ्लामेसन इन्दुस याना स्थानीय रुपय् ति एन एफ अल्फा व/वा इन्तरल्युकिन ६या मात्रा अप्वयकी धैगु प्रस्ताव न्ह्यने वगु दु। प्रस्तावित पेरिजेनेतिक लंपु कथं इन्फ्लामेसन सम्बन्धित सिग्नलिङ्ग मोलेक्युल दसु ति एन एफ अल्फां ग्यास्त्रिक एपिथेलियल सेल एद्‌हेसनय् परिवर्तन हया म्युतेतेद इपिथेलियल सेलयात मेमेगु थासय् वनिगु यायेफु। थुकिलि त्युमर सप्रेसर जिनया संलग्नता दैमखु।

== थी-थी स्ट्रेनतेगु जेनोमतेगु सीकेज्या ==
[[किपा:Helicobacter pylori.jpg|thumb|एच पाइलोरीया इलेक्त्रोन माइक्रोस्कोपी किपा]]
थ्व ब्याक्तेरियाया यक्व स्त्रेनत खंगु दु। निगुया जेनोम सिक्वेन्सिङ्ग पूवने धुंकल।&lt;ref&gt;The [https://web.archive.org/web/20171126221437/http://genolist.pasteur.fr/PyloriGene/ Pylori Gene] website allows access to genome information for the ''H. pylori'' 26695 and J99 strains. Another [[genome]] interface is provided by the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]]; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=genome&amp;cmd=Retrieve&amp;dopt=Overview&amp;list_uids=128 26695], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=genome&amp;cmd=Retrieve&amp;dopt=Overview&amp;list_uids=139 J99].&lt;/ref&gt; स्त्रेन &quot;२६६९५&quot;या जेनोमय् थ्यंमथ्यं १.७ मिलियन [[बेस पेयर]] व करिब १५५० जीन दु। निगु सिक्वेन्स्द स्त्रेनय् तधंगु जेनेतिक भिन्नता खने दु व करिब ६% [[न्युक्लियोताइद]] पा।

हेलिकोब्याक्तर पाइलोरी जेनोमया अध्ययन थ्व प्राणीया प्याथोजेनेसिस व ल्वे याकिगु गुणय् केन्द्रित दु। थुकिया जेनोम देताबेसय् प्याथोजेनेसिस क्याटेगोरीइ ६२ जीन दु। निगुलिं हे सिक्वेन्स्द स्त्रेनय् करिब ४० 40 केबि हाकगु Cag [[प्याथोजेजेसिती आइल्यान्द]] (प्याथोजेनेसिस याइगु कमन जीन सिक्वेन्स) दु गुकिलि ४०गु स्वया अप्व जीन दु। थ्व प्याथोजेनेसिती जिन क्यारियर व असिम्प्तोम्यातिक मनुय् दैगु हेलिकोब्याक्तर पाइलोरीइ खने मदु। 

cagA जीनं थ्व प्राणीया छगो मू भाइरुलेन्स प्रोतिनया कोदिङ्ग याइ। cagA जीन दुगु स्त्रेनतेसं तच्वगु अल्सर यागु खने दु। cagA जीनं ता हाकगु (११८६ [[अमिनो एसिद]]) प्रोतिन कोद याइ। cagA प्रोतिन मनुया कोषय् थ्यनेधुंका थुकिलिं साइतोस्केलितनया ज्या स्येंकि। Cag प्याथोजेनेसिती आइल्यान्दय् करिब ३० जीन दु गुकिलिं कम्प्लेक्स [[ताइप IV सेक्रिसन सिस्तम]] कोद याइ। थ्व प्राणी प्वाया इपिथेलियल सेलय् एत्याच जुइ धुंका cagA प्रोतिन इपिथेलियल सेलय् ताइप IV सेक्रिसन सिस्तमं इन्जेक्त जुइ। होस्त सेल मेम्ब्रेन असोसियतेद ताइरोसिन काइनेजं cagA प्रोतिन ताइरोसिन रेसिद्युय् फोस्फोरिलेत याइ। थ्व प्राणीया प्याथोजेनिक स्त्रेनं [[इपिदर्मल ग्रोथ फ्याक्तर रिसेप्तर]] वा EGFR (ताइरोजिन काइनेज दुगु छगू मेम्ब्रेन प्रोतिन) एक्तिभेत याइ। थ्व प्राणीं EGFRया एक्तिभेसनं होस्त सेलय् अल्तर्द [[सिग्नल त्रान्सदक्सन]] व [[जीन एक्स्प्रेसन]]य् परिवर्तन है गुकिलिं याना थ्व ल्वे खने दै। cagAया C-तर्मिनस लागाया प्रोतिन (अमिनो एसिद ८७३–१००२) नं होस्त सेल जीन त्रान्स्क्रिप्सन प्रोतिन ताइरोजिन काइनेज मछ्यसें हे यायेफुगु प्रस्ताव नं वगु दु। हेलिकोब्याक्तर जिनोम स्वया cagAया म्हो GC मात्राया हुनिं थ्व जीन cagA+ मेगु ब्याक्तेरियल प्रजातिया होरिजोन्तल त्रान्सफरं वगु धैगु विश्वास नं दु।

सकल मनु जनसंख्याय् छगू निश्चित कथंया एच पाइलोरी स्त्रेन खंगु दु गुकिलिं व जनसंख्याया मनुतेत असर याइ। थुकिलिं वैज्ञानिकतेत मनुतेगु माइग्रेसनया प्यातर्न सीकेयात ग्वहालि या। दसुया कथं ब्राजिलया अमेजन इन्दियनया एच पाइलोरी पूर्वी एसियाली थें च्वं। अथे जुगुलिं थ्व मनुतेगु ओरिजिन युरोपय् मजुसें एसियाय् जुइफुगु प्रवल सम्भावना खने दु।

== स्वयादिसँ ==
* [[ग्यास्ट्राइटिस]]
* [[पेप्टिक अल्सर]]
* [[प्वाः]]

== लिधंसा ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== लिधंसा ==
* {{cite web|title=''Helicobacter pylori'' and peptic ulcer|work=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate= २००४-१२-२१|url=http://www.cdc.gov/ulcer/}}
* {{cite journal|author=Logan, Robert P H; Walker, Marjorie M|title=Clinical review: ABC of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Epidemiology and diagnosis of ''Helicobacter pylori'' infection|journal=BMJ|year=20 October 2001|volume=323|pages=920–922|url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/323/7318/920|id= PMID 11668141}}

== पिनेया स्वापूत ==
{{wikispecies}}
{{Commonscat|Helicobacter pylori}}
* [http://www.helico.com/ The Helicobacter Foundation] provides information on ''Helicobacter pylori'' and its effects - founded by Dr. Barry J. Marshall, one of the discoverers of ''H. pylori''
* [http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=14755326 ''Helicobacter pylori'' persistence: biology and disease] by Martin J. Blaser and John C. Atherton in ''Journal of Clinical Investigations (2004) Volume 113 pages 321–333.
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hp ''Helicobacter pylori'': Physiology and Genetics] Online text of the Mobley et al book (via NCBI).
* [http://www.helicobacter.org/ European Helicobacter Study Group] sponsors annual international workshop, yearbook, and clinical guidelines
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20080227144002/http://www.helicobacter.org/content/publications/helicobacter_2006/yih2006.pdf The Year in ''Helicobacter pylori'' 2006] Helicobacter journal Supplement Oct 2006 - Free content 
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20080228163719/http://www.helicobacter.org/content/publications/publications.htm 1994–2005 back issues]
* Atwood KC. ''Bacteria, Ulcers, and Ostracism?: H. pylori and the Making of a Myth.'' Skeptical Inquirer November 2004. [http://www.csicop.org/si/2004-11/bacteria.html Fulltext] Claims that medicine’s purported ostracism of the discovery of ''H. pylori'' has achieved a mythological quality, but isn't true: after appropriate initial scientific skepticism, the hypothesis was accepted right &quot;on schedule&quot;.
* [http://www.pathologyatlas.ro/Helicobacter%20pylori.html Microscopic image of ''H. pylori'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080131060222/http://www.hpylori.com.au/picturebook.html ''H. pylori'' Picture Book]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050920221357/http://www.dsmz.de/bactnom/nam3637.htm List of species in the genus ''Helicobacter'']

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{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name           = एओर्तिक दिसेक्सन |
  ICD10          = {{ICD10|I|71|0|i|70}} |
  ICD9           = {{ICD9|441.0}} |
  Image          = AoDissekt scheme StanfordB en.png |
  Caption        = दिसेन्दिङ्ग एओर्ताया दिसेक्सन (३), थ्व दिसेक्सन देपा सब्क्लेभियन आर्तरीइ न्ह्यथंगु दु, एब्दोमिनल एओर्ता थ्यंगु दु (४)। थ्व किपाय् एस्सेन्दिङ्ग एओर्ता (१) व एओर्तिक आर्क (२)य् थ्व ल्वे खने मदु। |
  ICDO           = |
  OMIM           = |
  DiseasesDB     = 805 |
  MedlinePlus    = 000181 |
  eMedicineSubj  = emerg |
  eMedicineTopic = 28 |
}}

'''एओर्तिक दिसेक्सन''' छगु मेदिकल इमर्जेन्सी ख। थ्व अवस्थाय् एओर्ताया छुं सतह बाया हि सतहतेगु दथुइ वनि। थ्व छगू [[मेदिकल इमर्जेन्सी]] ख। बांलाक्क उपचार याःसां थ्व अवस्थां याना मनु छकलं हे सी फु। दिसेक्सनं याना एओर्टा पूवंकः बाःसा (स्वंगु हे तहय् बायावंसा) छकलं यक्व [[हि]] बाहा वनी। एरोर्टिक दिसेक्सनं हि धों रप्चर (rupture) जुसा  ८०% [[मोर्टालिटी रेट]] दै नापं ५०% उसाँय् मदुपिं अस्पताल थ्यने न्ह्यः हे सी धुंकी। दिसेक्सन ६ से मि  थ्यंसा उसाँय् मदुमेसित आकस्मिक शल्यक्रिया यायेमा। थ्व शल्यक्रिया यायेत २० घौ तक्कया ई मा। उसाँय् मदुमेसियात वासः बिया ३न्हु तक्क कोमाय् तैगु या।&lt;ref&gt; {{cite book
 | last = Isselbacher
 | first = EM
 | coauthors = Eagle KA, Zipes DP, et al.
 | editor = Braunwald E
 | title = Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine
 | edition = 5th
 | year = 1997
 | publisher = WB Saunders
 | location = Philadelphia
 | pages = 1546-1581
 | chapter = Diseases of the aorta
 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==म्हसीका==
[[Image:AoDissect Schema 01a.png|right|thumb|हि इन्तिमाय् ह्व खना मिदियाय् थ्यनाच्वंगु खने दु।]]
दक्वं आर्तरीय् थें एओर्टा स्वंगु तह जाना दयाच्वंगु दै। [[त्युनिका इन्तिमा]] हियागु बाहा नापं प्रत्यक्ष स्वापूय् दयाच्वनि। थ्व सतह आपा कथं इन्दोथेलियल सेलं देकातगु दै। मेगु तह त्युनिका मिदिया ख। थ्व दथुयागु सतह [[स्मूथ मसल]] व इलास्तिक तिस्युं देकी। दक्ले पिनेया तह त्युनिका एद्भेन्तिसिया ख। थ्व तह कनेक्तिभ तिस्यु नं देकी। 

एओर्तिक दिसेक्सनय् हि इन्तिमा तहं दुहां वया मिदियाय् थ्यनि। हियागु बाहां मिदियायात खुनाछ्वया अप्व हि मुंकिगु थाय् देकी। थन्यागु थाय् एओर्ताया हाकय् थी-थी हाकः तक्क दयाच्वने फु। थ्व कथं एओर्ताया हाकः बायावनेबिले नुगःया दिशाय्, नुगः विपरित दिशाय् वा निगु हे दिशाय् वने फु। इन्तिमाय् घा आपालं एओर्तिक भाल्भ स्वया १०० मि मि दुनेया दुरीय् दयाच्वनि। 

एओर्तिक दिसेक्सनया मू खतरा एओर्ता मुइगु ख। एओर्ता मुया तच्वगु हि बाहा वना मनु सी फु। 
{{-}}

==बायेगु व्यवस्था==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;width:320px;float:right;margin-left:0.5em;border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|- 
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
|[[Image:AoDissect DeBakey1.png|90px]]
|[[Image:AoDissect DeBakey2.png|90px]]
|[[Image:AoDissect DeBakey3.png|90px]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot;|Percentage
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot;|60&amp;nbsp;%
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot;|10-15&amp;nbsp;%
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot;|25-30&amp;nbsp;% 
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom:white&quot;|Type
|align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;|DeBakey I
|align=&quot;center&quot; |DeBakey II
|align=&quot;center&quot; |DeBakey III
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom:white&quot;|
| colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; |Stanford A
|align=&quot;center&quot; |Stanford B
|-
|&amp;nbsp;
| colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; |Proximal
|align=&quot;center&quot; |Distal
|-
| colspan=4 bgcolor=&quot;#ABCDEF&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Classification of aortic dissection&lt;/small&gt;
|}

एओर्तिक दिसेक्सनया वर्णन यायेत थी-थी कथंया बायेज्या न्ह्यब्वगु खने दु। थन्यागु बायेज्याय् आपालं दिसेक्सनया एनाटोमी वा लक्षणया विकास जुया गुलि ई धुंका उसाँय् मदुम्ह अस्पताल थ्यन, उकिया आधारय् देकातःगु खने दु। 

===दिबेकी बायेगु व्यवस्था===
थ्व व्यवस्थाया नां सर्जन व एओर्तिक दिसेक्सन ल्वेमि [[माइकल इ दिबेकी]]या नामे तःगु ख। थ्व व्यवस्थाय् एओर्तिक दिसेक्सनया एनातोमिकल देस्क्रिप्सन बी। थ्व व्यवस्थाय् दिसेक्सनया वर्गीकरण वास्तविक इन्तिमल घाःया थाय् व दिसेक्सनया मात्राया आधारय् याइ (थाय्‌ एस्सेन्दिङ्ग एओर्ता, दिस्सेन्दिङ्ग एओर्ता वा निगु हे जुइफु&lt;ref&gt;DeBakey ME, Henly WS, Cooley DA, Morris GC Jr, Crawford ES, Beall AC Jr. Surgical management of dissecting aneurysms of the aorta. ''J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg'' 1965;49:130-49. PMID 14261867.&lt;/ref&gt;)
*'''प्रकार I''' - एस्सेक्दिङ्ग एओर्ताय् न्ह्यथनि, म्होय् नं एओर्तिक आर्क तक्क थ्यनि व आपालं आर्क स्वया नं तापाक्क वनि।
*'''प्रकार II''' – एस्सेन्दिङ्ग एओर्ताय् न्ह्यथना थुकिलि हे सीमित जुइ। 
*'''प्रकार III''' – दिस्सेन्दिङ्ग एओर्ताय् न्ह्यथना म्हो अवस्थाय् सत्तिकः वनि।

===स्ट्यानफर्द बायेगु व्यवस्था===
एस्सेन्दिङ्ग एओर्ता सम्बन्धित दु/मदुया आधारय् २ गु पुचले विभाजित यानातगु दु, क्रमशः A व B।&lt;ref&gt;Daily PO, Trueblood HW, Stinson EB, Wuerflein RD, Shumway NE. Management of acute aortic dissections. ''Ann Thorac Surg'' 1970;10:237-47. PMID 5458238.&lt;/ref&gt;
*'''A''' = '''प्रकार I''' व '''II''' दिबेकी
*'''B''' = '''प्रकार III''' दिबेकी
{{-}}

==प्याथोफिजियोलोजी==
एओर्तिक दिसेक्सनया न्ह्यथनिगु झाका एओर्ताया इन्तिमा गुइगु ख। एओर्ताया उच्च [[रक्तचाप|रक्तचापं]] याना हि मिदियाय् गुयाच्वंगु थासं दुहां वनि। हि बाहां याना गुयावंगु घा झन तच्वया वनि। थ्व कथं तच्वना प्रोक्जिमल्ली (नुगः नापं) वा दिस्तल्ली (नुगः स्वया विपरित दिशाय् ) वा निगु हे दिशाय् वने फु। हि मिदियाय् दुहां वना ''[[स्युदोएन्युरिजम]]'' देकी। फल्स ल्युमेन व ट्रु ल्युमेनयात इन्तिमल तन्तुया छगू सतहं बाना तइ। थन्यागु तहयात '''इन्तिमल फ्ल्याप''' धाइ।

एओर्तिक दिसेक्सन आपा याना इन्तिमल टियरं न्ह्यथनि व थन्यागु टियर [[एसेन्दिङ्ग एओर्ता]] (६५%), [[एओर्तिक आर्क]] (१०%), वा [[दिसेन्दिङ्ग एओर्ता]]या [[लिगामेन्तम एओर्तिओसम्]] (२०%)य् आपालं खने दइ। 

हि फल्स ल्युमेनं बाहा वनेबिले बाहां इन्तिमाय् सेकेन्डरी टियर देके फु। थन्यागु सेकेन्दरी टियरं याना हि ल्युमेनय् हानं दुहां वने फु। 

इन्तिमल टियर छाय् जुइ धका बांलाक्क मस्युसां थुलि खं सी दु कि थन्यागु टियरय् मिदिया देकिगु [[कोल्याजेन]] व [[इल्यास्तिन]]या दिजेनेरेसन जुइ। थुकियात ''[[सिस्तिक मेदियल नेक्रोसिस]]'' धाइ व थन्यागु अवस्था आपालं [[मार्फान सिन्द्रम]] व [[एह्लर्स-दान्लोज सिन्द्रम]]य् खने दै।

थ्यं-मथ्यं १३% एओर्तिक दिसेक्सनय् इन्तिमल टियरया छुं निशान मलु। थन्यागु अवस्थाय् न्ह्यथनिगु कारक छगू इन्ट्राम्युरल [[हेमातोमा]] (मिदिया दुनेया [[हेमोरेज|हेमोरेजं]] याना) जुइगु धइगु विश्वास दु। थन्यागु अवस्थाय् ट्रु व फल्स ल्युमेनय् छुं नं स्पष्ट स्वापू मदइगुलिं थन्यागु अवस्थाय् [[एओर्तोग्राफी]] छ्य्‌ला डायग्नोज याये थाकु। इन्त्राम्युरल हेमातोमां याःगु एओर्तिक दिसेक्सनयात इन्तिमल टियरं याःगु एओर्तिक दिसेक्सनयात थें हे याना व्यवहार यायेमा।

==कारक==
एओर्तिक दिसेक्सन हाइपरतेन्सन व थी-थी कनेक्तिभ तन्तुया ल्वे नाप स्वापू दूगु ल्वे ख। थ्व ल्वे म्हो अवस्थाय् भास्कुलाइतिसनाप नं सम्बन्धित जु। नापं चेस्ट ट्रमाया लिच्वःया कथं नं थ्व ल्वे जुइफु। थ्व ल्वे दैपिं आपालं ल्वमिइ हाइपरतेन्सन दयाच्वनि।   

थ्व ल्वे दकले अप्व ५०दँ निसें ७०दँया मनुइ खनेदु। थ्व ल्वे मिसा स्वया मिजंय् निच्वः अप्व खनेदु (लैंगिक अनुपात मिजं:मिसा=२:१) । ४०दँ स्वया म्हो दँया मिसाय् थ्व ल्वे मचा प्वाथय् दइ बिले (३गु त्राइमेस्तर व पोस्तपार्तम ईले) खनेदु।

थ्व ल्वचं कापिं मनुइ ७-१४% तक्क मनुइ बाइकस्पिद एओर्तिक भाल्भ दयाच्वनि। These individuals are prone to dissection in the ascending aorta.  The risk of dissection in individuals with bicuspid aortic valve is not associated with the degree of [[aortic stenosis|stenosis]] of the valve.

[[मार्फान सिन्द्रम]] is noted in 5-9% of individuals who suffer from aortic dissection.  In this subset, there is an increased incidence in young individuals.  Individuals with Marfan syndrome tend to have aneurysms of the aorta and are more prone to proximal dissections of the aorta.

[[Turner syndrome]] also increases the risk of aortic dissection, by aortic root dilatation&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=PubMed&amp;Cmd=ShowDetailView&amp;TermToSearch=17055808&amp;ordinalpos=2&amp;itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Increased maternal cardiovascular mortality associated with pregnancy in women with Turner syndrome.]&lt;/ref&gt;.

Chest trauma leading to aortic dissection can be divided into two groups based on etiology:  blunt chest trauma (commonly seen in [[car accident]]s) and [[iatrogenic]].  Iatrogenic causes include trauma during [[cardiac catheterization]] or due to an [[intra-aortic balloon pump]].

Aortic dissection may be a late sequalae of [[cardiac surgery]].  18% of individuals who present with an acute aortic dissection have a history of open heart surgery.  Individuals who have undergone aortic valve replacement for [[aortic insufficiency]] are at particularly high risk.  This is because aortic insufficiency causes increased blood flow in the ascending aorta.  This can cause dilatation and weakening of the walls of the ascending aorta.

==लक्षण==
About 96% of individuals with aortic dissection present with severe pain that had a sudden onset.  It may be described as tearing in nature, or stabbing or sharp in character.  17% of individuals will feel the pain migrate as the dissection extends down the aorta.  The location of pain is associated with the location of the dissection.  [[Anterior]] chest pain is associated with dissections involving the ascending aorta, while intrascapular (back) pain is associated with descending aortic dissections.  If the pain is pleuritic in nature, it may suggest acute [[pericarditis]] due to hemorrhage into the pericardial sac.

While the pain may be confused with the pain of a [[myocardial infarction]] (heart attack), aortic dissection is usually not associated with the other signs that suggest myocardial infarction, including heart failure, and [[ECG]] changes.  Also, individuals suffering from an aortic dissection usually do not present with [[diaphoresis]] (profuse sweating).

Individuals with aortic dissection who do not present with pain have chronic dissection.

Less common symptoms that may be seen in the setting of aortic dissection include [[congestive heart failure]] (7%), [[fainting|syncope]] (9%), [[cerebrovascular accident]] (3-6%), ischemic [[peripheral neuropathy]], [[paraplegia]], [[cardiac arrest]], and sudden death.  If the individual had a [[syncope|syncopal]] episode, about half the time it is due to hemorrhage into the pericardium leading to [[pericardial tamponade]].

Neurologic complications of aortic dissection (i.e., [[cerebrovascular accident]] (CVA) and [[paralysis]]) are due to involvement of one or more arteries supplying portions of the [[central nervous system]].

If the aortic dissection involves the abdominal aorta, compromise of the branches of the abdominal aorta are possible.  In abdominal aortic dissections, compromise of one or both [[renal artery|renal arteries]] occurs in 5-8% of cases, while mesenteric [[ischemia]] (ischemia of the [[large intestine]]s) occurs 3-5% of the time.

===ब्लड प्रेसर भिन्नता===
While many patients with an aortic dissection have a history of [[arterial hypertension|hypertension]], the blood pressure is quite variable at presentation with acute aortic dissection, and tends to be higher in individuals with a distal dissection.  In individuals with a proximal aortic dissection, 36% present with [[arterial hypertension|hypertension]], while 25% present with [[hypotension]].  In those that present with distal aortic dissections, 70% present with hypertension while 4% present with hypotension.

Severe hypotension at presentation is a grave prognostic indicator.  It is usually associated with [[pericardial tamponade]], severe [[aortic insufficiency]], or rupture of the aorta.  Accurate measurement of the blood pressure is important.  ''Pseudohypotension'' (falsely low blood pressure measurement) may occur due to involvement of the [[brachiocephalic artery]] (supplying the right arm) or the [[left subclavian artery]] (supplying the left arm).

===एओर्टिक इन्सफिसियन्सी===
[[Aortic insufficiency]] (AI) occurs in 1/2 to 2/3 of ascending aortic dissections, and the [[heart sounds|murmur]] of aortic insufficiency is audible in about 32% of proximal dissections.  The intensity (loudness) of the murmur is dependent on the blood pressure and may be inaudible in the event of [[hypotension]].

There are multiple etiologies for AI in the setting of ascending aortic dissection.  The dissection may dilate the annulus of the [[aortic valve]], so that the leaflets of the valve cannot coapt.  Another mechanism is that the dissection may extend into the aortic root and detach the aortic valve leaflets.  The third mechanism is that if there was an extensive intimal tear, the intimal flap may prolapse into the LV outflow tract, causing intimal [[intussusception]] into the aortic valve preventing proper valve closure.

===मायोकार्दियल इन्फार्क्सन===
[[Myocardial infarction]] (heart attack) occurs in 1-2% of aortic dissections.  The etiology of the infarction is involvement of the [[coronary artery|coronary arteries]] (the [[artery|arteries]] that supply the heart) in the dissection.  The right coronary artery is involved more commonly than the left coronary artery.  If the myocardial infarction is treated with [[thrombolytic]] therapy, the mortality increases to over 70%, mostly due to hemorrhage into the pericardial sac causing [[pericardial tamponade]].

Because aortic dissection may present to the [[emergency room]] [[physician]] similar to a myocardial infarction, the physician must be careful to make the proper diagnosis prior to initiating treatment for myocardial infarction, since the treatment regimen for myocardial infarction can be lethal to an individual presenting with aortic dissection.

===प्ल्युरल इफ्युजन===
A [[pleural effusion]] (fluid collection in the space between the [[lung]]s and the chest wall or [[diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm]]) can be due to either blood from a transient rupture of the aorta or fluid due to an inflammatory reaction around the aorta. If a pleural effusion were to develop due to an aortic dissection, it is more commonly in the left hemithorax rather than the right hemithorax.

==डायाग्नोसिस==
Because of the varying symptoms and signs of aortic dissection depending on the initial intimal tear and the extent of the dissection, the proper diagnosis is sometimes difficult to make.

In an individual with chest pain radiating to the back, the differentials to consider include:
* Aortic dissection
* [[Myocardial infarction]]
* Acute [[aortic insufficiency]]
* Non-dissecting [[aortic aneurysm]]
* [[Pericarditis]]
* [[Musculoskeletal]] [[pain]]
* [[Mediastinum|Mediastinal]] [[tumors]]

While taking a good history from the individual may be strongly suggestive of an aortic dissection, the diagnosis cannot always be made by history and physical signs alone.  Often the diagnosis is made by visualization of the intimal flap on a diagnositic imaging test.  Common tests used to diagnose an aortic dissection include a [[CAT scan]] of the chest with iodinated contrast material and a [[transesophageal echocardiogram|trans-esophageal echocardiogram]].  Other tests that may be used include an aortogram or magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) of the aorta.  Each of these test have varying pros and cons and they do not have equal sensitivities and specificities in the diagnosis of aortic dissection.

In general, the imaging technique chosen is based on the pre-test likelihood of the diagnosis, availability of the testing modality, patient stability, and the sensitivity and specificity of the test.

===चेस्ट एक्स से===
Widening of the [[mediastinum]] on an [[x-ray]] of the chest has moderate [[sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]] (67%) in the setting of an ascending aortic dissection&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author = von Kodolitsch Y, Nienaber C, Dieckmann C, Schwartz A, Hofmann T, Brekenfeld C, Nicolas V, Berger J, Meinertz T | title = Chest radiography for the diagnosis of acute aortic syndrome | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-medicine_2004-01-15_116_2/page/73 | journal = Am J Med | volume = 116 | issue = 2 | pages = 73–7 | year = 2004 | pmid = 14715319 | doi = 10.1016/j.amjmed.2003.08.030}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  However, it has low [[Specificity (tests)|specificity]], as many other conditions can cause a widening of the mediastinum on chest x-ray.

The '''calcium sign''' is a finding on chest x-ray that suggests aortic dissection.  It is the separation of the intimal calcification from the outer aortic soft tissue border by 10 mm.

Pleural effusions may be seen on chest x-ray.  They are more commonly seen in descending aortic dissections.  If seen, they are typically in the left hemithorax.

Another findings are obliteration of the aortic knob, depression of the left mainstem bronchus, loss of the paratracheal stripe, and tracheal deviation.

About 12%-20% of individuals presenting with an aortic dissection have a &quot;normal&quot; chest x-ray.

===इ सी जी===
There are no specific [[electrocardiogram|electrocardiographic]] findings associated with aortic dissection.  About 1/3 of the time, the ECG will show signs of [[left ventricular hypertrophy]], which is due to the long-standing [[hypertension]] seen in these individuals.  Another 1/3 of the time the ECG would be considered &quot;normal&quot;.  If the ECG suggests cardiac [[ischemia]] in the setting 
of aortic dissection, involvement of the coronary arteries should be suspected.

===बायोकेमिकल मार्कर===
While there are currently no blood tests that can accurately diagnose aortic dissection, research has been performed into the serial measurement of [[monoclonal antibody|monoclonal antibodies]] to [[smooth muscle]] [[Myosin|myosin heavy chain]]s that appears to be both sensitive and specific for aortic dissection.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first=Toru|last=Suziku|coauthors=Hirohisa Katoh &amp; Ryozo Nagai|title=Biochemical diagnosis of aortic dissection: from bench to bedside|journal=Japanese Heart Journal|year=1999|month=September| volume = 40 | issue = 5 | pages = 527–534 | pmid = 10888373 | url = http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jhj/40/5/527/_pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2006-07-01|doi=10.1536/jhj.40.527}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The sensitivity of this test is about 90% and the specificity is 97% within the first 12 hours of the beginning of the dissection, and this assay can accurately differentiate myocardial infarction from aortic dissection.  This test is not currently available for the diagnosis of aortic dissection in the clinical setting.

===ट्रान्सइसोफेजियल इकोकार्डियोग्राफी===
The [[transesophageal echocardiogram]] (TEE) is a relatively good test in the diagnosis of aortic dissection, with a sensitivity of up to 98% and a specificity of up to 97%.  It is a relatively [[non-invasive (medical)|non-invasive test]], requiring the individual to swallow the echocardiography probe.  It is especially good in the evaluation of AI in the setting of ascending aortic dissection, and to determine whether the ostia (origins) of the coronary arteries are involved.  While many institutions give sedation during transesophageal echocardiography for added patient-comfort, it can be performed in cooperative individuals without the use of sedation.  Disadvantages of the TEE include the inability to visualize the distal ascending aorta (the beginning of the [[aortic arch]]), and the descending abdominal aorta that lies below the [[stomach]].  A TEE may be technically difficult to perform in individuals with esophageal strictures or [[varices]].

===एओर्टोग्राम===
An aortogram involves placement of a [[catheter]] in the [[aorta]] and injection of contrast material while taking x-rays of the aorta. The procedure is known as aortography. The diagnosis of aortic dissection can be made by visualization of the intimal flap and flow of contrast material in both the true lumen and the false lumen.

The aortogram was previously considered the [[gold standard (test)|gold standard test]] for the diagnosis of aortic dissection, with a sensitivity of up to 88% and a specificity of about 94%.  It is especially poor in the diagnosis of cases where the dissection is due to hemorrhage within the media without any initiating intimal tear.

The advantage of the aortogram in the diagnosis of aortic dissection is that it can delineate the extent of involvement of the aorta and branch vessels and can diagnose [[aortic insufficiency]].

The disadvantages of the aortogram are that it is an invasive procedure and it requires the use of iodinated contrast material.

===कम्प्युतेद तोमोग्राफी एन्जियोग्राफी===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;width:360px;float:right;margin-left:0.8em;margin-bottom:0.4em;border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|[[Image:AoDiss CT A-Diss.jpg|180px]]
|[[Image:AoDiss CT A-Diss01.jpg|180px]]
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|&lt;small&gt;Computed tomography (CT)&lt;/small&gt; 
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|&lt;small&gt;Legend&lt;/small&gt; 
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;middle&quot;|&lt;small&gt;'''Aortic dissection Type Stanford A'''&lt;br/&gt;''1'' Aorta ascendens, true Lumen - ''2'' false Lumen - ''3'' [[Pulmonary artery]]&lt;br/&gt;''4'' Aorta descendens - ''5'' thoracic vertebra&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}
[[Computed tomography angiography]] is a fast non-invasive test that will give an accurate three-dimensional view of the aorta.  These images are produced by taking rapid thin cut slices of the chest and abdomen, and combining them in the computer to create cross-sectional slices.  In order to delineate the aorta to the accuracy necessary to make the proper diagnosis, an iodinated contrast material is injected into a peripheral vein. Contrast is injected and the scan performed using a [[Bolus Tracking]] method.  This is a type of scan timed to an injection, in order to capture the contrast as it enters the aorta.  The scan will then follow the contrast as it flows though the vessel.

It has a sensitivity of 96 - 100% and a specificity of 96 to 100%.  Disadvantages include the need for iodinated contrast material and the inability to diagnose the site of the intimal tear.

=== एम आर आइ ===
[[Image:AoDiss MRT.jpg|thumb|220px|left|[[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] of an aortic dissection&lt;br/&gt;''1'' Aorta descendens with dissection&lt;br/&gt;''2'' Aorta isthmus]]
[[Magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) is currently the [[gold standard (test)|gold standard test]] for the detection and assessment of aortic dissection, with a sensitivity of 98% and a specificity of 98%.  An MRI examination of the aorta will produce a three-dimensional reconstruction of the aorta, allowing the physician to determine the location of the intimal tear, the involvement of branch vessels, and locate any secondary tears.  It is a non-invasive test, does not require the use of iodinated contrast material, and can detect and quantitate the degree of [[aortic insufficiency]].

The disadvantage of the MRI scan in the face of aortic dissection is that it has limited availability and is often located only in the larger hospitals, and the scan is relatively time consuming.  Due to the high intensity of the magnetic waves used during MRI, an MRI scan is contraindicated in individuals with metallic implants.  In addition, many individuals experience [[claustrophobia]] while in the MRI scanning tube.

==प्राकृतिक इतिहास==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0px 0px 1em 1em; clear:right;&quot; 
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Risk of death in untreated aortic dissection
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;hr&gt;
|&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;25% in first 24 hours&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
|&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;50% in first week&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
|&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;75% in first month&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
|&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;90% in first year&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
|}

The risk of [[death]] is high in untreated aortic dissection.  While the risk is highest in the first 24 hours of the event, those that survive the initial event still have an elevated mortality compared to age- and sex-matched controls.

== First Aid and Pre-Hospital Life Support==
It is unlikely that a lay-person will recognize this condition. Call for help and arrange for immediate transport via [[emergency medical services]] to advanced medical care. In [[wilderness first aid]], immediate [[patient evacuation|evacuation]] is imperative, by [[MEDEVAC]] to an advanced medical facility if available.

Transport immediately to a facility capable of emergency [[cardiac surgery]] such as a [[trauma center]] is suggested, ''not'' a community hospital without a surgical service.  Supportive care including pain and blood pressure control should be provided en route to the medical center.

For [[Basic Life Support]] Providers ([[Emergency medical technician|EMT-B]] or equivalent): Treat for [[shock (medical)|shock]] by placing the patient in a modified [[Trendelenburg position]] and administering [[oxygen therapy]]. Despite chest pain, do not administer [[glyceryl trinitrate (pharmacology)|nitrates]].

For [[Advanced Life Support]] Providers ([[Emergency Medical Technician - Intermediate|EMT-I]] or [[Paramedic|EMT-P]]): Initiate the above [[Basic Life Support|BLS]] steps. Apply cardiac monitoring and establish [[intravenous therapy]] early. Titrate fluid to [[blood pressure]], but do not use [[vasopressors]]. Record a diagnostic [[electrocardiogram]] to distinguish between aortic dissection and acute [[myocardial infarction]]. Do not administer [[thrombolysis|thrombolytics]]. [[Analgesia]] should be accomplished with regard to the [[vasodilative]] effects of [[opioid]] [[analgesics]] such as [[morphine]], [[fentanyl]], and [[nalbuphine]] and should not be provided to a patient in decompensated [[shock (medical)|shock]].

== Treatment ==
The risk of death due to aortic dissection is highest in the first few hours after the dissection begins, and decreases afterwards.  Because of this, the therapeutic strategies differ for treatment of an acute dissection compared to a chronic dissection.  An acute dissection is one in which the individual presents within the first two weeks.  If the individual has managed to survive this window period, his prognosis is improved.  About 66% of all dissections present in the acute phase.

In all individuals with aortic dissections, medication should be used to control [[hypertension|high blood pressure]], if present.

In the case of an acute dissection, once diagnosis has been confirmed, the choice of treatment depends on the location of the dissection.  For ascending aortic dissection, surgical management is superior to medical management.  On the other hand, in the case of an uncomplicated distal aortic dissections (including abdominal aortic dissections), medical management is preferred over surgical treatment &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author = Suzuki T, Mehta RR, Ince H, Nagai R, Sakomura Y, Weber F, Sumiyoshi T, Bossone E, Trimarchi S, Cooper J, Smith D, Isselbacher E, Eagle K, Nienaber C | title = Clinical profiles and outcomes of acute type B aortic dissection in the current era: lessons from the International Registry of Aortic Dissection (IRAD) | journal = Circulation | volume = 108 Suppl 1 | issue = | pages = II312–7 | year = | pmid = 12970252}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Individuals who present two weeks after the onset of the dissection are said to have chronic aortic dissections.  These individuals have been self-selected as survivors of the acute episode, and can be treated with medical therapy as long as they are stable.

Medical management is appropriate in individuals with an uncomplicated distal dissection, a stable dissection isolated to the aortic arch, and stable chronic dissections.  Patient selection for medical management is very important.  Stable individuals who present with an acute distal dissection (typically treated with medical management) still have an 8 percent 30 day mortality.

[http://videos.med.wisc.edu/videoInfo.php?videoid=264 VIDEO - What is New in the Treatment of Type B Aortic Dissection?], Girma Tefera, MD, speaks at the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health.

=== Medical management ===
The prime consideration in the medical management of aortic dissection is strict blood pressure control.  The target blood pressure should be a [[mean arterial pressure]] (MAP) of 60 to 75 [[mmHg]].  Another factor is to reduce the shear-force dP/dt (force of ejection of blood from the [[left ventricle]]).

To reduce the [[shear stress]], a vasodilator such as [[sodium nitroprusside]] should be used with a [[beta blocker]], such as [[esmolol]], [[propranolol]], or [[labetalol]].  The alpha-blocking properties of [[labetalol]] make it especially attractive in this situation.

[[Calcium channel blocker]]s can be used in the treatment of aortic dissection, particularly if there is a contraindication to the use of beta blockers.  The calcium channel blockers typically used are [[verapamil]] and [[diltiazem]], because of their combined vasodilator and negative [[inotropic]] effects.

If the individual has refractory hypertension (persistent hypertension on the maximum doses of three different classes of antihypertensive agents), involvement of the renal arteries in the aortic dissection plane should be considered.

=== Surgical management ===
Indications for the surgical treatment of aortic dissection include an acute proximal aortic dissection and an acute distal aortic dissection with one or more complications.  Complications include compromise of a vital organ, rupture or impending rupture of the aorta, retrograde dissection into the ascending aorta, and a history of [[Marfan's syndrome]] or [[Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome]].

The objective in the surgical management of aortic dissection is to resect (remove) the most severely damaged segments of the aorta, and to obliterate the entry of blood into the false lumen (both at the initial intimal tear and any secondary tears along the vessel)[https://web.archive.org/web/20141115184052/http://www.fondazionecarrel.org/sp/sp.html]&lt;ref&gt; ANN THORAC SURG, 1997; 64:1339-44&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt; Tex Heart Inst J. 2002;29(1):56-9.&lt;/ref&gt;.  While excision of the intimal tear may be performed, it does not significantly change mortality.

Some methods of repair are:
* Replacement of the damaged section with a tube graft (often made of [[dacron]]) when there is no damage to the [[aortic valve]].
* [[Bentall procedure]] - Replacement of the damaged section of aorta and replacement of the aortic valve.
* [[David procedure]] - Replacement of the damaged section of aorta and reimplantation of the aortic valve.
* Insertion of a stent, combined with on-going medical management

A number of comorbid conditions increase the surgical risk of repair of an aortic dissection.  These include:
* Prolonged pre-op evaluation (increased length of time prior to surgery)
* Advanced age
* Comorbid disease states (e.g.: [[coronary artery disease]])
* Aneurysm leakage
* [[Cardiac tamponade]]
* [[Shock (medical)|Shock]]
* Past history of [[myocardial infarction]] or [[cerebrovascular accident|CVA]]
* History of [[renal failure]] (either acute or chronic renal failure)

=== Long term follow-up ===
The long term follow-up in individuals who survive aortic dissection involves strict blood pressure control.  The relative risk of late rupture of an [[aortic aneurysm]] is 10 times higher in individuals who have uncontrolled [[hypertension]], compared to individuals with a systolic pressure below 130 mmHg.

The risk of death is highest in the first two years after the acute event, and individuals should be followed closely during this time period.  29% of late deaths following surgery are due to rupture of either the dissecting aneurysm or another [[aneurysm]].  In addition, there is a 17% to 25% incidence of new aneurysm formation.  This is typically due to dilatation of the residual false lumen.  These new aneurysms are more likely to rupture, due to their thinner walls.

Serial imaging of the aorta is suggested, with [[MRI]] being the preferred imaging technique.

==Famous victims==
Deaths
*King [[George II of Great Britain]]
*[[Liese Prokop]], Austrian Interior Minister and Olympic silver medallist
*[[Lucille Ball]], actress and entertainer
*[[Flo Hyman]], volleyball player
*[[Jonathan Larson]], composer of ''[[Rent (musical)|Rent]]''
*[[John Ritter]], actor
*[[Richard Biggs]], actor
*[[Mike Wieringo]], American comic book artist
*[[Jim Murray]], American Sportswriter Los Angeles Times 1961-1998

Survivors
*Dr. [[Michael E. DeBakey]], who devised the surgery to correct aortic dissection (as well as other cardiovascular and vascular techniques).  Dr. DeBakey was also noteworthy for being the oldest patient ever to receive his own operation: he was 97 at the time of his surgery on February 9 and 10 of 2006.  He survived and, though he worked with physical therapists to walk on his own again after suffering muscle [[deconditioning]] from prolonged physical inactivity during recovery, retained all of his mental faculties and was back to working nearly a full day until his death of natural causes on [[July 11]], [[2008]]. (See [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/25/health/25surgeon.html?pagewanted=1&amp;ei=5070&amp;en=7be99af7188931c9&amp;ex=1167714000&amp;emc=eta1] published 25 December, 2006, in the New York Times).
*[[Daniel Dennett]], philosopher
*[[Gérard Houllier]], former manager of [[Liverpool Football Club]], now manages Olympic Lyonnais
*[[Jose Miguel Arroyo]], spouse of Philippine President [[Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo]]

==See also==
*[[Aortic aneurysm]]
*[[Connective tissue disease]]
*[[Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome]]
*[[Hypertension]]
*[[Marfan syndrome]]
*[[Traumatic aortic rupture]]
*[[Bicuspid aortic valve]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==पिनेया स्वापू==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101203145302/http://cardiacsurgery.ctsnetbooks.org/cgi/content/full/2/2003/1095?ck=nck एओर्तिक दिसेक्सन] 
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110527151142/http://cardiacsurgery.ctsnetbooks.org/cgi/content/full/2/2003/1095/F1?ck=nck एओर्तिक दिसेक्सनया बायेज्या]
*[http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3005390 अमेरिकन हार्ट असोसियसन]
*[http://www.aorticdissection.com/ एओर्तिकदिसेक्सन॰कम्]

{{cardiac surgery}}
{{Vascular diseases}}

{{Commonscat|Aortic dissection}}

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[[किपा:Chloroplast-new.jpg|thumb|300px|right|क्लोरोप्लास्टया दुनेया भाग]]

'''क्लोरोप्लास्ट''' धाःगु [[वनस्पति सेल]] व मेमेगु [[युकेरियोट|युकेरियोटिक]] सेलय् दैगु छगू [[अर्‍ग्यानेल]] ख। थ्व अर्‍ग्यानेलया ज्या [[फोटोसिन्थेसिस]] याकिगु ख। क्लोरोप्लास्टं जः उर्जायात छ्येला वःगु फ्रि उर्जायात एडिनोसिन ट्राइफस्फेटय् स्वथनिगु व [[एनएडिपि]]यात [[एनएडिपिएच]]य् हिलिगु जटिल प्रक्रिया फोटोसिन्थेसिस याइ।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last = Campbell | first = Neil A. | authorlink = | coauthors = Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden | title = Biology: Exploring Life | publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall | date = 2006 | location = Boston, Massachusetts | pages = | url = http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-13-250882-6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== नां ==
क्लोरोप्लास्ट धाःगु खंग्वः युनानी खँग्वः ''क्लोरोस'' अर्थात वांगु व ''प्लास्ट'' अर्थात एन्टिटि स्वाना वःगु खंग्वः ख।  क्लोरोप्लास्ट [[प्लास्टिड]] नां दूगु अर्‍ग्यानेल क्लासया छगू सदस्य ख। 

== वैकाशिक उत्त्पत्ति ==
[[किपा:Chloroplasten.jpg|thumb|right|250px|वनस्पति सेलय् खने दूगु क्लोरोप्लास्ट।]]
क्लोरोप्लास्ट विभिन्न सेल अर्‍ग्यानेलय् छगू ख। साधारण कथं थ्व अर्‍ग्यानेलया पलिस्था [[इन्डोसिम्बायोटिक थियोरी|इन्डोसिम्बायोटिक]] [[सायनोब्याक्टेरिया]] (वा ब्लु-ग्रीन अल्गेइ)या कथं जूगु धैगु विश्वास दु। This was first suggested by [[Konstantin Mereschkowski|Mereschkowsky]] in 1905 &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author= Mereschkowsky C | title= Über Natur und Ursprung der Chromatophoren im Pflanzenreiche | journal= Biol Centralbl | year=1905 | volume=25 | pages=593–604}} &lt;/ref&gt; after an observation by Schimper in 1883 that chloroplasts closely resemble cyanobacteria. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author= Schimper AFW | title= Über die Entwicklung der Chlorophyllkörner und Farbkörper | journal= Bot. Zeitung | year=1883 | volume=41 | pages=105–14, 121–31, 137–46, 153–62}} &lt;/ref&gt; All chloroplasts are thought to derive directly or indirectly from a single endosymbiotic event (in the [[Archaeplastida]]), except for ''[[Paulinella]] chromatophora'', which has recently acquired a photosynthetic cyanobacterial endosymbiont which is not closely related to chloroplasts of other eukaryotes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | title = Diversity and evolutionary history of plastids and their hosts | author = Patrick J. Keeling |  url = http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/10/1481 | journal = American Journal of Botany | year = 2004 | volume = 91 | pages = 1481–1493 | doi = 10.3732/ajb.91.10.1481}}&lt;/ref&gt; In that they derive from an endosymbiotic event, chloroplasts are similar to [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] but chloroplasts are found only in [[plant]]s and [[protist]]a. The chloroplast is surrounded by a double-layered composite membrane with an intermembrane space; further, it has reticulations, or many infoldings, filling the inner spaces. The chloroplast has its own [[DNA]] which codes for redox proteins involved in electron transport in photosynthesis.  

In green plants, chloroplasts are surrounded by two [[cell membrane|lipid-bilayer membranes]].  The inner membrane is now believed to correspond to the outer membrane of the ancestral cyanobacterium.  Chloroplasts have their own genome, which is considerably [[genome reduction|reduced]] compared to that of free-living cyanobacteria, but the parts that are still present show clear similarities with the cyanobacterial genome. Plastids may contain 60-100 genes whereas cyanobacteria often contain more than 1500 genes.&lt;ref&gt;{{ cite journal | author= Martin W, Rujan T, Richly E, Hansen A, Cornelson S, Lins T, Leister D, Stoebe B, Hasegawa M, Penny D | title= Evolutionary analysis of Arabidopsis, cyanobacterial, and chloroplast genomes reveals plastid phylogeny and thousands of cyanobacterial genes in the nucleus | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci | year = 2002 | volume=99 | pages=12246–12251 | doi= 10.1073/pnas.182432999 | pmid= 12218172}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many of the missing genes are encoded in the nuclear genome of the host. The transfer of nuclear information has been estimated in [[tobacco]] plants at one [[gene]] for every 16000 pollen grains.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author=Huang CY, Ayliffe MA, Timmis JN | title=Direct measurement of the transfer rate of chloroplast DNA into the nucleus | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2003-03-06_422_6927/page/72 | journal=Nature | date =2003-03-06 | volume=422 | issue=6927 | pages=72–6 | doi=10.1038/nature01435}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In some algae (such as the [[heterokont]]s and other protists such as [[Euglenozoa]] and [[Cercozoa]]), chloroplasts seem to have evolved through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts, forming chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. In some cases, such secondary [[endosymbiont]]s may have themselves been engulfed by still other eukaryotes, thus forming tertiary endosymbionts.  In the alga ''Chlorella'', there is only one chloroplast, which is bell shaped.

In some groups of [[mixotrophic]] [[protist]]s such as the [[dinoflagellate]]s, chloroplasts are separated from a captured alga or diatom and used temporarily. These [[kleptoplasty|klepto chloroplasts]] may only have a lifetime of a few days and are then replaced.&lt;ref name=Skovgaard&gt;Skovgaard, A (1998) Role of chloroplast retention in a marine dinoflagellate. ''Aquatic Microbial Ecology'' 15, 293-301&lt;/ref&gt;

== संरचना ==

Chloroplasts are observable morphologically as flat discs usually 2 to 10 micrometer in diameter and 1 micrometer thick. In land plants they are generally 5 μm in diameter and 2.3 μm thick. The chloroplast is contained by an envelope that consists of an inner and an outer phospholipid membrane. Between these two layers is the intermembrane space.  A typical [[parenchyma]] cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts.

The material within the chloroplast is called the stroma, corresponding to the [[cytosol]] of the original bacterium, and contains one or more molecules of small circular DNA. It also contains [[ribosome]]s, although most of its proteins are encoded by genes contained in the host cell nucleus, with the protein products transported to the chloroplast.  
[[Image:Chloroplast.svg|thumb|275px|right|Chloroplast ultrastructure:&lt;br /&gt;]]
   १. आउटर मेम्ब्रेन&lt;br /&gt;
   २. इन्टरमेम्ब्रेन स्पेस&lt;br /&gt;
   ३. इनर मेम्ब्रेन (१+२+३: इन्भेलोप)&lt;br /&gt;
   ४. स्ट्रोमा(एक्वश फ्लुड)&lt;br /&gt;
   ५. थाइलाकोइड ल्युमेन (थाइलाकोइड दुने)&lt;br /&gt;
   ६. थाइलाकोइड मेम्ब्रेन&lt;br /&gt;
   ७. ग्र्यानम (थाइलाकोइडतेगु पं)&lt;br /&gt;
   ८. थाइलाकोइड (ल्यामेल्ला)&lt;br /&gt;
   ९. स्टार्च&lt;br /&gt;
  १०. राइबोसोम&lt;br /&gt;
  ११. प्लास्टिडल DNA&lt;br /&gt;
  १२. प्लास्टोग्लोब्युल (लिपिडया फुति)

]]
Within the stroma are stacks of [[thylakoid]]s, the sub-organelles which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana (singular: granum).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | last = Campbell | first = Neil A. | authorlink = | coauthors = Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden | title = Biology: Exploring Life | publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall | date = 2006 | location = Boston, Massachusetts | pages = | url = http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-13-250882-6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
A thylakoid has a flattened disk shape. Inside it is an empty area called the thylakoid space or lumen. Photosynthesis takes place on the thylakoid membrane; as in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, it involves the coupling of cross-membrane [[flux]]es with [[biochemistry|biosynthesis]] via the dissipation of a proton electrochemical gradient.

In the electron microscope, thylakoid membranes appear as alternating light-and-dark bands, each 0.01 μm thick.  Embedded in the thylakoid membrane is the antenna complex, which consists of the light-absorbing pigments, including [[chlorophyll]] and [[carotenoids]], and proteins (which bind the chlorophyll). This complex both increases the surface area for light capture, and allows capture of photons with a wider range of wavelengths. The energy of the incident photons is absorbed by the pigments and funneled to the reaction centre of this complex through [[resonance energy transfer]]. Two chlorophyll molecules are then ionised, producing an excited electron which then passes onto the photochemical reaction centre.

Recent studies have shown that chloroplasts can be interconnected by tubular bridges called [[stromule]]s, formed as extensions of their outer membranes.&lt;ref name=Köhler2000&gt;Köhler RH &amp; Hanson MR (2000) Plastid tubules of higher plants are tissue-specific and developmentally regulated. Journal of Cell Science 113, 81–89&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Gray2001&gt;Gray JC, Sullivan JA, Hibberd JM &amp; Hansen MR (2001) Stromules: mobile protrusions and interconnections between plastids. Plant Biology 3, 223–233&lt;/ref&gt;  Chloroplasts appear to be able to exchange proteins via stromules,&lt;ref name=Köhler1997&gt;Köhler RH, Cao J, Zipfel WR, Webb WW &amp; Hanson MR (1997) Exchange of protein molecules through connections between higher plant plastids. Science 276, 1039–1042&lt;/ref&gt; and thus function as a network.

== Transplastomic plants ==
Recently, chloroplasts have caught attention by developers of [[genetically modified plant]]s. In most flowering plants, chloroplasts are not inherited from the male parent,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | quote = most angiosperm species inherit their chloroplasts maternally | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1430924100 | pmc = 166398 | year = 2003 | month = July | author = Stegemann, S; Hartmann, S; Ruf, S; Bock, R | title = High-frequency gene transfer from the chloroplast genome to the nucleus | volume = 100 | issue = 15 | pages = 8828–33 | pmid = 12817081 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&amp;pmid=12817081 | format = Free full text }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ruf2007&quot;/&gt; although in plants such as pines, chloroplasts are inherited from males.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | pmc = 41225 | quote = In the pines, the chloroplast genome is transmitted through pollen | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. | date = 1995-08-15 | volume = 92 | issue = 17 | pages = 7759–7763 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.92.17.7759 | title = Polymorphic Simple Sequence Repeat Regions in Chloroplast Genomes: Applications to the Population Genetics of Pines | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1995-08-15_92_17/page/7759 | author = Powell, W. | pmid = 7644491 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Where chloroplasts are inherited only from the female, [[transgene]]s in these plastids cannot be disseminated by [[pollen]]. This makes [[plastid transformation]] a valuable tool for the creation and cultivation of genetically modified plants that are biologically contained, thus posing significantly lower environmental risks. This [[biological containment]] strategy is therefore suitable for establishing the [[Co-existence of genetically modified and conventional crops and derived food and feed|coexistence of  conventional and organic agriculture]]. The reliability of this mechanism has not yet been studied for all relevant crop species. However, the research programme [[Co-Extra]] recently published results for tobacco plants, demonstrating that the containment of transplastomic plants is highly reliable with a tiny failure rate of 3 in 1,000,000.&lt;ref name=&quot;ruf2007&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author=Ruf S, Karcher D, Bock R | title=Determining the transgene containment level provided by chloroplast transformation | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2007-04-24_104_17/page/6998 | journal=PNAS | date=2007-04-24 | volume=104 | issue=17 | pages=6998–7002 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0700008104 | pmid=17420459 | pmc = 1849964 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== स्वयादिसँ ==
*[[फोटोसिन्थेसिस]]

==नोट==&lt;!-- MolPhylogenetEvol48:23,48:176,48:313 --&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot; style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

== लिधंसा ==
*{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}

== पिनेया स्वापू ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030803194320/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/Chloroplasts.html Chloroplasts] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20051211080401/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/L/LightReactions.html Photosynthesis: The Role of Light] from [https://web.archive.org/web/20130807084045/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/S.html Kimball's Biology Pages]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051126204125/http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/C/chloropl.html Chloroplast, Botany]
* [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=8041699 Use of chloroplast DNA in studying plant phylogeny and evolution]{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [http://opm.phar.umich.edu/localization.php?localization=Thylakoid%20membrane 3D structures of proteins associated with thylakoid membrane]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720155136/http://www.coextra.eu/projects/project199.html Co-Extra research on chloroplast transformation]
{{Commonscat|Chloroplasts}}

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[[Image:Map of Bangladesh-en.svg|thumb|right|Map of Bangladesh]]
[[Image:Land cover bangladesh.jpg|thumb|Land cover map of Bangladesh&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Uddin|first1=Kabir|last2=Matin|first2=Mir A.|last3=Meyer|first3=Franz J.|date=January 2019|title=Operational Flood Mapping Using Multi-Temporal Sentinel-1 SAR Images: A Case Study from Bangladesh|journal=Remote Sensing|language=en|volume=11|issue=13|page=1581|doi=10.3390/rs11131581|bibcode=2019RemS...11.1581U|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

[[किपा:Satellite image of Bangladesh in October 2001.jpg|thumb|180px|right|स्यटेलाइटं काःगु बंगलादेशया किपा]]
दक्षिण एशियाया तःधंगु खुसि [[गङ्गा खुसि]] व [[ब्रह्मपुत्र खुसि|ब्रह्मपुत्रं]] देकूगु देल्टाय् बंगलादेश ला। भौगलिक रुपय् बंगलादेश [[दक्षिण एशिया|दक्षिण एशियाय्‌]] [[भारत]] व [[म्यानमार]]या दथुइ ला। थ्व दे‌या क्षेत्रफल १ लख ४७ द्व ५७० वर्ग किलोमिटर दु। बंगलादेशया पश्चिम व उत्तरय् भारत, पूर्वय् भारत व म्यानमार व दखिनय् बंगाली खाडी ला। बंगलादेशया पश्चिमय् भारतया [[पश्चिम बङ्गाल]] राज्य, उत्तरय् पश्चिमबङ्गाल, [[आसाम]], [[मेघालय]] राज्य, पूर्वय् आसाम, [[त्रिपुरा]], [[मिजोराम]]। व म्यान्मार (बर्मा) नाप सीमा दु। दक्षिणय् [[बङ्गालया खाडी]] ला। बङ्गलादेशया सीमायार ४,२४६ किलोमिटरय् ९४ प्रतिशत (९४%) भारतनाप व ६ प्रतिशत म्यानमारनाप दु। बांलादेशया तटरेखाया हाकः ५८० किलोमिटर दु। 

बंगलादेशया अधिकांश इलाका समूद्र सतह स्वया १० मिटर जक्क च्वे ला। समुद्र सतह १ मिटर जक्क व्रृदि जुसां थ्व देय्‌या ५०% इलाका लखे दुने लाःवनि।
&lt;ref name=ali&gt;{{cite journal
 | last = Ali
 | first = A
 | year = 1996
 | title = Vulnerability of Bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and storm surges
 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_water-air-and-soil-pollution_1996-11_92_1-2/page/171
 | journal = Water, Air, &amp; Soil Pollution 
 | volume = 92
 | issue = 1-2
 | pages = 171-179
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
बंगलादेशया उच्चतम थाय्‌ देय्‌या दक्षिण-पूर्वाञ्चलय् दूगु [[पार्वत्य चट्टग्राम]] ख। थ्व छगू मोडक पर्वत श्रृङ्खलाया च्वका ख थुकिया जाः १,०५२ मिटर (३,४५१&amp;nbsp;फुट) दु।&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20130725020735/http://www.sol.co.uk/v/viewfinder/elevmisquotes.html#keok Summit Elevations: Frequent Internet Errors.] Retrieved 2006-04-13.&lt;/ref&gt; बङ्गालया खाडीइ दूगु [[सुन्दरबन]] हलिमया दक्ले तःधंगु [[म्यानग्रोभ]] वन ख। थ्व थासय् [[रोयल बंगाल धुं]], [[चित्तल हरिण]] आदि यक्व प्रकारया प्राणीतेसं बसोबास याइ। [[१९९७]]य् थ्व थाय्‌यात विश्व सम्पदा सूचीइ सूचीकृत यात। 
&lt;ref name=sundarbans&gt;{{cite journal
 | last = IUCN
 | year = 1997
 | title = Sundarban wildlife sanctuaries Bangladesh
 | journal = World Heritage Nomination-IUCN Technical Evaluation
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

बांलादेशया जलवायु सबट्रपिकल दु। थ्व देशय् ६गु ऋतु दु-[[ग्रीष्म]], [[वर्खा]], [[शरद]], [[हेमन्त]], [[शीत]] व [[वसन्त]]। थनया वार्षिक वृष्टि १५००-२५००मि.मि./६०-१००इञ्च दु; पूर्वी लागाय्‌ थ्व मात्रा ३७५० मि.मि./१५०इञ्च अप्व। बंगलादेशय दथुं [[कर्कट रेखा]] वनि। नोभेम्बर निसें मार्चतक्क थन शीत मौसम,मार्च निसें जुन तक्क ग्रीष्म काल, जुन निसें अक्टोबर तक्क बर्षा मौसम दै। व‍खाय् मौसमी वायुं थन प्रचुर वृष्टि जुइ। वा अप्व वया थन प्राकृतिक प्रकोप दसु चलः, टोर्नेडो आदि वनिगु या।

==स्वयादिसँ==
*[[बंगलादेश]]

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा}}

{{देय्‌ च्वसु|बंगलादेश}}

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[[किपा:Agar plate with colonies.jpg|thumb|right|सूक्ष्मजीवं स्ट्रीक्ड छगू [[अगार]] प्लेट]]
'''माइक्रोबायोलोजी''' वा '''सूक्ष्मजैविकी''' मिखां साधारणकथं मखनिगु सूक्ष्मजीवतयेगु अध्ययन यायेगु शास्त्र ख। थ्व शास्त्रय् छगू कोशिकीय वा सूक्ष्मदर्शीय कोशिका-समूह प्राणीतयेगु सीकेज्या जुइ।&lt;ref name=Brock&gt;{{cite book | author = Madigan M, Martinko J (सम्पादकs) | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th ed. | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-13-144329-1 }}&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व शास्त्रय् [[युकेर्‍योट]] दसु [[कवक]] व [[प्रोटिस्टा]], व [[प्रोकेर्‍योट]], दसु [[ब्याक्टेरिया]] व [[आर्किया]] आदिया सीकेज्या जुइ। [[भाइरस]]तयेत स्थायी जीव वा प्राणी मधासां थ्व शास्त्रया अन्तर्गतय् इमिगु नं सीकेज्या जुइ।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | author = Rice G | title = Are Viruses Alive? | url = http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/yellowstone/viruslive.html | date = 2007-03-27 |accessdate = 2007-07-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; संक्षेपय् सूक्ष्मजैविकी थन्याःगु सजीवतयेगु सीकेज्या ख गुकियात नांगा मिखां खने फैमखु। [[सूक्ष्मजैविकी]] छगू तःधंगु ख्यः ख। थ्व ख्यले [[भाइरोलोजी]], [[कवक विज्ञान]], [[परजीवी विज्ञान]], ब्याक्टेरिया विज्ञान, व यक्व मेमेगु शाखा दु। सूक्ष्मजैविकीइ तत्पर मालेज्या जुयाच्वनि व थ्व ख्यः अनवरत प्रगतिइ अग्रसर दु। आ तक्क मनुतयेसं हलिमया सकल  सूक्ष्मजीवय् छगू प्रतिशतया अध्ययन याःगु जुइमा।&lt;ref name=&quot;Amann1995&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author = अम्मान आर.आई, लुडविग डब्ल्यु, श्लेइफर के.एच | year = 1995 | title = फाइलोजैनेटिक आइडेंटिफिकेशन एण्ड इन सैटु डिटेक्शन अफ इंडिभिजुअल माइक्रोबियल सेल्स, विदाउट कल्टिवेशन | journal = Microbiol. Rev. | volume = 59 | pages = 143–169 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=7535888}}&lt;/ref&gt; सूक्ष्मजीव थ्यंमथ्यं स्वसः दँ न्ह्यःनिसें खंगु जुसां जीवविज्ञानया मेमेगु ख्यः दसु पशु विज्ञान वा पादप विज्ञानया अपेक्षाय् सूक्ष्मजैविकी थःगु अति प्रारम्भिक स्तरय् दयाच्वंगु दु।

