Wikipedia scowiki https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.2 first-letter Media Special Collogue Uiser Uiser collogue Wikipedia Wikipedia collogue File File collogue MediaWiki MediaWiki collogue Template Template collogue Help Help collogue Category Category collogue Portal Portal talk Define Define talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk Unitit Kinrick 0 1005 916944 916252 2026-05-18T09:47:47Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916944 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country | name = {{collapsible list |titlestyle=background:transparent;font-size:9pt; |title={{resize|11.5pt|{{nowrap|Unitit Kinrick o Great}} {{nowrap|Breetain an Northren Ireland}}}} |{{Infobox |subbox=yes |bodystyle=font-size:9pt;font-weight:normal; <!--Anglo--> |rowclass1=mergedrow |label1=[[Inglis leid|Inglis]]: |data1={{lang|en|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland}} |rowclass2=mergedrow |label2=[[Ulster Scots leid|Ulster Scots]]:|data2={{lang|sco|Claught Kängrick o Docht Brätain an Norlin Airlann}} <!--Brittonic--> |rowclass3=mergedrow |label3=[[Welsh leid|Welsh]]: |data3={{lang|cy|Teyrnas Unedig Prydain Fawr a Gogledd Iwerddon}} |rowclass4=mergedrow |label4=[[Cornish leid|Cornish]]: |data4={{lang|kw|Rywvaneth Unys Breten Veur ha Kledhbarth Iwerdhon}} <!--Goidelic--> |rowclass5=mergedrow |label5=[[Scots&nbsp;Gaelic]]: |data5={{lang|gd|Rìoghachd Aonaichte Bhreatainn is Èireann a Tuath}} |rowclass6 =mergedrow |label6=[[Erse leid|Erse]]: |data6={{lang|ga|Ríocht Aontaithe na Breataine Móire agus Thuaisceart Éireann}} }} }} | common_name = Unitit Kinrick | linking_name = the Unitit Kinrick <!--Note: "the" required here as this entry used to create wikilinks--> | image_flag = Flag of the United Kingdom.svg | image_coat = Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom.svg | alt_coat = Coat of arms containing shield and crown in centre, flanked by lion and unicorn | symbol_type = {{nowrap|[[Ryal coat o airms o the Unitit Kinrick|Ryal coat o airms]]{{tsp}}{{#tag:ref |The Ryal coat o airms uised in Scotland:<br /><center>[[File:Coat of arms of the United Kingdom in Scotland.svg|100px]]</center> |group="note"}}<!--(end nowrap:)-->}} | national_anthem = {{nowrap|1="[[God Save the King]]"{{#tag:ref |Thare is no authorised version o the naitional anthem as the wirds are a matter o tradeetion; anly the first verse is uisually sung.<ref>''[http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/Symbols/NationalAnthem.aspx National Anthem]'', British Monarchy official website. Retrieved 16 November 2013.</ref> No law wis passed makin "God Save the King" the offeecial anthem. In the Inglis tradeetion, such laws are nae necessary; proclamation an uisage are sufficient tae mak it the naitional anthem. "God Save the King" an aa serves as the [[Honours music|Ryal anthem]] for certain [[Commonweel realms]]. |group="note"}} <div style="padding-top:0.5em;"><center>[[File:United States Navy Band - God Save the Queen.ogg]]</center></div><!--(end nowrap:)-->}} | image_map = Europe-UK.svg | map_caption = {{map_caption |countryprefix=the |country={{nobold|Unitit&nbsp;Kinrick}} |location_color=dark green |region=Europe |region_color=dark gray |subregion= |subregion_color=green}} | languages_type = Offeecial leid<br />{{nobold|an national leid}} | languages = Inglis | languages2_type = Recognised regional<br />leids{{#tag:ref |Unner the [[Cooncil o Europe]]'s [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Leids]], Scots, Ulster-Scots, Welsh, Cornish, Erse an Scots Gaelic, are offeecially recognised as [[Regional leid|regional]] or [[Minority leid|minority]] leids bi the [[Govrenment o the Unitit Kinrick|Breetish govrenment]] for the purposes o the Charter. See an aa [[Leids o the Unitit Kinrick]].<ref name="reglang">{{cite web |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?CL=ENG&NT=148&VL=1 |title=List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148 |publisher=[[Council of Europe]] |accessdate=12 December 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212175720/http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?CL=ENG&NT=148&VL=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |group="note"<!--(end #tag:)-->}} | languages2 = {{hlist|list_style=line-height:1.3em;|item_style=white-space; |[[Scots leid|Scots]]|[[Ulster Scots leid|Ulster‑Scots]]|[[Welsh leid|Welsh]]|[[Cornish leid|Cornish]]|[[Scots&nbsp;Gaelic]]|[[Erse leid|Erse]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{ublist|list_style=line-height:1.3em; |class=nowrap |87.1% [[White fowk|White]] |7.0% [[Breetish Asian|Asian]] |3.0% [[Black Breetish|Black]] |2.0% [[Mixed (Unitit Kinrick ethnicity category)|Mixed]] |0.9% ithers}} | ethnic_groups_year = [[Unitit Kinrick Census 2011|2011]] | demonym = {{hlist|[[Breetish fowk|Breetish]] | Briton}} | capital = [[Lunnon]] | coordinates = {{Coord|51|30|N|0|7|W|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Lunnon]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Pairlamentary seestem|pairlamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]] | leader_title1 = [[Monarchy o the Unitit Kinrick|Monarch]] | leader_name1 = {{nowrap|[[Charles, King o the Unitit Kinrick|Charles III]]}} | leader_title2 = [[Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick|Prime&nbsp;Meenister]] | leader_name2 = [[Keir Starmer]] | legislature = [[Pairlament o the Unitit Kinrick|Pairlament]] | upper_house = {{nowrap|[[Hoose o Lairds]]}} | lower_house = {{nowrap|[[Hoose o Commons o the Unitit Kinrick|Hoose o Commons]]}} | sovereignty_type = [[History o the Unitit Kinrick|History]] | established_event1 = [[Acts o Union o Ingland an Scotland]] | established_date1 = {{nowrap|1 May 1707}} | established_event2 = [[Acts o Union o Great Breetain an Ireland]] | established_date2 = {{nowrap|1 January 1801}} | established_event3 = [[Erse Free State Constitution Act 1922|Erse Free State Constitution Act]] | established_date3 = {{nowrap|5 December 1922}} | established_date4 = {{nowrap|1 January 1973}} | area_rank = 80t | area_magnitude = 1 E11 | area_km2 = 243610 | area_sq_mi = 94,060 | percent_water = 1.34 | population_estimate = {{increase}} 67,886,004<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/Population/|title=World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations|website=population.un.org|access-date=31 March 2020|archive-date=2020-06-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604174948/https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/Population/|url-status=dead}}</ref> | population_census = 63,182,178<ref name="pop_census">{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/census/2011/uk-census/index.html |title=2011 UK censuses |publisher=Office for National Statistics |accessdate=17 December 2012 |archive-date=2016-01-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131125807/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/census/2011/uk-census/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2020 | population_estimate_rank = 21st | population_census_year = 2011 | population_census_rank = 22nt | population_density_km2 = 270.7 | population_density_sq_mi = 701.2 | population_density_rank = 50t | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $3.131&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMFWEOUK">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=14&pr.y=17&sy=2017&ey=2021&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=112&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |accessdate=30 October 2019}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2019 | GDP_PPP_rank = 9t | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $46,827<ref name="IMFWEOUK"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 26t | GDP_nominal = {{decrease}} $2.744&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMFWEOUK"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2019 | GDP_nominal_rank = 6t | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $41,030<ref name="IMFWEOUK"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 20t | Gini = 33.1 | Gini_year = 2017 | Gini_change = increase | Gini_ref = <ref name="eurogini">{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tessi190&plugin=1 |title=Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income - EU-SILC survey |publisher=[[Eurostat]] |website=ec.europa.eu |access-date=7 March 2019}}</ref> | Gini_rank = 33rd | HDI = 0.940<!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date=13 March 2024 |title=HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023-24 |url=http://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf |website=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |pages=274-277 |language=en}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 15t | currency = [[Poond&nbsp;sterling]] (£) | currency_code = GBP | time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] | utc_offset = &#8203;<!--NOTE: Please do not remove. This is a blank character entity so that the infobox displays "UTC" without a specified offset.--> | time_zone_DST = [[Breetish Simmer Time|BST]] | utc_offset_DST = +1 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy&nbsp;([[Anno Domini|AD]]) | drives_on = [[Richt- an left-haund traffic|left]] | calling_code = [[Telephone nummers in the Unitit Kinrick|+44]] | cctld = [[.uk]] <!--| national_motto = | religion = | footnotes = --> }} The '''Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain an Northren Ireland''' ({{lang-en|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland}}), commonly kent the '''Unitit Kinrick''' ({{lang-en|United Kingdom}}; '''UK''') or '''Breetain''' ({{lang-en|Britain}}), is a [[kintra]] in waster [[Europe]]. Lyin aff the north-wastren coast o the European mainlaund, the UK includes the isle o [[Great Breetain]], the north-eastren pairt o the isle o [[Ireland]] an mony smawer islands.<ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of Great Britain in English |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Great-Britain?q=Great+Britain |publisher=Oxford University Press |accessdate=29 October 2014 |quote=Great Britain is the name for the island that comprises England, Scotland and Wales, although the term is also used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom. |archive-date=2016-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160814114302/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/great-britain?q=Great+Britain |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Norlin Airlan]] is the anly pairt o the Unitit Kinrick that shares a laund mairch wi anither sovereign state{{mdashb}}the [[Republic o Ireland]].<ref group="note">Awtho Northren Ireland is the anly pairt o the UK that shares a laund mairch wi anither sovereign state, twa o [[Breetish Owerseas Territories|its Owerseas Territories]] an aa share laund mairches wi ither sovereign kintras. [[Gibraltar]] shares [[Gibraltar-Spain mairch|a mairch]] wi Spain, while the [[Sovereign Base Auries o Akrotiri an Dhekelia]] share borders wit the [[Republic o Cyprus]], the [[Turkis Republic o Northren Cyprus]] an the UN [[buffer zone]] separatin the twa Cypriot polities.</ref> Apairt frae this laund mairch, the UK is surroondit bi the Atlantic Ocean, wi the [[North Sea]] tae its east, the [[Inglis Channel]] tae its sooth an the [[Celtic Sea]] tae its sooth-sooth-wast, giein it the 12t-langest coastline in the warld. The [[Erse Sea]] lies atween Great Breetain an Ireland. Wi an aurie o {{convert|242500|km2|sqmi}}, the UK is the 78t-lairgest sovereign state in the warld an the 11t-lairgest in Europe. It is the 21st-maist populous kintra an aw, wi an estimatit 67.8 million indwallers as o 2020. The UK is a [[constitutional monarchy]] wi a [[pairlamentary seestem|pairliamentar democracy]].<ref>[http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/HowtheMonarchyworks/Whatisconstitutionalmonarchy.aspx The British Monarchy, ''What is constitutional monarchy?'']. Retrieved 17 Julie 2013</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uk.html CIA, ''The World Factbook''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107065049/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uk.html |date=2019-01-07 }}. Retrieved 17 July 2013</ref> The [[Monarchy o the Unitit Kinrick|monarch]] is [[Charles III|King Charles III]], The UK's caipital an lairgest ceety is [[Lunnon]], a [[global ceety]] an [[financial centre]] wi an urban aurie population o 10.3 million, the fowert-lairgest in Europe.<ref>The 30 Largest Urban Agglomerations Ranked by Population Size at Each Point in Time, 1950-2030, [http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/CD-ROM/ World Urbanization Prospects, the 2014 revision], Population Diveesion o the [[Unitit Naitions Depairtment o Economic an Social Affairs]]. Retrieved 22 February 2015.</ref> Ither major urban auries in the UK include the conurbations centred on [[West Midlands conurbation|Birmingham]], [[Wast Yorkshire Urban Aurie|Leeds]], [[Greater Glesga|Glesga]], [[Liverpuil Urban Aurie|Liverpuil]] an [[Greater Manchester Biggit-up Aurie|Manchester]]. The UK consists o fower kintras—[[Ingland]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] an [[Northren Ireland]].<ref name="page823">{{cite web |url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080909013512/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-date=9 September 2008 |title=Countries within a country |publisher=Prime Minister's Office |date=10 January 2003 |accessdate=8 March 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416083521/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |date=2010-04-16 }}</ref> Aw but Ingland hae [[devolution in the Unitit Kinrick|devolved]] admeenistrations,<ref name="devoladmins">{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland#devolved-administrations |title=Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland |publisher=United Kingdom Government |accessdate=17 April 2013 |quote=In a similar way to how the government is formed from members from the two Houses of Parliament, members of the devolved legislatures nominate ministers from among themselves to comprise executives, known as the devolved administrations...}}</ref> ilk wi varyin pouers,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7859034.stm |title=Fall in UK university students |publisher=BBC News |date=29 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |title=Country Overviews: United Kingdom |publisher=Transport Research Knowledge Centre |accessdate=28 March 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404062853/http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |archivedate=4 April 2010 |df=}}</ref> based in thair caipitals [[Edinburgh]], [[Cairdiff]] an [[Belfast]], respectively. The nearbi [[Isle o Man]], [[Bailiwick o Guernsey]] an [[Bailiwick o Jersey]] are no pairt o the UK, bein [[Croun dependencies]] wi the Breetish Govrenment responsible for defence an internaitional representation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archivedate=15 October 2012 |title=Key facts about the United Kingdom |archiveurl=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |accessdate=6 March 2015 |publisher=[[Directgov]] |quote=<blockquote style="padding-top:0; margin-top:0; padding-left:0; padding-right:0;">The full title of this country is 'the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'. Great Britain is made up of England, Scotland and Wales. The United Kingdom (UK) is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. 'Britain' is used informally, usually meaning the United Kingdom.<br /> The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not part of the UK.</blockquote> |df=}}</ref> Prior tae the [[History o the formation o the Unitit Kinrick|formation o the UK]], Wales haed been conquered an annexed bi the Kinrick o Ingland. This meant that the unitit kinrick creatit in 1707 bi the [[Treaty o Union]] atween Ingland an Scotland encompassed aw o Great Breetain. The Kinrick o Ireland merged wi this state in 1801 tae form the Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain an Ireland. Five-saxts o Ireland secedit frae the UK in 1922, leavin the present formulation o the Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain and Northren Ireland.<ref group="note">The [[Anglo-Erse Treaty]] wis signed on 6 December 1921 tae resolve the [[Erse War o Unthirldom]]. Whan it teuk effect ane year later, it established the [[Erse Free State]] as a separate [[dominion]] within the [[Commonweel o Naitions|Commonweel]]. The UK's current name wis adoptit tae reflect the cheenge.</ref> Thare are [[Breetish Owerseas Territories|fowerteen Breetish Owerseas Territories]],<ref name="overseasterrirories">{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/policies/protecting-and-developing-the-overseas-territories |title=Supporting the Overseas Territories |publisher=[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] |accessdate=9 March 2015}}</ref> the remnants o the [[Breetish Empire]] that, at its hicht in the 1920s, encompassed awmaist a quarter o the warld's land mass an wis the lairgest empire in history. Breetish influence can be observed in the leid, cultur an legal seestems o mony o its umwhile colonies. The UK is a developit kintra an haes the warld's saxt-lairgest economy bi nominal GDP <ref>{{cite web|title=Britain crashes out of world's top 5 economies|url=http://money.cnn.com/2017/11/22/news/economy/uk-france-biggest-economies-in-the-world|publisher=[[CNN]]|access-date=2018-02-04|archive-date=2018-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105233524/http://money.cnn.com/2017/11/22/news/economy/uk-france-biggest-economies-in-the-world|url-status=dead}}.</ref> an ninth-lairgest economy bi [[purchasin pouer parity]]. It haes a heich-income economy an haes a "verra heich" [[Human Development Index]], rankin 16t in the warld. It wis the first industrialised kintra an the warld's foremaist pouer in the 19t an early 20t centuries.<ref>{{cite book |title=The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/firstindustrialn00unse |publisher=Routledge |location=London |author=Mathias, P. |year=2001 |isbn=0-415-26672-6}}</ref><ref name="ferguson">{{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Niall |year=2004 |title=Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power |url=https://archive.org/details/empire00nial |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=0-465-02328-2}}</ref> The UK remeens a great pouer wi conseederable economic, cultural, militar, scienteefic an poleetical influence internaitionally.<ref>{{cite book |author1=T. V. Paul |author2=James J. Wirtz |author3=Michel Fortmann |title=Balance of Power |publisher=State University of New York Press, 2005 |year=2005 |pages=59, 282 |isbn=0791464016 |url=https://www.google.com/books?id=9jy28vBqscQC&pg=PA59&dq="Great+power"}} ''Accordingly, the great powers after the Cold War are Britain, China, France, Germany, Japan, Russia and the United States'' p.59</ref><ref name="David M. McCourt">{{cite book |last=McCourt |first=David |title=Britain and World Power Since 1945: Constructing a Nation's Role in International Politics |publisher=University of Michigan Press |date=28 May 2014 |location=United States of America |pages= |isbn=0472072218 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lwpOnwEACAAJ&dq=Britain+and+World+Power+Since+1945:+Constructing+a+Nation%27s+Role+in+International+Politics}}</ref> It is a recognised nuclear wappens state an is seivent in militar expenditur in the warld.<ref name="SIPRI">{{cite web |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/Trends-world-military-expenditure-2016.pdf |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2016 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] |format=PDF |accessdate=26 April 2017}}</ref> It haes been a [[permanent members o the Unitit Naitions Security Cooncil|permanent member]] o the [[Unitit Naitions Security Cooncil]] syne its first session in 1946. It wis a leadin member state o the EU an its predecessor, the [[European Economic Commonty]] (EEC), frae 1973 till 2020. The UK a member o the [[Commonweel o Naitions]], the [[G7 finance meenisters]], the [[G7 forum]], the [[G-20 major economies|G20]], [[NATO]], the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation an Development]] (OECD), an the [[Warld Tred Organisation]] (WTO). == Historie o tha Unitit Kinrick == ===Early history=== Settlement bi [[Cro-Magnons|anatomically modren humans]] o whit wis tae acome the Unitit Kinrick occurred in waves beginnin bi aboot 30,000 years agae.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_west/7069001.stm "Ancient skeleton was 'even older']". [[BBC News]]. 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011.</ref> Bi the end o the [[Prehistoric Breetain|region's prehistoric period]], the population is thocht tae hae belanged, in the main, tae a cultur termed [[Insular Celts|Insular Celtic]], comprisin [[Britons (historical)|Brythonic Breetain]] an [[Gaelic Ireland]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128 |page=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n1016 973] |author=Koch, John T. |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |year=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA}}</ref> The [[Roman conquest o Breetain|Roman conquest]], beginnin in 43 AD, an the 400-year [[Roman Britain|rule o soothren Breetain]], wis follaed bi an invasion bi [[Germanic fowks|Germanic]] [[Anglo-Saxon]] settlers, reducin the Brythonic area [[Wales#Medieval Wales|mainly tae whit wis tae acome Wales]], [[Cornwall]] an the historic [[Kinrick o Strathclyde]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Davies|editor1-link=John Davies (historian) |editor2-first=Nigel |editor2-last=Jenkins |editor2-link=Nigel Jenkins |editor3-first=Menna |editor3-last=Baines|editor4-first=Peredur I. |editor4-last=Lynch |editor4-link=Peredur Lynch |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Wales|The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales]] |year=2008 |publisher=University of Wales Press |location=Cardiff |isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6 |page=915}}</ref> Maist o the region settled bi the Anglo-Saxons becam unifee'd as the [[Kinrick o Ingland]] in the 10t century.