Kasakstan

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    <title>Kasakstan</title>
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      <text bytes="1611" sha1="0o7uejdbhq9cwgawk2pysu6rb7m2noq" xml:space="preserve">{{rute al pagine|[[Geografia]]|[[Europa]]/[[Asia]]}}

{{Info_boxe_lande
|nome=Kasakstan
|imaje_flage=Flag of Kazakhstan.svg
|chef_urbe=[[Astana]]
|maxim_grandi_urbe=[[Almaty]], [[Shymkent]]
|chefe de state=[[Kasim-Jomart Tokayev]] (Қасым-Жомарт Тоқаев)
|chefe de guvernamente=[[Oljas Bektenov]] (Олжас Бектенов)
|populatione=20 243 981 (01.11.2024)
|lingues=[[Kasakum]], [[Rusum]] 
|area=2 724 902 
|populational_denseso=7.43 (2024)
|moneye=[[Kasakstani tenge|Tenge]], ₸ 
|moneye_kode=KZT
|tempe-sone=UTC +5&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.zakon.kz/obshestvo/6425975-kazakhstan-perekhodit-na-edinyy-chasovoy-poyas-chto-nuzhno-znat.html|title=Казахстан переходит на единый часовой пояс: что нужно знать|lang=ru|first=|last=|website=|date=2024-02-29|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|imaje_situatione=LocationKazakhstan.png
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'''Kasakstan''' es lande de Sentral [[Asia]]. 

Kasakstan es nondependanti depos [[1991]]. Til 1991 yare li lande esed parte del Soviet Unione.

Li chef-urbe de Kasakstan es [[Astana]] depos 1997 yare.

Kasakstan konsista ek 20 regiones - 17 provinses e 3 urbes de republiki signifikatione.

Li ofisial moneye de Kasakstan es Tenge depos 1993 yare. 1 tenge es subdiviset en 100 tiyines.

Kasakstan es li presidantal republike. Li parlamente de Kasakstan konsista ek du chambres, kel es li chambre de Majilise e li Senate.

Presidantes: 

* Unesmi - Nursultan Nazarbayev (1991-2019)
* Nuni - Kasim-Jomart Tokayev (fro 2019)

{{Landes de Asia}}
{{Landes de Europa}}

[[Category:Kasakstan|*]]
[[Category:Landes de Asia]]</text>
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{{Info_boxe_lande
|nome=Kasakstan
|imaje_flage=Flag of Kazakhstan.svg
|chef_urbe=[[Astana]]
|maxim_grandi_urbe=[[Almaty]], [[Shimkent]]
|chefe de state=[[Kasim-Jomart Tokayev]] (Қасым-Жомарт Тоқаев)
|chefe de guvernamente=[[Oljas Bektenov]] (Олжас Бектенов)
|populatione=20 243 981 (01.11.2024)
|lingues=[[Kasakum]], [[Rusum]] 
|area=2 724 902 
|populational_denseso=7.43 (2024)
|moneye=[[Kasakstani tenge|Tenge]], ₸ 
|moneye_kode=KZT
|tempe-sone=UTC +5&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.zakon.kz/obshestvo/6425975-kazakhstan-perekhodit-na-edinyy-chasovoy-poyas-chto-nuzhno-znat.html|title=Казахстан переходит на единый часовой пояс: что нужно знать|lang=ru|first=|last=|website=|date=2024-02-29|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|imaje_situatione=LocationKazakhstan.png
}}
'''Kasakstan''' es lande de Sentral [[Asia]]. 

Kasakstan es nondependanti depos [[1991]]. Til 1991 yare li lande esed parte del Soviet Unione.

Li chef-urbe de Kasakstan es [[Astana]] depos 1997 yare.

Kasakstan konsista ek 20 regiones - 17 provinses e 3 urbes de republiki signifikatione.

Li ofisial moneye de Kasakstan es Tenge depos 1993 yare. 1 tenge es subdiviset en 100 tiyines.

Kasakstan es li presidantal republike. Li parlamente de Kasakstan konsista ek du chambres, kel es li chambre de Majilise e li Senate.

Presidantes: 

* Unesmi - Nursultan Nazarbayev (1991-2019)
* Nuni - Kasim-Jomart Tokayev (fro 2019)

{{Landes de Asia}}
{{Landes de Europa}}

[[Category:Kasakstan|*]]
[[Category:Landes de Asia]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Kasakum</title>
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      <text bytes="620" sha1="3set5unvqb6zhya2ih6avynmsiw9vk9" xml:space="preserve">{{Infoboxe lingue| 
| nome = Kasakum 
| propri = Қазақ тілі / Qazaq tılı (kazak tili)
| area = 
| ofisial = [[Kasakstan]], [[Rusia]] (Altay) e [[Populen Republike de China|China]]
| nombre = 16 902 000
| range = 76
| familie = [[Turkesi lingues]]
| grupe = [[Altay lingues]]
| alfabete = 
| akademie = 
| iso1 = kk
| iso2 = kaz
| iso3 = kaz
| sil = 
}}
'''Kasakum''' es un turkesi lingue. Lu bli parla kom ofisiali lingue da li majoritate del popule in [[Kasakstan]]. Lu anke parla in [[Rusia]] (Altay) e [[Populen Republike de China|China]].

[[Category:Turkesi lingues]]
[[Category:Lingues de Sentral Asie]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Santonin</title>
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      <comment>Novi pagine: {{rute al pagine|[[Natural sienties]]|[[Kemie]]|[[Organi kemie]]}}  {| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width:23em;&quot; |+ '''Santonine''' |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[File:Santonin v2.svg|210px|Struktural formule de santonine]] |- ! IUPAC-nome | (3S,3aS,5aS,9bS)-3,5a,9-trimethyl-3a,4,5,9b-tetrahydro-3H-benzo[g][1]benzofuran-2,8-dione |- ! Altri nómines | α-santonine, (−)-santonine, santonini anhidride |- ! Kemial formule | C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; |-...</comment>
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{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width:23em;&quot;
|+ '''Santonine'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[File:Santonin v2.svg|210px|Struktural formule de santonine]]
|-
! IUPAC-nome
| (3S,3aS,5aS,9bS)-3,5a,9-trimethyl-3a,4,5,9b-tetrahydro-3H-benzo[g][1]benzofuran-2,8-dione
|-
! Altri nómines
| α-santonine, (−)-santonine, santonini anhidride
|-
! Kemial formule
| C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
! Molari mase
| 246,30 g·mol&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
! Agregati state
| solidi
|-
! Aparo
| kolorlessi o blanki kristales, kel deveni jaluni sub li influo de lume
|-
! Fusion-punte
| 172–174 °C
|-
! CAS-numere
| 481-06-1
|-
! PubChem
| 221071
|-
! ChEBI
| 16363
|}

'''Santonine''' (anke nomat '''santonin''' o plu exaktim '''(−)-α-santonine''') es un [[organi kemie|organi]] natural komposure kun li kemial formule C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. Lu apartena al terpenoides e es un sesquiterpeni laktone. Santonine blid largim usat in li 19-esmi e unesmi parte del 20-esmi siekle kom anthelmintik medikamente, specialim kontre parasiti rundi vermes, inklusent ''Ascaris lumbricoides''.

Li medikamente non mortifika li vermes imediatim, ma perturba lesen muskulal koordinatione e paralisa les. Pro tum, les perde li kapablitate tu resta in li intestines e pote bli expulsa fro li korpe, historikim kun li helpo de un purganti medikamente. Depos li developo de plu securi anthelmintikes, santonine preske totalim perdit sen medikal importanteso pro lun konsiderabli toksikeso.&lt;ref name=&quot;PubChem&quot;&gt;[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/221071 PubChem: (−)-Santonin, CID 221071], National Center for Biotechnology Information.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ChEBI&quot;&gt;[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI%3A16363 ChEBI: α-santonin, CHEBI:16363], European Bioinformatics Institute.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Origine e historie ==

[[File:Artemisia cina - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-165.jpg|thumb|left|''Artemisia cina'', un del principal historikal fontes de santonine.]]