== इतिहास ==
=== सूक्ष्मजीवविज्ञान पूर्व ===
[[किपा:Jan Verkolje - Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[एंटोनी वॉन ल्यूवेन्हॉक]]]]
सूक्ष्मजीवों के अस्तित्व का अनुमान उनकी खोज से कई शताब्दियों पूर्व लगा लिया गया था। इन पर सबसे पहला सिद्धांत प्राचीन रोमन विद्वान मार्कस टेरेंशियस वैर्रो ने अपनी कृषि पर आधारित एक पुस्तक में दिया था। इसमें उन्होंने चेतावनी दी थी कि दलदल के निकट खेत नहीं बनाए जाने चाहिए।{{Ref_label|वैर्रो ऑन|क|none}}  [[कैनन ऑफ मैडिसिन]] नामक पुस्तक में, अबु अली इब्न सिना ने कहा है कि शरीर के स्राव, संक्रमित होने से पहले बाहरी सूक्ष्मजीवों द्वारा दूषित किये जाते हैं।&lt;ref name=सैयद&gt;इब्राहिम बी.सैयद, पी.एच.डी. (२००२). &quot;इस्लामिक मैडिसिन: १००० ईयर्स अहेड ऑफ इट्स टाइम्स &quot;, ''[[:en:The Islamic Medical Association of North America|जर्नल ऑफ द इस्लामिक मैडिकल एसोसियेशन]]'' '''2''', p. 2-9.  &lt;/ref&gt; उन्होंने [[क्षय रोग]] व अन्य संक्रामक बिमारियों के संक्रमक स्वभाव की परिकल्पना की थी, व संगरोध (क्वारन्टाइन) का प्रयोग संक्रामक बिमारियों की रोकथाम हेतु किया था।&lt;ref&gt; डैविड डब्ल्यु. शैन्ज़, MSPH, PhD ([[अगस्त]] [[२००३]]). &quot;अरब रूट्स ऑफ यूरोपियन मैडिसिन्स &quot;, ''हार्ट व्यूज़ '''4''' (2).&lt;/ref&gt; [[चौदहवीं शताब्दी]] में जब काली मृत्यु (ब्लैक डैथ) व ब्युबोनिक प्लेग अल-अंडैलस में  पहुँचा तब इब्न खातिमा ने यह प्राक्कलन किया कि सूक्ष्मजीव मानव शरीर के अंदर पहुँच कर, संक्रामक रोग पैदा करती हैं।&lt;ref name=Syed&gt;Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (२००२). &quot;इस्लामिक मैडिसिन: 1000 ईयर्स अहेड ऑफ इट्स टाइम्स &quot;, ''[[[[:en:The Islamic Medical Association of North America|जर्नल ऑफ द इस्लामिक मैडिकल एसोसियेशन]]'' '''2''', p. 2-9.  &lt;/ref&gt;  [[१५४६]] में जिरोलामो फ्रैकैस्टोरो ने यह प्रस्ताव दिया कि महामारियाँ स्थानांतरणीय बीज जैसे अस्तित्वों द्वारा फैलती हैं। ये वस्तुएँ प्रत्यक्ष या परोक्ष रूप से कभी कभी तो बिना सम्पर्क के ही लम्बी दूरी से भी संक्रमित कर सकती हैं। सूक्ष्मजीवों के बारे में ये सभी दावे अनुमान मात्र ही थे क्योंकि ये किसी आंकड़ों या विज्ञान पर आधारित नहीं थे। [[सत्रहवीं शताब्दी]] तक सूक्ष्म जीव ना तो सिद्ध ही हुए थे और न ही देखे गये थे। इनको सत्रहवीं शताब्दी में ही सही तौर पर देखा गया तथा वर्णित किया गया। इसका मूल कारण यह था कि सभी पूर्व सूचनाएँ व शोध एक मूलभूत उपकरण के अभाव में किये गये थे, जो सूक्ष्मजैविकी या जीवाणुविज्ञान के अस्तित्व में रहने के लिये अत्यावश्यक था और वह था [[सूक्ष्मदर्शी यंत्र]]।  एंटोनी वॉन ल्यूवेन्हॉक प्रथम सूक्ष्मजीववैज्ञानिक थे जिन्होंने पहली बार सूक्ष्मजीवों को सूक्ष्मदर्शी यंत्र से देखा था, इसी कारण उन्हें सूक्ष्मजैविकी का जनक कहा जाता है। इन्होंने ही सूक्ष्मदर्शी यंत्र का आविष्कार किया था।

=== सूक्ष्मजैविकीया मालेज्या व पलिस्था ===

[[जीवाणु]] व [[सूक्ष्मजीव|सूक्ष्मजीवों]] को सर्वप्रथम [[एंटोनी वॉन ल्यूवेन्हॉक]] ने [[१६७६]] में स्वनिर्मित एकल-लेंस सूक्ष्मदर्शी से देखा था। ऐसा करके उन्होंने [[जीव विज्ञान]] के क्षेत्र में एक अभूतपूर्व कार्य किया जिसके द्वारा [[जीवाणु विज्ञान]] व सूक्ष्मजैविकी का आरम्भ हुआ।&lt;ref name=Brock /&gt; बैक्टीरियम शब्द का प्रयोग  काफी बाद ([[१८२८]]) में एह्रेन्बर्ग द्वारा हुआ। यह यूनानी शब्द ''βακτηριον'' से निकला है, जिसका अर्थ है - छोटी सी डंडी। हालॉकि ल्यूवेन्हॉक को प्रथम सूक्ष्मजैविज्ञ कहा गया है, किन्तु प्रथम मान्यता प्राप्त सूक्ष्मजैविक [[रॉबर्ट हूक]] (१६३५-१७०३)को माना जाता है जिन्होंने मोल्ड के फलन का अवलोकन किया था।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=जेस्ट एच |title=द रिमार्केबल विज़न ओ~फ रॉबर्ट हूक (१६३५-१७०३): फर्स्ट ऑब्ज़र्वर ऑफ द माइक्रोबियल वर्ल्ड |journal=पर्स्पैक्ट. बायो. मैडि. |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=266–72 |year=2005 |pmid=15834198 |doi=10.1353/pbm.2005.0053}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[चित्र:Microscope.jpg|thumb|right|200px|सूक्ष्मदर्शी यंत्र]] जीवाणु विज्ञान (जो बाद में सूक्ष्मजैविकी का एक उप-विभाग बन गया) [[फर्डिनैंड कोह्न]] (१८२८–[[१८९८]]) द्बारा स्थापित किया गया माना जाता है। ये एक पादपवैज्ञानिक थे, जिनके शैवाल व प्रकाशसंश्लेषित जीवाणु पर किये गए शोध ने उन्हें [[बैसिलस]] व बैग्गियैटोआ सहित कई अन्य जीवाणुओं का वर्णन करने को प्रेरित किया था। कोह्न ही जीवाणुओं के वर्गीकरण की योजना को परिभाषित करने वाले प्रथम व्यक्ति थे।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=ड्रियूज़ जी |title=फर्डिनैंड कोह्न, ए फाउंडर ऑफ मॉडर्न माइक्रोबायोलॉजी |journal=ए.एस.एम न्यूज़ |volume=65 |issue=8 |pages= |year=1999 |url=http://www.asm.org/Articles/Ferdinand.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[लुई पाश्चर]] ([[१८२२]]–[[१८९५]]) व [[रॉबर्ट कोच]] ([[१८४३]]–[[१९१०]]) कोह्न के समकालीन थे तथा उनको [[आयुर्विज्ञान सूक्ष्मजैविकी]]  का संस्थापक माना जाता है।&lt;ref name=Sherris&gt;{{cite book | author = रायन के.जे., राय सी.जी. (सम्पादक) | title = शैर्रिस मैडिकल माइक्रोबायोलॉजी | url = https://archive.org/details/sherrismedicalmi0000unse_q1i3 | edition = चतुर्थ संस्करण | publisher = मैक्ग्रॉ हिल | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8385-8529-9 }}&lt;/ref&gt; पाश्चर तत्कालीन सहज उत्पादन के सिद्धांत को झुठलाने के लिये अपने द्वारा किये गए श्रेणीबद्ध प्रयोगों के लिये प्रसिद्ध हो चुके थे। इसीसे सूक्ष्मजैविकी का धरातल और ठोस हो गया।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=बॉर्डिनैव जी |title=लुई पाश्चर (1822-1895) |journal=माइक्रोब्स इन्फैक्ट. |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=553–60 |year=2003 |pmid=12758285 |doi=}}&lt;/ref&gt; पाश्चर ने खाद्य संरक्षण के उपाय खोजे थे ([[पाश्चराइजेशन]]) उन्होंने ही [[ऐन्थ्रैक्स]], फाउल कॉलरा एवं [[रेबीज़]] सहित कई रोगों के सुरक्षा टीकों की खोज की थी।&lt;ref name=Brock /&gt; कोच अपने [[रोगों के जीवाणु सिद्धांत]] के लिये प्रसिद्ध थे, जिसके अनुसार कोई विशिष्ट रोग, किसी विशिष्ट रोगजनक सूक्ष्मजीव के कारण ही होता है। उन्होंने ही कोच्स पॉस्ट्युलेट्स बनाये थे। कोच शुद्ध कल्चर में से जीवाणुओं के पृथकीकरण करने वाले वैज्ञानिकों में से प्रथम रहे हैं। जिसके परिणामस्वरूप कई नवीन जीवाणुओं की खोज व वर्णन किए जा सके, जिनमें [[माइकोबैक्टीरियम ट्यूबर्क्युलोसिस]], [[क्षय रोग]] का मूल जीवणु भी रहा।

पाश्चर एवं कोच प्रायः सूक्ष्मजैविकी के जनक कहे जाते हैं परंतु उनका कार्य सही ढंग से सूक्ष्मजैविक संसार की वास्तविक विविधता को नहीं दर्शाता है, क्योंकि उनक ध्यान प्रत्यक्ष चिकित्सा संबंधी संदर्भों वाले सूक्ष्मजीवों पर ही केन्द्रित रहा। [[मार्टिनस विलियम बेइजरिंक]] ([[१८५१]]–[[१९३१]])  एवं [[सर्जेई विनोग्रैड्स्की]] ([[१८५६]]–[[१९५३]]), जो सामान्य सूक्ष्मजैविकी (एक पुरातन पद, जिसमें सूक्ष्मजैविक शरीरक्रिया विज्ञान, विभेद एवं पारिस्थितिकी आते हैं) के संस्थापक कहे जाते हैं, के कार्यों के उपरांत ही, सूक्ष्मजैविकी की सही-सही परिधि का ज्ञान हुआ।&lt;ref name=Brock /&gt; 

बेइजरिंक के सूक्ष्मजैविकी में दो महान योगदान हैं: [[विषाणु]]ओं की खोज तथा उपजाऊ संवर्धन तकनीक (एन्ररिचमेंट कल्चर टैक्नीक) का विकास।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | author = जॉनसन जे | title = मार्टिनस विलियम बेइजरिंक | publisher = अमेरिकन फाइटोपैथोलॉजिकल सोसाइटी | url = http://www.apsnet.org/Education/feature/TMV/intro.html | date = 1998-07-01 | accessdate = 2007-07-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;  उनके तम्बाकू मोज़ाइक विषाणु पर किये गए अनुसंधान कार्य ने विषाणु विज्ञान के मूलभूत सिद्धांत स्थापित किये थे। यह उनके एनरिच्मेंट कल्चर का विकास था, जिसका तात्क्षणिक प्रभाव सूक्ष्मजैविकी पर पड़ा। इसके द्वारा एक वृहत सूक्ष्मजीवों की शृंखला को संवर्द्धित किया जा सका, जिनकी शारीरिकी विविध प्रकार की थी। विनोग्रैड्स्की  ने अकार्बनिक रासायनिक पदार्थों  (कीमोलिथोट्रॉफी)  पर प्रथम सिद्धांत प्रस्तुत किया था, जिसके साथ ही सूक्ष्मजीवों की भूरासायनिक प्रक्रियाओं में अतिमहत्वपूर्ण भूमिका उजागर हुई।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | author = पाउस्टियन टी, रॉबर्ट्स जी | title = बेइजरिक एण्ड विनोग्रैड्स्की इनिशियेट थे फील्ड ऑफ एन्वायरैन्मैंटल माइक्रोबायोलॉजी | work = द माइक्रोबियल वर्ल्ड | url = http://www.microbiologytext.com/index.php?module=Book&amp;func=displayarticle&amp;art_id=32| accessdate = 2007-07-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;  इन्होंने ही सर्वप्रथम नाइट्रिफाइंग तथा नाइट्रोजन-फिक्सिंग जीवाणु का पृथकीकरण किया था।&lt;ref name=Brock /&gt;

== सूक्ष्मजीवों के प्रकार ==
{{main|जीवाणु}} [[किपा:E. coli Bacteria (7316101966).jpg|thumb|200px|right|जीवाणु]]सूक्ष्म जीवी अनेक प्रकार के होते हैं जिनमें जीवाणु प्रमुख हैं। '''जीवाणु''' एक एककोशिकीय जीव है। इसका आकार कुछ मिलीमीटर  तक ही होता है। इनकी आकृति गोल या मुक्त-चक्राकार से लेकर छड़ आदि के आकार की हो सकती है।ये [[प्रोकैरियोटिक]], कोशिका भित्तियुक्त, एककोशकीय सरल जीव हैं जो प्रायः सर्वत्र पाये जाते है। ये पृथ्वी पर मिट्टी में, अम्लीय गर्म जल-धाराओं में, नाभिकीय पदार्थों में&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Fredrickson J, Zachara J, Balkwill D, ''et al'' |title=Geomicrobiology of high-level nuclear waste-contaminated vadose sediments at the Hanford site, Washington state | url=http://aem.asm.org/cgi/content/full/70/7/4230?view=long&amp;pmid=15240306 |journal=Appl Environ Microbiol |volume=70 |issue=7 |pages=4230–41 |year=2004 |pmid=15240306 |doi=10.1128/AEM.70.7.4230-4241.2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;, जल में,भू-पपड़ी में, यहाँ तक की कार्बनिक पदार्थों में तथा पौधौं एवं जन्तुओं के शरीर के भीतर भी पाये जाते हैं। साधारणतः एक ग्राम मिट्टी में ४ करोड़ जीवाणु [[कोशिका|कोष]] तथा १ मिलीलीटर जल में १० लाख जीवाणु पाए जाते हैं। संपूर्ण पृथ्वी पर अनुमानतः लगभग ५X१०&lt;sup&gt;३०&lt;/sup&gt; जीवाणु पाए जाते हैं।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Whitman W, Coleman D, Wiebe W |title=Prokaryotes: the unseen majority | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/12/6578 |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S a |volume=95 |issue=12 |pages=6578–83 |year=1998|pmid = 9618454 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578}}&lt;/ref&gt; जो संसार के बायोमास का एक बहुत बड़ा भाग है।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Whitman W, Coleman D, Wiebe W |title=Prokaryotes: the unseen majority |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/12/6578 |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S a |volume=95 |issue=12 |pages=6578–83 |year=1998|pmid=9618454 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578}}&lt;/ref&gt;  ये कई तत्वों के चक्र में बहुत महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका अदा करते हैं, जैसे कि वायुमंडल के लिए [[नाइट्रोजन]] के स्थिरीकरण में। हाँलाकि बहुत सारे वंश के जीवाणुओं का श्रेणी विभाजन भी नहीं हुआ है तथापि लगभग आधों की किसी न किसी जाति को प्रयोगशाला में उगाया जा चुका है।&lt;ref name=Rappe&gt;{{cite journal |author=Rappé MS, Giovannoni SJ |title=The uncultured microbial majority |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-microbiology_2003_57/page/369 |journal=Annu. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=57 |issue= |pages=369–94 |year=2003 |pmid=14527284 |doi=10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090759}}&lt;/ref&gt; जीवाणुओं का अध्ययन [[बैक्टिरियोलोजी]] के अन्तर्गत किया जाता है जो [[सूक्ष्मजैविकी]] की ही एक शाखा है।&lt;br /&gt; 

[[किपा:E coli at 10000x, original.jpg|thumb|right|200px|ई. कोलाइ नामक जीवाणु, सर्वाधिक अध्ययन किया गया सूक्ष्मजीव]]
मानव शरीर में जितनी मानव कोशिकाएँ है, उसके लगभग १० गुना अधिक जीवाणु कोष है। इनमें से अधिकांश जीवाणु त्वचा तथा अहारनाल में पाए जाते हैं। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Sears CL |title=A dynamic partnership: celebrating our gut flora |journal=Anaerobe |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=247–51 |year=2005 |pmid=16701579 |doi=10.1016/j.anaerobe.2005.05.001}}&lt;/ref&gt; हानिकारक जीवाणु सुरक्षा तंत्र के रक्षक प्रभाव के कारण शरीर को नुकसान नही पहुँचा पाते है। कुछ जीवाणु लाभदायक भी होते हैं। अनेक प्रकार के परजीवी जीवाणु कई रोग उत्पन्न करते हैं, जैसे - हैजा, मियादी बुखार, निमोनिया, [[तपेदिक]] या [[क्षयरोग]], [[प्लेग]] इत्यादि। सिर्फ क्षय रोग से प्रतिवर्ष लगभग २० लाख लोग मरते हैं जिनमें से अधिकांश उप-सहारा क्षेत्र के होते हैं। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web  | url = http://www.who.int/healthinfo/bodgbd2002revised/en/index.html | title = 2002 WHO mortality data | accessdate = 2007-01-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; विकसित देशों में जीवाणुओं के संक्रमण का उपचार करने के लिए तथा कृषि कार्यों में [[प्रतिजैविक]] प्रयोगों के लिए इनका उपयोग होता है, इसलिए जीवाणुओं में इन प्रतिजैविक दवाओं के प्रति प्रतिरोधक शक्ति विकसित होती जा रही है। औद्योगिक क्षेत्र में जीवाणुओं की किण्वन क्रिया द्वारा [[दही]], [[पनीर]] इत्यादि वस्तुओं का निर्माण होता है। इनका उपयोग प्रतिजैविकी तथा और रसायनों के निर्माण में तथा [[जैवप्रौद्योगिकी]] के क्षेत्र में होता है।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Ishige T, Honda K, Shimizu S |title=Whole organism biocatalysis |journal=Curr Opin Chem Biol |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=174–80 |year=2005 |pmid=15811802 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2005.02.001}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt; 
इसके अतिरिक्त [[विषाणु]] जो अतीसूक्ष्म जीव हैं। वे शरीर के बाहर तो मृत होते हैं परंतु शरीर के अंदर जीवित हो जाते हैं। इन्हे क्रिस्टल के रूप मे इकट्ठा किया जा सकता है। [[कवक]] जो एक प्रकार के पौधे हैं, अपना भोजन सड़े गले म्रृत कार्बनिक पदार्थों से प्राप्त करते हैं और जिनका सबसे बडा लाभ संसार मे अपमार्जक के रूप मे कार्य करना है, [[प्रोटोज़ोआ]] जो एक एककोशिकीय जीव है, जिसकी कोशिकायें [[युकैरियोटिक]] प्रकार की होती हैं और साधारण [[सूक्ष्मदर्शी यंत्र]] से आसानी से देखे जा सकता है, [[आर्किया]] या आर्किबैक्टीरिया जो अपने सरल रूप में बैक्टीरिया जैसे ही होते हैं पर उनकी कोशीय संरचना काफ़ी अलग होती है। और [[शैवाल]] जो सरल सजीव हैं, पौधों के समान सूर्य के प्रकाश की उपस्थिति में [[प्रकाश संश्लेषण]] की क्रिया द्वारा अपना भोजन स्वंय बनाते हैं और एक कोशिकीय से लेकर बहु-कोशिकीय अनेक रूपों में हो सकते हैं, परन्तु पौधों के समान इसमें जड़, पत्तियाँ इत्यादि रचनाएँ नहीं पाई जाती हैं भी सूक्ष्मजीवियों की श्रेणी में आते हैं।

== अध्ययनया विधि ==
सूक्ष्मजीव सिक्क सूक्ष्म जुसां इमिगु संरचना सरल दु। थुमिगु सीकेज्याय् [[सूक्ष्मदर्शी यन्त्र]](माइक्रोस्कोप)या महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका दु। इलेक्ट्रोन माइक्रोस्कोपया आविष्कार धुंका इमिगु अध्ययन अझ अपुयावःगु दु। इलेक्ट्रोन सूक्ष्मदर्शीया आवर्धन क्षमता साधारण वायौगिक सूक्ष्मदर्शी स्वया द्वलंद्व गुणा अप्व। थुकिलिं सूक्ष्मजीवतयेगु वास्तविक आकार स्वया लाखों गुणा तग्वयेका स्वे छिं। जीवाणुतयेत अभिरंजित यायेगु विधिया मालेज्या धुंका इमित म्हसीकेत अःपूगु दु। ग्राम स्टेन नांया रंगया ग्वहालिं जीवाणुतयेगु वर्गीकरण व सीकेज्या जुइ। प्रयोगशालाय् संवर्धनं जीवाणुतयेगु कोलोनी बुइकिगु या। थन्याःगु जीवाणु-कोलोनी जीवाणुइ मालेज्या यायेत सीक्क ज्या ब्यु। 

[[किपा:फेज.png|thumb|right|200px|छगू ब्याक्टेरियोफेज]] 

सीकेज्याया निंतिं सूक्ष्मजैविकीया ख्यःयात यक्व शाखाय् बायेछिं: [[माइक्रो बायोकेमिस्ट्री]] इसमें सूक्ष्मजैविक कोशिकाएँ किस प्रकार जैवरासायनिक क्रियाएँ करतीं हैं, इसका अध्ययन तथा सूक्ष्मजैविक उपज, सूक्ष्मजैविक [[उपपाचय]] (मैटाबोलिज़्म) एवं सूक्ष्मजैविक कोशिका संरचना सम्मिलित हैं।  [[सूक्ष्मजैविक अनुवांशिकी]] इसमें
सूक्ष्मजीवों में [[जीन]] तथा उनकी कोशिकीय क्रियाओं के संबंध में, वे किस प्रकार व्यवस्थित व नियमित होते हैं, इसकी जानकारी प्राप्त की जाती है। यह श्रेणी [[आण्विक जैविकी]] के क्षेत्र से निकटता से संबंधित है। [[आयुर्विज्ञान सूक्ष्मजैविकी]] या [[सूक्ष्मजैव आयुर्विज्ञान]] इसमें मानवीय रोगों में सूक्ष्मजीवों की भूमिका का अध्ययन किया जाता है। सूक्ष्मजैविक [[रोगजनन]] एवं महामारी विज्ञान का अध्ययन किया जाता है साथ ही यह रोग [[विकृति विज्ञान]] एवं शरीर के सुरक्षा विज्ञान से भी संबंधित है। [[पशु सूक्ष्मजैविकी]] इसकी सूक्ष्मजीवों की पशु चिकित्सा या पशु वर्गीकरण में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका है। [[पर्यावरण सूक्ष्मजैविकी]] इसमें सूक्ष्मजीवों के प्राकृतिक पर्यावरण/वातावरण में क्रिया व विभेद का अध्ययन किया जाता है तथा इसमें [[सूक्ष्मजैविक पारिस्थितिकी]], सूक्ष्मजैविकीय-मध्यस्थ पोषण चक्र, भूसूक्ष्मजैविकी, सूक्ष्मजैविक विभेद व बायोरीमैडियेशन भी सम्मिलित हैं। &lt;!--- Characterisation of key bacterial habitats such as the [[rhizosphere]] and [[phyllosphere]], [[soil]] and [[groundwater]] [[ecosystem]]s, open [[oceans]] or extreme environments ([[extremophile]]s).---&gt;  [[विकासवादी सूक्ष्मजैविकी]]
इसमें सूक्ष्मजीवों के विकास का अध्ययन किया जाता है साथ ही इसमें जीवाण्विक सुव्यवस्था एवं वर्गीकरण भी सम्मिलित है। [[औद्योगिक सूक्ष्मजैविकी]] इसमें औद्योगिक प्रक्रियाओं में सूक्ष्मजीवों के अनुप्रयोग व उपयोग का अध्ययन किया जाता है। उदाहरणार्थ, औद्योगिक प्रकिण्वन, व्यर्थ जल निरुपण इत्यादि। यह [[जैवप्रौद्योगिकी]] व्यवसाय का निकट संबंधी है। इस क्षेत्र में [[मद्यकरण]] भी सम्मिलित है, जो सूक्ष्मजैविकी का महत्वपूर्ण अनुप्रयोग है। [[वायु सूक्ष्मजैविकी]] यह वायुवाहित सूक्ष्मजीवों का अध्ययन है। [[खाद्य सूक्ष्मजैविकी]]
जिसमें सूक्ष्मजीवों द्वारा खाद्य पदार्थों में खराबी व खाद्य संबंधी रोगों का अध्ययन किया जाता है। सूक्ष्मजीवों को खाद्य पदार्थ उत्पादन हेतु प्रयोग में लाना, जैसे प्रकिण्वन आदि भी इसमें शामिल है। [[औषधीय सूक्ष्मजैविकी]] में औषधियों में दूषण लाने वाले सूक्ष्मजीवों का अध्ययन किया जाता है। [[मौखिक सूक्ष्मजैविकी]]में मुख के भीतर के सूक्ष्मजीवों का अध्ययन, खासकर जो सूक्ष्मजीवी दंतक्षय एवं दंतपरिधीय (पैरियोडॉंन्टल) रोगों के कारण हैं उनका अध्ययन किया जाता है।

== लाभ ==
[[किपा:Samadams2.jpg|thumb|right| 200px|बीयर उत्पादन हेतु [[खमीर]] से पूर्ण टंकियाँ]]
* यद्यपि सूक्ष्मजीवों को उनके विभिन्न मानवीय रोगों से सम्बन्धित होने के कारण, प्रायः नकारात्मक दृष्टि से देखा जाता है, तथापि सूक्ष्मजीव कई लाभदायक प्रक्रियाओं के लिये भी उत्तरदायी होते हैं, जैसे [[औद्योगिक प्रकिण्वन]] (उदाहरण स्वरूप [[मद्यसार]] ([[अल्कोहॉल]]) एवं दुग्ध-उत्पाद), [[जैवप्रतिरोधी]] उत्पादन। यह उच्च श्रेणी के जीवों जैसे  पादपों में क्लोनिंग हेतु वाहन रूप में भी प्रयोग किए जाते हैं। वैज्ञानिकों ने जैवप्रौद्योगिक दृष्टि से महत्वपूर्ण किण्वक जैसे टैक पॉलिमरेज़, रिपोर्टर जीन आदि का उत्पादन करने में अपने सूक्ष्मजीवों के ज्ञान का उपयोग किया है। इन किण्वकों का प्रयोग अन्य अनुवांशिक तंत्रों में व नोवल आण्विक जीवविज्ञान तकनीकों में होता है, जैसे यीस्ट टू-हाइब्रिड सिस्टम इत्यादि।

* जीवाणुओं को अमीनो अम्ल के औद्योगिक उत्पादन के लिये प्रयोग किया जाता है। कॉराइनेबैक्टीरियम ग्लूटैमिकम जीवाणु का प्रयोग एल-ग्लूटामेट एवं एल-लाइसीन नामक अमीनो अम्ल के उत्पादन में किया जाता है, जिससे प्रति वर्ष दो मिलियन टन [[अमीनो अम्ल]] का उत्पादन होता है। &lt;ref name= BurkovskiA&gt;{{cite book | author = बर्कोव्स्की ए (सम्पादक). | title = कॉराइनेबैक्टीरिया: जीनोमिक्स एण्ड मॉलिक्यूलर माइक्रोबायोलॉजी | publisher = सैस्टर ऐकेडैमिक प्रैस | year = 2008 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/cory | id = [http://www.horizonpress.com/cory ISBN 978-1-904455-30-1 ]}}&lt;/ref&gt;। 

* अनेक प्रकार के जैव बहुअणुक जैसे [[पॉलीसैक्कराइड]], [[पॉलिएस्टर]] एवं [[पॉलीएमाइड]]; सूक्ष्मजीवों द्वारा ही उत्पादित किये जाते हैं। सूक्ष्मजीवों का प्रयोग बहुअणुकों के जैवप्रौद्योगिक उत्पादन हेतु भी किया जाता है। यह जीव उच्च मान के आयुर्विज्ञानी अनुप्रयोगों, जैसे ऊतक अभियांत्रिकी एवं ड्रग डिलीवरी के अनुकूल गुणों से लैस किये गये होते हैं। सूक्ष्मजीवों का प्रयोग ज़ैन्थैन, ऐल्जिनेट, सैल्युलोज़, सायनोफाइसिन, पॉली-गामा ग्लूटोनिक अम्ल, लेवैन, हायल्युरॉनिक अम्ल, कार्बनिक ऑलिगोसैक्कराइड एवं [[पॉलीसैक्कराइड]] तथा पॉलीहाइड्रॉक्सीऐल्कैनोएट आदि के जैवसंश्लेषण हेतु भी होता है।&lt;ref name= RehmBHA&gt;{{cite book | author = रेह्म बी.एच.ए. (सम्पादक) | title = माइक्रोबिअल प्रोडक्शन ऑफ बायो पॉलीमर्सेण्ड पॉलीमर प्रीकर्सर्स: ऐप्लीकेशन्स एण्ड पर्स्पैक्टिव्स | publisher = सैस्टर ऐकेडैमिक प्रैस | year = 2008 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/biopolymers | id = [http://www.horizonpress.com/biopolymers ISBN 978-1-904455-36-3 ]}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

* सूक्ष्मजीव घरेलु, कृषि या औद्योगिक कूड़े तथा मृदा (मिट्टी), अवसाद एवं समुद्रीय पर्यावरणों में अधोसतही प्रदूषण के सूक्ष्मजैविक विघटन या जैवपुनर्निर्माण में प्रयुक्त होते हैं। प्रत्येक सूक्ष्मजीव  द्वारा जहरीले कूड़े के विघटन की क्षमता संदूषित के स्वभाव पर भी निर्भर करती है, क्योंकि अधिकांश स्थल विभिन्न प्रकार के प्रदूषकों से युक्त होते हैं। सूक्ष्मजैविक विघटन की सर्वोत्तम प्रभावी पद्धति है- विभिन्न जीवाण्विक जातियों व स्ट्रेन्स, जिनमें से प्रत्येक एक या अनेक प्रकार के संदूषकों के विघटन में सक्षम हो, के मिश्रण का प्रयोग करना।&lt;ref name=Diaz&gt;{{cite book | author = डायज़ ई (सम्पादक). | title = माइक्रोबियल बायोडिग्रेडेसन: जीनोमिक्स एण्ड मॉलीक्युलर माइक्रोबायोलॉजी | edition = प्रथम संस्करण | publisher = सैस्टर ऐकेडैमिक प्रैस | year = 2008 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/biod | id = [http://www.horizonpress.com/biod ISBN 978-1-904455-17-2]}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

* [[प्रोबायोटिक]] (पाचन प्रणाली में संभवतः सहायक जीवाणु) एवं प्रीबायोटिक ([[प्रोबायोटिक]] सूक्ष्मजीवों की बढ़ोत्तरी हेतु लिये गये पदार्थ) पदार्थों से मानवीय व पाश्विक स्वास्थ्य में योगदान के कई दावे भी हुए हैं।&lt;ref name=Tannockpro3&gt;{{cite book | author = टैन्नॉक जी.डब्ल्यु (सम्पादक). | title = प्रोबायोटिक्स एण्ड प्रीबायोटिक्स: साइंटिफिच आस्पैक्ट्स | publisher = सैस्टर ऐकेडैमिक प्रैस | year = 2005 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/pro3 | id = [http://www.horizonpress.com/pro3 ISBN 978-1-904455-01-1]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* हाल के शोधों से ज्ञात हुआ है कि सूक्ष्मजीव [[कैंसर]] के उपचार में भी सहायक हो सकते हैं। गैर-पैथोजैनिक क्लोस्ट्रीडिया के कई स्ट्रेन देते घुसपैठ करके ठोस रसौलियों के अंदर ही प्रतिलिपियां बना सकता है। क्लोस्ट्रिडियल वाहक सौरक्षित रूप से नियंत्रित किये जा सकते हैं, व उनकी चिकित्सा संबंधी प्रोटीनों को वहन करने की क्षमता कई प्रतिरूपों में प्रदर्शित की जा चुकी है।&lt;ref name= Mengesha&gt;{{cite book |author= मैन्जेशा एत एल |year=2009|chapter=क्लोस्ट्रिडिया इन अंटी-ट्यूमर थैरेपी |title=क्लोस्ट्रिडिया: मॉलीक्युलर बायोलॉजी इन द पोस्ट जीनोमिक ऐरा |publisher=सैस्टर ऐकेडैमिक प्रैस |id =  ISBN 978-1-904455-38-7 }}&lt;/ref&gt;    
&lt;!--These traits allowed Joshua and Esther Lederberg to devise an elegant experiment in [[1951]] demonstrating that [[adaptive mutation]]s arise from [[preadaptation]] rather than [[directed mutation]]. For this purpose, they invented [[replica plating]], which allowed them to transfer numerous [[colony (biology)|bacterial colonies]] from their specific locations on one [[agar]]-filled [[petri dish]] to analogous locations on several other petri dishes. After replicating a plate of ''E. coli'', they exposed each of the new plates to a [[bacteriophage]] (also called phage). They observed that phage-resistant colonies were present at analogous locations on each of the plates, allowing them to conclude that the phage resistance trait had existed in the original colony, which had never been exposed to phage, instead of arising after the bacteria had been exposed to the virus.  !-- This was on the page before I modified it to read more like a general description of the field of microbiology, but it just didn't seem to make sense with the rest of the page the way I wrote it. I didn't want to just throw it out, but I don't know what to do with it now! Any suggestions?  --&gt;

=== टीका टिप्पणी ===
&lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''क.'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; {{Note_label|वैर्रो ऑन|क|none}}
...and because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases.  &lt;ref&gt;''वैर्रो ऑन एग्रीकल्चर 1,xii लोएब&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

== सन्दर्भ ==
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{{Reflist|2}}
&lt;references/&gt;

=== विस्तृत पठन ===
&lt;div class=&quot;references-small&quot;&gt;
* {{cite book | author =लर्नर, ब्रेन्डा विल्मौथ &amp; के.ली लर्नर (संपा.) | title = मैडिसिन, हैल्थ एण्ड बायोएथिक्स : असेन्शियल प्राइमरी सोर्सेज़ | edition = प्रथम संस्करण | publisher = थॉमसन गेल | year = 2006 | id = ISBN 1-4144-0623-1 }}
* {{cite book | author = विटज़ैनि, गुएन्थर | title = बायो-कम्युनिकेशन ऑफ बैक्टीरिया एण्ड इत्स इवॉल्यूश्नरी इंटररिलेशन्स टू नैचुरल जीनोम एडिटिंग कॉम्पिटैन्सेज़ ऑफ वायरसेज़| publisher = नेचर प्रिसीडिंग्स | year = 2008 | id = hdl:10101/npre.2008.1738.1 }}

== बाह्य सूत्र ==
{{col-begin}}{{col-2}}&lt;div style=font-size:90%;&gt;
'''सामान्य''' 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080225081412/http://media.med.sc.edu/microbiology2007/ सूक्ष्मजैविकी पर ऑनलाइन व्याख्यान] &lt;br /&gt;द दक्षिण कैरोलिना विश्वविद्यालय
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080913035245/http://www.microbiologytext.com/index.php?module=Book&amp;func=toc&amp;book_id=4 ऑनलाइन सूक्ष्मजैविकी पाठ्यपुस्तक]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080913123627/http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/ टोडर की जीवाणु विज्ञान पुस्तक]
* [http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/book/welcome.htm ऑनलाइन चिकित्सा सूक्ष्मजैविकी पाठ्यपुस्तक]
'''जर्नल्स'''
* [[:en:Critical Reviews in Microbiology|क्रिटिकल रिव्यूज़ इन माइक्रोबायोलॉजी]] ([http://www.informaworld.com/crmicrobiology जर्नल होम])
* [[:en:Journal of Bacteriology|जरनल ऑफ बैक्टीरियोलॉजी]]
{{col-2}}&lt;div style=font-size:90%;&gt;
* [[:en:International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology|इंटरनेशनल जरनल ऑफ सिस्टमैटिक इवॉल्यूश्नरी माइक्रोबायोलॉजी]]
* [[:en:Nature Reviews Microbiology|नेचर रिव्यूज़ माइक्रोबायोलॉजी]] ([http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/index.html जरनल होम])
* [[:en:Springer Protocols|स्प्रिंजर प्रोटोकॉल्स]] इन माइक्रोबायोलॉजी
'''व्यावसायिक प्रतिष्ठान'''
* [http://www.microbiologystudents.com/ सूक्ष्मजैविकी छात्रों हेतु सूचना प्रवेशद्वार (पोर्टल)]
* [http://www.iari.res.in/krishisewa/Center19/Center19.htm भारतीय कृषि अनुसंधान संस्थान का सूक्ष्म जीवविज्ञान विभाग]
* [http://www.asm.org/ अमरीकन सूक्ष्मजैविकी समिति]
* [http://www.socgenmicrobiol.org.uk/ सामान्य सूक्ष्मजैविकी समाज]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100529013421/http://www.simhq.org/ औद्योगिक सूक्ष्मजैविकी समाज]
{{col-end}}
{{Biology-footer}}
{{सूक्ष्मजैविकी}}

{{Commonscat|Microbiology}}

[[पुचः:सूक्ष्मजैविकी| ]]
[[पुचः:जीव विज्ञान]]
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{| class=&quot;infobox&quot;
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-above&quot; style=&quot;padding:0.25em;background:white;&quot; |किपु, खिपु&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;font-weight:normal&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-image&quot; style=&quot;padding-top:0.4em;padding-bottom:0.4em;&quot; |[[File:Inca_Quipu.jpg|frameless]]
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; style=&quot;padding-right:0.6em;&quot; |लिपिया प्रकार
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |&lt;div style=&quot;display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.25em&quot;&gt; अन्य &lt;/div&gt;
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; style=&quot;padding-right:0.6em;&quot; |&lt;div style=&quot;display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; &quot;&gt;समयावधि&lt;/div&gt;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |२६००इपू - १७गू शताब्दी (छुं वर्तमानय् नं प्रयोगय् दु) 
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; style=&quot;padding-right:0.6em;&quot; |क्षेत्र
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |मध्य एन्देज, उत्तर चिको लहना, पाराकास तजिलजि, वारी तजिलजि, आयमारा, इङ्का 
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; style=&quot;padding-right:0.6em;&quot; |भाषा
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |आयमारा, किचुआ, पुक्विना
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-header&quot; style=&quot;background:#ddd&quot; |स्वापू दूगु लिपि
|-
! class=&quot;infobox-label&quot; scope=&quot;row&quot; style=&quot;padding-right:0.6em;&quot; |&lt;div style=&quot;display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; &quot;&gt;भातृ लिपि&lt;/div&gt;
| class=&quot;infobox-data&quot; |चिनिया गथं, वाम्पुम 
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;infobox-below noprint selfref&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:#eee;&quot; |&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:90%&quot;&gt;थ्व च्वसुलि अन्तरराष्ट्रिय ध्वनि लिपि (IPA) या ध्वन्यात्मक रूपांतरण दु । &amp;nbsp;&amp;#x20;IPA चिंतेगु बारेय् जानकारीया निंतिं ग्वहालि:आईपीए स्वयादिसँ ।&lt;/span&gt;
|}

[[किपा:Quipo_in_the_Museo_Machu_Picchu,_Casa_Concha,_Cusco.jpg|thumb|300x300px|कुस्को नगरया कासा कोन्चाय् दूगु म्युसियो माचुपिचुइ ब्वयातःगु किपु ]]


'''किपु''' (वा '''खिपु''') छगू प्रकारया सूचं स्वथेगु ज्याभः ख। थ्व ज्याभः सुका वा खिपः छ्यला दयेकि। थ्व ज्याभः ऐतिहासिक रुपं एन्दियन दक्षिण अमेरिकाया थीथी तजिलजिइ जूगु खनेदु।&lt;ref name=&quot;NYT-20160102&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|last=Neuman|first=William|title=Untangling an Accounting Tool and an Ancient Inca Mystery|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/03/world/americas/untangling-an-accounting-tool-and-an-ancient-incan-mystery.html|date=January 2, 2016|work=[[New York Times]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

किपु साधारण कथं कपाय् वा उनया का  छ्येला दयेकिगु या। इङ्कातेसं किपुया प्रयोग सूचं मुंकेत,अभिलेख तयेत, कर निरिक्षण, मनूल्याया ल्याखँ मुंकेत, पात्रोया निंतिं, व सैन्य संगठनय् याःगु खनेदु।&lt;ref&gt;D'altroy, Terence N. (2001). 18&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व ज्याभःया सुकाय् थीथी ल्या व अन्य सूचंयात थीथी गथिं दयेका स्वथनी। थ्व ज्याभलय् स्वथंगु ल्याखँ आपालं १०गू ल्याया ल्याखँ व्यवस्थाय् आधारित दु। छता किपुय् छुं गथिं निसें कया द्वलंद्व गथिं तक लूगु दु।&lt;ref name=&quot;AncientScripts&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ancientscripts.com/quipu.html|title=Ancient Scripts: Quipu|work=www.ancientscripts.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; किपुया संरचनायात &quot;स्ट्रिंग मप्स&quot; लिसे तुलना यानातःगु दु।&lt;ref&gt;Urton, Gary, Carrie Brezine. Harvard University. (2009)&lt;/ref&gt;  पुरातात्विक अवशेषं किपु चिनेत भिंकः चानाःतःगु बुट्टा दूगु बल्लाःगु सिंया आधार लुइकूगु दु । &lt;ref&gt;D'altroy, Terence N. (2001). 16–17&lt;/ref&gt; थन्याःगु आधार सिं वर्तमानया ईलय् म्हो मात्राय् जकः ल्यंगु दु। 

किपु धका म्हसीकेछिंगु वस्तु पुरातात्विक दसुय् न्हापांगु सहस्राव्दी इसं निसें खनेदु। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=ARCHAEOLOGY: Unraveling Khipu's Secrets|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2005-08-12_309_5737/page/1008|journal=Science|date=12 August 2005|volume=309|issue=5737|pages=1008–1009|doi=10.1126/science.309.5737.1008|pmid=16099962}}&lt;/ref&gt; किपु जुइफूगु वस्तु धाःसा थ्व स्वया यक्व न्ह्यःया ईलय् नापं खनेदु।&lt;ref name=&quot;dying&quot; /&gt; किपुं कालान्तरय् कुस्कोया राजतन्त्रय् १३-१५गू शताब्दी ईस्वी तकया प्रशासनय् महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका म्हितल। नापं लिपाय इङ्का साम्राज्यय् १४३८ निसें १५३३ तक किपुया छ्यला व्यापक जूगु खनेदु। थ्व कथं एन्देज पर्वः झ्वलय् बुयावःगु लहनाय् थ्व ज्याभः करिब ११०० निसें १५३२ तक प्रयोजनय् दूगु खनेदु।  थ्व क्षेत्र स्पेनी साम्राज्यया अधीनय् जुइधुंकाः किपुयात युरोपियन लिपि व ल्याखँ प्रणालीं आपालं विस्थापित यात , अले अधिकांश किपुयात ख्रिस्ति धर्मीतेसं मूर्ति पूजा याइपिं अधर्मीतेगु ज्याभः धकाः थ्व परम्परा सिधेकेगु कुतः यात। छुं स्पेनिसतय्सं प्रशासनय् आवश्यकता कथं किपुयात दर्ता व्यवस्था अनुकूल यायेगु ज्या, व छुं पादरीपिंसं ख्रिस्ति धर्म फैलेयात थ्व ज्याभः छ्येलेगु कुतःयासां धार्मिक व सांस्कृतिक रुपय् एन्देजया तजिलजि दमन यायेगु स्पेनी निरंकुश व्यवस्थाय् थ्व पद्धति लोप जूवन ।&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=A History of the Khipu|date=2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; एन्देज पर्वःझ्वलय् आःतक नं छुं गांम्य् किपुयात सांस्कृतिक वस्तुया रुपय् संरक्षित यानातःगु दु। वर्तमानय् किपुया पाय्छि ल्याखँ अज्ञात दु, यक्व किपुतेत इङ्कातेगु समाधिइ मुंका छ्वःगु नं खनेदु। [1]&lt;ref name=&quot;dying&quot;&gt;Urton, Gary. (2011). &quot;Tying the Archive in Knots, or: Dying to Get into the Archive in Ancient Peru&lt;/ref&gt;

हलिंया थीथी तजिलजिं दक्षिण अमेरिकी क्विपु थें न्याःगु तर किपुनाप स्वापू मदूगु, सुकाया गथःतेत सूचं स्वथनेत छ्येलातःगु खनेदु। थन्याःगु प्रविधि प्राचीन चीन, सँदेय्, जापान, व पोलिनेसियाया तजिलजिइ खनेदु।&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=平成29年度 琉球大学附属図書館・琉球大学博物館（風樹館）企画展 石垣市制施行70周年記念企画展|url=https://www.lib.u-ryukyu.ac.jp/library/digia/tenji/tenji2017/05.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;
{{Cite web|title=Das Arithmeum »Frühere Veranstaltungen» Warazan – Datenspeicher aus Stroh|url=http://www.arithmeum.uni-bonn.de/de/events/20}}
&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;
{{Cite web|title=Ancient Chinese Version Of Quipu -Tradition Of Tying Knots Dates Back To Antiquity|url=https://www.messagetoeagle.com/ancient-chinese-version-quipu-tradition-tying-knots-dates-back-antiquity/}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Tubo I&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=新唐書/卷216上|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh/新唐書/卷216上}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;
[https://books.google.nl/books?id=TLbYY804e90C Quipu], page 99: &quot; [...] one can use the phrase chieh sheng chi shih, which means 'the memorandum or record of knotted cords,' to refer to how Chinese writing evolved before characters were invented.&quot;
&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;
{{Cite book|title=Pacific Ethnomathematics: A Bibliographic Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Y4BEAAAQBAJ}} 
&lt;/ref&gt;

किपु स्पेनिश खँग्वः Quipuनं बुयावःगु खः । कुस्को क्वेशा (एन्देजया मूलबासीतेगु भासा) भासय् धाःसा थुकियात खिपु (Khipu) धाइ गुकिया बहुवचन खिपुकुना (khipukuna) खः। थ्व भासय् थ्व खँग्वःया अर्थ गथः ख।  मेमेगु स्थानीय मूलबासी भासय् धाःसा थुकियात किपु हे धाइ।

== नामाकरण ==
किपु धइगु एक क्वेश्वा खँग्वः खः। थ्व खँग्वःया अर्थ 'गथः'(नाम) वा 'गथः चिनेगु'(क्रिया) ख।&lt;ref&gt;[[Quipu#Urt03|Urton 2003]]. p. 1.&lt;/ref&gt; किपु व खिपु धइगु छगू हे खँग्वःया थीथी उच्चारण खः । किपु स्पेनिस लिप्यंतरणय् आधारित परम्परागत खँग्वः खः धाःसा खिपु वर्तमान क्वेश्वा व  आयमारा भासय् जूगु लिप्यन्तरण/उच्चारण हिउपा खः।

== छ्यलाज्या ==
[[किपा:Nueva_corónica_y_buen_gobierno_(1936_facsimile)_p360.png|thumb|किपुकुमायाया किपा सफू एल प्रिमेर नुएभा कोरोनिकाय् । क्वसं देपाय् इङ्का ल्याखायेगु ज्याभः युपाना क्यनातःगु दु।  ]]
किपुय् स्वथनातःगु आपालं सूचं देसिमल व्यवस्थाय् दूगु ल्याखँ जूगु अनुसन्धानकर्तातय्गु धापु दु।&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The last of the Incas: the rise and fall of an American empire|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lastofincasrisef0000hyam/page/80 80]}}&lt;/ref&gt; दसुया निंतिं सुं छम्ह  प्रशासकं गु प्रान्तय् मेगु स्वया म्हो उत्पादन जुल धकाः स्वयेत थ्व ज्याभः छ्यलि।  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Quipu: &quot;Written&quot; Texts in Ancient Peru|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_princeton-university-library-chronicle_autumn-1975_37_1/page/11|journal=The Princeton University Library Chronicle|date=1975|volume=37|issue=1|pages=11–23|doi=10.2307/26403946}}&lt;/ref&gt; पेरूय् स्पेनीतेगु कब्जा धुंकाया न्हापांगु  इलय्, स्पेनिश अधिकारीतय्सं स्थानीय कर भुक्तानी वा वस्तु उत्पादन सम्बन्धी विवाद समाधान यायेत किपु छ्यलातल। किपुकुमाया (क्वचेवा भासय् khipu kamayuq &quot;किपु विशेषज्ञ&quot;, बहुवचन:किपु कुमायाकुना ''khipu'' ''kamayuqkuna'')तेत अदालतय् सःता इमिगु किपु लेखायात प्रमाणित दस्ताबेजया निंतिं मान्यता बियातःगु खनेदु।

छुं गथः, व गथःया मेमेगु गुण (दसु रङ्ग)तेसं ल्याखँ स्वया पाःगु सूचं ब्वयेत छ्यलातःगु जुसां आतक छु रङ्गं/गुणं छु खँ प्रतिनिधि याइ धाःगु खँ आतक थुइके मफुनि। सामान्यतया विज्ञतेगु धारणा दु कि किपु व्यवस्थाय् वर्णमालाया आखः वा समान सः चिं समाविष्ट मदु। तर, ग्यारि अर्तनया विचाः कथं किपुलि बाइनरी व्यवस्था छ्यला फोनोलोजिकल व लोगोग्राफिक सूचं स्वथनातःगु दु।&lt;ref&gt;[[Quipu#Urt03|Urton 2003]].&lt;/ref&gt; वय्कःया विद्यार्थी म्यानी मेद्रानों जनगणना तथ्याङ्क स्वथनातःगु किपुया सूचं सीकेगु ज्या यानादिगु दु ।&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=A student mines voices from the Incan past|date=25 August 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Toward the Decipherment of a Set of Mid-Colonial Khipus from the Santa Valley, Coastal Peru|journal=Ethnohistory|date=1 January 2018|volume=65|issue=1|pages=1–23|doi=10.1215/00141801-4260638}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== ल्या व्यवस्था ===
मार्सिया एशर व रोबर्ट एशरं यक्व किपु अध्ययन याःसें थ्व खँ सीकादिल कि किपुइ दूगु अधिकांश सूचं ल्या आखः व ल्याखँ ख, अले थ्व ल्याखँत झिसं ब्वनेछिं। सकल गथःया पुचःतेत छगू-छगू ल्या प्रतिनिधित्व याकेत दयेकातःगु व सकल किपुइ स्वथि गथः दु : सरल ओभरह्यान्द गथः; &quot;ताःहाः गथः&quot;, गुकिलि छथी ओभरह्यान्द गथः व छग्वः वा अप्व हिला दै, व फिगर एत गथः। एशरया व्यवस्थाय् फिगर एत गथलय् छग्वः हिला दःसा उकियात  &quot;EE&quot; धकाः धयातःगु दु। EEया अर्थ इभोल्यूसनरी एदिकेत (evolutionary eddicate) खः । छगू ल्या १० आधारय् गथःया झ्वलं प्रतिनिधित्व याइ ।&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Quipu&quot; (2012)&lt;/ref&gt;

*

== लिधंसा ==

=== लिखँ ===

[[पुचः:इङ्का साम्राज्य]]
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[[Image:CC0-icon-80x15.png|50px]]
[[Image:202304 G protein-coupled receptor.svg|thumb]]

{{Infobox protein family
| Symbol = 7tm_1
| Name = GPCR
| image = 4DJH.png
| width = 
| caption = The human [[kappa opioid receptor|k-opioid receptor]] in complex with [[JDTic]]&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22437504&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author = Wu H, Wacker D, Mileni M, Katritch V, Han GW, Vardy E, Liu W, Thompson AA, Huang XP, Carroll FI, Mascarella SW, Westkaemper RB, Mosier PD, Roth BL, Cherezov V, Stevens RC | title = Structure of the human κ-opioid receptor in complex with JDTic | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2012-05-17_485_7398/page/327 | journal = Nature | volume = 485 | issue = 7398 | pages = 327–32 | year = 2012 | month = May | pmid = 22437504 | doi = 10.1038/nature10939 | pmc = 3356457 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Pfam = PF00001 
| Pfam_clan = 
| InterPro = IPR000276
| SMART = 
| PROSITE = PDOC00210 
| MEROPS =
| SCOP = 
| TCDB = 
| OPM family = 6
| OPM protein = 1gzm
| CAZy = 
| CDD =
}}
[[File:PDB 1hzx 7TM Sketch Membrane.png|thumb|The seven-transmembrane α-helix structure of a G-protein-coupled receptor]]
'''जि प्रोटिन कपल्ड रिसेप्टर्स''' ('''GPCRs''') वा सेभेन ट्रान्समेम्ब्रेन डोमेन रिसेप्टर्स वा सर्पेन्टाइन रिसेप्टर छगू तःधंगु प्रोटिन परिवार ख। थ्व प्रोटिन परिवारं मेम्ब्रेन रिसेप्टरया ज्या या। थुकिलिं सेल पिनेया मोलेक्युलयात सेन्स याना सेल दुने सिग्नल ट्रान्सडक्सन पाथवे, अतः, सेलुलर रेस्पोन्स न्ह्यथनि। थ्व प्रोटिनं सेल मेम्ब्रेन पार याना च्वनिगु जूगुलिं थुकियात ट्रान्समेम्ब्रेन रिसेप्टर धाइगु या। थ्व प्रोटिनं सेल मेम्ब्रेन ७कः पार याइगुलिं थुकियात सेभेन ट्रान्समेम्ब्रेन रिसेप्टर धाइ।

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}
{{Commonscat|G protein coupled receptors}}

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[[Image:Black-rumped Flameback I IMG 7424.jpg|left|thumb|A [[black-rumped flameback]]]]
[[Image:Dendrocopos major skull.jpg|thumb|Diagram showing the hyoid bone of ''[[Dendrocopos major]]]]
[[Image:Ladder-back Woodpecker on Cactus.jpg|thumb|upright|Use of [[cacti]]]]

{{Taxobox
| name = खतांझंगः, सिँक्वाःझंगः
| image = Melanerpes striatus001.jpg
| image_caption = [[हिस्पानियोलान खतांझंगः]]&lt;br&gt;
{{audio|Woodpecker tapping.ogg|Tapping sound of a woodpecker}}
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| subclassis = [[Neornithes]]
| infraclassis = [[Neognathae]]
| superordo = [[Neoaves]]
| ordo = [[Piciformes]]
| subordo = [[Pici (taxon)|Pici]]
| familia = '''Picidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Nicholas Aylward Vigors|Vigors]], 1825
| subdivision_ranks = [[Subfamily|Subfamilies]]
| subdivision =[[Jynginae]] – wrynecks&lt;br&gt;
[[Nesoctitinae]] – Antillean Piculet&lt;br&gt;
[[Picinae]] – woodpeckers, sapsuckers&lt;br&gt;
[[Picumninae]] – typical piculets
}}

'''खतांझंगः''' वा '''सिँक्वाःझंगः''' पिसिदे (Picidae) परिवारया झंगः ख। थ्व परिवारया झंगः हलिमय् [[अस्त्रेलिया]], [[न्यु जिल्यान्द]], [[मादागास्कर]] व मेमेगु अति हे ध्रुवीय थासय् जक्क मदु। थुकिया आपालं प्रजाति [[जंगल]]य् च्वनि धाःसा छुं प्रजाति सिमा मदूगु क्षेत्र दसु पत्थरी गुं लागा व मरुभूमिइ च्वं। 
 
पिसिदे [[Piciformes]] अर्दरया ८ता जक्क ल्यं दनिगु म्वानाच्वंगु परिवारय् छता ख। पिसिफर्मस् अर्दरया मेमेगु झंगः दसु [[jacamar]], पफबर्द (puffbird), क्यापितोनिदे (Capitonidae), तोउक्यान (toucan), व हनिगाइद (honeyguide)तयेत पारम्परिक रुपय् खताझंगः, पिकुलेत (piculet), राइनेक (wryneck), व स्यापसकर (sapsucker)नाप नापंया स्वापू दूगु प्राणीया रुपय् कायेगु या। आधुनिक दिएनए सिक्वेन्सं थ्व विचायात पाय्‌छि धकाः क्यंगु दु।  &lt;ref name =Johansson&gt;{{cite journal|author=Johansson, U.S. &amp; Ericson, G.P. |year=2003|title= Molecular support for a sister group relationship between Pici and Galbulae (Piciformes sensu Wetmore 1960)|journal=[[Journal of Avian Biology|J. Avian Biol.]]|volume=34|issue=2|pages= 185–197|doi=10.1034/j.1600-048X.2003.03103.x|url=http://www.nrm.se/download/18.4e32c81078a8d9249800021325/Johansson%2520&amp;%2520Ericson%2520-%2520Piciformes%5B1%5D.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

थ्व परिवारया ३०गु जेनेराय् करिब २०० प्रजाति दु। थ्व परिवारया यक्व प्रजातितेगु प्राकृतिक वासस्थान मासेजूगुलिं लोपोन्मुख दु। निता प्रजाति आइभोरी बिल्द वुदपेकर (Ivory-billed Woodpecker) व इम्पेरियल वुदपेकर (Imperial Woodpecker) ३० दँ निसें लोप जूगु धका कायेगु या। (थ्व विषयय् अझ नं छुं प्रतिवाद दनि)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of North American Birds: An Essential Guide to Common Birds of North America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=borUJD5amQAC&amp;pg=PT2260|year= 2009|publisher=MobileReference|isbn=978-1-60501-267-4|pages=2260–}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}
{{Reflist|35em|refs=
&lt;ref name=Benz&gt;{{cite journal|author=Benz, Brett W.; Robbins, Mark B. &amp; Peterson, A. Townsend |year=2006|title= Evolutionary history of woodpeckers and allies (Aves: Picidae): Placing key taxa on the phylogenetic tree|url=https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2006_40_2/page/389 |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.]]|volume=40|issue=2|pages= 389–399|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Cracraft&gt;{{cite journal|author=Cracraft, Joel &amp; Morony, John J. Jr. |year=1969|title= A new Pliocene woodpecker, with comments on the fossil Picidae|journal=American Museum Novitates|volume=2400|pages= 1–8|url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/2610/1/N2400.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name = &quot;Gibson&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|author=Gibson L. |year=2006|title=Woodpecker pecking: how woodpeckers avoid brain injury|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=270|pages= 462–465 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00166.x|issue=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Grimaldi&gt;{{cite journal|author=Grimaldi, David A. &amp; Case, Gerard Ramon |year=1995|title= A feather in amber from the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey|journal=American Museum Novitates|volume=3126|pages= 1–6|url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/3571/1/N3126.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name =Johansson&gt;{{cite journal|author=Johansson, U.S. &amp; Ericson, G.P. |year=2003|title= Molecular support for a sister group relationship between Pici and Galbulae (Piciformes sensu Wetmore 1960)|journal=[[Journal of Avian Biology|J. Avian Biol.]]|volume=34|issue=2|pages= 185–197|doi=10.1034/j.1600-048X.2003.03103.x|url=http://www.nrm.se/download/18.4e32c81078a8d9249800021325/Johansson%2520&amp;%2520Ericson%2520-%2520Piciformes%5B1%5D.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Kotaka&gt;{{cite journal|author=Kotaka N and Matsuoka, S |url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/osj/1/2/117/_pdf |title=Secondary users of Great Spotted Woodpecker (''Dendrocopos major'') nest cavities in urban and suburban forests in Sapporo City, northern Japan|journal=Ornithological Science|volume=1|issue=2|pages= 117–122|doi=10.2326/osj.1.117|year=2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Moore&gt;{{cite journal|author=Moore, William S.; Weibel, Amy C. &amp; Agius, Andrea |year=2006|title= Mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of the woodpecker genus ''Veniliornis'' (Picidae, Picinae) and related genera implies convergent evolution of plumage patterns|journal=[[Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|Biol. J. Linn. Soc.]]|volume=87|issue=4|pages= 611–624|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2006.00586.x|url=http://bio.wayne.edu/profhtml/moore/PUBLICATIONS/MooreEtal2006Veniliornis.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Schwab&gt;{{cite journal|author=Schwab I|doi=10.1136/bjo.86.8.843|title=Cure for a headache|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-ophthalmology_2002-08_86_8/page/n18|year=2002|journal=British Journal of Ophthalmology|volume=86|issue=8|pages=843}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[झंगः]]
{{Commonscat|Picidae}}

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संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिकाया कारतेत निता भागय् बायेछिं, अमेरिकाया बजाःय् दूगु कार व अमेरिकाय् दयेकिगु कार। थ्व नितां पुचःया कारत थ्व कथं दु-

==अमेरिकाया बजाःय् दूगु कार==
संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिकाया बजाःय् दूगु मू कार थ्व कथं दु &lt;ref&gt;[http://autos.nytimes.com/researchSelect.aspx अतो न्युयर्क ताइम्स]&lt;/ref&gt;-
* [[एकुरा]]
* [[एस्तन मार्तिन]]
* [[अउदि]]
* [[बेन्त्ले]]
* [[बिएमदबल्यु]]
* [[बुइक]]
* [[क्यादिल्याक]]
* [[शेभ्रोले]]
* [[क्राइस्लर]]
* [[दज]]
* [[फरारी]]
* [[फियात]]
* [[फिसकर]]
* [[फर्द]]
* [[जिएमसि]]
* [[होन्दा]]
* [[ह्युन्दाइ]]
* [[इन्फिनिति]]
* [[ज्यागुआर]]
* [[जिप]]
* [[किया]]
* [[ल्याम्बरगिनि]]
* [[ल्यान्द रोवर]]
* [[लेक्सस]]
* [[लिङ्कन]]
* [[लोतस]]
* [[मेसाराति]]
* [[मेब्याक]]
* [[माज्दा]]
* [[मर्सिदिज बेञ्ज]]
* [[मिनि]]
* [[मित्सुबिसि]]
* [[निसान]]
* [[पोर्श]]
* [[र्याम (कार)]]
* [[रोल्स रोइस]]
* [[साब]]
* [[सायन]]
* [[स्मार्त]]
* [[सुबारु]]
* [[सुजुकी]]
* [[तेस्ला]]
* [[तोयोता]]
* [[भोल्क्सव्यागन]]
* [[भल्भो]]