<ref name="Short Athelstan biography on the BBC History website">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/athelstan.shtml |title=Short Athelstan biography |publisher=BBC History |accessdate=9 April 2013}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Dál Riata|Gaelic-speakers in north-wast Britain]] (wi connections tae the north-east o Ireland an tradeetionally supposed tae hae migratit frae thare in the 5t century)<ref>{{cite book |author=Mackie, J.D. |authorlink=J.D. Mackie |title=A History of Scotland |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofscotlan00mack_0 |location=London |publisher=Penguin |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-14-013649-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofscotlan00mack_0/page/18 18]–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Campbell, Ewan |title=Saints and Sea-kings: The First Kingdom of the Scots |url=https://archive.org/details/saintsseakingsfi0000camp |publisher=Canongate |location=Edinburgh |year=1999 |isbn=0-86241-874-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/saintsseakingsfi0000camp/page/8 8]–15}}</ref> unitit wi the [[Picts]] tae creaut the [[Kinrick o Scotland]] in the 9t century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haigh |first=Christopher |title=The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990 |page=30 |isbn=978-0-521-39552-6}}</ref> The [[Early Modren Breetain|early modren period]] saw releegious conflict resultin frae the [[Reformation]] an the introduction o [[Protestantism in the Unitit Kinrick|Protestant]] state kirks in ilk kintra.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/479892/Protestantism/41558/The-Reformation-in-England-and-Scotland The Reformation in England and Scotland] and [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293754/Ireland/22978/The-Reformation-period Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabth I], Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> Wales wis [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542|fully incorporatit intae the Kinrick o Ingland]],<ref name="BBC Tudors">{{cite web |title=British History in Depth&nbsp;– Wales under the Tudors |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/wales_tudors_01.shtml |accessdate=21 September 2010 |publisher=BBC History |date=5 November 2009}}</ref> an Ireland wis constitutit as a kinrick in personal union wi the Inglis croun.<ref>{{cite book |title=A history of the modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The two kingdoms |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernb0000nich |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernb0000nich/page/171 171]–172 |first=Mark |last=Nicholls |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-631-19334-0 |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford}}</ref> In 1603, Elizabeth I o Ingland deed an [[Jamie VI o Scotland|Jamie the Saxt o Scotland]] becam [[James I o Ingland|James the First o Ingland]] an aa. Tha Acts o Union 1707 makkit tha [[Kinrick o Great Breetain]] an tha [[Scots Pairlament]] wis unitit wi tha Inglis pairlament in Lunnon. In the mid-17t century, aw three kinricks [[Wars o the Three Kinricks|war involved in a series o connectit wars]] (includin the [[Inglis Ceevil War]]) that led tae the temporar owerthraw o the monarchy an the establishment o the short-leeved [[unitar republic]] o the [[Commonweel o Ingland|Commonweel o Ingland, Scotland an Ireland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/187936/English-Civil-Wars |title=English Civil Wars |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |date= |accessdate=28 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/uk/scotland/01_laws.php |title=Scotland and the Commonwealth: 1651–1660 |publisher=Archontology.org |date=14 March 2010 |accessdate=9 March 2015}}</ref> Awtho the [[Restoration (1660)|monarchy wis restored]], the [[Interregnum (1649–1660)|Interregnum]] ensured (alang wi the [[Glorious Revolution]] o 1688 an the subsequent [[Bill of Rights 1689]], an the [[Claim of Right Act 1689]]) that, unlik muckle o the rest o Europe, [[ryal absolutism]] wad nae prevail, an a professed Catholic coud niver accede tae the thrane. The [[Breetish constitution]] wad develop on the basis o constitutional monarchy an the [[pairlamentary seestem]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lodge |first=Richard |year=2007 |origyear=1910 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=EBSpvBxGyqcC |title=The History of England&nbsp;– From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702) |publisher=Read Books |page=8 |isbn=978-1-4067-0897-4}}</ref> ===Treaty o Union=== Tho previous attempts at unitin the twa kinricks within Great Breetain in 1606, 1667, an 1689 haed pruived unsuccessfu, the attempt initiatit in 1705 led tae the Treaty o Union o 1706 bein agreed an ratified bi baith pairlaments. On 1 Mey 1707, the unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain came intae bein, the result o Acts o Union bein passed bi the pairlaments o Ingland an Scotland tae ratify the 1706 Treaty o Union an sae unite the twa kinricks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/docs/articles_union.htm |title=Articles of Union with Scotland 1707 |publisher=UK Parliament |accessdate=19 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/ |title=Acts of Union 1707 |publisher=UK Parliament |accessdate=6 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |title=Treaty (act) of Union 1706 |publisher=Scottish History online |accessdate=3 February 2011 |archive-date=2019-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527074630/http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the 18t century, cabinet govrenment developed unner [[Robert Walpole]], in practice the first prime meenister (1721–1742). A series o [[Jacobite Uprisins]] socht tae remuive the Protestant [[Hoose o Hanover]] frae the Breetish thrane an restore the Catholic [[Hoose o Stuart]]. The Jacobites war feenally defeatit at the [[Battle o Culloden]] in 1746, efter that the [[Scots Hielanders]] war brutally suppressed. The Breetish colonies in North Americae that brak awey frae Britain in the [[American Revolutionary War|American War o Unthirldom]] becam the Unitit States o Americae, recognised bi Britain in 1783. Breetish imperial ambition turned taewart Asie, pairteecularly tae [[Company rule in Indie|Indie]].<ref>Library of Congress, [https://books.google.com/?id=BQDgr_XvsHoC&pg=PA73 ''The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad''], p. 73.</ref> Efter the defeat o Fraunce at the end o the [[French Revolutionary Wars|Revolutionary]] an [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1792–1815), Great Breetain emerged as the principal naval an imperial pouer o the 19t century (wi Lunnon the lairgest ceety in the warld frae aboot 1830).<ref>Tellier, L.-N. (2009). ''Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective''. Quebec: PUQ. p. 463. {{ISBN|2-7605-1588-5}}.</ref> [[Ryal Navy#1815–1914|Unchallenged at sea]], Breetish dominance wis later descrived as ''[[Pax Britannica]]'' ("Breetish Peace"), a period o [[Internaitional relations o the Great Pouers (1814–1919)|relative peace amang the Great Pouers]] (1815–1914) in that the Breetish Empire becam the global [[hegemon]] an adoptit the role o global polisman.<ref>[[#refJohnston2008|Johnston]], pp.&nbsp;508-10.</ref><ref>[[#refOHBEv3|Porter]], p.&nbsp;332.</ref><ref>Sondhaus, L. (2004). ''Navies in Modern World History''. London: Reaktion Books. p. 9. {{ISBN|1-86189-202-0}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=Andrew |last=Porter |title=The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-924678-5 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC |ref=refOHBEv3 |page=332}}</ref> Breetain focht alangside Fraunce, Roushie an (efter 1917) the Unitit States, against Germany an its allies in the [[First Warld War]] (1914–1918).<ref>Turner, John (1988). ''Britain and the First World War''. London: Unwin Hyman. pp. 22–35. {{ISBN|978-0-04-445109-9}}.</ref> Breetish airmed forces war engaged athort muckle o the Breetish Empire an in several regions o Europe, pairteecularly on the [[Wastren Front (Warld War I)|Wastren front]].<ref name="Westwell&Cove">Westwell, I.; Cove, D. (eds) (2002). ''History of World War I, Volume 3''. Lunnon: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 698 an 705. {{ISBN|0-7614-7231-2}}.</ref> The heich fatalities o trench warfare caused the loss o muckle o a generation o men, wi lastin social effects in the naition an a great disruption in the social order. ===Erse unthirldom=== The rise o [[Erse naitionalism]], an disputes within Ireland ower the terms o [[Erse Hame Rule muivement|Erse Hame Rule]], led eventually tae the [[Pairteetion o Ireland|pairteetion o the island]] in 1921.<ref>SR&O 1921, No. 533 of 3 May 1921.</ref> The [[Erse Free State]] becam independent wi [[Dominion|Dominion status]] in 1922. Northren Ireland remeened pairt o the Unitit Kinrick.<ref name="CAIN">{{cite web |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/ait1921.htm |title=The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6&nbsp;December 1921 |publisher=CAIN |accessdate=15 May 2006 |archive-date=2012-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514145108/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/ait1921.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> A wave o strikes in the mid-1920s culminatit in the [[1926 Unitit Kinrick general strike|General Strike o 1926]]. Britain haed still nae recuivered frae the effects o the war whan the [[Great Depression]] (1929–1932) occurred. This led tae conseederable unemployment an haurdship in the auld industrial auries, as weel as poleetical an social unrest in the 1930s, wi risin membership in communist an socialist pairties. A coaleetion govrenment wis formed in 1931.<ref>Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). ''Capitalism, Culture, and Decline in Britain, 1750–1990''. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 11. {{ISBN|0-415-03719-0}}.</ref> Breetain entered the [[Seicont Warld War]] bi declarin war on Germany in 1939, efter Germany haed invadit Poland. [[Winston Churchill]] becam prime meenister an heid o a coaleetion govrenment in 1940. Despite the defeat o its European allies in the first year o the war, Breetain an its Empire conteena'd the ficht alane against Germany. In 1940, the [[Ryal Air Force]] defeatit the German [[Luftwaffe]] in a struggle for control o the skies in the [[Battle o Breetain]]. Urban auries suffered hivy bombin in [[the Blitz]]. Thare war an aa eventual haurd-focht veectories in the [[Battle o the Atlantic]], the [[North Africae campaign]] an the [[Burma campaign]]. Breetish forces played an important role in the [[Normandy laundins]] o 1944, achieved wi its Unitit States ally. ===Syne Warld War II=== Efter the end o the Seicont Warld War in 1945, the UK wis ane o the [[Fower Polismen|Big Fower]] pouers (alang wi the U.S., the Soviet Union, an Cheenae) that met tae plan the post-war warld;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Doenecke |first1=Justus D. |last2=Stoler |first2=Mark A. |title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |year=2005 |accessdate=19 March 2016 |isbn=0-8476-9416-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681 |title=The Four Policemen and. Postwar Planning, 1943-1945: The Collision of Realist and. Idealist Perspectives. |last=Kelly |first=Brian |accessdate=25 August 2015 |archive-date=2015-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022125442/https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681 |url-status=dead }}</ref> it wis an oreeginal seegnatory tae the [[Declaration o the Unitit Naitions]]. The UK wis the third kintrea tae develop [[Nuclear wappen|a nuclear wappens airsenal]] (wi its [[Operation Hurricane|first atomic bomb test]] in 1952), but the new post-war leemits o Breetain's internaitional role war illustratit bi the [[Suez Creesis]] o 1956. Frae the late 1960s, Northren Ireland suffered communal an paramilitar veeolence (whiles affectin ither pairts o the UK) conventionally kent as [[the Tribbles]]. It is uisually conseedert tae hae endit wi the [[Belfast Agreement|Belfast "Guid Fryday" Agreement]] o 1998.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Politics of Northern Ireland: Beyond the Belfast Agreement |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsnorthern00augh |first=Arthur |last=Aughey |isbn=978-0-415-32788-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsnorthern00augh/page/7 7] |year=2005 |location=London |publisher=Routledge}}</ref><ref name=Hope>"The troubles were over, but the killing continued. Some of the heirs to Ireland's violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance." {{cite book |author=Holland, Jack |title=Hope against History: The Course of Conflict in Northern Ireland |url=https://archive.org/details/hopeagainsthisto00holl |publisher=Henry Holt |location=New York |year=1999 |page=[https://archive.org/details/hopeagainsthisto00holl/page/221 221] |isbn=978-0-8050-6087-4}}</ref><ref>Elliot, Marianne (2007). ''The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland: Peace Lectures from the Institute of Irish Studies at Liverpool University.'' University of Liverpool Institute of Irish Studies, Liverpool University Press. p. 2. {{ISBN|1-84631-065-2}}.</ref> Aroond the end o the 20t century thare war major cheenges tae the govrenance o the UK wi the establishment o devolved admeenistrations for Scotland, Wales an Northren Ireland.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://publius.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/28/1/217 |title=Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom |accessdate=4 February 2009 |journal=Publius: the Journal of Federalism |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=217–234 |last=Keating |first=Michael |date=1 January 1998 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948}}</ref> In the decade-lang process o [[European integration]], the UK wis a foondin member o the alliance cried the [[Wastren European Union]], established wi the [[Lunnon an Paris Conferences]] in 1954. In 1960 the UK wis ane o the seeven foondin members o the [[European Free Tred Association]] (EFTA), but in 1973 it left tae jyne the [[European Commonties]] (EC). Whan the EC becam the [[European Union]] (EU) in 1992, the UK wis ane o the 12 foondin members. In 2016, the Unitit Kinrick [[Unitit Kinrick European Union membership referendum, 2016|votit tae leave the European Union]].<ref name="Washington Post">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/britons-head-to-the-polls-for-historic-vote-on-eu/2016/06/23/0d466fb0-34a7-11e6-ab9d-1da2b0f24f93_story.html |title=In stunning decision, Britain votes to leave the E.U. |date=24 June 2016 |work=[[The Washington Post]] |accessdate=24 June 2016}}</ref> The legal process o leavin the EU begoud on 29 Mairch 2017, wi the [[Unitit Kinrick invocation o Airticle 50 o the Treaty on European Union|UK's invocation o Airticle 50]] o the Treaty o Lisbon, formally notifyin the EU o the UK's intention tae leave. The UK steyed a fou member o the EU till 31 January 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/article-50-options|title=Article 50 extension|last=Wright|first=Georgina|date=29 October 2019|website=Institute for Government|access-date=27 December 2019}}</ref> ==Geografie== [[File:Uk topo en.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The topografie o the UK]] The tot aurie o the Unitit Kinrick is approximately {{convert|243610|km2|sqmi|-1}}. The kintra occupies the major pairt o the Breetish Isles<ref>Oxford English Dictionary: "British Isles: a geographical term for the islands comprising Great Britain and Ireland with all their offshore islands including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands."</ref> [[airchipelago]] an includes the island o Great Breetain, the north-eastren ane-saxt o the island o Ireland an some smawer surroondin islands. It lies atween the North Atlantic Ocean an the North Sea wi the sooth-east coast comin within {{convert|35|km|mi|0|order=flip}} o the coast o northren Fraunce, frae that it is separatit bi the [[Inglis Channel]].<ref name="factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uk.html |title=United Kingdom |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=23 September 2008 |archive-date=2019-01-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107065049/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uk.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1993 10% o the UK wis forestit, 46% uised for pastures an 25% cultivatit for agricultur.<ref name="Atlapedia">{{cite web |author=Latimer Clarke Corporation Pty Ltd |url=http://www.atlapedia.com/online/countries/unitedki.htm |title=United Kingdom&nbsp;– Atlapedia Online |publisher=Atlapedia.com |accessdate=26 October 2010}}</ref> The [[Ryal Observatory, Greenwich|Ryal Greenwich Observatory]] in Lunnon is the definin pynt o the [[Prime Meridian]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/astronomy-facts/history/the-prime-meridian-at-greenwich |title=The Prime Meridian at Greenwich |author=ROG Learning Team |date=23 August 2002 |work=Royal Museums Greenwich |publisher=Royal Museums Greenwich |accessdate=11 September 2012 |archive-date=2015-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107023957/http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/astronomy-facts/history/the-prime-meridian-at-greenwich |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Unitit Kinrick lies atween latitudes [[49t parallel north|49°]] tae [[61st parallel north|61° N]], an longitudes [[9t meridian wast|9° W]] tae [[2nt meridian east|2° E]]. Northren Ireland shares a {{convert|360|km|mi|0|adj=on|order=flip}} laund boondary wi the Republic o Ireland.<ref name="factbook"/> The coastline o Great Breetain is {{convert|17820|km|mi|0|order=flip}} lang.<ref name="UK coastline">{{cite web |url=http://www.cartography.org.uk/default.asp?contentID=749 |title=How long is the UK coastline? |first=Giles |last=Darkes |date=January 2008 |accessdate=24 January 2015 |publisher=The [[British Cartographic Society]] |archive-date=2012-05-27 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/67yAn3CWU?url=http://www.cartography.org.uk/default.asp?contentID=749 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is connectit tae [[continental Europe]] bi the [[Channel Tunnel]], that at {{convert|50|km|mi|0|order=flip}} ({{convert|38|km|mi|0|order=flip}} unnerwatter) is the langest unnerwatter tunnel in the warld.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcInfrastructure/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218114514/http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcInfrastructure |archivedate=18 December 2010 |title=The Channel Tunnel |publisher=Eurotunnel |accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref> [[Ingland]] accoonts for juist ower hauf o the tot aurie o the UK, cuiverin {{convert|130395|km2|sqmi|-1}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/7327029.stm |publisher=BBC News |title=England&nbsp;– Profile |date=11 February 2010}}</ref> Maist o the kintra consists o lawland terrain,<ref name="Atlapedia"/> wi moontainous terrain north-wast o the [[Tees-Exe line]]; includin the [[Loch Destrict|Cumbrian Moontains]] o the Loch Destrict, the [[Pennines]], [[Exmoor]] an [[Dartmoor]]. The main rivers an estuaries are the [[River Thames|Thames]], [[River Severn|Severn]] an the [[Humber]]. Ingland's heichest moontain is [[Scafell Pike]] ({{convert|978|m|ft|0}}) in the [[Loch Destrict]]. Its principal rivers are the Severn, Thames, Humber, Tees, Tyne, Tweed, Avon, Exe an Mersey.<ref name="Atlapedia"/> [[Scotland]] accoonts for juist unner a third o the tot aurie o the UK, cuiverin {{convert|78772|km2|sqmi|-1}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/index.html |title=Scotland Facts |publisher=Scotland Online Gateway |accessdate=16 July 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621045248/http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/index.html |archivedate=21 June 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621045248/http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/index.html |date=2008-06-21 }}</ref> an includin nearly aicht hunder islands,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-the--scottish-islands-633851.html |title=The complete guide to the ... Scottish Islands |work=The Independent |location=London |date=1 June 2000 |first=Jon |last=Winter |accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref> predominantly wast an north o the mainland; notably the [[Hebrides]], [[Orkney|Orkney Islands]] an [[Shetland|Shetland Islands]]. Scotland is the maist moontainous kintra in the UK an its topografie is distinguished bi the [[Hieland Boondary Faut]]—a [[Faut (geology)|geological rock fractur]]—that traverses Scotland frae [[Isle o Arran|Arran]] in the wast tae [[Stanehyve]] in the east.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scottish-places.info/features/featurefirst7728.html |title=Overview of Highland Boundary Fault |work=Gazetteer for Scotland |publisher=University of Edinburgh |accessdate=27 December 2010}}</ref> The [[Faut (geology)|faut]] separates twa distinctively different regions; namely the [[Scots Hielands|Hielands]] tae the north an wast an the [[Scots Lawlands|lawlands]] tae the sooth an east. The mair rugged Hieland region conteens the majority o Scotland's moontainous laund, includin [[Ben Nevis]] that at {{convert|1343|m|ft|0}} is the heichest pynt in the Breetish Isles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bennevisweather.co.uk/index.asp |title=Ben Nevis Weather |publisher=Ben Nevis Weather |accessdate=26 October 2008 |archive-date=2012-05-27 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/67yAqrmVy?url=http://www.bennevisweather.co.uk/index.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lawland auries—especially the narrae waist o laund atween the [[Firth o Clyde]] an the [[Firth o Forth]] kent as the [[Central Lawlands|Central Belt]]—are flatter an hame tae maist o the population includin [[Glesga]], Scotland's lairgest ceety, an [[Edinburgh]], its caipital an poleetical centre, awtho upland an moontainous terrain lies within the [[Soothren Uplands]]. [[Wales]] accoonts for less nor a tent o the tot aurie o the UK, cuiverin {{convert|20779|km2|sqmi|-1}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/6233450.stm |title=Profile: Wales |publisher=BBC News |date=9 June 2010 |accessdate=7 November 2010}}</ref> Wales is maistly moontainous, tho [[Sooth Wales]] is less moontainous nor [[North Wales|North]] an [[mid Wales]]. The main population an industrial auries are in Sooth Wales, consistin o the coastal ceeties o [[Cairdiff]], [[Swansea]] an [[Newport, Wales|Newport]], an the [[Sooth Wales Valleys]] tae their north. The heichest moontains in Wales are in [[Snowdonie]] an include [[Snowdon]] ({{lang-cy|Yr Wyddfa}}) that, at {{convert|1085|m|ft|0}}, is the heichest peak in Wales.