Santonine okure in li nonapertati floral kapes de kelki spesies del genre ''Artemisia'', specialim ''Artemisia cina''. Li sekati floral kapes de disi plantes esed tradisionalim konosat kom «verme-seme» e esed usat kom remede kontre intestinal parasitis mult antee li isolatione del puri substante.

Santonine blid isolat ye 1830 da li germani apotekistes Kahler e Alms. Depos tum lu rapidim devenid un del maxim importanti medikamentes kontre askarides. Ye li 1840-esmi yares, tabletas e sukeri pastiles kontenant santonine ja esed produktat in Germania.

Fro li medie del 19-esmi siekle til aproksimativim li 1950-esmi yares, santonine esed usat kontre askariase e altri infektiones kausat da nematodes. Lu non esed efektivi kontre tenies e altri plati vermes. Santonine esed inkluset in li farmakopees de pluri landes, inklusent li Unitati States e li Unionati Regia, ma plu tard lu blid eliminat fro les pro lun toksik efekte e pro li aparo de plu securi medikamentes.&lt;ref&gt;''Modern Drug Encyclopedia and Therapeutic Index'', 6-esmi editione, Drug Publications Inc., 1955.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Fisikal e kemial tretes ==

Puri santonine forma kolorlessi, blanki o pal-beji, brilanti e plati prismal kristales. Lu es preske sin odore e komensalim have poki guste, ma plu tard produkta un forti amari guste. Sub li influo de lume, li kristales deveni gradatim jaluni.

Santonine es preske insolubli in frigidi akue, ma lu es plu solubli in bolenti akue. Lu dissolve anke in etanol, eter e kloroforme. Lun molari mase es 246,30 g·mol&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, e lun fusion-punte es aproksimativim 172–174 °C.&lt;ref name=&quot;PubChem&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ChEBI&quot;/&gt;

Santonine es optikim levorotatori. Kand lu es exposit a lume, lun strukture pote sufri fotokemial chanjos. Disi reakto explica li jalunisatione del substante.

In alkalin solutiones li laktone-ringe de santonine aperta e forma sales de santonini aside. Kand un aside bli adjunta, li laktone-ringe pote denove forma e santonine bli regenerat. Per plu komplexi alkalin hidrolyse e reorganisational reaktos, santonine pote bli konvertat a santonini aside, C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;.

[[File:Alpha-santonin-from-xtal-3D-balls.png|thumb|3D-modele del molekule de α-santonine.]]

== Historikal medikal use ==

Santonine esed chefim administrat kontre askariase, un intestinal infektione kausat da ''Ascaris lumbricoides''. Lu esed ofte donat kun un salini purgante o kun kastori oleo, por facilita li expulsion del paralysat vermes.

Li efekte de santonine sur li vermes depende del koncentratione. Lu perturba li koordinat movimentes del parasite: li anteriori parte deveni paralysat, durant ke li posteriori parte pote montra stimulat movimentes. Pro disi nekordinat state, li verme perde sen kapablitate tu konserva sen positione in li intestines.

Laboratorial experimentes in li 19-esmi siekle montrad ke santonine non sempre mortifika askarides, mem after longi expositione. Lun chef efekte es paralise e perda de muskulal koordinatione, non direkti mortifikatione.&lt;ref&gt;Ernest Baldwin: «An in vitro method for the chemotherapeutic investigation of anthelminthic potency», ''Parasitology'', 1943.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Toksikeso ==

Santonine have un streti diferentie inter li terapeutikal e toksik doses. Pro tum, erores in dosatione esed relativim dangerosi, specialim por infantes.

Un karakteristik adversi efekte es '''xanthopsia''', o jaluni vision. Persones afetat vide blanki objektes kom jaluni e pota have difikultate tu diferentia kolores. In kelki kazes, li unesmi koloral perturbo es blu-violeti vision, kel plu tard deveni jaluni.

Altri posibli simptomos de intoksikatione inkluse:

* nausea e vomitatione;
* abdominal dolore;
* kap-dolore e vertige;
* perturbationes del vision;
* tremores;
* eksitatione del sentral nerval sisteme;
* konvulsiones;
* perda de konsientieso e kome.

Gravi intoksikatione pote kausa respiral perturbo e morte. Pro disi riskes e pro li developo de plu securi anthelmintik medikamentes, santonine nun non es registrat kom medikamente in li majoritate del landes.&lt;ref name=&quot;PubChem&quot;/&gt;

== Historikal produktado ==

Por produktar santonine, li nonapertati floral kapes de ''Artemisia cina'' esed sekat e pulverisat. Li esencial oleos esed eliminat, e li vegetal materiale esed traktat kun kaldi akue e kalcium-hidroxide.

Durante disi proceso santonine apertad sen laktone-ringe e formad kalciumi santoninate. Li solubli kalciumi sale blid separat fro li vegetal reste. Depos traktatione kun hidrokloridi aside, santonini aside reformad li laktone-ringe e puri santonine kristalisad fro li solutione.

== Vida anke ==

* [[Artemisia cina]]
* [[Laktone]]
* [[Terpenoide]]
* [[Organi kemie]]

== Referenties ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Externi linkes ==

* [https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/221071 Santonine in PubChem]
* [https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI%3A16363 α-Santonine in ChEBI]
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Santonin Images e medias pri santonine in Wikimedia Commons]

[[Category:Organi komposures]]
[[Category:Terpenoides]]
[[Category:Laktones]]
[[Category:Anthelmintik medikamentes]]
[[Category:Toksik substantes]]</text>
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      <text bytes="8870" sha1="l8oo2fbfzzuu94fsml4gm6lblvrt1a2" xml:space="preserve">{{rute al pagine|[[Natural sienties]]|[[Kemie]]|[[Organi kemie]]}}

{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width:23em;&quot;
|+ '''Santonine'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[File:Santonin v2.svg|210px|Struktural formule de santonine]]
|-
! IUPAC-nome
| (3S,3aS,5aS,9bS)-3,5a,9-trimethyl-3a,4,5,9b-tetrahydro-3H-benzo[g][1]benzofuran-2,8-dione
|-
! Altri nómines
| α-santonine, (−)-santonine, santonini anhidride
|-
! Kemial formule
| C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
! Molari mase
| 246,30 g·mol&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
! Agregati state
| solidi
|-
! Aparo
| kolorlessi o blanki kristales, kel deveni jaluni sub li influo de lume
|-
! Fusion-punte
| 172–174 °C
|-
! CAS-numere
| 481-06-1
|-
! PubChem
| 221071
|-
! ChEBI
| 16363
|}

'''Santonine''' (anke nomat '''santonin''' o plu exaktim '''(−)-α-santonine''') es un [[organi kemie|organi]] natural komposure kun li kemial formule C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. Lu apartena al terpenoides e es un sesquiterpeni laktone. Santonine blid largim usat in li 19-esmi e unesmi parte del 20-esmi siekle kom anthelmintik medikamente, specialim kontre parasiti rundi vermes, inklusent ''Ascaris lumbricoides''.

Li medikamente non mortifika li vermes imediatim, ma perturba lesen muskulal koordinatione e paralisa les. Pro tum, les perde li kapablitate tu resta in li intestines e pote bli expulsa fro li korpe, historikim kun li helpo de un purganti medikamente. Depos li developo de plu securi anthelmintikes, santonine preske totalim perdit sen medikal importanteso pro lun konsiderabli toksikeso.&lt;ref name=&quot;PubChem&quot;&gt;[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/221071 PubChem: (−)-Santonin, CID 221071], National Center for Biotechnology Information.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ChEBI&quot;&gt;[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI%3A16363 ChEBI: α-santonin, CHEBI:16363], European Bioinformatics Institute.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Origine e historie ==

[[File:Artemisia cina - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-165.jpg|thumb|left|''Artemisia cina'', un del principal historikal fontes de santonine.]]

Santonine okure in li nonapertati floral kapes de kelki spesies del genre ''Artemisia'', specialim ''Artemisia cina''. Li sekati floral kapes de disi plantes esed tradisionalim konosat kom «verme-seme» e esed usat kom remede kontre intestinal parasitis mult antee li isolatione del puri substante.