==अमेरिकाय् दयेकिगु कार==
अमेरिकाया बजाःय् मू प्रभाव त्वतुगु न्हापाया व आःया कार कम्पनीत थ्व कथं दु- 
*[[क्राइस्लर]] (सन् १९२५–वर्तमान)
**[[Chalmers Automobile|Chalmers-Detroit/Chalmers]] (1908–1923)
**[[देसोतो (अतोमोबाइल)|देसोतो]] (1929–1961)
**[[दज]] (सन् १९१४–वर्तमान)
**[[इगल अतोमोबाइल्स|इगल]] (1988–1998)
**[[इम्पेरियल (अतोमोबाइल)|इम्पेरियल]] (1955–1975, 1981–1983)
**[[जिप]] (सन् १९४१–वर्तमान)&lt;ref&gt;1941 first '''Willys''' Jeep produced. {{cite web|author=Auto Editors of ''Consumer Guide'' | title=1940-1941 Jeep |url=http://auto.howstuffworks.com/1940-1941-jeep5.htm |date=14 December 2007 |accessdate=25 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;1945 first civilian model. {{cite journal| first=Tony |last=Swan |title=Jeep Thrills | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-mechanics_1991-01_168_1/page/106 | journal=Popular Mechanics |volume=168 |issue=1 |month=January |year=1991 |pages=106–107 |accessdate=25 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
**[[म्याक्सवेल मोतर कम्पनी|म्याक्सवेल]] (1905–1925)
**[[प्लाइमाउथ (कार)|प्लाइमाउथ]] (1928–2001)
**[[र्याम त्रक्स|र्याम]] (2009–present)
**[[भ्यालियन्त (अतोमोबाइल)|भ्यालियन्त]] (1960–1966)
*[[फर्द मोतर कम्पनी|फर्द]] (सन् १९०३–वर्तमान)
**[[कान्तिनेन्तल मार्क II|कान्तिनेन्तल]] (1956–1958)
**[[एद्सेल]] (1958–1960)
**[[लिङ्कन (अतोमोबाइल)|लिङ्कन]] (सन् १९२०–वर्तमान)
**[[मर्करी (अतोमोबाइल)|मर्करी]] (सन् १९३९–सन् २०१०)
*[[जेनेरल मोतर्स कर्पोरेसन|जेनेरल मोतर्स]]
**[[बुइक]] (सन् १९०३–वर्तमान)
***[[मार्केत अतोमोबाइल|मार्केत]] (1930)
**[[क्यादिल्याक (अतोमोबाइल)|क्यादिल्याक]] (सन् १९०२–वर्तमान)
***[[लासाल (अतोमोबाइल)|लासाल]] (सन् १९२७–सन् १९४०)
**[[कार्तरकार]] (1906–1916)
**[[सेभ्रोले]] (सन् १९११–वर्तमान)
***[[जियो (अतोमोबाइल)|जियो]] (1988–1998)
**[[एल्मोर (अतोमोबाइल)|एल्मोर]] (1893–1912)
**[[इविङ्ग (अतोमोबाइल)|इविङ्ग]] (1908–1911)
**[[GMC त्रक|GMC]] (1911–present)
**[[हमर]] (1992–2010)
**[[ओकल्यान्द अतोमोबाइल|ओकल्यान्द]] (1907–1931)
***[[पोन्ताइक]] (सन् १९२६–सन् २०१०)
**[[ओल्द्समोबाइल]] (1897–2004)
***[[भाइकिङ्ग अतोमोबाइल|भाइकिङ्ग]] (1929–1931)
**[[रेइनियर मोतर कार कम्पनी|रेइनियर]] (1905–1911)
**[[स्यातर्न कर्पोरेसन|स्यातर्न]] (1990–2010)
**[[स्क्रिप्स बुथ]] (1913–1923)
**[[शेरिदान (अतोमोबाइल)|शेरिदान]] (1920–1921)
**[[वेल्च मोतर कार कम्पनी|वेल्च]] (1903–1911)
**[[वेल्च-देत्रोइ (अतोमोबाइल)|वेल्च-देत्रोइ]] (1910–1911)

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[अटोमोबाइल]]

[[पुचः:कार]]</text>
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      <text bytes="15759" sha1="06ipfwk0xw5vxw4yat2qkgw9p6uyel7" xml:space="preserve">{{नेपाललिपिपरिक्षण|छ्येलेमि:Eukesh/Auto/NepalScript/क्राइस्लर}}

{{Infobox company
| name     = क्राइस्लर ग्रुप LLC
| logo     = [[File:Chrysler starlogo.svg|border|250px]]
| type     = [[लिमितेद लायबिलिति कम्पनी]]
| predecessor      = Chrysler LLC&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2007–2009)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;DaimlerChrysler AG&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1998–2007)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;Chrysler Corporation&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1925–1998)&lt;/small&gt;
| foundation       = [[जुन ६]], सन् १९२५&lt;br /&gt;August 2007 (rebirth after [[DaimlerChrysler]] 1998-2007 years)
| founder          = [[वाल्तर क्राइस्लर]]
| location_city    = [[Auburn Hills, Michigan]], U.S.
| locations        = [[List of Chrysler factories]]
| area_served      = Worldwide
| key_people       = [[Sergio Marchionne]] &lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Chairman and CEO) &amp; Fiat CEO&lt;/small&gt;
| industry         = [[Automotive industry|Automotive]]
| products         = Automobiles&lt;br /&gt;[[List of auto parts|Automotive parts]]
| revenue          = {{increase}} US$ 65.80 billion &lt;small&gt;(2012)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name=Profit12&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.allpar.com/news/index.php/2013/01/chrysler-made-1-7-billion-in-2012 |title=Chrysler Made $1.7 Billion in 2012, 2013|publisher=Allpar LLC|accessdate=30 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| operating_income = {{increase}} US$ 381.0 million &lt;small&gt;(2011)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name=Form10&gt;{{cite web|url=http://services.corporate-ir.net/SEC/Document.Service?id=P3VybD1odHRwOi8vaXIuaW50Lndlc3RsYXdidXNpbmVzcy5jb20vZG9jdW1lbnQvdjEvMDAwMTE5MzEyNS0xMi0wOTkwNjkvZG9jL0NocnlzbGVyR3JvdXBMTENfMTBLXzIwMTIwMzA2LnBkZiZ0eXBlPTImZm49Q2hyeXNsZXJHcm91cExMQ18xMEtfMjAxMjAzMDYucGRm |title=Chrysler Group LLC 10-K, 2011|publisher=Chrysler Group LLC|accessdate=7 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

| net_income       = {{increase}} US$ 1.70 billion &lt;small&gt;(2012)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name=Profit12/&gt;
| assets           = {{increase}} US$ 37.54 billion &lt;small&gt;(2011)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name=Form10/&gt;
| equity           = {{nowrap|{{increase}} US$ 6.035 billion &lt;small&gt;(2011)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name=Form10/&gt;}}
| num_employees    = 55,687 &lt;small&gt;(December 2011)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name=Form10/&gt;
| owner            = {{nowrap|[[Fiat S.p.A.]] (61.8%)&lt;br /&gt;[[United Auto Workers|UAW]] [[Voluntary Employee Beneficiary Association|VEBA]] (38.2%)}}
| divisions        = [[Chrysler (division)|Chrysler]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Dodge]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Jeep]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Ram Trucks|Ram]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Fiat]] (USA)&lt;br/&gt;[[Mopar]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Street and Racing Technology|SRT]]
| subsid           = [[Chrysler Australia]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Chrysler Canada]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Global Electric Motorcars|GEM]]
| subsid           = 
| homepage         = [http://www.chryslergroupllc.com/ ChryslerGroupLLC.com] http://www.chrysler.com/crossbrand/intl_site_locator/
}}

'''क्राइस्लर ग्रुप LLC''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|k|r|aɪ|s|l|ər}}) छगू अमेरिकी अतोमेकर ख। सन् २००९निसें थ्व कम्पनी इतालियन अतोमोबाइल निर्माता [[फियात]]नाप रणनैतिक ग्लोबल अलायन्सय् दु। 

क्राइस्लर दकलय् न्ह्यः सन् १९२५स क्राइस्लर कर्पोरेसनया रुपय् वःगु ख।&lt;ref name=&quot;jbchrysler&quot;&gt;{{cite web| url=http://www.jbcarpages.com/chrysler/|title=Chrysler Reviews and History|publisher=JB car pages|accessdate=September 22, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; थुकिया आःया कोर ब्रान्दय् [[क्राइस्लर]], [[जिप]], [[दज]], [[र्याम (कार)|र्याम]], [[एसआरति]], फियात, व [[मोपार]] गसा दु। थ्व कम्पनीया मुख्यालय [[अबर्न हिल्स, मिशिगन]] (देतोइया सबर्ब)य् दु। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.chryslergroupllc.com/company/Pages/AboutUs.aspx |title=About us |publisher=Chrysler Group |accessdate=February 22, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

क्राइस्लरया उत्पादन संक्षेपय् थ्व कथं दु-
*[[क्राइस्लर]] (सन् १९२५–वर्तमान)
**[[Chalmers Automobile|Chalmers-Detroit/Chalmers]] (1908–1923)
**[[देसोतो (अतोमोबाइल)|देसोतो]] (1929–1961)
**[[दज]] (सन् १९१४–वर्तमान)
**[[इगल अतोमोबाइल्स|इगल]] (1988–1998)
**[[इम्पेरियल (अतोमोबाइल)|इम्पेरियल]] (1955–1975, 1981–1983)
**[[जिप]] (सन् १९४१–वर्तमान)&lt;ref&gt;1941 first '''Willys''' Jeep produced. {{cite web|author=Auto Editors of ''Consumer Guide'' | title=1940-1941 Jeep |url=http://auto.howstuffworks.com/1940-1941-jeep5.htm |date=14 December 2007 |accessdate=25 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;1945 first civilian model. {{cite journal| first=Tony |last=Swan |title=Jeep Thrills | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-mechanics_1991-01_168_1/page/106 | journal=Popular Mechanics |volume=168 |issue=1 |month=January |year=1991 |pages=106–107 |accessdate=25 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
**[[म्याक्सवेल मोतर कम्पनी|म्याक्सवेल]] (1905–1925)
**[[प्लाइमाउथ (कार)|प्लाइमाउथ]] (1928–2001)
**[[र्याम त्रक्स|र्याम]] (2009–वर्तमान)
**[[भ्यालियन्त (अतोमोबाइल)|भ्यालियन्त]] (1960–1966)

==मोदेल==
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! नां !! दयेकूगु दँ !! किपा
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर १८०|क्राइस्लर १६०/१८०/२ लितर]] || 1970 - 1982 || [[Image:Chrysler 160.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर २००]] || 2011 – वर्तमान || [[File:2011 Chrysler 200 Touring -- 02-14-2011.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर ३०० लेतस सिरिज]] || 1955 – 1965 || [[Image:Chrysler 300C.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर ३००एम]] || 1999 – 2004 || [[Image:Chrysler-300M.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर ३०० नन-लेतर सिरिज]] || 1962-1971, 1979 || [[ File:'71 Chrysler 300 (Orange Julep '10).jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर ३००]] || 2005 – वर्तमान || [[Image:2011_Chrysler_300C.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर एअरफ्लो]] || 1934 – 1937 || [[Image:1934ChryslerAirflow.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर एअरस्त्रिम]] || 1935 – 1937 || [[Image:Chrysler Airstream 4-Door Sedan 1936 2.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर एल्पाइन]] || 1975 - 1980 || 
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर एस्पेन]] || 2007 – 2009 || [[Image:07-Chrysler-Aspen.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[हिल्म्यान एभेञ्जार|क्राइस्लर एभेञ्जर]] || 1976 – 1978 || [[Image:Chrysler Avenger Estate UL.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर सेञ्चुरा]] (क्राइस्लर अस्त्रेलिया) || 1975 – 1978 || [[File:1975-1977 Chrysler Centura (KB) GL sedan (2009-11-13) 01.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर चार्जर|क्राइस्लर चार्जर (अस्त्रेलिया)]] || 1975 – 1978 || [[File:1976-1978_Chrysler_CL_Charger_coupe_01.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर बाइ क्राइस्लर]] ([[क्राइस्लर अस्त्रेलिया]]) || 1971 – 1976 || [[File:Chrysler CH Hardtop.JPG|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर Cirrus]] || 1995 – 2000 || [[Image:1995-1998 Chrysler Cirrus.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर कन्कर्द]] || 1993 – 2004 || [[Image:02-04 Chrysler Concorde Limited.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर कन्क्वेस्त]] || 1987 – 1989 || [[File:1987ChryslerConquestTSi.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर कोर्दोबा]] || 1975 – 1983 || [[Image:76cordoba1.JPG|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर क्रसफायर]] || 2004 - 2008 || [[File:Chrysler Crossfire Red Coupe1.JPG|200px]]
|-
|[[दज देतोना|क्राइस्लर देतोना]] (क्यानादा) || 1984 – 1993 || [[File:ChryslerDaytona.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[लान्सिया देल्ता|क्राइस्लर देल्ता]] (UK व आयरल्यान्द) || 2011 – वर्तमान || [[Image:Chrysler-Lancia Delta 01.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर द्रिफ्तर]] (अस्त्रेलिया) || 1977 - 1978 || [[File:Chrysler CL Drifter Van.JPG|200px]]
|-
|[[दज दाइनेस्ती|क्राइस्लर दाइनेस्ती]] (क्यानादा)|| 1988 – 1993 || [[File:Chrysler Dynasty -- 08-28-2011.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर एल्जेक्युतिभ]] || 1983 - 1986 ||
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर फिफ्त एभेन्यु]] || 1984 – 1989 || [[Image:83-89 Chrysler Fifth Avenue.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर ग्यालेन्त]] || 1976 - 1977 || [[File:1976-1977 Chrysler Galant (GD) GL sedan (2011-02-27).jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर हराइजन]] (युरोप) || 1977 – 1986 || [[File:Chrysler Horzon on dockside.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर हन्तर]] || 1977 – 1979 || 
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर इम्पेरियल]] || 1926 – 1954, 1981 - 1983, 1990 – 1993 || [[Image:Chrysler Imperial 1991 0003.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर इम्पेरियल परेद फेतन]] || 1952, only three units built || [[Image:Apollo 11 Parade.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[दज इन्त्रेपिद|क्राइस्लर इन्त्रेपिद]] (क्यानादा) || 1993 – 2004 || [[File:1998-2001 Chrysler Intrepid.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर लान्सर]] || 1977 - 1980 ([[Australian]] market)|| [[File:1980LCLancer.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर लेजर]] || 1984 – 1986 || [[File:Chrysler-Laser.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर लेबारोन]] || 1977 – 1995 || [[Image:1989 Chrysler lebaron premium 25.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर एलएचएस]] || 1994 – 1997, 1999 – 2001 ||[[File:Chrysler LHS.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर न्युपोर्त]] || 1940 - 1941, 1950, 1961 – 1981 || [[Image:1950 Chrysler Newport Coupe woodie.JPG|200px]]
|-
|[[दज नियोन|क्राइस्लर नियोन]] || 1995 – 2005 || [[File:Chrysler Neon 2000.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर न्यु यर्कर]] || 1939 – 1996 || [[Image:Chrysler New Yorker 5.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर फिफ्त एभेन्यु|क्राइस्लर न्यु यर्कर फिफ्त एभेन्यु]] || 1983, 1990 – 1993 || [[Image:ChryslerNewYorker.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर पासिफिया]] || 2004 – 2008 || [[Image:Chrysler-Pacifica-Base.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर रिगल]] ([[क्राइस्लर अस्त्रेलिया]]) || 1976 - 1981|| [[File:Chrysler CM Regal Wagon.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर रोयल (अस्त्रेलिया)|क्राइस्लर प्लेन्सम्यान (अस्त्रेलिया)]] || 1957 - 1959 || &lt;small&gt;Please [[Special:Upload|upload]] a [[WP:IMAGE|free image]]!&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर पिति क्र्युजर]] || 2001 – 2010|| [[Image:2001-2005 Chrysler PT Cruiser.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर रोयल]] || 1937 – 1942, 1946 – 1950 || [[Image:38chryC18.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर रोयल (अस्त्रेलिया)]] || 1957 - 1963|| [[File:Chrysler AP1 Royal.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर सारातोगा]] || 1939 – 1953, 1957 – 1960; 1961 - 1966,&lt;br&gt; Canada non-letter 300 series; 1989 – 1994, Europe || [[Image:Saratoga LE.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर सेब्रिङ्ग]] || 1995 – 2010 || [[Image:Wiki_cars_194.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर सिग्मा]] (अस्त्रेलिया) || 1977 - 1980 || [[File:1978-1980 Chrysler Sigma (GE) GL station wagon (2012-02-26).jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[दज स्त्रातस|क्राइस्लर स्त्रातत]] (क्यानादा व युरोप) || 1995 – 2000 || [[File:Chrysler Stratus Cabrio.JPG|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर सनबिम]] || 1977 - 1979 || [[File:Chrysler Sunbeam in London.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर तिसि बाइ मासेराति]] || 1989 – 1991 || [[Image:1989 Chrysler TC by Maserati, front side.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर तुरिङ्ग]] || 1926 ||
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर ताउन एन्द कन्त्रि ]] || 1941 – 1988, 1990 – present || [[Image:2011_Chrysler_Town_%26_Country_Touring_-_L_--_04-22-2011.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर तर्बाइन कार]] (एक्स्पेरिमेन्तल [[ग्यास तरबाइन]]–दूगु कार) || 1963 || [[Image:Chrysler 027.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर भ्यालियन्त]] (अस्त्रेलिया, न्यु जिल्यान्द व दक्षिण अफ्रिका) || 1962 - 1981 || [[Image:Valiant VJ 1973.JPG|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर भ्यालियन्द|क्राइस्लर VIP]] (अस्त्रेलिया) || 1969 - 1971 || [[File:Chrysler VG VIP.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[दज भाइपर|क्राइस्लर भाइपर]] (युरोप) || 1997 – 2003 || [[File:Chrysler Viper - Flickr - Cha già José.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर भोयजर|क्राइस्लर भोयजर/ग्रान्द भोयजर]] || 2000–2003 (USA); 1988–present (Europe) || [[Image:01-03 Chrysler Voyager LX.jpg|200px]]
|-
|[[क्राइस्लर रोयल (अस्त्रेलिया)|क्राइस्लर वेफेरर (अस्त्रेलिया)]] || 1957 - 1961 || [[File:Chrysler AP3 Wayfarer.jpg|200px]]
|-
||[[क्राइस्लर विन्स्दर]] || 1940–1961; 1962 निसें 1966 तक्क &lt;br&gt;न्युपोर्तया क्यानादाया क्राइस्लर संस्करणया रुपय् दयाच्वंगु || [[File:'48 Chrysler Windsor (Rassemblement Saint-Bruno-De-Montarville '10).jpg|200px]]
|}

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[अटोमोबाइल|कार]]
* [[संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिकाया कारतेगु धलः]]
{{Commonscat|Chrysler}}

[[पुचः:कार]]</text>
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[[Image:Bcr abl STI 1IEP.png|right|thumb|bcr-abl kinase (green), which causes [[Chronic myelogenous leukemia|CML]]]]
[[Image:Mechanism imatinib.svg|right|Mechanism of action of imatinib]]
[[Image:Imatinib Synthesis.svg|class=skin-invert-image|center|1200px]]

{{drugbox
| verifiedrevid = 459451238
| IUPAC_name = 4-[(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)methyl]-''N''-(4-methyl-3-{[4-(pyridin-3-yl)pyrimidin-2-yl]amino}phenyl)benzamide
| image = Imatinib2DACS.svg
| width = 300
| image2 = Imatinib3Dan.gif
| width2 = 250
&lt;!--Clinical data--&gt;
| tradename = Gleevec, Glivec
| Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|gleevec}}
| MedlinePlus = a606018
| licence_EU = Glivec
| licence_US = IMATINIB
| pregnancy_AU = D
| pregnancy_US = D
| legal_AU = S4
| legal_CA = Rx-only
| legal_UK = POM
| legal_US = Rx-only
| routes_of_administration = Oral

&lt;!--Pharmacokinetic data--&gt;
| bioavailability = 98%
| protein_bound = 95%
| metabolism = [[Liver|Hepatic]] (mainly [[CYP3A4]]-mediated)
| elimination_half-life = 18 hours (imatinib)&lt;br&gt;40 hours (active metabolite)
| excretion = Faecal (68%) and [[Kidney|renal]] (13%)

&lt;!--Identifiers--&gt;
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}}
| CAS_number = 152459-95-5
| CAS_supplemental = &lt;br /&gt;{{CAS|220127-57-1}}(mesilate)
| ATC_prefix = L01
| ATC_suffix = XE01
| PubChem = 5291
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}
 | DrugBank = DB00619
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 5101
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = BKJ8M8G5HI
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = D08066
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 45783
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 941

&lt;!--Chemical data--&gt;
| C=29 | H=31 | N=7 | O=1
| molecular_weight = 493.603 g/mol&lt;br&gt;589.7 g/mol (mesilate)
| smiles = Cc1ccc(cc1Nc2nccc(n2)c3cccnc3)NC(=O)c4ccc(cc4)CN5CCN(CC5)C
| InChI = 1/C29H31N7O/c1-21-5-10-25(18-27(21)34-29-31-13-11-26(33-29)24-4-3-12-30-19-24)32-28(37)23-8-6-22(7-9-23)20-36-16-14-35(2)15-17-36/h3-13,18-19H,14-17,20H2,1-2H3,(H,32,37)(H,31,33,34)
| InChIKey = KTUFNOKKBVMGRW-UHFFFAOYAJ
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C29H31N7O/c1-21-5-10-25(18-27(21)34-29-31-13-11-26(33-29)24-4-3-12-30-19-24)32-28(37)23-8-6-22(7-9-23)20-36-16-14-35(2)15-17-36/h3-13,18-19H,14-17,20H2,1-2H3,(H,32,37)(H,31,33,34)
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = KTUFNOKKBVMGRW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
}}
'''इमातिनिब''' वा ग्लिभेक (ब्रान्दनेम) छता [[वासः]] ख। थ्व वासः [[ताइरोसिन काइनेज इन्हिबितर]] ख। थ्व वासःयात यक्व क्यान्सरय् छ्यलिगुया। थ्व वासः फिलादेल्फिया क्रोमोजम पोजितिभ (Ph&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) [[क्रोनिक माइलोजेनस ल्युकेमिया]] (CML)य् थ्व वासःया ज्याया निंतिं सिक्क नां जा। &lt;ref&gt;Novartis Pharma AG. Gleevec® (imatinib mesylate) tablets prescribing information. East Hanover, NJ; 2006 Sep. Anon. Drugs of choice for cancer. Treat Guidel Med Lett. 2003; 1:41–52&lt;/ref&gt; मेमेगु ताइरोजिन काइनेज इन्हिबितरतेसं थें हे थ्व वासलं नं ताइरोजिन काइनेजयात पनि। थ्व वासलं [[Bcr-Abl|BCR-Abl]]या फस्फोरिलेसन यायेबी मखु। थ्व फोस्फरिलेसनं न्ह्यथनिगु सिग्नलिङ कास्केदं जुइगु क्यान्सर विकास थ्व वासःया पनेज्यांयाना जुइमखु। थ्व कथं थ्व वासलं क्यान्सरय् ज्या याइ। &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14534339&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author = Goldman JM, Melo JV | title = Chronic myeloid leukemia--advances in biology and new approaches to treatment | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2003-10-09_349_15/page/1451 | journal = N. Engl. J. Med.|volume = 349 | issue = 15 | pages = 1451–64 |date=October 2003 | pmid = 14534339 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra020777 }}&lt;/ref&gt; BCR-Abl ताइरोजिन काइनेज इन्जाइम क्यान्सर सेलय् जक्क दइगु व साधारण सेलय् मदइगु जूगुलिं थ्व वासलं तार्गेतेद थेरापी अर्थात क्यान्सर सेलयात जक्क &quot;तारगेत&quot; या व साधारण सेलतयेत असर मया।&lt;ref&gt;Fausel, C. Targeted chronic myeloid leukemia therapy: Seeking a cure. Am J Health Syst Pharm 64, S9-15 (2007)&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व परिपेक्षय् इमातिनिब हलिंया दकलय् न्हापांगु तार्गेतेद थेरापीया वासलय् छता ख। थ्व वासःयात क्यान्सर चिकित्सा रिसर्चया पारादाइमया रुपय् नालिगु या।&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20237469&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | author = Stegmeier F, Warmuth M, Sellers WR, Dorsch M | title = Targeted cancer therapies in the twenty-first century: lessons from imatinib | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-pharmacology-and-therapeutics_2010-05_87_5/page/543 | journal = Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. | volume = 87 | issue = 5 | pages = 543–52 |date=May 2010 | pmid = 20237469 | doi = 10.1038/clpt.2009.297 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

[[पुचः:वासः]]</text>
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[[Image:2424 Exocrine and Endocrine Pancreas.jpg|thumb|320px|The pancreas has many functions, served by the endocrine cells in the [[islets of Langerhans]]]]
[[Image:Relative incidence of pancreatic neoplasms.png|thumb|350px|Relative incidences of various pancreatic neoplasms, with pancreatic cancers in red/pink color.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang Y, Miller FH, Chen ZE, Merrick L, Mortele KJ, Hoff FL, Hammond NA, Yaghmai V, Nikolaidis P | title = Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of solid and cystic lesions of the pancreas | journal = Radiographics | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = E47–E64 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21721197 | pmc =  | doi = 10.1148/rg.313105174 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[Image:Jaundice08.jpg|thumbnail|upright=1.3|[[Jaundice]]]]


प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सरया उत्पत्ति प्वाःया ल्युने दूगु छथी ग्रन्थि प्यान्क्रियाजया सेलत अनियन्त्रित  कथं स्वया वृद्धि जुसें छधी क्यान्सर मास दयेका जुइ। थथे दयावःगु क्यान्सरस सेलतेइके म्हया मेमेगु कुचाय् पुनेगु क्षमता दयाच्वनी।&lt;ref name=&quot;NCI2014Def&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=What Is Cancer? Defining Cancer|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cancerlibrary/what-is-cancer|publisher=National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health|date=7 March 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; वर्तमानय् वैज्ञानिकतेसं थीथी प्रकारया प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सर म्हकीका हःगु दु।&lt;ref name=&quot;WCR2014&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=World Cancer Report|date=2014|publisher=World Health Organization}}&lt;/ref&gt;

दकलय् आपालं खनिगु प्यान्क्रियातिक एदेनोकार्सिनोमा सकल प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सरया करिब ९०% दु,&lt;ref name=&quot;Pishvaian2017&quot;&gt;Unless otherwise specified in boxes, reference is: {{Cite journal|title=Therapeutic Implications of Molecular Subtyping for Pancreatic Cancer|journal=Oncology|volume=31|issue=3|pages=159–66, 168|date=March 2017|pmid=28299752|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28299752}}&lt;/ref&gt; व &quot;प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सर&quot; धइगु खँग्वःया छ्येला आपालं थ्व हे  कथंया क्यान्सरया निंतिं याइगु खनेदु।&lt;ref name=&quot;WCR2014&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=World Cancer Report|date=2014}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot;&gt;''World Cancer Report''. World Health Organization. 2014. Chapter 5.7. [[(identifier) - एकीकृत राष्ट्रिय पुस्तक पहिचान प्रणालीया चिन्ह ।|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[:BookSources/978-0213456000 , ISBN=९७८०२१३४५६००३|&lt;bdi&gt;978-92-832-0429-9&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; एदेनोकार्सिनोमापिं प्यान्क्रियाजया पाचन याइगु इनजाइम दयेकीगु कुचां बुयावइ ।[2] प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सरया थीथी मेगु प्रकार, गुकिलिं गैह्र-एदेनोकार्सिनोमाया अधिकांश भाग दयेकि, नं पाचन याइगु इनजाइम देकीगु सेलं हे बुया वइ ।[2]&lt;ref name=&quot;WCR2014&quot; /&gt;

प्यान्क्रियाटिक क्यान्सरया करिब १-२% न्यूरोइन्दोक्राइन त्युमर जुइ, थ्व क्यान्सर प्यान्क्रियाजया हर्मोन दयेकीगु सेलं बुयावइ।&lt;ref name=&quot;WCR2014&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=World Cancer Report|date=2014|publisher=World Health Organization}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot;&gt;''World Cancer Report''. World Health Organization. 2014. Chapter 5.7. [[(identifier) - एकीकृत राष्ट्रिय पुस्तक पहिचान प्रणालीया चिन्ह ।|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[:BookSources/978-0213456000 , ISBN=९७८०२१३४५६००३|&lt;bdi&gt;978-92-832-0429-9&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व प्रकारया क्यान्सर धाःसा प्यान्क्रियातिक एदेनोकार्सिनोमा स्वया कम आक्रामक जुइ। [1]&lt;ref name=&quot;WCR2014&quot; /&gt;

प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सरया  दकलय् आपालं खनिगु लक्षण व चिंय् म्ह म्हासुइगु, प्वा व जंपा म्हासुइगु, अस्पष्ट कारनं तौल म्हो जुइगु, खिया रंग भुइसे च्वनावनिगु, चोया रंग गाढा जुइगु व नये मास्म्वइगु आदि ला।&lt;ref name=&quot;PDQ2014&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Pancreatic Cancer Treatment (PDQ®) Patient Version|publisher=National Institutes of Health|date=17 April 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; साधारनकथं, ल्वय्या न्हापांगु चरणय् छुं विषेश लक्षण खनेदइमखु व प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सरया विशेष लक्षण व चिं ल्वय् तःच्वनेधुंका जक खनेदइ। [1]&lt;ref name=&quot;NEJM14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pancreatic adenocarcinoma|date=September 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; ल्वय्यात म्हसीकिगु इलय्, प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सर आपालं म्हया मेमेगु कुचालय् पुनेधुंकी।&lt;ref name=&quot;WCR2014&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=World Cancer Report|date=2014|publisher=World Health Organization}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot;&gt;''World Cancer Report''. World Health Organization. 2014. Chapter 5.7. [[(identifier) - एकीकृत राष्ट्रिय पुस्तक पहिचान प्रणालीया चिन्ह ।|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[:BookSources/978-0213456000 , ISBN=९७८०२१३४५६००३|&lt;bdi&gt;978-92-832-0429-9&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Bond-Smith&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pancreatic adenocarcinoma|date=May 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सर पीदँ स्वया न्ह्यः आपालं खनेमदु। सकल प्यान्क्रियातिक एदेनोकार्सिनोमाया बच्छि स्वया अप्व मात्रा ७०दँ स्वया थंपिं मनूइ खनेदइ। &lt;ref name=&quot;NEJM14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pancreatic adenocarcinoma|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2014-09-11_371_11/page/1039|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=11|pages=1039–49|date=September 2014|pmid=25207767|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1404198}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFRyanHongBardeesy2014&quot;&gt;Ryan DP, Hong TS, Bardeesy N (September 2014). &quot;Pancreatic adenocarcinoma&quot;. ''The New England Journal of Medicine''. '''371''' (11): 1039–49. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1056/NEJMra1404198|10.1056/NEJMra1404198]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]]&amp;nbsp;[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25207767 25207767].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;  प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सरया कारक तत्त्वय् चुरोट त्वनिगु, तःग्वारा जुइगु, दायबितिज, व छुं जेनेतिक अवस्था ला।&lt;ref name=&quot;NEJM14&quot; /&gt; करिब २५% केस धुम्रपाननाप सम्बन्धित जुइ धाःसा &lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfgang2013&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Recent progress in pancreatic cancer|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ca-a-cancer-journal-for-clinicians_september-october-2013_63_5/page/318|journal=CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians|volume=63|issue=5|pages=318–48|date=September 2013|pmid=23856911|doi=10.3322/caac.21190}}&lt;/ref&gt; ५-१०% केस आनुवंशी जिन नाप स्वापू दु। &lt;ref name=&quot;NEJM14&quot; /&gt;

प्यान्क्रियातिक क्यान्सरया दायग्नोसिस मेदिकल  इमेजिंग पद्धतिं दसु:अल्त्रासाउन्द व कम्प्युतेद तोमोग्राफी, हि परीक्षण व तिस्यु स्याम्पल (बायोप्सि) या आधारय् जुइ।&lt;ref name=&quot;Wolfgang2013&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Recent progress in pancreatic cancer}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFWolfgangHermanLaheruKlein2013&quot;&gt;Wolfgang CL, Herman JM, Laheru DA, Klein AP, Erdek MA, Fishman EK, Hruban RH (September 2013). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3769458 &quot;Recent progress in pancreatic cancer&quot;]. ''CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians''. '''63''' (5): 318–48. [[इ (आइडेन्टिफायर) पहिचान याइपिं चिं माः ।|doi]]:[[doi:10.3322/caac.21190|10.3322/caac.21190]]. [[C (identifier) - चिं पहिचान यायेमाःगु संकेत ।|PMC]]&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class=&quot;id-lock-free&quot; title=&quot;Freely accessible&quot;&gt;[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3769458 3769458]&lt;/span&gt;. [[ID (identifier) - द्यनेमाःगु चिं:|PMID]]&amp;nbsp;[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23856911 23856911].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lancet&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pancreatic cancer|url=http://m-learning.zju.edu.cn/G2S/eWebEditor/uploadfile/20111127193405_869876397245.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; ल्वय्या अवस्थायात प्रारम्भिक (स्तेज I) निसें अन्तिमं (स्तेज IV)य् बायातःगु दु। &lt;ref name=&quot;Bond-Smith&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Pancreatic adenocarcinoma}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFBond-SmithBangaHammondImber2012&quot;&gt;Bond-Smith G, Banga N, Hammond TM, Imber CJ (May 2012). &quot;Pancreatic adenocarcinoma&quot;. ''BMJ''. '''344''' (may16 1): e2476. [[इ (आइडेन्टिफायर) पहिचान याइपिं चिं माः ।|doi]]:[[doi:10.1136/bmj.e2476|10.1136/bmj.e2476]]. [[ID (identifier) - द्यनेमाःगु चिं:|PMID]]&amp;nbsp;[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22592847 22592847]. [[2CID (आइडेन्टिफायर) - पहिचान याइपिं चिं लःल्हानामाःगु ।|S2CID]]&amp;nbsp;[https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206894869 206894869].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;सकल जनसंख्यायात ल्वय्या स्क्रिनिङ याइगु छुं प्रभावकारी पद्धति आया इलय् मदु।&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Draft Recommendation Statement: Pancreatic Cancer: Screening|url=https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/draft-recommendation-statement/pancreatic-cancer-screening1|publisher=US Preventive Services Task Force}}&lt;/ref&gt;। 

== प्रकार ==

=== एक्सोक्राइन क्यान्सर ===

=== न्युरोइन्दोक्राइन ===

== लक्षण व चिं  ==

=== मेमेगु लक्षण ===

=== ल्वय् मेमेगु थासय् पुनावंगु अवस्थाया लक्षण ===

== कारक तत्त्व ==

=== मद्यपान ===

{{ट्युमर}}
[[Category:चिकित्सा]]

==लिधंसा==</text>
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{{Infobox book
| name             = शिजि
| image            = 史记.jpg
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| author           = सिमा कियान
| title_orig       = {{ubl|{{langn|zh|太史公書}} ({{tlit|zh|Tàishǐgōng shū}})|{{normal|{{langn|zh|史記}}}} ({{tlit|zh|Shǐjì}})}}
| country          = चीन
| language         = प्राचीन चिनिया भाय्
| subject          = इतिहास
| pub_date         = {{circa|91&amp;nbsp;BC}}
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'''शिजि''' (अर्थ: महान इतिहासकारया अभिलेख) छगू तसकं महत्त्वपूर्ण चिनियाँ ऐतिहासिक ग्रन्थ खः। थ्व सफू निप्यंगू इतिहासया न्हापांगु खण्ड ख।  थ्व सफू इतिहासकार सिमा कियान नं  २ गू शताब्दी इसा पूर्वया अन्तिम इलय् निसें १ ग शताव्दी इपूया दथुइ च्वयादीगु खः।  वय्कःया पिता सिमा तानं थ्व ग्रन्थ च्वयेगु ज्या छुं दशक न्ह्यः हे न्ह्यथनादीगु खः । &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;थ्व ग्रन्थय् २,५०० दँया कालखण्डया खँ दुथ्याःगु दु, थ्व सफू म्हासु जुजु निसें हानया सम्राट वु तकया समयया वर्णन दु। सम्राट वु च्वमिया समकालीन ख।  थ्व सफूलि हलिंया वर्णन पश्चिमी हान राजवंशया  विचाः कथं कनातःगु दु।[१][1]

थ्व सफूयात &quot;चिनिया सभ्यताया आधारभूत पाठ&quot; धकाः म्हसीकिगु या।[2] कन्फ्यूशियस व किन शि हुआङ्ग धुंका सिमा कियानयात चिनिया साम्राज्यया छम्ह पलिस्थामिया कथं कायेगुया। वय्कःया च्वखँया स्पष्ट जीवनचरित्र जक मजुसें कन्फ्युशियस व किन शि हुआङ्गया हालया इलय् उपलब्ध चरित्र नं वय्कलं हे सृजना यानादिगु खः।&quot;[3] थ्व सफूलिं  चिनियाँ राजवंशीय इतिहास च्वयेगु नियम लिपाया इतिहासकारतेगु निंतिं निर्माण यात। पाश्चात्य  इतिहास लेखनया परम्परा स्वया विपरित शिजिं इतिहासयात छ झ्वः निरन्तर वर्णन मयासें चिधंगु, स्वापू दूगु इकाइय् विभाजित यानातःगु दु। थ्व सफूलि थन्याःगु इकाइय् प्रसिद्ध नेता, व्यक्ति व  मू घटनाया वर्णन यानातःगु दु।[4]

== इतिहास ==

=== नां ===
थ्व सफूया च्वमिजुं छुनादीगु वास्तविक नां ताइशिगोङ्गशु ({{Lang|zh|太史公書}}) वा महान इतिहासकारया अभिलेख ख।  थ्व सफूयात थीथी मेमेगु नामं नं म्हसीकिगु या, गुकिलि ताइशिगोङ्गजि ({{Lang|zh|太史公記}}) व ताइशिगोङ्गझुआन ({{Lang|zh|太史公傳}}) नां प्राचीनकालय् प्रचलनय् दयाच्वन। कालान्तरय् शिजि ({{Lang|zh|史記}}) वा &quot;ऐतिहासिक अभिलेख&quot; थ्व सफूया दकलय् प्रचलित नां जूवन। थ्व नां न्हापा छुं नं सामान्य ऐतिहासिक सफूया निंतिं उपयोग जुसां   स्वंगू राजतन्त्र काल धुंका{{NoteTag|The Three Kingdoms period scholar [[Wang Su (Cao Wei)|Wang Su]] (AD 195–256) appears to be among the earliest to apply the name ''Shiji'' to Sima Qian's work.}} ''शिजि'' बिस्तारं सिमा कियानया सफूया जक निंतिं छ्येलीगु नां जुवन।  अंग्रेजी भासय् थ्व सफूयात थुकिया वास्तविक नां लिसें  रेकर्द्स अफ द ग्रान्द हिस्तोरियन (''Records of the Grand Historian)'',, हिस्तोरिकल रेकर्द्स (''Historical Records)'', द ग्रान्द स्क्राइब्स रेकर्द्स (''The Grand Scribe's Records)'', aव रेकर्दस अफ द हिस्तोरियन (''Records of the Historian)'' आदि नां प्रचलनय् दु।

=== च्वखँया इतिहास ===
शिजि सफूलि दुथ्याइगु च्वखँया शुरुवात सिमा तान नं यानादीगु ख। वय्कलं २गू शताब्दी ईसा पूर्वय् हान राजवंशया लाय्कूलि महान इतिहासकार (चिनिया भासय् ताइशि太史, गुकिया अर्थ महान लेखनदान नं जुइ) पदया ज्या यानादीगु खः। &amp;nbsp;सिमा तानजुं थ्व महत्वाकांक्षी ज्याया निंतिं योजनातेगु जग दयेकादील व च्वखँया छुं कुचा व चिखँ (नोट) दयेकादिल। वय्कःया च्वखँ थ्व सफूया मूलपाठय् समाविष्ट जूगु अनुमान दु।  सिमा तानया ११० ईसा पूर्वय् मृत्यु जुइधुंका थ्व सफूया च्वज्यायात निरन्तरता बीगु व पूवंकेगु ज्या वय्कःया काय् सिमा कियानयात वनि। वय्कःयात थ्व सफूया मू च्वमिया श्रेय बियातःगु दु।[9][10] &amp;nbsp;थ्व सफूया च्वज्या पूवंगू  तिथि अज्ञात दु। छु खँ निश्चित दु धाःसा सिमा कियानजुं थ्व सफू वय्कःया इपू ८६या मृत्यु स्वया न्ह्यः पिथनादिल, व थुकिया छगू प्रतिलिपि चिनिया साम्राज्यया राजधानी चाङ्गान (वर्तमान शियान) व मेगु प्रतिलिपि सिमाया छेँय् दयाच्वन। [11]&amp;nbsp;

थ्व सफूया शुरुवाती प्रतिकृया व प्रचारया बारेय् यक्व जानकारी मदु।[12] १गू शताब्दी ईसा पूर्वया छुं च्वमि, दसु विद्वान् चु शाओसन (褚少孫; fl. ३२-७ इपू)तेसं थ्व सफूलि पाठ तनेगु ज्या यानादिल। &amp;nbsp;थ्व सफूया मूल १३० अध्यायय् १०पू अध्याय पूर्वी हान काल (ई.सं २५-२२०) इ लुप्त जुल व थ्व अध्यायत लिपाया इलय् पुनर्लेखन जूगु खः।[11]

थ्व सफूया न्हापांगु टीका उत्तरी व दक्षिणि राजवंश (४२०-५८९) व प्रारम्भिक ताङ्ग साम्राज्य (६१८-९०७)य् च्वयाहःगु खनेदु।[११][11] थ्व सफूया यक्व ऐतिहासिक संस्करणय् पेइ यिन (裴駰, ५गू शताब्दी), सिमा जेन (८गू शताव्दीया पूर्वार्ध) व झाङ्ग शोउजीया टीका समावेश यानातःगु दु।[13][14] थ्व सफूया प्राथमिक आधुनिक संस्करण १०-खण्डया सफू झोङ्गहुआ बुक कम्पनीं सन् १९५८स पिथन (पूनर्रुप २००६स प्रकाशित जूल)। थ्व प्रकाशित सफू चिनिया इतिहासकार गु जिएगाङ्गया सम्पादनय् सन् १९३०या दशकय् तयार जूगु ख।[15]

=== पाण्डुलिपि ===
थ्व सफूया निता आंशिक ताङ्ग राजवंश न्हापाया पाण्डुलिपि लुयावःगु दु। थ्व नितां पाण्डुलिपि जापानया ओत्सु धाःगु थासय् दूगु इशियामा-देरा देगलय् दु। थ्यं-मथ्यं ९गू तान राजवंशया हस्तलिखित ग्रन्थतेगु खण्ड वर्तमानय् उपलब्ध दु: ३गू आंशिक ग्रन्थ दुनहुआङ्ग हस्तलेखतेगु पुचलय् २०गू शताब्दीया सुरुआतय् लूगु दु धाःसा खूगु हस्तलिलिखित ग्रन्थ थी-थी जापानी देगलय् व संग्रहालयय् सुरक्षित दु, दसु: क्योतोया कोजान्-जी देगः व तोक्योया तोयो बुङ्को संग्रहालय।   थ्व सफूया छुं वुडब्लक प्रिन्टेड संस्करण नं दु, थ्व मध्ये प्राचीनतम प्रति सोङ्ग राजवंश (९६०-१२७९)कालया प्रकाशन खः ।[13]

== अन्तर्वस्तु ==
[[किपा:Shiji.jpg|thumb|प्रारम्भिक ध्वायातःगु संस्करण।]]
शिजिया सकल च्वखँलय् ५२६,५०० चिनिया आखः दु। थ्व सफू थूसिदाइदेसया 'पेलोनोनेसियन हताःया इतिहास' स्वया ४क्व ताःहाकः धाःसा थ्व सफू ओल्द तेस्तामेन्त स्वया नं ताःहाकः जु।&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hardy|first=Grant|title=Can an Ancient Chinese Historian Contribute to Modern Western Theory? The Multiple Narratives of Ssu-Ma Ch'ien|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-and-theory_1994_33_1/page/20|journal=History and Theory|year=1994|volume=33|issue=1|pages=20–38|doi=10.2307/2505650}}&lt;/ref&gt;[17]

सिमा कियानं थःगु ज्यायात स्वयम् सम्बद्ध इकाइय् कल्पना व रचना यानादिल, गुकिलि छुं खँ छकः स्वया अप्व दोहरेजूगु दु। वय्कःया पाण्डुलिपि वय्कलं पंया बालाय् लगभग २४-३६ आखलय्, करिबन ३०गू बालाया पुचलय् मुंकादिल। पाण्डुलिपित ग्रन्थया प्रशारण व नकल कायेगु चलन धुंका नं थ्व सफू पं बालाया धी (bundles) वा पुचलय् वितरण जुगु सम्भावना दु । एन्दिमिअन विल्किन्सनया ल्याखँ कथं थ्व सफू ४६६ निसें ७०० धीइ स्वथना तइ। थ्व धीतेगु कुल तौल ८८-१३२ पाउण्ड (४०-६० किलो) जुइ। अथे जूगुलिं थ्व सफू छगू थासं मेगु थासय् यंकेथाकु। लिपा, रेशमय् सफू ध्वायेगु चलन वयेधुंका थ्व सफू याउंसेच्वन, तर थुकियात च्वयेत रेशम माःगुलिं थुकिया भाः थिके जुल व नापं भाःया कारणं थ्व सफू दुर्लभ नं जुल। लिपाया दँय् भ्वँतय् ध्वायेगु प्रविधि मवःबिलेतक थ्व सफूया संचार जटिल जुयाच्वन व थुकिया छुं आंशिक कुचाया जक प्रतिलिपि दयेकिगु चलन वल गुकिलिं यक्व प्रतिइ गलती व भिन्नता खनेदत।[17]

सिमा कियानं शिजियात न्यागु पुचलय् विभाजन यानादिल, सकल पुचः थ्व सफूया छगू अध्याय जूवन।

=== बेन्जि (मूलभूत अभिलेख)  ===
मूल वर्षाङ्क/अभिलेख वा बेन्जि (本纪) थ्व सफूया १२ अध्याय ख। थ्व अध्यायत प्राचीन चिनिया लाय्कूलि प्रचलित वृत्तान्त परम्परा (दसु वसन्त व शरद ऋतुया इतिहास) नाप शैलीगत कथं समान जु।[18] थुकिया न्हापांगु न्यागु अध्यायय् न्याम्ह सम्राट व अन्य राजवंश  (दसु: शिया, शाङ्ग, व झोउ राजवंश) या खँ दुथ्याःगु दु।[18]  लिपांगू न्हेगू अध्यायय् व्यक्तिगत शासकतेगु खँ दु। थ्व झ्वलय् किनया प्रथम सम्राटया खँ निसें हान राजवंशया न्हापांगु सम्राटतेगु खँ दु[18]। थ्व हे खण्डय्, सिमां चीनया वास्तविक शक्तिकेन्द्र व शासकतेगु खँ समाविष्ट याःगु दु। मिसाम्ह सम्राट लु व शियाङ्ग यु थें न्याःपिं शक्तिशाली मनूतेगु खँ थन कनातःगु दु धाःसा जुजु जुया नं छुं वास्तविक शक्ति मदूपिं सम्राटत दसु: चुया सम्राट यि व हानया सम्राट हुइया खँ कनातःगु मदु।

=== बिआओ (तालिका वा धलः) ===
अध्याय १३ निसें २० तक &quot;तालिका/धलः&quot; (चिनिया भासय् बिआओ, biǎo表) दु। थ्व तालिमय् छगू वंशावलीया तालिका व ९गू अन्य कालक्रमिक धलः समाविष्ट यानातःगु दु।[18] थ्व तालिकातेसं शासनकाल, महत्त्वपूर्ण घटना, व शाही वंशावली धलःया रुपय् ब्वयातःगु दु। सिमा  कियानया हे च्वखँ कथं छगू हे इलय् थीथी वंशावली दयाः कालक्रम स्वये थाकुगूलिं थ्व अध्यायय् धलः दूगु खः।  दकलय् लिउया धलः त्वःता सकल धलखय् शुरुइ धलःया कालखण्डया विवरण बियातःगु दु।[18]

=== शु (निबन्ध वा च्वखँ) ===
शु वा च्वखँ वा मोनोग्राफ (書)  थ्व सफूया न्यागु पुचलय् दकलय् चिहाकःगु पुचः ख। थुकिलि ८गू अध्याय (२३-३०) जक दु। थुकिलि रीति, संगीत, बाजं, पात्रो, खगोल, बलि, खुसि, लःमार्ग, वित्तीय प्रशासन आदिया ऐतिहासिक विकासक्रमया खँ कनातःगु दु। 

=== शिजिया (कुलीन परिवार) ===
शिजिया (shìjiā 世家) वा कुलीन परिवार थ्व सफूया न्यागू पुचलय् निगु दकलय् ताःहाकःगु पुचः ख। थ्व पुचलय् अध्याय ३१ निसें ६०तकया अध्याय दु । थ्व पुचलय् न्हापांगू अध्यायत लिपाया अध्याय स्वया पा।[18] न्हापांगु यक्व अध्यायय् अभिलेख-कथंया च्वखँ दु, गुकिलि झोउ राजवंश, किन व लु राज्य व शाङ्ग राजवंशया खँ कनातःगु दु।[18]   लिपांगु खण्डय् हान राजवंशया खँ च्वयातःगु दु। थ्व हे खण्डय् थीथी जीवनी च्वयातःगु दु।[18]

=== लिएझुआन (क्रमबद्ध जीवनी) ===
क्रमबद्ध जीवनी वा लिएझुआन (lièzhuàn 列傳) थ्व सफूया दकलय् ताःहाकःगु पुचः ख। थ्व पुचलय् अध्याय ६१ निसें १३० तक ला। थ्व पुचलय् सफूया करिब ४२% च्वखँ दु। [18] खुगुंगू (६९)जीवनी अध्यायय् मुख्यतया १३० म्ह असाधारण चिनिया मिजंतेगु विवरण दु। थुकिलि शाङ्ग राजवंशया अन्त्यया नैतिक आदर्शपुरुष बोयि निसें सिमा कियानया समकालीनपिं तकया च्वखं दु[18] । ४० अध्यायय् सकल छगू अध्याय छम्ह जक विशेष व्यक्तियात समर्पित दु, तर छुं अध्यायय् निम्ह स्वापूदुपिं मनूपिनिगु खँ च्वयातःगु दु। मेमेगु अध्यायय् छुं मनूतेगु पुचः दसु हत्यारा, सरकारी अधिकारी वा कन्फ्यूशियस विद्वानतेगु खँ च्वयातःगु दु। [१८][18] आधुनिक जीवनी स्वया पृथक थ्व सफूया  जीवनकथाय् वर्णन यानातःगु विवरणं चरित्र व स्वभावयात चित्रण यायेगु निंतिं सटीक बाखँ प्रयोग यानातःगु दु। थुकिलि थीथी कथंया मनू व कालखण्डया विवरण दु। [18] सफूया थ्व पुचः चीनया इतिहासय् तसकं नांजाः व आधुनिक चिनिया भासय् छ्येलीगु यक्व वाक्यांश थ्व पुचलं उत्पति जूगु दु। [18]

== शैली ==
[[किपा:Sima_Qian_(painted_portrait).jpg|thumb|सिमा कियान]]
सिमा कियानया च्वयेगु शैली वय्कः धुंकाया समयया कन्फ्यूशियसया सिद्धान्तं प्रभावित जूपिं आधिकारिक इतिहासकारत स्वया पा। कन्फ्यूशियन सिद्धान्त कथं इतिहास च्वइपिं इतिहासकारतेसं सम्राट याके दिव्य अधिकार घोषित जूगु, व सिंहासनय् वनाः सत्ता प्राप्त यायेगु ज्या यायेमफूसा थ्व दिव्य अधिकार क्षीण जुइगु बिचाःया अधिपत्य खनेदु। सिमा कियानया च्वखँय् धाःसा अधिक उदार व वस्तुनिष्ठ च्वयेगु शैली छ्येलातःगु दु। थुकियाया प्रसंशा चिनाखँमि व उपन्यासकारपिंसं याःगु दु। लिएझुआनया अधिकांश खण्डय् घटना व व्यक्तितेगु विवरण बियातःगु दु। सिमा कियानं छुं ऐतिहासिक घटनाया नापं जूपिं व ज्ञान दुपिं मनूपिनिगु खँ न्यनिगु, व इमित स्रोतया रुपय् छ्येला थःगु सफूलि विश्वसनीयता व सत्यताया आधार दयेकादिल।दसुया  निंतिं जिङ्ग केया किन राज्यया जुजुया हत्या यायेगु कुतःया च्वखँया झ्वलय् किन राज्यया जुजुया चिकित्सक व थ्व घटनाया प्रत्यक्षदर्शी शिया वुजु (夏無且)या विवरण कनातःगु दु। जिङ्ग केया हत्या प्रयासया इलय् शिया वुजु कूटनीतिक आयोजनय् जुजु नापं  दूगु जुयाच्वन। थ्व खँ सिमा कियानयात शिया म्हस्यूपिं मनूतेसं कनातःगु खँ च्वयातःगु दु। [21]

कूटनीतिइ सिपालु सिमा क्वियानं सफूया न्हापांगु खण्ड (बेन्जि)य् शासकतेगु सकारात्मक पक्षयात तिबः बियादिल धाःसा सफूया ल्यू खण्ड/अध्यायय् धाःसा नकारात्मक जानकारी क्यनादिल। अथे जूगुलिं वय्कःया सकल सफूयात पूवंकः ब्वनेधुंका जक पूवंकः खँ थुइकेफै। दसुया निंति लिउबाङ्ग(वय्कः लिपा हान राजवंशया  गाओजु जुयादिल)या खँय्, वय्कःयात शियाङ्ग युया मनूतेसं स्यायेत लियुबिले वय्कलं ग्याना थःगु रथ याकनं ब्वाकेया निंतिं रथ याउंकेत थःम्ह मस्तेत रथं क्वबाना छ्वयादिल। थ्व खँ सम्राटया जीवनीइ मजुसें शियाङ्ग युया जीवनीइ च्वयादिल। वय्कलं थःगु च्वखँय् नकारात्मक व सकारात्मक पक्षयात सन्तुलन यायेगु ज्या नं यानादिल। दसुया निंतिं साम्राज्ञी लुया खँय् वय्कःया व्यक्तिगत जीवनय् क्रूरताया वर्णन यानातःगु दःसां वय्कलं थःगु इलय् शान्ति व समृद्धि हयादीगु खँ च्वयातःगु दु।[22]

== स्रोत सामग्री ==
सिमाया परिवार हान सम्राटया वंशानुगत इतिहासकार ख। सिमा कियानया अबु सिमा तानं चिनिया लाय्कूलि महान इतिहासकार जुयाः ज्या यानादिल, व सिमा कियानं वय्कः मदयेधुंका थ्व पद प्राप्त यानादिल। अतः, वय्कःयाके प्रारम्भिक हान राजवंशया पुरालेख, शिलालेख व अभिलेखया गहन अध्ययन यायेगु अवसर दयाच्वन। सिमा कियान छम्ह विधिवत, संदेहवादी इतिहासकार खः। वय्कःनाप हान राजवंश स्वया न्ह्यःया पं व सिंया बालाय् च्वयातःगु थीथी प्राचीन सफूत ब्वनिगु पहुंच नं दयाच्वन। वय्कलं छ्येलादीगु यक्व हे स्रोत समयक्रमय् तना वनेधुंकूगु दु। वय्कलं अभिलेख व साम्राज्यया अभिलेख जक प्रयोग मयासें चीनया थीथी थासय् वना थीथी मनूत नाप खँल्हाबल्हा याना थीथी जानकारी पुष्टि यानादिल । 
[[किपा:Records_of_the_Grand_Historian.jpg|thumb|अध्याय २, शियाया अभिलेख (मिङ्ग राजवंशकालीन संस्करण)]]

== विश्वसनीयता व यथार्थपरक ==

== प्रसार व मेमेपिं च्वमितेगु तंसा ==

== संस्करण ==

== उल्लेखनीय भाय्-हिला ==

=== अंग्रेजी ===

=== मेमेगुं भासय् ===

== स्वयादिसँ ==
* [[झिंस्वंगू ग्रन्थ]]
* [[निप्यंगू इतिहास]]
* [[वसन्त व शरद ऋतुया इतिहास]]

== लिखँ ==

== लिधंसा ==

[[पुचः:चीनया इतिहास]]
[[पुचः:चिनिया साहित्य]]</text>
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    <title>पेले</title>
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[[Image:Halema'uma'u Crater at Night.jpg|alt=|thumb|300x300px|According to legend, Pele lives in [[Halemaʻumaʻu]]]]
[[Image:Kapiolani defying Pele.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kapiʻolani (chiefess)|Kapiʻolani]]]]
[[Image:Peleshair USGS.jpg|thumb|right|Pele's hair, a volcanic glass in strands]]

{{Infobox deity
| type = हवाईमि
| name = पेले
| image = Pele by David Howard Hitchcock, c. 1929.jpg
| caption = पेलेया किपा, किपामि डी हावर्ड हिचकक (करिब सन् १९२९)
| god_of = ज्वालामुखी व मिया देवी
| abode = हलेमाउमाउ
| symbol = मि, ज्वालामुखी
| consort = 
| parents = हौमेआ&lt;br /&gt;कु-वाहा-इलो
| siblings = हिइआका&lt;br /&gt;नामका&lt;br /&gt;कापो&lt;br /&gt;कामोहोलि&lt;br /&gt;काने मिलोहाइ
| mount =
}}

'''पेले''' [[हवाई धर्म]]य् [[ज्वालामुखी]] व [[मि]]या देवी व [[हवाई]] टापुया निर्माता ख। वय्कःयात सम्मानया रुपय् &quot;तुतु पेले&quot; (मय्जु पेले) धकाः म्हसीकिगु या। वय्कः हवाई पौराणिक बाखन्य् दुने छम्ह नांजाःम्ह द्यः ख। प्राचीन हवाईया संस्कारय् वर्तमानय् दयाच्वंगु तजिलजिइ वय्कःया सांस्कृतिक प्रभाव नांजाः। देवीया मेमेगु नां पेले-होनुआ-मेआ (&quot;पवित्र भूमिया पेले&quot;) व का वाहिने ʻऐ होनुआ (&quot;पृथ्वी नइम्ह मिसा&quot;) ला। 

देवी पेलेया थी-थी बाखनय्, वय्कःया जन्म हौमेया नांयाम्ह मिसाया आत्मां जूगु ख। वय्कःया जन्म पापा (वा पृथ्वी मां) व वाकेआ (सर्ग/आकाश अबु)या मचाया रुपय् जूगु ख। वय्कःया मां व अबु हवाइमि परम्पराय् परम प्राणीया सन्तानया रुपय् जूगु ख। पेलेयात &quot;पवित्र भूमियात आकार बीम्ह&quot; धका नं म्हसीकिगु या व थ्व खँ प्राचीन हवाईया म्येय् हालातःगु दु। पेलेया बारेय् दकलय् न्हापां पिदंगु बाखं विलियम एलिसं च्वयादीगु ख। 

== थःथिति ==
पेलेया मेपिं नांजाःपिं थःथितिपिं थथे दु :

* आइ-कनाका, पासा &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=1991|title=Dictionary of Polynesian Mythology|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-folklore_spring-1991_104_412/page/231|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=104|issue=412|pages=231|doi=10.2307/541247|issn=0021-8715}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* आहु-इ-माइआ-पा-कनालोआ, किजा, नांया अर्थ &quot;कनालोआया बुँया केराया पुचः&quot; ख &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
* हौमेया, पेलेया मां
* हिʻइआका बाय् हि'इआका-इ-का-पुआ-'एना-'एना, तता/केंहे, नृत्य का आत्मा, लेइ स्वांमा दयेकीम्ह, चिकित्सक &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
* [[Hina-alii|हिना-अलि]]इ, मां अले थी थी रुप काइम्ह ।
* का-माइउ, युद्ध देवता, पेले व हियाका &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; या थःथिति।
* का-मोहो-अलिʻइ, छम्ह शार्क द्यः व म्यायेत माःगु लःया  रक्षक
* केन-अपुआ, अर्धदेव चीधिकःम्ह किजा &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
* कामापुआ'आ, छम्ह आकार हिलीम्ह कुपुआ व हवाई लोककथाय् गुबलें गुबलें पेलेया मिजंया रुपय् वर्णन यानातःगु दु
* काने-हेकिलि, पल्पसाया आत्मा (छम्ह कुबः)
* [[Kane-hoa-lani|काने-होआ-लानि]], अबु व मि नापं स्वापू दुम्ह पात्र
* काʻओहेलो, छम्ह नश्वर भातृ।
* कपो, प्रजनन क्षमताया देवी ।
* का-पोहो-इ-काही-ओला, विस्फोटया देवी
* के-ओ-अही-कामा-काउआ, लाभा बाहाःया देवी (छम्ह कुबूम्ह)
* के-उआ-ए-के-पो, वा व मिया आत्मा
* नामाका, पेलेया केहें समुद्रया देवी बाय् जल आत्माया रुपय् खनेदैम्ह देवी।
* तमा-एहु, किजा, ताहिसियन भासय् सालामान्दर व अग्निया द्यः &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
* उलुपोका, पोलिनेसियन पौराणिक कथा कथं शत्रु
* वाहिएलोआ, भाःत गुकिया पाखें वय्कःया काय् लाका व मेनेहुने &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; बुइकल।

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[हवाई]]

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

[[पुचः:हवाई]] </text>
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{{नेपाललिपि|𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫}}

[[किपा:HK_Central_Statue_Square_Legislative_Council_Building_n_Themis_s.jpg|thumb| लेडि जस्टिस, न्यायया साधारण मानवीकृत प्रतिमा ]]
ब्यापक अर्थय्, '''न्याय''' धयागु मनूतेत निष्पक्ष कथं व्यवहार यायेमाः धइगु बिचाः खः । स्ट्यानफोर्ड इन्साइक्लोपीडिया अफ फिलोसोफीया कथं, मू परिभाषाया निंतिं दकलय् ल्वःगु अर्थ ईस्वीया ६गु शताब्दीया रोमन कानूनया संहिता  इन्स्टिच्युट अफ जस्टिनियनं कायेछिं, गन न्याययात &quot;प्रत्येकयात थःगु हक बीगु निरन्तर व स्थायी इच्छाशक्ति&quot;या रुपय् परिभाषित यानातःगु दु। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice/|publisher=Department of Philosophy, [[Stanford University]]|title=Justice|first=David|last=Miller|date=2021|quote=The most plausible candidate for a core definition comes from the Institutes of Justinian, a codification of Roman Law from the sixth century AD, where justice is defined as ‘the constant and perpetual will to render to each his due’. This is of course quite abstract until further specified, but it does throw light upon four important aspects of justice.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