<ref name="Atlapedia"/> The 14, or possibly 15, Welsh moontains ower {{convert|3,000|ft|m|abbr=off}} heich are kent collectively as the [[Welsh 3000s]]. Wales haes ower {{convert|1680|mi|0|abbr=off|order=flip}} o coastline.<ref name="UK coastline" /> Several islands lie aff the Welsh mainland, the lairgest o that is [[Anglesey]] (''Ynys Môn'') in the north-wast. [[Northren Ireland]], separatit frae Great Breetain bi the [[Erse Sea]] an [[North Channel (Great Breetain an Ireland)|North Channel]], haes an aurie o {{convert|14160|km2|sqmi|-1}} an is maistly hilly. It includes [[Lough Neagh]] that, at {{convert|388|km2|sqmi|0}}, is the lairgest loch in the Breetish Isles bi aurie.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/geog.htm |title=Geography of Northern Ireland |publisher=University of Ulster |accessdate=22 May 2006 |archive-date=2012-01-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118133131/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/geog.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The heichest peak in Northren Ireland is [[Slieve Donard]] in the [[Mourne Moontains]] at {{convert|852|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Atlapedia"/> ===Climate=== The Unitit Kinrick haes a temperate climate, wi plentifu rainfaw aw year roond.<ref name="factbook"/> The temperatur varies wi the saisons seendle drappin ablo {{convert|-11|C|lk=on}} or risin abuin {{convert|35|C}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/ |title=UK climate summaries |publisher=Met Office |accessdate=1 May 2011 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/67yAsDB9c?url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/ |archivedate=27 May 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The prevailin wind is frae the sooth-wast an beirs frequent spells o mild an wet wather frae the Atlantic Ocean,<ref name="factbook"/> awtho the eastren pairts are maistly sheltered frae this wind syne the majority o the rain faws ower the wastren regions the eastren pairts are tharefore the driest. Atlantic currents, wairmed bi the [[Gulf Stream]], bring mild winters;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ukclimateprojections.metoffice.gov.uk/23152 |title=Atlantic Ocean Circulation (Gulf Stream) |work=UK Climate Projections |publisher=Met Office |accessdate=8 March 2015 |archive-date=2018-10-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017162552/http://ukclimateprojections.metoffice.gov.uk/23152 |url-status=dead }}</ref> especially in the wast whaur winters are wet an iven mair sae ower heich grund. Simmers are wairmest in the sooth-east o Ingland, bein closest tae the European mainland, an cuilest in the north. Hivy snawfaw can occur in winter an early ware on heich grund, an occasionally settles tae great deepth awey frae the hills. ==Economy== The UK haes a pairtially regulatit [[mercat economy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/better-regulation/docs/p/11-795-principles-for-economic-regulation |title=Principles for Economic Regulation |date=April 2011 |publisher=Department for Business, Innovation & Skills |accessdate=1 May 2011}}</ref> Based on mercat [[exchynge rate]]s, the UK is theday the fift-lairgest economy in the warld an the seicont-lairgest in Europe efter Germany. [[HM Thesaury]], led bi the [[Chancellor o the Exchequer]], is responsible for developin an executin the govrenment's public finance policy an economic policy. The [[Bank o Ingland]] is the UK's [[central bank]] an is responsible for issuin notes an cunyies in the naition's siller, the [[poond sterling]]. Banks in Scotland an Northren Ireland reteen the richt tae issue thair awn notes, subject tae reteenin eneuch Bank o Ingland notes in reserve tae cuiver their issue. The poond sterling is the warld's third-lairgest [[reserve siller]] (efter the US dollar an the euro).<ref>{{cite news |last=Chavez-Dreyfuss |first=Gertrude |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/asiaCompanyAndMarkets/idINN3141616420080331?sp=true |agency=Reuters |title=Global reserves, dollar share up at end of 2007-IMF |date=1 April 2008 |accessdate=21 December 2009 |archive-date=2009-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109210433/http://in.reuters.com/article/asiaCompanyAndMarkets/idINN3141616420080331?sp=true |url-status=dead }}</ref> Syne 1997 the Bank o Ingland's [[Monetary Policy Committee]], heidit bi the Govrenor o the Bank o Ingland, haes been responsible for settin interest rates at the level necessar tae achieve the oweraw inflation target for the economy that is set bi the Chancellor ilk year.<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312060011/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/about/more_about.htm |title=More About the Bank |date=n.d. |publisher=Bank of England |url=http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/about/more_about.htm |archivedate=12 March 2008}}</ref> The UK [[Tertiary sector o the economy|service sector]] maks up aroond 79% o GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/economicoutputandproductivity/output/bulletins/indexofservices/october2017|title=UK index of services: October 2017|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=22 December 2017|accessdate=15 January 2018}}</ref> == Demografie == === Population === In the [[Unitit Kinrick Census 2011|2011 census]] the tot population o the Unitit Kinrick wis 63,181,775.<ref name="2011census">{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_292378.pdf |title=2011 Census: Population Estimates for the United Kingdom |publisher=Office for National Statistics |date=27 March 2011 |accessdate=18 December 2012 |archive-date=2016-01-05 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_292378.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is the fift-lairgest in the [[Commonweel o Nations]] an the 22nt lairgest in the warld. === Leids === The UK's ''de facto'' offeecial leid is Inglis.<ref name="direct.gov.uk">{{cite web |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519|archive-date=15 October 2012 |title=English language&nbsp;– Government, citizens and rights |work=[[Directgov]] |accessdate=23 August 2011}}</ref><ref name="thecommonwealth.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookHomeInternal/139560/ |title=Commonwealth Secretariat&nbsp;– UK |publisher=[[Commonwealth Secretariat]] |accessdate=23 August 2011}}</ref> Houiver, thar is monie leids spak in the Unitit Kinrick bi baith native an immigrant. The native leids can be spleet inti twa groups: * The [[Celtic leids]]: [[Scots Gaelic leid|Scots Gaelic]], [[Erse leid|Erse]], [[Welsh leid|Welsh]] an [[Cornish leid|Cornish]] * The [[Germanic leid]]s: [[Scots leid|Scots]] an [[Inglis leid|Inglish]] ===Releegion=== In the 2001 census 71.6% o aw respondents indicatit that thay war Christians, wi the next lairgest faiths bein Islam (2.8%), [[Hinduism]] (1.0%), [[Sikhism]] (0.6%), [[Judaism]] (0.5%), [[Buddhism]] (0.3%) an aw ither releegions (0.3%).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 |title=UK Census 2001 |publisher=National Office for Statistics |accessdate=22 April 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312034628/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archivedate=12 March 2007}}</ref> 15% o respondents statit that thay haed na releegion, wi a forder 7% nae statin a releegious preference.<ref>{{cite web |title=Religious Populations |publisher=Office for National Statistics |date=11 October 2004 |url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2005/02/20757/53570 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5zFDlspeL?url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=954 |archivedate=6 June 2011 |df=}}</ref> ==Politics== {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = Queen Elizabeth II in March 2015.jpg | width1 = 150 | caption1 = [[Queen Elizabeth II]], Monarch syne 1952 | image2 = Boris Johnson official portrait (cropped).jpg | width2 = 141 | caption2 = [[Boris Johnson]], Prime Meenister syne 2019 }} The Unitit Kinrick is a unitar state unner a constitutional monarchy. Queen Elizabeth II haes been the monarch an heid o state o the UK, as weel as Queen o fifteen ither independent [[Commonweel realm|Commonweel kintras]]. The monarch haes "the richt tae be consultit, the richt tae encourage, an the richt tae wairn".<ref>[[Walter Bagehot|Bagehot, Walter]] (1867). ''The English Constitution''. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 103.</ref> The Constitution o the Unitit Kinrick is [[uncodified constitution|uncodified]] an consists maistly o a collection o disparate written soorces, includin [[statute]]s, juidge-made [[case law]] an internaitional treaties, thegither wi [[Breetish Constitution#Conventions|constitutional conventions]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.llrx.com/features/uk2.htm#UK%20Legal%20System |title=A Guide To the UK Legal System |publisher=[[University of Kent|University of Kent at Canterbury]] |accessdate=16 May 2006 |author=Carter, Sarah |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/67yH6Ly5h?url=http://www.llrx.com/features/uk2.htm |archivedate=27 May 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> As thare is na technical difference atween ordinar statutes an "constitutional law", the Pairlament o the UK Pairlament can perform "constitutional reform" semply bi passin [[Act o Pairlament|Acts o Pairlament]], an sicweys haes the poleetical pouer tae cheenge or abolish awmaist ony written or unwritten element o the constitution. Houiver, na Pairlament can pass laws that futur Pairlaments canna cheenge.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/sovereignty.cfm |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/67yH6yA8K?url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/sovereignty.cfm |archivedate=27 May 2012 |title=Parliamentary sovereignty |publisher=UK Parliament |date=n.d.}}</ref> The UK haes a pairlamentar govrenmen based on the Wastmeenster seestem that haes been emulatit aroond the warld: a legacy o the Breetish Empire. The pairlament o the Unitit Kinrick meets in the [[Palace o Wastmeenster]] an haes twa houses: an electit [[Hoose o Commons o the Unitit Kinrick|Hoose o Commons]] an appointit [[Hoose o Lairds]]. Aw bills passed are gien [[Ryal Assent]] afore acomin law. The poseetion o [[Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick|prime meenister]],<ref group="note">Syne the early twentiet century the prime meenister haes held the office o [[First Laird o the Thesaury]], an in recent decades haes an aa held the office o [[Meenister for the Ceevil Service]].</ref> the UK's heid o govrenment,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Government, Prime Minister and Cabinet |work=Public services all in one place |publisher=[[Directgov]] |url=http://direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Centralgovernmentandthemonarchy/DG_073444 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921004951/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Centralgovernmentandthemonarchy/DG_073444 |archivedate=2012-09-21 |accessdate=9 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> belangs tae the person maist likely tae command the confidence o the Hoose o Commons. ==Cultur== ===Airts=== The Inglis playwright an poet [[William Shakespeare]] is widely regairdit as the greatest dramatist o aw time,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/537853/William-Shakespeare |title=William Shakespeare (English author) |publisher=Britannica Online encyclopedia |accessdate=26 February 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562101/Shakespeare.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060209154055/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562101/Shakespeare.html |archivedate=9 February 2006 |title=MSN Encarta Encyclopedia article on Shakespeare |accessdate=26 February 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Shakespeare%2c+William |publisher=Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia |title=William Shakespeare |accessdate=26 February 2006}}</ref> [[Robert Burns]] is a weel kent an praised poet. [[The Beatles]] hae internaitional sales o ower ane billion units an are the biggest-sellin an maist influential baund in the history o popular muisic.<ref name="Beatles sales">{{cite web |url=http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969/# |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425011032/http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969/ |archivedate=25 April 2014 |title=1960–1969 |publisher=EMI Group |accessdate=9 March 2015 |df= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425011032/http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969/ |date=2014-04-25 }}</ref><ref name="McCartney">{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html |title=Paul At Fifty |work=Time |location=New York |date=8 June 1992 |access-date=2018-02-04 |archive-date=2013-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518221715/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Guinness">[https://books.google.com/?id=rdU1xtIWJz0C Most Successful Group] ''[[The Guinness Book of Records]]'' 1999, p. 230. Retrieved 19 March 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/music/news/beatles-a-big-hit-with-downloads-15013117.html |title=Beatles a big hit with downloads |newspaper=Belfast Telegraph |date=25 November 2010 |accessdate=16 May 2011}}</ref> Ither prominent Breetish contreibutors tae hae influenced popular muisic ower the last 50 year include [[The Rolling Stones]], [[Pink Floyd]], [[Queen (baund)|Queen]], [[Led Zeppelin]], the [[Bee Gees]], an [[Elton John]], aw o that hae warldwide record sales o 200&nbsp;million or mair.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/singstar®-queen-to-be-launched-by-sony-computer-entertainment-europe/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423012539/http://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/singstar%C2%AE-queen-to-be-launched-by-sony-computer-entertainment-europe/ |archivedate=23 April 2014 |title=British rock legends get their own music title for PlayStation3 and PlayStation2 |publisher=[[EMI]] |date=2 February 2009 |accessdate=9 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2305273/Sir-Elton-John-honoured-in-Ben-and-Jerry-ice-cream.html |title=Sir Elton John honoured in Ben and Jerry ice cream |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=17 July 2008 |first=Urmee |last=Khan |location=London |access-date=2018-02-04 |archive-date=2008-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801175725/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2305273/Sir-Elton-John-honoured-in-Ben-and-Jerry-ice-cream.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1562875/Rock-group-Led-Zeppelin-to-reunite.html |title=Rock group Led Zeppelin to reunite |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=19 April 2008 |location=London |first=Richard |last=Alleyne |accessdate=31 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Floyd 'true to Barrett's legacy' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/5170644.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=11 July 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Kate |last=Holton |title=Rolling Stones sign Universal album deal |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/entertainmentNews/idUSL1767761020080117 |publisher=Reuters |date=17 January 2008 |accessdate=26 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Tim |last=Walker |title=Jive talkin': Why Robin Gibb wants more respect for the Bee Gees |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/jive-talkin-why-robin-gibb-wants-more-respect-for-the-bee-gees-826116.html |work=The Independent |location=London |date=12 May 2008 |accessdate=26 October 2008 |archive-date=2011-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013215157/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/jive-talkin-why-robin-gibb-wants-more-respect-for-the-bee-gees-826116.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Unitit Kinrick haes haed a conseederable influence on the history o the cinema. The Breetish directors [[Alfred Hitchcock]], that's film ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' is conseedert bi some creetics as the [[Leet o films conseedert the best|best film o aw time]],<ref name="bbc">{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-19078948 |title=Vertigo is named 'greatest film of all time' |publisher=BBC News |date=2 August 2012 |accessdate=18 August 2012}}</ref> an [[David Lean]] are amang the maist critically acclaimed o aw-time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/67yHUco5o?url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html |archivedate=27 May 2012 |title=The Directors' Top Ten Directors |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> ither important directors includin [[Charlie Chaplin]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/462570/index.html |title=Chaplin, Charles (1889–1977) |accessdate=25 January 2011 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Michael Powell]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/447167/index.html |title=Powell, Michael (1905–1990) |accessdate=25 January 2011 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Carol Reed]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/459891/index.html |title=Reed, Carol (1906–1976) |accessdate=25 January 2011 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Edgar Wright]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2bacc7dbca |title=Wright, Edgar (1974–) |accessdate=12 September 2017 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Christopher Nolan]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2bbfd6e83e |title=Nolan, Christopher (1970–) |accessdate=6 May 2017 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> an [[Ridley Scott]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/462413/index.html |title=Scott, Sir Ridley (1937–) |accessdate=25 January 2011 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> Mony Breetish actors hae achieved internaitional fame an creetical success, includin: [[Julie Andrews]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/446530/index.html |title=Andrews, Julie (1935–) |accessdate=11 December 2010 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Richard Burton]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/472165/index.html |title=Burton, Richard (1925–1984) |accessdate=11 December 2010 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Michael Caine]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/463342/index.html |title=Caine, Michael (1933–) |accessdate=11 December 2010 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Colin Firth]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/873595/index.html |title=Firth, Colin (1960–) |accessdate=12 September 2017 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Gary Oldman]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/471018/index.html |title=Oldman, Gary (1958–) |accessdate=12 September 2017 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Ben Kingsley]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/474377/index.html |title=Kingsley, Ben (1942–) |accessdate=12 September 2017 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Ian McKellen]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/492416/index.html |title=McKellen, Ian (1939–) |accessdate=12 September 2017 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Liam Neeson]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/490910/index.html |title=Neeson, Liam (1952–) |accessdate=12 September 2017 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> Charlie Chaplin,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/462570/index.html |title=Chaplin, Charles (1889–1977) |accessdate=11 December 2010 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Sean Connery]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/455509/index.html |title=Connery, Sean (1930–) |accessdate=11 December 2010 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Vivien Leigh]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/488753/index.html |title=Leigh, Vivien (1913–1967) |accessdate=11 December 2010 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[David Niven]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/458293/index.html |title=Niven, David (1910–1983) |accessdate=11 December 2010 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Laurence Olivier]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/450224/index.html |title=Olivier, Laurence (1907–1989) |accessdate=11 December 2010 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Peter Sellers]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/461941/index.html |title=Sellers, Peter (1925–1980) |accessdate=11 December 2010 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Kate Winslet]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/489012/index.html |title=Winslet, Kate (1975–) |accessdate=11 December 2010 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> [[Anthony Hopkins]],<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/film/Player/Player_Page/0,,-3689,00.html |title=Anthony Hopkins |work=The Guardian |location= London |accessdate=21 January 2015}}</ref> an [[Daniel Day-Lewis]].<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-21570142 |title= Daniel Day-Lewis makes Oscar history with third award |publisher=BBC News |date=25 February 2013 |accessdate=15 August 2013}}</ref> ==Sport== Major sports, includin association fitbaa, [[tennis]], [[rugby union]], [[rugby league]], [[gowf]], [[boxin]], [[netbaw]], [[rowin (sport)|rowin]] an [[cricket]], oreeginatoy or war substantially developed in the UK an the states that precedit it. Wi the rules an codes o mony modren sports inventit an codifee'd in late 19t century Victorian Breetain, in 2012, the Preses o the IOC, [[Jacques Rogge]], statit; ''"This great, sports-loving country is widely recognised as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum"''.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_London_2012/London_2012_Opening_ceremony_Speech_Jacques_Rogge.pdf "Opening ceremony of the games of the XXX Olympiad"]. Olympic.org. Retrieved 30 November 2013.