Santonine blid isolat ye 1830 da li germani apotekistes Kahler e Alms. Depos tum lu rapidim devenid un del maxim importanti medikamentes kontre askarides. Ye li 1840-esmi yares, tabletas e sukeri pastiles kontenant santonine ja esed produktat in Germania.

Un importanti kapitule in li historie de santonine es ligat kun li urbe [[Shimkent]] in sud [[Kazakhstan]]. Ye 1882 li komersantes Nikolai Ivanov e Nikifor Savinkov fondad apud li rive Badam un fabrike por produktar santonine fro li lokal ''Artemisia cina''. Li plante kresed in li regione de Sud Kazakhstan, kel esed un del poki lokos del monde u ti spesie troved in grandi quantitate.&lt;ref name=&quot;SantoHistory&quot;&gt;[https://www.polpharma-santo.com/от-полыни-до-антибиотиков-как-развивалась/ «От полыни до антибиотиков. Как развивалась фарминдустрия в Казахстане»], Polpharma Santo.&lt;/ref&gt;

Durante li unesmi yare de laboro, li fabrike produktad plu kam tri tonnes de santonine. In li sequenti yare li produktado ja atinged proximim 24 tonnes. Li santonine produktat in Shymkent blid exportat a [[Germania]], [[Italia]], Hispania, [[Japan]] e [[Nord Amerika]]. Pro disi international komerse, li Shymkent-fabrike devenid konosat in mult landes del monde.&lt;ref name=&quot;SantoHistory&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;TengriHistory&quot;&gt;[https://tengrinews.kz/mixnews/polyini-antibiotikov-razvivalas-farmindustriya-kazahstane-465637/ «От полыни до антибиотиков. Как развивалась фарминдустрия в Казахстане»], Tengri Life, 15 aprile 2022.&lt;/ref&gt;

Inter 1889 e 1896 li fabrike temporarim stopad li produktado de santonine e produktad sukere. Plu tard li farmaseutikal produktado blid restaurat. Durante li sovieti periode li «Santonine-fabrike» devenid un del maxim importanti produktantes de farmaseutikal substantes fro vegetal materies.

Fro li medie del 19-esmi siekle til aproksimativim li 1950-esmi yares, santonine esed usat kontre askariase e altri infektiones kausat da nematodes. Lu non esed efektivi kontre tenies e altri plati vermes. Santonine esed inkluset in li farmakopees de pluri landes, inklusent li Unitati States e li Unionati Regia, ma plu tard lu blid eliminat fro les pro lun toksik efekte e pro li aparo de plu securi medikamentes.&lt;ref&gt;''Modern Drug Encyclopedia and Therapeutic Index'', 6-esmi editione, Drug Publications Inc., 1955.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Fisikal e kemial tretes ==

Puri santonine forma kolorlessi, blanki o pal-beji, brilanti e plati prismal kristales. Lu es preske sin odore e komensalim have poki guste, ma plu tard produkta un forti amari guste. Sub li influo de lume, li kristales deveni gradatim jaluni.

Santonine es preske insolubli in frigidi akue, ma lu es plu solubli in bolenti akue. Lu dissolve anke in etanol, eter e kloroforme. Lun molari mase es 246,30 g·mol&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, e lun fusion-punte es aproksimativim 172–174 °C.&lt;ref name=&quot;PubChem&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ChEBI&quot;/&gt;

Santonine es optikim levorotatori. Kand lu es exposit a lume, lun strukture pote sufri fotokemial chanjos. Disi reakto explica li jalunisatione del substante.

In alkalin solutiones li laktone-ringe de santonine aperta e forma sales de santonini aside. Kand un aside bli adjunta, li laktone-ringe pote denove forma e santonine bli regenerat. Per plu komplexi alkalin hidrolyse e reorganisational reaktos, santonine pote bli konvertat a santonini aside, C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;.

[[File:Alpha-santonin-from-xtal-3D-balls.png|thumb|3D-modele del molekule de α-santonine.]]

== Historikal medikal use ==

Santonine esed chefim administrat kontre askariase, un intestinal infektione kausat da ''Ascaris lumbricoides''. Lu esed ofte donat kun un salini purgante o kun kastori oleo, por facilita li expulsion del paralysat vermes.

Li efekte de santonine sur li vermes depende del koncentratione. Lu perturba li koordinat movimentes del parasite: li anteriori parte deveni paralysat, durant ke li posteriori parte pote montra stimulat movimentes. Pro disi nekordinat state, li verme perde sen kapablitate tu konserva sen positione in li intestines.

Laboratorial experimentes in li 19-esmi siekle montrad ke santonine non sempre mortifika askarides, mem after longi expositione. Lun chef efekte es paralise e perda de muskulal koordinatione, non direkti mortifikatione.&lt;ref&gt;Ernest Baldwin: «An in vitro method for the chemotherapeutic investigation of anthelminthic potency», ''Parasitology'', 1943.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Toksikeso ==

Santonine have un streti diferentie inter li terapeutikal e toksik doses. Pro tum, erores in dosatione esed relativim dangerosi, specialim por infantes.

Un karakteristik adversi efekte es '''xanthopsia''', o jaluni vision. Persones afetat vide blanki objektes kom jaluni e pota have difikultate tu diferentia kolores. In kelki kazes, li unesmi koloral perturbo es blu-violeti vision, kel plu tard deveni jaluni.

Altri posibli simptomos de intoksikatione inkluse:

* nausea e vomitatione;
* abdominal dolore;
* kap-dolore e vertige;
* perturbationes del vision;
* tremores;
* eksitatione del sentral nerval sisteme;
* konvulsiones;
* perda de konsientieso e kome.

Gravi intoksikatione pote kausa respiral perturbo e morte. Pro disi riskes e pro li developo de plu securi anthelmintik medikamentes, santonine nun non es registrat kom medikamente in li majoritate del landes.&lt;ref name=&quot;PubChem&quot;/&gt;

== Historikal produktado ==

Por produktar santonine, li nonapertati floral kapes de ''Artemisia cina'' esed sekat e pulverisat. Li esencial oleos esed eliminat, e li vegetal materiale esed traktat kun kaldi akue e kalcium-hidroxide.

Durante disi proceso santonine apertad sen laktone-ringe e formad kalciumi santoninate. Li solubli kalciumi sale blid separat fro li vegetal reste. Depos traktatione kun hidrokloridi aside, santonini aside reformad li laktone-ringe e puri santonine kristalisad fro li solutione.

== Vida anke ==

* [[Artemisia cina]]
* [[Laktone]]
* [[Terpenoide]]
* [[Organi kemie]]

== Referenties ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Externi linkes ==

* [https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/221071 Santonine in PubChem]
* [https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI%3A16363 α-Santonine in ChEBI]
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Santonin Images e medias pri santonine in Wikimedia Commons]

[[Category:Organi komposures]]
[[Category:Terpenoides]]
[[Category:Laktones]]
[[Category:Anthelmintik medikamentes]]
[[Category:Toksik substantes]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>181875</id>
      <parentid>181874</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-06T10:45:03Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Vyacheslav Nasretdinov</username>
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      <comment>/* Origine e historie */</comment>
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      <text bytes="8860" sha1="ri5cdh56o2pbl0kpstcipmz31robmj9" xml:space="preserve">{{rute al pagine|[[Natural sienties]]|[[Kemie]]|[[Organi kemie]]}}

{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width:23em;&quot;
|+ '''Santonine'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[File:Santonin v2.svg|210px|Struktural formule de santonine]]
|-
! IUPAC-nome
| (3S,3aS,5aS,9bS)-3,5a,9-trimethyl-3a,4,5,9b-tetrahydro-3H-benzo[g][1]benzofuran-2,8-dione
|-
! Altri nómines
| α-santonine, (−)-santonine, santonini anhidride
|-
! Kemial formule
| C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
! Molari mase
| 246,30 g·mol&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
! Agregati state
| solidi
|-
! Aparo
| kolorlessi o blanki kristales, kel deveni jaluni sub li influo de lume
|-
! Fusion-punte
| 172–174 °C
|-
! CAS-numere
| 481-06-1
|-
! PubChem
| 221071
|-
! ChEBI
| 16363
|}

'''Santonine''' (anke nomat '''santonin''' o plu exaktim '''(−)-α-santonine''') es un [[organi kemie|organi]] natural komposure kun li kemial formule C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. Lu apartena al terpenoides e es un sesquiterpeni laktone. Santonine blid largim usat in li 19-esmi e unesmi parte del 20-esmi siekle kom anthelmintik medikamente, specialim kontre parasiti rundi vermes, inklusent ''Ascaris lumbricoides''.