न्याय प्राप्त जूगु समाज व्यक्तिं थःत &quot;ल्वःगु&quot; फल प्राप्त याइगु समाज जुइ । मनूतेत छु व्यवहार याये &quot;ल्व&quot; धइगु व्याख्या नैतिकता, तर्कशीलता, कानून, [[धर्म]], व निष्पक्षता आदि थी-थी दार्शनिक कचातेगु अवधारणा व परिभाषाय् आधारित जुइ। राज्यं अदालत दयेकाः व संकाः यानाः, अदालतया फैसला कार्यान्वयन यासें न्यायपूर्ण समाज दयेकीगु कुतः याइ।

== पाश्चात्य इतिहास ==
न्यायया प्रारम्भिक पश्चिमी सिद्धान्त प्राचीन ग्रीक दार्शनिकतयेसं, दसु [[प्लेतो|प्लेटों]] थःगु ग्रन्थ ''[[रिपब्लिक (प्लेटो)|द रिपब्लिकय्]]'' व [[एरिस्तोतल|अरस्तूं]] थःगु ''निकोमाचियन एथिक्स''  व ''पोलिटिक्सय्'' विकास याःगु दु। न्यायया आधुनिक ईया पश्चिमी धारणाया जग क्रिश्चियन धर्मशास्त्रय् दु, गुकिलिं दैवीय आदेश सिद्धान्तया अनुसरण याइ। थ्व सिद्धान्त कथं ईश्वरं नैतिकतायात निर्धारण याइ व छुं नं ज्या नैतिक रुपं भिंगु वा मभिंगु निर्धारण याइ। थुकिया आधारय्, न्याय निर्धारण जुइ। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=God's Command|url=https://archive.org/details/godscommand0000hare|date=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|pages=[https://archive.org/details/godscommand0000hare/page/32 32]–49}}&lt;/ref&gt;

पश्चिमी चिन्तकतसें लिपा न्यायया जग पलिस्था यायेत थीथी सिद्धान्त न्ह्यब्वल। १७गु शताब्दीइ [[जन लक]] थें न्यापिं दार्शनिकतेसं न्याय प्राकृतिक नियमं वइ धैगु बिचाः तयादिल। जीन-ज्याक्स रुसो सामाजिक अनुबन्धन सिद्धान्तयात समर्थन याइम्ह यक्व विज्ञय् छम्ह ख। थ्व सिद्धान्तय् न्याय समाजया दुजःतय्गु थः-थःगु सहमतिं राजनीतिक व्यवस्थाय् शासन यायेगु निंतिं वइ धकाः धयादिल। १९गु शताब्दीइ जोन स्टुअर्ट मिल थें न्यापिं उपयोगितावादी दार्शनिकतेसं न्यायया सेवा दकलय् अप्व मनुतेगु निंतिं दकलय् बांलाःगु लिच्वः दयेकीगु प्रस्ताव तयादिल। &lt;sup class=&quot;noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;&amp;#x5B; ''

आधुनिक न्यायया ढाँचाय् वितरणात्मक न्याय, उपयोगितावाद, प्रतिशोधात्मक न्याय व पुनर्स्थापना न्याय थेंज्याःगु अवधारणात दुथ्याः।

व्यापक रुपं, वितरणात्मक न्यायं समाज संकेतः छु चीज इनेमाः, सुया दथुइ इनेमा, ''उचित'' वितरण छु जुइ धइगु आधारय् छु न्यायोचित खः धइगु खँय् बिचाः याइ। ''उपयोगितावादी'' सिद्धान्तं दण्डया परिणामयात स्वइ, ''प्रतिशोधात्मक'' सिद्धान्तं मखूगु ज्याया झ्वलय् जूगु निश्चित पलाःतेत लिफः स्वयाः उकियात पाय्छि सजायनाप मेल यायेगु कुतः याइ, अले ''पुनर्स्थापनावादी'' सिद्धान्तं पीडित व समाजया आवश्यकतायात स्वसें व मखूगु ज्यापाखें जूगु नोक्सानीयात भिंकेगु कुतः याइ। प्रतिशोधात्मक न्यायया सिद्धान्त कथं न्याय मखूगु ज्या याइपिन्त सजाय बियाः दयावइ धाःसा पुनर्स्थापना न्याय (गुबलें गुबलें &quot;क्षतिपूर्तिदायक न्याय&quot; नं धाइ) न्यायया छगू दृष्टिकोण ख गुकिलिं पीडित व अपराधीया आवश्यकतायात केन्द्रित याइ। 

== प्लेटोनिक न्याय ==
न्याय, [[प्लेतो|प्लेटोया]] कथं, सन्तुलन व सद्भावया विषय खः । थ्व न्यायं छम्ह ब्यक्ति बाय् समुदाय दुनेया द्वन्द्वपूर्ण पक्षया दथुइ पाय्छिगु स्वापूयात प्रतिनिधित्व याइ । प्लेटोया परिभाषा कथं न्याय धाःगु &quot;सकसिनं थः छुकिया निंतिं जिम्मेवारी दु व यायेगु नापं थःइके छु चीज दु, व चीजया हकदार जुयेगु&quot; ख।  अर्थात न्यायपूर्ण मनू धइम्ह थःगु विशिष्ट क्षमता कथं समाजय् योगदान याइम्ह व थःगु योगदानया अनुपातय् छु समाजं बी, व हे प्राप्त याइम्ह मनू खः। न्यायपूर्ण मनू न्ह्याबलें पाय्छि थासय् दयाच्वनि, व न्ह्याबलें थःगु भिंगु ज्या यायेत कुतः याइ, अले थःत प्राप्त जूगु न्यायोचित व समान व्यवहारया प्रतिफल बियाच्वनी । थ्व परिभाषा ब्यक्तिगत तहलय् व संगठनात्मक व सामाजिक तहलय् निगुलिं तहलय् लागु जुइ ।

== दैवी व न्यायया धार्मिक अवधारणा ==
दैवीय आदेश सिद्धान्तया अधिवक्तातय्सं न्याय नापं नैतिकताया समग्रता ईश्वरया आधिकारिक आदेश खः धकाः वर्णन याः। दसु:हत्या यायेगु गलत खः अले सजाँय बी हे माः छाय् धाःसा द्यवं अथे धयादीगु दु। सिद्धान्तया छुं संस्करणं मानवतालिसेया द्यःया स्वापूया प्रकृतिया कारणं द्यःया आज्ञा माने यायेमाः धकाः दाबी याइ। मेमेगु संस्करणं धाःआ द्यःया आज्ञा माने यायेमाः छाय् धाःसा द्यः स्वयं भिं खः, अले थुकथं द्यःया आज्ञा पालना यायेगु सकसितं बांलाइ धैगु बिचा तइ । 

== प्राकृतिक नियम ==
[[किपा:Iustitia_van_Heemskerck.png|thumb| मार्टेन भ्यान हेमस्केर्कं ''जस्टिसिया'', १५५६ । जस्टिसियायात सांकेतिक रुपं  तरवार, [[तुला|तराजु]] व मिखाय् पट्टी नाप ब्वयातइ। ]]
यक्वसिनं न्याय प्राकृतिक कानूनया छगू ब्व ख धकाः दाबी याःगु दु (दसु, [[जोन लक]])। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Two Treatises of Government: In The Former the False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer and His Followers, are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter is An Essay Concerning the True Original Extent and End of Civil Government|publisher=Awnsham and John Churchill|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== [[निरंकुशता]] व [[सन्देहवाद]] ===
प्लेटोया ''रिपब्लिकय्'', थ्रासाइमाकसया पात्रं न्याय धयागु बल्लाःपिनिगु हित खः धकाः तर्क याइ ।&amp;nbsp;– शक्तिशाली वा धूर्त शासकं जनतायात छु लादेयाःगु दु, उकिया नां जक न्याय ख धकाः बिचाः तःगु दु ।

=== मंका सम्झौता ===
सामाजिक अनुबंधया अधिवक्तातय्गु धारणा कथं सकसिगुं आपसी सहमतिं न्याय वइ। थ्व सिद्धान्तया यक्व संस्करणय् थन्याःगु सामाजिक अनुबन्धन समानता व पूर्वाग्रह रहित ''काल्पनिक'' शर्तय् समाजं याःगु सहमति ख। थ्व विवरणयात अझ क्वसं ' न्यायया रुपय् निष्पक्षता ' अन्तर्गत बिचाः यानातःगु दु । पूर्वाग्रहया अभावं असहमतिइ (वा मुद्दाय्) संलग्न सकल मनूतय्गु निंतिं समान आधारयात संकेत याइ।

=== अधीनस्थ मू ===
जोन स्टुअर्ट मिल थें न्याःपिं उपयोगितावादी चिन्तकतय्गु कथं न्याय झीसं प्रायः बिचाः याना थें मौलिक मखु । बरु थ्व  परिणामवादया आधारभूत मापदण्डया लिच्वः ख: &quot;छु पाय्छि ख?&quot;या लिसः &quot;छुकिलिं दकलय् बांलाःगु परिणाम दयेकि&quot; व हे पाय्छि ख। परिणाम सामान्यकथं कुल वा औसत कल्याणया रुपय् ल्याखाइ।  अथे जुयाः न्यायया उचित सिद्धान्त धइगु दकलय् बांलाःगु लिच्वः पिकायेगु प्रवृत्ति दुगु सिद्धान्त खः । थुपिं नियमत निगु पक्ष दथुइ याइगु सम्मति थेंज्याःगु थासय् ज्या बी ; तर नापं, वास्तविक लिच्वःया बारे तथ्यया आधार मदयेफू। मिलं न्याय अत्यधिक महत्वपूर्ण खः धइगु झीगु गल्तीपूर्ण विश्वासयात व्याख्या यायेत स्वइ। थुकिया निंतिं वय्कलं थ्व तर्क बियादिल: थ्व भावना निगु प्राकृतिक मानवीय प्रवृत्तिं वःगु ख: झीत मभिंगु याःपिंके प्रतिशोध कायेगु झिगु इच्छा (वा आत्मरक्षाया भावना) व झीसं थःत कल्पनाशील रुपं मेम्हसिया थासय् तयेगु क्षमता, सहानुभूति। उकिं सुयातं नोक्सान जूगु खनेवं झीसं थःत वयागु अवस्थाय् तयाः वयागु पाखें प्रतिशोध यायेगु इच्छा ब्वलनी । यदि थ्व प्रक्रिया हे न्यायया बारे झीगु भावनाया स्रोत खःसा थन्याःगु झीगु विश्वासयात म्हो यायेमाः ।

== सिद्धान्त ==
[[किपा:Bonino_da_Campione,_Justice,_c._1357,_NGA_46013.jpg|thumb| बोनिनो दा Campione, ''न्याय'', c. १३५७, राष्ट्रिय कला ग्यालरी .]]

=== न्यायया साधनात्मक सिद्धान्तत ===
[[किपा:Justicia_Ottawa.jpg|right|thumb| वाल्टर सेमोर अलवर्डया  ''जस्तिसिया'' (न्याय), क्यानाडाया सर्वोच्च अदालत पिने, ओटावा, अन्टारियो, क्यानाडा]]
न्यायया साधनात्मक सिद्धान्तं न्याययात मखुगु ज्या याःगुया [[दण्ड|सजाँयया]] लिच्वःया आधारय् स्वइ, गथेकि  : 

# ''छाय्'' सजाँय बीगु ?
# ''सुयात'' सजाँय बीगु ?
# इमित ''छु'' सजाँय बीगु ? 

=== उपयोगितावादी न्याय ===
उपयोगितावादीया कथं न्याय धइगु सम्बन्धित फुक्क व्यक्तिया कुल वा औसत कल्याणया अधिकतमता खः । उपयोगितावादं अपराधलिसे स्वंगू कथं ल्वाइ : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Punishment {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=https://iep.utm.edu/punishme/|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

# ''निवारण'' । सजायया विश्वसनीय ख्याच्वलं मनूतय्त थीथी विकल्प ल्ययेत प्रेरित यायेफु; बांलाक डिजाइन यानातःगु ख्याच्वलं मनूतय्त कल्याण अप्वयेकेगु विकल्प ल्ययेत प्रेरित यायेफु । थ्व न्यायोचित सजायया सिद्धान्त नापं दण्ड अपराधया अनुपातय् जुइमाः धैगु खँय् मेल नः। सफल निवारणं अपराधया तथ्यांक म्ह्व याइ । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|doi=10.1177/002242787401100204|title=Crime and deterrence: A correlation analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-research-in-crime-and-delinquency_1974-07_11_2/page/124|journal=[[Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency]]|volume=11|date=1974|pages=124–143}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ''पुनर्वास'' । सजाँयं &quot;बांमलाःपिं मनूत&quot;यात &quot;बांलाःपिं&quot; दयेकेफु । उपयोगितावादीया निंतिं &quot;बांमलाम्ह मनू&quot;या अर्थ दक्वं &quot;मखूगु ज्या (गथेकि दुःख) यायेगु सम्भावना दुम्ह मनू&quot; ख। अथे जुयाः उपयोगितावादं सुयातं थथे कथं हिलाबीगु सजायया सिफारिस याइ कि इमिसं बांमलाःगु ज्या यायेगु सम्भावना हे म्हो जुइ । सफल पुनर्वासं पुनरावृत्ति म्ह्व याइ । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Recidivism Risk/Needs Assessment Tools|date=2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ''सुरक्षा / असक्षमता'' । छुं मनूत बांमलाःगु ज्याय् लिप्त जुया इमित समाजं सुधार हे याये मफइगु जुइफु। अथे खःसा इमित जेलय् तयेगु ज्यां इमित नोक्सान यायेगु अवसरयात सीमित यासें समाजया कल्याणयात अधिकतम यायेफूगु अवधारणा।

==== कल्याण-अधिकतमकरण ====
उपयोगितावादीया कथं न्यायया निंतिं सम्बन्धित फुक्क व्यक्तिया कुल वा औसत कल्याणयात अधिकतम यायेमाः । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of on Liberty, by John Stuart Mill.|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/34901/34901-h/34901-h.htm|work=gutenberg.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; थुकिया निंतिं मेपिनिगु भिं जुइगु निंतिं छुं छुं त्याग यायेमालीफु: थन्याःगु त्यागं सकसिगुं भिं जुइगु निष्पक्ष कथं खनेदःसा। उपयोगितावाद कथं छुं नं ज्या, संस्था, वा सकल हलिंया औचित्यया मापदण्ड, ''निष्पक्ष कल्याणकारी परिणामवाद'' खः। थ्व धारणा कथं न्यायया अप्रत्यक्ष रुपं जक [[मनु अधिकार|अधिकार]], सम्पत्ति, आवश्यकता, वा मेगु छुं नं गैर-उपयोगितावादी मापदण्डलिसे स्वापू दु। थुपिं मेगु मापदण्डतेगु (अधिकार, सम्पत्ति, आवश्यकता) अप्रत्यक्ष रुपं महत्व दु। थ्व मापदण्डतेगु मानव कल्याण नाप स्वापू दःगुलिं जक निंतिं इमिगु महत्त्व दूगु ख। तर अथे जुसां मानव अधिकार थेंज्याःगु अधिकार समग्र कल्याणया दुनेया तत्व जक जुइ, पार यायेमफइगु पंगः धाःसा जुइमखु । 

=== प्रतिशोधात्मक वा प्रतिदण्डात्मक न्याय ===
प्रतिशोधात्मक न्यायं परिणामवाद गलत खः धकाः तर्क याइ। थ्व विचाः कथं सजाय अपराधया अनुपातय् व सकल दोषीया निंतिं जुइमाः। थ्व विश्वासया आधारय् सकल दोषी व्यक्तित उचित सजायया हकदार खः धकाः तर्क याइ । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Punishment|url=https://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gaskilld/ethics/punishment.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt; तर गबलें गबलें प्रतिशोधवाद बदलाया कानूनी रुप जक खः धकाः नं धाइ । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Punishment: The supposed justifications}}&lt;/ref&gt; तर प्रतिदण्ड व बदला दथुइ भिन्नता दु : प्रतिदण्ड निष्पक्ष व अपराधया स्तरय् जुइ धाःसा बदला व्यक्तिगत व असीमित जुइ । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Retribution vs Revenge - What's the difference?|url=https://wikidiff.com/retribution/revenge}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== पुनर्स्थापना न्याय ===
पुनर्स्थापना न्यायं पीडिततय्त जूगु नोक्सानीयात भिंकेगु कुतः याइ । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Wilson|first=Jon|title=Victim-Centered Restorative Justice: An Essential Distinction|url=https://justalternatives.org/VCRJ.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; थुकिं पीडिततय्गु सक्रिय सहभागितायात प्रोत्साहन याइ अले अपराधीतय्त थःगु ज्याया जिम्मेवारी कायेत प्रोत्साहन याइ। पुनर्स्थापना न्याय पद्धतिइ पीडित व अपराधी दथुइ संवादयात बल्लाकी व पीडित सन्तुष्टि व अपराधीया जवाफदेहीया दकलय् भिंगु लिच्वः क्यनी ।  पुनर्स्थापना न्यायया प्रभावकारिताया मेटा-एनालाइसिसं पुनरावृत्तिइ छुं सुधार क्यंगु मदु ।  &lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Restorative justice conferencing for reducing recidivism in young offenders (aged 7 to 21)|last=Livingstone|first=Nuala}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== ल्वाकज्याःगु सिद्धान्त ===
छुं आधुनिक दार्शनिकतसें धाःगु दु कि उपयोगितावादी व प्रतिशोधवादी सिद्धान्त परस्पर भिन्न मखु। गथेकि एन्ड्रयू भन हिर्शं सन् १९७६य् पिदंगु थःगु सफू ''डुइङ जस्टिसय्'' सुझाव बियादीगु दु कि झीके म्हो अपराध स्वयां तःधंगु अपराधयात अप्वः सजाय बीगु नैतिक दायित्व दु । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|first=Andrew|last=Von Hirsch|title=Doing Justice: The Choice of Punishments|location=Lebanon NH|publisher=[[Northeastern University Press]]|date=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt; गबले तक झीसं थुकियात पालन यायेगु जुइ अबिले उपयोगितावादी आदर्शं छगू महत्वपूर्ण गौण भूमिका म्हिती ।

=== वितरणात्मक न्याय ===
[[किपा:VD-04-3.jpg|thumb|{{Lang|la|Lex, justitia, pax}} ( [[ल्याटिन भाषा|लाटिन भासं]] &quot;कानून, न्याय, शान्ति&quot;) [[Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland|स्वीट्जरल्याण्डया सर्वोच्च अदालतया]] पेडिमेन्टय्]]
वितरणात्मक न्यायया सिद्धान्तं स्वंगू न्ह्यसःया लिसः बीमाः । 

# ''छु छु  चीज'' इनेगु ? [[धन|थ्व इनेगु चीज धन]], शक्ति, सम्मान, अवसर वा थुपिं बस्तुया छुं संयोजन जुइगु खः ला ?
# थथे इनेगु चीज ''गुगु संस्थाया दथुइ'' इनेगु ? मनूत (सीपिं, जीवित, भविष्य), संवेदनशील प्राणी, छगू हे समाजया दुजःत, [[राष्ट्र|राष्ट्रत]] ?
# ''पाय्छिगु'' वितरण छु खः ? समान, योग्यतावादी, सामाजिक हैसियत कथं, आवश्यकता कथं, सम्पत्ति अधिकार व आक्रामकता मदुगुया आधारय्?

वितरणात्मक न्याय सिद्धान्तवादीतयेसं सामान्यतया थथे अनुकूल वितरण इनेगु ''अधिकार सुयाके दु'' धइगु न्ह्यसःया लिसः मब्यु धाःसा सम्पत्ति अधिकार सिद्धान्तवादीतेसं &quot;अनुकूल वितरण&quot; मदु धाइ। बरु वितरण कानूनी अन्तरक्रिया वा कारोवार (अर्थात गैरकानूनी मखुगु कारोवार)पाखें छु पाय्छि जुइ, उकिया आधारय् जक जुइमाः धाइ। 

==== निष्पक्षता ====
[[किपा:Justice_statue.jpg|thumb| जेएल अर्बन, ओलोमोक, चेक गणराज्यया अदालत भवनय् लेडि जस्टिसया मूर्ति]]
थःगु ''A Theory of Justice'' य् जोन रल्सं सामाजिक अनुबंधनया तर्क छ्यला &quot;न्याय (विशेष यानाः वितरणात्मक न्याय) निष्पक्षताया छगू रुप  (वस्तुया निष्पक्ष वितरण) ख&quot; धयादीगु दु।  रल्सं झीत अज्ञानताया पर्दाया ल्यूने थःत कल्पना यायेत इनाप यानादीगु दु। झीगु व्यक्तित्व, सामाजिक हैसियत, नैतिक चरित्र, धन, प्रतिभा व जीवनया योजनाया फुक्क ज्ञानयात अस्वीकार यासें झीसं झीगु समाजयात शासन यायेत छु न्यायया सिद्धान्त ल्ययेगु जुइ धका न्ह्यःस न्यना दी।  झीसं थन्याःगु अवस्थाय् सु मनू सु खः धकाः मसीगुलि निर्णययात थःगु पक्षय् पक्षपात यायेमफु। अथे जुयाः, अज्ञानताय् काःगु निर्णयं निष्पक्षताया क्यनि छाय्धाःसा थुकिलि स्वार्थी पूर्वाग्रह  दइमखु ।  रल्सं धयादीगु दु कि थ्व अवस्थाय् झी प्रत्येकं (सामाजिक) कल्याणयात अधिकतम यायेमाः धइगु न्यायया उपयोगितावादी सिद्धान्तयात अस्वीकार यायेगु जुइ छाय्धाःसा थन्याःगु अवस्थाय् झीसं मेपिनिगु निंतिं अप्वः फाइदाया निंतिं थःगु हे भिंया त्याग याइम्ह मनू जुयाः पिहां वयेत अपुइ। 

**

==== सम्पत्ति अधिकार ====
''एनार्की, स्तेत एन्द युतोपियाय्'' रोबर्ट नोजिकं धाःगु दु कि वितरणात्मक न्याय छगू आदर्श ''ढाँचालिसे'' मेल खनीगु मुक्कं वितरणया अवस्था मखु, तर प्रत्येक व्यक्तिगत हकया सही कथंया ''इतिहास दूगु'' अवस्था खः । 

==== योग्यतावाद ====

== आदर्श व मापदण्ड ==

=== समानता ===

=== कानूनया न्ह्यःने समानता ===

=== समानुपातिकता ===

=== सामाजिक न्याय ===

=== इक्विति (हिस्सेदारी) ===

=== लिच्वःया समानता ===

=== सम्बन्धात्मक न्याय ===

=== गति ===
&quot; न्याय लिबाःगु धइगु न्याय मदूगु खँग्वःं सुस्त न्यायया समस्यायात संकेत याइ । याकनं सुनुवाई यायेगु अधिकार छुं क्षेत्राधिकारय् दु । &lt;ref name=&quot;g700&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Speedy Trial Swift Justice: Full-Fledged Right or Second-Class Citizen|journal=Southwestern University Law Review|date=1992|volume=21|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/swulr21&amp;div=9&amp;id=&amp;page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; उच्च गुणस्तरया न्याय याकनं जुइगु प्रवृत्ति दु । &lt;ref name=&quot;g896&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Is justice delayed justice denied? An empirical approach|journal=[[International Review of Law and Economics]]|volume=65|date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== दण्ड वा सजाँय ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!सिद्धान्त
! सिद्धान्तया उद्देश्य
! पाय्छिगु सजाँय
|-
| प्रतिशोध
| अपराध जूगु बाहेक मेगु छुं कारणय् आधारित मजूगु सजाय। थ्व आधारय् यदि अनुपातिक सजाय नैतिक रुपं स्वीकार्य जुइकः पीडित पक्ष पिनिगु आत्मीय व समाजयात सन्तुष्ट याइगु प्रतिक्रियाया रुपय् बीगु पद्धति।
|
* शुल्क सजाँय
* अपराधया अनुपातय् सजाँय जुइमाः ।
|-
| निवारण
|
* ब्यक्तियात&amp;nbsp;– व्यक्तियात थप सजायया ग्याःचिकुं निरुत्साहित यायेगु ।
* सर्वसाधारण जनतायात&amp;nbsp;- सम्भावित अपराधीतय्त सम्भावित सजाँयया ख्याच्वः
|
* जेल सजाँय
* तःधंगु जरिवाना
* मेपिन्त दसुकथं क्यनेगु ताःहाकःगु सजाँय
|-
| पुनर्वास
| अपराधीया ब्यवहार भिंकेगु
|
* ब्यक्तिगत सजाँय
* सामुदायिक सेवा यायेगु आदेश 
* नैतिक शिक्षा 
* व्यावसायिक शिक्षा 
|-
| असक्षमता
| समाजयात अपराधपाखें बचे यायेत अपराधीयात मेगु अपराध यायेत असक्षम याइ । आपालं [[जघन्य]] [[अपराध]]या निंतिं।
|
* ताःहाकःगु जेल सजाय
* इलेक्ट्रोनिक ट्यागिङ्ग
* प्रतिबन्धया आदेश
|-
| क्षतिपूर्ति
| पीडित बाय् समुदाययात पुलेगु
|
* क्षतिपूर्ति 
* स्वयम्सेवक ज्या
* क्षतिपूर्ति योजनात
|-
| भर्त्सना
| नैतिक लागायात बल्लाकेत समाजं थःगु असहमति प्वंकेगु ।
|
* अपराधया दोषी प्रतिबिम्बित यायेगु
* सार्वजनिक थासय् सजाँय
* सजाँय सर्वसाधारणयात रिपोर्ट यायेगु
|-
|}

== विकासवादी दृष्टिकोण ==

== मनोविज्ञान ==

== संस्थात ==

== थ्व नं स्वयादिसँ ==
* [[न्यायशास्त्र]]

=== मेगु पौ ===
 

=== न्यायया ताजि ===
 

== लिधंसा ==

=== न्ह्यथना त:गु च्वज्यात ===
 

== ब्वनादिसँ ==

* Clive Barnett, ''The Priority of Injustice: Locating Democracy in Critical Theory'' (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2017), {{ISBN|978-0-8203-5152-0}}
* Brian Barry, ''Theories of Justice'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989)
* Gad Barzilai, ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003)
* Harry Brighouse, ''Justice'' (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004)
* Anthony Duff &amp; David Garland eds, ''A Reader on Punishment'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994)
* Colin Farrelly, ''An Introduction to Contemporary Political Theory'' (London: Sage, 2004)
* David Gauthier, ''Morals By Agreement'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986)
* Robert E. Goodin &amp; Philip Pettit eds, ''Contemporary Political Philosophy: An anthology'' (2nd edition, Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2006), Part III
* Serge Guinchard, ''La justice et ses institutions'' (Judicial institutions), Dalloz editor, 12 edition, 2013
* Eric Heinze, ''The Concept of Injustice'' (Routledge, 2013)
* Ted Honderich, ''Punishment: The supposed justifications'' (London: Hutchinson &amp;amp;amp; Co., 1969)
* James Konow (2003) &quot;Which Is the Fairest One of All? A Positive Analysis of Justice Theories&quot;, ''Journal of Economic Literature'', 41(4)[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3217459 pp.] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3217459 1188–1239]
* Will Kymlicka, ''Contemporary Political Philosophy: An introduction'' (2nd edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002)
* Nicola Lacey, ''State Punishment'' (London: Routledge, 1988)
* John Stuart Mill, ''Utilitarianism'' in ''On Liberty and Other Essays'' ed. John Gray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991)
* Robert Nozick, ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974)
* {{Cite book}}
* Marek Piechowiak, ''Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity'' (2nd edition, revised and extended, Berlin: Peter Lang Academic Publishers, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN 978-3-631-84524-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* C.L. Ten, ''Crime, Guilt, and Punishment: A philosophical introduction'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987)
* [[प्लेतो|Plato]], ''[[रिपब्लिक (प्लेटो)|Republic]]'' trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994)
* David Schmidtz, ''Elements of Justice'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006)
* Peter Singer ed., ''A Companion to Ethics'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), Part IV
* Telford Taylor, Constance Baker Motley, and James Feibleman (1975) ''Perspectives on Justice'', Northwestern University Press {{ISBN|0-8101-0453-9}}
* Catharine Titi, ''The Function of Equity in International Law'' (Oxford University Press, 2021), {{ISBN|9780198868002}}
* Reinhold Zippelius, ''Rechtsphilosophie, §§ 11–22'' (6th edition, Munich: C.H. Beck, 2011), {{ISBN|978-3-406-61191-9}}

== पिनेया स्वापू ==

* इन्टरनेट इन्साइक्लोपीडिया अफ फिलोसोफी इन्ट्री :
** माइकल एलिङ्गहमं [https://iep.utm.edu/distributive-justice/ वितरणात्मक न्याय]
** [https://iep.utm.edu/punishme/ सजाँय], केभिन मुर्तघं
** [https://iep.utm.edu/justwest/ न्यायया पश्चिमी सिद्धान्तत], वेन पी पोमरलेउपाखें
* स्ट्यानफोर्ड इन्साइक्लोपीडिया अफ फिलोसोफी इन्ट्री :
** डेभिड मिलरया [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice/ &quot;न्याय&quot;]
** जुलियन लामोन्टं [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-distributive/ &quot;वितरणात्मक न्याय&quot;]
** माइकल स्लोटया [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-virtue/ &quot;सद्गुणया रुपय् न्याय&quot;]
** जाचारी होस्किन्स व एन्टोनी डफं [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-punishment/ &quot;कानूनी सजाँय&quot;]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091204190016/http://unrol.org/article.aspx?article_id=30 संयुक्त राष्ट्र कानूनया शासन: अनौपचारिक न्याय], अनौपचारिक/सामुदायिक न्याय, कानूनया शासन व [[संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघ|संयुक्त राष्ट्र]] दथुया स्वापूया खँय्
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140427043908/http://www.justiceharvard.org/ न्याय : यायेगु पाय् छिगु ज्या छु खः ?]   Archived, हार्वर्ड विश्वविद्यालयया माइकल सेन्डेलया न्याय विषयस १२ गू भिडियोया झ्वः, गुकी ब्वनेगु सामग्री व सहभागीपिनिगु टिप्पणी नं दुथ्याकातःगु दु ।
[[पुचः:न्याय]]</text>
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[[किपा:HK_Central_Statue_Square_Legislative_Council_Building_n_Themis_s.jpg|thumb| 𑐮𑐾𑐜𑐶 𑐖𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐶𑐳, 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐰𑐷𑐎𑐺𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐩𑐵 ]]
𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐎 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐫𑑂, '''𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫''' 𑐢𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐣𑐹𑐟𑐾𑐟 𑐣𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐰𑐴𑐵𑐬 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐧𑐶𑐔𑐵𑑅 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 𑐳𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐦𑑀𑐬𑑂𑐜 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐵𑐂𑐎𑑂𑐮𑑀𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐦 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑀𑐳𑑀𑐦𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄, 𑐩𑐹 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠 𑐃𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑑖𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐟𑐵𑐧𑑂𑐡𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑑀𑐩𑐣 𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑄𑐴𑐶𑐟𑐵  𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐚 𑐀𑐦 𑐖𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑄 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄, 𑐐𑐣 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵𑐟 &quot;𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐎 𑐧𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐰 𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐫𑐷 𑐂𑐔𑑂𑐕𑐵𑐱𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶&quot;𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice/|publisher=Department of Philosophy, [[Stanford University]]|title=Justice|first=David|last=Miller|date=2021|quote=The most plausible candidate for a core definition comes from the Institutes of Justinian, a codification of Roman Law from the sixth century AD, where justice is defined as ‘the constant and perpetual will to render to each his due’. This is of course quite abstract until further specified, but it does throw light upon four important aspects of justice.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐥𑑂𑐟 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐠𑑅𑐟 &quot;𑐮𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸&quot; 𑐦𑐮 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐥𑑂𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖 𑐖𑐸𑐂 𑑋 𑐩𑐣𑐹𑐟𑐾𑐟 𑐕𑐸 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐰𑐴𑐵𑐬 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾 &quot;𑐮𑑂𑐰&quot; 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐿𑐟𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐵, 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐱𑐷𑐮𑐟𑐵, 𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣, [[𑐢𑐬𑑂𑐩]], 𑐰 𑐣𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐟𑐵 𑐁𑐡𑐶 𑐠𑐷-𑐠𑐷 𑐡𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑐔𑐵𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐰𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞𑐵 𑐰 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫𑑄 𑐀𑐡𑐵𑐮𑐟 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐰 𑐳𑑄𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑑅, 𑐀𑐡𑐵𑐮𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐦𑐿𑐳𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐸𑐟𑑅 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋

== 𑐥𑐵𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐫 𑐂𑐟𑐶𑐴𑐵𑐳 ==
𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐨𑐶𑐎 𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩𑐷 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐔𑐷𑐣 𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐷𑐎 𑐡𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐳𑑄, 𑐡𑐳𑐸 [[𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐟𑑀|𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐚𑑀𑑄]] 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐠 ''[[𑐬𑐶𑐥𑐧𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐎 (𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐚𑑀)|𑐡 𑐬𑐶𑐥𑐧𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐎𑐫𑑂]]'' 𑐰 [[𑐊𑐬𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑑀𑐟𑐮|𑐀𑐬𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐹𑑄]] 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 ''𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑀𑐩𑐵𑐔𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐊𑐠𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳''  𑐰 ''𑐥𑑀𑐮𑐶𑐚𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑑂'' 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐳 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐃𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩𑐷 𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐐 𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐢𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐱𑐵𑐳𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐸, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐡𑐿𑐰𑐷𑐫 𑐁𑐡𑐾𑐱 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐳𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐃𑐱𑑂𑐰𑐬𑑄 𑐣𑐿𑐟𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑐰 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐣𑑄 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐿𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄 𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐵 𑐩𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂, 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=God's Command|url=https://archive.org/details/godscommand0000hare|date=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|pages=[https://archive.org/details/godscommand0000hare/page/32 32]–49}}&lt;/ref&gt;

𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩𑐷 𑐔𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐎𑐟𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐮𑐶𑐥𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐐 𑐥𑐮𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐠𑐷𑐠𑐷 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐧𑑂𑐰𑐮𑑋 𑑑𑑗𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐟𑐵𑐧𑑂𑐡𑐷𑐂 [[𑐖𑐣 𑐮𑐎]] 𑐠𑐾𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐡𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐩𑑄 𑐰𑐂 𑐢𑐿𑐐𑐸 𑐧𑐶𑐔𑐵𑑅 𑐟𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐮𑑋 𑐖𑐷𑐣-𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐳 𑐬𑐸𑐳𑑀 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐧𑐣𑑂𑐢𑐣 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐩𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐩𑑂𑐴 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐩𑑂𑐴 𑐏𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐸𑐖𑑅𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐐𑐸 𑐠𑑅-𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐴𑐩𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑐣𑐷𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐱𑐵𑐳𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐰𑐂 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐢𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐮𑑋 𑑑𑑙𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐟𑐵𑐧𑑂𑐡𑐷𑐂 𑐖𑑀𑐣 𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐸𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐚 𑐩𑐶𑐮 𑐠𑐾𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷 𑐡𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐾𑐰𑐵 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 𑐩𑐣𑐸𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐮𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐵𑐰 𑐟𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐮𑑋 &lt;sup class=&quot;noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;&amp;#x5B; ''

𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐝𑐵𑑃𑐔𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫, 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡, 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐱𑑀𑐢𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐰 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐥𑐣𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐠𑐾𑑄𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐰𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐟 𑐡𑐸𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑑋

𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄, 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑑄 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖 𑐳𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐟𑑅 𑐕𑐸 𑐔𑐷𑐖 𑐂𑐣𑐾𑐩𑐵𑑅, 𑐳𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐂𑐣𑐾𑐩𑐵, ''𑐄𑐔𑐶𑐟'' 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞 𑐕𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐂 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐸 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐔𑐶𑐟 𑐏𑑅 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑃𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑐶𑐔𑐵𑑅 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 ''𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷'' 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑄 𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐞𑐵𑐩𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐂, ''𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐱𑑀𑐢𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎'' 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑄 𑐩𑐏𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐗𑑂𑐰𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐟 𑐥𑐮𑐵𑑅𑐟𑐾𑐟 𑐮𑐶𑐦𑑅 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑐄𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐕𑐶 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐩𑐾𑐮 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐸𑐟𑑅 𑐫𑐵𑐂, 𑐀𑐮𑐾 ''𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐥𑐣𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷'' 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑄 𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐟 𑐰 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐰𑐱𑑂𑐫𑐎𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐰 𑐩𑐏𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐏𑐾𑑄 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑑀𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐵𑐣𑐷𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐸𑐟𑑅 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐱𑑀𑐢𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐩𑐏𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐥𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫 𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑐡𑐫𑐵𑐰𑐂 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐥𑐣𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 (𑐐𑐸𑐧𑐮𑐾𑑄 𑐐𑐸𑐧𑐮𑐾𑑄 &quot;𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐟𑐶𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐡𑐵𑐫𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫&quot; 𑐣𑑄 𑐢𑐵𑐂) 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐡𑐺𑐲𑑂𑐚𑐶𑐎𑑀𑐞 𑐏 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐟 𑐰 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐰𑐱𑑂𑐫𑐎𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐎𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 

== 𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐚𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 ==
𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫, [[𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐟𑑀|𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐚𑑀𑐫𑐵]] 𑐎𑐠𑑄, 𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐸𑐮𑐣 𑐰 𑐳𑐡𑑂𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐲𑐫 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑑄 𑐕𑐩𑑂𑐴 𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐩𑐸𑐡𑐵𑐫 𑐡𑐸𑐣𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑑂𑐰𑐣𑑂𑐡𑑂𑐰𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐕𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐢𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐰 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑑋 𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐚𑑀𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 &quot;𑐳𑐎𑐳𑐶𑐣𑑄 𑐠𑑅 𑐕𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐖𑐶𑐩𑑂𑐩𑐾𑐰𑐵𑐬𑐷 𑐡𑐸 𑐰 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄 𑐠𑑅𑐂𑐎𑐾 𑐕𑐸 𑐔𑐷𑐖 𑐡𑐸, 𑐰 𑐔𑐷𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐴𑐎𑐡𑐵𑐬 𑐖𑐸𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸&quot; 𑐏𑑋  𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐟 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐩𑐣𑐹 𑐢𑐂𑐩𑑂𑐴 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐚 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐩𑐟𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐫𑑂 𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐡𑐵𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐩𑑂𑐴 𑐰 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐡𑐵𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑑄 𑐧𑐷, 𑐰 𑐴𑐾 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐥𑑂𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐩𑑂𑐴 𑐩𑐣𑐹 𑐏𑑅𑑋 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐩𑐣𑐹 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐧𑐮𑐾𑑄 𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐕𑐶 𑐠𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐫𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐣𑐶, 𑐰 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐧𑐮𑐾𑑄 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐎𑐸𑐟𑑅 𑐫𑐵𑐂, 𑐀𑐮𑐾 𑐠𑑅𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐥𑑂𑐟 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐔𑐶𑐟 𑐰 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐣 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐰𑐴𑐵𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐦𑐮 𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐣𑐷 𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵 𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐐𑐟 𑐟𑐴𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐰 𑐳𑑄𑐐𑐛𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐰 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎 𑐟𑐴𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐟𑐴𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐂 𑑋

== 𑐡𑐿𑐰𑐷 𑐰 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐢𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑐰𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞𑐵 ==
𑐡𑐿𑐰𑐷𑐫 𑐁𑐡𑐾𑐱 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐰𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐵𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐳𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄 𑐣𑐿𑐟𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐩𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐵 𑐃𑐱𑑂𑐰𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐁𑐡𑐾𑐱 𑐏𑑅 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐰𑐬𑑂𑐞𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑑋 𑐡𑐳𑐸:𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐐𑐮𑐟 𑐏𑑅 𑐀𑐮𑐾 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫 𑐧𑐷 𑐴𑐾 𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑐕𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐡𑑂𑐫𑐰𑑄 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐢𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐬𑐞𑑄 𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐰𑐟𑐵𑐮𑐶𑐳𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐞𑑄 𑐡𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐾 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐡𑐵𑐧𑐷 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐩𑐾𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐬𑐞𑑄 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐁 𑐡𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐾 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑐕𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐡𑑂𑐫𑑅 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑑄 𑐨𑐶𑑄 𑐏𑑅, 𑐀𑐮𑐾 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐡𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵 𑐥𑐵𑐮𑐣𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐎𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑄 𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐮𑐵𑐂 𑐢𑐿𑐐𑐸 𑐧𑐶𑐔𑐵 𑐟𑐂 𑑋 

== 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐩 ==
[[किपा:Iustitia_van_Heemskerck.png|thumb| 𑐩𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐚𑐾𑐣 𑐨𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣 𑐴𑐾𑐩𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐬𑑂𑐎𑑄 ''𑐖𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐶𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐵'', 𑑑𑑕𑑕𑑖 𑑋 𑐖𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐶𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐵𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄  𑐟𑐬𑐰𑐵𑐬, [[𑐟𑐸𑐮𑐵|𑐟𑐬𑐵𑐖𑐸]] 𑐰 𑐩𑐶𑐏𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐚𑑂𑐚𑐷 𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐧𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐟𑐂𑑋 ]]
𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰𑐳𑐶𑐣𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐧𑑂𑐰 𑐏 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐡𑐵𑐧𑐷 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸 (𑐡𑐳𑐸, 𑐖𑑀𑐣 𑐮𑐎)𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Two Treatises of Government: In The Former the False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer and His Followers, are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter is An Essay Concerning the True Original Extent and End of Civil Government|publisher=Awnsham and John Churchill|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑄𑐎𑐸𑐱𑐟𑐵 𑐰 𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐾𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐡 ===
𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐚𑑀𑐫𑐵 ''𑐬𑐶𑐥𑐧𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐎𑐫𑑂'', 𑐠𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐳𑐵𑐂𑐩𑐵𑐎𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐢𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐧𑐮𑑂𑐮𑐵𑑅𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐶𑐟 𑐏𑑅 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐎 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑑋&amp;nbsp;– 𑐱𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐱𑐵𑐮𑐷 𑐰𑐵 𑐢𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐟 𑐱𑐵𑐳𑐎𑑄 𑐖𑐣𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐕𑐸 𑐮𑐵𑐡𑐾𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸, 𑐄𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐵𑑄 𑐖𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐏 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐧𑐶𑐔𑐵𑑅 𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸 𑑋

=== 𑐩𑑄𑐎𑐵 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐗𑑁𑐟𑐵 ===
𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐧𑑄𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐰𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐵𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐐𑐸 𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐳𑐎𑐳𑐶𑐐𑐸𑑄 𑐁𑐥𑐳𑐷 𑐳𑐴𑐩𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐰𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐬𑐞𑐫𑑂 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐧𑐣𑑂𑐢𑐣 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐟𑐵 𑐰 𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐴 𑐬𑐴𑐶𑐟 ''𑐎𑐵𑐮𑑂𑐥𑐣𑐶𑐎'' 𑐱𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑑄 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐴𑐩𑐟𑐶 𑐏𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐰𑐬𑐞𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑐗 𑐎𑑂𑐰𑐳𑑄 ' 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐟𑐵 ' 𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐐𑐟 𑐧𑐶𑐔𑐵𑑅 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸 𑑋 𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐴𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐨𑐵𑐰𑑄 𑐀𑐳𑐴𑐩𑐟𑐶𑐂 (𑐰𑐵 𑐩𑐸𑐡𑑂𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑂) 𑐳𑑄𑐮𑐐𑑂𑐣 𑐳𑐎𑐮 𑐩𑐣𑐹𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐣 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋

=== 𑐀𑐢𑐷𑐣𑐳𑑂𑐠 𑐩𑐹 ===
𑐖𑑀𑐣 𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐸𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐚 𑐩𑐶𑐮 𑐠𑐾𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷 𑐔𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐎𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐗𑐷𑐳𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐫𑑅 𑐧𑐶𑐔𑐵𑑅 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵 𑐠𑐾𑑄 𑐩𑑁𑐮𑐶𑐎 𑐩𑐏𑐸 𑑋 𑐧𑐬𑐸 𑐠𑑂𑐰  𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐞𑐵𑐩𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐨𑐹𑐟 𑐩𑐵𑐥𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐏: &quot;𑐕𑐸 𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐕𑐶 𑐏?&quot;𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐳𑑅 &quot;𑐕𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐮𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐞𑐵𑐩 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐶&quot; 𑐰 𑐴𑐾 𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐕𑐶 𑐏𑑋 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐞𑐵𑐩 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐎𑐸𑐮 𑐰𑐵 𑐍𑐳𑐟 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑐵𑐂𑑋  𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐄𑐔𑐶𑐟 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐮𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐥𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐺𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐡𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐩𑐟 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐩𑐟𑐶 𑐠𑐾𑑄𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐠𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐧𑐷 ; 𑐟𑐬 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄, 𑐰𑐵𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐰𑐶𑐎 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐧𑐵𑐬𑐾 𑐟𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬 𑐩𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐹𑑋 𑐩𑐶𑐮𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐀𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐢𑐶𑐎 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐰𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐏𑑅 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐗𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐐𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐷𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐳𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐰𑐫𑑂𑐎𑐮𑑄 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐎 𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐮: 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐣𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐰𑐷𑐫 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐺𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐏: 𑐗𑐷𑐟 𑐩𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐥𑐶𑑄𑐎𑐾 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐱𑑀𑐢 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐗𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐔𑑂𑐕𑐵 (𑐰𑐵 𑐁𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐬𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐣𑐵) 𑐰 𑐗𑐷𑐳𑑄 𑐠𑑅𑐟 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐥𑐣𑐵𑐱𑐷𑐮 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄 𑐩𑐾𑐩𑑂𑐴𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐩𑐟𑐵, 𑐳𑐴𑐵𑐣𑐸𑐨𑐹𑐟𑐶𑑋 𑐄𑐎𑐶𑑄 𑐳𑐸𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑄 𑐣𑑀𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐵𑐣 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑐣𑐾𑐰𑑄 𑐗𑐷𑐳𑑄 𑐠𑑅𑐟 𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐵𑐏𑐾𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐱𑑀𑐢 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐔𑑂𑐕𑐵 𑐧𑑂𑐰𑐮𑐣𑐷 𑑋 𑐫𑐡𑐶 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐴𑐾 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐧𑐵𑐬𑐾 𑐗𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐣𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐟 𑐏𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐗𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐳𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑑀 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑑋

== 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 ==
[[किपा:Bonino_da_Campione,_Justice,_c._1357,_NGA_46013.jpg|thumb| 𑐧𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐣𑑀 𑐡𑐵 Campione, ''𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫'', c. 𑑑𑑓𑑕𑑗, 𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐫 𑐎𑐮𑐵 𑐐𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐮𑐬𑐷 .]]

=== 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐟 ===
[[किपा:Justicia_Ottawa.jpg|right|thumb| 𑐰𑐵𑐮𑑂𑐚𑐬 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑑀𑐬 𑐀𑐮𑐰𑐬𑑂𑐜𑐫𑐵  ''𑐖𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐵'' (𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫), 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐜𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐰𑑀𑐔𑑂𑐔 𑐀𑐡𑐵𑐮𑐟 𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐾, 𑐌𑐚𑐵𑐰𑐵, 𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐚𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐫𑑀, 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐜𑐵]]
𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑐏𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸𑐫𑐵 [[𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜|𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫𑐫𑐵]] 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐂, 𑐐𑐠𑐾𑐎𑐶  : 

# ''𑐕𑐵𑐫𑑂'' 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫 𑐧𑐷𑐐𑐸 ?
# ''𑐳𑐸𑐫𑐵𑐟'' 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫 𑐧𑐷𑐐𑐸 ?
# 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟 ''𑐕𑐸'' 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫 𑐧𑐷𑐐𑐸 ? 

=== 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 ===
𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐧𑐣𑑂𑐢𑐶𑐟 𑐦𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐸𑐮 𑐰𑐵 𑐍𑐳𑐟 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐩𑐟𑐵 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑑄 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐮𑐶𑐳𑐾 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑑄𑐐𑐹 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐮𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐂 : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Punishment {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=https://iep.utm.edu/punishme/|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

# ''𑐣𑐶𑐰𑐵𑐬𑐞'' 𑑋 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐰𑐳𑐣𑐷𑐫 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐮𑑄 𑐩𑐣𑐹𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐟 𑐠𑐷𑐠𑐷 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐥 𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸; 𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐮𑐵𑐎 𑐜𑐶𑐖𑐵𑐂𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐮𑑄 𑐩𑐣𑐹𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐟 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐥 𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸 𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐔𑐶𑐟 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄 𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑐢𑐿𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑃𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐾𑐮 𑐣𑑅𑑋 𑐳𑐦𑐮 𑐣𑐶𑐰𑐵𑐬𑐞𑑄 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑄𑐎 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐰 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|doi=10.1177/002242787401100204|title=Crime and deterrence: A correlation analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-research-in-crime-and-delinquency_1974-07_11_2/page/124|journal=[[Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency]]|volume=11|date=1974|pages=124–143}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ''𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐳'' 𑑋 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫𑑄 &quot;𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐩𑐮𑐵𑑅𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐩𑐣𑐹𑐟&quot;𑐫𑐵𑐟 &quot;𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐮𑐵𑑅𑐥𑐶𑑄&quot; 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐾𑐦𑐸 𑑋 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 &quot;𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐩𑐮𑐵𑐩𑑂𑐴 𑐩𑐣𑐹&quot;𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠 𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐰𑑄 &quot;𑐩𑐏𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 (𑐐𑐠𑐾𑐎𑐶 𑐡𑐸𑑅𑐏) 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐣𑐵 𑐡𑐸𑐩𑑂𑐴 𑐩𑐣𑐹&quot; 𑐏𑑋 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑑄 𑐳𑐸𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑄 𑐠𑐠𑐾 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐴𑐶𑐮𑐵𑐧𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐶𑐦𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐳 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑐎𑐶 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐳𑑄 𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐩𑐮𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐣𑐵 𑐴𑐾 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑑀 𑐖𑐸𑐂 𑑋 𑐳𑐦𑐮 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐳𑑄 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑐵𑐰𑐺𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐰 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Recidivism Risk/Needs Assessment Tools|date=2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# ''𑐳𑐸𑐬𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐵 / 𑐀𑐳𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐩𑐟𑐵'' 𑑋 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐩𑐣𑐹𑐟 𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐩𑐮𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑐶𑐥𑑂𑐟 𑐖𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑑄 𑐳𑐸𑐢𑐵𑐬 𑐴𑐾 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾 𑐩𑐦𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐦𑐸𑑋 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐏𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟 𑐖𑐾𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑄 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟 𑐣𑑀𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐵𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐰𑐳𑐬𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐷𑐩𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐩 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐰𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞𑐵𑑋

==== 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞-𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐩𑐎𑐬𑐞 ====
𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐧𑐣𑑂𑐢𑐶𑐟 𑐦𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐸𑐮 𑐰𑐵 𑐍𑐳𑐟 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐩 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of on Liberty, by John Stuart Mill.|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/34901/34901-h/34901-h.htm|work=gutenberg.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐩𑐾𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑐶𑑄 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐐 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐩𑐵𑐮𑐷𑐦𑐸: 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐐𑑄 𑐳𑐎𑐳𑐶𑐐𑐸𑑄 𑐨𑐶𑑄 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐏𑐣𑐾𑐡𑑅𑐳𑐵𑑋 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐣𑑄 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵, 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵, 𑐰𑐵 𑐳𑐎𑐮 𑐴𑐮𑐶𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐍𑐔𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐥𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜, ''𑐣𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐷 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐞𑐵𑐩𑐰𑐵𑐡'' 𑐏𑑅𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐲 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄 𑐖𑐎 [[𑐩𑐣𑐸 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬|𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬]], 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶, 𑐁𑐰𑐱𑑂𑐫𑐎𑐟𑐵, 𑐰𑐵 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐣𑑄 𑐐𑐿𑐬-𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷 𑐩𑐵𑐥𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜𑐮𑐶𑐳𑐾 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐵𑐥𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 (𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬, 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶, 𑐁𑐰𑐱𑑂𑐫𑐎𑐟𑐵) 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐲 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐰 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐩𑐵𑐥𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐰 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞 𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹 𑐡𑑅𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐖𑐎 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐰 𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑋 𑐟𑐬 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐳𑐵𑑄 𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐰 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬 𑐠𑐾𑑄𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬 𑐳𑐩𑐐𑑂𑐬 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐸𑐣𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐟𑑂𑐰 𑐖𑐎 𑐖𑐸𑐂, 𑐥𑐵𑐬 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐩𑐦𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑄𑐐𑑅 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐩𑐏𑐸 𑑋 

=== 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐱𑑀𑐢𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐰𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 ===
𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐱𑑀𑐢𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑑄 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐞𑐵𑐩𑐰𑐵𑐡 𑐐𑐮𑐟 𑐏𑑅 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐎 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐔𑐵𑑅 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐰 𑐳𑐎𑐮 𑐡𑑀𑐲𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐩𑐵𑑅𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐎𑐮 𑐡𑑀𑐲𑐷 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐟 𑐄𑐔𑐶𑐟 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐴𑐎𑐡𑐵𑐬 𑐏𑑅 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐎 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Punishment|url=https://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gaskilld/ethics/punishment.htm}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐟𑐬 𑐐𑐧𑐮𑐾𑑄 𑐐𑐧𑐮𑐾𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐱𑑀𑐢𑐰𑐵𑐡 𑐧𑐡𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣𑐷 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐖𑐎 𑐏𑑅 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐣𑑄 𑐢𑐵𑐂 𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Punishment: The supposed justifications}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐟𑐬 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜 𑐰 𑐧𑐡𑐮𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐨𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐣𑐟𑐵 𑐡𑐸 : 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜 𑐣𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲 𑐰 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑐸𑐂 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐧𑐡𑐮𑐵 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐐𑐟 𑐰 𑐀𑐳𑐷𑐩𑐶𑐟 𑐖𑐸𑐂 𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Retribution vs Revenge - What's the difference?|url=https://wikidiff.com/retribution/revenge}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐥𑐣𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 ===
𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐥𑐣𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑑄 𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐟𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐟 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑑀𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐵𑐣𑐷𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐸𑐟𑑅 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=Wilson|first=Jon|title=Victim-Centered Restorative Justice: An Essential Distinction|url=https://justalternatives.org/VCRJ.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐟𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐫 𑐳𑐴𑐨𑐵𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐟𑑂𑐳𑐵𑐴𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑐀𑐮𑐾 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐷𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐟 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐶𑐩𑑂𑐩𑐾𑐰𑐵𑐬𑐷 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐟𑑂𑐳𑐵𑐴𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐥𑐣𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐥𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐟𑐶𑐂 𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐟 𑐰 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐷 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐳𑑄𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐧𑐮𑑂𑐮𑐵𑐎𑐷 𑐰 𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐟 𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐸𑐲𑑂𑐚𑐶 𑐰 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐰𑐵𑐦𑐡𑐾𑐴𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐷 𑑋  𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐥𑐣𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐾𑐚𑐵-𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐵𑐂𑐳𑐶𑐳𑑄 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑐵𑐰𑐺𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐂 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐳𑐸𑐢𑐵𑐬 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐡𑐸 𑑋  &lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Restorative justice conferencing for reducing recidivism in young offenders (aged 7 to 21)|last=Livingstone|first=Nuala}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 𑐮𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐎𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 ===
𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐡𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸 𑐎𑐶 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐱𑑀𑐢𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐥𑐬𑐳𑑂𑐥𑐬 𑐨𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐣 𑐩𑐏𑐸𑑋 𑐐𑐠𑐾𑐎𑐶 𑐊𑐣𑑂𑐜𑑂𑐬𑐫𑐹 𑐨𑐣 𑐴𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐱𑑄 𑐳𑐣𑑂 𑑑𑑙𑑗𑑖𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐶𑐡𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐦𑐹 ''𑐜𑐸𑐂𑐒 𑐖𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐶𑐳𑐫𑑂'' 𑐳𑐸𑐗𑐵𑐰 𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸 𑐎𑐶 𑐗𑐷𑐎𑐾 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑑀 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑑄 𑐟𑑅𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫 𑐧𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐿𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐰 𑐡𑐸 𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|first=Andrew|last=Von Hirsch|title=Doing Justice: The Choice of Punishments|location=Lebanon NH|publisher=[[Northeastern University Press]]|date=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐐𑐧𑐮𑐾 𑐟𑐎 𑐗𑐷𑐳𑑄 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑐵𑐮𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐂 𑐀𑐧𑐶𑐮𑐾 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷 𑐁𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱𑑄 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐰𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐐𑑁𑐞 𑐨𑐹𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐵 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑐶𑐟𑐷 𑑋

=== 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 ===
[[किपा:VD-04-3.jpg|thumb|{{Lang|la|Lex, justitia, pax}} ( [[𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐚𑐶𑐣 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵|𑐮𑐵𑐚𑐶𑐣 𑐨𑐵𑐳𑑄]] &quot;𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣, 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫, 𑐱𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐶&quot;) [[Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland|𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐷𑐚𑑂𑐖𑐬𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑑂𑐜𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐰𑑀𑐔𑑂𑐔 𑐀𑐡𑐵𑐮𑐟𑐫𑐵]] 𑐥𑐾𑐜𑐶𑐩𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐚𑐫𑑂]]
𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑄 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑑄𑐐𑐹 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐳𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐳𑑅 𑐧𑐷𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑑋 

# ''𑐕𑐸 𑐕𑐸  𑐔𑐷𑐖'' 𑐂𑐣𑐾𑐐𑐸 ? [[𑐢𑐣|𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐂𑐣𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐔𑐷𑐖 𑐢𑐣]], 𑐱𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶, 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐩𑐵𑐣, 𑐀𑐰𑐳𑐬 𑐰𑐵 𑐠𑐸𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐧𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐳𑑄𑐫𑑀𑐖𑐣 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑅 𑐮𑐵 ?
# 𑐠𑐠𑐾 𑐂𑐣𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐔𑐷𑐖 ''𑐐𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂'' 𑐂𑐣𑐾𑐐𑐸 ? 𑐩𑐣𑐹𑐟 (𑐳𑐷𑐥𑐶𑑄, 𑐖𑐷𑐰𑐶𑐟, 𑐨𑐰𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐫), 𑐳𑑄𑐰𑐾𑐡𑐣𑐱𑐷𑐮 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐞𑐷, 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐴𑐾 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐸𑐖𑑅𑐟, [[𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬|𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐟]] ?
# ''𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐕𑐶𑐐𑐸'' 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞 𑐕𑐸 𑐏𑑅 ? 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐣, 𑐫𑑀𑐐𑑂𑐫𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷, 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎 𑐴𑐿𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐟 𑐎𑐠𑑄, 𑐁𑐰𑐱𑑂𑐫𑐎𑐟𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄, 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬 𑐰 𑐁𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐩𑐎𑐟𑐵 𑐩𑐡𑐸𑐐𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂?

𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑐠𑐾 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐎𑐹𑐮 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞 𑐂𑐣𑐾𑐐𑐸 ''𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬 𑐳𑐸𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐾 𑐡𑐸'' 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐳𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐳𑑅 𑐩𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐸 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 &quot;𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐎𑐹𑐮 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞&quot; 𑐩𑐡𑐸 𑐢𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐧𑐬𑐸 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞 𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣𑐷 𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐬𑑀𑐰𑐵𑐬 (𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐟 𑐐𑐿𑐬𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣𑐷 𑐩𑐏𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐵𑐬𑑀𑐰𑐵𑐬)𑐥𑐵𑐏𑐾𑑄 𑐕𑐸 𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐕𑐶 𑐖𑐸𑐂, 𑐄𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑐎 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑐢𑐵𑐂𑑋 

==== 𑐣𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐟𑐵 ====
[[किपा:Justice_statue.jpg|thumb| 𑐖𑐾𑐊𑐮 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐧𑐣, 𑐌𑐮𑑀𑐩𑑀𑐎, 𑐔𑐾𑐎 𑐐𑐞𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐡𑐵𑐮𑐟 𑐨𑐰𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑐾𑐜𑐶 𑐖𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐶𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐶]]
𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 ''A Theory of Justice'' 𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑑀𑐣 𑐬𑐮𑑂𑐳𑑄 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐧𑑄𑐢𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐎 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐵 &quot;𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 (𑐰𑐶𑐱𑐾𑐲 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑑅 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫) 𑐣𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐬𑐸𑐥  (𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞) 𑐏&quot; 𑐢𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋  𑐬𑐮𑑂𑐳𑑄 𑐗𑐷𑐟 𑐀𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵𑐣𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐬𑑂𑐡𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐹𑐣𑐾 𑐠𑑅𑐟 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐥𑐣𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐂𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐗𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐰, 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎 𑐴𑐿𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐟, 𑐣𑐿𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐔𑐬𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐬, 𑐢𑐣, 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐨𑐵 𑐰 𑐖𑐷𑐰𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑑀𑐖𑐣𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐦𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵𑐣𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐷𑐎𑐵𑐬 𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐗𑐷𑐳𑑄 𑐗𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐱𑐵𑐳𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐕𑐸 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐂 𑐢𑐎𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐳 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐵 𑐡𑐷𑑋  𑐗𑐷𑐳𑑄 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐸 𑐩𑐣𑐹 𑐳𑐸 𑐏𑑅 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐩𑐳𑐷𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐞𑐫𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐥𑐵𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐩𑐦𑐸𑑋 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐫𑐵𑑅, 𑐀𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵𑐣𑐟𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐞𑐫𑑄 𑐣𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐶 𑐕𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐷 𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐴  𑐡𑐂𑐩𑐏𑐸 𑑋  𑐬𑐮𑑂𑐳𑑄 𑐢𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸 𑐎𑐶 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐀𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐗𑐷 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐎𑑄 (𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎) 𑐎𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐩 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐄𑐥𑐫𑑀𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐷𑐎𑐵𑐬 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐂 𑐕𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐗𑐷𑐳𑑄 𑐩𑐾𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐦𑐵𑐂𑐡𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐾 𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐐 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐩𑑂𑐴 𑐩𑐣𑐹 𑐖𑐸𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑐥𑐶𑐴𑐵𑑄 𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐀𑐥𑐸𑐂𑑋

==== 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬 ====
''𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐷, 𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐟 𑐊𑐣𑑂𑐡 𑐫𑐸𑐟𑑀𑐥𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐫𑑂'' 𑐬𑑀𑐧𑐬𑑂𑐚 𑐣𑑀𑐖𑐶𑐎𑑄 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸 𑐎𑐶 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐁𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱 ''𑐝𑐵𑑃𑐔𑐵𑐮𑐶𑐳𑐾'' 𑐩𑐾𑐮 𑐏𑐣𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐎𑑄 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵 𑐩𑐏𑐸, 𑐟𑐬 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐎 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐐𑐟 𑐴𑐎𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐴𑐷 𑐎𑐠𑑄𑐫𑐵 ''𑐂𑐟𑐶𑐴𑐵𑐳 𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸'' 𑐀𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 

==== 𑐫𑑀𑐐𑑂𑐫𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐡 ====

== 𑐁𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱 𑐰 𑐩𑐵𑐥𑐡𑐞𑑂𑐜 ==

=== 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐟𑐵 ===

=== 𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐣𑐾 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐟𑐵 ===

=== 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐸𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐶𑐎𑐟𑐵 ===

=== 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 ===

=== 𑐂𑐎𑑂𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐶 (𑐴𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐳𑐾𑐡𑐵𑐬𑐷) ===

=== 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐟𑐵 ===

=== 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐧𑐣𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 ===

=== 𑐐𑐟𑐶 ===
&quot; 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐮𑐶𑐧𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐩𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅𑑄 𑐳𑐸𑐳𑑂𑐟 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐩𑐳𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑑋 𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐣𑑄 𑐳𑐸𑐣𑐸𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐾𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐸 𑑋 &lt;ref name=&quot;g700&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Speedy Trial Swift Justice: Full-Fledged Right or Second-Class Citizen|journal=Southwestern University Law Review|date=1992|volume=21|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/swulr21&amp;div=9&amp;id=&amp;page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐄𑐔𑑂𑐔 𑐐𑐸𑐞𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐣𑑄 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐺𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐡𑐸 𑑋 &lt;ref name=&quot;g896&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Is justice delayed justice denied? An empirical approach|journal=[[International Review of Law and Economics]]|volume=65|date=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫 ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟
! 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐄𑐡𑑂𑐡𑐾𑐱𑑂𑐫
! 𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐕𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫
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| 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐱𑑀𑐢
| 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐧𑐵𑐴𑐾𑐎 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐞𑐫𑑂 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐩𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐫𑐡𑐶 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫 𑐣𑐿𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐷𑐎𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐫 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐎𑑅 𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐟 𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲 𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐁𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐷𑐫 𑐰 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐸𑐲𑑂𑐚 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐟𑐶𑑋
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* 𑐱𑐸𑐮𑑂𑐎 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫
* 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐩𑐵𑑅 𑑋
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| 𑐣𑐶𑐰𑐵𑐬𑐞
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* 𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟&amp;nbsp;– 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐠𑐥 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐐𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐔𑐶𑐎𑐸𑑄 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐸𑐟𑑂𑐳𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑑋
* 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐖𑐣𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟&amp;nbsp;- 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐶𑐟 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐷𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐟 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐶𑐟 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅
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* 𑐖𑐾𑐮 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫
* 𑐟𑑅𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐬𑐶𑐰𑐵𑐣𑐵
* 𑐩𑐾𑐥𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐡𑐳𑐸𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐟𑐵𑑅𑐴𑐵𑐎𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫
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| 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐳
| 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐰𑐴𑐵𑐬 𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸
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* 𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐐𑐟 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫
* 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐸𑐡𑐵𑐫𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑐾𑐰𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐁𑐡𑐾𑐱 
* 𑐣𑐿𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐱𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐵 
* 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐰𑐳𑐵𑐫𑐶𑐎 𑐱𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐵 
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| 𑐀𑐳𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐩𑐟𑐵
| 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐥𑐵𑐏𑐾𑑄 𑐧𑐔𑐾 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐷𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐀𑐳𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐩 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑑋
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* 𑐟𑐵𑑅𑐴𑐵𑐎𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐾𑐮 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑐫
* 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐚𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐶𑐒𑑂𑐐
* 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐧𑐣𑑂𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐡𑐾𑐱
|-
| 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐟𑐶𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐶
| 𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐟 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐩𑐸𑐡𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑐸𑐮𑐾𑐐𑐸
|
* 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐟𑐶𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐶 
* 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐩𑑂𑐳𑐾𑐰𑐎 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵
* 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐟𑐶𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐫𑑀𑐖𑐣𑐵𑐟
|-
| 𑐨𑐬𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐳𑐣𑐵
| 𑐣𑐿𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐮𑐵𑐐𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐧𑐮𑑂𑐮𑐵𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑑄 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐳𑐴𑐩𑐟𑐶 𑐥𑑂𑐰𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑑋
|
* 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑑀𑐲𑐷 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐧𑐶𑐩𑑂𑐧𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸
* 𑐳𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐖𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐠𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫
* 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐬𑐶𑐥𑑀𑐬𑑂𑐚 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸
|-
|}

== 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐳𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐷 𑐡𑐺𑐲𑑂𑐚𑐶𑐎𑑀𑐞 ==

== 𑐩𑐣𑑀𑐰𑐶𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵𑐣 ==

== 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐟 ==

== 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐣𑑄 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑃 ==

=== 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑁 ===
 

=== 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐵𑐖𑐶 ===
 

== 𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵 ==

=== 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐠𑐣𑐵 𑐟:𑐐𑐸 𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐟 ===
 

== 𑐧𑑂𑐰𑐣𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑃 ==

* Clive Barnett, ''The Priority of Injustice: Locating Democracy in Critical Theory'' (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2017), {{ISBN|978-0-8203-5152-0}}
* Brian Barry, ''Theories of Justice'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989)
* Gad Barzilai, ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003)
* Harry Brighouse, ''Justice'' (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004)
* Anthony Duff &amp; David Garland eds, ''A Reader on Punishment'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994)
* Colin Farrelly, ''An Introduction to Contemporary Political Theory'' (London: Sage, 2004)
* David Gauthier, ''Morals By Agreement'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986)
* Robert E. Goodin &amp; Philip Pettit eds, ''Contemporary Political Philosophy: An anthology'' (2nd edition, Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2006), Part III
* Serge Guinchard, ''La justice et ses institutions'' (Judicial institutions), Dalloz editor, 12 edition, 2013
* Eric Heinze, ''The Concept of Injustice'' (Routledge, 2013)
* Ted Honderich, ''Punishment: The supposed justifications'' (London: Hutchinson &amp;amp;amp; Co., 1969)
* James Konow (2003) &quot;Which Is the Fairest One of All? A Positive Analysis of Justice Theories&quot;, ''Journal of Economic Literature'', 41(4)[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3217459 pp.] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3217459 1188–1239]
* Will Kymlicka, ''Contemporary Political Philosophy: An introduction'' (2nd edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002)
* Nicola Lacey, ''State Punishment'' (London: Routledge, 1988)
* John Stuart Mill, ''Utilitarianism'' in ''On Liberty and Other Essays'' ed. John Gray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991)
* Robert Nozick, ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974)
* {{Cite book}}
* Marek Piechowiak, ''Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity'' (2nd edition, revised and extended, Berlin: Peter Lang Academic Publishers, 2021), &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN 978-3-631-84524-0&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* C.L. Ten, ''Crime, Guilt, and Punishment: A philosophical introduction'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987)
* [[𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐟𑑀|Plato]], ''[[𑐬𑐶𑐥𑐧𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐎 (𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐚𑑀)|Republic]]'' trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994)
* David Schmidtz, ''Elements of Justice'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006)
* Peter Singer ed., ''A Companion to Ethics'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), Part IV
* Telford Taylor, Constance Baker Motley, and James Feibleman (1975) ''Perspectives on Justice'', Northwestern University Press {{ISBN|0-8101-0453-9}}
* Catharine Titi, ''The Function of Equity in International Law'' (Oxford University Press, 2021), {{ISBN|9780198868002}}
* Reinhold Zippelius, ''Rechtsphilosophie, §§ 11–22'' (6th edition, Munich: C.H. Beck, 2011), {{ISBN|978-3-406-61191-9}}

== 𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹 ==

* 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐚𑐬𑐣𑐾𑐚 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐵𑐂𑐎𑑂𑐮𑑀𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐦 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑀𑐳𑑀𑐦𑐷 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐷 :
** 𑐩𑐵𑐂𑐎𑐮 𑐊𑐮𑐶𑐒𑑂𑐐𑐴𑐩𑑄 [https://iep.utm.edu/distributive-justice/ 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫]
** [https://iep.utm.edu/punishme/ 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫], 𑐎𑐾𑐨𑐶𑐣 𑐩𑐸𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐑𑑄
** [https://iep.utm.edu/justwest/ 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩𑐷 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐟], 𑐰𑐾𑐣 𑐥𑐷 𑐥𑑀𑐩𑐬𑐮𑐾𑐄𑐥𑐵𑐏𑐾𑑄
* 𑐳𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐦𑑀𑐬𑑂𑐜 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐵𑐂𑐎𑑂𑐮𑑀𑐥𑐷𑐜𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐦 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑀𑐳𑑀𑐦𑐷 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐷 :
** 𑐜𑐾𑐨𑐶𑐜 𑐩𑐶𑐮𑐬𑐫𑐵 [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice/ &quot;𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫&quot;]
** 𑐖𑐸𑐮𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐮𑐵𑐩𑑀𑐣𑑂𑐚𑑄 [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-distributive/ &quot;𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫&quot;]
** 𑐩𑐵𑐂𑐎𑐮 𑐳𑑂𑐮𑑀𑐚𑐫𑐵 [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-virtue/ &quot;𑐳𑐡𑑂𑐐𑐸𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫&quot;]
** 𑐖𑐵𑐔𑐵𑐬𑐷 𑐴𑑀𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐰 𑐊𑐣𑑂𑐚𑑀𑐣𑐷 𑐜𑐦𑑄 [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-punishment/ &quot;𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣𑐷 𑐳𑐖𑐵𑑃𑐫&quot;]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091204190016/http://unrol.org/article.aspx?article_id=30 𑐳𑑄𑐫𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬 𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐱𑐵𑐳𑐣: 𑐀𑐣𑑁𑐥𑐔𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫], 𑐀𑐣𑑁𑐥𑐔𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎/𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐸𑐡𑐵𑐫𑐶𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫, 𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐱𑐵𑐳𑐣 𑐰 [[𑐳𑑄𑐫𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬 𑐳𑑄𑐑|𑐳𑑄𑐫𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬]] 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹𑐫𑐵 𑐏𑑃𑐫𑑂
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140427043908/http://www.justiceharvard.org/ 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 : 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐸 𑐏𑑅 ?]   Archived, 𑐴𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐬𑑂𑐜 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐰𑐰𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐮𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐂𑐎𑐮 𑐳𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐜𑐾𑐮𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫 𑐰𑐶𑐲𑐫𑐳 𑑑𑑒 𑐐𑐹 𑐨𑐶𑐜𑐶𑐫𑑀𑐫𑐵 𑐗𑑂𑐰𑑅, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐷 𑐧𑑂𑐰𑐣𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐷 𑐰 𑐳𑐴𑐨𑐵𑐐𑐷𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐚𑐶𑐥𑑂𑐥𑐞𑐷 𑐣𑑄 𑐡𑐸𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸 𑑋

[[पुचः:𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫]]</text>
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क्वय् बियातःगु रुपरेखायात इपिस्तेमोलोजीया अवलोकन व गाइडकथं बियातःगु दु ।

'''इपिस्तेमोलोजी''' (वा ''ज्ञानया सिद्धान्त'' ) &amp;#x2013; [[ज्ञान|ज्ञानलिसे]] स्वापू दूगु [[दर्शनशास्त्र|दर्शनया]] कचा।&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 3, 1967, Macmillan, Inc.&lt;/ref&gt;  थ्व खँग्वः अंग्रेजी भाषाय् स्कटिश दार्शनिक जेम्स फ्रेडरिक फेरियरं (१८०८–१८६४) न्ह्यथनादिल।&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2007&lt;/ref&gt;   इपिस्तेमोलोजीइ ज्ञान नापा स्वापू दूगु थीथी न्ह्यसःत न्यनि: &quot;ज्ञान छु ख?&quot;, &quot;ज्ञान गथे यानाः प्राप्त जुइ?&quot;, व &quot;मनुतेसं छु सिउ?&quot;

== इपिस्तेमोलोजीया मू विषय ==

* [[ज्ञान|ज्ञान]]
** [[ज्ञान|ज्ञानया स्रोत]] ([[प्रमाण (दर्शन)|प्रमाण]] संस्कृतय्)
*** धारणा
*** [[लुमन्ति|लुमन्ति]] 
*** आत्मनिरीक्षण
*** [[अनुमान|अनुमान]]
*** साक्षी (Testimony)
** [[ज्ञान|ज्ञानया प्रकार]]
*** वर्णनात्मक ज्ञान{{snd}}&quot;ज्ञान गुकिलिं&quot;।
*** प्रक्रियागत ज्ञान{{snd}}&quot;ज्ञान गथे&quot;
*** परिचययात्मक द्वारा ज्ञान
** ''A priori'' व ''a posteriori''
** विश्लेषणात्मक–सिन्थेटिक भेद
** गेटियर समस्या
* औचित्य (Justification)
** रिग्रेस आर्गुमेन्ट
*** मुन्चहाउसेन ट्राइलेमा
** औचित्यया सिद्धान्त
*** आधारभूततावाद{{snd}}मूलभूत विश्वासं मेगु, गैर-मूलभूत विश्वासयात जायज ठहर याइ।
*** कोहेरेन्टिज्म{{snd}}छम्ह मनुखं दयेकातःगु विश्वास मेमेगु विश्वासलिसे पाय्छि जुसाः जायज जुइ, प्रत्येक विश्वास समग्र विश्वासया व्यवस्थालिसे मेल जुसाः जायज जुइ।
*** अनन्तवाद{{snd}}विश्वासयात अनन्त कारणया झ्वलं जायज ठहर याइ।
*** फाउन्डहेरेन्टिज्म{{snd}}दोषपूर्ण आधार व समन्वय निगुलिं औचित्यया घटक खः—सुजन हाकं (Susan Haack) प्रस्तावित याःगु।
*** आन्तरिकवाद व बाह्यवाद{{snd}}विश्वासीं आन्तरिक ज्ञान (आन्तरिकवाद)या माध्यमं छुं विश्वासयात औचित्यपूर्ण यायेत सक्षम जुइमाः, वा पिनेया ज्ञानया स्रोतयात छ्यला छुं विश्वासयात औचित्यपूर्ण यायेफइ (बाह्यवाद) ।
*** जन्मवाद{{snd}}मन ज्ञान नापं जन्म जुइ।
*** सुधारित ज्ञानमीमांसा{{snd}}उचित संज्ञानात्मक कार्यं वारेन्टी जुइगु विश्वास—एल्विन प्लान्टिङ्गां प्रस्तावित याःगु।
*** प्रमाणवाद{{snd}} प्रमाणय् जक निर्भर जुइगु विश्वास ।
*** विश्वसनीयता{{snd}}छगू विश्वसनीय प्रक्रियाया लिच्वः खःसा दयावइगु विश्वास।
*** अमोघता (Infallibilism){{snd}}ज्ञान गलत जुइगु सम्भावना मदूगु।
*** फ्यालिबिलिज्म{{snd}}दाबीयात निष्कर्षात्मक रुपं प्रमाणित वा जायज ठहर यायेमफुसां स्वीकार यायेफइ ।
*** गैर-औचित्यवाद{{snd}}दाबीयात औचित्यपूर्ण यायेगु पलेसा आक्रमण यानाः खण्डन यानाः ज्ञान उत्पादन जुइ ।
** मिथ्याकरण (मिथ्याकरण यायेफइगु)
** प्रमाण (सत्य)
*** प्रमाणया मापदण्ड
* [[सत्य|सत्य]]
** सत्यया मापदण्ड
* विश्वास
** विश्वास संशोधन
* गुण इपिस्तेमोलोजी (Virtue epistemology)
** ज्ञान व कर्मको एकता

== बिचाःया विधा ==

* अनुभववाद 
* तर्कवाद 
* इपिस्तेमोलोजीया सन्देहवाद
* व्यावहारिकतावाद 
* प्राकृतिक इपिस्तेमोलोजी
* सन्दर्भवाद
* सापेक्षवाद
* रचनावादी इपिस्तेमोलोजी
* आदर्शवाद
* बायेसियन इपिस्तेमोलोजी
* नारीवादी इपिस्तेमोलोजी
* जन्मजातवाद
* सोझा यथार्थवाद
* घटनावाद
* सकारात्मकतावाद
* आलोचनात्मक तर्कवाद 

== इपिस्तेमोलोजीया लागा ==

* औपचारिक इपिस्तेमोलोजी – परम्परागत ज्ञानात्मक समस्यायात स्पष्ट यायेत [[तर्क]], सम्भाव्यता सिद्धान्त व गणना योग्यता सिद्धान्तपाखें औपचारिक विधि छ्यलीगु इपिस्तेमोलोजीया उपविषय
** कम्प्यूटेशनल इपिस्टेमोलोजी
* ऐतिहासिक इपिस्तेमोलोजी – थी थी ताजिया ज्ञानया ऐतिहासिक अवस्था व हिलासूया अध्ययन
* मेटा-इपिस्तेमोलोजी – ज्ञानशास्त्रया विषय, पदार्थ, विधि व उद्देश्य व ज्ञानयात थुइकेगु व संरचना यायेगु दृष्टिकोणया आध्यात्मिक अध्ययन
* सामाजिक इपिस्तेमोलोजी – सामूहिक ज्ञान व ज्ञान नाप सामाजिक आयामया अध्ययन

== स्वापू दुगु ख्यः ==

* विज्ञानया दर्शन
* ज्ञानया समाजशास्त्र

== थ्व नं स्वयादिसँ ==

* अनुप्रयुक्त ज्ञानमीमांसा
* एपिस्टेमिक तर्क
* इपिस्तेमोलोजीया इतिहास
* व्यक्तिगत इपिस्तेमोलोजी

== लिधंसा ==

== ब्वनादिसँ ==
 
{{refbegin|40em}}
&lt;!-- Please order books alphabetically by the author's last name --&gt;
* {{cite journal | last = Annis | first = David | year = 1978 | title = A Contextualist Theory of Epistemic Justification | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-philosophical-quarterly_1978-07_15_3/page/213 | journal = American Philosophical Quarterly | volume = 15 | pages = 213–219 }}
* [[Ayer, Alfred Jules]]. 1936. ''[[Language, Truth, and Logic]]''.
* BonJour, Laurence. 2002. ''Epistemology: Classic Problems and Contemporary Responses''. Lanham, MD: Rowman &amp; Littlefield.
* [[Luc Bovens|Bovens, Luc]] &amp; [[Stephan Hartmann|Hartmann, Stephan]]. 2003. ''Bayesian Epistemology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* [[Panayot Butchvarov|Butchvarov, Panayot]]. 1970. ''The Concept of Knowledge''. Evanston, Northwestern University Press.
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00048409812348411 | last = Cohen | first = Stewart | year = 1998a | title = Contextualist Solutions to Epistemological Problems: Skepticism, Gettier, and the Lottery |url=https://archive.org/details/australasian-journal-of-philosophy_1998-06_76_2/page/289 | journal = Australasian Journal of Philosophy |volume=76 | issue = 2 | pages = 289–306 }}
* Cohen, Stewart. 1999. &quot;Contextualism, Skepticism, and Reasons&quot;, in Tomberlin 1999.
* [[Dancy, Jonathan]]. 1991. ''An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology'' (Second Edition). John Wiley &amp; Sons. {{ISBN|0-631-13622-3}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = DeRose | first1 = Keith | author-link = Keith DeRose | year = 1992 | title = Contextualism and Knowledge Attributions | journal = Philosophy and Phenomenological Research | volume = 15 | pages = 213–219 }}
* DeRose, Keith. 1999. &quot;[https://fitelson.org/epistemology/derose.pdf Contextualism: An Explanation and Defense] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215110711/http://fitelson.org/epistemology/derose.pdf |date=15 December 2017 }}&quot;, in Greco and Sosa 1999.
* [[René Descartes|Descartes, Rene]]. 1641. ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]''
* Feldman, Richard. 1999. &quot;Contextualism and Skepticism&quot;, in Tomberlin 1999, pp.&amp;nbsp;91–114.
* [[Edmund Gettier|Gettier, Edmund]]. 1963. &quot;Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?&quot;, ''Analysis'', Vol. 23, pp.&amp;nbsp;121–123. [http://www.ditext.com/gettier/gettier.html Online text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050819074607/http://www.ditext.com/gettier/gettier.html |date=19 August 2005 }}.
* Greco, J. &amp; Sosa, E. 1999. ''Blackwell Guide to Epistemology'', Blackwell Publishing.
* [[Errol Harris|Harris, Errol E.]] 1970. ''Hypothesis And Perception'', George Allen and Unwin, London, Reprinted 2002 Routledge, London.
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9205.1989.tb00275.x | last1 = Harwood | first1 = Sterling | year = 1989 | title = Taking Skepticism Seriously – And In Context | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_philosophical-investigations_1989-07_12_3/page/223 | journal = Philosophical Investigations | volume = 12 | issue = 3 |pages = 223–233 }}
* Hay, Clare. 2008. ''The Theory of Knowledge: A Coursebook'', The Lutterworth Press, Cambridge. {{ISBN|978-0-7188-3088-5}}
* Hawthorne, John. 2005. &quot;The Case for Closure&quot;, ''Contemporary Debates in Epistemology'', Peter Sosa and Matthias Steup (ed.): 26–43.
* [[Vincent F. Hendricks|Hendricks, Vincent F]]. 2006. ''Mainstream and Formal Epistemology'', New York: [[Cambridge University Press]].
* [[Kant, Immanuel]]. 1781. ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''.
* Keeton, Morris T. 1962. &quot;Empiricism&quot;, in ''Dictionary of Philosophy'', Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, pp.&amp;nbsp;89–90.
* [[Kirkham, Richard]]. 1984. &quot;Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?&quot; ''Mind'', 93.
* [[Peter D. Klein|Klein, Peter]]. 1981. ''Certainty: a Refutation of Skepticism'', Minneapolis, MN: [[University of Minnesota Press]].
* [[Henry E. Kyburg, Jr.|Kyburg, H.E.]] 1961. ''Probability and the Logic of Rational Belief'', Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
* [[Alfred Korzybski|Korzybski, Alfred]]. 1994 (1933). ''[[Science and Sanity]]: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics'', Fifth Edition. Ft. Worth, TX: Institute of General Semantics.
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134877911 |title=Knowing the Difference : Feminist Perspectives in Epistemology |date=2012-10-12 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-87791-1 |editor-last=Lennon |editor-first=Kathleen |language=en |doi=10.4324/9780203216125 |editor-last2=Whitford |editor-first2=Margaret }}
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1080/00048409612347521 | last1 = Lewis | first1 = David | author-link = David Kellogg Lewis | year = 1996 | title = Elusive Knowledge | url = https://archive.org/details/australasian-journal-of-philosophy_1996-12_74_4/page/549 | journal = Australasian Journal of Philosophy| volume = 74 | issue = 4 | pages = 549–567 }}
* [[Edgar Morin|Morin, Edgar]]. 1986. ''La Méthode, Tome 3, La Connaissance de la connaissance'' (Method, 3rd volume : The knowledge of knowledge)
* [[Morton, Adam]]. 2002. ''A Guide Through the Theory of Knowledge'' (Third Edition) Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|1-4051-0012-5}}
* Nelson, Quee. 2007. ''The Slightest Philosophy'', Indianapolis, IN: Dog Ear Publishing, 296 pages.
* [[Ilkka Niiniluoto|Niiniluoto, Ilkka]]. 2002. ''Critical Scientific Realism'', Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
* [[Plato]]. ''[[Meno]]''.
* [[Karl Popper|Popper, Karl R.]] 1972. ''Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach'', Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
* Preyer, G./Siebelt, F./Ulfig, A. 1994. ''Language, Mind and Epistemology'', Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
* [[Bertrand Russell|Russell, Bertrand]]. 1912. ''The Problems of Philosophy'', New York: Oxford University Press.
* [[Bertrand Russell|Russell, Bertrand]]. 1940. ''An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth'', Nottingham: Spokesman Books.
* [[Santayana, George]]. 1923. ''[[Scepticism and Animal Faith]]'', New York: Charles Scribner's Sons – London: Constable and Co.
* [[African Spir|Spir, African]]. 1877. ''Denken und Wirklichkeit: Versuch einer Erneuerung der kritischen Philosophie'' (Thought and Reality: Attempt at a Renewal of Critical Philosophy), (Second Edition) Leipzig: J.G. Findel.
* {{cite journal | last = Schiffer | first = Stephen | author-link = Stephen Schiffer | year = 1996 | title = Contextualist Solutions to Skepticism | journal = Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society | volume = 96 | pages = 317–333 | doi = 10.1093/aristotelian/96.1.317 }}
* Steup, Matthias. 2005. &quot;Knowledge and Skepticism&quot;, ''Contemporary Debates in Epistemology'', Peter Sosa and Matthias Steup (eds.): 1–13.
* Tomberlin, James (ed.). 1999. ''Philosophical Perspectives 13, Epistemology'', Blackwell Publishing.
* {{cite book | last = Turri | first = John | year = 2016 | title = Knowledge and the Norm of Assertion: An Essay in Philosophical Science. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers | url = http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/397/knowledge-and-the-norm-of-assertion--an-essay-in-philosophical-science | doi = 10.11647/OBP.0083 | isbn = 978-1-78374-183-0 | publisher = Open Book Publishers | access-date = 21 April 2016 | archive-date = 10 June 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160610184557/http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/397/knowledge-and-the-norm-of-assertion--an-essay-in-philosophical-science | url-status = live | doi-access = free }}
* {{Cite book|first=Pierre|last=Wagner|language=fr|editor=Pierre Wagner|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lesphilosopheset0000unse/page/9 9]–65|chapter=Introduction|title=Les Philosophes et la science|url=https://archive.org/details/lesphilosopheset0000unse|location=Paris|publisher=[[Éditions Gallimard]]|series=Folio-essais|year=2002|isbn=9782070416257}}
* [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein, Ludwig]]. 1922. ''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]'', [[Frank P. Ramsey]] and [[C.K. Ogden]] (trns.), Dover. [http://www.kfs.org/~jonathan/witt/tlph.html Online text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807042824/http://www.kfs.org/~jonathan/witt/tlph.html |date=7 August 2011 }}.
{{refend}}

== पिनेया स्वापू ==
'''''स्ट्यानफोर्ड इन्साइक्लोपीडिया अफ फिलोसोफी'' च्वसुत'''

* &quot;Epistemology&quot; entry  in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* &quot;Bayesian Epistemology&quot; entry  in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* &quot;Evolutionary Epistemology&quot; entry  in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* &quot;Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science&quot; entry  in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* &quot;Naturalized Epistemology&quot; entry  in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* &quot;Social Epistemology&quot; entry  in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* &quot;Virtue Epistemology&quot; entry  in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* &quot;Knowledge How&quot; entry  in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

'''''इन्टरनेट इन्साइक्लोपीडिया अफ फिलोसोफी'' च्वसुत'''

* {{cite IEP |url-id=Epistemo |title=Epistemology}}
* {{IEP|coherent|Coherentism}}
* {{IEP|contextu|Contextualism in Epistemology}}
* {{IEP|ep-circ|Epistemic Circularity}}
* {{IEP|epi-just|Epistemic Justification}}
* {{IEP|epis-per|Epistemology of Perception}}
* {{IEP|ethno-ep|Ethnoepistemology}}
* {{IEP|evo-epis|Evolutionary Epistemology}}
* {{IEP|fallibil|Fallibilism}}
* {{IEP|fem-epis|Feminist Epistemology}}
* {{IEP|inf-epis|Infinitism in Epistemology}}
* {{IEP|int-ext|Internalism and Externalism in Epistemology}}
* {{IEP|mor-epis|Moral Epistemology}}
* {{IEP|nat-epis|Naturalistic Epistemology}}
* {{IEP|virtueep|Virtue Epistemology}}
* {{IEP|understa|Understanding in Epistemology}} 
*  

'''''इन्साइक्लोपेडिया ब्रिटानिका'''''

* अव्रुम स्ट्रोल व एपि मार्टिनिचया [https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology एपिस्टेमोलोजी]

'''मेगु लिङ्कत'''

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051125090153/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/ लण्डन दर्शनशास्त्र अध्ययन गाइड]   Archived ब्वनामिया बिषयनाप परिचितताया लिधंसाय् छु ब्वनेगु धकाः यक्वं सुझाव बी : [https://web.archive.org/web/20210301033140/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Ep%26Meth.htm इपिस्तेमोलोजी व पद्धति]   Archived
* Outline of epistemology 
* फिलपेपर्सय् [http://philpapers.org/browse/knowledge-how/ ज्ञान - गथे यानाः]
* Outline of epistemology
* [http://pantheon.yale.edu/~kd47/What-Is-Epistemology.htm इपिस्तेमोलोजी छु खः ?] – कीथ डेरोजं विषयया संक्षिप्त परिचय बियादीगु दु ।
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050128145134/http://www.galilean-library.org/int5.html इपिस्तेमोलोजी परिचय, भाग १] व [https://web.archive.org/web/20051222135250/http://www.galilean-library.org/int20.html भाग २] पल नेवाल द्वारा गैलिलियन पुस्तकालयय् ।
* [http://www.ditext.com/clay/know.html ''ज्ञानया शिक्षण सिद्धान्त'' (१९८६)] – मार्जोरी क्ले (सं.), द काउन्सिल फर फिलोसोफिकल स्टडीजया छगू इलेक्ट्रोनिक प्रकाशन।
* शुरुवात याइपिन्त लक्षित यानाः पाल नेवालया [https://web.archive.org/web/20080602203415/http://www.galilean-library.org/manuscript.php?postid=43784 एपिस्टेमोलोजीया छगू परिचय ।]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20250318092928/https://www.firasah.org/articles/aqidah/a-summary-of-sunni-epistemology/ सुन्नी इपिस्तेमोलोजीया सारांश] साधारण मनूतय् निंतिं मुस्मां जगतय् इपिस्तेमोलोजीया छगू संक्षिप्त व सुलभ परिचय
[[पुचः:दर्शन]]</text>
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      <text bytes="36555" sha1="ew5m6l09allvyse1i4f6rt5ju50tia4" xml:space="preserve">{{नेपाललिपिपरिक्षण|छ्येलेमि:Eukesh/Auto/NepalScript/हुला}}

{{नेपाललिपि|𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵}}

[[किपा:Hula_Kahiko_Hawaii_Volcanoes_National_Park_01.jpg|right|thumb| {{Okina}} ज्वालामुखी राष्ट्रिय निकुञ्जय् ''हुला काहिको'' प्रदर्शन]]
[[किपा:US_Navy_hula_031112-N-3228G-001.jpg|right|thumb| हवाईइ हुला । ''कुमु हुला'' फ्र्याङ्क कावाइकापुओकलानी हेवेटं काहो {{Okina}} olawe टापुया नियन्त्रण अमेरिकी नौसेनापाखें हवाई राज्ययात हस्तान्तरण यायेगु समारोहया झ्वलय् हुलादीगु हुलाप्याखँ ।]]
'''हुला''' छगू [[हवाई]]मि प्याखंया रुप ख गुकिलिं जप (''ओलि'')  वा [[म्ये]](''[[मेले (हवाईया खँग्वः)|मेले]]'')यात प्याखँया रुपय् व्यक्त याइ। थ्व हवाई टापुइ अन बसोबास याःपिं आदिवासी हवाईमितेसं विकास याःगु कला ख। हुलां ओलि वा मेलेया खँग्वःयात दृश्य प्याखंया रुपय् नाटकीय कथं ब्वयेगु ज्या याइ।

हुलाया यक्व उप-कचा दु, गुकिलि निगु मू पुचः हुला 'आउआना व हुला काहिको ख। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://hawaiioceanproject.com/a-brief-history-of-the-hula/|title=A Brief History of the Hula|date=1 February 2018|publisher=Hawaii Ocean project}}&lt;/ref&gt; हवाईय् पश्चिमी प्रभाव जुइ न्ह्यः थन याइगु प्राचीन परम्परागत हुलायात ''काहिको'' धाइ। थुकिया लिसें परम्परागत जप यायेगु व परम्परागत बाजं थायेगु जुइ। १९गु व २०गु शताब्दीइ पश्चिमी प्रभावय् विकास जूगु हुलायात ''{{Okina}}'आउआना'' (गुकिया अर्थ &quot;प्रवाहित जुइगु वा चुइका वनिगु&quot;) धाइ। थुकिया नापं हुलाया थ्व विधाय् म्ये व पश्चिमी प्रभावित [[बाजं]] गथेकि [[गितार]],युकेलेले, व डबल ब्यास नं दइ ।

निगु न्हूगु पुचः हुला शब्दावलीइ दुहां वयेगु झ्वलय् दु: &quot;मोनार्की&quot;य् १९गु शताब्दीइ रचना व कोरियोग्राफी जूगु छुं नं हुला दुथ्याइ। उगु ईले पश्चिमी संस्कृतिया आवागमनं हुला नापंया औपचारिक हवाई कलाय् महत्त्वपूर्ण हिउपाः हल। &quot;आइ काहिको&quot;, अर्थात &quot;प्राचीन शैलीइ&quot; २०गु व २१गु शताब्दीइ च्वयातःगु उगु हुला ख गुकिलिं प्राचीन हुला काहिकोया शैलीगत नियमयात पालना याइ।

हुला प्याखंया निगू मू मुद्रा दु : फ्यतुइगु ( {{Lang|haw|नोहो}} प्याखं) बाय् दना ( {{Lang|haw|लुना}} प्याखं)। छुं प्याखनं निगुलिं रुप छ्यली ।
[[किपा:Hula_Ad_on_the_U.S._Mainland.jpg|thumb| सन् १८९० व १९०० या दशकया सुरुइ हुला प्याखंम्वः व हवाईया संगीतकारतय्सं अमेरिकाया मू भूमि भ्रमण याःगु खः । थ्व विज्ञापन १९२१ स ओहायोया छगू पत्रिकाय् पिहां वल ।]]
हुला प्याखं छगू जटिल खः। थ्व प्याखनय् म्ये बाय् मन्त्रया खँग्वःयात प्रतिनिधित्व यायेत यक्वं ल्हाःया गति व मुद्रा छ्यली । दसुया निंतिं ल्हाःया चालं प्रकृतिया पक्षयात क्यनेफु, गथेकि वाफसय् सिमा क्वछुइगु वा समुद्रय् लहर, वा छुं भाव/भावना, गथेकि मतिना वा तृष्णा। तुति व प्यंपाया चाल अप्वः धया थें {{Lang|haw|काहोलो}}, {{Lang|haw|का'ओ}}, {{Lang|haw|कावेलु}}, {{Lang|haw|हेला}}, {{Lang|haw|'उहेवे}}, अले {{Lang|haw|ʻआमि}}  नापंया आधारभूत पलाःय् आधारित जुइ।

मेमेगु पोलिनेसियाली टापुत गथेकि ताहिति, [[कूक टापू|द कुक आइल्याण्ड]], सामोआ, टोंगा व [[न्यु जिल्यान्द|न्युजिल्याण्डं]] वइगु मेमेगु प्याखंतेगु हुलानाप स्वापू दु। दसु तामुरे, हुरा, 'अपारिमा, 'ओते'आ, हाका, कापा हाका, पोइ, फा'आताउपति, ताउ'लुन्गा, व लाकालाका आदि। अथेसां, हुला हवाई टापुइ जक दूगु प्याखं ख। 

न्यागु हुला विधातेत झ्वलं &quot;दकलय् प्राचीन&quot; खवय् व &quot;दकलय् आधुनिक&quot; जवय् तयेछिं। हुला पाहु व हुला 'अला'आपापा पुचः प्राचीन ख, गुकिया उत्पत्ति ईसाई धर्मया प्रवेश स्वया न्ह्यः हे जूगु ख। थ्व प्याखंया बांलाक्क संरक्षित दस्तावेजया कारणं काव्यात्मक पाठयात हाकनं दबूलि हयेत माःगु प्याखंम्वःतय्गु निर्देशिका पाण्डुलिपि स्पष्ट स्रोत दु । निरन्तरताया मेगु पाखे हापा हाओले म्येत अपेक्षाकृत आधुनिक खःसा थुकियात नोटेटेड शीट संगीतया रुपय् नं प्रचार जूगु दु। थ्व कला समकालीन जातीय संगीतविद् व म्येच्वमिपिनिगु मंकाः कुतःया लिच्वः खः । मेगु निगु हुला प्रकार, हुला कुइ व हुला 'ओलापाया पाठ दयेकीगु वा संस्करणगत याये थाकु। थ्व निगु विधां अमेरिकी अर्थशास्त्र व राजनीतिं प्रभावित थ्व क्षेत्र दुनेया सामाजिक रुपान्तरण व पश्चिमीकरणयात प्रतिबिम्बित याइ। अझ महत्त्वपूर्ण खँ छु धाःसा निगु हे विधाय् छगू हे स्ट्रोफिक टेक्स्ट फर्म्याट लागू जुइ। थ्व फर्म्याटयात निगु वा प्यंगू लाइनया टेक्स्टं निर्माण याइ, गुकिलिं प्रत्येकयात सामान्यतया छगू हे ल्याया ताल (बीट सेट) दइ। थ्व कला प्रस्तुतिया इलय् म्येयात छन्दय् अलग अलग यानाः संक्षिप्त लयात्मक अन्तरालं दोहोरे यायेगु चलन दु। हुलाया विधाय् थुकिया सम्बन्धित मेलोदी संरचना व स्ट्रोफिक संगीत संरचनां आधुनिक हुला कुइ व हुला 'ओलापायात मेमेगु स्वया बायेगु याः। 

== हुला काहिको ==
[[किपा:Hula_Kahiko_Hawaii_Volcanoes_National_Park_02.jpg|left|thumb| हवाई ज्वालामुखी राष्ट्रिय निकुञ्जया [[Pa hula|पा हुलाय्]] हुला काहिको पिथना]]
हुला काहिको, प्रायः सन् १८९४ स्वया न्ह्यः रचना जूगु उगु हुलाया रुप ख गुकिलि आधुनिक बाजं (गथेकि गिटार, 'उकुलेले आदि) दुमथ्या। थ्व विधाय् गम्भीर व पवित्र निसें न्यासेचाइगु शैली व भावनाया अपार विविधतायात दुथ्याःगु दु। यक्व हुलात हवाईया नायःतेगु प्रशंसा यायेत दयेका तःगु व इमिगु सम्मान वा इमिगु मनोरञ्जनया निंतिं क्यनिगु कला ख। हुला काहिकोया प्रकारय् {{Okina}}आला{{Okina}}अपापा, हा{{Okina}}आ, {{Okina}}ओलाप, आदि दु। थौं हुला काहिकोयात &quot;परम्परागत&quot; हुला धकाः नं म्हसीकेगु याः ।

यक्व हुला प्याखंतेत धार्मिक प्याखंया रुपय् कायेगु या। थन्याःगु प्याखं हवाईया देवी वा द्यःतेत देछाना तःगु वा इमिगु सम्मानय् दयेकातःगु ख। हेइआउ धाःगु दबूदेगलय् नखःबिले जुइगु थन्याःगु प्याखनय् छगू चिधंगु त्रुटि जक जुसां अमान्य जुइ। थथे प्याखनय् त्रुटि जुसाः उकियात मभिंगु खं जुइत्यःगु चिं (अलक्षण) धकाः कायेगु व भयावह खँ जुइत्यंगु धका समाजं कायेगु या । थज्याःगु हुला याये सयेकाच्वंपिं प्याखंम्वःतय्सं निश्चित कथं हे यक्व गल्ती याइगु जुल। अथे जुइगु गल्तीया असर मयाकेत इमित विधिपूर्वक एकान्त थासय् तयाः प्रशिक्षणया इलय् लाका देवीया संरक्षणय् तयेगु परम्परा दयाच्वन । थन्यापिं प्रशिक्षार्थीतेसं हुला सुथांलाक्क सयेकूगु व एकान्तं पिहां वयेगु ज्या नखबिले हुला प्याखँ क्यनाः जुइ।

थौंकन्हय् ऐतिहासिक जपय् प्याखं ल्हुयाः हुला कहिको याइ। यक्व हुला काहिकोतेत इमिगु विशेषता: परम्परागत वसः, विचित्र रुप, व थःगु आध्यात्मिक मूलप्रति श्रद्धां म्हसीके छिं।

=== मन्त्रणा (ओली) ===
हवाईया इतिहास मौखिक इतिहास खः । थुकियात वंशावली व मन्त्रय् संहिताबद्ध यानातःगु दु, गुकियात कण्ठस्थ यानाः पुस्तान्तरण यानातःगु दु। च्वयातःगु भाय् या अभावय्, इतिहासया शुद्धता सुनिश्चित यायेगु थ्व छगू जक हे विधि दयाच्वन। थन्याःगु मन्त्रणां सृष्टि, पौराणिक कथा, राजपरिवार, व मेमेगु महत्वपूर्ण घटना व मनूतय्गु बाखं कनीगु या।

''ʻŌlelo Noʻeau'' (हवाई धापू वा उखान), &quot; ''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'ओ 'ओ 'ओए का लुआआहि ओ काउ मेले'' ,&quot;यात भाय्हिले बलय् &quot;छिं रचना यानादीगु चिनाखँया भिंगु व मभिंगु निगुलिं लिच्वः छिं हे वहन यानादी&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Hawaiian Chant: Dynamic Cultural Link or Atrophied Relic?|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-the-polynesian-society_1989-03_98_1/page/85|journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society|date=1989|volume=98|issue=1|pages=85–90}}&lt;/ref&gt; धाःगु अर्थ व। थ्व धापूया ल्यूनेया विचाः छगू प्राचीन हवाई विश्वासं वःगु ख। थ्व विचाः कथं भाषातेगु थःगु &quot;माना&quot; वा दैवीय शक्ति दइ। &lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt; थन्याःगु शक्तियात विशेष यानाः ''ओलि'' (मन्त्र)या माध्यमं वितरण यायेछिं। अतः ''हाकु मेले'' (संगीतकार) व जपकारतेसं भाषाया कुशल छ्यलां याइगु हुलायात अत्यन्त श्रद्धा व महत्वया कथं कायेगु जुयाच्वन। ओली प्राचीन हवाई समाजया छगू अभिन्न घटक ख, व जीवनया लगभग हरेक सामाजिक, राजनीतिक व आर्थिक पक्षय् स्वानाच्वंगु दु।

परम्परागत मन्त्रत सन्दर्भ व प्राविधिक कथं यक्व पाः। थन्याःगु मन्त्रतेसं थीथी ज्या नाप स्वापू दूगु खँ कनातःगु दु। थुकी दथुइ ''मेले पुले'' (प्रार्थना), ''हुला कुआहु'' (अनुष्ठान प्याखँ), ''कुआउहाउ'' (ब्रह्माण्डीयता), ''कोआइहोनुआ'' (वंशावली), ''हनाउ'' (जन्म), ''इनोआ'' (नां), ''मआ'इ'' (प्रजनन/जननांग), ''कानिकाउ'' (विलाप), ''हेइ (कासा), हो'ओइपोइपो (मतिना), काहिआ'' (अभिव्यक्ति / सः तयेगु) दु।  ''ओलि'', ''हुला'', व ''मेले'' दथुइ छगू महत्त्वपूर्ण भेद थुकथं दु: ''मेले'' या यक्व कथंया थी-थी अर्थ दयेफु, व प्रायः थुकिया अर्थ सरलभासय् म्ये जुइ। तर अझ व्यापक अर्थय् ''मेलेयात'' काव्य वा भाषिक रचनाया अर्थय् कायेछिं। हुला (प्याखं नापं जप) व ओली (प्याखं मदयेक जप) निगु सामान्य शैली ख गुकिलि मेले छ्यलेछिं/प्रदर्शन यायेछिं। सामान्यतया, &quot;फुक्क मेले ओलि (जप मदूगु प्याखं)या रुपय् क्यनेछिं, तर छुं प्रकार जक्क गथेकि नां जप, प्रजनन जप, मतिना जप, व  ''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'औमाकुआ'' द्यः(हुलाया द्यः) तेत देछानातःगु जप जक हुलाया रुपय् पिथनेछिं।&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot; /&gt;

[[हवाई भाय्|हवाई भाषाय्]] सःया गुणस्तरयात वर्णन यायेत ४३ गू थीथी खँग्वः दु। थुकिं जप शैलीया प्रविधि व विशेषताया ज्या थुइकेत तसकं ग्वहालि याइ। सामान्य शैली (प्याखं दुगु वा मदुगु) व प्याखंया सन्दर्भया संयोजनं छगू मन्त्रं छु सः शैली छ्यली धकाः निर्धारण याइ । ''केपाकेपा, कावेले, ओलिओलि, हो'एएए, हो'उएउए'', व ''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'ऐहा'आ'' सः प्रविधिं विभेदित शैलीया छुं दसु ख। ''केपाकेपा'' न्यनेबिले याकनं न्ववाइगु थें च्वं अले थ्व शैलीइ अप्वः धया थें ताःहाकःगु खँत्वाः ल्हाइ । ''ओलिओली'' छगू शैली ख गुकियात यक्वसिनं म्येनाप तुलना याइ, छाय् धाःसा थ्व रागात्मक प्रकृतिया ख व थुकिलि निरन्तर पिच दु। &lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Toward a Description of Precontact Music in Hawai'i|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ethnomusicology_1981-09_25_3/page/481|journal=Ethnomusicology|date=1981|volume=25|issue=3|pages=481–492|doi=10.2307/851556}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFTatar1981&quot;&gt;Tatar, Elizabeth (1981). &quot;Toward a Description of Precontact Music in Hawai'i&quot;. ''Ethnomusicology''. '''25''' (3): &lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;481–&lt;/span&gt;492. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/851556|10.2307/851556]]. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&amp;nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/851556 851556].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; थुकिलि प्रायः ''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'i'i'', वा लाइनया अन्तय् भ्वाइब्रेतो नापं माआखः (भावल) दइ।

सन् १८९६इ हवाईइ (हवाई राज्यया विलय धुंका) पारित जूगु छगू कानूनं स्कूलय् हवाइ भाय् छ्येलेगुलि प्रतिबन्ध तल। हवाईया सामाजिक, राजनीतिक व भाषिक स्वायत्तताया  अन्त नापं भाषिक दमनया लिच्वः कथं हवाई भाषाया सामूहिक पतन जुल, गुकिलिं थ्व भाय् विलुप्त जुइगु कगारय् थ्यन। अमेरिकीकरणया लिच्वः कथं, क्रिश्चियन धर्मया प्रसार नापं, यक्व परम्परागत मन्त्रयात मूर्तिपूजक धाःसें अन्ततः ल्वःमंकेगु कुतः जुलः। तर सन् १९६० या दशकया अन्तय् न्ह्याःगु छगू सांस्कृतिक पुनरुत्थानं, व थौंतक न्ह्याकाच्वंगुलिं यक्व हवाई अभ्यासयात पुनर्जीवित याःगु दु, गुकी न्ववायेगु भाषा व जप नं दुथ्याः। अले, वर्तमानय् थीथी संस्थापाखें समर्थन यासें थ्व परम्परा अझ अप्वः न्ह्यःने यंकूगु दु। थन्याःगु ज्याझ्वलय् हवाई राज्यं याःगु पुनाना लियो हवाइ भाषा इमर्सन ब्वनेकुथि आदि ला। नापं सन् १९७१ य् आधिकारिक रुपं न्ह्याःगु मेरी मोनार्क नखः व धेधेबल्लां हुलाया पूनरुत्थानय् ग्वहालि याःगु दु। &lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Hawaiian Chant: Dynamic Cultural Link or Atrophied Relic?|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-the-polynesian-society_1989-03_98_1/page/85|journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society|date=1989|volume=98|issue=1|pages=85–90}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFSilva1989&quot;&gt;Silva, Kalena (1989). &quot;Hawaiian Chant: Dynamic Cultural Link or Atrophied Relic?&quot;. ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society''. '''98''' (1): &lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;85–&lt;/span&gt;90. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&amp;nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20706253 20706253].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

''हालाउ हुला'' (हुला स्कूल)य् ''कुमु'' (शिक्षक)या ज्ञानय् ब्वति कायेत दुहां वयेगु अनुमति फ्वनेगु परम्परा विद्यार्थीया छगू मू परम्परा खः । थुकिया निंतिंयक्व हालाउतेसं &quot;कुनिहि&quot;या छगू रुप छ्येलि, &lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Hawaiian Chant: Dynamic Cultural Link or Atrophied Relic?|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-the-polynesian-society_1989-03_98_1/page/85|journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society|date=1989|volume=98|issue=1|pages=85–90}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFSilva1989&quot;&gt;Silva, Kalena (1989). &quot;Hawaiian Chant: Dynamic Cultural Link or Atrophied Relic?&quot;. ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society''. '''98''' (1): &lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;85–&lt;/span&gt;90. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&amp;nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20706253 20706253].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;  ''ओलि काहियाl'', सामान्यतया ''ओलिओलि'' शैलीइ छ्यलि। विद्यार्थीत प्रायः प्रवेशद्वार पिने दना बारम्बार अबले तक जप याइ गुबले कुमुं इमित दुहां वयेगु अनुमति बीमखु। थ्व निर्णयया लिसलय् मेगु जप छ्यली। ओलीयात आधुनिक ईया सांस्कृतिक छ्यलाबुलाय् हःगु थ्व छगू दसु खः ।

ओलीयात मीटरय् निर्माण मजूगु छगू विशिष्ट कथंया आदिवासी संगीतया रुपय् कायेगु याः । वास्तवय् ओलीया कलात्मक अभिव्यक्ति प्याखं संचालन जुइगु परिस्थिति कथं पाइ, गुकिं यानाः ओली ल्हाइगु न्यागू थीथी उच्चारण शैली विकास जूगु खः । थुपिं न्यागू शैली थथे दु :

* ''केपाकेपा'': छगू खँल्हाबल्हाया शैली गुकियात तच्वलं प्रदर्शन याइ। थन गन सिलेबलत सामान्यतया तसकं चिहाकः जुइगुलिं पिच म्हसीके मफइगु जुइ।
* ''कावेले'' : केपाकेपाया तुलनाय् कावेलेय् सिलेबल भचा ताःहाकः जुइ, तर अझ नं पिचय् अःपुक म्हसीके थाकु। ओलितय् दथुइ पाठ व घोषणा यायेत थ्व अप्वः छ्यलीगु प्रवृत्ति दु ।
* ''ओलिओलि'' : थ्व दकलय् अप्व छ्येलिगु ओलिया रुप खः, गुकियात निरन्तर पिच मोनोटोनं काव्यात्मक रुपयात अप्व सः-अलङ्कृत यासें यंकि।
* ''हो'आएआए'' : थुकिलि निरन्तर पिच अप्व छ्येलिगु या व संगीतया सन्दर्भय् मौलिक विन्यास लिपा यक्व पिच दयेफु।
* ''हो'ओउवेउवे'' : थ्व विशेष रुपं अन्तिम संस्कारय् विलापया रुपय् लागू जुइ।

ओली प्याखंम्वःं सः जक सयेकी मखु, कलाया प्रविधि व प्रदर्शन शैली नं सयेकी । प्याखँमिं सयेके माःगु दकलय् महत्वपूर्ण खँ धइगु काव्यात्मक पाठयात गुगु शैलीइ परिपूर्ण रुपं फिट यायेफइ धकाः निर्णय यायेगु ख। नापं, बियातःगु सन्दर्भय् पाठ(जप) व ओली निगुलिं भिंकः संयोजन यायेफइगु लँपु लुइकेगु खः । &lt;ref name=&quot;Stillman 2005 69&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stillman|first=Amy Ku'uleialoha|date=2005|title=Textualizing Hawaiian Music|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4153041|journal=American Music|volume=23|issue=1|pages=69–94|doi=10.2307/4153041|issn=0734-4392}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFStillman2005&quot;&gt;Stillman, Amy Ku'uleialoha (2005). [http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4153041 &quot;Textualizing Hawaiian Music&quot;]. ''American Music''. '''23''' (1): &lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;69–&lt;/span&gt;94. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/4153041|10.2307/4153041]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]]&amp;nbsp;[https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0734-4392 0734-4392]. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&amp;nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/4153041 4153041].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== बाजं व ज्याभः ===
[[किपा:Joann_K.gif|thumb| हुला प्याखंया अनुसन्धानकर्ता जोआन केलिनोहोमोकुं हुलालिसे पु {{Okina}} इलि व {{Okina}} उलि {{Okina}} उली लागू यात ।]]

* ''इपु'' —छगू फसिया ड्रम
* ''इपु हेके'' — डबल फसि ड्रम
* ''पाहु'' —शार्कया छ्यंगुलिं त्वपुयातःगु ड्रम; हवाई धर्मय् पवित्र धकाः हनि।
* ''पुनिउ'' — न्याया छ्यंगु (काला) तयाः नइक्याया ख्वलाय् दयेकूगु चिग्वःगु पुलिइ तयाः थाइगु ड्रम
* ''{{Okina}} इलि {{Okina}} इलि'' — लखं नःगु लाभा ल्वहंयात कास्टानेटया रुपय् छ्यलातःगु।
* ''{{Okina}} उलि {{Okina}} उलि'' — पा स्वानातःगु फसिया बाजं ({{Okina}} उलिलि नं धाइ)
* ''पु {{Okina}} इलि'' — पंया कथि कुचाया बाजं
* ''काल {{Okina}} अउ'' —ताल कथि

मिजं प्याखंम्वःतय्सं पुनीगु खिचाया वां दयेकातःगु तिसायात नं गबलें गबलें बाजंया रुपय् छ्यलीगु या। थुकियात तुति न्याकाः सः पिकाइगु जुइ।

=== वसः / भेष ===
[[किपा:Hula0081110.jpg|left|thumb| उलिउलि प्याखंम्वः, हुला काहिको धें धें बल्लाः, मेर्रि मोनार्क फेस्टिभल २००३स]]
परम्परागत हुलाय् मिसा प्याखंम्वःतय्सं न्हिथंया ''पा {{Okina}}''उ वा जामा सिनि, तर च्वसं छुं वसः फिमखु। थौं वया वसःया थुगु रुप हिलेधुंकूगु दु । भव्य प्रदर्शनया संकेत कथं पा {{Okina}}उ सामान्य तापअ, वा बार्कक्लोथया लम्बाई स्वया यक्व ताःहाकः जुइफु, गुगु जंय् चाःहिकेगु हाकःया जुइ। प्याखंम्वःत यक्व गजया तापाय् छ्यला प्याखंया निंतिं परिधि तग्वकेगु नं याः। प्याखंम्वःतेसं हार, चुरा, व पाउजु थें न्याःगु तिसा नं ती फु। नापं यक्व प्याखँमिपिंसं लेइ (हेडपिस (लेइ पोओ)या रुपय्, ब्रेसलेत, एङ्क्लेत (कुपे)या रुपय्), व मेमेगु तिसा तियेफु।
[[किपा:Old_Lahaina_Luau_2009-07.jpg|thumb| [[लाहाइना, हवाई|लहाइनाया]] छगू लुआउइ हुला प्याखंम्वःत, परम्परागत कि हःया जामाय् ।]]
[[किपा:Hawaiian_Islands_Humpback_Whale_National_Marine_Sanctuary_hula_Kauai_2020.png|thumb| हुला अभ्यासकर्तात २०२० य् काउआइ ओशन डिस्कभरीया उलेज्याय्, हवाई टापु हम्पब्याक व्हेल राष्ट्रिय समुद्री अभयारण्यया निंतिं छगू आगन्तुक केन्द्र [[लिह्यु, हवाई|काउआइइ लिहुए]] ।]]
''पा {{Okina}} उ या'' च्वय् वांगु कि ( ''कोर्डिलिन फ्रुटिकोसा'' ) हःया जामा नं फिगु या। पा'उयात हःया घना तहय् मिले यानातयेगु या। कि वनया देवी व हुला प्याखँया देवी लाकाया निंतिं पवित्र वस्तु ख। थन्यागु कथं धार्मिक अनुष्ठानया इलय् ''कहुना'' व ''अलिइतेसं'' जक्क कि हःया लेइ ला'इ ( ''lei lāʻī'' ) फीगु अनुमति दु। ''टुपेनुया''  पिने फिगु थुज्वःगु हे ''सी फ्रुटिकोसा'' हःया जामा टोंगाय् धार्मिक प्याखनय् नं छ्यली, गन थुकियात ''सिसि'' धकाः म्हसीकिगु या । टोंगाया हः जामाय् अप्वः धया थें ह्याउँगु व म्हासुगु हः छ्यली। &lt;ref name=&quot;Kawate2014&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Ti Leaf (''Cordyline terminalis'' or ''fruticosa'') Diseases in Hawaii's Commercial Orchards|date=2014|url=https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/sustainag/news/articles/V19-KawateEtAl-TiLeafDiseases.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;Gamayo2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|title=Ti Leaf: Canoe Plant of Ancient Hawai'i|url=http://bigislandnow.com/2016/08/04/ti-leaf-canoe-plant-of-ancient-hawaii/|work=Big Island Now|date=4 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

परम्परागत मिजं प्याखंम्वःतसें न्हिथंया मालो, बाय् लोइन्क्लोथ फी। हाकनं, इमिसं यक्व गजया तापा वसः गुकियात मालो धाइ, थ्व नं फीफु। इमिसं हार, ब्रासलेट, एन्कलेट व लेइ नं तयेगु या।

लाकायात प्रार्थना यायेधुंकाः व वन द्यःतय्त जप यायेधुंकाः प्रदर्शनय् पुनीगु लेइया सामग्री जंगलय् मुंकेमा।

पवित्र हुलाया निंतिं पुनीगु लेइ व तापायात प्याखंया पवित्रताय् ओतप्रोत कथं कायेगु या। प्याखं ल्हुइधुंकाः थ्व छ्यलीमखु । लेइयात सामान्यतया हरेक हालाउय् खनेदइगु चिधंगु दबुलिइ लाकादेवीयात देछायेगु या।

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[हवाई]]
* [[हुला प्याखं]]

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

[[पुचः:हवाइयन तजिलजि]]
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      <text bytes="46116" sha1="b6981zld19zsd55fr3anwx9oezlq5bd" xml:space="preserve">{{देवनागरी|हुला}}

[[किपा:Hula_Kahiko_Hawaii_Volcanoes_National_Park_01.jpg|right|thumb| {{Okina}} 𑐖𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐮𑐵𑐩𑐸𑐏𑐷 𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐫 𑐣𑐶𑐎𑐸𑐘𑑂𑐖𑐫𑑂 ''𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀'' 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣]]
[[किपा:US_Navy_hula_031112-N-3228G-001.jpg|right|thumb| 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃𑐂 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑑋 ''𑐎𑐸𑐩𑐸 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵'' 𑐦𑑂𑐬𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐒𑑂𑐎 𑐎𑐵𑐰𑐵𑐂𑐎𑐵𑐥𑐸𑐌𑐎𑐮𑐵𑐣𑐷 𑐴𑐾𑐰𑐾𑐚𑑄 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑑀 {{Okina}} olawe 𑐚𑐵𑐥𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐷 𑐣𑑁𑐳𑐾𑐣𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐏𑐾𑑄 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐴𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐬𑑀𑐴𑐫𑐵 𑐗𑑂𑐰𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑃 𑑋]]
'''𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵''' 𑐕𑐐𑐹 [[𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃]]𑐩𑐶 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐏 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐖𑐥 (''𑐌𑐮𑐶'')  𑐰𑐵 [[𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐾]](''𑐩𑐾𑐮𑐾'')𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑃𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐚𑐵𑐥𑐸𑐂 𑐀𑐣 𑐧𑐳𑑀𑐧𑐵𑐳 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐁𑐡𑐶𑐰𑐵𑐳𑐷 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐳 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐮𑐵 𑐏𑑋 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑑄 𑐌𑐮𑐶 𑐰𑐵 𑐩𑐾𑐮𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐡𑐺𑐱𑑂𑐫 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐵𑐚𑐎𑐷𑐫 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐧𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋

𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐄𑐥-𑐎𑐔𑐵 𑐡𑐸, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐹 𑐥𑐸𑐔𑑅 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 '𑐁𑐄𑐁𑐣𑐵 𑐰 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀 𑐏𑑋 &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://hawaiioceanproject.com/a-brief-history-of-the-hula/|title=A Brief History of the Hula|date=1 February 2018|publisher=Hawaii Ocean project}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩𑐷 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰 𑐖𑐸𑐂 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑑅 𑐠𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐔𑐷𑐣 𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐟 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 ''𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀'' 𑐢𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐟 𑐖𑐥 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐟 𑐧𑐵𑐖𑑄 𑐠𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋 𑑑𑑙𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑑒𑑐𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐟𑐵𑐧𑑂𑐡𑐷𑐂 𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩𑐷 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐳 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 ''{{Okina}}'𑐁𑐄𑐁𑐣𑐵'' (𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠 &quot;𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐟 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐵 𑐔𑐸𑐂𑐎𑐵 𑐰𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸&quot;) 𑐢𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐾 𑐰 𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩𑐷 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐶𑐟 [[𑐧𑐵𑐖𑑄]] 𑐐𑐠𑐾𑐎𑐶 [[𑐐𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐬]],𑐫𑐸𑐎𑐾𑐮𑐾𑐮𑐾, 𑐰 𑐜𑐧𑐮 𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐳 𑐣𑑄 𑐡𑐂 𑑋

𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐸𑐔𑑅 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐱𑐧𑑂𑐡𑐵𑐰𑐮𑐷𑐂 𑐡𑐸𑐴𑐵𑑄 𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐗𑑂𑐰𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐸: &quot;𑐩𑑀𑐣𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐷&quot;𑐫𑑂 𑑑𑑙𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐟𑐵𑐧𑑂𑐡𑐷𑐂 𑐬𑐔𑐣𑐵 𑐰 𑐎𑑀𑐬𑐶𑐫𑑀𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐦𑐷 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐣𑑄 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐡𑐸𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐄𑐐𑐸 𑐃𑐮𑐾 𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩𑐷 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐰𑐵𑐐𑐩𑐣𑑄 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐍𑐥𑐔𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐎𑐮𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐰𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐴𑐶𑐄𑐥𑐵𑑅 𑐴𑐮𑑋 &quot;𑐁𑐂 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀&quot;, 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐟 &quot;𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐔𑐷𑐣 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷𑐂&quot; 𑑒𑑐𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑑒𑑑𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐟𑐵𑐧𑑂𑐡𑐷𑐂 𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐄𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐏 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐔𑐷𑐣 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀𑐫𑐵 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷𑐐𑐟 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐩𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑐵𑐮𑐣𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋

𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐹 𑐩𑐹 𑐩𑐸𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐵 𑐡𑐸 : 𑐦𑑂𑐫𑐟𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 ( {{Lang|haw|𑐣𑑀𑐴𑑀}} 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄) 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐣𑐵 ( {{Lang|haw|𑐮𑐸𑐣𑐵}} 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄)𑑋 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑐣𑑄 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷 𑑋
[[किपा:Hula_Ad_on_the_U.S._Mainland.jpg|thumb| 𑐳𑐣𑑂 𑑑𑑘𑑙𑑐 𑐰 𑑑𑑙𑑐𑑐 𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐱𑐎𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐸𑐬𑐸𑐂 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐰 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑄𑐐𑐷𑐟𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐳𑑄 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐹 𑐨𑐹𑐩𑐶 𑐨𑑂𑐬𑐩𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵𑐥𑐣 𑑑𑑙𑑒𑑑 𑐳 𑐌𑐴𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐥𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐶𑐴𑐵𑑄 𑐰𑐮 𑑋]]
𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐖𑐚𑐶𑐮 𑐏𑑅𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐾 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐢𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐰 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰𑑄 𑐮𑑂𑐴𑐵𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐐𑐟𑐶 𑐰 𑐩𑐸𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐵 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷 𑑋 𑐡𑐳𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐮𑑂𑐴𑐵𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐔𑐵𑐮𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐾𑐦𑐸, 𑐐𑐠𑐾𑐎𑐶 𑐰𑐵𑐦𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐶𑐩𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐰𑐕𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐵 𑐳𑐩𑐸𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑐴𑐬, 𑐰𑐵 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐨𑐵𑐰/𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐣𑐵, 𑐐𑐠𑐾𑐎𑐶 𑐩𑐟𑐶𑐣𑐵 𑐰𑐵 𑐟𑐺𑐲𑑂𑐞𑐵𑑋 𑐟𑐸𑐟𑐶 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑑄𑐥𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐔𑐵𑐮 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑐾𑑄 {{Lang|haw|𑐎𑐵𑐴𑑀𑐮𑑀}}, {{Lang|haw|𑐎𑐵'𑐌}}, {{Lang|haw|𑐎𑐵𑐰𑐾𑐮𑐸}}, {{Lang|haw|𑐴𑐾𑐮𑐵}}, {{Lang|haw|'𑐄𑐴𑐾𑐰𑐾}}, 𑐀𑐮𑐾 {{Lang|haw|ʻ𑐁𑐩𑐶}}  𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐨𑐹𑐟 𑐥𑐮𑐵𑑅𑐫𑑂 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋

𑐩𑐾𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑀𑐮𑐶𑐣𑐾𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐮𑐷 𑐚𑐵𑐥𑐸𑐟 𑐐𑐠𑐾𑐎𑐶 𑐟𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐟𑐶, [[𑐎𑐹𑐎 𑐚𑐵𑐥𑐹|𑐡 𑐎𑐸𑐎 𑐁𑐂𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑑂𑐜]], 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑑀𑐁, 𑐚𑑀𑑄𑐐𑐵 𑐰 [[𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐸 𑐖𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡|𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐖𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑑂𑐜𑑄]] 𑐰𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐾𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐡𑐳𑐸 𑐟𑐵𑐩𑐸𑐬𑐾, 𑐴𑐸𑐬𑐵, '𑐀𑐥𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐩𑐵, '𑐌𑐟𑐾'𑐁, 𑐴𑐵𑐎𑐵, 𑐎𑐵𑐥𑐵 𑐴𑐵𑐎𑐵, 𑐥𑑀𑐂, 𑐦𑐵'𑐁𑐟𑐵𑐄𑐥𑐟𑐶, 𑐟𑐵𑐄'𑐮𑐸𑐣𑑂𑐐𑐵, 𑐰 𑐮𑐵𑐎𑐵𑐮𑐵𑐎𑐵 𑐁𑐡𑐶𑑋 𑐀𑐠𑐾𑐳𑐵𑑄, 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐚𑐵𑐥𑐸𑐂 𑐖𑐎 𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄 𑐏𑑋 

𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐵𑐟𑐾𑐟 𑐗𑑂𑐰𑐮𑑄 &quot;𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐔𑐷𑐣&quot; 𑐏𑐰𑐫𑑂 𑐰 &quot;𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎&quot; 𑐖𑐰𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄𑑋 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑐵𑐴𑐸 𑐰 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 '𑐀𑐮𑐵'𑐁𑐥𑐵𑐥𑐵 𑐥𑐸𑐔𑑅 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐔𑐷𑐣 𑐏, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐄𑐟𑑂𑐥𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐃𑐳𑐵𑐃 𑐢𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐾𑐱 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑑅 𑐴𑐾 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐧𑐵𑑄𑐮𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐳𑑄𑐬𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐟 𑐡𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐾𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐞𑑄 𑐎𑐵𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐥𑐵𑐛𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐴𑐵𑐎𑐣𑑄 𑐡𑐧𑐹𑐮𑐶 𑐴𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐩𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐡𑐾𑐱𑐶𑐎𑐵 𑐥𑐵𑐞𑑂𑐜𑐸𑐮𑐶𑐥𑐶 𑐳𑑂𑐥𑐲𑑂𑐚 𑐳𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐟 𑐡𑐸 𑑋 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐵𑐏𑐾 𑐴𑐵𑐥𑐵 𑐴𑐵𑐌𑐮𑐾 𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐀𑐥𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐵𑐎𑐺𑐟 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐏𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐣𑑀𑐚𑐾𑐚𑐾𑐜 𑐱𑐷𑐚 𑐳𑑄𑐐𑐷𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐔𑐵𑐬 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐎𑐮𑐵 𑐳𑐩𑐎𑐵𑐮𑐷𑐣 𑐖𑐵𑐟𑐷𑐫 𑐳𑑄𑐐𑐷𑐟𑐰𑐶𑐡𑑂 𑐰 𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐩𑐶𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑑄𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐎𑐸𑐟𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐵𑐬, 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐸𑐂 𑐰 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 '𑐌𑐮𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐵𑐛 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐵 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐬𑐞𑐐𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾 𑐠𑐵𑐎𑐸𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐵𑑄 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐷 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐱𑐵𑐳𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐰 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑐣𑐷𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐶𑐟 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐾𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐡𑐸𑐣𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐞 𑐰 𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩𑐷𑐎𑐬𑐞𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐧𑐶𑐩𑑂𑐧𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐀𑐗 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐰𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐏𑑃 𑐕𑐸 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐾 𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐴𑐾 𑐳𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐦𑐶𑐎 𑐚𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐚 𑐦𑐬𑑂𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐚 𑐮𑐵𑐐𑐹 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐦𑐬𑑂𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐚𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑑄𑐐𑐹 𑐮𑐵𑐂𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐚𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐚𑑄 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐵𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐂, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐴𑐾 𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐵𑐮 (𑐧𑐷𑐚 𑐳𑐾𑐚) 𑐡𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐎𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐸𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐂𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐕𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐫𑑂 𑐀𑐮𑐐 𑐀𑐮𑐐 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑑅 𑐳𑑄𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐥𑑂𑐟 𑐮𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐵𑐮𑑄 𑐡𑑀𑐴𑑀𑐬𑐾 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐔𑐮𑐣 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐧𑐣𑑂𑐢𑐶𑐟 𑐩𑐾𑐮𑑀𑐡𑐷 𑐳𑑄𑐬𑐔𑐣𑐵 𑐰 𑐳𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐦𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑑄𑐐𑐷𑐟 𑐳𑑄𑐬𑐔𑐣𑐵𑑄 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐸𑐂 𑐰 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 '𑐌𑐮𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑐾𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑑋 

== 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀 ==
[[किपा:Hula_Kahiko_Hawaii_Volcanoes_National_Park_02.jpg|left|thumb| 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐖𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐮𑐵𑐩𑐸𑐏𑐷 𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐫 𑐣𑐶𑐎𑐸𑐘𑑂𑐖𑐫𑐵 [[Pa hula|𑐥𑐵 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑑂]] 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀 𑐥𑐶𑐠𑐣𑐵]]
𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀, 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐫𑑅 𑐳𑐣𑑂 𑑑𑑘𑑙𑑔 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑑅 𑐬𑐔𑐣𑐵 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐄𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐏 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐧𑐵𑐖𑑄 (𑐐𑐠𑐾𑐎𑐶 𑐐𑐶𑐚𑐵𑐬, '𑐄𑐎𑐸𑐮𑐾𑐮𑐾 𑐁𑐡𑐶) 𑐡𑐸𑐩𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐐𑐩𑑂𑐨𑐷𑐬 𑐰 𑐥𑐰𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐣𑐶𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐾𑐔𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷 𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐣𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐥𑐵𑐬 𑐰𑐶𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐡𑐸𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐟 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐵𑐫𑑅𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐱𑑄𑐳𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐵 𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐩𑐵𑐣 𑐰𑐵 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐣𑑀𑐬𑐘𑑂𑐖𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐮𑐵 𑐏𑑋 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 {{Okina}}𑐁𑐮𑐵{{Okina}}𑐀𑐥𑐵𑐥𑐵, 𑐴𑐵{{Okina}}𑐁, {{Okina}}𑐌𑐮𑐵𑐥, 𑐁𑐡𑐶 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐠𑑁𑑄 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀𑐫𑐵𑐟 &quot;𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐟&quot; 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐣𑑄 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑐳𑐷𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑑋

𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐟𑐾𑐟 𑐢𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐎 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑋 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐾𑐰𑐷 𑐰𑐵 𑐡𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐟𑐾𑐟 𑐡𑐾𑐕𑐵𑐣𑐵 𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐵 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐩𑑂𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑋 𑐴𑐾𑐂𑐁𑐄 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐧𑐹𑐡𑐾𑐐𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐏𑑅𑐧𑐶𑐮𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐔𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐸𑐚𑐶 𑐖𑐎 𑐖𑐸𑐳𑐵𑑄 𑐀𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑐠𑐾 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐸𑐚𑐶 𑐖𑐸𑐳𑐵𑑅 𑐄𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑄 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐟𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐔𑐶𑑄 (𑐀𑐮𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐞) 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑐨𑐫𑐵𑐰𑐴 𑐏𑑃 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐟𑑂𑐫𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐢𑐎𑐵 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑑄 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵 𑑋 𑐠𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾 𑐳𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑄𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐳𑑄 𑐣𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐟 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐴𑐾 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐐𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐷 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐮𑑋 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐐𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐳𑐬 𑐩𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟 𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐎 𑐊𑐎𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐠𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐱𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐂𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑐵𑐎𑐵 𑐡𑐾𑐰𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑄𑐬𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐞𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵 𑐡𑐫𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐣 𑑋 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐱𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐷𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐳𑐸𑐠𑐵𑑄𑐮𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐳𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑐊𑐎𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑄 𑐥𑐶𑐴𑐵𑑄 𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐏𑐧𑐶𑐮𑐾 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑃 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐵𑑅 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋

𑐠𑑁𑑄𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐴𑐫𑑂 𑐋𑐟𑐶𑐴𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐎 𑐖𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄 𑐮𑑂𑐴𑐸𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀𑐟𑐾𑐟 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑐾𑐲𑐟𑐵: 𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐟 𑐰𑐳𑑅, 𑐰𑐶𑐔𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐬𑐸𑐥, 𑐰 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐁𑐢𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐎 𑐩𑐹𑐮𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶 𑐱𑑂𑐬𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑑄 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑐳𑐷𑐎𑐾 𑐕𑐶𑑄𑑋

=== 𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞𑐵 (𑐌𑐮𑐷) ===
𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃𑐫𑐵 𑐂𑐟𑐶𑐴𑐵𑐳 𑐩𑑁𑐏𑐶𑐎 𑐂𑐟𑐶𑐴𑐵𑐳 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐰𑑄𑐱𑐵𑐰𑐮𑐷 𑐰 𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑑄𑐴𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐧𑐡𑑂𑐢 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐎𑐞𑑂𑐛𑐳𑑂𑐠 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑑅 𑐥𑐸𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐫𑑂, 𑐂𑐟𑐶𑐴𑐵𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐱𑐸𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐟𑐵 𑐳𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐖𑐎 𑐴𑐾 𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶 𑐡𑐫𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐣𑑋 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞𑐵𑑄 𑐳𑐺𑐲𑑂𑐚𑐶, 𑐥𑑁𑐬𑐵𑐞𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑐠𑐵, 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐰𑐵𑐬, 𑐰 𑐩𑐾𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐰𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐑𑐚𑐣𑐵 𑐰 𑐩𑐣𑐹𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐐𑐸 𑐧𑐵𑐏𑑄 𑐎𑐣𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑋

''ʻŌlelo Noʻeau'' (𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐢𑐵𑐥𑐹 𑐰𑐵 𑐄𑐏𑐵𑐣), &quot; ''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'𑐌 '𑐌 '𑐌𑐊 𑐎𑐵 𑐮𑐸𑐁𑐁𑐴𑐶 𑐌 𑐎𑐵𑐄 𑐩𑐾𑐮𑐾'' ,&quot;𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂𑐴𑐶𑐮𑐾 𑐧𑐮𑐫𑑂 &quot;𑐕𑐶𑑄 𑐬𑐔𑐣𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐡𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐔𑐶𑐣𑐵𑐏𑑃𑐫𑐵 𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑐩𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐕𑐶𑑄 𑐴𑐾 𑐰𑐴𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐡𑐷&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Hawaiian Chant: Dynamic Cultural Link or Atrophied Relic?|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-the-polynesian-society_1989-03_98_1/page/85|journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society|date=1989|volume=98|issue=1|pages=85–90}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠 𑐰𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐢𑐵𑐥𑐹𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐹𑐣𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐔𑐵𑑅 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐔𑐷𑐣 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐳𑑄 𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐔𑐵𑑅 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 &quot;𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐵&quot; 𑐰𑐵 𑐡𑐿𑐰𑐷𑐫 𑐱𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐡𑐂𑑋 &lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot; /&gt; 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑐾𑐲 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑑅 ''𑐌𑐮𑐶'' (𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬)𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐢𑑂𑐫𑐩𑑄 𑐰𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄𑑋 𑐀𑐟𑑅 ''𑐴𑐵𑐎𑐸 𑐩𑐾𑐮𑐾'' (𑐳𑑄𑐐𑐷𑐟𑐎𑐵𑐬) 𑐰 𑐖𑐥𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐸𑐱𑐮 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐵𑑄 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐱𑑂𑐬𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵 𑐰 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐫𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐣𑑋 𑐌𑐮𑐷 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐔𑐷𑐣 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐀𑐨𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐣 𑐑𑐚𑐎 𑐏, 𑐰 𑐖𑐷𑐰𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐐𑐨𑐐 𑐴𑐬𑐾𑐎 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎, 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑐣𑐷𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐰 𑐁𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐶𑐎 𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋

𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐟 𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐟 𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐨 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑐵𑑅𑑋 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐠𑐷𑐠𑐷 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹 𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑃 𑐎𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐷 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 ''𑐩𑐾𑐮𑐾 𑐥𑐸𑐮𑐾'' (𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐣𑐵), ''𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐸𑐁𑐴𑐸'' (𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐲𑑂𑐛𑐵𑐣 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑃), ''𑐎𑐸𑐁𑐄𑐴𑐵𑐄'' (𑐧𑑂𑐬𑐴𑑂𑐩𑐵𑐞𑑂𑐜𑐷𑐫𑐟𑐵), ''𑐎𑑀𑐁𑐂𑐴𑑀𑐣𑐸𑐁'' (𑐰𑑄𑐱𑐵𑐰𑐮𑐷), ''𑐴𑐣𑐵𑐄'' (𑐖𑐣𑑂𑐩), ''𑐂𑐣𑑀𑐁'' (𑐣𑐵𑑄), ''𑐩𑐁'𑐂'' (𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐖𑐣𑐣/𑐖𑐣𑐣𑐵𑑄𑐐), ''𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐄'' (𑐰𑐶𑐮𑐵𑐥), ''𑐴𑐾𑐂 (𑐎𑐵𑐳𑐵), 𑐴𑑀'𑐌𑐂𑐥𑑀𑐂𑐥𑑀 (𑐩𑐟𑐶𑐣𑐵), 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐁'' (𑐀𑐨𑐶𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶 / 𑐳𑑅 𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸) 𑐡𑐸𑑋  ''𑐌𑐮𑐶'', ''𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵'', 𑐰 ''𑐩𑐾𑐮𑐾'' 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐰𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐨𑐾𑐡 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐡𑐸: ''𑐩𑐾𑐮𑐾'' 𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐎𑐠𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑐷-𑐠𑐷 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸, 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐫𑑅 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠 𑐳𑐬𑐮𑐨𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋 𑐟𑐬 𑐀𑐗 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐎 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐫𑑂 ''𑐩𑐾𑐮𑐾𑐫𑐵𑐟'' 𑐎𑐵𑐰𑑂𑐫 𑐰𑐵 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎 𑐬𑐔𑐣𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄𑑋 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 (𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄 𑐖𑐥) 𑐰 𑐌𑐮𑐷 (𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄 𑐩𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎 𑐖𑐥) 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷 𑐏 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐩𑐾𑐮𑐾 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄/𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄𑑋 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐟𑐫𑐵, &quot;𑐦𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐩𑐾𑐮𑐾 𑐌𑐮𑐶 (𑐖𑐥 𑐩𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄)𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄, 𑐟𑐬 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐵𑐬 𑐖𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐐𑐠𑐾𑐎𑐶 𑐣𑐵𑑄 𑐖𑐥, 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐖𑐣𑐣 𑐖𑐥, 𑐩𑐟𑐶𑐣𑐵 𑐖𑐥, 𑐰  ''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'𑐍𑐩𑐵𑐎𑐸𑐁'' 𑐡𑑂𑐫𑑅(𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑑂𑐫𑑅) 𑐟𑐾𑐟 𑐡𑐾𑐕𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐥 𑐖𑐎 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐶𑐠𑐣𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄𑑋&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot; /&gt;

[[𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂|𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐫𑑂]] 𑐳𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐐𑐸𑐞𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐰𑐬𑑂𑐞𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑑔𑑓 𑐐𑐹 𑐠𑐷𑐠𑐷 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑑄 𑐖𑐥 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶 𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑐾𑐲𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑐸𑐂𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐟𑐳𑐎𑑄 𑐐𑑂𑐰𑐴𑐵𑐮𑐶 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷 (𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄 𑐡𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐵 𑐩𑐡𑐸𑐐𑐸) 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐨𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑄𑐫𑑀𑐖𑐣𑑄 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑄 𑐕𑐸 𑐳𑑅 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑑋 ''𑐎𑐾𑐥𑐵𑐎𑐾𑐥𑐵, 𑐎𑐵𑐰𑐾𑐮𑐾, 𑐌𑐮𑐶𑐌𑐮𑐶, 𑐴𑑀'𑐊𑐊𑐊, 𑐴𑑀'𑐄𑐊𑐄𑐊'', 𑐰 ''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'𑐋𑐴𑐵'𑐁'' 𑐳𑑅 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶𑑄 𑐰𑐶𑐨𑐾𑐡𑐶𑐟 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐡𑐳𑐸 𑐏𑑋 ''𑐎𑐾𑐥𑐵𑐎𑐾𑐥𑐵'' 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐾𑐧𑐶𑐮𑐾 𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐣𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐰𑐰𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐠𑐾𑑄 𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑄 𑐀𑐮𑐾 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷𑐂 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑐾𑑄 𑐟𑐵𑑅𑐴𑐵𑐎𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑃𑐟𑑂𑐰𑐵𑑅 𑐮𑑂𑐴𑐵𑐂 𑑋 ''𑐌𑐮𑐶𑐌𑐮𑐷'' 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷 𑐏 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰𑐳𑐶𑐣𑑄 𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐟𑐸𑐮𑐣𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐂, 𑐕𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐏 𑐰 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐥𑐶𑐔 𑐡𑐸𑑋 &lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Toward a Description of Precontact Music in Hawai'i|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ethnomusicology_1981-09_25_3/page/481|journal=Ethnomusicology|date=1981|volume=25|issue=3|pages=481–492|doi=10.2307/851556}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFTatar1981&quot;&gt;Tatar, Elizabeth (1981). &quot;Toward a Description of Precontact Music in Hawai'i&quot;. ''Ethnomusicology''. '''25''' (3): &lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;481–&lt;/span&gt;492. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/851556|10.2307/851556]]. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&amp;nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/851556 851556].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐫𑑅 ''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'i'i'', 𑐰𑐵 𑐮𑐵𑐂𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐨𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐂𑐧𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐟𑑀 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄 𑐩𑐵𑐁𑐏𑑅 (𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐮) 𑐡𑐂𑑋

𑐳𑐣𑑂 𑑑𑑘𑑙𑑖𑐂 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃𑐂 (𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐮𑐫 𑐢𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐵) 𑐥𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐎𑐵𑐣𑐹𑐣𑑄 𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐹𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐂 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐮𑐾𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐧𑐣𑑂𑐢 𑐟𑐮𑑋 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐖𑐶𑐎, 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑐣𑐷𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐫𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐟𑐵𑐫𑐵  𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎 𑐡𑐩𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐹𑐴𑐶𑐎 𑐥𑐟𑐣 𑐖𑐸𑐮, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑐶𑐮𑐸𑐥𑑂𑐟 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐐𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐣𑑋 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐷𑐎𑐬𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐎𑐠𑑄, 𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐢𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐳𑐵𑐬 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄, 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐟 𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐥𑐹𑐖𑐎 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐟𑑅 𑐮𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐩𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐸𑐟𑑅 𑐖𑐸𑐮𑑅𑑋 𑐟𑐬 𑐳𑐣𑑂 𑑑𑑙𑑖𑑐 𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐱𑐎𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐳𑐵𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑐸𑐟𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐣𑑄, 𑐰 𑐠𑑁𑑄𑐟𑐎 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑄𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐀𑐨𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐖𑐷𑐰𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐷 𑐣𑑂𑐰𑐰𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵 𑐰 𑐖𑐥 𑐣𑑄 𑐡𑐸𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑑋 𑐀𑐮𑐾, 𑐰𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐠𑐷𑐠𑐷 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐏𑐾𑑄 𑐳𑐩𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵 𑐀𑐗 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐣𑐾 𑐫𑑄𑐎𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐗𑑂𑐰𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫𑑄 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐵𑐣𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐫𑑀 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐂 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵 𑐂𑐩𑐬𑑂𑐳𑐣 𑐧𑑂𑐰𑐣𑐾𑐎𑐸𑐠𑐶 𑐁𑐡𑐶 𑐮𑐵𑑋 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄 𑐳𑐣𑑂 𑑑𑑙𑑗𑑑 𑐫𑑂 𑐁𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐷 𑐩𑑀𑐣𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐎 𑐣𑐏𑑅 𑐰 𑐢𑐾𑐢𑐾𑐧𑐮𑑂𑐮𑐵𑑄 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐹𑐣𑐬𑐸𑐟𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐐𑑂𑐰𑐴𑐵𑐮𑐶 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸𑑋 &lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Hawaiian Chant: Dynamic Cultural Link or Atrophied Relic?|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-the-polynesian-society_1989-03_98_1/page/85|journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society|date=1989|volume=98|issue=1|pages=85–90}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFSilva1989&quot;&gt;Silva, Kalena (1989). &quot;Hawaiian Chant: Dynamic Cultural Link or Atrophied Relic?&quot;. ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society''. '''98''' (1): &lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;85–&lt;/span&gt;90. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&amp;nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20706253 20706253].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

''𑐴𑐵𑐮𑐵𑐄 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵'' (𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐹𑐮)𑐫𑑂 ''𑐎𑐸𑐩𑐸'' (𑐱𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐎)𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑑂𑐰𑐟𑐶 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐡𑐸𑐴𑐵𑑄 𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐩𑐟𑐶 𑐦𑑂𑐰𑐣𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐩𑐹 𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐴𑐵𑐮𑐵𑐄𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 &quot;𑐎𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐴𑐶&quot;𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐮𑐶, &lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Hawaiian Chant: Dynamic Cultural Link or Atrophied Relic?|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-the-polynesian-society_1989-03_98_1/page/85|journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society|date=1989|volume=98|issue=1|pages=85–90}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFSilva1989&quot;&gt;Silva, Kalena (1989). &quot;Hawaiian Chant: Dynamic Cultural Link or Atrophied Relic?&quot;. ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society''. '''98''' (1): &lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;85–&lt;/span&gt;90. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&amp;nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20706253 20706253].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;  ''𑐌𑐮𑐶 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐫𑐵l'', 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐟𑐫𑐵 ''𑐌𑐮𑐶𑐌𑐮𑐶'' 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷𑐂 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶𑑋 𑐰𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐷𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐫𑑅 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐾𑐱𑐡𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐬 𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐾 𑐡𑐣𑐵 𑐧𑐵𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐧𑐵𑐬 𑐀𑐧𑐮𑐾 𑐟𑐎 𑐖𑐥 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑐐𑐸𑐧𑐮𑐾 𑐎𑐸𑐩𑐸𑑄 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟 𑐡𑐸𑐴𑐵𑑄 𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐩𑐟𑐶 𑐧𑐷𑐩𑐏𑐸𑑋 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐞𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐳𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐥 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷𑑋 𑐌𑐮𑐷𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐃𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐵𑐧𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐴𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐡𑐳𑐸 𑐏𑑅 𑑋

𑐌𑐮𑐷𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑐷𑐚𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐵𑐞 𑐩𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑐶𑐲𑑂𑐚 𑐎𑐠𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐡𑐶𑐰𑐵𑐳𑐷 𑐳𑑄𑐐𑐷𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑑋 𑐰𑐵𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐰𑐫𑑂 𑐌𑐮𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐮𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐀𑐨𑐶𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄 𑐳𑑄𑐔𑐵𑐮𑐣 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐶𑐟𑐶 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐥𑐵𑐂, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑑄 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑑅 𑐌𑐮𑐷 𑐮𑑂𑐴𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐹 𑐠𑐷𑐠𑐷 𑐄𑐔𑑂𑐔𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐳 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐥𑐶𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐹 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷 𑐠𑐠𑐾 𑐡𑐸 :

* ''𑐎𑐾𑐥𑐵𑐎𑐾𑐥𑐵'': 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐏𑑃𑐮𑑂𑐴𑐵𑐧𑐮𑑂𑐴𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐟𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐮𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑑋 𑐠𑐣 𑐐𑐣 𑐳𑐶𑐮𑐾𑐧𑐮𑐟 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐳𑐎𑑄 𑐔𑐶𑐴𑐵𑐎𑑅 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑐶𑐔 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑐳𑐷𑐎𑐾 𑐩𑐦𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋
* ''𑐎𑐵𑐰𑐾𑐮𑐾'' : 𑐎𑐾𑐥𑐵𑐎𑐾𑐥𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐸𑐮𑐣𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐵𑐰𑐾𑐮𑐾𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐶𑐮𑐾𑐧𑐮 𑐨𑐔𑐵 𑐟𑐵𑑅𑐴𑐵𑐎𑑅 𑐖𑐸𑐂, 𑐟𑐬 𑐀𑐗 𑐣𑑄 𑐥𑐶𑐔𑐫𑑂 𑐀𑑅𑐥𑐸𑐎 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑐳𑐷𑐎𑐾 𑐠𑐵𑐎𑐸𑑋 𑐌𑐮𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐥𑐵𑐛 𑐰 𑐑𑑀𑐲𑐞𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐺𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐡𑐸 𑑋
* ''𑐌𑐮𑐶𑐌𑐮𑐶'' : 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐌𑐮𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐏𑑅, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐥𑐶𑐔 𑐩𑑀𑐣𑑀𑐚𑑀𑐣𑑄 𑐎𑐵𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 𑐳𑑅-𑐀𑐮𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐺𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐫𑑄𑐎𑐶𑑋
* ''𑐴𑑀'𑐁𑐊𑐁𑐊'' : 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐥𑐶𑐔 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐾𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵 𑐰 𑐳𑑄𑐐𑐷𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐨𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑑁𑐮𑐶𑐎 𑐰𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐳 𑐮𑐶𑐥𑐵 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑐶𑐔 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸𑑋
* ''𑐴𑑀'𑐌𑐄𑐰𑐾𑐄𑐰𑐾'' : 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑐾𑐲 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄 𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐶𑐩 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑐶𑐮𑐵𑐥𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑐵𑐐𑐹 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋

𑐌𑐮𑐷 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅𑑄 𑐳𑑅 𑐖𑐎 𑐳𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷 𑐩𑐏𑐸, 𑐎𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷 𑐣𑑄 𑐳𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷 𑑋 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑃𑐩𑐶𑑄 𑐳𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐾 𑐩𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐰𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐏𑑃 𑐢𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐵𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐩𑐎 𑐥𑐵𑐛𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐐𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐿𑐮𑐷𑐂 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐞 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄 𑐦𑐶𑐚 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐂 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐞𑐫 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑋 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄, 𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐨𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐵𑐛(𑐖𑐥) 𑐰 𑐌𑐮𑐷 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐨𑐶𑑄𑐎𑑅 𑐳𑑄𑐫𑑀𑐖𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐮𑑃𑐥𑐸 𑐮𑐸𑐂𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑅 𑑋 &lt;ref name=&quot;Stillman 2005 69&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stillman|first=Amy Ku'uleialoha|date=2005|title=Textualizing Hawaiian Music|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4153041|journal=American Music|volume=23|issue=1|pages=69–94|doi=10.2307/4153041|issn=0734-4392}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFStillman2005&quot;&gt;Stillman, Amy Ku'uleialoha (2005). [http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4153041 &quot;Textualizing Hawaiian Music&quot;]. ''American Music''. '''23''' (1): &lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;69–&lt;/span&gt;94. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/4153041|10.2307/4153041]]. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]]&amp;nbsp;[https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0734-4392 0734-4392]. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&amp;nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/4153041 4153041].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 𑐧𑐵𑐖𑑄 𑐰 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑑅 ===
[[किपा:Joann_K.gif|thumb| 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑐎𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐵 𑐖𑑀𑐁𑐣 𑐎𑐾𑐮𑐶𑐣𑑀𑐴𑑀𑐩𑑀𑐎𑐸𑑄 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐮𑐶𑐳𑐾 𑐥𑐸 {{Okina}} 𑐂𑐮𑐶 𑐰 {{Okina}} 𑐄𑐮𑐶 {{Okina}} 𑐄𑐮𑐷 𑐮𑐵𑐐𑐹 𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑑋]]

* ''𑐂𑐥𑐸'' —𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐦𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐜𑑂𑐬𑐩
* ''𑐂𑐥𑐸 𑐴𑐾𑐎𑐾'' — 𑐜𑐧𑐮 𑐦𑐳𑐶 𑐜𑑂𑐬𑐩
* ''𑐥𑐵𑐴𑐸'' —𑐱𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑑄𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐟𑑂𑐰𑐥𑐸𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐜𑑂𑐬𑐩; 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐢𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐰𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐴𑐣𑐶𑑋
* ''𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐄'' — 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑑄𑐐𑐸 (𑐎𑐵𑐮𑐵) 𑐟𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑐣𑐂𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐏𑑂𑐰𑐮𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐔𑐶𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐸𑐮𑐶𑐂 𑐟𑐫𑐵𑑅 𑐠𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐜𑑂𑐬𑐩
* ''{{Okina}} 𑐂𑐮𑐶 {{Okina}} 𑐂𑐮𑐶'' — 𑐮𑐏𑑄 𑐣𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐮𑐵𑐨𑐵 𑐮𑑂𑐰𑐴𑑄𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐎𑐵𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐵𑐣𑐾𑐚𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸𑑋
* ''{{Okina}} 𑐄𑐮𑐶 {{Okina}} 𑐄𑐮𑐶'' — 𑐥𑐵 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐦𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐧𑐵𑐖𑑄 ({{Okina}} 𑐄𑐮𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐣𑑄 𑐢𑐵𑐂)
* ''𑐥𑐸 {{Okina}} 𑐂𑐮𑐶'' — 𑐥𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑐶 𑐎𑐸𑐔𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐧𑐵𑐖𑑄
* ''𑐎𑐵𑐮 {{Okina}} 𑐀𑐄'' —𑐟𑐵𑐮 𑐎𑐠𑐶

𑐩𑐶𑐖𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐳𑑄 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑐶𑐔𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐵𑑄 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐟𑐶𑐳𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐣𑑄 𑐐𑐧𑐮𑐾𑑄 𑐐𑐧𑐮𑐾𑑄 𑐧𑐵𑐖𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑋 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐟𑐸𑐟𑐶 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐳𑑅 𑐥𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋

=== 𑐰𑐳𑑅 / 𑐨𑐾𑐲 ===
[[किपा:Hula0081110.jpg|left|thumb| 𑐄𑐮𑐶𑐄𑐮𑐶 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅, 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐴𑐶𑐎𑑀 𑐢𑐾𑑄 𑐢𑐾𑑄 𑐧𑐮𑑂𑐮𑐵𑑅, 𑐩𑐾𑐬𑑂𑐬𑐶 𑐩𑑀𑐣𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐎 𑐦𑐾𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐶𑐨𑐮 𑑒𑑐𑑐𑑓𑐳]]
𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐟 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐶𑐳𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐳𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑐶𑐠𑑄𑐫𑐵 ''𑐥𑐵 {{Okina}}''𑐄 𑐰𑐵 𑐖𑐵𑐩𑐵 𑐳𑐶𑐣𑐶, 𑐟𑐬 𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐳𑑄 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐰𑐳𑑅 𑐦𑐶𑐩𑐏𑐸𑑋 𑐠𑑁𑑄 𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐳𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐴𑐶𑐮𑐾𑐢𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸 𑑋 𑐨𑐰𑑂𑐫 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐥𑐵 {{Okina}}𑐄 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫 𑐟𑐵𑐥𑐀, 𑐰𑐵 𑐧𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐎𑑂𑐮𑑀𑐠𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐩𑑂𑐧𑐵𑐃 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐟𑐵𑑅𑐴𑐵𑐎𑑅 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐦𑐸, 𑐐𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑄𑐫𑑂 𑐔𑐵𑑅𑐴𑐶𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐵𑐎𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑑋 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐟 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐐𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐢𑐶 𑐟𑐐𑑂𑐰𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑑄 𑐫𑐵𑑅𑑋 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐴𑐵𑐬, 𑐔𑐸𑐬𑐵, 𑐰 𑐥𑐵𑐄𑐖𑐸 𑐠𑐾𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐟𑐶𑐳𑐵 𑐣𑑄 𑐟𑐷 𑐦𑐸𑑋 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑃𑐩𑐶𑐥𑐶𑑄𑐳𑑄 𑐮𑐾𑐂 (𑐴𑐾𑐜𑐥𑐶𑐳 (𑐮𑐾𑐂 𑐥𑑀𑐌)𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂, 𑐧𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐳𑐮𑐾𑐟, 𑐊𑐒𑑂𑐎𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐟 (𑐎𑐸𑐥𑐾)𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂), 𑐰 𑐩𑐾𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐟𑐶𑐳𑐵 𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸𑑋
[[किपा:Old_Lahaina_Luau_2009-07.jpg|thumb| [[𑐮𑐵𑐴𑐵𑐂𑐣𑐵, 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃|𑐮𑐴𑐵𑐂𑐣𑐵𑐫𑐵]] 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐮𑐸𑐁𑐄𑐂 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐟, 𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐟 𑐎𑐶 𑐴𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑑋]]
[[किपा:Hawaiian_Islands_Humpback_Whale_National_Marine_Sanctuary_hula_Kauai_2020.png|thumb| 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐀𑐨𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐎𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐵𑐟 𑑒𑑐𑑒𑑐 𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐵𑐄𑐁𑐂 𑐌𑐱𑐣 𑐜𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐨𑐬𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐄𑐮𑐾𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑑂, 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃 𑐚𑐵𑐥𑐸 𑐴𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎 𑐰𑑂𑐴𑐾𑐮 𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐫 𑐳𑐩𑐸𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐷 𑐀𑐨𑐫𑐵𑐬𑐞𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐁𑐐𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐸𑐎 𑐎𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐡𑑂𑐬 [[𑐮𑐶𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐸, 𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃|𑐎𑐵𑐄𑐁𑐂𑐂 𑐮𑐶𑐴𑐸𑐊]] 𑑋]]
''𑐥𑐵 {{Okina}} 𑐄 𑐫𑐵'' 𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑐵𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐶 ( ''𑐎𑑀𑐬𑑂𑐜𑐶𑐮𑐶𑐣 𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐸𑐚𑐶𑐎𑑀𑐳𑐵'' ) 𑐴𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐵𑐩𑐵 𑐣𑑄 𑐦𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑋 𑐥𑐵'𑐄𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐴𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐑𑐣𑐵 𑐟𑐴𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐶𑐮𑐾 𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑋 𑐎𑐶 𑐰𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐾𑐰𑐷 𑐰 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑃𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐾𑐰𑐷 𑐮𑐵𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑐰𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐸 𑐏𑑋 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐢𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐲𑑂𑐛𑐵𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐂𑐮𑐫𑑂 ''𑐎𑐴𑐸𑐣𑐵'' 𑐰 ''𑐀𑐮𑐶𑐂𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄'' 𑐖𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐎𑐶 𑐴𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐾𑐂 𑐮𑐵'𑐂 ( ''lei lāʻī'' ) 𑐦𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐩𑐟𑐶 𑐡𑐸𑑋 ''𑐚𑐸𑐥𑐾𑐣𑐸𑐫𑐵''  𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐾 𑐦𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐠𑐸𑐖𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑐾 ''𑐳𑐷 𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐸𑐚𑐶𑐎𑑀𑐳𑐵'' 𑐴𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐵𑐩𑐵 𑐚𑑀𑑄𑐐𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐢𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐎 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑄 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷, 𑐐𑐣 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 ''𑐳𑐶𑐳𑐶'' 𑐢𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑐳𑐷𑐎𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵 𑑋 𑐚𑑀𑑄𑐐𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐴𑑅 𑐖𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐢𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑐾𑑄 𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐄𑑃𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑐵𑐳𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐴𑑅 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷𑑋 &lt;ref name=&quot;Kawate2014&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Ti Leaf (''Cordyline terminalis'' or ''fruticosa'') Diseases in Hawaii's Commercial Orchards|date=2014|url=https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/sustainag/news/articles/V19-KawateEtAl-TiLeafDiseases.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;Gamayo2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|title=Ti Leaf: Canoe Plant of Ancient Hawai'i|url=http://bigislandnow.com/2016/08/04/ti-leaf-canoe-plant-of-ancient-hawaii/|work=Big Island Now|date=4 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

𑐥𑐬𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐬𑐵𑐐𑐟 𑐩𑐶𑐖𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐩𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐟𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑐶𑐠𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐮𑑀, 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑑀𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐎𑑂𑐮𑑀𑐠 𑐦𑐷𑑋 𑐴𑐵𑐎𑐣𑑄, 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐳𑑄 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐐𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐵𑐥𑐵 𑐰𑐳𑑅 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑐵𑐮𑑀 𑐢𑐵𑐂, 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐣𑑄 𑐦𑐷𑐦𑐸𑑋 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐳𑑄 𑐴𑐵𑐬, 𑐧𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐳𑐮𑐾𑐚, 𑐊𑐣𑑂𑐎𑐮𑐾𑐚 𑐰 𑐮𑐾𑐂 𑐣𑑄 𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑋

𑐮𑐵𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐣𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐢𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐰 𑐰𑐣 𑐡𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐟𑐫𑑂𑐟 𑐖𑐥 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐢𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐮𑐾𑐂𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐷 𑐖𑑄𑐐𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐾𑐩𑐵𑑋

𑐥𑐰𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐥𑐸𑐣𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐮𑐾𑐂 𑐰 𑐟𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐰𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐌𑐟𑐥𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐟 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑋 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄 𑐮𑑂𑐴𑐸𑐂𑐢𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐵𑑅 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷𑐩𑐏𑐸 𑑋 𑐮𑐾𑐂𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐴𑐬𑐾𑐎 𑐴𑐵𑐮𑐵𑐄𑐫𑑂 𑐏𑐣𑐾𑐡𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐔𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐧𑐸𑐮𑐶𑐂 𑐮𑐵𑐎𑐵𑐡𑐾𑐰𑐷𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐡𑐾𑐕𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑑋

==𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑃==
* [[𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐃]]
* [[𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑄]]

==𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵==
{{𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵|}}

[[पुचः:𑐴𑐰𑐵𑐂𑐫𑐣 𑐟𑐖𑐶𑐮𑐖𑐶]]
[[पुचः:𑐴𑐸𑐮𑐵𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑃]]
[[पुचः:𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏𑑃]]</text>
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[[किपा:Vaccinium_corymbosum(01).jpg|thumb| उत्तरी हाइबुश ब्लुबेरी]]
यक्वं नांजाःगु व व्यावसायिक रुपं महत्वपूर्ण खाद्य वनस्पति अमेरिकां उत्पत्ति जूगु दु। छुं नसामा स्थानीय, अर्थात थ्व प्राकृतिक रुपं अमेरिकाय् जक्क खने दु व मेथाय् गनं नं मदु, धाःसा मेमेगु प्राकृतिक रुपं अमेरिका व मेमेगु महाद्वीपय् निगुलिं थासय् नं खने दु।

क्वय् बियातःगु धलखय् अमेरिकाया मूलवासी [[नसामा]] दुथ्याःगु दु ( खड्ग चिं दूगु जेनेरा &lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt; स्थानीय ख)। थ्व नसातेत गबले वा गन खाद्य स्रोतया रुपय् छ्यःगु खं थुकिलि दुमथ्याः। १४९२इ [[क्रिस्टोफर कोलम्बस|क्रिस्टोफर कोलम्बसया]] आगमनं क्वचाःगु कोलम्बियन हिलाःया लिच्वः कथं पुलांगु हलिंया तजिलजिइ जक्क दुहां वःगु खाद्य वनस्पति व मेमेगु बालीया धलःया निंतिं न्हुगु हलिंया बाली स्वयादिसँ। &lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|year=2010|title=The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-economic-perspectives_spring-2010_24_2/page/163|journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]]|volume=24|issue=2|pages=163–188|doi=10.1257/jep.24.2.163}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== अन्न/[[कि]] ==
[[किपा:Quinoa_growing_on_Isla_del_Sol,_Lake_Titicaca.jpg|thumb| क्विनोआ दक्षिण अमेरिकाया [[एन्डेज|एन्डिज]] पर्वतया अपेक्षाकृत चिधंगु लागाय् जक मूल कथं ह्वइगु खः ।]]

* [[कःनि]]  &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=42207|title=USDA GRIN Taxonomy: Zea mays|accessdate=2 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ( ''जिया'' &lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt; )
* किनोआ &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=10194|title=USDA GRIN Taxonomy: Chenopodium quinoa|accessdate=2 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ( ''चेनोपोडियम'' )
* अमरान्थया यक्वं प्रजातित &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=70070|title=USDA GRIN Taxonomy: Amaranthus cruentus|accessdate=8 January 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; ( ''Amaranthus'' )
* जंगली जाकि ( ''जिजानिया'' ) या छुं प्रजाति
* भारतीय कःनि (फ्लिन्ट मरि)

== बूबः/मुस्या ==

* बरां &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=A study of the relationships of cultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea) and its most closely related wild species using intron sequences and microsatellite markers|journal=Annals of Botany|pages=113–126|volume=111|issue=1|doi=10.1093/aob/mcs237}}&lt;/ref&gt; ( ''अराचिस'' &lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt; )
* पिन्तो, तेपारी, ब्ल्याक बिन, राजमा, नेभी मुस्या, स्कार्लेट रनर &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Scarlet Runner Bean, Phaseolus coccineus}}&lt;/ref&gt; ( फेजओलस कोक्सिनियस ) व लिमा मुस्या&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=USDA GRIN Taxonomy: Phaseolus vulgaris}}&lt;/ref&gt; ( ''फेजओलस'' &lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt; )

== नाइटशेड्स ==
[[किपा:Heirlooms.jpg|thumb| गोलभेडाया थी थी जात]]
[[किपा:Cubanelle_Peppers.jpg|thumb| क्यूबानेल मल्ता]]

* [[आलु]] &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Geographic distribution of wild potato species|journal=[[American Journal of Botany]]|volume=88|issue=11|pages=2101–12|doi=10.2307/3558435|year=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; ( ''सोलानम'' )
* गोलभ्यारा &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=USDA GRIN Taxonomy: Solanum lycopersicum}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=ASPT Monographs: Volume 84}}&lt;/ref&gt; ( ''सोलानम'' )
* तफ्वः मल्ता व [[मल्ता]] &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=USDA GRIN Taxonomy: Capsicum annum}}&lt;/ref&gt; ( ''क्याप्सिकम'' &lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt; )
* तोमातिलो &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=tomatillo {{!}} Description, Plant, &amp; Uses {{!}} Britannica}}&lt;/ref&gt; ( ''फिजलिस फिलाडेल्फिका'' )

== सिसाबुसा ==
[[किपा:Guava_ID.jpg|right|thumb| एपल ग्वाभा]]
 

* एलेघेनी बारबेरी
* बियरबेरी (मन्जानिता, किन्निकिनिक)
* ब्लाक चोकबेरी (अरोनियास धाइ)
* डियरबेरी
* लिङ्गनबेरी
* स्वाम्प ड्यूबेरी (रुबसया थी थी प्रजाति, रास्पबेरी, ब्लाकबेरी, स्याल्मनबेरी, थिम्बलबेरी व क्लाउडबेरी स्वयां बिस्कं)
* रिब्सया यक्वं आदिवासी प्रजातित, गुकी ह्याउँगु करान्त, हाकुगु करान्त, गोल्डेन करान्त व गूजबेरि दुथ्याः
* ह्याकबेरी
* विबर्नमया यक्व खाद्य प्रजाति, गुकिलि हाइबुश क्र्यानबेरी (ट्रिलोबम), ब्ल्याकहः (प्रुनिफोलियम), न्यानीबेरी (लेन्टागो), व मूजबेरी (एडुल) ला।
* प्रोसार्टेस लाइनया थीथी प्रजाति, अप्वः धया थें फेयरीबेल्स धाइ ।
* मेयाप्पल
* भर्जिनिया पर्सिमोन व टेक्सास पर्सिमोन
* रोजहिप्स, बाय् थी थी जंगली रोजा प्रजातिया सिसाबुसा ।
* फि चेरी
* अरलियाया ल्ययातःगु प्रजातिया सिसा, गुकियात सामान्यतया स्पाइकेनार्ड नं धाइ, गथेकि रेसेमोसा। दक्वं प्रजातिइ सुरक्षित रुपं नये ज्यूगु सिसाबुसा मदु ।
* गौल्थेरिया स्वांमाया सिसाबुसा । प्रोकम्बेन्सया सिसाबुसायात तिबेरी धाइ धाःसा स्यालोनयात सलाल व हिस्पिडुलायात मोक्सी प्लम धाइ ।
* ओगीची सिसाबुसा । खाद्य पदार्थया निंतिं टुपेलोया दकलय् मूवंगु प्रजाति, यद्यपि फुक्क मूलवासी टुपेलो प्रजातिइ खाद्य फल दइ।
* गम बुलि ओलिभ , वा अमेरिकन ओलिभ्स
* ब्यूटीबेरी
* बफेलोबेरी
* बहु सैम्बुकस प्रजाति- विशेष यानाः क्यानाडेन्सिस व सेरुलिया । ह्याउँगु एल्डरबेरी प्रजातियात सुरक्षित रुपं नये ज्यूगु कथं काइ मखु ।
* ह्याउँगु मुलबेरी
* हनिबेरी हनिसकलया छगू जक ज्ञात नयेगु प्रजाति खः ।

== थीथी बरां ==
* बरां (अराचिस†) कमारोड मूंगफली
* काजु (एनाकार्डियम†)
* अमेरिकन चेस्टनट
* पिकान (कार्या)
* हाकुगु ख्वसिं (जुग्लान्स)
* ब्राजिल नट [४२] (बर्थोलेटिया†)
* बटरनट [४३] बाय् तुयुगु वालनट (जुग्लान्स सिनेरिया)
* एकोर्नया यक्वं प्रजाति - क्वेर्कस ओक जीनसया पुसा
* अमेरिकन हेजलनट

== जरा तरकारी ==

* क्यामास - क्यामासियाया यक्व प्रजाति, गुकियात ह्यासिन्थ नं धाइ।
* कसाभा - म्यानिओक बाय् ट्यापियोका नं धाइ। अमेजनया मूलवासी । दक्षिण अमेरिका, मध्य अमेरिका व क्यारिबियनय् खेती याइ।
* भारतीय आलु - निगू आदिवासी प्रजातिया जरा - एपिओस अमेरिकन व एपिओस प्राइसेना
* जेरुसेलम आर्टिचोक - तःधंगु, नये ज्यूगु हा दुगु सूर्यमुखिया विशिष्ट प्रजाति ।
* लिलि बल्ब - लिलियम परिवारया यक्वं प्रजाति
* ओका - अक्सालिसया विशिष्ट प्रजाति, बाय् तःधंगु नयेगु जः दुगु वुड सोरेल ।
* तोबाको रु - (भेलेरियनया प्रजाति, धात्थेंगु तोबाको मखु)
* वापातो - स्याजितेरियाया अनेक प्रजाति
* जंगली प्याज - यक्वं आदिवासी प्रजाति, गथेकि र्याम्प्स व मीडो गार्लिक
* जंगली चाकुहि - इपोमोइयाया यक्वं आदिवासी प्रजातिया हा, गुकियात मर्निङ्ग ग्लोरी नं धाइ ।
* यम्पाह - पेरिडेरिडिया परिवारया यक्वं स्वांमा। हःयात मसलाया रुपय् नं छ्यली ।

== मेगु ==
* कोको  (थियोब्रोमा†)
* भ्यानिला  (भ्यानिला)
* जिकामा  (पाचिरहिजस†)
* सूर्यमुखी (हेलियान्थस†)
* एभोकाडो  (पर्सिया)
* अगाभे  (एगेभ†)
* कःनि व स्क्वास  (कुकुर्बिटा†)
* चायोते  (सेचियम†)
* चिया पुसा (साल्भिया): थ्व त्वनिगु च्या मखु
* मेपल सिरप 
* कस्तिया छुं प्रकार (मेलिपोना, एपिस नर्क्टिका)
* याउपोन (इलेक्स भोमिटोरिया)

== थ्व नं स्वयादिसँ ==

* [[कोलम्बियन हिलाः]]
* खाद्य उत्पत्तिया धलः
* न्हुगु हलिंया बालि

== लिधंसा ==

[[पुचः:नसात्वंसा]]</text>
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{{Infobox religious biography
|name = मैत्रीपाद 
|native_name = मैत्रीगुप्त
|native_name_lang = 
|image = Maitripa.JPG
|caption = 
|alias =
|dharma name =
|birth_date = [[सन् १००७]]
|birth_place = Jhatakarani, मगध (भारत) &lt;br /&gt;
|death_date = {{circa|1085 CE}}
|death_place = 
|nationality =
|religion = [[बुद्ध धर्म]]
|school = [[बज्रयान]]
|lineage =
|title = 
|location =
|education ={{plainlist|
* [[नालन्दा]]
* [[विक्रमशिला]]
}}
|teacher = 
|reincarnation of =
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'''मैत्रीपाद''' ( c. १००७–१०८५, '''मैत्रयनाथ''', '''अद्वयवज्र''', व, सँदेसय्  '''मैत्रीपा''' नामं म्हसीकातःम्ह, तान्त्रिक बौद्ध धर्मया महामुद्र संचरणनाप स्वापू दूगु छम्ह प्रमुख [[भारत|भारतीय]] [[बुद्ध धर्म|बौद्ध]] महासिद्ध ख।  वय्कःया गुरुपिं शवरिप (सबर नं धाइ, वय्कः [[नागार्जुन]]या शिषय ख) व नारोपा (वा नारोपाद) ख। &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; वय्कःया शिषयय् अतीश, मार्पा, वज्रपाणि, करोपा, नातेकार (सहजवज्र नं धाइ), देवाकरचन्द्र (शुन्यतासमाधि नं धाइ), व रामपाल ला। &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; वय्कःया तपोभूमि मिथिला क्षेत्रय् (तिरहुत), उत्तरी [[बिहार]] व दक्षिणी नेपालया जःलाखःला थासय् लाः। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Mahamudra and Related Instructions: Core Teachings of the Kagyu Schools|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzGyzKTZdU4C|date=17 May 2011|publisher=Simon and Schuster}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== प्रारम्भिक जीवन ==
सँदेय् व नेपाली स्रोत कथं मैत्रीपदया जन्म [[पाल राजवंश|पाल साम्राज्यया]] शासनकालय् कपिलवस्तुया लिक्कया छगू गामय् [[मगध|मगधय्]] [[ब्राह्मण]] परिवारय् जूगु खः । वय्कःयात जुजु [[महिपाल|महिपालया]] शासनया जःखः तया तःगु तारानाथया च्वसु कथं वय्कःया जन्म दँ सामान्यतया ई. १००७ धकाः तयातःगु दु । &lt;ref name=&quot;tatz87&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Life of the Siddha-Philosopher Maitrīgupta|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_october-december-1987_107_4/page/695|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=1987|volume=107|issue=4|pages=695–711|doi=10.2307/603308}}&lt;/ref&gt; बुद्ध धर्म स्वया न्ह्यः वय्कलं ७ दँ तक [[पाणिनि|पानिनी व्याकरण]] व हिन्दू ग्रन्थय् शिक्षा कयादिल।

शिक्षा लिपा वय्कलं नालन्दाया उत्तरी ध्वखाय् बौद्ध सिद्ध नारोपा नापलानादिल गुम्हेस्यां वय्कःयात बहस न्ह्यथनादिल। मैत्रीपाद बहसय् पराजित जुल व लिपा बौद्ध धर्म ग्रहण यात व आधुनिक [[बिहार|बिहारया]] [[नालन्दा]] व [[विक्रमशिला विश्वविद्यालय|विक्रमशीलया]] विहारय् भिक्षुया रुपय् च्वनादिल। थुपिं विहारय् च्वनादीबलय् वय्कःयात रत्नाकरशान्ति थेंज्याःपिं प्रख्यात गुरुपिन्सं शिक्षा बियादीगु खः । &lt;ref name=&quot;tatz87&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Life of the Siddha-Philosopher Maitrīgupta|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_october-december-1987_107_4/page/695|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=1987|volume=107|issue=4|pages=695–711|doi=10.2307/603308}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFTatz1987&quot;&gt;Tatz, Mark (1987). &quot;The Life of the Siddha-Philosopher Maitrīgupta&quot;. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society''. '''107''' (4): &lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;695–&lt;/span&gt;711. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/603308|10.2307/603308]]. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&amp;nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/603308 603308].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== नालन्दा व विक्रमशिलाया ई ===
मैत्रीपादया प्रारम्भिक विहार जीवन नालन्दाय् शुरु जुल गुकिया लिपा वय्कः विक्रमशिलाय् च्वनादिल गन वय्कः प्यदँ तक च्वनादिल। वय्कःयात उत्कृष्ट भिक्षुया रुपय् नांजाःगु खः धाःसा वय्कलं गोप्य रुपं [[तन्त्र|तन्त्रया]] अभ्यास नं यानादीगु खँ धाःगु दु।

मैत्रीपदं छुं ई विक्रमशिला त्वःताः वंगु सीदूगु दु यद्यपि थुकिया वास्तविक कारणया बारे थीथी मत दु। पद्म कार्पोया छगू विवरण कथं वय्कःया थः गुरु, रत्नाकरशान्ति नाप सैद्धान्तिक विवाद दयाच्वन गुम्हेस्यां योगाचर विचारधाराया व्याख्या यानादिल। &lt;ref name=&quot;tatz87&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Life of the Siddha-Philosopher Maitrīgupta|pages=695–711}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation journal cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFTatz1987&quot;&gt;Tatz, Mark (1987). &quot;The Life of the Siddha-Philosopher Maitrīgupta&quot;. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society''. '''107''' (4): &lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;695–&lt;/span&gt;711. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/603308|10.2307/603308]]. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]]&amp;nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/603308 603308].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व विवादया लिच्वः कथं रत्नाकरशान्तिं मैत्रीपदया चीबरया छुं भाग खुनादिल धाइ। नेपाःया स्रोत कथं थ्व विवाद लिपा बोधिसत्व अवलोकितेश्वरं मैत्रीपादया म्हगसय् वयाः भिक्षु जीवन त्याग यायेत आग्रह याःगु खँ कनातःगु दु । &lt;ref name=&quot;Mathes2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss|date=2021|publisher=Shambhala|pages=35–50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt;

अतीशया जीवनीया मेगु छगू विवरणय् उगु इलय् विक्रमशीलाया मू जुयाच्वंम्ह अतीशं वय्कःयागु क्वथाय् अय्लाः लुइकेधुंकाः वय्कःयात विहारं पितिना छ्वःगु विवरण बियातःगु दु । &lt;ref name=&quot;Mathes2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss|date=2021|publisher=Shambhala|pages=35–50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMathes2021&quot;&gt;Mathes, Klaus-Dieter (2021). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ ''Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss'']. Shambhala. pp.&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;35–&lt;/span&gt;50. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9781611806700|&lt;bdi&gt;9781611806700&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== लिपाया दँ ===
थ्व धुंका वय्कलं प्यला तक [[लःखः]] गयाः दक्षिण भारतया यात्रा यानादिल गन वय्कः शवरीपाया शिष्य जुयादिल गुम्हेस्यां वय्कःयात थीथी तान्त्रिक दीक्षा बियादिल। वय्कःया जीवनया लिपांगु ईले वय्कः उत्तर भारतय् लिहां वनादिल गन वय्कलं यक्व सफूत च्वयादिल गुकियात आः [[सँदेय्‌या बुद्ध धर्म|तिब्बती बौद्ध धर्मया]] ग्रन्थय् संरक्षित यानातःगु दु। &lt;ref name=&quot;Buswell2014&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|date=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|pages=519|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EGmYDwAAQBAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== दर्शन ==
मैत्रीपादया दर्शन माध्यमक व महामुद्रा दथुइ न्यनाच्वंगु खः । वय्कलं योगाचारयात उच्च सम्मान यानादीगु खनेदु व थःगु माध्यमकया व्याख्याया निंतिं थ्व छगू आवश्यक पलाः तायेकादिल। &lt;ref name=&quot;Mathes2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss|date=2021|publisher=Shambhala|pages=35–50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMathes2021&quot;&gt;Mathes, Klaus-Dieter (2021). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ ''Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss'']. Shambhala. pp.&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;35–&lt;/span&gt;50. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9781611806700|&lt;bdi&gt;9781611806700&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== बुलुहुँ लँपु व पारम्परिक अभ्यास ===
मैत्रीपादं पारम्परिक धर्म अभ्यासयात महामुद्राया अद्वैत प्रज्ञालिसे स्वायेगु महत्वयात बः बियादिल । वय्कलं उदारता, अनुशासन, धैर्यता, परिश्रम, व ध्यान थें न्याःगु परम्परागत अभ्यासया आवश्यकतायात आधारभूत गतिविधि (आदिकर्मन)या रुपय् स्वीकार यानादिल। थ्व अभ्यासत उच्च ज्ञानया निंतिं आधारशिला तयेगु निंतिं अत्यावश्यक जुइ व थ्व अभ्यासत अबले तक तयाःतयेमाः गुबले तक मनुखं बुद्धत्वया अवस्थाय् थ्यनी मखु। &lt;ref name=&quot;Mathes2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss|date=2021|publisher=Shambhala|pages=35–50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMathes2021&quot;&gt;Mathes, Klaus-Dieter (2021). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ ''Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss'']. Shambhala. pp.&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;35–&lt;/span&gt;50. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9781611806700|&lt;bdi&gt;9781611806700&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== आकाझाकां अनुभूति ===
तीक्ष्ण संकाय दुपिं अभ्यासकर्तातय्गु निंतिं मैत्रीं महामुद्राया प्रत्यक्ष दृष्टिकोणया वकालत यानादिल, गुकिं इमित विस्तृत तान्त्रिक संस्कारयात  त्वतेगु अनुमति बिल। थ्व दृष्टिकोणय् परम्परागत अभ्यासय् निर्भर मजुसे थःगु अन्तर्निहित आनन्द वा प्रज्ञा ( सहज ) प्रत्यक्ष रुपं प्राप्त यायेगु जुइ। वय्कलं थःगु अनुभूतियात अप्वः मूल्यांकन यायेगु व आधारभूत अभ्यासयात वास्ता मयायेगुपाखें ख्याच्वः बियादिल । &lt;ref name=&quot;Mathes2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss|pages=35–50}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMathes2021&quot;&gt;Mathes, Klaus-Dieter (2021). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ ''Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss'']. Shambhala. pp.&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;35–&lt;/span&gt;50. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9781611806700|&lt;bdi&gt;9781611806700&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== अमनसिकारया भूमिका ===
मैत्रीपाया चिन्तनया केन्द्रय् अमनसिकार वा अध्यान अवधारणा दु, गुकिलि साधारण द्वन्द्ववादी धारणायात पार याइगु अवैचारिक चेतनाया अवस्था दुथ्याइ। थ्व अभ्यास [[पारमिता|षड सिद्धिया]] व्यापक महायानया दुने दु व वास्तविक यथार्थयात साकार यायेत अत्यावश्यक दु। मैत्रीया अमनसिकार सम्बन्धी कृतिइ उन्नत ध्यान प्रविधिया नापनापं पारम्परिक धर्म प्रचलन नं कायम यायेमाःगु खँय् बः बियातःगु दु । &lt;ref name=&quot;Mathes2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss|date=2021|publisher=Shambhala|pages=35–50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMathes2021&quot;&gt;Mathes, Klaus-Dieter (2021). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ ''Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss'']. Shambhala. pp.&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;35–&lt;/span&gt;50. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9781611806700|&lt;bdi&gt;9781611806700&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== &quot;पागल आचरण&quot; व धात्थेंगु वास्तविकता ===
मैत्रीं चरम अभ्यास, गथेकि आत्मत्यागयात &quot;पागल आचरण&quot; (अनमत्तव्रत) धकाः वर्णन यानादिल । थ्व अभ्यास तर्कहीन खनेदःसां थ्व छम्ह अभ्यासकर्ताया वास्तविक यथार्थया गहन अनुभूतिया अभिव्यक्ति खः । थ्व आचरणयात सिंहया निर्भय गतिविधिलिसे तुलना यानातःगु दु, गुकिं यथार्थया स्वभावयात वाःचायेकेबलय् वइगु स्वतन्त्रता व निर्भयताया चिं खः । &lt;ref name=&quot;Mathes2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss|date=2021|publisher=Shambhala|pages=35–50|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;true&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFMathes2021&quot;&gt;Mathes, Klaus-Dieter (2021). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kMVNEAAAQBAJ ''Maitripa: India's Yogi of Nondual Bliss'']. Shambhala. pp.&amp;nbsp;&lt;span class=&quot;nowrap&quot;&gt;35–&lt;/span&gt;50. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&amp;nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9781611806700|&lt;bdi&gt;9781611806700&lt;/bdi&gt;]].&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== क्रमवादीया समालोचना ===
मैत्रीपादया शिष्य वज्रपाणीं अभ्यास याइपिन्त बुलुहुँ सत्य यथार्थयात अनुभूति याइपिं (माकः थें) व तत्काल हे अनुभूति याइपिं (क्वः थें) धकाः वर्गीकरण यानातःगु दु। स्वंगु वाहन (श्रावकयान, प्रत्येकबुद्धयान, व महायान)या शिक्षायात अस्थायी मानेयासें थुकियात पलाःपतिकं स्वयेमापिनिगु निंतिं दयेका तःगु दु धाःगु दु। मैत्रीपादं थःम्हेस्यां हे अभ्यास याइपिनिगु थीथी क्षमता पूवंकेत थीथी तत्वयात छथाय् तयाः अप्वः समावेशी शिक्षा बियादीगु खः ।

== च्वज्या ==
मैत्रीपादं साराहया बौद्ध ''दोहाय्'' टीका रचना यानादिल। वय्कःया दकलय् महत्त्वपूर्ण कृति &quot;गैर-वैचारिक अनुभूति&quot; ( अमनसिकार)या २६गु ग्रन्थया संग्रह ख। थ्व तिब्बती परम्पराय् महामुद्राया छगू मू भारतीय स्रोत ख। थ्व कृतिइ शून्यता व 'अस्थायी' ( अप्रतिस्थान), व बौद्ध तान्त्रिक अभ्यासया बौद्ध महायान शिक्षाया संश्लेषण स्यनि, व इमिसं जागरणया &quot;तत्काल&quot; लँपु नं स्यनि।  

मैत्रीपादया २६ ग्रन्थतेगु ''अमनसिकार'' चक्र थथे दु &lt;ref&gt;[https://www.dsbcproject.org/canon-text/book/374 संगणकीकृतं बौद्धसंस्कृतत्रिपिटकम्]&lt;/ref&gt; : 

* ''कुदृष्टिनिर्घातनम्'': शाक्यमुनि व विमलकीर्तिया खँ कनातःगु। पारमितात दान, शील, क्षमा वीर्य्य, ध्यान, प्रज्ञा, व सादरया खँ कनातःगु (दानं शीलं क्षमां वीर्य्यं ध्यानं प्रज्ञां च सादरम्।)। थ्व च्वखँया छगू दसु थथे दु: &quot;शून्यताकरुणाभिन्नं यद्बोधौ ज्ञानमिष्यते॥&quot; धयातःगु दु। [[शून्यता]] व [[करुणा]] अभिन्न जुइ, बोधौ (बोध ?) अवस्थाया ज्ञानय् थ्यनेबिले। 
* ''कुदृष्टिनिर्घातवाक्यटिप्पणीका'' 
* ''मूलापत्तयः'' 
* ''स्थूलापत्तयः'' 
* ''तत्त्वरत्नावली''  
* ''पञ्चतथागतमुद्राविवरणम्'' 
* ''सेकनिर्णयः वा सेकनिर्देश'' 
* ''चतुर्मुद्रा'' 
* ''सेकतान्वयसंग्रहः''  
* ''वज्रसत्व-पञ्चाकार'' 
* ''मायानिरुक्ति'' 
* ''स्वप्ननिरुक्ति'' 
* ''तत्त्वप्रकाश'' 
* ''अप्रतिष्ठानप्रकाशः'' 
* ''युगनद्धप्रकाशः'' 
* ''महासुखप्रकाशः'' 
* ''तत्त्वविंशिका'' 
* ''महायानविंशिका'' 
* ''निर्बेधपञ्चक''
* ''मध्यकषट्क'' 
* ''प्रेमपञ्चक''
* ''तत्त्वदशक'' 
* ''अमनसिकाराधारः'' 
* ''सहजसत्क'' 
* ''दोहानिधिनामतत्त्वोपदेस'' 
* ''शेष पा सप्र्रो ब्स्दु मेद पर् 'जोग पा 'इ मन ङग ग्सङ्ग बा दं पा । (सँदेय् भासय्)''

== थ्व नं स्वयादिसँ ==

* मार्पा 
* नरोपा 

== लिधंसा ==
{{Reflist}}

== पिनेया स्वापू ==
* [https://www.dsbcproject.org/search?keyword=%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0 अद्वयवज्रया च्वखँ]
* [https://www.dsbcproject.org/canon-text/content/791/2919 अद्वयवज्रया तत्त्वरत्नावली]
* [https://www.shambhala.com/maitripa.html ''मैत्रीपा : क्लाउस-डाइटर माथेसया च्वखँ'']१
[[पुचः:बुद्ध धर्म]]</text>
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[[Image:Acidimicrobium ferrooxidans.jpg|thumb]]
[[Image:Actinomycetes.jpg|thumb]]
[[Image:Atopobium parvulum.png|thumb]]