</ref><ref>[http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/23/uk-oly-preview-ad-idUKBRE86M0I720120723 "Unparalleled Sporting History"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203031252/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/23/uk-oly-preview-ad-idUKBRE86M0I720120723 |date=2013-12-03 }}. Reuters. Retrieved 30 November 2013.</ref> ==Notes== <references group="note"/> ==References== {{reflist}} {{Commonscat|United Kingdom}} [[Category:Unitit Kinrick| ]] <!-- An article should be at the top of its own category, so please do not remove the space.--> [[Category:Breetish Islands| ]] [[Category:Constitutional monarchies]] [[Category:Kintras borderin the Atlantic Ocean]] [[Category:Kintras in Europe]] [[Category:Inglis-speakin kintras an territories]] [[Category:G8 naitions]] [[Category:G20 naitions]] [[Category:Island kintras]] [[Category:Leeberal democracies]] [[Category:Member states o NATO]] [[Category:Member states o the Commonweel o Naitions]] [[Category:Member states o the Cooncil o Europe]] [[Category:Member states o the Union for the Mediterranean]] [[Category:Member states o the Unitit Naitions]] [[Category:Northren European kintras]] [[Category:Wastren European kintras]] 2z7z9qlz9ztln3z3h1n9m2ez7o5cnv4 Teletubbies 0 9058 916941 913949 2026-05-18T08:18:40Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916941 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots}} {{Infobox television | show_name = Teletubbies | image = Teletubbies Logo.png | caption = | creator = [[Anne Wood]]<br/>[[Andrew Davenport]] | developer = [[Ragdoll Productions]]<br/>[[Darrall Macqueen Ltd]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.c21media.net/nickelodeon-takes-teletubbies-reboot/|title=Nickelodeon takes Teletubbies reboot|publisher=C21 Media|date=6 November 2015|last=Franks|first=Nico|accessdate=27 May 2016}}</ref> | starring = <small>'''Original series:'''</small><br/>[[Dave Thompson (comedian)|Dave Thompson]]<br/>[[Simon Shelton]]<br/>[[John Simmit]]<br/>[[Nikky Smedley]]<br/>[[Pui Fan Lee]]<br/><small>'''Revival series:'''</small><br/>[[Nick Kellington]]<br/>[[Rebecca Hyland]]<br/>[[Jeremiah Krage]]<br/>[[Rachelle Beinart]] | voices = <small>'''Original series:'''</small><br/>[[Toyah Willcox]]<br/>[[Eric Sykes]]<br/>Mark Heenehan<br/><small>'''Revival series:'''</small><br/>[[Jane Horrocks]]<br/>[[Jim Broadbent]]<br/>[[Fearne Cotton]]<br/>[[David Walliams]]<br/>[[Rochelle Humes]]<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/teletubbies2</ref> | narrated = [[Tim Whitnall]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-32201894|title=Teletubbies voices revealed for new series|publisher=[[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=7 April 2015|accessdate=27 May 2016}}</ref><br/>[[Daniel Rigby]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2015-06-16/from-bt-adverts-and-teletubbies-to-undercover---the-screen-journey-of-daniel-rigby|title=From BT adverts and Teletubbies to Undercover - the screen journey of Daniel Rigby|publisher=[[Radio Times]]|date=16 June 2015|last=Fullerton|first=Huw|accessdate=27 May 2016|archive-date=2017-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127204747/http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2015-06-16/from-bt-adverts-and-teletubbies-to-undercover---the-screen-journey-of-daniel-rigby|url-status=dead}}</ref> | opentheme = "[[Teletubbies say "Eh-oh!"|Teletubbies say 'Eh-oh!']]" | country = United Kingdom | language = English | num_episodes = 425 | list_episodes = List of Teletubbies episodes and videos | location = [[Stratford-upon-Avon]], [[Warwickshire]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/uh-oh--teletubbies-grassy-home-flooded---after-owner-becomes-sick-of-tourists-trying-to-visit-iconic-set-161625219.html#wFd1b6V|title=Uh-oh! Teletubbies grassy home flooded - after owner becomes sick of tourists trying to visit iconic set|publisher=Uk.news.yahoo.com|date=2 September 2013|accessdate=23 December 2015|archive-date=2020-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811102739/https://uk.news.yahoo.com/uh-oh--teletubbies-grassy-home-flooded---after-owner-becomes-sick-of-tourists-trying-to-visit-iconic-set-161625219.html#wFd1b6V|url-status=dead}}</ref> | executive_producer = David G. Hiller<br/>Vic Finch | runtime = 25 minutes | distributor = [[Pinewood Studios]]<ref name="InsiderMedia">{{cite news| title=Teletubbies joint venture|url=http://www.insidermedia.com/insider/southeast/47394-teletubbies-joint-venture-sale|date=14 February 2011|accessdate=4 January 2014|publisher=Insider Media}}</ref><br/>[[DHX Media]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhxmedia.com/newsreleases/say-eh-oh-to-the-new-look-teletubbies/|title=Say 'Eh-Oh!' to the New-Look Teletubbies|publisher=[[DHX Media]]|date=3 June 2015|accessdate=28 May 2016|archive-date=2016-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816203839/http://www.dhxmedia.com/newsreleases/say-eh-oh-to-the-new-look-teletubbies/|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>[[Viacom International]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nickpress.com/press-releases/2016/05/12/eh-oh-the-teletubbies-are-back-beloved-characters-return-in-all-new-preschool-series-on-nick-jr-channel-while-classic-original-episodes-launch-on-the-noggin-app|title=Eh-oh, the Teletubbies are back! Beloved characters return in all-new series on Nick Jr. channel|publisher=[[Viacom International|Viacom International, Inc.]]|date=12 May 2016|accessdate=28 May 2016|archive-date=2017-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506041711/http://www.nickpress.com/press-releases/2016/05/12/eh-oh-the-teletubbies-are-back-beloved-characters-return-in-all-new-preschool-series-on-nick-jr-channel-while-classic-original-episodes-launch-on-the-noggin-app|url-status=dead}}</ref> | network = [[CBeebies]] | picture_format = {{plainlist| * [[480i]] (1997–2001) * [[1080i]] (2015–present) }} | first_aired = <small>'''Original series:'''</small><br />{{Start date|1997|3|31|df=y}} – <br />{{End date|2001|2|16|df=y}}<br/> <small>'''Revival series:'''</small><br />{{Start date|2015|11|9|df=y}} – present | website = http://www.teletubbies.com }} '''''Teletubbies''''' is a Breetish [[pre-schuil]] [[bairns' televeesion series]] creatit bi [[Ragdoll Productions]]' [[Anne Wood]] an [[Andrew Davenport]] for the [[BBC]]. The programme focuses on fower multi-coloured creatures kent as "Teletubbies," named for the telly screens implanted in thair abdomens. Recognised throughout [[popular culture]] for the uniquely-shaped antenna protruding frae the heads o each character, the Teletubbies communicate throu gibberish an war designed tae bear resemblance tae young bairns.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bridging real world and toddler fantasy, Teletubbies reaches youngest audience|url=http://current.org/files/archive-site/ch/ch803t.html|accessdate=20 May 2016|work=Current.org|date=16 February 1998|last=Everhart|first=Karen|archive-date=2016-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817235434/http://current.org/files/archive-site/ch/ch803t.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Parteecularly notable for its heich production values, the series rapidly becam a commercial success in Britain an abroad. It wan multiple [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts|BAFTA]] awards an wis nominated for twa [[Daytime Emmy Award|Daytime Emmys]] throughout its run.<ref name="BBC News Entertainment: Tubbies toast another three years">{{cite news|title=Tubbies toast another three years|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/287940.stm|accessdate=3 June 2015|work=BBC News|date=1 March 1999}}</ref><ref name="bafta-2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.bafta.org/awards/childrens/nominations/?year=2002|title=Past Winners and Nominees&nbsp;– Children's&nbsp;– Awards&nbsp;– 2002|publisher=[[BAFTA]]|accessdate=13 January 2010}}</ref> A [[Teletubbies say "Eh-oh!"|single]] based on the shaw's theme sang reached nummer 1 in the [[UK Singles Chart]] in December 1997 an remained in the Tap 75 for 32 weeks, selling ower a million copies.<ref name="Spilsbury2012">{{cite book|author=Richard Spilsbury|title=Simon Cowell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzHagb095xgC&pg=PA16|date=1 July 2012|publisher=Heinemann Library|isbn=978-1-4329-6434-4|pages=16–}}</ref> Tho production on the first 365 episodes haed been annoonced cancelled in 2002,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/multi-platform/news/cbbc-wants-first-tenders/1177573.article|title=CBBC wants first tenders &#124; News &#124; Broadcast|publisher=Broadcast now.co.uk|date=29 June 2001|accessdate=10 July 2010}}</ref> sixty new episodes war ordered in 2014.<ref name="The Guardian">{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/media/2014/jun/13/bbc-cbeebies-orders-new-teletubbies-episodes|first=Mark|last=Sweeney|title=BBC’s CBeebies orders 60 new Teletubbies episodes|date=13 June 2014|work=www.theguardian.com|publisher=The Guardian}}</ref> Thay are currently aired on [[CBeebies]] in the Unitit Kinrick an on [[Nick Jr.]] in the Unitit States.<ref>{{cite news|title=Teletubbies Reboot Coming to Nickelodeon|url=http://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2015/06/nickelodeon-gets-american-rights-for-bbc-teletubbies-reboot|date=12 June 2015|accessdate=20 May 2016|work=[[Complex (magazine)|Complex]]|publisher=Complex Media, Inc.|archive-date=2017-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914130818/http://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2015/06/nickelodeon-gets-american-rights-for-bbc-teletubbies-reboot|url-status=dead}}</ref> Re-runs o the oreeginal 1997 - 2001 series continue tae be shawn on relevant television channels worldwide, some 16 years efter the oreeginal run's conclusion. == Plot == The programme takes place in a grassy, floral landscape populated bi rabbits wi bird calls audible in the background. The main shelter o the fower Teletubbies is an [[earth house]] kent as the "Tubbytronic Superdome" implanted in the grund an accessed throu a hole at the tap or an especially lairge semicircular door at the dome's fit. The creatures co-exist wi a nummer o strange contraptions sic as the Noo-noo, the group's anthropomorphic blue [[vacuum cleaner]], an the Voice Trumpets. The shaw's colourfu, psychedelic setting wis designed specifically tae appeal to the attention spans o infants an unlock different sections o the mind whiles an aw educatin young bairns o transitions that can be expected in life. An assortment o rituals are performed throughout the course o every episode, sic as the playful interactions atween the Teletubbies an the Voice Trumpets, the mishaps caused bi the Noo-noo, the footage o live bairns displayed on the screens in the Teletubbies' stomachs, an the magical event that occurs ance per episode. The event differs each time; it is eften caused inexplicably an is frequently strange yet whimsical. Each episode is closed bi the Voice Trumpets an the narrator tae the disappointed, reluctant, but eventually obedient Teletubbies, who bids farewell tae the viewer as thay go back tae the Tubbytronic Superdome whiles the Sun baby sets. == Chairacters == ===Main chairacters=== *'''Tinky Winky''' (played bi [[Dave Thompson (comedian)|Dave Thompson]] an [[Simon Shelton]] in the oreeginal series an bi [[Jeremiah Krage]] in the revival series)<ref name=Unmasked>{{cite news|title=The Teletubbies unmasked! The people behind the iconic children's TV characters|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2366611/The-Teletubbies-unmasked-The-people-iconic-childrens-TV-characters.html|accessdate=28 May 2016|work=[[Daily Mail]]|publisher=[[Daily Mail and General Trust]]|date=17 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Showreel: Jeremiah Krage|url=http://www.jeremiahkrage.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404182836/http://www.jeremiahkrage.com/|archivedate=4 April 2016|accessdate=22 April 2016|last=Krage|first=Jeremiah}}</ref> is the first Teletubby, as well as the lairgest an auldest o the group. He is covered in purpie [[terrycloth]] an haes a [[triangle|triangular]] [[Antenna (radio)|antenna]] on his heid. He awmaist always cairies a reid bag. *'''Dipsy''' (played bi [[John Simmit]] in the oreeginal series an bi [[Nick Kellington]] in the revival series)<ref name="Zap2it Cast">{{cite web | url=http://tvlistings.zap2it.com/tv/teletubbies/cast/EP00224776?aid=zap2it|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530124458/http://tvlistings.zap2it.com/tv/teletubbies/cast/EP00224776?aid=zap2it|archivedate=30 May 2013|title=Teletubbies Cast - Zap2it|publisher=[[Zap2it]]}}</ref> is the seicont Teletubby. He is green an named efter his antenna, which resembles a [[dipstick]]. Dipsy is the maist stubborn o the Teletubbies, an will occasionally refuse to go alang wi the others' group opinion. His face is notably darker than the rest o the Teletubbies, an the creators hae stated that he is [[Race (classification of human beings)|black]].<ref name="16things">{{cite news| title=Teletubbies: 16 things you didn't know|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/10903566/Teletubbies-16-things-you-didnt-know.html|date=24 December 2014|accessdate=5 April 2016|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]}}</ref> *'''Laa-Laa''' (played bi [[Nikky Smedley]] in the oreeginal series an bi [[Rebecca Hyland]] in the revival series)<ref name="Zap2it Cast" /> is the third Teletubby. She is yellae an haes a curly antenna. Laa-Laa is very sweet, likes tae sing an dance, an is eften shawn leukin oot for the ither Teletubbies. Her favorite toy is an orange rubber ball. *'''Po''' (played bi [[Pui Fan Lee]] in the oreeginal series an bi [[Rachelle Beinart]] in the revival series)<ref name="Zap2it Cast" /> is the fowert Teletubby, as well as the shortest an youngest. She is reid and haes an antenna shaped lik a stick uised for blowing [[soap bubble]]s. Po normally speaks in a saft vyce an haes been stated bi the shaw's creators tae be [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]].<ref name="16things" /> ===Supporting chairacters=== *The '''Noo-noo''' (operated bi Mark Dean in the oreeginal series)<ref name="Teletubbies Credits">{{cite web | url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/teletubbies-all-together-teletubbies-playful-pals-and-delightful-days/oclc/60547993#details-allauthors|archivedate=30 June 2015|title=Teletubbies Authors}}</ref> is a conscientious vacuum cleaner who acts as baith the Teletubbies' guardian and housekeeper. He hardly ever ventures ootside the Tubbytronic Superdome, instead remainin indoors and constantly cleaning wi his sucker-lik neb. He communicates throu a series of slurping and sucking noises. *The '''Voice Trumpets''' (voiced bi [[Fearne Cotton]], [[Jim Broadbent]] and [[Antonia Thomas]] in the revival series)<ref name="Teletubbies Characters">{{cite web | url=http://us.teletubbies.com/about-teletubbies/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528005723/http://us.teletubbies.com/about-teletubbies/|archivedate=28 May 2016|title=About Teletubbies: The Characters}}</ref> are several devices resembling periscopes that rise frae the grund and interact wi the Teletubbies, eften engaging in gemmes wi them and serving as supervisors. Thay are the anly residents of Teletubbyland who speak in complete sentences. *The '''Sun Baby''' (played bi Jess Smith in the oreeginal series)<ref name=TDT>{{cite news|title=The baby from Teletubbies reveals herself|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/11310883/The-baby-from-Teletubbies-reveals-herself.html|accessdate=23 December 2014|agency=Unknown|publisher=The Daily Telegraph|date=23 December 2014}}</ref> appears at the beginnin and end of each episode. She acts as a wake-up caw for the Teletubbies. *Numerous '''rabbits''' are foond throughout Teletubbyland, an are depicted bi several [[Flemish Giant]] rabbits. The Teletubbies enjoy watching them hop and play. The rabbits are the anly teep of Yird ainimal foond in the land, an tak residence in rabbit holes and bushes. *The '''Tubby Phone''' (voiced bi [[Jane Horrocks]])<ref name="Teletubbies Characters" /> is a character in the revival series, who transports the Teletubbies to the modren warld. *The '''Tiddlytubbies''' (voiced bi [[Teresa Gallagher]]) are baby Teletubbies appearin in the revival series. Thair names are Mi-Mi, Daa Daa, Baa, Ping, RuRu, Nin, Duggle Dee and Umby Pumby.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/dhx-media-announces-teletubbies-season-two-574465461.html|title=DHX Media Announces Teletubbies Season Two|publisher=[[PR Newswire]]|date=4 April 2016|accessdate=24 May 2016}}</ref> == Release == On 31 Mairch 1997, the first episode of ''Teletubbies'' aired on [[BBC2]]. It filled a timeslot previously held bi ''[[Playdays]]''. This schedule chynge initially received backlash frae parents, but the shaw wis nae moved.<ref name="Tegna">{{cite news| title=To Teletubby or not to Teletubby|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/to-teletubby-or-not-to-teletubby-1235645.html|date=12 October 1997|accessdate=27 May 2016|publisher=[[Tegna, Inc.]]|work=[[WTSP|Tegna WTSP]]}}</ref> The programme's unconventional format quickly received attention frae the media, an it wis attracting twa million viewers per episode bi August.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/teletubbies-to-get-grown-up-help-with-their-baby-talk-1247240.html|title=Teletubbies to get grown-up help with their baby talk|publisher=[[The Independent]]|date=24 August 1997|accessdate=24 May 2016|last=McCann|first=Paul|archive-date=2017-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226014818/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/teletubbies-to-get-grown-up-help-with-their-baby-talk-1247240.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Februar 1998, ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'' noted that it haed "reached cult status" in less nor a year on the air.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/120712794/|title=Padded sells|publisher=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|work=Newspapers.com|date=1 February 1998|accessdate=24 May 2016}}</ref> ''Teletubbies'' haes been aired in ower 120 countries in 45 different leids.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nickelodeon snaps up broadcast and on-demand rights to new Teletubbies|url=http://www.licensing.biz/news/read/nickelodeon-snaps-up-us-broadcast-and-on-demand-rights-to-new-teletubbies/042196|date=11 June 2015|accessdate=23 May 2016|work=[[Licensing.biz]]|publisher=[[NewBay Media]]|archive-date=2017-06-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630142506/http://www.licensing.biz/news/read/nickelodeon-snaps-up-us-broadcast-and-on-demand-rights-to-new-teletubbies/042196|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usmagazine.com/entertainment/news/teletubbies-will-return-to-tv-after-14-years-which-actor-will-star-201584|title=Teletubbies Will Return After 14 Years: See Which British Actor Will Star in New TV Show!|work=[[Us Weekly]]|publisher=[[Wenner Media LLC]]|date=4 August 2015}}</ref> In the United States, the series airs on [[Nickelodeon]] as pairt o the [[Nick Jr. (block)|Nick Jr.]] block.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/06/11/teletubbies-reboot_n_7561434.html|title=Nickelodeon Is Rebooting The 'Teletubbies'|publisher=[[Verizon Communications]]|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=11 June 2015|accessdate=24 June 2015|last=Whitney|first=Erin}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhxmedia.com/newsreleases/major-tv-deal-for-brand-new-incarnation-of-hit-preschool-series/|title=DHX Media's ''Teletubbies'' heads to the US with Nick Jr. and the Noggin app|work=DHX Media|date=11 June 2015|access-date=2017-05-30|archive-date=2017-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127183651/http://www.dhxmedia.com/newsreleases/major-tv-deal-for-brand-new-incarnation-of-hit-preschool-series/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Episodes are an aa released throu the Nick Jr. mobile application and on-demand services.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ew.com/article/2015/06/11/bbcs-teletubbies-reboot-picked-nickelodeon|title=Teletubbies reboot picked up by Nickelodeon|work=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|date=11 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://us.teletubbies.com/about-teletubbies/where-to-watch/|title=Teletubbies: Where to Watch|work=Teletubbies.com|publisher=[[Viacom International|Viacom International, Inc.]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160523235523/http://us.teletubbies.com/about-teletubbies/where-to-watch/|archivedate=23 May 2016|accessdate=28 May 2016}}</ref> The oreeginal series is available as pairt o the [[Noggin (app)|Noggin]] subscription service in North Americae.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.streamingmedia.com/PressRelease/Noggin-Nickelodeons-Preschool-Video-Subscription-Service-Expands-to-New-Platforms-and-Adds-Eight-Premium-Series-to-Content-Slate_40093.aspx|title=Noggin, Nickelodeon's Preschool Video Subscription Service, Expands to New Platforms and Adds Eight Premium Series to Content Slate|work=Streaming Media|publisher=[[Viacom International|Viacom International, Inc.]]|date=11 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nutmegcreative.com/work/noggin-teletubbies/|title=Noggin's Teletubbies|work=Nutmeg Creative|accessdate=28 May 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528213348/http://nutmegcreative.com/work/noggin-teletubbies/|archivedate=28 May 2016}}</ref> It haed aired on [[PBS Kids]] until 2008. [[BBC Worldwide]] channels cairy the series in maist of Africae, Asia and Poland.<ref name="animation">{{cite web|url=http://www.animationmagazine.net/tv/dhx-inks-ten-teletubbies-broadcast-deals/|title=DHX inks ten ''Teletubbies'' broadcast deals|work=AnimationMagazine.net}}</ref> A Spaingie dub airs on [[Clan (TV channel)|Clan]] in Spain.<ref name="newswire">{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/dhx-media-adds-10-more-broadcast-deals-for-the-new-teletubbies-573339351.html|title=DHX Media adds 10 more broadcast deals for the new ''Teletubbies''|work=Newswire.ca}}</ref> In Greece, the series airs on [[Nickelodeon (Greece)|Nickelodeon Greece]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Teletubbies - Nickelodeon Greece|url=http://www.nickelodeon.gr/seires/teletubbies|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506052613/http://www.nickelodeon.gr/seires/teletubbies|archivedate=6 May 2016|accessdate=23 May 2016|publisher=[[Viacom International|Viacom International, Inc.]]