Li medikamente non mortifika li vermes imediatim, ma perturba lesen muskulal koordinatione e paralisa les. Pro tum, les perde li kapablitate tu resta in li intestines e pote bli expulsa fro li korpe, historikim kun li helpo de un purganti medikamente. Depos li developo de plu securi anthelmintikes, santonine preske totalim perdit sen medikal importanteso pro lun konsiderabli toksikeso.&lt;ref name=&quot;PubChem&quot;&gt;[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/221071 PubChem: (−)-Santonin, CID 221071], National Center for Biotechnology Information.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ChEBI&quot;&gt;[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI%3A16363 ChEBI: α-santonin, CHEBI:16363], European Bioinformatics Institute.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Origine e historie ==

[[File:Artemisia cina - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-165.jpg|thumb|left|''Artemisia cina'', un del principal historikal fontes de santonin.]]

Santonin okure in li nonapertati floral kapes de kelki spesies del genre ''Artemisia'', specialim ''Artemisia cina''. Li sekati floral kapes de disi plantes esed tradisionalim konosat kom «verme-seme» e esed usat kom remede kontre intestinal parasitis mult antee li isolatione del puri substante.

Santonin blid isolat ye 1830 da li germani apotekistes Kahler e Alms. Depos tum lu rapidim devenid un del maxim importanti medikamentes kontre askarides. Ye li 1840-esmi yares, tabletas e sukeri pastiles kontenant santonin ja esed produktat in Germania.

Un importanti kapitule in li historie de santonin es ligat kun li urbe [[Shimkent]] in sud [[Kazakhstan]]. Ye 1882 li komersantes Nikolai Ivanov e Nikifor Savinkov fondad apud li rive Badam un fabrike por produktar santonin fro li lokal ''Artemisia cina''. Li plante kresed in li regione de Sud Kazakhstan, kel esed un del poki lokos del monde u ti spesie troved in grandi quantitate.&lt;ref name=&quot;SantoHistory&quot;&gt;[https://www.polpharma-santo.com/от-полыни-до-антибиотиков-как-развивалась/ «От полыни до антибиотиков. Как развивалась фарминдустрия в Казахстане»], Polpharma Santo.&lt;/ref&gt;

Durante li unesmi yare de laboro, li fabrike produktad plu kam tri tonnes de santonin. In li sequenti yare li produktado ja atinged proximim 24 tonnes. Li santonin produktat in Shymkent blid exportat a [[Germania]], [[Italia]], Hispania, [[Japan]] e [[Nord Amerika]]. Pro disi international komerse, li Shymkent-fabrike devenid konosat in mult landes del monde.&lt;ref name=&quot;SantoHistory&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;TengriHistory&quot;&gt;[https://tengrinews.kz/mixnews/polyini-antibiotikov-razvivalas-farmindustriya-kazahstane-465637/ «От полыни до антибиотиков. Как развивалась фарминдустрия в Казахстане»], Tengri Life, 15 aprile 2022.&lt;/ref&gt;

Inter 1889 e 1896 li fabrike temporarim stopad li produktado de santonin e produktad sukere. Plu tard li farmaseutikal produktado blid restaurat. Durante li sovieti periode li «Santonine-fabrike» devenid un del maxim importanti produktantes de farmaseutikal substantes fro vegetal materies.

Fro li medie del 19-esmi siekle til aproksimativim li 1950-esmi yares, santonine esed usat kontre askariase e altri infektiones kausat da nematodes. Lu non esed efektivi kontre tenies e altri plati vermes. Santonin esed inkluset in li farmakopees de pluri landes, inklusent li Unitati States e li Unionati Regia, ma plu tard lu blid eliminat fro les pro lun toksik efekte e pro li aparo de plu securi medikamentes.&lt;ref&gt;''Modern Drug Encyclopedia and Therapeutic Index'', 6-esmi editione, Drug Publications Inc., 1955.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Fisikal e kemial tretes ==

Puri santonine forma kolorlessi, blanki o pal-beji, brilanti e plati prismal kristales. Lu es preske sin odore e komensalim have poki guste, ma plu tard produkta un forti amari guste. Sub li influo de lume, li kristales deveni gradatim jaluni.

Santonine es preske insolubli in frigidi akue, ma lu es plu solubli in bolenti akue. Lu dissolve anke in etanol, eter e kloroforme. Lun molari mase es 246,30 g·mol&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;, e lun fusion-punte es aproksimativim 172–174 °C.&lt;ref name=&quot;PubChem&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ChEBI&quot;/&gt;

Santonine es optikim levorotatori. Kand lu es exposit a lume, lun strukture pote sufri fotokemial chanjos. Disi reakto explica li jalunisatione del substante.

In alkalin solutiones li laktone-ringe de santonine aperta e forma sales de santonini aside. Kand un aside bli adjunta, li laktone-ringe pote denove forma e santonine bli regenerat. Per plu komplexi alkalin hidrolyse e reorganisational reaktos, santonine pote bli konvertat a santonini aside, C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;.

[[File:Alpha-santonin-from-xtal-3D-balls.png|thumb|3D-modele del molekule de α-santonine.]]

== Historikal medikal use ==

Santonine esed chefim administrat kontre askariase, un intestinal infektione kausat da ''Ascaris lumbricoides''. Lu esed ofte donat kun un salini purgante o kun kastori oleo, por facilita li expulsion del paralysat vermes.

Li efekte de santonine sur li vermes depende del koncentratione. Lu perturba li koordinat movimentes del parasite: li anteriori parte deveni paralysat, durant ke li posteriori parte pote montra stimulat movimentes. Pro disi nekordinat state, li verme perde sen kapablitate tu konserva sen positione in li intestines.

Laboratorial experimentes in li 19-esmi siekle montrad ke santonine non sempre mortifika askarides, mem after longi expositione. Lun chef efekte es paralise e perda de muskulal koordinatione, non direkti mortifikatione.&lt;ref&gt;Ernest Baldwin: «An in vitro method for the chemotherapeutic investigation of anthelminthic potency», ''Parasitology'', 1943.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Toksikeso ==

Santonine have un streti diferentie inter li terapeutikal e toksik doses. Pro tum, erores in dosatione esed relativim dangerosi, specialim por infantes.

Un karakteristik adversi efekte es '''xanthopsia''', o jaluni vision. Persones afetat vide blanki objektes kom jaluni e pota have difikultate tu diferentia kolores. In kelki kazes, li unesmi koloral perturbo es blu-violeti vision, kel plu tard deveni jaluni.

Altri posibli simptomos de intoksikatione inkluse:

* nausea e vomitatione;
* abdominal dolore;
* kap-dolore e vertige;
* perturbationes del vision;
* tremores;
* eksitatione del sentral nerval sisteme;
* konvulsiones;
* perda de konsientieso e kome.

Gravi intoksikatione pote kausa respiral perturbo e morte. Pro disi riskes e pro li developo de plu securi anthelmintik medikamentes, santonine nun non es registrat kom medikamente in li majoritate del landes.&lt;ref name=&quot;PubChem&quot;/&gt;

== Historikal produktado ==

Por produktar santonine, li nonapertati floral kapes de ''Artemisia cina'' esed sekat e pulverisat. Li esencial oleos esed eliminat, e li vegetal materiale esed traktat kun kaldi akue e kalcium-hidroxide.

Durante disi proceso santonine apertad sen laktone-ringe e formad kalciumi santoninate. Li solubli kalciumi sale blid separat fro li vegetal reste. Depos traktatione kun hidrokloridi aside, santonini aside reformad li laktone-ringe e puri santonine kristalisad fro li solutione.