'''एक्टिनोमाइसेटोटा''' (वा '''एक्टिनोब्याक्टेरिया''' ) उच्च जीसी सामग्री दूगु ग्राम-पोजितिभ ब्याक्टेरियाया छगू विविध फाइलम ख। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Phylogenetic framework and molecular signatures for the main clades of the phylum Actinobacteria|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_microbiology-and-molecular-biology-reviews_2012-03_76_1/page/66|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=76|issue=1|pages=66–112|date=March 2012|pmid=22390973|doi=10.1128/MMBR.05011-11}}&lt;/ref&gt; थ्व फाइलमया ब्याक्टेरियापिं बँय् बाय् लखय् म्वाइपिं जुइफु । &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18003601&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Evidence excluding the root of the tree of life from the actinobacteria|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_2008-01_25_1/page/1|journal=Mol. Biol. Evol.|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–4|date=January 2008|pmid=18003601|doi=10.1093/molbev/msm249}}&lt;/ref&gt; चाया प्रणालिइ इमिगु योगदानया हुनिं भूमिया वनस्पतिया निंतिं इमिगु तःधंगु महत्व दु । चाय् इमिसं सीपिं जीवया कार्बनिक पदार्थयात अपघटन यायेत ग्वाहालि याइ गुकियात [[मा (बोट्यानी)|वनस्पतितेसं]] न्हुगु नसा कायेफइ। थ्व भूमिका [[फुसा|फंगसं]] नं म्हितीगु जूसां एक्टिनोमाइसेटोटा यक्व चिधं जु सम्भवतः थुमिसं छगू हे पारिस्थितिक थाय् काइमखु । थ्व भूमिकाय् कोलोनीइ प्रायः व्यापक माइसेलिया बुयावइ, फंगसया थें, व फाइलमया छगू महत्त्वपूर्ण क्रमया नां, एक्टिनोमाइसेटेल्स (एक्टिनोमाइसेट्स) ख गुकिलिं इमिगु ताःई न्ह्यःनिसें थ्व ब्याक्टेरियापिन्त फंगस धकाः विश्वास यानातःगु खँ क्यनि। बुँया छुं एक्टिनोमाइसेटोटा (दसु ''फ्रेन्किया'' ) वनस्पतिनाप सिम्बायोतिक रुपय् म्वाइ। थन्याःगु वनस्पतिया [[हा (मा)|जरा]] बुँइ व्याप्त जुइ, वनस्पतिं बीगु छुं [[शर्करा|सेकेराइडया]] बदलाय् वनस्पतिया निंतिं थ्व ब्याक्टेरियापिन्सं नाइट्रोजन तयार याइ । मेमेगु प्रजाति, गथेकि जीनस ''माइकोब्याक्टेरियमया'' यक्व दुजःत, महत्वपूर्ण प्याथोजेन ख।

एक्टिनोमाइसेटोटाया इमिगु बुँया भूमिकाया निंतिं तःधंगु भूमिका स्वया पिने, इमिगु बारेय् यक्व खँ सीके मफुनि। थौंकन्हय् मू रुपं चाया ब्याक्टेरिया धकाः थुइकूसां नं थुपिं खुसि व यचुगु लखय् अप्वः दयेफु। &lt;ref name=&quot;amazonMetagenome&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Metagenomics of the water column in the pristine upper course of the Amazon river}}&lt;/ref&gt; एक्टिनोमाइसेटोटा छगू प्रमुख ब्याक्टेरिया फाइला ख व थुकिलि ब्याक्टेरियाया दकलय् तःधंगु जेनेराय् छगू ''स्ट्रेप्टोमाइसेस'' दु। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|date=2010|chapter=Bacteria|title=Encyclopedia of Earth|publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment|location=Washington DC}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''स्ट्रेप्टोमाइसेस'' व मेमेगु एक्टिनोमाइसेटोटा चाया जैविक बफरिङय् मू योगदानकर्ता खः । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=November 2009|title=Antagonistic activities of local actinomycete isolates against rice fungal pathogens}}&lt;/ref&gt; इपिं यक्वं एन्टिबायोटिकया स्रोत नं खः । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022|title=Streptomyces: Still the Biggest Producer of New Natural Secondary Metabolites, a Current Perspective}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;j.bjid.2012.08.014&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2012|title=Antibiotics produced by Streptomyces}}&lt;/ref&gt;

मनूया मचातय्गु माइक्रोबायोमय् एक्टिनोमाइसेटोटा जीनस ''बिफिडोब्याक्टेरियम'' दकलय् साधारण ब्याक्टेरिया खः । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Diversity of bifidobacteria within the infant gut microbiota|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=7|issue=5|pages=e36957|date=2012-05-11|pmid=22606315|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0036957}}&lt;/ref&gt; वयस्क मनूतय्के बिफिडोब्याक्टेरिया म्हो जूसां आन्द्राया बिफिडोब्याक्टेरियां म्युकोसल ब्यारियरयात कायम यायेत व आन्द्राय् लिपोपोलिसेकराइड म्हो यायेत ग्वाहालि याइ । &lt;ref name=&quot;Pinzone-2012&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Microbial translocation in chronic liver diseases|journal=International Journal of Microbiology|volume=2012|pages=694629|pmid=22848224|doi=10.1155/2012/694629}}&lt;/ref&gt;

छुं दकलय् तःधंगु व जटिल ब्याक्टेरिया कोष एक्टिनोमाइसेटोटाय् लासां समुद्री एक्टिनोमरिनेल्सया पुचलय् दकलय् चिधंगु स्वतन्त्र-जीवित प्रोकार्योटिक कोष दूगु वर्णन यानातःगु दु। &lt;ref name=&quot;Actinomarina&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Metagenomics uncovers a new group of low GC and ultra-small marine Actinobacteria|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=3|year=2013|doi=10.1038/srep02471|pmid=23959135|pages=2471}}&lt;/ref&gt;

छुं [[साइबेरिया|साइबेरियन]] वा एन्टार्कटिक एक्टिनोमाइसेटोटा पृथ्वीया दकलय् पुलांगु जीवित जीव ख, थ्व जीव करिब न्यागू लख दँ न्ह्यः पर्माफ्रस्टय् जमे जुयाच्वंगु ख। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The oldest living organisms: ancient survivors with a fragile future}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The oldest living thing in the world}}&lt;/ref&gt; पर्माफ्रस्टया ६४० kya बाय् व स्वयां म्होया नमूनाय् कार्बन दाइअक्साइद  पिहां वःगु आधारय् जीवनया लक्षण खनेदु। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Ancient bacteria show evidence of DNA repair|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=104|pages=14401–14405|pmid=17728401|doi=10.1073/pnas.0706787104}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; |Whole-genome based phylogeny&lt;ref name=&quot;Nouioui&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|year=2018|title=Genome-Based Taxonomic Classification of the Phylum ''Actinobacteria''|journal=Front. Microbiol.|volume=9|pages=2007|pmid=30186281|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2018.02007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; |16S rRNA based LTP_12_2021&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=The LTP}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=LTP_all tree in newick format}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=LTP_12_2021 Release Notes}}&lt;/ref&gt;
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; |GTDB 08-RS214&lt;ref name=&quot;about&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=GTDB release 08-RS214}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;tree&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=bac120_r214.sp_label}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;taxon_history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Taxon History}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; |
{{Clade|{{clade
  |label1='''Actinomycetota'''
  |1={{clade
    |1=[[Rubrobacteria]]
    |2={{clade
      |1=[[Thermoleophilia]]
      |2={{clade
        |1=[[Coriobacteriia]]
        |2={{clade
          |1=[[Acidimicrobiia]]
          |2={{clade
            |1=[[Nitriliruptoria]]
            |2=[[Actinomycetia]]
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
     }}
  |label2=[[Outgroup (cladistics)|outgroup]]
  |2=[[Chloroflexota]]
   }}|style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%}}
|
{{Clade|{{clade
  |1=[[Rubrobacteria]]
  |2={{clade
    |1=[[Thermoleophilia]]
    |2={{clade
      |1=[[Coriobacteriia]]
      |2={{clade
        |1={{clade
          |1=[[Acidimicrobiia]]
          |2=[[Nitriliruptoria]]
           }}
        |2=[[Actinomycetia]]
         }}
       }}
     }}
   }}|style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%}}
|
{{clade|{{Clade
  |1={{Clade
    |1={{Clade
      |1=&quot;Humimicrobiia&quot;
      |2=&quot;Aquicultoria&quot;
       }}
    |2=[[Coriobacteriia]]
     }}
  |2={{Clade
    |1=&quot;Geothermincolia&quot;
    |2={{Clade
      |1={{Clade
        |1=[[Rubrobacteria]]
        |2=[[Thermoleophilia]]
         }}
      |2={{Clade
        |1=[[Acidimicrobiia]]
        |2={{Clade
          |label1=[[Actinomycetia]]
          |1={{Clade
            |1=[[Nitriliruptoridae]]
            |2=[[Actinobacteridae]]
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
     }}
   }}|style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%;width:300px}}
|}

== वर्गीकरण ==
थौंकन्हय् स्वीकृत वर्गीकरण लिस्त अफ प्रोकेरियोतिक नेम्स विद स्ट्यान्डिङ इन नोमेन्क्लेचर (LPSN)  व नेशनल सेन्टर फर बायोटेक्नोलोजी इन्फर्मेशन (NCBI) दूगु प्रोकार्योटिक नांया धलखय् आधारित दु। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&amp;id=201174&amp;lvl=3&amp;lin=f&amp;keep=1&amp;srchmode=1&amp;unlock|title=Actinobacteria|work=[[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI) taxonomy database}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* क्लास ? &quot; [[Syntrophaliphaticia|सिन्ट्रोफेलिफेटिसिया]] &quot; &lt;small&gt;कोरिग.&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;लिउ एट अल २०२०&lt;/small&gt;
* क्लास&quot; [[Aquicultoria|एक्विकुल्टोरिया]] &quot; &lt;small&gt;जिओ एट अल. २०२१&lt;/small&gt;
* क्लास&quot; [[Geothermincolia|जियोथर्मिनकोलिया]] &quot; &lt;small&gt;जिओ एट अल. २०२१&lt;/small&gt;
* क्लास&quot; [[Humimicrobiia|Humimicrobia]] &quot; &lt;small&gt;जिओ एट अल. २०२१&lt;/small&gt;
* क्लास एसिडिमाइक्रोबिया &lt;small&gt;नोरिस २०१३&lt;/small&gt;
* क्लास एक्टिनोमाइसेटिया &lt;small&gt;(स्टैकब्रांड एट अल। 1997) सलाम एट अल। २०२०&lt;/small&gt; ( नाइट्रीलिरुप्टोरिया &lt;small&gt;लुडविग एट अल २०१३&lt;/small&gt; )
** सबक्लास एक्टिनोब्याक्टेरिडे &lt;small&gt;स्ट्याकब्रान्ड, रेनी व वार्ड-रेनी १९९७&lt;/small&gt;
** सबक्लास नित्रिलिरुप्टोरिडे &lt;small&gt;कुराहाशी एट अल. २०१०&lt;/small&gt;
* क्लास कोरियोब्याक्टेरिया &lt;small&gt;कोनिग २०१३&lt;/small&gt; 
* क्लास रुब्रोब्याक्टेरिया &lt;small&gt;सुजुकी २०१३&lt;/small&gt;
* क्लास थर्मोलियोफिलिया &lt;small&gt;सुजुकी व व्हिटम्यान २०१३&lt;/small&gt;

== लिधंसा ==
{{Reflist|2}}

[[पुचः:ब्याक्टेरिया]]</text>
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[[Image:Chapmanes.jpg|thumb]]
[[Image:Colony of Micrococcus Prodigious Wellcome M0012595.jpg|thumb]]
[[Image:J.B. Buist, Primary orange vaccine cultivation Wellcome L0018731.jpg|thumb]]

{{Italic title}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Micrococcus_mucilaginosis_01.png
| image_caption = ''Micrococcus mucilaginosis''
| taxon = माइक्रोकोकस 
| type_species = ''[[Micrococcus luteus]]''
| type_species_authority = (Schroeter 1872) Cohn 1872 (Approved Lists 1980)
| authority = Cohn 1872
| subdivision_ranks = प्रजाति
| subdivision =
* ''[[Micrococcus aloeverae|M. aloeverae]]'' &lt;small&gt;Prakash et al. 2014&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Micrococcus antarcticus|M. antarcticus]]'' &lt;small&gt;Liu et al. 2000&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Micrococcus cohnii|M. cohnii]]'' &lt;small&gt;Rieser et al. 2013&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Micrococcus endophyticus|M. endophyticus]]'' &lt;small&gt;Chen et al. 2009&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Micrococcus flavus|M. flavus]]'' &lt;small&gt;Liu et al. 2007&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Micrococcus luteus|M. luteus]]'' &lt;small&gt;(Schroeter 1872) Cohn 1872 (Approved Lists 1980)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Micrococcus lylae|M. lylae]]'' &lt;small&gt;Kloos et al. 1974 (Approved Lists 1980)&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Micrococcus terreus|M. terreus]]'' &lt;small&gt;Zhang et al. 2010&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Micrococcus yunnanensis|M. yunnanensis]]'' &lt;small&gt;Zhao et al. 2009&lt;/small&gt;
}}

'''''माइक्रोकोकस''''' माइक्रोकोकेसी परिवारया [[ब्याक्टेरिया|ब्याक्टेरियाया]] छगू जीनस ख। ''माइक्रोकोकस'' लः, धू व चा नापं थी थी वातावरणय् खनेदइ । माइक्रोकोकीइ करिब ०.५ निसें ३ माइक्रोमिटर व्यास दूगु ग्राम-पोजिटिभ गोलाकार कोष दइ व थ्व कोष सामान्यतया टेट्राडय् खने दै। इपिं क्याटालेज पोजिटिभ, अक्सिडेज पोजिटिभ, इन्डोल नेगेटिभ व साइट्रेट नेगेटिभ जुइ। ''माइक्रोकोकसय्'' छगू पर्याप्त कोष पःखाः दइ, गुकिलि कोष द्रव्यमानया ५०% तक्क भाग दयेकी। ''माइक्रोकोकसया'' जीनोमय् ग्वानिन व साइटोसिन (जीसी) यक्व दै, गुकिलिं सामान्यतया ६५ निसें ७५% जीसी-सामग्री क्यनि। माइक्रोकक्साइय् प्रायः प्लाज्मिड (१ निसें १०० एमडीए आकारया) दइ गुकिलिं जीवयात उपयोगी लक्षण बी।

''माइक्रोकोकसया'' छुं प्रजाति, गथेकि ''एम. ल्युटस'' (म्हासु) व ''एम. रोजस'' (ह्याउँगु)तेत म्यानिटोल साल्ट अगरय् बुइकेबलय् म्हासु वा गुलाबी कोलोनी दयेकि। ''एम. ल्युटसया'' आइसोलेटं पाइरिडिन थें न्याःगु विषाक्त कार्बनिक प्रदूषकय् बुइकेबलय् राइबोफ्लेभिन अप्व उत्पादन याइगु खने दु। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Degradation of Pyridine by Micrococcus luteus Isolated from Soil}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== वर्गीकरण ==
सन् १९९५या [[थेंबा|हाइब्रिडाइजेसन]] अध्ययनं ''माइक्रोकोकस'' जीनस दुनेया प्रजातित निकट सम्बन्धित मजूगु संकेत बी, गुकिलिं ५०% अनुक्रम समानता जक क्यनि।  थुकिलिं छुं ''माइक्रोकोकस'' प्रजातित राइबोसोमल आरएनए विश्लेषणया आधारय् अन्ततः मेमेगु माइक्रोबियल जेनेराय् हाकनं वर्गीकृत जुइफु धका सुझाव बी।
 
उबलय् निसें क्वय् बियातःगु प्रजातियात हानं वर्गीकरण याःगु दु ।
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* &quot;M. amylovorus&quot; → ''[[Erwinia amylovora]]''.
* &quot;M. calcoaceticus&quot; → ''[[Acinetobacter calcoaceticus]]''.
* &quot;M. cinereus&quot; → ''[[Neisseria cinerea]]''.
* &quot;M. agilis&quot; → ''[[Arthrobacter agilis]]''.
* &quot;M. denitrificans&quot; → ''[[Paracoccus denitrificans]]''
* &quot;M. fulvus&quot; → ''[[Myxococcus fulvus]]''.
* &quot;M. gallicidus&quot; → ''[[Pasteurella multocida]]''.
* &quot;M. glutamicus&quot; → ''[[Corynebacterium glutamicum]]''.
* &quot;M. halobius&quot; → ''[[Nesterenkonia halobia]]''.
* &quot;M. halodenitrificans&quot; → ''[[Halomonas halodenitrificans]]''.
* &quot;M. hyicus&quot; → ''[[Staphylococcus hyicus]]''.
* &quot;M. indolicus&quot; → ''[[Peptoniphilus indolicus]]''.
* &quot;M. kristinae&quot; → ''[[Rothia kristinae]]''.
* &quot;M. lactis&quot; → ''[[Neomicrococcus lactis]]''.
* &quot;M. meningitidis&quot; → ''[[Neisseria meningitidis]]''.
* &quot;M. mucilaginosus&quot; → ''[[Rothia mucilaginosa]]''.
* &quot;M. niger&quot; → ''[[Peptococcus niger]]''.
* &quot;M. nishinomiyaensis&quot; → ''[[Dermacoccus nishinomiyaensis]]''.
* &quot;M. nitrosus&quot; → ''[[Nitrosococcus nitrosus]]''.
* &quot;M. pelletieri&quot; → ''[[Actinomadura pelletieri]]''.
* &quot;M. phosphoreus&quot; → ''[[Photobacterium phosphoreum]]''.
* &quot;M. pneumoniae&quot; → ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]''.
* &quot;M. prevotii&quot; {{small|Foubert and Douglas 1948}} → ''[[Anaerococcus prevotii]]''.
* &quot;M. roseus&quot; → ''[[Kocuria rosea]]''.
* &quot;M. saccharolyticus&quot; → ''[[Staphylococcus saccharolyticus]]''.
* &quot;M. sedentarius → ''[[Kytococcus sedentarius]]''.
* &quot;M. subflavus&quot; → ''[[Neisseria subflava]]''.
* &quot;M. varians&quot; → ''[[Kocuria varians]]''
{{div col end}}
१९८० या स्वीकृत धलखय् क्वय् बियातःगु नां दुमथ्याकू ।
 
थ्व नापं, जीटीडीबी (संशोधन २१४) ''माइक्रोकोकस टेरियस'' सम्भवतः ''सिट्रिकोकसय्'' लाःगु संकेत बी। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=GTDB GCF_900116905.1|url=https://gtdb.ecogenomic.org/genome?gid=GCF_900116905.1|quote=GTDB Taxonomy: d__Bacteria; p__Actinomycetota; c__Actinomycetia; o__Actinomycetales; f__Micrococcaceae; g__Citricoccus; s__Citricoccus terreus}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* &quot;M. candicans&quot;
* &quot;M. cryophilus&quot;
* &quot;M. diversus&quot;
* &quot;M. prodigiosus&quot;
* &quot;M. radiodurans&quot;
* &quot;M. radioproteolyticus&quot;
* &quot;M. sodonensis&quot;
{{div col end}}

== वातावरण ==
माइक्रोकक्साइयात मनूया छ्यंगु, पशु व दुरु, व बियरं अलग याःगु दु। थ्व लः, धू, चा नापं वातावरणया मेमेगु यक्व थासय् दइ। मनूया छ्यंगुलिइ च्वंगु ''एम. ल्युटसं'' चःतिइ दुगु यौगिकयात नवःगु गन्ध दुगु यौगिकय् हिलाबी । माइक्रोकक्साइ म्हो लः वा अप्वः चिया एकाग्रता दूगु वातावरणय् बांलाक बुयावयेफु, गुकिलि सिन्थेटिक कापतं दयेकूगु कासा वसः नं ला। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-37220208|title=Why does my exercise clothing smell?|work=[[BBC News]]|date=2016-08-31|accessdate=2016-08-31}}&lt;/ref&gt; अप्व मेसोफाइल ख ; गुलिं, गथेकि ''माइक्रोकोकस एन्टार्कटिकस'' (एन्टार्कटिकाय् लुयावःगु) साइक्रोफाइल खः ।

बीजाणु मदयेकीगु प्राणी जुसां, ''माइक्रोकोकस'' कोष ताःहाकःगु ई तक्क रेफ्रिजरेसन तापक्रमय् व पोषक तत्व-कमजोर अवस्थाय्  (दसु एम्बरय् सील यानातःगु अवस्था) म्वायेफु । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Damage and Survival of Bacteria during Freeze-Drying and during Storage over a Ten-Year Period|date=1963|url=http://www.microbiologyresearch.org/docserver/fulltext/micro/30/3/mic-30-3-395.pdf?expires=1468200461&amp;id=id&amp;accname=guest&amp;checksum=9C792195BB04A0B3EF6E16918C9146A5|accessdate=10 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Micrococcus luteus – Survival in Amber|url=https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/bio_fac/355}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ल्वय् उत्पन्न ==
''माइक्रोकोकस'' सामान्यतया छगू साप्रोट्रोफिक वा कमेन्सल जीवया रुपय् कायेगु या, यद्यपि थ्व छगू अवसरवादी प्याथोजेन जुइफु, विशेष यानाः बःमलाःगु प्रतिरक्षा प्रणाली दूपिं होस्टय्, दसु एचआईभी ल्वगित। &lt;ref name=&quot;Smith_1999&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Micrococcus folliculitis in HIV-1 disease|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-dermatology_1999-09_141_3/page/558|journal=Br J Dermatol|volume=141|issue=3|pages=558–61|year=1999|pmid=10583069|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2133.1999.03060.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''माइक्रोकोकसयात'' संक्रमणया कारणया रुपय् म्हसीकेत थाकुइफु, छाय् धाःसा थ्व जीव सामान्यतया छ्यंगुया माइक्रोफ्लोराय् दयाच्वनि, व थ्व जीनस ल्वेनाप स्वापू म्हो जक्क दइ। दुर्लभ अवस्थाय् ''माइक्रोकोकसया'' कारणं जुइगु पल्मोनरी इन्फेक्सनं इम्युनोकम्प्रोमाइज्ड ल्वगितेगु मृत्यु जूगु दु। माइक्रोकोकसाइ मेमेगु संक्रमणय् संलग्न जुइफु, गुकिलि रिकरेन्ट ब्याक्टेरेमिया, सेप्टिक शक, सेप्टिक आर्थराइटिस, इन्दोकार्दाइतिस, मेनिन्जाइटिस, व क्याभितेटिङ निमोनिया (इम्युनोसप्रेस्ड ल्वगि) आदि ला।

== औद्योगिक छ्यलाबुला ==
माइक्रोकक्साइ, एक्टिनोब्याक्टेरियाया मेमेगु यक्व प्रजाति थें, क्याटाबोलिक कथं बहुमुखी (भर्साताइल) जुइफु। इमिके असामान्य सब्स्ट्रेटया व्यापक झ्वः छ्येलेगु क्षमता दु, दसु पाइरिडिन, हर्बिसाइड, क्लोरिनयुक्त बाइफेनिल, व चिकं । &lt;ref name=&quot;Doddamani_2001&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Biodegradation of carbaryl by a Micrococcus species|url=https://archive.org/details/current-microbiology_2001-07_43_1/page/69|journal=Curr Microbiol|volume=43|issue=1|pages=69–73|year=2001|pmid=11375667|doi=10.1007/s002840010262}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Riboflavin Production during Growth of Micrococcus luteus on Pyridine|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_applied-and-environmental-microbiology_1992-10_58_10/page/3423|journal=Appl Environ Microbiol|volume=58|issue=10|pages=3423–3425|year=1992|pmid=16348793}}&lt;/ref&gt; इपिं मेमेगु यक्व वातावरणीय प्रदूषकया डिटक्सिफिकेशन बाय् बायोडिग्रेडेशनय् संलग्न जुइगु सम्भावना दु । &lt;ref name=&quot;Zhuang_2003&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|doi=10.1046/j.1472-765X.2003.01297.x|title=Importance of Gram-positive naphthalene-degrading bacteria in oil-contaminated tropical marine sediments|journal=Lett Appl Microbiol|volume=36|issue=4|pages=251–7|year=2003|pmid=12641721}}&lt;/ref&gt; मेमेगु ''माइक्रोकोकस'' आइसोलेटं थी-थी उपयोगी उत्पाद दयेकिगु या, गथेकि लुब्रिकेतिङ्ग चिकंया निंतिं लङ्ग-चेन (C21-C34) एलिफेटिक हाइड्रोकार्बन।

== लिधंसा ==
{{लिधंसा|}}

== पिनेया स्वापू ==

* केनयन कलेजय् [https://web.archive.org/web/20131027045425/http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Micrococcus माइक्रोबविकि]
[[पुचः:माइक्रोबायोलोजी]]
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    <title>रेनदियर</title>
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{{Speciesbox
| name = रेनदियर&lt;br /&gt;(क्यारिबु)
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|.62|0|refs=&lt;ref name=&quot;Kurt&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |first=Björn|last=Kurtén|year=1968|title=Pleistocene Mammals of Europe|pages=170–177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OsPBXSNL8ZkC&amp;pg=PA170|access-date=6 August 2013 |isbn=978-1-4128-4514-4 |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;|[[Chibanian]] to present}}
| image = Reinbukken på frisk grønt beite. - panoramio.jpg
| image_caption = नर्वेय् रेनदियर
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = &lt;ref name=&quot;iucn status 19 November 2021&quot;&gt;{{cite iucn |author=Gunn, A. |date=2016 |title=''Rangifer tarandus'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T29742A22167140 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T29742A22167140.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| status2 = G5
| status2_system = TNC
| status2_ref = &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=NatureServe Explorer 2.0 |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.103369/Rangifer_tarandus |website=explorer.natureserve.org |access-date=30 March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| parent_authority = [[Charles Hamilton Smith|C. H. Smith]], 1827
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)
| display_parents = 2
| taxon = Rangifer tarandus
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = [[#Species and subspecies|See text]], traditionally 1, but possibly up to 6
| range_map = Rangifer tarandus map.png
| range_map_caption = Reindeer range: North American (green), Eurasian (red), and introduced (orange)
}}


'''रेनदियर''' वा '''क्यारिबु''' {{Efn|In [[North American English]], known as '''caribou''' if wild and '''reindeer''' if domesticated&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/fun-facts-about-reindeer-and-caribou | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930165707/https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/fun-facts-about-reindeer-and-caribou | url-status=dead | archive-date=30 September 2019 | title=Fun Facts about Reindeer and Caribou | author=[[United States Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) | website=[[Food and Drug Administration]] | date=13 December 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;}} ( '''''Rangifer tarandus''''' )  सर्कमपोलर वितरण दूगु [[चलाचा|चलाचाया]] छगू प्रजाति ख, थ्व आर्कटिक, सबअर्कटिक, टुन्ड्रा, बोरियल, व उत्तरी युरोप, साइबेरिया व उत्तरी अमेरिकाया हिमाली क्षेत्रया मूलवासी ख।  थ्व जीनस '''''Rangifer''''' या छगू जक्क प्रतिनिधि प्रजाति ख। नकतिनिया अध्ययनं रेइनदियर व क्यारिबुयात ६ गू बिस्कं प्रजातिइ ब्वथलेगु सुझाव ब्यूगु दु ।

रेनदियर चाहिलामि व [[wiktionary:sedentary#Adjective|च्वनामि]] (छथासय् हे च्वनिगु प्राणी) निगुलिं ल्याखँय् खने दु, व इमिगु पुचःया आकार थी-थी क्षेत्रय् यक्व भिन्न जुइ। टुन्ड्रा उपप्रजाति तसकं ख्वाउँगुया निंतिं अनुकूलित जुइ, अले गुलिं ताःहाकःगु तापाः कथं चाहिलेत अनुकूलित जुइ।

रेनदियरया आकार व रंगय् दकलय् चिधंम्ह, स्वालबार्द रेनदियर ( ''R.'' ( ''t.'' ) ''platyrhynchus'' ) निसें दकलय् तःधंम्ह ओस्बोर्नया क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. osborni'' ) तक्कया आकार व रंगय् यक्व पाः। ल्याखनय् रेनदियरत यक्व दुसां छुं प्रजाति व उपप्रजातित म्हो जुयाच्वंगुलिं थ्व प्राणी जोखिमय् लानाच्वंगु प्राणीया धलखय् दुथ्याः। इपिं चलाचा (Cervidae) दथुइ छगू जक थन्याःगु विशिष्ट प्राणी ख गनकि मिसातय्के नेकू दयेफु, यद्यपि नेकू दुपिं मिसातेगु ल्या उपप्रजाति कथं पाः।

हलिमय् तःधंगु मात्राय् सुथांलाक्क छुं भचा लहिने फूगु छगू जक चलाचा थ्व हे खः। प्रागैतिहासिक कालं निसें आर्कटिक मनुतेगु निंतिं गुंइ व छेँखा निगुलिं रेनदियर नसा, वसः व बासया छगू महत्त्वपूर्ण स्रोत जुयाच्वंगु दु। थौं नं इमित पुचलय् तयेगु व शिकार यायेगु ज्या न्ह्याच्वंगु दु । &lt;ref name=&quot;Burch&quot;&gt;&quot;In North America and Eurasia the species has long been an important resource — in many areas ''the'' most important resource — for peoples inhabiting the northern boreal forest and tundra regions.&quot; (Banfield 1961:170; Kurtén 1968:170) {{Cite journal|author=Ernest S. Burch Jr.|title=The Caribou/Wild Reindeer as a Human Resource|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquity_1972-07_37_3/page/339|journal=American Antiquity|volume=37|issue=3|year=1972|pages=339–368|doi=10.2307/278435}}&lt;/ref&gt; छुं परम्परागत क्रिसमसया किम्बदन्तिइ सान्ता क्लजया रेनदियरं क्रिसमसया पूर्व-चान्हय् बांलाःपिं मस्तय्त सिरपा थ्यंकेत सान्ता क्लजयात ग्वाहालि यायेत चान्हय् सर्गतय् स्लेज सालिगु याइ।

== विवरण ==
थ्व प्राणीया नां नकतिनिया संशोधन &lt;ref name=&quot;Harding-2022&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Harding|first=Lee E.|date=2022-08-26|title=Available names for ''Rangifer'' (Mammalia, Artiodactyla, Cervidae) species and subspecies|url=https://archive.org/details/availablenamesr1119hard|journal=ZooKeys|issue=1119|pages=117–151|doi=10.3897/zookeys.1119.80233|pmid=36762356|issn=1313-2970}}&lt;/ref&gt; न्ह्यः अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय नियमनया   आधारय् जुल। रेनदियर / क्यारिबु ( ''Rangifer'' ) आकार कथं दकलय् चिधँम्ह, स्वालबार्ड रेनडियर ( ''R.'' ( ''t.'' ) ''platyrhynchus'' ), दकलय् तःधंम्ह, ओस्बोर्नया क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. osborni'' ) तक्कया आकारय् दइ। इमिगु म्हया छ्येंगु उं व नेकूया संरचना पाः।

क्यारिबुया उत्तरी अमेरिकी झ्वः अलास्का निसें युकोन, उत्तरपश्चिमी क्षेत्र व नुनावुत टुन्ड्रा, ताइगा (बोरियल गुं) व दक्षिणय् क्यानाडाया [[रक्की पर्वत|रकी पर्वः]] जुया विस्तारित जुयाच्वंगु दु। &lt;ref name=&quot;Eder2011&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|author=Eder|title=Mammals of Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/mammalsofcanada0000eder|year=2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; हार्डिङ (२०२२) नं आर्कटिक क्यारिबु ( ''R. arcticus'' )य् वर्गीकृत याःगु ८गु उपप्रजातिइ आर्कटिक अलास्का व उत्तरी क्यानाडाया प्रवासी मूभूमि ब्यारन-ग्राउन्द क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. arcticus'' ), टुन्ड्राय् ताहालाः व टाइगाय् चिकुला, छगू संक्रमणकालीन गुं लागा व बोरियलया निंतिं दथुइ; चाहिलामि पेरी क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. pearyi'' ) उच्च आर्कटिक द्वीपसमूहया ध्रुवीय मरुभूमिइ च्वनि व ग्रान्टया क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. granti गुकियात'' पोर्क्युपाइन क्यारिबु नं धाइ ) अलास्का प्रायद्वीपया पश्चिमी छ्याकः व नापंया टापुइ च्वनि; मेगु प्यंगु उपप्रजाति, ओस्बोर्नया क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. osborni'' ), स्टोनया क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. stonei'' ), रकी माउन्टेन क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. fortidens'' ) व सेल्किर्क माउन्टेन क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. montanus'' ) फुक्कं [[wiktionary:montane|मोन्टेन]] ख। विलुप्त द्वीपीय क्वीन शार्लोट टापुया क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. dawsoni'' ), हैदा ग्वाइ (न्हापा क्वीन शार्लोट टापुया नामं म्हसीकिगु)या ग्राहम टापुइ च्वनाच्वंगु ख।

बोरियल वुडल्याण्ड क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. caribou'' ), उत्तरपूर्वी क्यानाडाया बोरियल वनय् च्वनि: उत्तरी क्वेबेक व उत्तरी लाब्राडोरया लाब्राडोर वा उंगाभा क्यारिबु ( ''R. t. caboti'' '')'', व न्यूफाउन्डल्याण्डया न्यूफाउन्डल्याण्ड क्यारिबु जीनेतिक रुपं वुदल्यान्द क्यारिबुया वंशज जूगु खनेदु। &lt;ref name=&quot;Cronin-2003&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Cronin|first=Matthew A.|date=2003|title=Genetic variation in caribou and reindeer (''Rangifer tarandus'')|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_animal-genetics_2003-02_34_1/page/33|journal=[[Animal Genetics]]|volume=34|issue=1|pages=33–41|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2052.2003.00927.x|pmid=12580784}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

युरेसियाय् गुँमि व लहिना नितां रेनदियर टुन्ड्रा पार यानाः ताइगाय् दयाच्वंगु दु । युरेसियाली गुं रेनदियर ( ''R. t. tarandus'' ) आनुवंशिक व म्ह-रुपया आधारय् उत्तर अमेरिकी क्यारिबुया लिक्क ला, तर इपिं निगु प्रजातिइ ब्वथले गाक्क पाः। अद्वितीय, द्वीपीय स्वालबार्ड रेनदियर स्वालबार्ड द्वीपसमूहय् च्वनि। फिनिश गुं रेनदियर ( ''R. t. fennicus'' ) फिनल्याण्डं [[बैकाल पुखू|बैकाल पुखुया]] पूर्व तक्कया कोनिफेरस वन क्षेत्रय् आकाझाका दयाच्वंगु दु : साइबेरियन गुं रेनदियर ( ''R. t. valentinae'', न्हापा बुस्क माउन्टेन रेनदियर वा ( ''R. t. buskensis'') नामं अमेरिकन ट्याक्सोनोमिस्ट द्वारा म्हसीकातःगु) अल्ताइ व युराल पर्वतय् दयाच्वंगु दु।

मिजं (&quot;द्वहं&quot;) व मिसा (&quot;सा&quot;) रेनदियरं दँय् दँसं नेकू बुइकेफु, यद्यपि नेकू बुइकीपिं मिसातेगु अनुपात जनसंख्याया दथुइ यक्व भिन्न जुइ।  मिजंतय्के सामान्यतया नेकू तःधं जुइ । नेकू संरचना प्रजाति व उपप्रजाति कथं पाइ व पेलेजया भिन्नता नापं प्रायः प्रजाति व उपप्रजातिया दथुइ म्हसीकेत छ्येलेछिं । &lt;ref name=&quot;Geist1998&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Geist|first=Valerius|year=1998|title=Deer of the world: their evolution, behavior, and ecology|location=Mechanicsburg, PA|publisher=Stackpole Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcWZX-IMEVkC}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== प्रजाति व उपप्रजाति ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|+रेन्जिफरया आः दयाच्वंगु प्रजाति व उपप्रजाति
! width=&quot;9.5%&quot; |प्रजाति&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(१-प्रजाति त्याक्सोनोमी)
! width=&quot;10%&quot; |प्रजाति&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(६--प्रजाति त्याक्सोनोमी){{Efn|The 6-species taxonomy is based on a revision by Harding (2022).&lt;ref name=&quot;Harding-2022&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Harding-2022-2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Harding-2022-3&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Harding |first=Lee E. |date=2022b |title=Genetic distance |url=https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/80233/download/suppl/32/}} Supplementary file 2 for {{harvp|Harding|2022}}.&lt;/ref&gt;}}
! width=&quot;12.5%&quot; |उपप्रजाति
! width=&quot;12.5%&quot; |नां
! width=&quot;13%&quot; |च्वनामि/ चाहिलामि
! width=&quot;14.5%&quot; |रेञ्ज
! width=&quot;13.5%&quot; |ल्याम्ह मिजंया तौल
! width=&quot;14.5%&quot; |Type locality / स्पेसिमेन
|-
| rowspan=&quot;19&quot; |''R. tarandus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Linnaeus, 1758)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''रेनदियर '' बाय्''क्यारिबु''
| rowspan=&quot;8&quot; |''R. arcticus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Richardson, 1829&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''ब्यारेन-ग्राउन्द क्यारिबु''
|[[किपा:Barren_ground_caribou_grazing_with_autumn_foliage_in_background.jpg|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;'' R. t. arcticus'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. a. articus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Richardson, 1829)
|ब्यारेन ग्राउन्द क्यारिबु 
|चाहिलामि
|उच्च आर्कतित टापू (नुनाभुत व नर्थवेस्तर्न तेरितरिज, क्यानादा व पश्चिमी ग्रीनल्यान्द (दक्षिणपश्चिम क्षेत्र त्वताः)
|150 kg (330 lb)
|&quot;Fort Enterprise, Winter Lake, Mackenzie District, N.W.T., Canada&quot; given by Allen 1908; Neotype no. 22066 (for the species)
|-
|[[किपा:Caribou.jpg|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. arcticus'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. a. arcticus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Richardson, 1829)
|पर्कुपाइन क्यारिबु (ब्यारेन ग्राउन्द क्यारिबुया छगू इकोताइप)
|चाहिलामि
|ताहालाय् उत्तरी युकोन पर्वत व तटीय ख्यः; चिकुलाय् बोरियल गुं, [[अलास्का]] व युकोन
|मेमेगु उपप्रजाति थें हे
|
|-
|''R. t. fortidens'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. a. fortidens''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Hollister, 1912)
|[[रकी माउन्तेन क्यारिबु]]
|चिहाकःगु चाहिला: ताहालाय् अल्पाइन गुं व चिकुलाय् लोल्यान्द गुं 
|the Canadian [[रक्की पर्वत]]
|&quot;Largest of the caribou, exceeding in measurements the largest specimens of ''Rangifer osborni'' and ''Rangifer montanus''.&quot;
|&quot;head of Moose Pass branch of the Smoky River, Alberta (north-east of Mount Robson)&quot;; USNM No. 174505
|-
|''R. t. granti'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. a. granti''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Allen, 1902)
|ग्रान्तया क्यारिबु
|sedentary (makes short movements to seasonal habitats)&lt;ref name=&quot;Allen1902&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=J. A.|title=A new caribou from the Alaska Peninsula|url=https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/handle/2246/1666//v2/dspace/ingest/pdfSource/bul/B016a10.pdf?sequence=1&amp;isAllowed=y}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Rp|127}}
|the western end of the Alaska Peninsula and the adjacent islands&lt;ref name=&quot;Allen1902&quot; /&gt;{{Rp|127}}
|
|&quot;Western end of Alaska Peninsula, opposite Popoff Island, Alaska&quot;; AMNH no. 17593&lt;ref name=&quot;Allen1902&quot; /&gt;{{Rp|122}}
|-
|[[किपा:1999Mt-Caribou002_crop-AI.jpg|alt=Selkirk Mountain caribou|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. montanus'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. a. montanus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Seton-Thompson, 1899)
|[[सेल्कर्क माउन्तेन्स क्यारिबु]]
|twice-yearly altitudinal movements
|the Columbia Mountains (specifically the Selkirk, Purcell and Monashee Mountains) in British Columbia, Canada and [[वाशिंग्तन (राज्य)|Washington]], [[आइदाहो|Idaho]] and [[मोन्ताना|Montana]], United States
|देता मदु
|&quot;Illecillewaet watershed, near Revelstoke, Selkirk Range, B. C.&quot;; NMC no. 232
|-
|[[किपा:Pink-Mt009crop-AI.jpg|alt=Osborn's caribou|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. osborni'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. a. osborni''{{Efn|** &lt;text missing&gt;}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Allen, 1902)[d]&lt;ref name=&quot;Geist&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Geist|first=Valerius|year=2007|title=Defining subspecies, invalid taxonomic tools, and the fate of the woodland caribou}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|[[Osborn's caribou]]
|short migrations: summers in alpine forest and winters in lowland muskeg
|ब्रिटिश कोलम्बिया, क्यानादा
|males up to 340 kg (750 lb)
|&quot;Cassiar Mountains, British Columbia; AMNH no. 15714
|-
|[[किपा:Peary_caribou_-_Bathurst_Island.jpg|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. pearyi'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. a. pearyi''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Allen, 1902)&lt;ref name=&quot;Banfield_1961&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Banfield|first=Alexander William Francis|year=1961|title=A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer|url=https://archive.org/details/revisionofreinde0000banf}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|पियरी क्यारिबु
|an island population that makes local movements both within and among islands
|the High Arctic islands (except for Baffin Island) of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, Canada
|smallest North American subspecies: males average 70 kg (150 lb)
|&quot;एलस्मेर ल्यान्द &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Ellesmere Island&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;, N. Lat. 79⁰&quot;; AMNH no. 19231
|-
|''R. t. stonei'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. a. stonei''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Allen, 1901)
|[[स्तोन्स क्यारिबु]]
|altitudinal movements
|दक्षिण [[अलास्का]]या पर्वः व दक्षिणपूर्वी युकोन \
|देता मदु
|&quot;केनाइ प्रायद्वीप, [[अलास्का|अलास्का]]&quot;; AMNH no. 16701
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |''R. caribou''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Gmelin, 1788)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''woodland caribou''
|[[किपा:Woodland_Caribou_Southern_Selkirk_Mountains_of_Idaho_2007.jpg|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. caribou'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. c. caribou''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Gmelin, 1788)
|boreal woodland caribou&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
|sedentary (makes short movements to seasonal habitats)
|the boreal forests of northeastern Canada&lt;ref name=&quot;HBW&quot; /&gt;
|males average 180 kg (400 lb), up to 272 kg (600 lb)
|Type locality amended to &quot;eastern Canada&quot; (Miller Jr. 1912); NMC Neotype no. 4800
|-
|[[किपा:Caribou_Rangifer_tarandus_caribou_(47796957741).jpg|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. caboti'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. c. caboti''[c]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(G. M. Allen, 1914)&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3&quot; /&gt;{{Efn|Banfield rejected this classification in 1961. However, Geist and others considered it valid. Bangs (1896) is invalid as a taxonomic authority, as his two-page pamphlet was not published.&lt;ref name=&quot;Harding-2022&quot;/&gt;}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Geist&quot; /&gt;
|[[Labrador caribou]] or Ungava caribou
|migratory (except for the Torngat Mountain population DU10)
|northern Quebec and northern Labrador, Canada
|no data
|&quot;Thirty miles north of Nachvak &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Torngat Mountains&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;, northeast coast of Labrador&quot;, MCZ No. 15,372
|-
|[[किपा:Woodland_Caribou,_Newfoundland.jpg|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. terranovae'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. c. terranovae''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Allen, 1896)&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3&quot; /&gt;[d]&lt;ref name=&quot;Geist&quot; /&gt;
|[[Newfoundland caribou]]
|
|Newfoundland, Canada
|139.6&amp;nbsp;kg (3 adult males)&lt;ref name=&quot;Fong1982&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fong|first=D. W.|title=Immobilization of caribou with etorphine plus acepromazine|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3808683}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|&quot;Grand Lake, Newfoundland&quot;; AMNH 11775
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |''R. fennicus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Lönnberg, 1909&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''forest reindeer''
|[[किपा:Finnish_forest_reindeer_(Rangifer_tarandus_fennicus).jpg|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. fennicus'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. f. fennicus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Lönnberg, 1909)
|Finnish forest reindeer
|migratory
|northwestern [[रुस|Russia]] and [[फिनल्यान्ड|Finland]]&lt;ref name=&quot;HBW&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sami&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Reindeer|publisher=University of Texas|url=http://www.utexas.edu/courses/sami/diehtu/siida/reindeer/Reindeer/reindeer_main.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|150–250 kg (330–550 lb)
|&quot;Torne District [in Enontekiö&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;, Finnish Lappland&quot;; NR No. 4661, Stockholm
|-
|''R. t. valentinae'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. f. valentinae''[c]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Flerov, 1933)&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3&quot; /&gt;
|[[Siberian forest reindeer]]
|altitudinal migration
|the Ural Mountains, Russia and the Altai Mountains, [[मंगोलिया|Mongolia]]&lt;ref name=&quot;HBW&quot; /&gt;
|no data
|&quot;Head of Chulyshman River, North-Eastern Altai, [[साइबेरिया|Siberia]]&quot;; skin ZMASL no. 22599, skull no. 10214
|-
|''R.&amp;nbsp;groenlandicus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Borowsky, 1780)
|[[किपा:Kangerlussuaq_à_Sissimiut_9_Renne_Groenland_2009_Expédition_ACarré.JPG|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. groenlandicus'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. groenlandicus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Borowsky, 1780){{Efn|Although most taxonomic authorities over the years recognized &quot;Greenland Caribou&quot; as a distinct subspecies, several gave the name as a subspecies of ''Cervus [Rangifer] tarandus'' for North American barren-ground caribou, ''groenlandicus'' having priority over other names. The name dates from George Edwards (1743),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Edwards, George |year=1743 |title=A natural history of uncommon birds, and of some other rare and undescribed animals, quadrupedes, reptiles, fishes, insects, etc. Exhibited in two hundred and ten copper-plates, from designs copied immediately from nature, and curiously coloured after life, with a full and accurate description of each figure. Part I |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryu00Edwa |place=London |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.115782}}&lt;/ref&gt; who claimed to have seen a male specimen (&quot;head of perfect horns...&quot;) from Greenland and said that a Captain Craycott had brought a live pair from Greenland to England in 1738.}}
|Western Greenlandic Caribou or reindeer
|sedentary
|four small areas in southwestern Greenland
|no data
|&quot;Greenland&quot; 
|-
|''R. platyrhynchus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Vrolik, 1829)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''Svalbard reindeer''
|[[किपा:Svalbardrein_pho.jpg|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. platyrhynchus'' or&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. platyrhynchus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Vrolik, 1829)
|Svalbard reindeer
|an island population that makes local movements both within and among islands
|the Svalbard Archipelago of [[नर्वे|Norway]]&lt;ref name=&quot;HBW&quot; /&gt;
|smallest of the reindeer; has extremely short legs
|&quot;Spitzbergen&quot;; Neotype no. M2625, Oslo
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |''R. tarandus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Linnaeus, 1758)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''tundra reindeer'' or ''mountain reindeer''
|''R. t. pearsoni''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Lydekker, 1903)&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3&quot; /&gt;
|[[Novaya Zemlya reindeer]]
|an island population that makes local movements both within and among islands
|the Novaya Zemlya and New Siberia Archipelagoes of Russia and Wrangel Island, Russia&lt;ref name=&quot;HBW&quot; /&gt;
|no data
|&quot;Island of Novaya Zemlya&quot;; type specimen &quot;In the possession of H. J. Pearson, Esq., Bramcote, Nottinghamshire, England&quot; (Flerov, 1933).
|-
|''R. t. phylarchus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Hollister, 1912)&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3&quot; /&gt;
|[[Kamchatkan reindeer]]
|
|restricted to the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia, after those reindeer west of the Sea of Okhotsk were found to actually be ''R. t. sibiricus''&lt;ref name=&quot;HBW&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Rozhkov-2020&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rozhkov|first=Yu.I.|title=Генетическая Дифференциация Северного Оленя ''Rangifer tarandus'' L. По Пространству Евразии В Связи С Особенностями Его Деления На Подвиды}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|no data
|&quot;Southeastern Kamchatka [Kamchatka]&quot;; USNM No. 21343
|-
|''R. t. sibiricus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Murray, 1866)&lt;ref name=&quot;MSW3&quot; /&gt;
|[[Siberian tundra reindeer]]
|long-distance migrations
|[[साइबेरिया|Siberia]], Russia,&lt;ref name=&quot;HBW&quot; /&gt; Franz Josef Land during the Holocene from &gt;6400–1300 cal. BP (from where it has been extirpated)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Holocene occurrence of reindeer on Franz Josef Land, Russia|last=Forman|first=S. L.}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|no data
|&quot;[[साइबेरिया|Siberia]]. ...eastward of the River Lena&quot;; Type specimen of ''sibiricus'' unknown; however, Jacobi (1931) deposited a type specimen of &quot;''asiaticus''&quot; in the Museum of Leningrad (ZMASL), Buturlin coll. no. 240-1908
|-
|[[किपा:Reinbukken_på_frisk_grønt_beite._-_panoramio.jpg|180x180px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''R. t. tarandus''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Linnaeus, 1758)
|mountain reindeer or Norwegian reindeer
|migratory
|the Arctic tundra of the Fennoscandian Peninsula in [[नर्वे|Norway]]&lt;ref name=&quot;HBW&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sami&quot; /&gt; and the Austfirðir in Iceland (where it has been introduced)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.tinna-adventure.is/reindeer-iceland/|title=Reindeer In Iceland}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|no data
|Scandinavia
|}

===लोप जूगु प्रजाति===
संक्षिप्त रुप :
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|+''रेन्जिफरया'' लोप जुइधुंकूगु उपप्रजाति
! उपप्रजाति
! साधारण नां
! ब्वथला
! style=&quot;min-width:110px; width:30%&quot; | सीमा
! मिजंया तौल
! ११३६ निसें विलुप्त जुल ।
|-
| ''आर टी. इओग्रोएनलान्डिकस''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; (डेगरबोल, १९५७) &lt;ref name=&quot;eogroenlandicus&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The extinct reindeer of East-Greenland: ''Rangifer tarandus eogroenlandicus'', subsp. nov.: compared with reindeer from other Arctic regions|volume=10|year=1957|journal=Acta Arctica|pages=1–57}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| †पूर्वी ग्रीनल्याण्ड क्यारिबु&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; बाय् आर्कटिक रेनदियर
| टुन्ड्रा
| पूर्वी ग्रीनल्याण्ड
| डाटा मदु
| १९००
|-
| ''आर टी. डौसोनी'' बाय्&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; ''आर'' ''ए. डौसोनी''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; (थम्पसन-सेटन, १९००) &lt;ref name=&quot;Banfield_1961&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Banfield|first=Alexander William Francis|year=1961|title=A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer|url=https://archive.org/details/revisionofreinde0000banf}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| † क्वीन शार्लोट टापुया क्यारिबु&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; बाय् डसनया क्यारिबु
| वनभूमि (गुं-चलाचा)
| ब्रिटिश कोलम्बियाया तटय् लाःगु हैदा ग्वाइया ग्राहम टापु, क्यानाडा (न्हापा क्वीन शार्लोट टापुया नामं म्हसीकातःगु)
| डाटा मदु
| १९०८
|-
| ''आर टी. सेटोनि'' बाय्&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; ''आर'' ''. एफ. सेटोनि''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; फ्लेरोभ, १९३३
| †सखालिन चलाचा
| टुन्ड्रा
| रुसया ओखोत्स्क सागरय् सखालिन
| डाटा मदु
| २००७ ?
|}

==स्वयादिसँ==
* [[चलाचा]]

==लिधंसा==
{{लिधंसा|}}

[[पुचः:पेपांचू]]</text>
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      <text bytes="19048" sha1="bk94eyzb9o2ixqfmxvqkivnrx5qqz3f" xml:space="preserve">{{देवनागरी|अंग्रेजी भाषा}}

[[Image:Beowulf Cotton MS Vitellius A XV f. 132r.jpg|thumb|Manuscript (written in [[uncial script]]]]
[[Image:Great Vowel Shift2a.svg|thumb|Illustration of the [[Great Vowel Shift]]]]

{{Infobox Language
| name=𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑑆𑐷 
| familycolor=Indo-European
| pronunciation=/ɪŋglɪʃ/
| states= [[𑐀𑐳𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐮𑐶𑐫𑐵]],&lt;/br&gt; [[𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐡𑐵]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐐𑐞𑐟𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐁𑐫𑐬𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡]],&lt;/br&gt; [[𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐸 𑐖𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡]],&lt;/br&gt; [[𑐧𑐾𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐟]],&lt;/br&gt; [[𑐳𑑄𑐫𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐵]],&lt;/br&gt; 𑐰 𑐩𑐾𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐾𑐫𑑂&lt;br /&gt;
| speakers=𑐩𑐵𑑄𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂: 354 million&lt;ref&gt;[[Guinness World Records]] 2006&lt;/ref&gt; 
| rank= 4 as a native language;&lt;br /&gt;2 in overall speakers
| fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
| fam5=[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| script=[[Latin alphabet]]
| nation=''De jure, exclusive'': [[𑐮𑐵𑐂𑐧𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐫]], &lt;/br&gt;𑐠𑐷𑐠𑐷 𑐎𑐩𑐣𑐰𑐾𑐮𑑂𑐠 𑐡𑐾𑐫𑑂 &lt;br /&gt;''De jure, non-exclusive'': [[𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐜𑐵]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐴𑐒𑑂𑐐 𑐎𑐒𑑂𑐐]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐁𑐫𑐬𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐳𑐵𑐄𑐠 𑐀𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐵]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐨𑐵𑐬𑐟]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐥𑐵𑐎𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐵𑐣]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐦𑐶𑐮𑐶𑐥𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐳]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐳𑐶𑑄𑐐𑐵𑐥𑑀𑐬]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐂𑐖𑐬𑐵𑐫𑐮]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐎𑑀𑐳𑑀𑐨𑑀]],&lt;/br&gt; [[𑐫𑐸𑐬𑑀𑐥𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐫𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣]] &lt;br /&gt;''De facto, exclusive'': [[𑐀𑐳𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐮𑐶𑐫𑐵]] &lt;br /&gt;''De facto, non-exclusive'': [[𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐸 𑐖𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐧𑐾𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐟]], &lt;/br&gt;[[𑐳𑑄𑐫𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐵]]
| iso1=en|iso2=eng|iso3=eng
|map=[[𑐎𑐶𑐥𑐵:Detailed SVG map of the Anglophone world.svg|center|frameless|upright=1.5]]&lt;center&gt;&lt;small&gt;𑐐𑐵𑐝𑐵 𑐰𑐔𑐸: &lt;/br&gt;𑐡𑐶 𑐦𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑀 𑐁𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎, &lt;/br&gt;𑐫𑐵𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐔𑐸: 𑐳𑐴-𑐁𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
}}

'''𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷''' 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩 𑐖𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑑅 𑐊𑐒𑑂𑐐𑑂𑐮𑑀-𑐳𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐣𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐩𑐢𑑂𑐫𑐎𑐵𑐮𑐷𑐣 𑐂𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑑂𑐴𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐳𑐵𑑄 𑐁𑑅 𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐒𑑂𑐐𑐸𑐁 𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐵 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸। &lt;ref&gt;[[#refOstler2010|Ostler]], p.&amp;nbsp;1–4.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Global English: gift or curse&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Global English: gift or curse? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_english-today_2005-04_21_2/page/n65 |doi=10.1017/S0266078405002075 |year=2005 |last1=Smith |first1=Ross |journal=English Today |volume=21 |issue=2 |page=56}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐴𑐮𑐶𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐡𑐾𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐠𑐩 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐡𑐾𑐫𑑂‌𑐫𑐵 𑐢𑐮𑐏𑐫𑑂 [[𑐳𑑄𑐫𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫]], [[𑐳𑑄𑐫𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐵]], [[𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐡𑐵]], [[𑐀𑐳𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐮𑐶𑐫𑐵]], [[𑐐𑐞𑐟𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐁𑐫𑐬𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡]], [[𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐸 𑐖𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡]] 𑐰 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐡𑐾𑐫𑑂‌𑐟 𑐮𑐵। 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄, 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐬𑐶𑐧 𑑖𑑐𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐾𑐫𑑂‌𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵 𑐣𑑄 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐣 𑐔𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐰 𑐳𑑂𑐥𑐾𑐣𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵 𑐢𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐵 𑐴𑐮𑐶𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 𑐩𑐣𑐹𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐵𑑄𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑄 𑐏।&lt;ref name=&quot;ethnologue&quot; /&gt; 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑑂𑐰𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐰𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‌𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐳𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵। 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄, 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 [[𑐳𑑄𑐫𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬 𑐳𑑄𑐑]], [[𑐫𑐸𑐬𑑀𑐥𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐫𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣]], 𑐎𑐩𑐣𑐰𑐾𑐮𑑂𑐠 𑐀𑐦 𑐣𑐾𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐁𑐡𑐶 𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐫 𑐳𑑄𑐑-𑐳𑑄𑐳𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 (𑐫𑐎𑑅𑐟𑐶 𑐰𑐵 𑐩𑑄𑐎𑐵) 𑐁𑐢𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵 𑐣𑑄 𑐏। 

𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐱𑐸𑐬𑐸𑐰𑐵𑐟 𑐊𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐮𑑀-𑐳𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐣 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐫𑑂 (𑐰𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐩𑐵𑐣 𑐂𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡 𑐰 𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐞𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐰 𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐟𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡) 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐏। 𑑑𑑗𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐡𑐷𑐣𑐶𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑑒𑑐𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐡𑐷𑐟𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐴𑐮𑐶𑐩𑐫𑑂 𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐟 𑐧𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐟𑐾𑐣, 𑐳𑑄𑐫𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫 𑐰 𑐧𑐾𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐟𑐷 𑐳𑐵𑐩𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐎 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰𑑄 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐴𑐮𑐶𑐩𑐫𑑂 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐠𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐣।&lt;ref&gt;[[#refAmmon2006|Ammon]], pp.&amp;nbsp;2245–2247.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refSchneider2007|Schneider]], p.&amp;nbsp;1.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refMazrui1998|Mazrui]], p.&amp;nbsp;21.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refHowatt2004|Howatt]], pp.&amp;nbsp;127–133.&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄, 𑐳𑑄𑐫𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐬𑐵𑐖𑑂𑐫 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐱𑐵𑐮𑐷 𑐩𑐶𑐡𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶𑐫𑐵&lt;ref&gt;Hjarvard, Stig (2004) [https://web.archive.org/web/20080908064103/http://www.nordicom.gu.se/common/publ_pdf/157_075-098.pdf &quot;The globalization of language: How the media contribute to the spread of English and the emergence of medialects&quot;] Trans. Charly Hultén. ''Nordicom Review''. Retrieved 30 December 2014.&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐞𑑄 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐴𑐮𑐶𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐠𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐀𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐵𑐲𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐫 𑐳𑑄𑐰𑐵𑐡𑐫𑐵 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸। &lt;ref&gt;[[#refCrystal1997|Crystal]], pp.&amp;nbsp;87–89.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#refWardhaugh2006|Wardhaugh]], p.&amp;nbsp;60.&lt;/ref&gt;

𑐋𑐟𑐶𑐴𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐄𑐡𑑂𑐐𑐩𑑂 𑐥𑐸𑐮𑐵𑑄 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐟𑐸𑐎 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹 𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑑄𑐫𑑀𑐖𑐣𑑄 𑐖𑐹𑐮। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐟 𑐧𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐟𑐾𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐷 𑐟𑐚𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐵𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐁𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐵𑐳𑐷(𑐊𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐮𑑀-𑐳𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐣)𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑑕𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐡𑐷𑐂 𑐴𑐮। 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑐂 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‌𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐵𑑄 𑐂𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐱 (''English'') 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐊𑐒𑑂𑐐𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐳(Angles) 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑐮𑑄 𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐏,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/English |title=English&amp;nbsp;– Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=25 April 2007 |accessdate=4 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐊𑐒𑑂𑐐𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐳 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐸𑐬𑑂𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑁𑐮𑐷 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐾𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐊𑐒𑑂𑐐𑐾𑐮𑑂𑐣𑑂 (𑐰𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐩𑐵𑐣 [[Schleswig-Holstein]]) 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐠𑐵𑐫𑑂‌𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐵𑐩𑑄 𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐸𑐮𑐵𑑄 𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐳 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‌𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐂𑐎𑐶𑑄𑐐 𑐀𑐢𑐶𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐴𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐴𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐂 𑑙𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑑑𑑐𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐡𑐷𑐂 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑐣𑐾𑐡𑐸।

𑑑𑑑𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐡𑐷𑐂 𑐂𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐾𑐢𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐵 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣 𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐘𑑂𑐔𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑑅𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰 𑐮𑐵𑐟। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐃𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑐂 𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣 𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐘𑑂𑐔𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐔𑐸𑐬 𑐱𑐧𑑂𑐡𑐵𑐰𑐮𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐖𑐸𑐮; 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄, 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐬𑑀𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‌ 𑐩𑐏𑐸𑐳𑐵𑑄 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐃𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐳 𑐁𑐡𑐶 𑐮𑐵𑐟𑐶𑐣𑑄 𑐧𑐸𑐫𑐵𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑑀𑐩𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‌𑐟 𑐠𑐾𑑄 𑐖𑐸𑐰𑐣।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab13 |title=Words on the brain: from 1&amp;nbsp;million years ago?
|work=History of language |accessdate=5 September 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.orbilat.com/Influences_of_Romance/English/RIFL-English-Latin-The_Inflluences_on_Old_English.html |title=Latin Influences on Old English |author=Baugh, Albert C. and Cable, Thomas |year=1978 |work=An excerpt from Foreign Influences on Old English |accessdate=5 September 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰𑐶𑐟 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑐢𑑂𑐫 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐢𑐵𑐂। 𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐞 𑐂𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐫𑑂 𑑑𑑕𑐐𑐸 𑐱𑐡𑐷𑐂 𑐏𑐣𑐾𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 &quot;𑐟𑑅𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐸 𑐴𑐶𑐮𑐵&quot; (Great Vowel Shift) 𑐩𑐢𑑂𑐫 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑑄 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑐂 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‌ 𑐴𑐶𑐮𑐵𑐰𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐋𑐟𑐶𑐴𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐎 𑐗𑐵𑐎𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐩𑐹 𑐗𑐵𑐎𑐵 𑐏।

𑐊𑐒𑑂𑐐𑑂𑐮𑑀-𑐳𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅, 𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣 𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐘𑑂𑐔𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑐵𑐴𑐵𑑄 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐬𑐵 [[𑐮𑐵𑐟𑐶𑐣 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵]]𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐫𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐋𑐟𑐶𑐴𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐏𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟 𑐢𑐬𑑂𑐩 𑐰 𑐫𑐸𑐬𑑀𑐥𑐾𑐮𑐷 𑐧𑑁𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐶𑐎 𑐰𑐬𑑂𑐐𑐫𑐵 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‌ 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰 𑐏𑐣𑐾𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐏। &lt;ref name=&quot;Weissbort&quot;&gt;Daniel Weissbort (2006). &quot;Translation: theory and practice : a historical reader&quot;. p.100. Oxford University Press, 2006&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄, 𑐮𑐵𑐟𑐶𑐣 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐰𑐬𑑂𑐟𑐩𑐵𑐣 𑐃𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑄 𑐰𑐿𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶𑐎 𑐱𑐧𑑂𑐡𑐵𑐰𑐮𑐷𑐂 𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐥𑑂𑐟 𑐡𑐸। 

𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‌𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑐵𑐴𑐵𑑃 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐡𑐸𑐎𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‌𑐫𑐵 𑐱𑐧𑑂𑐡𑐵𑐰𑐮𑐷 𑐰𑐺𑐴𑐡𑑂, 𑐖𑐚𑐶𑐮 𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐳, 𑐰𑐶𑐱𑐾𑐲𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐁𑐏𑑅𑐫𑐵। 𑐀𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐩𑐶𑐟 𑐡𑐸। 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑑄 𑐫𑐸𑐬𑑀𑐥𑐾𑐮𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‌𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐩𑐖𑐸𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑐴𑐮𑐶𑑄𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐠𑐵𑐫𑑂‌𑐫𑐵 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅 𑐡𑐸𑐎𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸। 𑐀𑐎𑑂𑐳𑑂𑐦𑐬𑑂𑐡 𑐂𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐱 𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐣𑐬𑐷 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑐂, 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶𑐎, 𑐰𑐿𑐖𑑂𑐘𑐵𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐰 𑐳𑑂𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐒𑑂𑐐 (slang) 𑐩𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐳𑐾𑑄 𑑒,𑑕𑑐,𑑐𑑐𑑐 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑐺𑐠𑐎 𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐟 𑐡𑐸।&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |title=How many words are there in the English Language? |publisher=Oxforddictionaries.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.vistawide.com/languages/language_statistics.htm |title=Vista Worldwide Language Statistics |publisher=Vistawide.com |accessdate=31 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;


==𑐧𑑂𑐰𑐠𑐮𑐵==
𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐳𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐩 𑐠𑐠𑐾 𑐡𑐸:
{{tree list}}
* [[𑐥𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐚𑑀-𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩 𑐖𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐣𑐶𑐎]]
** [[𑐊𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐮𑑀-𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐖𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂]]
*** [[𑐊𑐒𑑂𑐐𑐮𑐶𑐎 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵|𑐊𑐒𑑂𑐐𑐮𑐶𑐎]]
**** [[𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵]] ([[𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐟𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐢𑐮𑑅|𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵]])
***** [[𑐥𑐸𑐮𑐵𑑄 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵|𑐥𑐸𑐮𑐵𑑄 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]]†
****** [[𑐩𑐢𑑂𑐫 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]]† ([[𑐥𑐸𑐮𑐵𑑄 𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐔]] 𑐥𑐵𑐏𑐾𑑄 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑐵𑐴𑐵𑑃-𑐏𑑃𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐟 𑐡𑐸𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸)
******* [[𑐣𑑂𑐴𑐵𑐥𑐵𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]]†
******** [[𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]]
********* [[𑐧𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐚𑐶𑐱 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]] ([[𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]], [[𑐄𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐷 𑐂𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐮𑐿𑑄𑐜 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷|𑐄𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐷 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]], [[𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐰𑐷 𑐩𑐶𑐜𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐳 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]], [[𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩 𑐩𑐶𑐜𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐳 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]], [[𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐞𑐷 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷|𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐞𑐷 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]], 𑐰 𑐩𑐾𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸, [[𑐰𑐾𑐮𑑂𑐱 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]], [[𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐚𑐶𑐱 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]], [[𑐁𑐂𑐬𑐶𑐱 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]]) 
********* [[𑐄𑐟𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐷 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]] ([[𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐣 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]] 𑐰 [[𑐎𑐣𑐾𑐡𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]])
********* [[𑐀𑐳𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐮𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]] 𑐰 [[𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐖𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐞𑑂𑐜 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]]
********* [[𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐞 𑐀𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐷 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]]
********* [[𑐖𑐶𑐩𑑂𑐧𑐵𑐧𑑂𑐰𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]]
********* 𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐞 𑐊𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐮𑐷 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 ([[𑐨𑐵𑐬𑐟𑐷𑐫 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]])
********* 𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐞 𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐰 𑐊𑐳𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐮𑐷 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷 ([[𑐦𑐶𑐮𑐶𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐷 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]], [[𑐳𑐶𑑄𑐐𑐵𑐥𑐸𑐬 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]], [[𑐩𑐮𑐾𑐱𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]])
********* [[𑐥𑐱𑑂𑐔𑐶𑐩 𑐨𑐵𑐬𑐟𑐷𑐫 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]] ([[𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷]])
{{tree list/end}}


===𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵===
𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵/𑐖𑐣𑐧𑑀𑐮𑐷 𑐡𑐸। 𑐴𑐮𑐶𑐩𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐵𑑄 𑐖𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐀𑑄𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐷𑐫𑐵 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐟 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐡𑐸-
* 𑐧𑐾𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐟𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐥𑐸𑐔𑑅
** 𑐐𑐾𑐮𑐶𑐎 (𑐳𑑂𑐎𑐟𑐶𑐱, 𑐁𑐂𑐬𑐶𑐱)
** 𑐂𑐒𑑂𑐐𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐱 (𑐎𑐎𑑂𑐣𑐶)
* 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐥𑐸𑐔𑑅
** 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐸 𑐂𑐒𑑂𑐐𑑂𑐮𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡
** 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐸 𑐫𑐬𑑂𑐎
** 𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐞
** 𑐩𑐶𑐡𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡
** 𑐰𑐾𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐎𑑀𑐳𑑂𑐟
** 𑐂𑐧𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎
* 𑐎𑐣𑐾𑐡𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵
* 𑐀𑐳𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐮𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵
* 𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐸 𑐖𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐡 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵
* 𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐶𑐞 𑐀𑐦𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐷 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵
* 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐣 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵
* 𑐨𑐵𑐬𑐟𑐷𑐫 𑐄𑐥𑐩𑐴𑐵𑐡𑑂𑐰𑐶𑐥 𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐎𑐵

== 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑃 ==
* [[𑐧𑐾𑐮𑐵𑐫𑐟]]
{{Commonscat|English language}}
{{𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵𑐢𑐮𑑅}}

== 𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵 ==
{{𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵}}
[[पुचः:𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐵]]</text>
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''थ्व पौ देवनागरीं बोट छ्यला थःमंतुं नेपाललिपिइ हिलातःगु ख। थ्व पौयात च्वसु पतिइ यंकेन्ह्यः छकः ब्वनाः पाय्छि जू/मजूगू स्वयादिसँ।''
{{Infobox electronic component
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|photo=[[File:Photo-SMDcapacitors.jpg|250px]]
|photo_caption=𑐔𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐔𑐵𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐮𑑀-𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬  (𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶 𑐬𑐸𑐮𑐬 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄)
}}
[[File:Condensador electrolitico 150 microF 400V.jpg|thumb|𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 [[𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐮𑐵𑐂𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬]]]]

'''𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬''' (𑐥𑐸𑐮𑐵𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐵𑑄 '''𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐬''') 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡𑐫𑑂 𑐂𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐖𑐷 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐠𑐣𑐾𑐟 𑐕𑐫𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐨 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸-𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐎𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑀𑐣𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐏। 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐰𑐴𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑐷-𑐠𑐷 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐡𑐸। 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐳𑐵𑑄 𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐰𑑄 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐵𑐂𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑑄 (𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐸𑐮𑐾𑐟𑐬) 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐵 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐡𑐂। 𑐢𑐵𑐟𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐵𑐔𑐵 𑐔𑐶𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐸𑐮𑐾𑐟𑐶𑐒𑑂𑐐 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡𑑄 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐡𑐳𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄। 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐰𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐟𑐷𑐫 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐟 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵। 

==𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟==
[[File:Capacitor schematic with dielectric.svg|thumb|left|𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐬𑐾𑐮𑐮-𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐟 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 𑐳𑐾𑐥𑐾𑐬𑐾𑐳𑐣𑑄 𑐁𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷। 𑐡𑐵𑐂𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑑄 (𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐳𑐷 𑐬𑐒𑑂𑐐) 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡 𑐎𑑂𑐰𑐎𑐵𑐂 𑐰 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐟𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐶।]]
[[File:Plattenkondensator hg.jpg|right|thumb|𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐬𑐵𑐮𑐮-𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐟 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐡𑐳𑐸।]]

𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐣𑐣-𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐣 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑐮𑑄 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟𑐂। &lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p168&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.168&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐣 𑐩𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐫𑐵𑐟 [[𑐡𑐵𑐂𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎]] 𑐢𑐵𑐂। 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐨𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂, 𑐡𑐵𑐂 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐸𑐮𑐾𑐟𑐬 𑐖𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐏। 𑐡𑐵𑐂𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐩𑐶𑐡𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐳𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐏𑐵, 𑐦𑐾, 𑐨𑑂𑐰𑑄, [[𑐨𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐩]], 𑐰 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐡𑐶𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐳𑐣 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐾𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐁𑐡𑐶 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾 𑐕𑐶𑑄। 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐁𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬 𑐁𑐂𑐳𑑀𑐮𑐾𑐟𑐾𑐡 𑐰 𑐳𑐾𑐮𑑂𑐦-𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐡 𑐖𑐸𑐂, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐣𑐾𑐟 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 𑐡𑐂𑐩𑐏𑐸 𑐰 𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰 𑐡𑐂𑐩𑐏𑐸। 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐳𑑄, 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐳𑐩𑐎𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐷 𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐣 𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐵𑐟𑐂 &lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p157&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.157&lt;/ref&gt;𑐰 𑐡𑐵𑐂𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑑄 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷। 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐟 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐦𑐬𑐵𑐡𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑐂। 𑐊𑐳 𑐁𑐂 𑐫𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐦𑐬𑐵𑐡 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐎𑐮 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑑀𑐮𑐩𑑂𑐧 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖𑑄 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐕[[𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟]] 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷।&lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p169&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.169&lt;/ref&gt;

𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐡𑐳𑐸 𑐏। 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐁𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐩𑐥𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 ''C'' 𑐧𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐏, 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐢𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐎𑐮 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 ±''Q'' 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐡𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 ''V'' 𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐥𑐵𑐟 𑐏:&lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p168&quot; /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;C= \frac{Q}{V}&lt;/math&gt;

𑐐𑐧𑑂𑐮𑐾𑑄-𑐐𑐧𑑂𑐮𑐾𑑄 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 𑐩𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐵𑐟𑐂𑐧𑐶𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖𑑄𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐨𑑁𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑐳𑐬 𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐥𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸। 𑐠𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐳𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐩𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐮 𑐔𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐾𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐂:
:&lt;math&gt;C= \frac{\mathrm{d}q}{\mathrm{d}v}&lt;/math&gt;

==𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵==
{{𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵|}}

==𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑃==
* [[𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]
{{Commonscat|Capacitors}}

[[𑐥𑐸𑐔𑑅:𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶]]</text>
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{{Infobox electronic component
|
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|photo_caption=𑐔𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐔𑐵𑐐𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐮𑑀-𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬  (𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶 𑐬𑐸𑐮𑐬 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄)
}}
[[File:Condensador electrolitico 150 microF 400V.jpg|thumb|𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 [[𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐮𑐵𑐂𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬]]]]

'''𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬''' (𑐥𑐸𑐮𑐵𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐵𑑄 '''𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐬''') 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡𑐫𑑂 𑐂𑐣𑐬𑑂𑐖𑐷 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐠𑐣𑐾𑐟 𑐕𑐫𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐨 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸-𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐎𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑀𑐣𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐏। 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐰𑐴𑐵𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑐷-𑐠𑐷 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐡𑐸। 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐳𑐵𑑄 𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐰𑑄 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐵𑐂𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑑄 (𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐸𑐮𑐾𑐟𑐬) 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐵 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐡𑐂। 𑐢𑐵𑐟𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐵𑐔𑐵 𑐔𑐶𑐧𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐸𑐮𑐾𑐟𑐶𑐒𑑂𑐐 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡𑑄 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐡𑐳𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄। 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐰𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐟𑐷𑐫 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐟 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵। 

==𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟==
[[File:Capacitor schematic with dielectric.svg|thumb|left|𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐬𑐾𑐮𑐮-𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐟 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 𑐳𑐾𑐥𑐾𑐬𑐾𑐳𑐣𑑄 𑐁𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷। 𑐡𑐵𑐂𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑑄 (𑐳𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐳𑐷 𑐬𑐒𑑂𑐐) 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡 𑐎𑑂𑐰𑐎𑐵𑐂 𑐰 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐟𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐶।]]
[[File:Plattenkondensator hg.jpg|right|thumb|𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐬𑐵𑐮𑐮-𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐟 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐡𑐳𑐸।]]

𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐣𑐣-𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐣 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑐮𑑄 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑐵𑐟𑐂। &lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p168&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.168&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐣 𑐩𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐫𑐵𑐟 [[𑐡𑐵𑐂𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎]] 𑐢𑐵𑐂। 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐨𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂, 𑐡𑐵𑐂 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐸𑐮𑐾𑐟𑐬 𑐖𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐏। 𑐡𑐵𑐂𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐩𑐶𑐡𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐳𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐏𑐵, 𑐦𑐾, 𑐨𑑂𑐰𑑄, [[𑐨𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐩]], 𑐰 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐡𑐶𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐳𑐣 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐾𑐟𑑂𑐬 𑐁𑐡𑐶 𑐎𑐵𑐫𑐾 𑐕𑐶𑑄। 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐁𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬 𑐁𑐂𑐳𑑀𑐮𑐾𑐟𑐾𑐡 𑐰 𑐳𑐾𑐮𑑂𑐦-𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐡 𑐖𑐸𑐂, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐣𑐾𑐟 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 𑐡𑐂𑐩𑐏𑐸 𑐰 𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐨𑐵𑐰 𑐡𑐂𑐩𑐏𑐸। 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐳𑑄, 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐳𑐩𑐎𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐷 𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐩𑐵𑐣 𑐰 𑐰𑐶𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐵𑐟𑐂 &lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p157&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.157&lt;/ref&gt;𑐰 𑐡𑐵𑐂𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑑄 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷। 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐬𑑂𑐠𑐵𑐟 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐦𑐬𑐵𑐡𑐫𑑂 𑐮𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵𑐂। 𑐊𑐳 𑐁𑐂 𑐫𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐦𑐬𑐵𑐡 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐎𑐮 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐥𑐵𑐟𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑑀𑐮𑐩𑑂𑐧 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖𑑄 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐕[[𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟]] 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐷।&lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p169&quot;&gt;Ulaby, p.169&lt;/ref&gt;

𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐡𑐳𑐸 𑐏। 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐁𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐩𑐥𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 ''C'' 𑐧𑐷𑐐𑐸 𑐏, 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐢𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐎𑐮 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 ±''Q'' 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐡𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 ''V'' 𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐣𑐸𑐥𑐵𑐟 𑐏:&lt;ref name=&quot;Ulaby_p168&quot; /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;C= \frac{Q}{V}&lt;/math&gt;

𑐐𑐧𑑂𑐮𑐾𑑄-𑐐𑐧𑑂𑐮𑐾𑑄 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 𑐩𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐵𑐟𑐂𑐧𑐶𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖𑑄𑐫𑐵𑐣𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐨𑑁𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐀𑐳𑐬 𑐰𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐥𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸। 𑐠𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐳𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐩𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐮 𑐔𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐾𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐥𑐬𑐶𑐨𑐵𑐲𑐶𑐟 𑐫𑐵𑐂:
:&lt;math&gt;C= \frac{\mathrm{d}q}{\mathrm{d}v}&lt;/math&gt;

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'''𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬''' 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 [[𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑑅|𑐨𑑅]] 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑑅𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑐶𑐐𑑂𑐣𑐮 𑐰 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐥𑐵𑐰𑐬 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐵𑐂 𑐰 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐶𑐔 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶। 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐸𑑄 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐿। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑑀𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑄 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮 𑐡𑐂। 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐖𑐸 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 𑐰𑐵 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐕𑑂𑐰𑐂𑐧𑐶𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐖𑐸 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐧𑐵𑐴𑐵 𑐥𑐵𑐂। 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐟 (𑐁𑐄𑐟𑐥𑐸𑐟) 𑐥𑐵𑐰𑐬 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 (𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐥𑐸𑐟) 𑐥𑐵𑐰𑐬 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸𑐖𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐶𑐐𑑂𑐣𑐮 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐶𑐎𑐾𑐳𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐾𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐸। 𑐠𑑁𑑄𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐴𑐾 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐟 𑐀𑐮𑐐𑑂𑐐 𑐰𑑅𑐳𑐵𑑄 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐟 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐟𑐾𑐡 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐨𑐵𑐐𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵। 
𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐨𑐹𑐟 𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐖𑐵 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐖𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐠𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑄 𑐏𑐣𑐾𑐡𑐸। 𑐳𑐣𑑂 𑑑𑑙𑑕𑑐𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐱𑐎𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐳 𑐢𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐵 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐮𑑄 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐴𑐶𑐄𑐥𑐵 𑐴𑐮। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐔𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑐡𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐾𑐡𑐶𑐫𑑀, 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐮𑑂𑐎𑐸𑐮𑐾𑐟𑐬, 𑐎𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐟𑐬 𑐁𑐡𑐶 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐾𑐕𑐶𑐣।  

==𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵==
[[Image:Transistor_Simple_Circuit_Diagram_with_NPN_Labels.svg|thumb|𑐊𑐣𑐥𑐶𑐊𑐣 𑐧𑐵𑐂𑐥𑑀𑐮𑐬 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐶𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐮 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟 𑐎𑐶𑐥𑐵।]]
𑐔𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐶𑐐𑑂𑐣𑐮 𑐕𑐖𑑂𑐰 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐫𑐮𑐵 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐖𑑂𑐰 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐶𑐐𑑂𑐣𑐮 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐩𑐟𑐵 𑐴𑐾 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐬 𑐏। 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐐𑐸𑐞𑐫𑐵𑐟 [[𑐐𑐾𑐣]] 𑐢𑐵𑐂। 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑑄 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐁𑐄𑐟𑐥𑐸𑐟, 𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐥𑐸𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐐𑐸𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐞𑑄 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑑄 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐵𑐫𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸। 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄, 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐀𑐣 𑐰𑐵 𑐀𑐦 𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐶𑐔𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐫𑐮𑐾 𑐕𑐶𑑄। 

𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐡𑐸। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐨𑐟𑐶-𑐨𑐟𑐶 𑐥𑐵। ''[[𑐧𑐵𑐂𑐥𑑀𑐮𑐵𑐬 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]''𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐟 '''𑐧𑐾𑐳''', '''𑐎𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬''', 𑐰 '''𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬''' 𑐢𑐵𑐂। 𑐔𑐶𑐧𑐵𑐴𑐵 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐧𑐾𑐳 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 (𑐧𑐾𑐳 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂) 𑐧𑐷𑐧𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐟𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐰𑐵 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐶𑐔 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄। ''[[𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡-𑐂𑐦𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]''𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐟 '''𑐐𑐾𑐟''', '''𑐳𑑀𑐬𑑂𑐳''', 𑐰 '''𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐣''' 𑐢𑐵𑐂, 𑐰 𑐐𑐾𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑀𑐬𑑂𑐳 𑐰 𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄।  

𑐖𑐰𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐶𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐧𑐵𑐂𑐥𑑀𑐮𑐵𑐬 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸। 𑐧𑐾𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬 𑐰 𑐎𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 𑐧𑐵𑐴𑐵 𑐰𑐣𑐶। 𑐁𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐧𑐾𑐳 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹𑑄 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐧𑐾𑐳 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐡𑐂𑐧𑐶𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑐾𑐳 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐥 𑐖𑐸𑐂। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐸𑑄 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑐰 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 ''V''&lt;sub&gt;BE&lt;/sub&gt; 𑐢𑐵𑐂।

𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐵𑐬𑑄 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄
* 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐶𑐔𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬
* 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐵𑐫𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬

==𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵==
{{𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵|}}

==𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑃==
* [[𑐎𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐟𑐬]]
* [[𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵|𑐐𑐞𑐶𑐟]]
* [[𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬]]

{{commonscat|Transistors}}

[[𑐥𑐸𑐔𑑅:𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶]]
[[𑐥𑐸𑐔𑑅:𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>1122592</id>
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[[Image:Transistor symbol npn no circle.svg|80px]]

[[किपा:Transistors-white.jpg|thumb|right|]]
'''𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬''' 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 [[𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑑅|𑐨𑑅]] 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑑅𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑐶𑐐𑑂𑐣𑐮 𑐰 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐥𑐵𑐰𑐬 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐵𑐂 𑐰 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐶𑐔 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶। 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐸𑑄 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐿। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐥𑐶𑐣𑐾𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑑀𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑄 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮 𑐡𑐂। 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐖𑐸 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 𑐰𑐵 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐕𑑂𑐰𑐂𑐧𑐶𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐖𑐸 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐧𑐵𑐴𑐵 𑐥𑐵𑐂। 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐟 (𑐁𑐄𑐟𑐥𑐸𑐟) 𑐥𑐵𑐰𑐬 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 (𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐥𑐸𑐟) 𑐥𑐵𑐰𑐬 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸𑐖𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐶𑐐𑑂𑐣𑐮 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐶𑐎𑐾𑐳𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐾𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐸। 𑐠𑑁𑑄𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐴𑐾 𑐕𑐸𑑄 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐟 𑐀𑐮𑐐𑑂𑐐 𑐰𑑅𑐳𑐵𑑄 𑐫𑐎𑑂𑐰 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐟 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐟𑐾𑐡 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐨𑐵𑐐𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐫𑐵। 
𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐨𑐹𑐟 𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐖𑐵 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐥𑐹𑐬𑑂𑐖𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐨𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑂𑐴𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐠𑐵𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑑄 𑐏𑐣𑐾𑐡𑐸। 𑐳𑐣𑑂 𑑑𑑙𑑕𑑐𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐱𑐎𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐳 𑐢𑐸𑑄𑐎𑐵 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐮𑑄 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐴𑐶𑐄𑐥𑐵 𑐴𑐮। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐮𑐶𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐔𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐰 𑐡𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐾𑐡𑐶𑐫𑑀, 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐮𑑂𑐎𑐸𑐮𑐾𑐟𑐬, 𑐎𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐟𑐬 𑐁𑐡𑐶 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐾𑐕𑐶𑐣।  

==𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵==
[[Image:Transistor_Simple_Circuit_Diagram_with_NPN_Labels.svg|thumb|𑐊𑐣𑐥𑐶𑐊𑐣 𑐧𑐵𑐂𑐥𑑀𑐮𑐬 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐶𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐮 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟 𑐎𑐶𑐥𑐵।]]
𑐔𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐶𑐐𑑂𑐣𑐮 𑐕𑐖𑑂𑐰 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐫𑐮𑐵 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐕𑐖𑑂𑐰 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐶𑐐𑑂𑐣𑐮 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐩𑐟𑐵 𑐴𑐾 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐬 𑐏। 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐐𑐸𑐞𑐫𑐵𑐟 [[𑐐𑐾𑐣]] 𑐢𑐵𑐂। 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑑄 𑐠𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐁𑐄𑐟𑐥𑐸𑐟, 𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐥𑐸𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐐𑐸𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐵𑐬𑐞𑑄 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑑄 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐵𑐫𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸। 𑐣𑐵𑐥𑑄, 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐀𑐣 𑐰𑐵 𑐀𑐦 𑐫𑐵𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐟 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐶𑐔𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑐫𑐮𑐾 𑐕𑐶𑑄। 

𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐡𑐸। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐸𑐥 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐨𑐟𑐶-𑐨𑐟𑐶 𑐥𑐵। ''[[𑐧𑐵𑐂𑐥𑑀𑐮𑐵𑐬 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]''𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐟 '''𑐧𑐾𑐳''', '''𑐎𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬''', 𑐰 '''𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬''' 𑐢𑐵𑐂। 𑐔𑐶𑐧𑐵𑐴𑐵 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐧𑐾𑐳 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 (𑐧𑐾𑐳 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂) 𑐧𑐷𑐧𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐟𑐔𑑂𑐰𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐰𑐵 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐶𑐔 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄। ''[[𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐡-𑐂𑐦𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]''𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐟 '''𑐐𑐾𑐟''', '''𑐳𑑀𑐬𑑂𑐳''', 𑐰 '''𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐣''' 𑐢𑐵𑐂, 𑐰 𑐐𑐾𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 𑐧𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑑀𑐬𑑂𑐳 𑐰 𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐣𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄।  

𑐖𑐰𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑐶𑐥𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐧𑐵𑐂𑐥𑑀𑐮𑐵𑐬 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸। 𑐧𑐾𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬 𑐰 𑐎𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐔𑐵𑐬𑑂𑐖 𑐧𑐵𑐴𑐵 𑐰𑐣𑐶। 𑐁𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑐠𑑄 𑐧𑐾𑐳 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹𑑄 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐸𑐮𑐶𑑄 𑐧𑐾𑐳 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐡𑐂𑐧𑐶𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑐾𑐳 𑐰 𑐂𑐩𑐶𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐡𑐠𑐸𑐂 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖 𑐡𑑂𑐬𑐥 𑐖𑐸𑐂। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑑀𑐮𑑂𑐟𑐾𑐖𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐡𑐫𑐾𑐎𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐰𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐸𑑄 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐫𑐵𑐂 𑐰 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 ''V''&lt;sub&gt;BE&lt;/sub&gt; 𑐢𑐵𑐂।

𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐵𑐬𑑄 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐾𑐕𑐶𑑄
* 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐶𑐔𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬
* 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐵𑐫𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬

==𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵==
{{𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵|}}

==𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑃==
* [[𑐎𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐟𑐬]]
* [[𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵|𑐐𑐞𑐶𑐟]]
* [[𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬]]

{{commonscat|Transistors}}

[[पुचः:𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶]]
[[पुचः:𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬]]</text>
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      <comment>Eukesh moved page [[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh/Auto/NepalScript/दायोद]] to [[𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡]]</comment>
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''थ्व पौ देवनागरीं बोट छ्यला थःमंतुं नेपाललिपिइ हिलातःगु ख। थ्व पौयात च्वसु पतिइ यंकेन्ह्यः छकः ब्वनाः पाय्छि जू/मजूगू स्वयादिसँ।''
[[Image:Diode symbol.svg|150px]]
[[Image:Dioden.JPG|thumb|Various semiconductor diodes. Left: A four-diode [[bridge rectifier]]]]

[[image:Diode-photo.JPG|thumb|right|270px|𑐜𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐜𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐵𑐬]]

'''𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡''' 𑐕𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐨𑑅 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐮𑑄 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐚𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐕𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐎 𑐡𑐶𑐱𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑐵 𑐰𑐣𑐾 𑐧𑐷। 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸-𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑀𑐣𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐏 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐀𑐳𑐶𑐩𑐾𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐦𑐬 𑐐𑐸𑐞 𑐡𑐿। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐡𑐶𑐱𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑑀 (𑐰𑐵 𑑐) 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐬𑑀𑐢/𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐡𑐂 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐶𑐱𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 (𑐁𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐀𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏) 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐬𑑀𑐢 𑐡𑐂। 𑐠𑑁𑑄𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐴𑐾 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡 𑐕𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐮𑐶𑐣 𑐟𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐵 𑐏। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 p-n 𑐖𑑄𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐣 𑐡𑐿। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.element-14.com/community/docs/DOC-22519/l/physical-explanation--general-semiconductors |title=Physical Explanation – General Semiconductors |date=2010-05-25 |accessdate=2010-08-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐨𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐩 𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐧 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡𑐫𑑂 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐡 (𑐕𑐟𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐟 𑐊𑐣𑑀𑐡 𑐰 𑐴𑐶𑐟𑐾𑐡 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐠𑑀𑐡) 𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐩 𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐧 𑐡𑐂।

==𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵==
{{𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵|}}

==𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑃==
* [[𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]
* [[𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬]]
* [[𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]
{{Commonscat|Diodes}}

[[𑐥𑐸𑐔𑑅:𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶]]</text>
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      <text bytes="2909" sha1="7cv7zzau3rsbs1s60xwjxog4pktixoe" xml:space="preserve">{{देवनागरी|दायोद}}

[[Image:Diode symbol.svg|150px]]
[[Image:Dioden.JPG|thumb|Various semiconductor diodes. Left: A four-diode [[bridge rectifier]]]]

[[image:Diode-photo.JPG|thumb|right|270px|𑐜𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐜𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐵𑐬]]

'''𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡''' 𑐕𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐚𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐨𑑅 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐨𑐮𑑄 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐚𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐕𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑐎 𑐡𑐶𑐱𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑐵 𑐰𑐣𑐾 𑐧𑐷। 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸-𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐎𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑀𑐣𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐏 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐀𑐳𑐶𑐩𑐾𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎 𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐦𑐬 𑐐𑐸𑐞 𑐡𑐿। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐡𑐶𑐱𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐎𑐬𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑑄𑐟𑐶𑑄 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑑀 (𑐰𑐵 𑑐) 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐬𑑀𑐢/𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐳 𑐡𑐂 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳 𑐩𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐶𑐱𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐀𑐥𑑂𑐰 (𑐁𑐡𑐬𑑂𑐱 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐀𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐏) 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐟𑐶𑐬𑑀𑐢 𑐡𑐂। 𑐠𑑁𑑄𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐴𑐾 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐎𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑐵𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐞 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡 𑐕𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐾𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐮𑐶𑐣 𑐟𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐵 𑐏। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐮𑐶 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐶𑐎𑐮 𑐟𑐬𑑂𑐩𑐶𑐣𑐮𑐫𑑂 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐟𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 p-n 𑐖𑑄𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐣 𑐡𑐿। &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.element-14.com/community/docs/DOC-22519/l/physical-explanation--general-semiconductors |title=Physical Explanation – General Semiconductors |date=2010-05-25 |accessdate=2010-08-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; 𑐨𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐩 𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐧 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡𑐫𑑂 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐳𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐡 (𑐕𑐟𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐾𑐟 𑐊𑐣𑑀𑐡 𑐰 𑐴𑐶𑐟𑐾𑐡 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐠𑑀𑐡) 𑐡𑐹𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐩 𑐟𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐧 𑐡𑐂।

==𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵==
{{𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵|}}

==𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑃==
* [[𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]
* [[𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬]]
* [[𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]
{{Commonscat|Diodes}}

[[पुचः:𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶]]</text>
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'''दानी रोद्रिक बाय् दानी रोड्रिक''' (बूगु १४ अगस्त १९५७) छम्ह तर्कीश अर्थशास्त्री व हार्भर्ड विश्वविद्यालयया जोन एफ केनेडी स्कूल अफ गभर्नमेन्टय् अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय राजनीतिक अर्थशास्त्रया फोर्ड फाउन्डेसनया प्राध्यापक खः । वय्कः न्हापा प्रिन्स्टन, न्यू जर्सीया उन्नत अध्ययन संस्थानय् सामाजिक विज्ञानया अल्बर्ट ओ हिर्शम्यान प्राध्यापक जुयादिल। वय्कलं अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय अर्थशास्त्र, आर्थिक विकास, व राजनीतिक अर्थशास्त्रया क्षेत्रय् व्यापक रुपं प्रकाशन यानादीगु दु । बांलाःगु आर्थिक नीति छु जुइ, नापं गुलिखे सरकारत थुकियात नालेगुलिइ मेमेगु स्वयां छाय् सफल जुइ धइगु न्ह्यसः वय्कःया अनुसन्धानया केन्द्रय् दु । वय्कःया कृतिइ ''अर्थशास्त्र नियम: द राइट्स एण्ड रङ्स अफ द डिस्मल साइन्स'' व ''द ग्लोबलाइजेसन प्याराडक्स: डेमोक्रेसी एण्ड द फ्युचर अफ द वर्ल्ड इकोनोमी ला'' ।

== जीवनी ==
रोद्रिक सेफार्डिक यहूदीया वंशज खः । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|title=Economist Wants Business and Social Aims to Be in Sync (Published 2007)|work=The New York Times|date=30 January 2007|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/30/business/worldbusiness/30trade.html?ex=1327813200&amp;en=b09c1256f811eb09&amp;ei=5088}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[इस्तान्बुल|इस्तानबुलया]] रोबर्ट कलेजं स्नातक यायेधुंका  वय्कलं सन् १९७९य् हार्वर्ड कलेजं सरकार व अर्थशास्त्रय् एबी डिग्री ( summa cum laude ) प्राप्त यानादिल। वय्कलं सन् १९८१य् प्रिन्स्टन स्कूल अफ पब्लिक एण्ड इन्टरनेशनल अफेयर्सं एमपीए डिग्री ( विशिष्टता नापं ) व पीएच.डी. सन् १९८५ य् प्रिन्सटन विश्वविद्यालयं अर्थशास्त्रय् डिग्री कयादिल, ''व्यापार व विनिमय दर नीतिया कल्याण सिद्धान्तया अध्ययन''  शीर्षकया शोधपत्रय् । 

वय्कलं आः मदयेधुंकूगु टर्कीया दैनिक ''रेडिकल'' २००९–२०१६ या निंतिं नं च्वयादीगु खः ।

वय्कः २०११ य् न्हूगु दयेकूगु विश्व अर्थशास्त्र संघय् कार्यसमितिया दुजः जुयाः दुहां झाल ।

वय्कःया इहिपा हार्वर्ड केनेडी स्कूलया सार्वजनिक नीतिया प्राध्यापक पिनार डोगानलिसे जूगु खः । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.hks.harvard.edu/faculty/pinar-dogan|title=Pinar Dogan}}&lt;/ref&gt; वय्कः टर्कीया अवकाश प्राप्त जनरल चेटिन डोगानया म्ह्याय् ख।

विद्वानया रुपय्, वय्कः आर्थिक अनुसन्धानया राष्ट्रिय ब्यूरो, आर्थिक नीति अनुसन्धान केन्द्र (लन्दन), विश्वव्यापी विकास केन्द्र, अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय अर्थशास्त्रया संस्थान, व विदेश सम्बन्ध परिषदलिसे सम्बद्ध जुयादिल, व ''अर्थशास्त्र व तथ्यांकया समीक्षाया'' सह-सम्पादक जुयादिल । वय्कः कार्नेगी कर्पोरेशन, फोर्ड फाउन्डेसन, व रकफेलर फाउन्डेसनया अनुसन्धान अनुदानया प्राप्तकर्ता जुयादीगु दु । मेमेगु सम्मानया दथुइ वय्कःयात सन् २००२ य् विश्वव्यापी विकास व वातावरण संस्थानं आर्थिक चिन्तनया सीमायात अग्रसर यायेगु निंतिं लियोन्टिफ सिरपाः नं लःल्हाःगु खः ।

८ नोभेम्बर २०१९ य् वय्कलं इरास्मस विश्वविद्यालय रोटरडमं मानद डाक्टरेट उपाधि प्राप्त यानादिल ।  

२१ जनवरी २०२० खुन्हु पोप फ्रान्सिसं वयात पोन्टिफिकल एकेडेमी अफ सोशल साइन्सेजया दुजः घोषणा यात । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite press release|access-date=January 21, 2020|date=January 21, 2020|url=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2020/01/21/0042/00087.html|publisher=Holy See Press Office|title=Rinunce e nomine (continuazione), 21.01.2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== च्वज्या ==
वय्कःया १९९७ या सफू ''ह्याज ग्लोबलाइजेशन गन टु फार ?'' ब्लुमबर्ग बिजनेस-वीकय् &quot;दशकया दकलय् महत्वपूर्ण अर्थशास्त्रया सफूत मध्ये छगू&quot; धकाः हनातःगु दु।

वय्कलं थःगु च्वसुइ विश्व बजार व सामाजिक स्थायित्व दथुइ स्वंगू तनावयात केन्द्रीत यानादिल । विश्व बजारय् सफल जुइगु सीप व पूँजी दुगु राष्ट्र राज्य व उगु फाइदा मदुपिं राष्ट्र राज्य दथुइ फल्ट लाइनयात उजागर यायेगु झ्वलय् अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय समानतायात प्रवर्द्धन यायेगु दुविधा दुगु खँ न्ह्यथसें वय्कलं स्वतन्त्र बजार प्रणालीयात सामाजिक स्थायित्व व गहन आन्तरिक मान्यताया निंतिं खतराया रुपय् कायेगु यानादी । &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The New Global Economy and Developing Countries: Making Openness Work|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781565170278}}&lt;/ref&gt; सन् २०००इ रोड्रिकं विश्व अर्थतन्त्रया राजनीतिक त्रिकोणया अवधारणा दयेकादिल। &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2000|title=How Far Will International Economic Integration Go?}}&lt;/ref&gt;

दानी रोड्रिक सन् १९९८ निसें प्रोजेक्ट सिन्डिकेटया नियमित योगदानकर्ता खः ।वय्कलं सन् २०१९ या फेब्रुअरीइ सुरेश नायडु, गेब्रियल जुकम्यान, व ११ म्ह थप संस्थापक दुजःपिंलिसे इकोनोमिक्स फर इन्क्लुसिभ प्रोस्पेरिटी (EfIP) नं पलिस्था यानादिल &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://econfip.org/#|title=Home}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ल्ययातःगु पिथना ==

* {{cite book | author=Rodrik, Dani | title=Shared Prosperity in a Fractured World: A New Economics for the Middle Class, the Global Poor, and Our Climate | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2025 | isbn=978-0691268316}} (will be released in November 2025)
* {{cite book | author=Rodrik, Dani | title=Straight Talk on Trade: Ideas for a Sane Economy | url=https://archive.org/details/straighttalkontr0000rodr | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2017 | isbn=978-0691177847}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Rodrik, Dani | title=Premature Deindustrialization | journal=Journal of Economic Growth | year=2016 | volume=21 | pages=1–33| doi=10.1007/s10887-015-9122-3 }}
* {{cite book | author=Rodrik, Dani | title=Economics Rules: The Rights and Wrongs of the Dismal Science| url=https://archive.org/details/economicsrulesri0000rodr | publisher=Norton &amp; Company, Inc| year=2015 | isbn=978-0-393-24641-4 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Rodrik, Dani | title=Unconditional Convergence in Manufacturing |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_quarterly-journal-of-economics_2013-02_128_1/page/165 | journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics | year=2013 | volume=128 | pages=165–204| doi=10.1093/qje/qjs047 }}
* {{cite book | author=Rodrik, Dani | title=The Globalization Paradox | publisher=Norton &amp; Company, Inc | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-393-07161-0 | url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationpar00rodr_0 }}
* {{cite book | author=Rodrik, Dani | title=One Economics, Many Recipes | url=https://archive.org/details/oneeconomicsmany0000rodr | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-691-12951-8 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=McMillan, Margaret |author2=Horn, Karen |author3=Rodrik, Dani | title=When Economic Reform Goes Wrong: Cashews in Mozambique | journal=Brookings Trade Forum 2003 | year=2004 | pages=97–165}}
* {{cite book | editor=Rodrik, Dani | title=In Search of Prosperity: Analytic Narratives on Economic Growth | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780691092690 | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-691-09268-3 }}
* {{cite journal
 |last=Rodrik 
 |first=Dani 
 |title=The Global Governance of Trade As If Development Really Mattered 
 |journal=[[UNDP]] 
 |year=2001 
 |url=http://system2.net/ukpgh/wp-content/uploads/rodrikgovernance.PDF
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226060629/http://system2.net/ukpgh/wp-content/uploads/rodrikgovernance.PDF
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=2019-12-26
}}
* {{cite book | author=Rodrik, Dani | title=The New Global Economy and Developing Countries: Making Openness Work | publisher=Overseas Development Council | year=1999 | isbn=978-1-56517-027-8 | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781565170278 }}
* {{cite book | author=Rodrik, Dani | title=Has Globalization Gone Too Far? | publisher=Institute for International Economics | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-88132-241-5 | url=https://archive.org/details/hasglobalization00rodr }}

== लिधंसा ==
{{लिधंसा|}}

== पिनेया स्वापू ==

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170126150704/http://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/ दानि रोड्रिकया होम पेज]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20241110095049/https://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/research-papers दानि रोड्रिकया लिपांगु अनुसन्धान]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20191219012516/https://rodrik.typepad.com/ दानि रोड्रिकया वेभलग]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111011073613/http://www.project-syndicate.org/series/roads_to_prosperity/description &quot;समृद्धिया लँपु&quot;]   Archived प्रोजेक्ट सिन्डिकेटया निंतिं दानि रोड्रिकया ओप-एड कोलुम
* 
[[पुचः:म्वानाच्वंपिं मनूत]]
[[पुचः:सामाजिक विज्ञान]]
[[पुचः:अर्थशास्त्र]]
[[पुचः:तर्किश यहुदी]]
[[पुचः:हलिंकरण बिरोधी च्वमि]]
[[पुचः:त्रेद अर्थशास्त्री]]
[[पुचः:Pages with unreviewed translations]]</text>
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    <title>छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ</title>
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      <comment>/* Prachalit Nepal Lipi Converter */ new section</comment>
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      <text bytes="382" sha1="bu679d1m3brj3gwvhebj5453otmouqj" xml:space="preserve">== Prachalit Nepal Lipi Converter ==

Thank you for your message in the community portal. I think its a great idea to have automatic converter. Please let me know if I could be of any help. Thank you! [[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh|𑐫𑐸𑐎𑐾𑐱]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) ०४:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>ङघिञ</username>
        <id>30986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Prachalit Nepal Lipi Converter */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>1122597</origin>
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      <text bytes="836" sha1="ccqjupugxzb2kytls6rqlbqaqnvjtn0" xml:space="preserve">== Prachalit Nepal Lipi Converter ==

Thank you for your message in the community portal. I think its a great idea to have automatic converter. Please let me know if I could be of any help. Thank you! [[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh|𑐫𑐸𑐎𑐾𑐱]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) ०४:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)

:Yes, definitely. Please put your vote in the 'Support' section below, and you can help making a ticket where we send this proposal to [[phabricator:|phabricator]], we need to give some already existing converters and in a span of a few weeks, it can be implemented! [[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) ११:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>ccqjupugxzb2kytls6rqlbqaqnvjtn0</sha1>
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        <id>30986</id>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="779" sha1="ox1mnul1ztzooqzv2clozp8kf1uki02" xml:space="preserve">== Prachalit Nepal Lipi Converter ==

Thank you for your message in the community portal. I think its a great idea to have automatic converter. Please let me know if I could be of any help. Thank you! [[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh|𑐫𑐸𑐎𑐾𑐱]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) ०४:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)

:Yes, definitely. You can help making a ticket where we send this proposal to [[phabricator:|phabricator]], we need to give some already existing converters and in a span of a few weeks, it can be implemented! [[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) ११:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>ox1mnul1ztzooqzv2clozp8kf1uki02</sha1>
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      <contributor>
        <username>ङघिञ</username>
        <id>30986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Prachalit Nepal Lipi Converter */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>1122599</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1142" sha1="284byc703z31s482sr3sh117t4051em" xml:space="preserve">== Prachalit Nepal Lipi Converter ==

Thank you for your message in the community portal. I think its a great idea to have automatic converter. Please let me know if I could be of any help. Thank you! [[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh|𑐫𑐸𑐎𑐾𑐱]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) ०४:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)

:Yes, definitely. You can help making a ticket where we send this proposal to [[phabricator:|phabricator]], we need to give some already existing converters and in a span of a few weeks, it can be implemented! [[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) ११:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)
::here are some links on this;-
::https://github.com/wikimedia/mediawiki/blob/master/includes/Language/LanguageConverter.php
::https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Converter [[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) ११:४०, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>284byc703z31s482sr3sh117t4051em</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>1122600</id>
      <parentid>1122599</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-10T11:43:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Suwarn Vajracharya</username>
        <id>11135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Prachalit Nepal Lipi Converter */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>1122600</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2957" sha1="ghm8rf2al5vvry1of1richmktdi5kty" xml:space="preserve">== Prachalit Nepal Lipi Converter ==

Thank you for your message in the community portal. I think its a great idea to have automatic converter. Please let me know if I could be of any help. Thank you! [[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh|𑐫𑐸𑐎𑐾𑐱]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) ०४:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)

:Yes, definitely. You can help making a ticket where we send this proposal to [[phabricator:|phabricator]], we need to give some already existing converters and in a span of a few weeks, it can be implemented! [[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) ११:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)
::here are some links on this;-
::https://github.com/wikimedia/mediawiki/blob/master/includes/Language/LanguageConverter.php
::https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Converter [[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) ११:४०, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)
::It's heartening to learn about automatic converter between Nepal Lipi and Devanagari scripts. Although I have yet to know ङघिञ, Yukesh and I known to each other. I work on revitalizing Nepal Bhasa with Nepal Lipi. See www.nepal-lipi.com for more. I will be very happy help this great work you all have brought forward. Following was what I shared this afternoon:
::&lt;blockquote&gt;I wholeheartedly support automatic conversion between Nepal Lipi and Devanagari scripts. Nepal Lipi is the original script of Nepal Bhasa. Devanagari script has been adopted to write Nepal Bhasa simply because we didn't have a Unicode Nepal Lipi script until recently to use in computers, websites, and mobile devices. Thanks to the creation of the Noto Sans Newa font, it is now being used in all the above devices.  I am very grateful to Wikipedia's new effort to provide auto-conversion between Nepal Lipi and Devanagari scripts. It will be like the Chinese language providing Simplified Chinese and Traditional Chinese characters.  May I also remind the concerned members of the Wikipedia Nepal Bhasa project that Nepal Lipi is the original script of Nepal, while Ranjana and Bhujimol are styles of Nepal Lipi. The term &quot;Prachalit&quot; is an adjective (like ''prachalit kanun'' = mostly used law) for this original script, not a noun. Nepal Lipi got this adjective title of &quot;Prachalit&quot; because the script is the most popular and used in the Nepal Mandala. '''Therefore, it will be perfect to use the terms &quot;Nepal Lipi / Devanagari&quot; for the conversion buttons, rather than &quot;Prachalit / Devanagari.&quot;'''&lt;/blockquote&gt;
:: ----
::[[छ्येलेमि:Suwarn Vajracharya|Suwarn Vajracharya]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Suwarn Vajracharya|talk]]) ११:४३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>ghm8rf2al5vvry1of1richmktdi5kty</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>1122601</id>
      <parentid>1122600</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-10T11:45:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Suwarn Vajracharya</username>
        <id>11135</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>1122601</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2962" sha1="gkkv7md2k5dxuif45ty175xvpqmrd2e" xml:space="preserve">== Prachalit Nepal Lipi Converter ==

Thank you for your message in the community portal. I think its a great idea to have automatic converter. Please let me know if I could be of any help. Thank you! [[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh|𑐫𑐸𑐎𑐾𑐱]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Eukesh|talk]]) ०४:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)

:Yes, definitely. You can help making a ticket where we send this proposal to [[phabricator:|phabricator]], we need to give some already existing converters and in a span of a few weeks, it can be implemented! [[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) ११:२३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)
::here are some links on this;-
::https://github.com/wikimedia/mediawiki/blob/master/includes/Language/LanguageConverter.php
::https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Language_Converter [[छ्येलेमि:ङघिञ|ङघिञ]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:ङघिञ|talk]]) ११:४०, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)

::It's heartening to learn about automatic converter between Nepal Lipi and Devanagari scripts. Although I have yet to know ङघिञ, Yukesh and I known to each other. I work on revitalizing Nepal Bhasa with Nepal Lipi. See www.nepal-lipi.com for more. I will be very happy help this great work you all have brought forward. Following was what I shared this afternoon:
::&lt;blockquote&gt;I wholeheartedly support automatic conversion between Nepal Lipi and Devanagari scripts. Nepal Lipi is the original script of Nepal Bhasa. Devanagari script has been adopted to write Nepal Bhasa simply because we didn't have a Unicode Nepal Lipi script until recently to use in computers, websites, and mobile devices. Thanks to the creation of the Noto Sans Newa font, it is now being used in all the above devices.  

I am very grateful to Wikipedia's new effort to provide auto-conversion between Nepal Lipi and Devanagari scripts. It will be like the Chinese language providing Simplified Chinese and Traditional Chinese characters.  

May I also remind the concerned members of the Wikipedia Nepal Bhasa project that Nepal Lipi is the original script of Nepal, while Ranjana and Bhujimol are styles of Nepal Lipi. The term &quot;Prachalit&quot; is an adjective (like ''prachalit kanun'' = mostly used law) for this original script, not a noun. Nepal Lipi got this adjective title of &quot;Prachalit&quot; because the script is the most popular and used in the Nepal Mandala. '''Therefore, it will be perfect to use the terms &quot;Nepal Lipi / Devanagari&quot; for the conversion buttons, rather than &quot;Prachalit / Devanagari.&quot;'''&lt;/blockquote&gt;
:: ----
::[[छ्येलेमि:Suwarn Vajracharya|Suwarn Vajracharya]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Suwarn Vajracharya|talk]]) ११:४३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्स</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>307517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>1122579</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-10T04:42:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eukesh</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>न्हुगु पौ: '''एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्स''' (Analog electronics) इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया छगू ख्यः ख। थ्व ख्यः निरन्तर (continuous) एनालग सङ्केत (analog signals) नाप स्वापू दुगु सर्कित (circuits) व प्रणालीतयेगु सीकेज्या व छ्यलानाप स्वापू दु...</comment>
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      <text bytes="4383" sha1="grmgii2eyv89p17euln6aanqpk75bli" xml:space="preserve">'''एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्स''' (Analog electronics) इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया छगू ख्यः ख। थ्व ख्यः निरन्तर (continuous) एनालग सङ्केत (analog signals) नाप स्वापू दुगु सर्कित (circuits) व प्रणालीतयेगु सीकेज्या व छ्यलानाप स्वापू दु। एनालग सङ्केत धाःगु ईया सापेक्षय् निरन्तर हिलाच्वनिगु (continuous variation) विद्युतीय सङ्केत (voltage वा current) ख। थन्यागु सङ्केतयात डिजिटल इलेक्त्रोनिक्सय् थें '०' व '१' या रुपय् बाया तइमखु। एनालग सर्कितय् ट्रान्जिस्टर (transistor), रेजिस्टन्स (resistor), क्यापासिटर (capacitor), व इन्दक्तर (inductor) थेंज्याःगु आधारभूत ब्वः (components) छ्यली। थुकिया छगू मू अङ्ग अपरेसनल एम्प्लिफायर (Op-Amp) ख, गुकियात सङ्केतयात हिलेत व प्रशोधन यायेत छ्यलि। एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया छ्यला एम्पलिफायर (amplifiers), रियोस्तात, व फिल्टर सर्कितय् व्यापक रुपं जुइ। रेडियो व टेलिभिजनया सङ्केत प्रशोधनय् एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया तःधंगु भूमिका दु। थ्व ख्यःया सर्किततेसं वातावरणया निरन्तर हिउपाः (तौल, तापक्रम, व दबाव) या तथ्याङ्कयात म्हसीकेगु ज्या याइ। सः व जः थेंज्याःगु प्राकृतिक सङ्केतत मूलतः एनालग प्रकृतिया जुइ। अथे जुया प्राकृतिक सङ्केतयात म्हसीकेत एनालग सेन्सरया आवश्यकता जुइ। आधुनिक प्रविधि थौंकन्हे तःधंगु मात्राय् डिजिटल जुया वःसां एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया महत्त्व म्हो जुगु मदु। वास्तविक संसार नाप स्वापू तयेत डिजिटल प्रणालीतयेस नं एनालग-टु-डिजिटल कन्भर्टर (ADC) व डिजिटल-टु-एनालग कन्भर्टर (DAC) छ्यली। थुकिया डिजाइन डिजिटल इलेक्त्रोनिक्स स्वया जटिल व संवेदनशील जुइफु। सर्कितय् जुइगु न्वाइज (noise) वा गडबडीतेसं एनालग सङ्केतयात अःपुक्क असर यायेफु। एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया सिद्धान्त इलेक्त्रोनिक्स इन्जिनियरिङया मूल आधार ख। थ्व ख्यःया विकासं सञ्चार व प्रविधि क्षेत्रय् तःधंगु क्रान्ति हःगु दु।

== लिधंसा ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== स्वयादिसँ ==
* [[डिजिटल इलेक्त्रोनिक्स]]
* [[इलेक्त्रोनिक्स]]
* [[ट्रान्जिस्टर]]
* [[ओपरेसनल एम्प्लिफायर]]

[[Category:इलेक्त्रोनिक्स]]
[[Category:इन्जिनियरिङ]]

{{stub}}

[[en:Analog electronics]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>1122580</id>
      <parentid>1122579</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-10T04:43:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eukesh</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="4494" sha1="0nnbfmzy0ou3o88qkm7lyeeipwwrt53" xml:space="preserve">{{नेपाललिपि|𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳}}

'''एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्स''' (Analog electronics) इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया छगू ख्यः ख। थ्व ख्यः निरन्तर (continuous) एनालग सङ्केत (analog signals) नाप स्वापू दुगु सर्कित (circuits) व प्रणालीतयेगु सीकेज्या व छ्यलानाप स्वापू दु। एनालग सङ्केत धाःगु ईया सापेक्षय् निरन्तर हिलाच्वनिगु (continuous variation) विद्युतीय सङ्केत (voltage वा current) ख। थन्यागु सङ्केतयात डिजिटल इलेक्त्रोनिक्सय् थें '०' व '१' या रुपय् बाया तइमखु। एनालग सर्कितय् ट्रान्जिस्टर (transistor), रेजिस्टन्स (resistor), क्यापासिटर (capacitor), व इन्दक्तर (inductor) थेंज्याःगु आधारभूत ब्वः (components) छ्यली। थुकिया छगू मू अङ्ग अपरेसनल एम्प्लिफायर (Op-Amp) ख, गुकियात सङ्केतयात हिलेत व प्रशोधन यायेत छ्यलि। एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया छ्यला एम्पलिफायर (amplifiers), रियोस्तात, व फिल्टर सर्कितय् व्यापक रुपं जुइ। रेडियो व टेलिभिजनया सङ्केत प्रशोधनय् एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया तःधंगु भूमिका दु। थ्व ख्यःया सर्किततेसं वातावरणया निरन्तर हिउपाः (तौल, तापक्रम, व दबाव) या तथ्याङ्कयात म्हसीकेगु ज्या याइ। सः व जः थेंज्याःगु प्राकृतिक सङ्केतत मूलतः एनालग प्रकृतिया जुइ। अथे जुया प्राकृतिक सङ्केतयात म्हसीकेत एनालग सेन्सरया आवश्यकता जुइ। आधुनिक प्रविधि थौंकन्हे तःधंगु मात्राय् डिजिटल जुया वःसां एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया महत्त्व म्हो जुगु मदु। वास्तविक संसार नाप स्वापू तयेत डिजिटल प्रणालीतयेस नं एनालग-टु-डिजिटल कन्भर्टर (ADC) व डिजिटल-टु-एनालग कन्भर्टर (DAC) छ्यली। थुकिया डिजाइन डिजिटल इलेक्त्रोनिक्स स्वया जटिल व संवेदनशील जुइफु। सर्कितय् जुइगु न्वाइज (noise) वा गडबडीतेसं एनालग सङ्केतयात अःपुक्क असर यायेफु। एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्सया सिद्धान्त इलेक्त्रोनिक्स इन्जिनियरिङया मूल आधार ख। थ्व ख्यःया विकासं सञ्चार व प्रविधि क्षेत्रय् तःधंगु क्रान्ति हःगु दु।

== लिधंसा ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== स्वयादिसँ ==
* [[डिजिटल इलेक्त्रोनिक्स]]
* [[इलेक्त्रोनिक्स]]
* [[ट्रान्जिस्टर]]
* [[ओपरेसनल एम्प्लिफायर]]

[[Category:इलेक्त्रोनिक्स]]
[[Category:इन्जिनियरिङ]]

{{stub}}

[[en:Analog electronics]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>307518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>1122581</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-10T04:43:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eukesh</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>न्हुगु पौ: {{देवनागरी|एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्स}}  '''𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳''' (Analog electronics) 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑅 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑅 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬 (continuous) 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐳𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐟 (analog signals) 𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥...</comment>
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      <text bytes="5707" sha1="58k54415djagn5asugrru30jca5nxnw" xml:space="preserve">{{देवनागरी|एनालग इलेक्त्रोनिक्स}}

'''𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳''' (Analog electronics) 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑅 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑅 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬 (continuous) 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐳𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐟 (analog signals) 𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹 𑐡𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟 (circuits) 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐮𑐷𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐷𑐎𑐾𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐰 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐵𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹 𑐡𑐸। 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐳𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐢𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐃𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐵𑐥𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐫𑑂 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐴𑐶𑐮𑐵𑐔𑑂𑐰𑐣𑐶𑐐𑐸 (continuous variation) 𑐰𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐫𑐸𑐟𑐷𑐫 𑐳𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐟 (voltage 𑐰𑐵 current) 𑐏। 𑐠𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐐𑐸 𑐳𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐟𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐜𑐶𑐖𑐶𑐚𑐮 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑑂 𑐠𑐾𑑄 '𑑐' 𑐰 '𑑑' 𑐫𑐵 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑐫𑑂 𑐧𑐵𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐂𑐩𑐏𑐸। 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐬 (transistor), 𑐬𑐾𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐣𑑂𑐳 (resistor), 𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐚𑐬 (capacitor), 𑐰 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐡𑐎𑑂𑐟𑐬 (inductor) 𑐠𑐾𑑄𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬𑐨𑐹𑐟 𑐧𑑂𑐰𑑅 (components) 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑐐𑐹 𑐩𑐹 𑐀𑐒𑑂𑐐 𑐀𑐥𑐬𑐾𑐳𑐣𑐮 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐵𑐫𑐬 (Op-Amp) 𑐏, 𑐐𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐳𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐟𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐴𑐶𑐮𑐾𑐟 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐱𑑀𑐢𑐣 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐶। 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐵 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐵𑐫𑐬 (amplifiers), 𑐬𑐶𑐫𑑀𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐵𑐟, 𑐰 𑐦𑐶𑐮𑑂𑐚𑐬 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐰𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐎 𑐬𑐸𑐥𑑄 𑐖𑐸𑐂। 𑐬𑐾𑐜𑐶𑐫𑑀 𑐰 𑐚𑐾𑐮𑐶𑐨𑐶𑐖𑐣𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐱𑑀𑐢𑐣𑐫𑑂 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑑅𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐨𑐹𑐩𑐶𑐎𑐵 𑐡𑐸। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐰𑐵𑐟𑐵𑐰𑐬𑐞𑐫𑐵 𑐣𑐶𑐬𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐬 𑐴𑐶𑐄𑐥𑐵𑑅 (𑐟𑑁𑐮, 𑐟𑐵𑐥𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐩, 𑐰 𑐡𑐧𑐵𑐰) 𑐫𑐵 𑐟𑐠𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑐳𑐷𑐎𑐾𑐐𑐸 𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵 𑐫𑐵𑐂। 𑐳𑑅 𑐰 𑐖𑑅 𑐠𑐾𑑄𑐖𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐟𑐟 𑐩𑐹𑐮𑐟𑑅 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐸𑐂। 𑐀𑐠𑐾 𑐖𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐎𑐺𑐟𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐟𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑐳𑐷𑐎𑐾𑐟 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐳𑐾𑐣𑑂𑐳𑐬𑐫𑐵 𑐁𑐰𑐱𑑂𑐫𑐎𑐟𑐵 𑐖𑐸𑐂। 𑐁𑐢𑐸𑐣𑐶𑐎 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶 𑐠𑑁𑑄𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐴𑐾 𑐟𑑅𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐵𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐫𑑂 𑐜𑐶𑐖𑐶𑐚𑐮 𑐖𑐸𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑑅𑐳𑐵𑑄 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐴𑐟𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐰 𑐩𑑂𑐴𑑀 𑐖𑐸𑐐𑐸 𑐩𑐡𑐸। 𑐰𑐵𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐰𑐶𑐎 𑐳𑑄𑐳𑐵𑐬 𑐣𑐵𑐥 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐥𑐹 𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐟 𑐜𑐶𑐖𑐶𑐚𑐮 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐞𑐵𑐮𑐷𑐟𑐫𑐾𑐳 𑐣𑑄 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐-𑐚𑐸-𑐜𑐶𑐖𑐶𑐚𑐮 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐨𑐬𑑂𑐚𑐬 (ADC) 𑐰 𑐜𑐶𑐖𑐶𑐚𑐮-𑐚𑐸-𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐎𑐣𑑂𑐨𑐬𑑂𑐚𑐬 (DAC) 𑐕𑑂𑐫𑐮𑐷। 𑐠𑐸𑐎𑐶𑐫𑐵 𑐜𑐶𑐖𑐵𑐂𑐣 𑐜𑐶𑐖𑐶𑐚𑐮 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵 𑐖𑐚𑐶𑐮 𑐰 𑐳𑑄𑐰𑐾𑐡𑐣𑐱𑐷𑐮 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐦𑐸। 𑐳𑐬𑑂𑐎𑐶𑐟𑐫𑑂 𑐖𑐸𑐂𑐐𑐸 𑐣𑑂𑐰𑐵𑐂𑐖 (noise) 𑐰𑐵 𑐐𑐜𑐧𑐜𑐷𑐟𑐾𑐳𑑄 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐳𑐒𑑂𑐎𑐾𑐟𑐫𑐵𑐟 𑐀𑑅𑐥𑐸𑐎𑑂𑐎 𑐀𑐳𑐬 𑐫𑐵𑐫𑐾𑐦𑐸। 𑐊𑐣𑐵𑐮𑐐 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳𑐫𑐵 𑐳𑐶𑐡𑑂𑐢𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳 𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐬𑐶𑐒𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑐹𑐮 𑐁𑐢𑐵𑐬 𑐏। 𑐠𑑂𑐰 𑐏𑑂𑐫𑑅𑐫𑐵 𑐰𑐶𑐎𑐵𑐳𑑄 𑐳𑐘𑑂𑐔𑐵𑐬 𑐰 𑐥𑑂𑐬𑐰𑐶𑐢𑐶 𑐎𑑂𑐲𑐾𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐫𑑂 𑐟𑑅𑐢𑑄𑐐𑐸 𑐎𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐟𑐶 𑐴𑑅𑐐𑐸 𑐡𑐸।

== 𑐮𑐶𑐢𑑄𑐳𑐵 ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== 𑐳𑑂𑐰𑐫𑐵𑐡𑐶𑐳𑑃 ==
* [[𑐜𑐶𑐖𑐶𑐚𑐮 𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳]]
* [[𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳]]
* [[𑐚𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐚𑐬]]
* [[𑐌𑐥𑐬𑐾𑐳𑐣𑐮 𑐊𑐩𑑂𑐥𑑂𑐮𑐶𑐦𑐵𑐫𑐬]]

[[Category:𑐂𑐮𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐟𑑂𑐬𑑀𑐣𑐶𑐎𑑂𑐳]]
[[Category:𑐂𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐣𑐶𑐫𑐬𑐶𑐒]]

{{stub}}</text>
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    <title>छ्येलेमि:Eukesh/Auto/NepalScript/दायोद</title>
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    <redirect title="𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡" />
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      <timestamp>2026-08-10T04:45:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eukesh</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Eukesh moved page [[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh/Auto/NepalScript/दायोद]] to [[𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="34" sha1="fxs2iir3q6cnm0177j3cj8ho24xsuiz" xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[𑐡𑐵𑐫𑑀𑐡]]</text>
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    <redirect title="𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬" />
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      <timestamp>2026-08-10T04:46:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eukesh</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Eukesh moved page [[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh/Auto/NepalScript/क्यापासितर]] to [[𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="54" sha1="9mi5h7ks8hq52pyyoirch2ykq75uwkt" xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[𑐎𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐥𑐵𑐳𑐶𑐟𑐬]]</text>
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    <redirect title="𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬" />
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      <timestamp>2026-08-10T04:47:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eukesh</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Eukesh moved page [[छ्येलेमि:Eukesh/Auto/NepalScript/त्रान्जिस्तर]] to [[𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="62" sha1="jyp9zlp72h4lksrkz7mil1qvebtswci" xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[𑐟𑑂𑐬𑐵𑐣𑑂𑐖𑐶𑐳𑑂𑐟𑐬]]</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Ranjit.Pravinda</username>
        <id>31641</id>
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      <comment>/* Great work */ new section</comment>
      <origin>1122596</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="393" sha1="kkxgyg9taciz8bppj8pghcov9wamfhg" xml:space="preserve">== Great work ==

𑐣𑐁𑐮𑐾 𑐰𑐬𑑂𑐎 𑐰 𑐐𑑂𑐬𑐾𑐚𑑂 𑐀𑐩𑐾𑐳𑑂𑐟𑑂 𑐎𑐾𑐥𑐶𑑀 𑐡𑐾𑐎𑑂𑐵𑑀 (Nice work and great effort. keep it up.) [[छ्येलेमि:Ranjit.Pravinda|Ranjit.Pravinda]] ([[छ्येलेमि खँलाबँला:Ranjit.Pravinda|talk]]) ०७:४३, १० अगस्ट २०२६ (UTC)</text>
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