}}</ref> [[NPO Zappelin]] cairies the shaw in the Netherlands and [[MTVA (Hungary)|MTVA]] airs it in Hungary.<ref name="animation" /> In Australia and New Zealand, the series airs on CBeebies Australia<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbeebies.com/australia/teletubbies|title=Teletubbies - CBeebies Australia|publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation|date=|accessdate=30 June 2015|archive-date=2015-08-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812093452/http://www.cbeebies.com/australia/teletubbies|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[ABC Kids (Australia)|ABC Kids]]. [[JimJam]]'s Benelux feed airs the series and [[Ultra (TV channel)|Ultra]] airs it in Serbia.<ref name="newswire" /> ''Teletubbies'' an aa airs on [[Sociedade Independente de Comunicação|SIC]] in Portugal and [[e-Junior]] in the Middle East.<ref name="animation" /> == Promotion == === Merchandising === [[File:The Teletubbies are still here 2011 (6592747791).jpg|thumb|A kiddie ride at [[Chuck E. Cheese's]] featurin the ''Teletubbies'' characters.]] [[Golden Bear Toys]] distributed the first line of ''Teletubbies'' dolls shortly efter the programme's debut.<ref>{{cite news| title=Start young, work hard and keep on trusting in success|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/yourbusiness/2876392/Start-young-work-hard-and-keep-on-trusting-in-success.html|date=9 February 2004|accessdate=14 April 2016|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|last=Tyler|first=Richard}}</ref> Thay war sauld internationally, wi talking toys available in multiple leids.<ref>{{cite news| title=Achtung, Teletubby is teaching baby to speak German|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1313325/Achtung-Teletubby-is-teaching-baby-to-speak-German.html|date=5 January 2001|accessdate=14 April 2016|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|last=Stokes|first=Paul}}</ref> [[Hasbro]] signed on to develop a new range of products in 1998.<ref>{{cite news|title=Toy store pulls Teletubby doll|url=http://lubbockonline.com/stories/102398/LA0773.shtml#.V0rlNJMrI_U|date=23 October 1998|accessdate=25 May 2016|work=[[Lubbock Avalanche-Journal]]|publisher=[[Morris Communications]]|archive-date=2016-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701095359/http://lubbockonline.com/stories/102398/LA0773.shtml#.V0rlNJMrI_U|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1999, [[Microsoft|Microsoft UK]] released a set of interactive "ActiMates" toys based on the characters.<ref>{{cite news| title=Eh-oh! What is Bill Gates doing to our Tubbies?|url=http://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/1999/jan/31/life1.lifemagazine3|date=31 January 1999|accessdate=29 May 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|last=McClellen|first=Jim|publisher=[[Guardian Media Group]]}}</ref> The Rasta Imposta company introduced ''Teletubbies'' costumes for childer and adults in the same year.<ref name="Blythe2011">{{cite book|author=Daniel Blythe|title=Collecting Gadgets and Games from the 1950s-90s|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nLhiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167|date=13 December 2011|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-84468-105-1|pages=167–}}</ref> Twa educational [[video game]]s featurin the characters war an aa released throughout the series' run.<ref>{{cite web| title=Teletubbies 2: Favourite Games|url=http://www.museumofplay.org/online-collections/22/66/109.10907|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528205014/http://www.museumofplay.org/online-collections/22/66/109.10907|archivedate=28 May 2016|publisher=[[The National Museum of Play]]|accessdate=28 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=Play with the Teletubbies: Early Childhood Game Review|url=http://www.ign.com/games/play-with-the-teletubbies/ps-15049|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528204915/http://www.ign.com/games/play-with-the-teletubbies/ps-15049|archivedate=28 May 2016|publisher=[[IGN]]|accessdate=28 May 2016}}</ref> ''Teletubbies'' dolls war the tap-selling Christmas toy in 1997.<ref>{{cite news| title=Top-selling Christmas toy from each of the past 30 years revealed|url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/lifestyle/family/top-selling-christmas-toy-each-6940354|date=3 December 2015|accessdate=14 April 2016|work=[[Daily Mirror]]|publisher=[[Trinity Mirror]]}}</ref><ref name="Holland2004">{{cite book|author=Patricia Holland|title=Picturing Childhood: The Myth of the Child in Popular Imagery|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TEsBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|date=23 January 2004|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-564-7|pages=67–}}</ref> Demand outstripped supply at maist retailers, reportedly prompting mony shops to ration them to one per customer.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/30764.stm|title=Teletubbies bigger than Buzz|date=13 November 1997|accessdate=14 April 2016|publisher=[[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]}}</ref> In some cases, shoppers camped ootside stores overnicht in hopes of purchasing ''Teletubbies'' merchandise.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.dailypress.com/1998-03-29/features/9803270293_1_teletubby-items-toys-plush|title=Toy Stores Preparing For The Inevitable Craze For Teletubby Items|last=Lenz|first=Kimberly|date=29 March 1998|accessdate=14 April 2016|work=[[Daily Press (Virginia)|Daily Press]]|publisher=[[Tribune Publishing]]|archive-date=2017-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127183925/http://articles.dailypress.com/1998-03-29/features/9803270293_1_teletubby-items-toys-plush|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.tes.com/article.aspx?storycode=74716|title=Toy stories 1997|last=Ghouri|first=Nadene|date=26 December 1997|accessdate=14 April 2016|work=[[TES (magazine)|TES]]|publisher=TGP Capital}}</ref> Fights ower the toys broke oot amang parents and collectors on occasion.<ref name="Company2012">{{cite book|author=Official Charts Company|title=Million Sellers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0zQDAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT311|date=20 November 2012|publisher=Music Sales Group|isbn=978-0-85712-882-9|pages=311–}}</ref><ref name="Brewer2013">{{cite book|author=Susan Brewer|title=Famous Character Dolls|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y95laWk98uoC&pg=PA64|year=2013|publisher=Casemate Publishers|isbn=978-1-84468-094-8|pages=64–}}</ref> Ower one million dolls war sauld in Britain bi 25 December of that year, wi Golden Bear representatives estimating that sales coud hae reached three million if supplies haed been available.<ref>{{cite news| title=Teletubbies are top toy|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/teletubbies-are-top-toy-1.140411|date=24 December 1997|accessdate=14 April 2016|publisher=[[The Irish Times]]}}</ref> The plush toys war named "Toy of the Year" bi the [[British Association of Toy Retailers]] in 1998.<ref>{{cite web| title=Toy of the Year 1997: Eh-oh! It's the Teletubbies!|url=http://www.toyretailersassociation.co.uk/toy-year-1997|accessdate=14 April 2016|publisher=[[British Association of Toy Retailers]]}}</ref> Kids' meal tie-ins hae been released at [[fast-food restaurant]]s throughout North Americae. In Mey 1999, [[Burger King]] distributed a set of sax ''Teletubbies'' plush toys.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fries with your Teletubby? Fast food titans fight for market share with toys|url=http://money.cnn.com/1999/05/21/busunu/fast_food_pkg/|date=21 May 1999|publisher=[[CNN|CNN Money]]|access-date=2017-05-30|archive-date=2017-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517013702/http://money.cnn.com/1999/05/21/busunu/fast_food_pkg/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Thay an aa included [[chicken nugget]]s shaped lik the characters on thair menu for a brief period of time.<ref name="RubinRubin2008">{{cite book|author1=Jordan Rubin|author2=Nicki Rubin|title=Great Physician's Rx for Children's Health|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GTBoaJPAIkoC&pg=PA7|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Thomas Nelson Inc|isbn=978-1-4185-7240-2|pages=7–}}</ref> Keychains modelled efter the characters war available at [[McDonald's]] in Apryle 2000.<ref>{{cite web| title=Time for Teletubbies...at McDonald's, April 2000|url=https://www.qsrmagazine.com/news/time-teletubbiesat-mcdonalds-april-2000|date=14 April 2000|publisher=QSR|work=QSR Magazine}}</ref> Thir promotions became controversial amang adults who believed thay war intendit to attract toddlers to heich-fat food.<ref name="Schor2014">{{cite book|author=Juliet B. Schor|title=Born to Buy: The Commercialized Child and the New Consumer Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VMCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT258|date=19 August 2014|publisher=Scribner|isbn=978-1-4391-3090-2|pages=258–}}</ref> Psychiatrist [[Alvin Francis Poussaint]] considered the deals "troubling."<ref>{{cite web| title=Is advertising to kids wrong? Marketers respond|url=http://kidscreen.com/2000/11/01/30304-20001101/|date=1 November 2000|publisher=[[Playback (magazine)|Kidscreen]]}}</ref> He voiced his opinion on the matter publicly, but did nae tak action against the companies.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.br-online.de/jugend/izi/english/e-elliott.htm|title=Television and the Teletubbies: A reflection from early childhood service providers in Australia|last=Elliott|first=Roslyn|publisher=[[Bayerischer Rundfunk]]}}</ref> Twa [[kiddie ride]]s featurin the characters war manufactured bi Jolly Roger.<ref>{{cite web| title=New licensed character ride for Jolly Roger|url=http://yourguides.net/vending/companies/jolly-roger-amusement-rides-ltd/news|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619235606/http://yourguides.net/vending/companies/jolly-roger-amusement-rides-ltd/news|archivedate=19 June 2010 |publisher=YourGuides|accessdate=29 May 2016}}</ref> Thay war available at select amusement parks and arcades, sic as [[Chuck E. Cheese's]] and [[Fantasy Island (UK amusement park)|Fantasy Island]].<ref>{{cite web| title=Teletubbies Carousel Ride|url=http://www.photo-me.co.uk/retailers/kiddies-rides/carousels/teletubbies-carousel/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029125329/http://www.photo-me.co.uk/retailers/kiddies-rides/carousels/teletubbies-carousel/|archivedate=29 October 2014|publisher=Photo-Me|accessdate=29 May 2016}}</ref> Overseas ''Teletubbies'' merchandise sales throughout the 1990s delivered €136 million in profits for the BBC.<ref>{{cite news| title=Mini millionaires: Five who made their fortunes from children's cartoons|url=http://www.thejournal.ie/mini-millionaires-five-who-made-their-fortunes-from-childrens-cartoons-147125-Jun2011/|date=1 June 2011|accessdate=5 April 2016|work=[[TheJournal.ie]]|publisher=Distilled Media}}</ref> Bi the time o the programme's cancellation, ''Teletubbies'' toys haed generated ower £200 million in revenue for co-creautor Anne Wood alone.<ref>{{cite news| title=Ragdoll puts sales joint venture with BBC Worldwide on the market|url=http://www.theguardian.com/media/2013/jan/29/ragdoll-end-sales-joint-venture-bbc-worldwide|date=29 January 2013|accessdate=27 May 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|last=Sweney|first=Mark|publisher=[[Guardian Media Group]]}}</ref> In 2005, Chris Hastings and Ben Jones of ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' cried ''Teletubbies'' "the most lucrative show in BBC television history."<ref>{{cite news| title=Teletubbies top BBC overseas sales at £120m|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1499688/Teletubbies-top-BBC-overseas-sales-at-120m.html|date=2 October 2005|accessdate=5 April 2016|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]}}</ref> === Live events === To commemorate the tenth anniversary o the premiere of ''Teletubbies'', a series of events teuk place frae Mairch to Apryle 2007.<ref name="tenth anniversary">{{cite news | author=Rusak, Gary | date=12 March 2007 | title=Teletubbies celebrate 10th anniversary in high style | publisher=KidScreen Magazine | url=http://www.kidscreen.com/articles/daily/20070312/teletubbies.html}}</ref> The characters headlined an invitation-anly event in [[London]] on 21 Mairch 2007. Thay appeared in [[New York City]]'s [[Times Square]], [[Grand Central Terminal]], and [[Apollo Theater]]. Thay war an aa interviewed on ''[[Today (NBC program)|The Today Show]]'' in an episode that included the first televised appearance o the actors wioot thair costumes. A partnership wis formed wi [[Isaac Mizrahi]] in which Mizrahi designed Teletubbies-inspired bags tae be [[auction]]ed off to benefit charities. A new line of claedin wis launched at the Pop-Up Shop<ref name="popup shop">{{cite news | title=Teletubbies Pop-Up Shop | url=http://www.taketheteletubbiestest.com/love_it/ | access-date=2017-05-30 | archive-date=2016-01-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130042602/http://www.taketheteletubbiestest.com/love_it/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> and ither specialty stores. [[Mayor of New York City|New York City mayor]] [[Mike Bloomberg]] annoonced 28 Mairch 2007 "Teletubbies Day" and gae the [[Key to the City|key to the ceety]] to the Teletubbies. Following thair shaw in New York, the Teletubbies went on thair first live European tour, performing in London, [[Paris]], [[Bremen]], [[Darmstadt]], [[Halle (Saale)|Halle]], [[Hamburg]], [[Köln]], and [[Hannover]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Teletubbies reunite for free tour|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/6014858/Teletubbies-reunite-for-free-tour.html|date=12 August 2009|accessdate=20 May 2016|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]}}</ref> In Januar 2016, costumed ''Teletubbies'' characters appeared at the [[American International Toy Fair]].<ref>{{cite news|title=TOY FAIR 2016: Teletubbies join Character Options for toy unveiling|url=http://www.toynews-online.biz/news/read/toy-fair-2016-teletubbies-join-character-options-for-toy-unveiling/045926|date=26 January 2016|accessdate=17 April 2016|publisher=ToyNews|archive-date=2017-02-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212084124/http://www.toynews-online.biz/news/read/toy-fair-2016-teletubbies-join-character-options-for-toy-unveiling/045926|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Apryle 2016, the series' premiere on the Greek Nickelodeon channel wis advertised wi a series of appearances bi the Teletubbies at malls throughout [[Athens]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Eλάτε να γνωρίσετε τα Teletubbies από κοντά το Σάββατο 16/04 στο Avenue!|url=http://www.nickelodeon.gr/nea/story/3127/elate-na-gnorisete-ta-teletubbies-apo-konta-to-savvato-16-04-sto-avenue|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529191138/http://www.nickelodeon.gr/nea/story/3127/elate-na-gnorisete-ta-teletubbies-apo-konta-to-savvato-16-04-sto-avenue|archivedate=29 May 2016|date=13 April 2016|accessdate=29 May 2016|publisher=[[Viacom International|Viacom International, Inc.]]|work=[[Nickelodeon (Greece)|Nickelodeon Greece]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Ραντεβού με τα Teletubbies|url=http://www.athinorama.gr/child/article/rantebou_me_ta_teletubbies__-2513592.html|date=16 April 2016|accessdate=23 May 2016|publisher=Athinorama}}</ref> This began wi a live shaw at Avenue Mall on 16 Apryle, which featurt baith the Teletubbies and a host frae the network.<ref>{{cite news| title=Τα TELETUBBIES αποκλειστικά για μια μέρα στην ΑΘήνα|url=https://pamebolta.gr/event/2016/04/14613/ta-teletubbies-apokleistika-gia-mia-mera-stin-athina|date=16 April 2016|accessdate=23 May 2016|publisher=Avenue Mall Athens|work=Pamebolta.gr}}</ref> Throughout Mey 2016, the characters appeared on various [[breakfast television|breakfast television programmes]] to promote the upcoming series' debut on Nickelodeon in the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=Teletubbies Takeover Chicago's WGN Morning News|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/daily-southtown/community/chi-ugc-article-teletubbies-takeover-chicagos-wgn-morning-ne-1-2016-05-19-story.html|date=18 May 2016|accessdate=27 May 2016|publisher=[[The Chicago Tribune]]|archive-date=2016-05-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520113942/http://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/daily-southtown/community/chi-ugc-article-teletubbies-takeover-chicagos-wgn-morning-ne-1-2016-05-19-story.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The Teletubbies return to TV|url=http://www.wtsp.com/entertainment/television/studio10/the-teletubbies-return-to-tv-1/198776346|date=18 May 2016|accessdate=27 May 2016|publisher=[[Tegna, Inc.]]|work=[[WTSP|Tegna WTSP]]}}{{Dead link|date=August 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Reception == === Critical reception === The series received mixed reviews frae critics. [[Common Sense Media]]'s Emily Ashby foond that "while the show's examples of cooperative play, wonder, and simple joys are gentle and pleasing, the creatures can still be a little grating to parents watching along."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/tv-reviews/teletubbies-2016|title=Teletubbies TV Review - Common Sense Media|work=[[Common Sense Media]]|last=Ashby|first=Emily|accessdate=28 May 2016}}</ref> Caryn James of ''[[The New York Times]]'' stated in her review that the episodes "offer a genuinely appealing combination: cute and slightly surreal."<ref>{{cite news| title=TELEVISION REVIEW; Teletubbies Say Eh-Oh, And Others Say Uh-Oh|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/06/arts/television-review-teletubbies-say-eh-oh-and-others-say-uh-oh.html|date=6 April 1998|accessdate=5 June 2014|last=James|first=Caryn|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Upon the shaw's release, some critics feared that the characters' uise of babbling in place of complete sentences wad negatively affect young viewers' ability to communicate. The ''[[Daily Mirror]]'' reportit in 1997 that mony parents objected to its "goo-goo style" and "said the show was a bad influence on their children."<ref>{{cite news|title=TELETUBBIES: Are They Harmless Fun or Bad for Our Children?|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-61096732.html|work=[[Daily Mirror]]|date=23 May 1997|access-date=2017-05-30|archive-date=2017-12-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040217/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-61096732.html|url-status=dead}}{{subscription required|via=HighBeam}}</ref> Marina Krcmar, a professor of communication at the [[Wake Forest University]], told interviewers in 2007 that "toddlers learn more from an adult speaker than they do from a program such as ''Teletubbies''."<ref>{{cite news| title=Teletubbies can't beat people in teaching first words|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-education-toddlers-teletubbies-idUSL2889488920070701|date=1 July 2007|accessdate=27 May 2016|publisher=[[Thomson Reuters]]|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> Psychiatrist Aric Sigman haes expressed his belief that "''Teletubbies'' is as bad for your child as a violent video game."<ref>{{cite news| title=Teletubbies is as bad for your child as a violent video game, says leading psychologist|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-1311139/Teletubbiesbad-child-violent-video-games.html|date=11 September 2010|accessdate=27 May 2016|publisher=[[Daily Mail and General Trust]]|work=[[Daily Mail]]}}</ref> Houiver, Paul McCann of ''[[The Independent]]'' defended this aspect o the shaw, statin that "''Teletubbies'' upsets those who automatically assume that progressive and creative learning is trendy nonsense. Those who believe that education should be strictly disciplined and functional, even when you're 18 months old. Thankfully ''Teletubbies'' isn't for them. It's for kids."<ref name="Tegna" /> === Tinky Winky controversy === Tinky Winky stairtit a controversy in 1999 acause of his carrying a bag that looks much lik a woman's handbag<!--not "purse", which has a different meaning in UK English--> (awtho he wis first "[[outing|outed]]" bi the academic and cultural critic Andy Medhurst in a letter of Julie 1997 to ''[[The Face (magazine)|The Face]]'').<ref>{{cite news| title=The Outing of Tinky Winky|url=http://priceonomics.com/the-outing-of-tinky-winky/|accessdate=27 May 2016|publisher=Priceonomics}}</ref> He aroused the interest of [[Jerry Falwell]] in 1999 when Falwell alleged that the character wis a "[[gay]] role model". Falwell issued an attack in his ''National Liberty Journal'', citing a ''[[Washington Post]]'' "In/Out" column which stated that [[lesbian]] comedian [[Ellen DeGeneres]] wis "out" as the chief national gay representative, while trendy Tinky Winky wis "in". He warned parents that Tinky Winky coud be a covert homosexual seembol, acause "he is purple, the [[gay pride]] colour, and his antenna is shaped like a triangle: the [[LGBT symbols|gay pride symbol]]."<ref>{{cite news| title=Falwell Sees Gay in a Teletubby | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/11/us/national-news-briefs-falwell-sees-gay-in-a-teletubby.html|date=11 February 1999|accessdate=6 November 2010}}</ref> The BBC made an offeecial response, expleenin that "Tinky Winky is simply a sweet, technological baby with a magic bag."<ref name="Kraidy2007">{{cite book|author=Kraidy|title=Hybridity, OR the Cultural Logic of Globalization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7-c1qL_VMIC&pg=PA106|date=1 September 2007|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1100-2|pages=106–}}</ref> Ken Viselman of Itsy-Bitsy Entertainment commented, "He's not gay. He's not [[heterosexuality|straight]]. He's just a character in a children's series."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Ms7azOI8UgC|pages=106–107|title=Hybridity, Or the Cultural Logic of Globalization|author=Marwan Kraidy|isbn=978-1-59213-144-0|year=2005}}</ref> In Mey 2007, Pols Ombudsman for Childer [[Ewa Sowińska]] revisited the matter, an planned to order an investigation.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6698753.stm|title=Poland targets 'gay' Teletubbies|author=Adam Easton|publisher=BBC News|date=28 May 2007}}</ref> "I noticed that he has a woman's handbag, but I didn't realise he's a boy," Sowińska said in a public statement. She asked her office's [[psychologist]]s to leuk intae the allegations. Efter the research in late 2007, she stated: "The opinion of a leading [[sexologist]], who maintains that this series has no negative effects on a child's psychology, is perfectly credible. As a result I have decided that it is no longer necessary to seek the opinion of other psychologists."