== Vida anke ==

* [[Artemisia cina]]
* [[Laktone]]
* [[Terpenoide]]
* [[Organi kemie]]

== Referenties ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Externi linkes ==

* [https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/221071 Santonine in PubChem]
* [https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI%3A16363 α-Santonine in ChEBI]
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Santonin Images e medias pri santonine in Wikimedia Commons]

[[Category:Organi komposures]]
[[Category:Terpenoides]]
[[Category:Laktones]]
[[Category:Anthelmintik medikamentes]]
[[Category:Toksik substantes]]</text>
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| ofisial = [[Uzbekistan]]
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| sil =
}}

'''Uzbekum''' (in Uzbekum: '''Oʻzbek tili''' o '''Oʻzbekcha'''; kirilikim: '''Ўзбек тили''' o '''Ўзбекча'''; arabikim: '''اۉزبېک تیلی''' o '''اۉزبېکچه''') es un [[Karlukesi lingues|karlukesi]] [[Turkesi lingues|turkesi lingue]] parlat chefim da li [[Uzbekes|uzbekes]]. Lu es li ofisiali e statal lingue de [[Uzbekistan]] e li maxim vastim parlat indigeni lingue de [[Sentral Asie]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Constitution&quot;&gt;[https://constitution.uz/en Constitutione de Republike Uzbekistan], artikle 4.&lt;/ref&gt;

Uzbekum anke bli parla in [[Afganistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Kirgistan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Rusia]], [[Populen Republike de China|China]], [[Pakistan]], [[Turkia]] e altri landes. Li estimas del nombre de parleres varia segun li metode de kontatione, ma sirk 40–45 miliones persones parla lu kom unesmi o duesmi lingue.

Lun proksim moderni relative es [[Uygurum]]. Amba lingues apartena al karlukesi branche del turkesi lingual familie. Li moderne literari Uzbekum developad fro lokali karlukesi dialektes e fro li tradisione del [[Chagataium|chagatai literari lingue]].

[[File:Idioma uzbeko.png|thumb|300px|Areas u Uzbekum bli parla da majoritates o konsiderabli minoritates.]]

== Nome ==

Li propri nome '''Oʻzbek tili''' signifika «lingue del uzbekes». Li forme '''Oʻzbekcha''' pote signifika «Uzbekum», «in Uzbekum» o «uzbekim».

Li nomine es derivat fro li etnonime ''oʻzbek''. In diferent skriptures lu bli skripta:

* latinikim: '''Oʻzbek tili''';
* kirilikim: '''Ўзбек тили''';
* arabikim: '''اۉزبېک تیلی'''.

In internationali lingvistike li lingue es konosat kom ''Uzbek'', ''Uzbek language'', ''usbekische Sprache'', ''oʻzbek tili'' e altri simil formes.

== Klasifikatione ==

Uzbekum apartena al [[Turkesi lingues|turkesi lingual familie]], plu exaktim al karlukesi o sud-esti branche. Li sam branche inkluse [[Uyghurum]] e kelki plu mikri lingual varietates.&lt;ref name=&quot;Glottolog&quot;&gt;[https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/uzbe1247 Glottolog: Uzbek].&lt;/ref&gt;

Li klasifikatione pote bli prezentat talim:

* [[Turkesi lingues]]
  ** Komuni Turkesi lingues
  *** Karlukesi lingues
  **** '''Uzbekum'''
  **** [[Uygurum]]

Historikalim, Uzbekum have forti relatione kun [[Chagataium]], kel esed li chef literari turkesi lingue de Sentral Asie fro li 15-esmi til li 19-esmi siekle. Moderni Uzbekum non es identiki kun Chagataium, ma lu konserva mult de lun lexike, gramatikal formes e literari tradisione.&lt;ref name=&quot;Iranica&quot;&gt;[https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chaghatay-language-and-literature Encyclopædia Iranica: “Chaghatay Language and Literature”].&lt;/ref&gt;

Li kodi '''uzb''' in [[ISO 639-3]] reprezenta Uzbekum kom makrolingue. Lu inkluse du individuali kodes:

* '''uzn''' — Nord-Uzbekum;
* '''uzs''' — Sud-Uzbekum.&lt;ref name=&quot;ISO&quot;&gt;[https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/uzb ISO 639-3: Uzbek].&lt;/ref&gt;

Disi divisione non es totalim identiki kun li tradisional divisione del lokali uzbeki dialektes.

== Geografial distributione ==

Li chef teritorie de Uzbekum es [[Uzbekistan]], u lu es li statal lingue. Li Konstitutione de Uzbekistan declara ke li statal lingue del republike es Uzbekum, durant ke li state deve respektar li lingues, kustumes e tradisiones de omni nasional e etnik grupes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Constitution&quot;/&gt;

Grandi o konsiderabli uzbeki-parlant komunitates existe anke in:

* nord [[Afganistan]];
* nordi e vesti [[Tajikistan]];
* sud [[Kirgistan]];
* sud [[Kazakhstan]];
* nord e esti [[Turkmenistan]];
* [[Rusia]];
* [[Xinjiang]] in China;
* [[Pakistan]];
* [[Turkia]].

In Afganistan Sud-Uzbekum es parlat chefim in li nordi provinces. Lu difere fro li standardi Nord-Uzbekum in fonetike, lexike e ortografie, e lu generalim usa un adapte [[Arabi alfabete|arabi alfabete]].&lt;ref name=&quot;SouthernUzbek&quot;&gt;D. Mamasaidov et al., [https://arxiv.org/abs/2508.14586 “Filling the Gap for Uzbek: Creating Translation Resources for Southern Uzbek”], 2025.&lt;/ref&gt;

Mult persones fro Uzbekistan e altri sentral-asi landes labora o habita temporarim in Rusia, Kazakhstan, Turkia, Korea e altri states. Pro tum li geografial area de uzbeki komunikatione es plu vasti kam li tradisional teritorie del uzbekes.

== Historie ==

=== Prehistorie e medievial periodo ===

Li historie de Uzbekum es ligat kun li developo del turkesi lingues in [[Transoxiania]], li basines del [[Amu Darya]], [[Sir Darya]] e [[Zarafshan]], e li oases de [[Fergana]], [[Tashkent]], [[Samarkand]] e [[Bukhara]].

Turkesi tribus e populenes komensad habita li regione in grandi nombres durant li unesmi milenio. Li lokali turkesi varietates kontaktad longim kun [[Persum]], [[Sogdianum]] e altri irani lingues.

Durant li periodo del Karahanidi Imperie, fro li 11-esmi siekle, un altim developat turkesi literari tradisione aparid in Sentral Asie. Inter li maxim konosat monumentes de ti periodo es:

* ''Kutadgu Bilig'' da Yusuf Khass Hajib;
* ''Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk'' da Mahmud al-Kashgari;
* li poemas de Ahmad Yugnaki.

Disi lingue non esed moderni Uzbekum, ma lu formad un parte del komuni historikal funde del karlukesi lingues.

=== Chagatai literari lingue ===

Fro li 14-esmi e specialim durant li 15-esmi siekle, [[Chagataium]] devenid li principal literari turkesi lingue de Sentral Asie. Lu esed usat in poesie, prose, historie, administrativ dokumentes e siential ovres.

Li maxim importanti autore del chagatai literature es [[Alisher Navoi]] (1441–1501). Per lun poemas, prosa e lingvistikal ovres, Navoi demonstrad ke li turkesi literari lingue pote have li sami kulturali e artistik importanteso kam Persum.

Altri grandi autores inkluse:

* Babur, fondatore del Mogul Imperie e autore del ''Baburnama'';
* Lutfi;
* Sakkaki;
* Abulgazi Bahadur Khan;
* Munis Khorezmi;
* Agahi.

Chagataium have un forti influo sur li historie, lexike e literari norme de moderni Uzbekum e Uyghurum.&lt;ref name=&quot;Iranica&quot;/&gt;

=== Formationen del moderni lingue ===

Durant li fini del 19-esmi e li unesmi dekades del 20-esmi siekle, lokali parlat uzbeki varietates komensad bli plu vastim usat in gazetes, skoles, teatre e moderni literature.

Li [[Jadidisme|jadidi]] reformatores laborad por modernisa educatione e krea un plu aksesibli literari lingue. Autores kom Mahmudkhodja Behbudiy, Abdulla Avloni, Fitrat, Hamza Hakimzoda Niyoziy e Abdulla Qodiriy usad formes plu proksimi al parlat lingue.

Durant li 1920-esmi yares, li nomine «Uzbekum» blid ofisialim aplikat al moderne literari lingue. Li lingue blid kodifikat sur li base de plur dialektes, ma li fonetike del Fergana–Tashkent grupe gradatim devenid li chef funde del standardi pronunsiatione.

Durant li sovieti periodo, Uzbekum developad un moderni terminologie por sientie, teknike, administrasion, edukatione e literature. Samtempe, Rusum have un forti influo sur lun lexike e publiki use.

Ye 21 oktobre 1989, li lege «Pri li statal lingue» donad a Uzbekum li status de statal lingue in li Uzbeki Sovieti Sosialisti Republike. Pos li independeso de Uzbekistan in 1991, ti status blid konservat. Li lege blid revidat ye 21 desembre 1995.&lt;ref name=&quot;LanguageLaw&quot;&gt;[https://lex.uz/docs/108915 Lege de Republike Uzbekistan «Pri li statal lingue»], 21 oktobre 1989, revidat 21 desembre 1995.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Dialektes e variantes ==

Uzbekum have un komplexi e heterogeni dialektal strukture. Li dialektes montra tretes del karlukesi, kipchakisi e oghuzesi branches del turkesi lingues.

Tradisionalim, on distinga tri grandi dialektal grupes.

=== Karlukesi o chagatai grupe ===

Disi grupe inkluse mult urbani dialektes de:

* [[Tashkent]];
* Fergana Vale;
* Andijan;
* Namangan;
* Samarkand;
* Bukhara;
* Karshi.

Li moderne literari lingue es basat chefim sur dialektes de disi grupe. Li standardi pronunsiatione es specialim proksimi al Fergana–Tashkent dialektes.

Mult karlukesi dialektes perdit li klasiki turkesi harmonie del vokales. Disi trete es ligat kun li longi kontakte kun Persum e Tajikum.

=== Kipchakisi grupe ===

Kipchakisi uzbeki dialektes bli parla in diferent rurali regiones de Uzbekistan e in kelki partes de Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan e Tajikistan.

Les konserva plur tretes karakteristik de kipchakisi lingues, inklusent:

* plu forti harmonie del vokales;
* diferent konsonantal transformasiones;
* specifik verbal e nominal sufikses;
* lexikal similitudes kun Kazakum, Kyrgyzum e Karakalpakum.

=== Oghuzesi o khorezmi grupe ===

Li oghuzesi dialektes es chefim parlat in Khorezm e in kelki adjunt regiones de Turkmenistan e Karakalpakstan.

Les montra similitudes kun [[Turkmenum]] e Khorasani Turkum. Li khorezmi varietates difere konsiderablim fro li standardi Uzbekum in pronunsiatione, lexike e plur gramatikal formes.

=== Nord-Uzbekum e Sud-Uzbekum ===

In internationali klasifikationes, on anke usa li termes:

* '''Nord-Uzbekum''' — li varietates de Uzbekistan e li majoritate del altri post-sovieti regiones;
* '''Sud-Uzbekum''' — li varietate chefim usat in Afghanistan e kelki adjunt regiones.

Sud-Uzbekum usa chefim arabi skripture e have plu mult direkti prestates fro Dari-Persum. Nord-Uzbekum usa latini e kiriliki skriptures e have plu forti historikal influo fro Rusum.&lt;ref name=&quot;SouthernUzbek&quot;/&gt;

== Skripture e alfabetes ==

Durante lun historie, Uzbekum e lun literari predecesores usad plur diferent skriptures.

== Alfabete ==

Uzbekum bli skripta per plur skriptural sistemes. In [[Uzbekistan]] li ofisiali alfabete es basat sur li [[Latini alfabete|latini skripture]], ma li [[Kiriliki alfabete|kiriliki skripture]] continua bli vastim usat in libres, periodikes, televizione, publiki annonces, internet e privati komunikatione.

In [[Kirgistan]] e [[Tajikistan]], Uzbekum bli skripta chefim per li kiriliki alfabete. Li uzbekes de [[Afganistan]] usa un alfabete basat sur li [[Arabi alfabete|arabi-persi skripture]].

=== Moderni latini alfabete ===

Li moderni uzbeki latini alfabete bli basat sur li version adoptat ye 1993 e revidat ye 6 maye 1995. Lu kontena 26 individuali literes, tri liter-kombinasiones — '''Sh sh''', '''Ch ch''' e '''Ng ng''' — e li separal signete '''ʼ'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;AlphabetLaw&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; margin:auto;&quot;
|+ '''Moderni uzbeki latini alfabete'''
|-
| '''A a''' || '''B b''' || '''D d''' || '''E e''' || '''F f''' || '''G g''' || '''H h''' || '''I i''' || '''J j''' || '''K k'''
|-
| '''L l''' || '''M m''' || '''N n''' || '''O o''' || '''P p''' || '''Q q''' || '''R r''' || '''S s''' || '''T t''' || '''U u'''
|-
| '''V v''' || '''X x''' || '''Y y''' || '''Z z''' || '''Oʻ oʻ''' || '''Gʻ gʻ''' || '''Sh sh''' || '''Ch ch''' || '''Ng ng''' || '''ʼ'''
|}

Li latini alfabete non have li literes '''C c''' e '''W w''' kom independenti partes. Les pote okure in kelki nonadaptat extranjeri nomes, markes e abreviatures.

Li formes '''Oʻ oʻ''' e '''Gʻ gʻ''' es individuali literes, benke digitalim les konsista fro un latini litere e un adjunt signete. Li kombinasiones '''Sh sh''', '''Ch ch''' e '''Ng ng''' reprezenta spesial sones del lingue.

Li signete '''ʼ''', nomat ''tutuq belgisi'' in Uzbekum, bli usat:

* por indika un glotal separasion o limite inter sones;
* in kelki vordes de arabi origine;
* por diferentia vordes, kel altrim esed skriptat identikim.

Exemples:

* ''maʼno'' — signifikatione;
* ''sanʼat'' — arte;
* ''eʼlon'' — anonse;
* ''qatʼiy'' — firmi o strikt.

=== Kiriliki alfabete ===

Li uzbeki kiriliki alfabete blid introduktet ye 1940. Lu have 35 literes e un apostrofe. Apud li komuni kiriliki literes, lu inkluse li spesial literes '''Ў ў''', '''Қ қ''', '''Ғ ғ''' e '''Ҳ ҳ'''.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; margin:auto;&quot;
|+ '''Uzbeki kiriliki alfabete'''
|-
| '''А а''' || '''Б б''' || '''В в''' || '''Г г''' || '''Д д''' || '''Е е''' || '''Ё ё''' || '''Ж ж''' || '''З з''' || '''И и'''
|-
| '''Й й''' || '''К к''' || '''Л л''' || '''М м''' || '''Н н''' || '''О о''' || '''П п''' || '''Р р''' || '''С с''' || '''Т т'''
|-
| '''У у''' || '''Ф ф''' || '''Х х''' || '''Ц ц''' || '''Ч ч''' || '''Ш ш''' || '''Ъ ъ''' || '''Ь ь''' || '''Э э''' || '''Ю ю'''
|-
| '''Я я''' || '''Ў ў''' || '''Қ қ''' || '''Ғ ғ''' || '''Ҳ ҳ''' || '''ʼ''' || || || ||
|}

Li literes '''Ц ц''', '''Ё ё''', '''Ю ю''', '''Я я''', li duri signete '''Ъ ъ''' e li moli signete '''Ь ь''' okure chefim in vordes prestat fro Rusum e altri lingues.