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Polish watchdog backs away from Teletubbies probe|publisher=CBC|date=30 May 2007|url=http://www.cbc.ca/arts/tv/story/2007/05/30/teletubby-poland-noprobe.html}}</ref> Despite the objections, the ''[[Independent on Sunday]]''{{'}}s editors included Tinky Winky as the anly fictional character in the 2008 inaugural "[[Happy List]]", alongside 99 real-life adults recognised for makin Britain a better and happier place.<ref name=list2009>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/the-ios-happy-list-2008--the-100-816335.html|title=The IoS Happy List 2008 - the 100|work=The Independent|accessdate=24 May 2015|archive-date=2015-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925180156/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/the-ios-happy-list-2008--the-100-816335.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Cult following === Awtho the programme is aimed at childer atween the ages of one and fower, it haed a substantial [[cult following]] wi aulder generations, mainly [[university]] and [[college]] [[student]]s.<ref name="Company2012"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Deconstructing Teletubbies: Differences between UK and US college students' reading of the children's television programme.|last=Gutenko|first=Gregory|publisher = College of Arts & Sciences, University of Missouri-Kansas City|location=Kansas City, Missouri, USA}}</ref><ref name="Brewer2010">{{cite book|author=Susan Brewer|title=Collecting Classic Girls' Toys|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J92wBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA153|date=19 July 2010|publisher=Remember When|isbn=978-1-78337-521-9|pages=153–}}</ref> The mixture of bricht colours, unusual designs, repetitive non-verbal dialogue, ritualistic format, an occasional forays intae physical comedy appealed to mony who perceived the programme as haein [[psychedelic (disambiguation)|psychedelic]] qualities.<ref>{{cite news| title=Uh-Oh! The 'Teletubbies' Are Making A Psychedelic Comeback|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/16/teletubbies-bbc-_n_5499988.html|date=16 June 2014|accessdate=27 May 2016|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|last=Toomer|first=Jessica|publisher=[[Verizon Communications]]}}</ref> === Awards and nominations === {| class="wikitable" style="width:99%" |- ! Year !! Presenter !! Award/Category !! Nominee !! Status !! Ref. |- | rowspan="3" | 1997 | [[Birmingham|City of Birmingham Awards]] | Best Midlands-Produced Childer's Television Production | rowspan="4" | [[Ragdoll Productions]] | rowspan="5" {{won}} | <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbcworldwide.com/report/highligh/awards/page00.htm|title=BBC worldwide awards 97/98|publisher=[[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]|accessdate=27 May 2016}}</ref> |- | [[Japan Prize (NHK)|NHK Japan Prize]] | Grand Prize (Pre-School Eddication) | <ref>{{cite web|title=1997 Japan Prize Winners|url=http://www.nhk.or.jp/jp-prize/english/1997/gprix.html|work=NHK.or.jp|publisher=[[NHK]]|accessdate=12 January 2015|archive-date=2017-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127184531/http://www.nhk.or.jp/jp-prize/english/1997/gprix.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | [[Royal Television Society]] | Childer's Entertainment Award | <ref>{{cite web|title=Educational Television Award Winners 1997|url=https://rts.org.uk/award/educational-television-awards-1997|work=RTS.org.uk|publisher=[[Royal Television Society]]|accessdate=12 January 2015}}</ref> |- | rowspan="5" | 1998 | [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] | Best Pre-School Programme | <ref name="bafta-1998">{{cite web|url=http://www.bafta.org/awards/childrens/nominations/?year=1998|title=Past Winners and Nominees&nbsp;– Children's&nbsp;– Awards&nbsp;– 1998|publisher=[[BAFTA]]|accessdate=13 January 2010|archive-date=2012-05-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523180502/http://www.bafta.org/awards/childrens/nominations/?year=1998|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | [[American Marketing Association|Marketing Society Awards]] | New Product o the Year | [[Golden Bear Toys]] | <ref>{{cite news|title=Teletubbies win award|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-60918943.html|work=[[Birmingham Mail|Birmingham Evening Mail]]|date=25 April 1998|access-date=2017-05-30|archive-date=2016-09-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911025738/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-60918943.html|url-status=dead}}{{subscription required|via=HighBeam}}</ref> |- | [[Online Film & Television Association Award|Online Film & Television Association]] | Best Childer's Series | rowspan="10" | [[Ragdoll Productions]] | rowspan="2" {{nominated}} | <ref name="Awards-17">{{cite news|title=Ragdoll Productions Awards|url=http://www.ragdoll.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Awards-17-Nov-15.pdf|work=Ragdoll.co.uk|date=17 November 2015|accessdate=30 December 2015|archive-date=2016-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701102800/http://www.ragdoll.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Awards-17-Nov-15.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | [[Television Critics Association]] | Outstanding Achievement in Childer's Programming | <ref name="Awards-17" /> |- | UK Independent Television Productions Awards | NATS Childer's Award | {{won}} | <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhxmedia.com/newsreleases/dhx-media-announces-licensing-deals-in-china-for-teletubbies-and-in-the-night-garden/|title=DHX Media Announces Licensing Deals in China for Teletubbies and In the Night Garden...|publisher=[[DHX Media]]|date=24 April 2014|accessdate=2 December 2014|archive-date=2017-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607181251/http://www.dhxmedia.com/newsreleases/dhx-media-announces-licensing-deals-in-china-for-teletubbies-and-in-the-night-garden/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | rowspan="4" | 1999 | [[Daytime Emmy Awards]] | Outstanding Pre-School Childer's Series | {{nominated}} | <ref>{{cite news| title=Teletubbies Nominated for Emmy Award|url=http://www.cwn.org.uk/business/a-z/r/ragdoll/1999/04/990408-emmy.htm|date=8 April 1999|accessdate=4 January 2014|publisher=Coventry & Warwickshire|last=Bates|first=Chris}}</ref> |- | [[Licensing Industry Merchandiser's Association]] | Oweraw License o the Year | rowspan="2" {{won}} | <ref>{{cite news|title=Itsy Bitsy fulfills license 'Po'-tential|url=https://business.highbeam.com/2012/article-1G1-54852759/itsy-bitsy-fulfills-license-potential|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|date=8 June 1999|access-date=2017-05-30|archive-date=2016-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805013513/https://business.highbeam.com/2012/article-1G1-54852759/itsy-bitsy-fulfills-license-potential|url-status=dead}}{{subscription required|via=HighBeam}}</ref> |- | Independent Television Productions Awards | Nickelodeon UK Childer's Award | <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhxmedia.com/newsreleases/agreements-signed-with-bbc-worldwide-asia-and-shanghai-v-pop-for-china/|title=Agreements signed with BBC Worldwide Asia and Shanghai V-Pop for China|publisher=[[DHX Media]]|date=24 April 2014|accessdate=2 December 2014|archive-date=2017-07-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712015309/http://www.dhxmedia.com/newsreleases/agreements-signed-with-bbc-worldwide-asia-and-shanghai-v-pop-for-china/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | [[Television Critics Association]] | Outstanding Achievement in Childer's Programming | {{nominated}} | <ref>{{cite news|title=TV Notes: WPXI to add anchor; where is Avedesian?|url=http://old.post-gazette.com/tv/19990615tv4.asp|work=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]|date=15 June 1999|accessdate=30 December 2015|last=Owen|first=Rob|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065930/http://old.post-gazette.com/tv/19990615tv4.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | rowspan="4" | 2000 | Independent Television Productions Awards | Audiocall Indie Childer's Award | {{won}} | <ref name="Publications2003">{{cite book|author=Europa Publications|title=The International Who's Who 2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sR4Ch1dMe8IC&pg=PA1830|year=2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-85743-217-6|pages=1830–}}</ref> |- | [[Daytime Emmy Awards]] | Outstanding Pre-School Childer's Series | {{nominated}} | <ref>{{cite news| title=Teletubbies shortlisted for daytime Emmy|url=http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/teletubbies-shortlisted-for-daytime-emmy/1192638.article|date=29 March 2000|accessdate=4 January 2014|publisher=[[Broadcast (magazine)|Broadcast]]}}</ref> |- | [[Royal Television Society]] | Eddication Award | rowspan="7" {{won}} | <ref>{{cite web|title=Educational Television Award Winners 2000|url=https://rts.org.uk/award/educational-television-awards-2000|work=RTS.org.uk|publisher=[[Royal Television Society]]|accessdate=12 January 2015}}</ref> |- | [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] | Outstanding Contreibution in Childer's Television and Film | [[Anne Wood]] | <ref>{{cite news| title=Children's favourites honoured|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1020282.stm|date=12 November 2000|accessdate=4 January 2014|publisher=[[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]}}</ref> |- | 2002 | [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] | Best Pre-School Live Action Series | rowspan="5" | [[Ragdoll Productions]] | <ref name="bafta-2002" /> |- | rowspan="2" | 2014 | rowspan="2" | Prix Jeunesse | "Most Edgy" Programme o the Last 50 Years | <ref name="PJWinners">{{cite news|title=PRIX 2014 Prize Winners|url=http://prixjeunesse.de/images/PDF/PRIX_2014_PrizeWinners.pdf|date=12 November 2000|accessdate=4 January 2014|publisher=Prix Jeunesse International|archive-date=2017-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170127183415/http://prixjeunesse.de/images/PDF/PRIX_2014_PrizeWinners.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | Greatest Impact Programme o the Last 50 Years | <ref name="PJWinners" /> |} == Other media == === In popular culture === * In episode 12 of ''[[The Vicar of Dibley]]'', Laa-Laa and Po are bridesmaids. Thay haud the wedding-dress train of Alice Springs Horton (née Tinker). * In an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' titled "[[Hello Gutter, Hello Fadder]]", Homer dresses up lik a Teletubby to entertain Maggie. * In the eleventh episode o the seicont series of ''[[The Chaser's War on Everything]]'', the possibility of Tinky Winky bein homosexual wis parodied when the Chaser's testit the Peel Hotel (in [[Collingwood, Victoria|Collingwood]], [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]])'s gaydar wi a Tinky Winky costumed figure that acted in a stereotypical homosexual fashion. * In 2012, during a full seicont and third series of [[TVN (South Korea)|tvN]]'s ''[[Saturday Night Live Korea]]'', the programme wis referenced as ''[[Yeouido]] Teletubbies'' (여의도 텔레토비) to portray the [[South Korean presidential election, 2012|2012 presidential election campaign]]. This experimental skit caused the popularity of SNL Korea's 'Crew', [[Kim Seul-gie]] and [[Kim Min-kyo]], who acted major candidates respectably, to skyrocket.<ref>[http://english.khan.co.kr/khan_art_view.html?code=710100&artid=201211071443357 Laugh and Enjoy a Satire of the Presidential Election, "Yeouido Teletubbies"], Kyunghyang Shinmun, 7 November 2012, Retrieved on 19 January 2013.</ref> === CD single === In December 1997, [[BBC Worldwide]] released a CD single frae the series, based on the shaw's theme sang, cried "Teletubbies say 'Eh-oh!'" It is the anly single frae ''Teletubbies'', makin the characters a [[one-hit wonder]] in the United Kinrick. The sang wis written bi [[Andrew McCrorie-Shand]] and [[Andrew Davenport]], and produced bi McCrorie-Shand and Steve James. The single reached nummer 1 in the UK Singles Chart in December 1997, an remained in the Tap 75 for 32 weeks efter its release.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/37712.stm|title=Teletubbies top the charts|publisher=[[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=7 December 1997|accessdate=29 December 2008}}</ref> == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Fremmit airtins == {{Sister project links|v=no|s=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|d=Q41403|n=Category:Teletubbies|b=no}} * [https://www.facebook.com/teletubbies Official Facebook page] * [https://twitter.com/teletubbieshq Official Twitter page] * [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCOk55dAgB8VnMlhaTEMeX5A Official YouTube channel] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/cbeebies/teletubbies/ ''Teletubbies'' on CBeebies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004150928/http://www.bbc.co.uk/cbeebies/teletubbies/ |date=2006-10-04 }} * [http://www.nickjr.com/teletubbies ''Teletubbies'' on NickJr.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529092202/http://www.nickjr.com/teletubbies/ |date=2017-05-29 }} * [http://www.nickpress.com/series/teletubbies ''Teletubbies'' on Nickelodeon Press] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616121956/http://www.nickpress.com/series/teletubbies |date=2017-06-16 }} * {{AllMovie title|161778|Teletubbies}} * {{TV.com show|teletubbies}} * {{IMDb title|0142055}} {{portal bar|BBC|Nickelodeon|Television in the United Kingdom}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:1990s Breetish bairns' televeesion series]] [[Category:1997 Breetish televeesion programme debuts]] [[Category:2000s Breetish bairns' televeesion series]] [[Category:2010s Nickelodeon shaws]] [[Category:BBC bairns' televeesion programmes]] [[Category:Inglis-leid televeesion programmes]] [[Category:Feectional species an races]] [[Category:Nick Jr. shaws]] [[Category:PBS Kids shaws]] [[Category:Preschuil eddication televeesion series]] [[Category:Teletubbies]] [[Category:Televeesion programmes featurin anthropomorphic chairacters]] [[Category:Televeesion programmes featurin puppetry]] [[Category:Televeesion series aboot freendship]] [[Category:Televeesion series bi DHX Media]] [[Category:Televeesion series produced at Pinewood Studios]] [[Category:PBS netwirk shaws]] [[Category:S4C televeesion programmes]] [[Category:Treehouse TV shaws]] [[Category:Childer's televeesion series]] [[Category:2010s Breetish televeesion series]] trmtl44b0mj2fsjxd8m6amaa6x3gfkn Houston 0 9898 916887 866251 2026-05-17T12:14:53Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916887 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement |name = Houston, Texas |official_name = Ceety o Houston |settlement_type = [[Ceety]] |nickname = Space Ceety (offeecial), <small>[[Nicknames o Houston|mair...]]</small> |image_skyline = Houston_montage.jpg |imagesize = |image_caption = |image_flag = Flag of Houston, Texas.svg |image_seal = Seal of Houston, Texas.png |image_map = Harris County Houston.svg |mapsize = 250px |map_caption = Location o Houston ceety leemits in an aroond Harris Coonty |image_map1 = |map_caption1 = |pushpin_map=USA |pushpin_map_caption=Location in the [[Unitit States o Americae]] |subdivision_type = [[Leet o sovereign states|Kintra]] |subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]] |subdivision_type2 = [[Leet o coonties in Texas|Coonties]] |subdivision_name = {{flag|Unitit States o Americae}} |subdivision_name1 = {{flag|Texas}} |subdivision_name2 = {{nowrap|[[Harris Coonty, Texas|Harris]], [[Fort Bend Coonty, Texas|Fort&nbsp;Bend]], [[Montgomery Coonty, Texas|Montgomery]]}} |government_type = [[Mayor–cooncil govrenment|Mayor–cooncil]] |governing_body = [[Houston Ceety Cooncil]] |leader_title = [[Leet o mayors o Houston|Mayor]] |leader_name = [[Annise Parker]] |area_magnitude = 1 E8 |unit_pref = Imperial |area_metro_sq_mi = 10062 |area_total_sq_mi = 627.8 |area_total_km2 = 1625.2 |area_land_km2 = 1552.9 |area_land_sq_mi = 599.59 |area_water_sq_mi = 27.9 |area_water_km2 = 72.3 |population_as_of = 2010 Census |population_footnotes =<ref name=2010Census>{{cite web | title = Texas by Place - GCT-T1-R. Census | work=US Census | accessdate = 2014-02-23 | url = http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_DP_DPDP1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/houston/article/City-wins-census-appeal-count-adjusted-4087372.php | title=City wins census appeal; count adjusted | publisher=Houston Chronicle | date=3 December 2012 | last=Lee | first=Renée C. | accessdate=23 February 2014}}</ref> |population_total = 2195914 <small>([[Leet o Unitit States ceeties bi population|4t U.S.]])</small> |population_urban = 4944332 <small>([[Leet o Unitit States urban auries|7t U.S.]])</small> |population_metro = 6313158 <small>([[Table o Unitit States Metropolitan Statistical Areas|5t U.S.]])</small> |population_note = |population_density_sq_mi = 3,662 |population_density_km2 = 1,414 |population_blank1_title = [[Demonym]] |population_blank1 = Houstonian |timezone = [[North American Central Time Zone|CST]] |utc_offset = -6 |timezone_DST = [[North American Central Time Zone|CDT]] |utc_offset_DST = -5 |postal_code_type = |postal_code = |area_code = [[Aurie code 281|281]], [[Aurie code 346|346]], [[Aurie code 713|713]], [[Aurie code 832|832]] |coordinates = {{coord|29|45|46|N|95|22|59|W|region:US-TX|display=inline,title}} |elevation_m = 13 |elevation_ft = 43 |established_title = [[Municipal corporation|Incorporatit]] |established_date = Juin 5, 1837 |blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]] |blank_info = 48-35000<ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=American FactFinder}}</ref> |blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID |blank1_info = 1380948<ref name="GR3">{{cite web|url=http://geonames.usgs.gov|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=US Board on Geographic Names|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|date=2007-10-25}}</ref> |website = [http://www.houstontx.gov/ houstontx.gov] |footnotes = }} '''Houston''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Houston.ogg|ˈ|h|juː|s|t|ən}}) is the fowert-lairgest ceety in the [[Unitit States]] o Americae an the lairgest ceety in the state o [[Texas]]. As o the 2009 U.S. Census estimate, the ceety haed a population o 2.3 million athin an aurie o 579 square mile (1,500 km2). Houston is the seat o [[Harris Coonty, Texas|Harris Coonty]] an the economic centre o the [[Greater Houston|Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown metropolitan aurie]]—the saxt-lairgest metropolitan aurie in the U.S. wi a population o 5.9 million. Houston wis foondit on August 30, 1836, bi brithers [[Augustus Chapman Allen]] an [[John Kirby Allen]] on land naur the banks o [[Buffalo Bayou]]. The ceety wis incorporatit on Juin 5, 1837, an named efter then-Preses o the [[Republic o Texas]]—umwhile General [[Sam Houston]]—who haed commandit at the [[Battle o San Jacinto]], whilk teuk place 25 mile (40&nbsp;km) east o whaur the ceety wis established. The burgeonin port an railwey industry, combined wi ile discivery in 1901, haes induced continual surges in the ceety's population. In the mid-twintiet century, Houston became the hame o the [[Texas Medical Centre]]—the warld's lairgest concentration o heal care an research institutions—an NASA's [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Centre|Johnson Space Centre]], whaur the [[Mission Control Centre (NASA)|Mission Control Centre]] is locatit.<ref>Texas Medical Center. (2006). In 'A Vision for Strategic Growth'. September 14, 2010 from http://www.texasmedicalcenter.org/NR/rdonlyres/2C814975-2A2B-4AC1-B898-0C424A311C28/0/50YearMasterPlanLowRes2006UpdateV2.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717142402/http://www.texasmedicalcenter.org/NR/rdonlyres/2C814975-2A2B-4AC1-B898-0C424A311C28/0/50YearMasterPlanLowRes2006UpdateV2.pdf |date=2011-07-17 }}</ref> Ratit as a beta [[global ceety|warld ceety]], Houston's economy haes a braid industrial base in the energy, manufacturin, aeronautics, transportation, an heal care sectors an is a leadin centre for biggin oilfield equipment; anerlie New York Ceety is hame tae mair [[Fortune 500]] heidquarters in the ceety leemits.<ref>[http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2011/cities/ ''Fortune'' 500 2010: Cities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506212133/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2011/cities/ |date=2011-05-06 }} Accessed May 25, 2011</ref><ref name="kearney">{{cite web | title = A.T. Kearney Global Cities Index 2010 | work = A.T. Kearney | accessdate = May 25, 2011 | url = http://www.atkearney.com/images/global/pdf/Urban_Elite-GCI_2010.pdf | archive-date = 2011-09-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110928025715/http://www.atkearney.com/images/global/pdf/Urban_Elite-GCI_2010.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> The [[Port o Houston]] ranks first in the Unitit States in internaitional watterborne tonnage handled an seicont in tot fraucht tonnage handled.<ref name="port ranking">[http://www.aapa-ports.org/files/Statistics/2004%5FUS%5FPORT%5FCARGO%5FTONNAGE%5FRANKINGS.xls U.S. Port Ranking by Cargo Volume 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107091819/http://www.aapa-ports.org/files/Statistics/2004_US_PORT_CARGO_TONNAGE_RANKINGS.xls |date=2010-01-07 }}. Port Industry Information, ''American Association of Port Authorities''. 2004. Retrieved on 2007-01-15. {{Wayback|url=http://www.aapa-ports.org/files/Statistics/2004%5FUS%5FPORT%5FCARGO%5FTONNAGE%5FRANKINGS.xls|date =20070927222840|bot=DASHBot}}</ref> The ceety haes a population frae various ethnic an releegious backgrunds an a lairge an growin internaitional community. It is hame tae mony cultural institutions an exhibits—attractin mair nor 7&nbsp;million visitors a year tae the [[Houston Museum Destrict]]. Houston haes an active visual an performin airts scene in the [[Houston Theatre Destrict|Theatre Destrict]] an is ane o few U.S. ceeties that affer year-roond resident companies in aw major [[performin airts]].<ref name = "ikvngd">"{{PDFlink|[http://www.houston.org/pdf/research/20AW005.pdf Museums and Cultural Arts]|31.8&nbsp;KB}}", ''Greater Houston Partnership''. Retrieved on 2009-03-21.