Li chef korrespondenties inter li moderni latini e kiriliki alfabetes es:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; margin:auto;&quot;
|+ '''Spesial literes e kombinasiones'''
! Latini
! Kiriliki
! Aproksimativi pronunsiatione
|-
| '''Oʻ oʻ''' || '''Ў ў''' || un vokale inter ''o'' e ''u''
|-
| '''Gʻ gʻ''' || '''Ғ ғ''' || sonori velari o uvulari frikative
|-
| '''Q q''' || '''Қ қ''' || surdi uvulari o posteriori ''k''
|-
| '''H h''' || '''Ҳ ҳ''' || surdi faringal o glotal frikative
|-
| '''X x''' || '''Х х''' || forti velari frikative
|-
| '''Sh sh''' || '''Ш ш''' || ''sh''
|-
| '''Ch ch''' || '''Ч ч''' || ''ch''
|-
| '''Ng ng''' || '''Нг нг''' || velari nasal sone
|-
| '''J j''' || '''Ж ж''' || ''j'' o ''zh'', segun li vorde
|}

=== Exemple in du alfabetes ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Latini skripture
! Kiriliki skripture
! Novial
|-
| ''Oʻzbek tili'' || ''Ўзбек тили'' || Uzbekum
|-
| ''Oʻzbekiston'' || ''Ўзбекистон'' || Uzbekistan
|-
| ''Toshkent'' || ''Тошкент'' || Tashkent
|-
| ''Samarqand'' || ''Самарқанд'' || Samarkand
|-
| ''Buxoro'' || ''Бухоро'' || Bukhara
|-
| ''Shahrisabz'' || ''Шаҳрисабз'' || Shahrisabz
|-
| ''Gʻazal'' || ''Ғазал'' || ghazale
|-
| ''Mustaqillik'' || ''Мустақиллик'' || independeso
|}

=== Proponet reforme de 2026 ===

Ye 2026, un lege-projekte por modifica li latini alfabete blid prezentat al parlamente de Uzbekistan. Li propositione dev remplasa quar aktuali literes o kombinasiones:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; margin:auto;&quot;
|+ '''Proponet chanjes'''
! Aktual forme
! Proponet forme
! Kiriliki ekvivalente
|-
| '''Oʻ oʻ''' || '''Ö ö''' || '''Ў ў'''
|-
| '''Gʻ gʻ''' || '''Ğ ğ''' || '''Ғ ғ'''
|-
| '''Sh sh''' || '''Ş ş''' || '''Ш ш'''
|-
| '''Ch ch''' || '''Ç ç''' || '''Ч ч'''
|}

Segun li lege-projekte, li novi alfabete dev kontena 28 literes e un apostrofe, in lok del aktuali 26 literes e tri liter-kombinasiones. Li chanjo es pensat por simplifika digitali skriptione e evita li teknikal problemas ligat kun diferent variantes del signetes in '''Oʻ''' e '''Gʻ'''.

Ye 24 julie 2026, li kompetenti komite del [[Senate de Uzbekistan]] preliminarim diskuted li lege e decidid presenta lu por konsideratione in un plenari reunion. Til li formal aprobatione e intratione in vigore del lege, li alfabete de 1995 resta li aktuali ofisiali variante.&lt;ref name=&quot;Alphabet2026&quot;/&gt;

=== Arabi skripture ===

Fro li medievial periodo til li 1920-esmi yares, li chagatai e uzbeki literari lingues esed skriptat per un persi-arabi alfabete.

Ye 1923, un reformet variante del arabi alfabete blid introduktet. Lu plu klarim indikad li uzbeki vokales e simplifikad kelki tradisional grafikal formes.

Hodie li arabi skripture continua bli usat por Sud-Uzbekum in Afghanistan, e anke in kelki uzbeki komunitates de Pakistan e China.

=== Unesmi latini alfabete ===

Ye 1928–1929, Uzbekistan adoptad li unifikat novi turkesi latini alfabete, konosat kom '''Yañalif'''. Lu esed usat til 1940.

Li reforme esed un parte del vasti latinisatione del turkesi lingues in li Sovieti Union.

=== Kiriliki alfabete ===

Ye 1940, un kiriliki alfabete por Uzbekum blid introduktet. Lu inklused literes por spesial uzbeki sones, tal kom:

* Ў ў;
* Қ қ;
* Ғ ғ;
* Ҳ ҳ.

Li kiriliki alfabete esed li sol ofisiali skripture durant li major parte del sovieti periodo. Hodie lu ankore es vastim usat in libres, jurnales, internet, reklames e privati komunikatione, specialim da plu oldi generationes.

=== Moderni latini alfabete ===

Ye 2 septembre 1993, Uzbekistan adoptad un lege pri li gradual reintroductione de un latini alfabete. Li unesmi variante esed proksimi al moderni turki alfabete e inklused li literes ''ö, ğ, ş'' e ''ç''.

Ye 6 maye 1995, li alfabete blid revidat. Li literes:

* ''ö'' blid remplasat per '''oʻ''';
* ''ğ'' blid remplasat per '''gʻ''';
* ''ş'' blid remplasat per '''sh''';
* ''ç'' blid remplasat per '''ch'''.

Li aktuali latini alfabete have 26 individuali literes e tri oficiali kombinasones de literes: '''sh''', '''ch''' e '''ng'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;AlphabetLaw&quot;&gt;[https://lex.uz/docs/112286 Lege de Republike Uzbekistan pri li introduktione del uzbeki alfabete basat sur latini skripture], 2 septembre 1993, revidat 6 maye 1995.&lt;/ref&gt;

Li special signet formes '''Oʻ oʻ''' e '''Gʻ gʻ''' representa separi sones. In praktike, diferent tipografikal signetes bli usat, inklusent apostrof, turnat komma e simboles simil a unikal kommas. Disi variatione krea problemas in digitali sercha, klavari use e standartisatione.

Latini skripture es ofisiali in Uzbekistan, ma kiriliki skripture continua bli vastim usat paralelim.

=== Propositione de reforme in 2026 ===

Ye 7 julie 2026, li Legislative Chambre del parlamente de Uzbekistan aprobad un lege-projekte por modifica li latini alfabete.

Li propositione previde li chanjes:

* '''Oʻ oʻ''' → '''Ö ö''';
* '''Gʻ gʻ''' → '''Ğ ğ''';
* '''Sh sh''' → '''Ş ş''';
* '''Ch ch''' → '''Ç ç'''.

Segun li projekte, li reformet alfabete dev have 28 literes e un apostrofe. Li autores deklarad ke li chanjo dev simplifika digitali skriptione e elimina problemas kausat da li diferent formes del apostrof.

Ye 24 julie 2026, li kompetenti komite del Senate preliminarim diskuted li projekte e rekomendad lu por konsideratione in un plenari reunion. Ye li fini de julie 2026, li reforme esed ankore in parlamentari proseso e li aktuali alfabete de 1995 restad in use.&lt;ref name=&quot;Alphabet2026&quot;&gt;[https://senat.uz/ru/events/post-5656 Senate de Uzbekistan: diskusion del lege-projekte pri li uzbeki alfabete], 24 julie 2026; [https://www.gazeta.uz/en/2026/07/09/alphabet/ “Deputies pass law on Uzbek alphabet reform”], ''Gazeta.uz'', 9 julie 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Linguistikal tretes ==

=== Fonetike ===

Li standardi Uzbekum have six chef vokal fonemes, kel in li moderni latini skripture bli reprezentat da:

'''a, e, i, o, oʻ, u'''.

Li exakti pronunsiatione del vokales varia inter dialektes. Li influo de Persum kontribuad al developo de un vokal sistem diferent fro ti de mult altri turkesi lingues.

Li standardi literari lingue generalim non have li sistematik harmonie del vokales, kel es karakteristik de mult turkesi lingues. Tamen, plur kipchakisi e oghuzesi dialektes konserva li harmonie parcialim o preske kompletim.

Uzbekum have konsonantes simil al altri turkesi lingues, ma anke kelki sones influat da persi e arabi prestates. Li sones skriptat per '''q, gʻ, x''' e '''h''' have un importanti rolle in li fonologial sistem.

Li lingue generalim non distinga longi e kurti vokales kom separi fonemes, excepte in kelki prestati vordes e dialektal formes.

=== Gramatike ===

Uzbekum es un '''aglutinativi lingue'''. Disi signifika ke li gramatikal signifikas bli adjuntat al radike chefim per un serie de sufikses.&lt;ref name=&quot;Morphology&quot;&gt;A. Salaev, [https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.14179 “UzMorphAnalyser: A Morphological Analysis Model for the Uzbek Language Using Inflectional Endings”], 2024.&lt;/ref&gt;

Por exemple:

:''kitob'' — libre;
:''kitoblar'' — libres;
:''kitoblarimiz'' — nor libres;
:''kitoblarimizda'' — in nor libres.

Uzbekum non have gramatikal genere. Substantives, pronomes e adjektives non bli dividet in maskuli, feminini o neutri classes.

Li adjektive generalim veni ante li substantive e non konkorda kun lu in numero o kase:

:''yaxshi kitob'' — bon libre;
:''yaxshi kitoblar'' — bon libres.

Li general vord-ordo es:

:'''subjekte – objekte – verbe'''.

Por exemple:

:''Men kitobni oʻqidim.''
:«Me lekted li libre.»

Tamen, li vord-ordo pote bli chanjat por emfaze o stilistik efekt.

=== Numero ===

Li plurale bli generalim format per li sufixe '''-lar''':

* ''bola'' — infante;
* ''bolalar'' — infantes;
* ''uy'' — hause;
* ''uylar'' — hauses.

Pos numerales, li substantive generalim resta in singulare:

:''uch kitob'' — tri libres, literalim «tri libre».

=== Kasus ===

Uzbekum have six chef gramatikal kasus.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Kase
! Sufixe
! Exemple
! Signifikatione
|-
| Nominative || — || ''uy'' || hause
|-
| Genitive || -ning || ''uyning'' || del hause
|-
| Dative || -ga / -ka / -qa || ''uyga'' || a hause
|-
| Akusative || -ni || ''uyni'' || li hause kom definiti objekte
|-
| Lokative || -da || ''uyda'' || in li hause
|-
| Ablative || -dan || ''uydan'' || fro li hause
|}

Li sufikses pote have fonetikal variantes segun li ultimi sone del vorde.

=== Posesion ===

Posesion bli ekspresat per posesivi sufikses:

* ''kitobim'' — men libre;
* ''kitobing'' — vun libre;
* ''kitobi'' — lun libre;
* ''kitobimiz'' — nor libre;
* ''kitobingiz'' — vor libre;
* ''kitoblari'' — lesen libre o libres.

In un komplet posesivi konstruksione, li posedanto veni in genitive:

:''mening kitobim'' — men libre;
:''oʻquvchining kitobi'' — li libre del studente.

=== Verbes ===

Uzbeki verbes indika:

* tempe;
* aspekte;
* mode;
* persone;
* numero;
* negatione;
* evidentialeso.

Li infinitive generalim fini per '''-moq''':

* ''kelmoq'' — veni;
* ''yozmoq'' — skripta;
* ''oʻqimoq'' — lekta o studia;
* ''gapirmoq'' — parla.

Li negatione bli generalim format per li sufixe '''-ma-''':

* ''keladi'' — lu veni o venira;
* ''kelmaydi'' — lu non veni o non venira.

Uzbekum have mult analitikal verbal konstruksiones, in kel auxilial verbes kombina kun verbal formes por ekspresa aspekte e nuance.

=== Postpositiones ===

Uzbekum usa chefim postpositiones in lok de prepositiones. Les veni pos li substantive o pronome:

* ''uy uchun'' — por li hause;
* ''mendan keyin'' — pos me;
* ''shahar haqida'' — pri li urbe;
* ''doʻst bilan'' — kun un amiko.

== Lexike ==

Li funde del uzbeki lexike es turkesi. Chef vordes pri familie, natura, korpe, numero, animalos, quotidian aktives e gramatikal strukture have turkesi origine.

Pro longi historikal kontakte, Uzbekum prended mult vordes fro [[Persum]]. Persi influo es specialim forti in:

* kulture;
* literature;
* urbal vive;
* art;
* kukerie;
* administrasion.

Mult vordes de [[Arabum|arabi origine]] intrad Uzbekum direktim o tra Persum. Les es frekventi in:

* religion;
* sientie;
* filosofie;
* edukatione;
* juridike;
* abstrakti vokabularie.

Exemples inkluse:

* ''kitob'' — libre;
* ''maktab'' — skole;
* ''ilm'' — konosenso o sientie;
* ''adabiyot'' — literature;
* ''huquq'' — yure.

Fro li 19-esmi siekle e specialim durant li sovieti periodo, Uzbekum prended mult vordes fro Rusum. Plur internationali termines de teknike, politike e sientie intrad li lingue tra Rusum.

Pos li independeso, un parte del rusi prestates blid remplasat da turkesi, persi-arabi o internationali formes. Samtempe, Anglum devenid un important fonte de novi termines in informasion-teknologie, ekonomie, komerse e populari kulture.

== Literature ==

Li uzbeki literari tradisione inkluse li chagatai klasiki literature e li moderne uzbeki literature.

Chef klasiki autores inkluse:

* [[Alisher Navoi]];
* [[Babur]];
* Lutfi;
* Sakkaki;
* Mashrab;
* Nodira;
* Uvaysiy;
* Munis Khorezmi;
* Agahi.

Inter li importanti moderni uzbeki autores es:

* Abdulla Qodiriy;
* Choʻlpon;
* Fitrat;
* Hamza Hakimzoda Niyoziy;
* Gʻafur Gʻulom;
* Oybek;
* Abdulla Qahhor;
* Hamid Olimjon;
* Zulfiya;
* Erkin Vohidov;
* Abdulla Oripov;
* Oʻtkir Hoshimov.

Alisher Navoi es ofte konsiderat kom li fundatori e maxim grandi reprezentante del klasiki uzbeki literari tradisione, benke lu skriptad in li lingue nun konosat kom Chagataium.

== Lingual exemple ==

Li unesmi artikle del [[Universali Deklaratione del Human Yures]] in Uzbekum:

; Latini skripture
:''Barcha odamlar erkin, qadr-qimmat va huquqlarda teng boʻlib tugʻiladilar. Ular aql va vijdon sohibidirlar va bir-birlari ila birodarlarcha muomala qilishlari zarur.''

; Kiriliki skripture
:''Барча одамлар эркин, қадр-қиммат ва ҳуқуқларда тенг бўлиб туғиладилар. Улар ақл ва виждон соҳибидирлар ва бир-бирлари ила биродарларча муомала қилишлари зарур.''

; Aproksimativi traduktione in Novial
:''Omni homes bli naska liberi e egali in dignitate e yures. Les have rasion e konsientie e dev akta un versu altri in spirite de fraternitate.''

== Simpli frases ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Uzbekum
! Novial
|-
| ''Salom!'' || Salute!
|-
| ''Xush kelibsiz!'' || Bonveni!
|-
| ''Qalaysiz?'' || Kom vu sta?
|-
| ''Yaxshiman.'' || Me sta bon.
|-
| ''Rahmat.'' || Mersi.
|-
| ''Iltimos.'' || Ples.
|-
| ''Ha.'' || Yes.
|-
| ''Yoʻq.'' || No.
|-
| ''Xayr!'' || Adio!
|-
| ''Men oʻzbek tilida gapiraman.'' || Me parla Uzbekum.
|}

== Vida anke ==

* [[Uzbekistan]]
* [[Uzbekes]]
* [[Turkesi lingues]]
* [[Karlukesi lingues]]
* [[Uyghurum]]
* [[Chagataium]]
* [[Alisher Navoi]]
* [[Uzbeki literature]]
* [[Uzbeki alfabete]]

== Referenties ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Externi linkes ==

* [https://constitution.uz Constitutione de Uzbekistan]
* [https://lex.uz/docs/108915 Lege pri li statal lingue de Uzbekistan]
* [https://lex.uz/docs/112286 Lege pri li uzbeki alfabete basat sur latini skripture]
* [https://uz.wikipedia.org Uzbeki Wikipedia]
* [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Uzbek_language Medias pri Uzbekum in Wikimedia Commons]
* [https://www.ethnologue.com/language/uzb Uzbekum in ''Ethnologue'']
* [https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/uzbe1247 Uzbekum in ''Glottolog'']

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[[Category:Karlukesi lingues]]
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