</ref> == Twin touns an sister ceeties == {| |- |valign="top"| :{{flagicon|Taiwan}} [[Taipei]], Taiwan (1963) :{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Huelva]], Spain (1969) :{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Chiba, Chiba|Chiba]], Japan (1973) :{{flagicon|France}} [[Nice]], Fraunce (1973) :{{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Baku]], Azerbaijan (1976) :{{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Grampian|Grampian Region]], Scotland (1979) :{{flagicon|Norway}} [[Stavanger]], Norrowey (1980) :{{flagicon|Australia}} [[Perth]], Australie (1983) :{{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Istanbul]], Turkey (1986) |width="80"|&nbsp; |valign="top"| :{{flagicon|China}} [[Shenzhen]], Fowkrepublic o Cheenae (1986) :{{flagicon|Ecuador}} [[Guayaquil]], Ecuador (1987) :{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Leipzig]], Germany (1993) :{{flagicon|Russia}} [[Tyumen]], Roushie (1995) :{{flagicon|the United Arab Emirates}} [[Abu Dhabi]], Unitit Arab Emirates (2001) :{{flagicon|Angola}} [[Luanda]], Angolae (2003) :{{flagicon|Mexico}} [[Tampico]], Mexico (2003) :{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Karachi]], Pakistan (2009) |} == References == {{reflist}} {{Commonscat}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Caipitals o umwhile naitions]] [[Category:Ceeties in Texas]] [[Category:Coonty seats in Texas]] [[Category:Populatit places established in 1836]] {{Stub/USA}} {{Stub/Ceety}} pxarw4ohh56xp0p0fl1dodlf27tb5bi Isuzu Ascender 0 12467 916890 911253 2026-05-17T13:06:11Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916890 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox automobile |image=Isuzu-Ascender-7Pass.jpg |name=Isuzu Ascender |manufacturer=[[General Motors]] |production=2003–2008 |predecessor=[[Isuzu Axiom]] (For 5-Passenger Version)<br>[[Isuzu Rodeo]] (For 5-Passenger Version)<br>[[Isuzu Trooper]] (For 7-Passenger Version) |class=[[mid-size]] [[SUV]] |successor=[[GMC Terrain]] (For 5-Passenger Version)<br>[[GMC Acadia]] (For 7-Passenger Version) |platform=[[GMT360|GMT360<br>GMT370 (EXT)]] |layout=[[Front-ingine design|Front ingine]], [[rear-wheel drive]] / [[four-wheel drive]] |related=[[GMC Envoy]]<br>[[Chevrolet TrailBlazer]]<br>[[Buick Rainier]]<br>[[Oldsmobile Bravada]]<br>[[Saab 9-7X]]<br>[[Chevrolet SSR]] |wheelbase= {{convert|113|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (SWB)<br>{{convert|129|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (LWB) |length= {{convert|191.6|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (SWB)<br>{{convert|207.6|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (LWB) |width= {{convert|76.1|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} |height= {{convert|71.9|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (SWB)<br>{{convert|75.5|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} (LWB) |assembly=[[Moraine, Ohio]], [[Unitit States]] (SWB)<br>[[Oklahoma City]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Unitit States]] (LWB) |transmission=4-speed [[automatic transmission|automatic]] |engine=4.2&nbsp;[[Liter|L]] ''[[GM Atlas engine#4200|Vortec]]'' [[Inline 6]] }} The '''Isuzu Ascender''' wis a mid-size/full-size [[SUV]] biggit bi [[Isuzu]]. Introducit for the 2003 model year, the 7-passenger Ascender wis a re-badgit [[GMC Envoy]]. It replaced the Japanese biggit mid-size [[Isuzu Trooper]]. A shorter 5-passenger model wis made available for the 2005 model year as a replacement for the [[Isuzu MU Wizard|Rodeo]] an the [[Isuzu Axiom|Axiom]]. A [[Displacement on Demand]] V8 wis introduced in 2005. Isuzu ance affered a wide line o trucks, caurs, an SUVs but the Ascender wis Isuzu's last an ae passenger vehicle till the introduction o the an aa slow-sellin [[Isuzu i-Series]] [[pickup truck]]s, which wur an aa biggit bi GM in North Americae. The Ascender wis niver sauld in [[Canadae]] as [[Isuzu]] haed annoonced, at the time, its wi'drawal frae thare. The Ascender is the ae ane o the sax mid-size SUVs that wis no actually a GM brandit product (Isuzu wis partially awned bi GM till ware 2006). The 7-passenger Ascender wis dropped efter the 2006 model year. Reviews warned o a thin dealer network for warranty repairs, an the Kelley Blue Beuk projectit a relatively law resale value seemilar tae the Trailblazer. Houever, Isuzu offers a seiven-year/75,000-mile pouertrain warranty, an substantial factory incentives. [[Image:Isuzu-Ascender-5Pass.jpg|175px|thumb|left|5-passenger Ascender]] The Ascender endit production on Juin 6, 2008 as pairt o Isuzu's wi'drawal frae the [[Unitit States]] mercat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.topix.com/wire/autos/isuzu-ascender |title=Isuzu Ascender Wire |publisher=Topix |date= |accessdate=2010-10-05 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174310/http://www.topix.com/wire/autos/isuzu-ascender |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Ascender (alang wi the relatit [[GMC Envoy]]) wur baith replaced bi the 2010 [[GMC Terrain]], based on the [[GM Theta platform]]. Ingines: * 2003–2008 [[GM Atlas ingine#LL8|LL8]] 4.2&nbsp;[[Liter|L]] (256&nbsp;in³) [[Straight-sax ingine|I6]] * 2003–2004 [[GM Vortec ingine#5300|5300]] 5.3&nbsp;L (323&nbsp;in³) [[V8]] * 2005–2007 [[GM Vortec ingine#5300|5300]] 5.3&nbsp;L (323&nbsp;in³) [[V8]] wi [[Displacement on Demand]] ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Isuzu Unitit States}} {{Commonscat}} [[Category:Isuzu vehicles|Ascender]] [[Category:2000s automobiles]] [[Category:Sport utility vehicles]] [[Category:Vehicles introduced in 2003]] aj9241m3whc2jbalssh88k3p5a9dprk Steve Jobs 0 13565 916940 899529 2026-05-18T07:28:51Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916940 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Steve Jobs.jpg|thumb|Steve Jobs holdin a MacBook Air at the Macworld Conference & Expo 2008.]] '''Steven Paul Jobs''' ([[24 Februar]] [[1955]] − [[5 October]] [[2011]]) wis an [[Unitit States|American]] [[business magnate]] an [[inventor]]. He is weel kent for being the [[co-foonder]] an [[chief executive officer]] o [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]. Jobs an aa previously served as chief executive o [[Pixar Animation Studios]]; he became a member o the [[Board o Directors|board]] o [[The Walt Disney Company]] in 2006, follaein the acquisition o Pixar bi Disney. In the late 1970s, Jobs, wi Apple co-foonder [[Steve Wozniak]], [[Mike Markkula]],<ref name="Markkula1997">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/01/business/an-unknown-co-founder-leaves-after-20-years-of-glory-and-turmoil.html|title=An 'Unknown' Co-Founder Leaves After 20 Years of Glory and Turmoil|date=September 1, 1997|work=New York Times | first=John | last=Markoff}}</ref> an ithers, designed, developed, an marketit ane o the first commercially successful lines o personal computers, the [[Apple II series]]. In the early 1980s, Jobs wis amang the first tae see the [[commerce|commercial]] potential o the [[computer moose|moose]]-driven [[graphical uiser interface]] which led tae the creation o the [[Macintosh]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.wired.com/gadgets/mac/news/2004/01/61730|title=Wired News: We're All Mac Users Now|work=Wired News|accessdate=September 20, 2006|last=Kahney|first=Leander|date=January 6, 2004|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120629002841/http://www.wired.com/gadgets/mac/news/2004/01/61730|archivedate=2012-06-29|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/storysupplement/stevejobs/index.html|title=America's Most Admired Companies: Jobs' journey timeline|work=[[CNNMoney.com]]|accessdate=May 24, 2010|archive-date=2012-05-26|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/storysupplement/stevejobs/index.html|url-status=dead}} Jobs an a team o ingineers visit Xerox PARC, whaur they see a demo o moose an graphical uiser interface</ref> Efter losin a pouer struggle wi the board o directors in 1985,<ref name="DNA200905">{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/money/report_what-steve-jobs-did-when-he-was-fired-from-apple_1254757|title=What Steve Jobs did when he was fired from Apple|work=[[DNA (newspaper)]]|author=Vivek Kaul|date=May 11, 2009}}</ref> Jobs resigned frae Apple an foondit [[NeXT]], a [[computer platform]] development company specializin in the heicher education an business markets. Apple's subsequent 1996 [[buyoot]] o NeXT brocht Jobs back tae the company he co-foondit, an he served as its [[chief executive officer|CEO]] frae 1997 tae 2011. In 1986, he acquired the computer graphics diveesion o [[Lucasfilm|Lucasfilm Ltd]] which wis spun aff as [[Pixar|Pixar Animation Studios]].<ref name="Pixar History 1986">{{cite web|url=http://www.pixar.com/companyinfo/history/1986.html|title=Pixar History&nbsp;– 1986|publisher=[[Pixar]]|accessdate=April 25, 2008|archive-date=2012-05-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528202345/http://www.pixar.com/companyinfo/history/1986.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> He remained CEO an majority sharehaulder at 50.1&nbsp;percent till its acquisition by [[The Walt Disney Company]] in 2006.<ref name="Apple 2006">{{cite web|url=http://www.apple.com/pr/bios/jobs.html|title=Apple&nbsp;— Press Info&nbsp;— Bios&nbsp;— Steve Jobs|publisher=[[Apple Inc.]]|accessdate=September 20, 2006|year=2006|month=May}}</ref> Consequently Jobs became Disney's lairgest individual shareholder at 7&nbsp;percent an a member o Disney's Board o Directors.<ref name="DisneyBuysPixar">January 25, 2006 {{cite web |url=http://inhome.rediff.com/money/2006/jan/25disney.htm |title= Disney buys Pixar for $7.4 bn | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131109012018/http://inhome.rediff.com/money/2006/jan/25disney.htm | archivedate = November 9, 2013| deadurl=no}}, rediff.com</ref><ref name="Disney">{{cite web|url=http://corporate.disney.go.com/corporate/bios/steve_jobs.html|title=The Walt Disney Company&nbsp;— Steve Jobs Biography}}<br /> {{cite news|accessdate=January 17, 2010|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/25/business/25disney.html|title=Disney Agrees to Acquire Pixar in a $7.4&nbsp;Billion Deal |work=The New York Times | first=Laura M. | last=Holson | date=January 25, 2006}}<br /> {{cite news|accessdate=January 17, 2010|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/06/business/media/06pixar.html|title=Pixar Becomes Unit of Disney|work=The New York Times | agency = Associated Press | date=May 6, 2006}}</ref> On August 24, 2011, Jobs annoonced his resignation frae his role as Apple's CEO. On October 5, 2011, Jobs dee'd<ref name="apple remembering">{{cite web|url=http://www.apple.com/stevejobs/|title=Remembering Steve Jobs|date=October 5, 2011|publisher=Apple Inc.|location=Cupertino, California|accessdate=October 5, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/ktla-apple-steve-jobs-dies,0,7477308.story|title=Steve Jobs: Apple Announces Former CEO Steve Jobs Has Died|work=Chicago Tribune|date=October 5, 2011|accessdate=October 5, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007155643/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/ktla-apple-steve-jobs-dies,0,7477308.story|archivedate=2011-10-07|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2011/oct/06/steve-jobs-apple-cofounder-dies|publisher=[[The Guardian|www.guardian.co.uk]] |title=Steve Jobs, Apple co-founder, dies at 56|date=6 October 2011|first=Dominic |last=Rushe}}</ref> in [[Palo Alto, Californie]] at age 56 o [[pancreatic cancer]].<ref name="Rare Pancreatic Cancer Caused Steve Jobs' Death">{{cite press release|publisher=Voice of America| title=Rare Pancreatic Cancer Caused Steve Jobs' Death| accessdate=October 7, 2011|date=October 7, 2011|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Rare-Pancreatic-Cancer-Caused-Steve-Jobs-Death--131317684.html | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120124162555/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Rare-Pancreatic-Cancer-Caused-Steve-Jobs-Death--131317684.html | archivedate = January 24, 2012| deadurl=no}}</ref> == References == {{reflist}} {{Commonscat}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Jobs, Steve}} [[Category:Steve Jobs| ]] [[Category:1955 births]] [[Category:2011 daiths]] [[Category:20t-century American businessfowk]] [[Category:21st-century American businessfowk]] [[Category:American adoptees]] [[Category:American billionaires]] [[Category:American computer businessfowk]] [[Category:American film studio executives]] [[Category:American financiers]] [[Category:American industrial designers]] [[Category:American fowk o Sirie strynd]] [[Category:American fowk o German strynd]] [[Category:American fowk o Swiss strynd]] [[Category:American technology chief executives]] [[Category:American technology company foonders]] [[Category:American Zen Buddhists]] [[Category:Apple Inc.]] [[Category:Apple Inc. executives]] [[Category:Atari fowk]] [[Category:Buirials in Californie]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae Californie]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae San Francisco]] [[Category:Businessfowk in saftware]] [[Category:Computer designers]] [[Category:Daiths frae cancer in Californie]] [[Category:Daiths frae pancreatic cancer]] [[Category:Disney executives]] [[Category:Internet pioneers]] [[Category:Liver transplant recipients]] [[Category:Naitional Medal o Technology recipients]] [[Category:NeXT]] [[Category:Personal computin]] [[Category:Psychedelic drog advocates]] [[Category:Fowk frae San Francisco]] [[Category:Fowk frae Palo Alto, Californie]] [[Category:Fowk frae Cupertino, Californie]] [[Category:Fowk frae Los Altos, Californie]] [[Category:Fowk frae Mountain View, Californie]] [[Category:Pixar]] [[Category:Pixar fowk]] [[Category:Directors o Apple Inc.]] {{Stub/USA}} okm1hw31d59hn1da0q4otl29lr3eh22 Los Angeles 0 15155 916895 914491 2026-05-17T17:11:27Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916895 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fixscots}} {{Infobox settlement |name = Los Angeles |official_name = City of Los Angeles |settlement_type = Ceety |nickname = L.A., the Ceety o Angels,<ref>{{cite news|title=Atlanta works on its sales pitch: Convention bureau's chief sticks to basics in marketing the city|last=Stafford|first=Leon|work=The Atlanta Journal – Constitution|date=January 7, 2010|page=1|url=http://www6.lexisnexis.com/publisher/EndUser?Action=UserDisplayFullDocument&orgId=574&topicId=100020422&docId=l:1103602102&start=4|accessdate=October 1, 2011|archive-date=2011-11-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126202604/http://www6.lexisnexis.com/publisher/EndUser?Action=UserDisplayFullDocument&orgId=574&topicId=100020422&docId=l%3A1103602102&start=4|url-status=dead}}</ref> Angeltown,<ref>{{cite news|title=A Teflon Metropolis Where No Nicknames Stick|last=Smith|first=Jack|work=Los Angeles Times|date=October 12, 1989|page=1|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1989-10-12/news/vw-168_1_los-angeles|accessdate=October 1, 2011|archive-date=2011-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213223952/http://articles.latimes.com/1989-10-12/news/vw-168_1_los-angeles|url-status=dead}}</ref> La-La Land<ref>{{cite news | url = http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/jacketcopy/2011/03/la-la-land-now-the-dictionary-definition-of-los-angeles.html | title = 'La-La Land,' now the dictionary definition of Los Angeles | publisher = Los Angeles Times | date = March 25, 2011 | accessdate =September 29, 2011}}</ref> |website = [http://www.lacity.org/ lacity.org] |image_skyline = New LA Infobox Pic Montage 5.jpg |image_caption = [[Downtown Los Angeles]], [[Venice, Los Angeles|Venice]], [[Griffith Observatory]], [[Hollywood Sign]] |image_flag = Flag of Los Angeles, California.svg |image_seal = Seal of Los Angeles.svg |image_map = LA County Incorporated Areas Los Angeles highlighted.svg |map_caption = Location athin [[Los Angeles Coonty]] in the state o Californie |pushpin_map = USA |pushpin_map_caption = Location in the Unitit States |subdivision_type = [[Leet o kintras|Kintra]] |subdivision_name = [[Unitit States]] |subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Californie]] |subdivision_type2 = [[Leet o coonties in Californie|Coonty]] |subdivision_name2 = [[Los Angeles Coonty|Los Angeles]] |government_type = [[Mayor-cooncil govrenment|Mayor-Cooncil]] |governing_body = [[Los Angeles Ceety Cooncil]] |leader_title = [[:en:Mayor of Los Angeles, California|Mayor]] |leader_name = [[Eric Garcetti]] |leader_title1 = [[:en:Los Angeles City Attorney|Ceety Attorney]] |leader_name1 = [[Mike Feuer]] |leader_title2 = [[:en:Los Angeles City Controller|Ceety Controller]] |leader_name2 = [[Ron Galperin]] <!-- Area------------------> |area_magnitude = | unit_pref = US | area_footnotes = <ref name=gazetteer>{{cite web| url= http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt| title = Gazetteer | publisher= U.S. Census Bureau|accessdate=September 28, 2011}}</ref> | area_total_sq_mi = 502.693 | area_land_sq_mi = 468.670 | area_water_sq_mi = 34.023 | area_total_km2 = 1301.970 | area_land_km2 = 1213.850 | area_water_km2 = 88.119 | area_water_percent = 6.77 | area_note = |population_as_of = [[2010 Unitit States Census|2010]] |population_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web|title=2010 Census Redistricting Data (Public Law 94-171) Summary File|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_PL_GCTPL2.ST13&prodType=table|work=American FactFinder|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=9 August 2012}}</ref> |population_total = 3,792,621 |population_rank = ([[Leet o Unitit States ceeties bi population|2nt US]], [[Leet o ceeties proper bi population|48t Warld]])<!--Do ''not'' change this to the 4.0&nbsp;million that the CA Dept of Finance has. For more info, see the talk page archives--> |population_urban = |population_metro = 12,828,837 |population_blank1_title = [[Combined statistical area|CSA]] |population_blank1 = 17786419 |population_demonym = Angeleno |population_density_km2 = |population_density_sq_mi = 8092.30 |population_footnotes = |timezone = [[Paceefic Time Zone|PST]] |utc_offset = -8 |timezone_DST = PDT |utc_offset_DST = −7 |coordinates = {{coord|34|03|N|118|15|W|region:US-CA|display=inline,title}} |elevation_m = 71 |elevation_ft = 233 (ceety haw) |postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]] |postal_code = 90001–90068, 90070–90084, 90086–90089, 90091, 90093–90097, 90099, 90101–90103, 90174, 90185, 90189, 90291-90293, 91040–91043, 91303–91308, 91342–91349, 91352–91353, 91356–91357, 91364–91367, 91401–91499, 91601–91609 |area_code = [[Area code 213|213]], [[Area code 310|310/424]], [[Area code 323|323]], [[Area code 661|661]], [[Area code 818|747/818]] |established_title = Settled |established_date = 4 September 1781 |established_title2 = Incorporatit |established_date2 = 4 Aprile 1850 |footnotes = }} '''Los Angeles''' ({{pron-en|lɔːs ˈændʒələs}} {{respell|lawss|AN|jə-ləs}};<ref>{{IPA-en|lɒs ˈændʒəliːz|UK}} {{respell|loss|AN|jə-leez}}</ref> {{IPA-es|los ˈaŋxeles|lang}}, Spaingie fur "The Angels") is the maist populous ceety in [[Californie]] an haes the [[Leet o Unitit States ceeties bi population|seicont maist fowk]] in the [[Unitit States]],<ref name=PopEstBugCities>{{Cite web| url=http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2008-01.csv| title=Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Population for Incorporated Places Over 100,000, Ranked by July&nbsp;1, 2005 Population: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2005| format=[[comma-separated values|CSV]]| work=2008 Population Estimates| publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]], Population Division| date=June 20, 2006| accessdate=January 26, 2007}}</ref> wi 3.83&nbsp;million fowk<!--Do ''not'' change this to the 4.0&nbsp;million that the CA Dept of Finance has. For more info, see the talk page --><ref>{{Cite web| url = http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06/0644000.html| title = Los Angeles (city) Quickfacts| work = [[US Census Bureau]]| accessdate = October 14, 2008| date = July 25, 2008| archive-date = 2012-08-22| archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/6A73lV8Wv?url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06/0644000.html| url-status = dead}}</ref> on a laund area o 498.3 square miles (1,290.6 km2). It is the focal pynt o the lairger [[Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside, CA CSA|Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside combined area]], whilk conteens nearly 17.8&nbsp;million fowk. Los Angeles is the [[coonty seat|seat]] o [[Los Angeles Coonty, Californie|Los Angeles Coonty]], the maist populatit an ane o the [[coonty (US)|coonties]]<ref>{{Cite web |author=Les Christie |url=http://money.cnn.com/2007/08/08/real_estate/most_diverse_counties/index.htm |title=The most ethnically diverse counties in the United States |publisher=CNN |date=August 9, 2007 |accessdate=April 13, 2010 |archive-date=2011-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817053546/http://money.cnn.com/2007/08/08/real_estate/most_diverse_counties/index.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> wi the maist cultures in the Unitit States. The ceety's indwallers are kent "Angelenos" ({{IPA-en|ændʒɨˈliːnoʊz|}}).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Angeleno |title=Angeleno |author=|date= |work=|publisher=The Free Dictionary |accessdate=September 13, 2010}}</ref> Los Angeles wis foondit on September 4, 1781 bi Spainyie govrenor [[Felipe de Neve]]. It acame a pairt o [[Mexico]] in 1821 follaein the [[Mexican War o Unthirldom]]. In 1848, at the end o the [[Mexican–American War]], Los Angeles an the rest o Californie wure purchased as pairt o the [[Treaty o Guadalupe Hidalgo]], therebi becomin pairt o the Unitit States. Los Angeles wis [[Municipal corporation|incorporatit]] as a municipality on Aprile 4 1850, five month afore Californie achieved [[U.S. state|statehuid]]. Aften kent bi its initials, ''LA'', an eik-named the ''Ceety o Angels'', Los Angeles is a [[Global ceety|warld centre]] o business, internaitional tred, entertainment, cultur, media, fashion, science, technologie, an eddication.<ref name=GAWC>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2008t.html |title=The World According to GaWC 2008 |publisher=Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network, Loughborough University |accessdate=March 3, 2009 |archive-date=2016-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811203314/http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2008t.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/citylist.html |title=Inventory of World Cities |publisher=Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and Network |accessdate=December 1, 2007 |archive-date=2013-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014191556/http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/citylist.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is hame tae renouned institutions kiverin a broad range o professional an cultural fields, an is ane o the maist substantial economic ingines athin the Unitit States. Los Angeles haes been ranked the fift maist pouerful an influential ceety in the warld, ahint anerlie [[New York Ceety]] in the Unitit States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/BUSINESS/04/10/cities.dominate.world/index.html?thisSpeed=30000 |title=Revealed: Cities that rule the world |publisher=CNN |date=April 10, 2010 |accessdate=December 27, 2010}}</ref> The Los Angeles [[combined statistical area]] (CSA) haes a [[gross metropolitan product]] (GMP) o $831&nbsp;billion (as o 2008), makin it the third lairgest economic centre in the warld, efter the [[Greater Tokyo Area]] an the [[New York metropolitan area]].<ref name="citymayors.com">[http://www.citymayors.com/statistics/richest-cities-2005.html The 150 richest cities in the world by GDP in 2005], dated March 11, 2007. The list fails to include Taipei. Retrieved July 3, 2007.</ref><ref name="usmayors.org">[http://www.usmayors.org/metroeconomies/0608/GMP_Report__June_2008.pdf The United States Conference of Mayors and The National Association of Counties, 2007; Standard & Poor's DRI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081228054104/http://www.usmayors.org/metroeconomies/0608/GMP_Report__June_2008.pdf |date=2008-12-28 }}, June 2008.</ref><ref name="bea.gov">[http://www.bea.gov/regional/gdpmetro/default.cfm Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2009; GDP by Metropolitan Area] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111180749/https://www.bea.gov/regional/gdpmetro/default.cfm |date=2011-01-11 }}, September 24, 2009 .</ref> As the hame base o [[Hollywood]], it is kent as the "Entertainment Caipital o the Warld", leadin the warld in the creation o motion picturs, telly production, video gemmes, an recordit [[muisic industry|muisic]]. The importance o the entertainment business tae the ceety haes led mony celebrities tae cry Los Angeles an its surroondin suburbs hame. Los Angeles hostit the [[1932 Simmer Olympics|1932]] an [[1984 Simmer Olympics]]. Los Angeles is an aa hame tae renoont varsities sic as the [[Varsity o Soothern Californie]] an the [[University of California, Los Angeles|Varsity o Californie, Los Angeles]]. Los Angeles haes a [[Mediterranean climate]], wi an average o 35 days wi measurable precipitation a yeir.<ref name="weatherbase">{{cite web | url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=159227&refer= | title=Historical Weather for Los Angeles, California, United States of America | publisher=Weatherbase.com | accessdate=December 15, 2011 | archive-date=2012-01-11 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111084326/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=159227&refer= | url-status=dead }}</ref> == Sister ceeties == <!-- *** IMPORTANT *** * Please do not add or remove sister cities unless you provide a reliable * * source. This list is verified by http://www.lacity.org/SisterCities/, * * which lists 25 sister cities. If you make changes to this list without * * citing a source, your edits will be reverted. * --> [[File:Los Angeles City Hall with sister cities 2006.jpg|thumb|upright|A sign nor [[Los Angeles Ceety Hall|Ceety Hall]] pynts tae the sister ceeties o Los Angeles]] Los Angeles haes 25 [[twin touns an sister ceeties|sister ceeties]],<ref>"[http://sistercities.lacity.org/ Sister Cities of Los Angeles]". Retrieved on December 18, 2009.</ref> leetit chronologically bi yeir jynt: {| |- |valign="top"| * {{flagicon|Israel}} [[Eilat]], Israel (1959) * {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Nagoya]], Japan (1959) * {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], Brazil (1962) * {{flagicon|France}} [[Bordeaux]], Fraunce (1964) * {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Berlin]], Germany (1967) * {{flagicon|Zambia}} [[Lusaka]], Zambie (1968) * {{flagicon|Mexico}} [[Mexico Ceety]], Mexico (1969) * {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Auckland]], New Zealand (1971) * {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Busan]], Republic o Korea (1971) * {{flagicon|India}} [[Mumbai]], Indie (1972) * {{flagicon|Iran}} [[Tehran]], Iran (1972) * {{flagicon|Taiwan}} [[Taipei]], Taiwan, Republic o Cheenae (1979) * {{flagicon|China}} [[Guangzhou]], Fowkrepublic o Cheenae (1981) |width="80"|&nbsp; |valign="top"| * {{flagicon|Greece}} [[Athens]], Greece (1984) * {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Saunt Petersburg]], Roushie (1984) * {{flagicon|Canada}} [[Vancouver]], Canadae (1986) * {{flagicon|Egypt}} [[Giza]], Egyp (1989) * {{flagicon|Indonesia}} [[Jakarta]], Indonesie (1990) * {{flagicon|Lithuania}} [[Kaunas]], Lithuanie (1991) * {{flagicon|Philippines}} [[Makati]], Philippines (1992) * {{flagicon|Croatia}} [[Split (ceety)|Split]], Croatie (1993) * {{flagicon|El Salvador}} [[San Salvador]], El Salvador (2005) * {{flagicon|Lebanon}} [[Beirut]], Lebanon (2006) * {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Ischia]], Italy (2006) * {{flagicon|Armenia}} [[Yerevan]], Armenie (2007) |} * {{flagicon|Israel}} Los Angeles an aa haes a cultural exchynge pairtnership wi [[Tel Aviv]], Israel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jewishla.org/Tel_Aviv_LA_Partnership.cfm|title=Tel Aviv/Los Angeles Partnership|year=2007|publisher=The Jewish Federation of Greater Los Angeles|accessdate=August 7, 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623075353/http://www.jewishla.org/Tel_Aviv_LA_Partnership.cfm|archivedate=2008-06-23|url-status=live}}</ref> * {{flagicon|UK}} Lunnon an [[Manchester]], Unitit Kinrick, an {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Łódź]], Poland are "freindship ceeties".<ref name="Manchester">{{Cite web|url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/s/1128076_twinning_link_with_la|title=Twinning link with LA|publisher=Manchester Evening News|accessdate=July 28, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sistercitiesofla.com/|title=Sister cities of Los Angeles, Inc.|year=2010|accessdate=February 8, 2010|archive-date=2013-06-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621044509/http://sistercitiesofla.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> == References == {{reflist}} {{Commonscat|Los Angeles, California}} [[Category:Los Angeles| ]] [[Category:Ceeties in Los Angeles Coonty]] [[Category:Coonty seats in Californie]] [[Category:Host ceeties o the Simmer Olympic Gemmes]] [[Category:Incorporatit ceeties an touns in Californie]] [[Category:Los Angeles metropolitan area]] [[Category:Populatit places established in 1781]] [[Category:Port ceeties an touns o the Wast Coast o the Unitit States]] a9xyjhbh7bhc1rqkepermy2rustjh3t Nuweiba 0 17227 916906 897598 2026-05-17T21:21:38Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916906 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Needs Mair Soorces}} {{Infobox settlement <!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--> <!-- Basic info ----------------> |name =Nuweiba |other_name = |native_name = <!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --> |nickname = |settlement_type = |motto = <!-- images and maps -----------> |image_skyline = Port of Nuweiba.jpg |imagesize =300px |image_caption =Port o Nuweiba. |image_flag = |flag_size = |image_seal = |seal_size = |image_shield = |shield_size = |image_map = |mapsize = |map_caption = |pushpin_map = Egypt<!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --> |pushpin_label_position =bottom |pushpin_mapsize =300 |pushpin_map_caption =Location in Egyp <!-- Location ------------------> |subdivision_type = Kintra |subdivision_name = {{flag|Egyp}} |subdivision_type1 = [[Govrenorates o Egyp|Governorate]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Sooth Sinai Govrenorate|Sooth Sinai]] |subdivision_type2 = |subdivision_name2 = |subdivision_type3 = |subdivision_name3 = |<!-- Politics -----------------> |government_footnotes = |government_type = |leader_title = |leader_name = |leader_title1 = <!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --> |leader_name1 = |established_title = <!-- Settled --> |established_date = <!-- Area ---------------------> |area_magnitude = |unit_pref =Imperial <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--> |area_footnotes = |area_total_km2 = <!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--> |area_land_km2 = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--> <!-- Population -----------------------> |population_as_of = |population_footnotes = |population_note = |population_total = |population_density_km2 = |population_density_sq_mi = |population_metro = |population_density_metro_km2 = |population_density_metro_sq_mi = |population_blank1_title =Ethnicities |population_blank1 = |population_density_blank1_km2 = |population_density_blank1_sq_mi = <!-- General information ---------------> |timezone =[[Egyp Staundart Time|EST]] |utc_offset = +2 |timezone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |coordinates = {{coord|29|2|N|34|40|E|region:EG|display=inline}} |elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use <ref> </ref> tags--> |elevation_m = |elevation_ft = <!-- Area/postal codes & others --------> |postal_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> |postal_code = |area_code = |blank_name = |blank_info = |blank1_name = |blank1_info = |website = |footnotes = }} '''Nuweiba''' ({{lang-ar|نويبع}}) is a coastal toun in the eastren pairt o [[Sinai Peninsulae]], [[Egyp]], on the coast o the [[Gulf o Aqaba]]. It is believed bi mony tae be the steid o the [[The Exodus|Exodus]] accoont o [[auncient Israelites]] [[crossin the Red Sea]]. ==Geografie== Nuweiba lies on a lairge flood plain measurin aboot 40 km2 (15 sq mi), sandwiched atween the Sinai muntains an the Gulf o Aqaba, an is locatit some {{convert|150|km|-1|abbr=on|lk=on}} north o [[Sharm el-Sheikh]], 150&nbsp;km (90&nbsp;mi) sootheast frae [[Cairo]] an 465&nbsp;km (290&nbsp;mi) sooth o the [[Israel]]–[[Egyp]] border separating [[Taba, Egyp|Taba]] an [[Eilat]]. It is believed bi mony tae be the steid o the [[The Exodus|Exodus]] accoont o [[auncient Israelites]] [[crossin the Red Sea]]. Nuweiba consists o fower main auries: Nuweiba Tarabin, Nuweiba Toun, The Dunes, an Nuweiba Muzeina. Nuweiba Tarabin is the northren aurie, an is made up o a thick grove o palm trees, a shallow bay, an the ruins o a Turkis fort. Inside the ruins is a well that haes historically been uised bi the Bedouins as a source o fresh water for hunders o years. Nuweiba Tarabin wis settled maistly in the 1980s when members o the Tarabin tribe residin in the aurie north o Nuweiba permanently muivit intae the aurie typically occupee'd in the simmers, an began biggin simple accommodations, which gradually turned intae mair established camps an huts as tourism picked up.<ref name="Nuweiba">[http://www.touregypt.net/egypt-info/magazine-mag08012001-magf2a.htm Egypt: Tour Egypt Monthly: Nuweiba], Tour Egypt page on Nuweiba.</ref> Nuweiba Town wis built durin the Israeli occupation o 1971 aroond the Moshav Neviot, an marks the bundary atween the Tarabin an Muzeina tribes. The toun haes a bank, a hotel, a few restaurants, an mony camps <ref name="Nuweiba" /> The Dunes is split intae ''Duna'' an ''sma Duna'', an is a link atween Nuweiba Toun, an Nuweiba Muzeina, wi mony camps an sma hotels in the aurie. The Dunes is kent for the bonnie coral reefs that are foond right aff the shore. While maist campsteids are locatit at sma Duna, Duna itsel haes remained somewha mair untouched wi the maist simple camp accommodations.<ref name="Nuweiba" /> Nuweiba Port wis built in 1985 on the Gulf o Aqaba, an serves as a ferry port as well, which allows for easy travel atween [[Jordan]] an Egyp.<ref name="Nuweiba" /> ==History== It's suggestit that this toun marks the location o the [[Crossin o the Red Sea]] in Biblical times. Nuweiba is short for ''Nuwayba'al Muzayyinah'' in Arabic which means ''bonny bubbling spring''<ref>https://www.darsaal.com/names/detail/muzayyanah-name-meaning-in-english.html</ref>. Historically, the aurie wis inhabitit bi twa different [[Bedouin]] tribes: the [[Tarabin]] tae the north, and the [[Maizena]], some 8&nbsp;km (5&nbsp;mi) tae the south. Syne the [[Sax Day War]] when Israel captured the aurie, Nuweiba Toun sprung up juist 1.5&nbsp;km (1&nbsp;mi) sooth o Tarabeen, unner the Israeli name, Neviot. Efter the depairture o the Israelis, the toun expandit an Nuweiba Port, some 7&nbsp;km (4&nbsp;mi) tae the sooth, wis established an developed, wi several caur [[ferry|ferries]] now runnin ivery day tae [[Aqaba]] in [[Jordan]] bi the [[Arab Bridge Maritime]] company, an wi a sma toun growin up aroond itsel. Nuweiba castle (or Newibah castle), built on top o the remains o a still aulder castle in 1893, haes been proposed as a [[UNESCO]] [[Warld Heritage Steid]].<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/199/ Newibah castle - UNESCO World Heritage Centre] Retrieved on 2009-03-26</ref> ==Tourism== Atween the toun an the port are a strip o modren hotels, such as the [http://www.swisscare-hotels.com Swisscare Nuweiba Resort Hotel] or the [http://www.hiltonworldresorts.com/resorts/Nuweiba/index.html Hilton Nuweiba Coral Resort] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102062021/http://hiltonworldresorts.com/Resorts/Nuweiba/index.html |date=2011-01-02 }} or [http://www.elariaresort.com/ Elaria Beach Resort] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710174907/http://www.elariaresort.com/ |date=2011-07-10 }}, caterin tae beach holiday makers an divers. Ane km frae Nuweiba, Tarabin veelage as well as the [http://www.habibavillage.com Habiba Village] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119213618/http://habibavillage.com/ |date=2021-01-19 }} are weel kent for its Bedouin-style camps where ane can rent cheap huts. == Galery == <br><gallery class=center caption="Nuweiba - نويبع"> Sinai-Nuweiba-108-Bay Resort-2009-gje.jpg Sinai-Nuweiba-140-Bay Resort-Abendlicht-2009-gje.jpg Sinai-Nuweiba-168-Tarabien-Sonnenschirm mit Moewe-im Wasser-2009-gje.jpg Sinai-Nuweiba-180-Strand-zwei Palmen-2009-gje.jpg Sinai-Nuweiba-190-Moschee-2009-gje.jpg Sinai-Nuweiba-196-Wohnblock-2009-gje.jpg Sinai-Nuweiba-202-Palmwedel-2009-gje.jpg Sinai-Nuweiba-220-Huette-2009-gje.jpg Sinai-Nuweiba-210-Berge-2009-gje.jpg </gallery> ==See an aw== * [[Red Sea Riviera]] * [[Arab Bridge Maritime]] * [http://www.elariaresort.com/ Elaria Beach Resort] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710174907/http://www.elariaresort.com/ |date=2011-07-10 }} ==References== {{reflist}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Info Guide Archives|url=https://winchinsider.com/info-guide/|access-date=2022-09-18|website=Winch Insider|language=en-US|archive-date=2022-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920172524/https://winchinsider.com/info-guide/|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Freemit airtins == * [http://travelogue.travelvice.com/egypt/nuweibas-east-delta-bus-station/ Nuweiba's East Delta Bus Station] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715011118/http://travelogue.travelvice.com/egypt/nuweibas-east-delta-bus-station/ |date=2014-07-15 }} * [http://www.allaboutsinai.com Practical Online Guide for Travellin aroond Sinai] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325095430/http://www.allaboutsinai.com/ |date=2009-03-25 }} * [http://www.sinaiweekly.com Sinai Local Magazine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610101625/https://sinaiweekly.com/ |date=2021-06-10 }} * [http://www.sharmsearch.com Sharm El Sheikh, Dahab & Nuweiba search ingine, fynd hotels, divin centers, excursion providers, restaurants, nichtclubs etc.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109055926/http://sharmsearch.com/ |date=2014-01-09 }} * [http://www.livefromsinai.com Broadcasting videos frae Sinai] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313141727/http://www.livefromsinai.com/ |date=2008-03-13 }} * [http://www.exploresinai.com The Path Less Traveled] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822005901/http://www.exploresinai.com/ |date=2009-08-22 }} {{Commonscat}} [[Category:Populatit places in Sooth Sinai Govrenorate]] [[Category:Cultural Steids on the UNESCO Warld Heritage Tentative Leet]] [[Category:Port ceeties an touns in Egyp]] [[Category:Populatit coastal places in Egyp]] [[Category:Umwhile Israeli dounsets]] [[Category:Seaside resorts in Egyp]] 25qcsphzzy6aq2k5cu4ubl5bzpvcpyw San Antonio 0 21542 916937 881094 2026-05-18T04:13:17Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916937 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} {{Infobox settlement |official_name = City of San Antonio |settlement_type = [[Ceety]] |nickname = <!--DO ''not'' CHANGE-->River City, San Antone, <br /> Alamo City, Military City USA, Countdown City<!--Please see discussion on talk page before editing this list. Thanks!--> |image_skyline = SA Montage Nima.png |image_flag = |image_seal = |image_map = Bexar SanAntonio.svg |mapsize = 250px |map_caption = Location in the state o [[Texas]] |pushpin_map =USA2 |pushpin_map_caption = Location in the Unitit States |subdivision_type = Kintra |subdivision_name =[[Unitit States]] |subdivision_type1 = [[States o the Unitit States|State]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Texas]] |subdivision_type2 = [[Counties o the Unitit States|Coonty]] |subdivision_name2 = [[Bexar Coonty, Texas|Bexar]], [[Medina Coonty, Texas|Medina]] |government_type = [[Cooncil-manager govrenment|Cooncil-Manager]] |leader_title = [[Mayor o San Antonio|Mayor]] |leader_name = [[Ron Nirenberg]] ([[Independent politeecian|I]]) |leader_title2 = [[Ceety Manager]] |leader_name2 = [[Sheryl Sculley]] |leader_title3 = [[San Antonio Ceety Cooncil|Ceety Cooncil]] |leader_name3 = {{Collapsible list |title = |frame_style = border:none; padding: 0; |title_style = <!-- (optional) --> |list_style = text-align:left;display:none; |1 = • Robert C. Treviño |2 = • William "Cruz" Shaw |3 = • Rebecca Viagran |4 = • Rey Saldaña |5 = • Shirley Gonzales |6 = • Greg Brockhouse |7 = • Ana Sandoval |8 = • Manny Pelaez |9 = • John Courage |10 = • Clayton Perry }} |unit_pref= Imperial |area_total_sq_mi = 412.1 |area_total_km2 = 1067.3 |area_land_sq_mi = 407.6 |area_land_km2 = 1055.7 |area_water_sq_mi = 4.5 |area_water_km2 = 11.7 |population_as_of = 2010 |population_metro = 2,142,508 ([[Leet o Unitit States metropolitan auries|25t]]) |population_total = 1,327,407 ([[Leet o Unitit States ceeties bi population|7t]]) |population_density_sq_mi = 3400.9 |population_density_km2 = 1313.1 |population_blank1_title = [[Demonym]] |population_blank1 = San Antonian |timezone = [[North American Central Time Zone|Central]] |utc_offset = -6 |timezone_DST = [[North American Central Time Zone|Central]] |utc_offset_DST = -5 |area_code = [[Area code 210|210]](majority), [[Area code 830|830]](portions) |coordinates = {{coord|29|25|N|98|30|W|region:US-TX|display=inline,title}} |elevation_ft = 650 |elevation_m = 198 |website = [http://www.sanantonio.gov/ www.sanantonio.gov] |footnotes = }} '''San Antonio''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|s|æ|n|_|æ|n|ˈ|t|oʊ|n|i|.|oʊ}}) is the [[Leet o Unitit States ceeties bi population|seivent-lairgest]] ceety proper in the [[Unitit States|Unitit States o Americae]] an the seicont-lairgest athin the state o [[Texas]], wi a population o 1.33 million.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/17/AR2011021707179.html?nav=hcmoduletmv | work=The Washington Post | first=David | last=Mildenberg | title=Population growth in Texas eclipses national rate | date=February 18, 2011}}</ref> Locatit in the [[Soothwastren Unitit States|American&nbsp;Soothwast]] an the sooth–central pairt o Texas, the ceety serves as the [[coonty seat|seat]] o [[Bexar Coonty, Texas|Bexar&nbsp;Coonty]]. In 2011, it wis estimatit tae be the 24t lairgest metropolitan aurie in the U.S. wi a population o 2.2 million accordin tae U.S. Census Bureau figures tabulatit bi Business First. San Antonio haes characteristics o ither wastren [[urban aurie|urban]] centers in which thare are spairsely populatit auries an a law density rate ootside o the ceety. It wis the fowert-fastest growin lairge ceety in the naition frae 2000 tae 2006<ref>{{cite news | url=http://money.cnn.com/2007/06/27/real_estate/fastest_growing_cities/ | title=The fastest growing U.S. cities - June 28, 2007 | work=CNN | date=June 28, 2007 | accessdate=May 23, 2010 | first1=Les | last1=Christie | archive-date=2013-04-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404170946/http://money.cnn.com/2007/06/27/real_estate/fastest_growing_cities/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> an the fift-fastest-growin frae 2007 tae 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/local_news/SA_again_census_standout.html|title=S. A. Again Census Standout|last=Ayala|first=Elaine|date=July 1, 2009|work=San Antonio Express News|pages=B1|accessdate=2009-07-01|archive-date=2009-07-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702090712/http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/local_news/SA_again_census_standout.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The San Antonio/New Braunfels metropolitan aurie, offeecially [[Greater San Antonio]], haes a population o ower 2.14 million based on the 2010 U.S. Census, makkin it the [[Leet o Unitit States metropolitan auries|25t-lairgest]] metropolitan aurie in the naition an third-lairgest in the state o Texas. The ceety wis namit for [[Anthony o Padua|San Antonio de Padua]], whose [[calendar o saunts|feast day]] is on 13 Juin, when a Spainyie expedeetion stopped in the aurie in 1691. Famous for [[San Antonio Missions National Historic Park|Spainyie missions]], the [[Alamo Mission in San Antonio|Alamo]], the [[San Antonio River Walk|River Walk]], the [[Tower of the Americas]], the [[Alamo Bowl]], [[Marriage Island]] an host tae [[SeaWorld San Antonio|SeaWorld]] an [[Six Flags Fiesta Texas]] theme pairks, the ceety is visitit bi approximately 26 million tourists per year accordin tae the San Antonio Convention an Visitors Bureau. San Antonio haes a strang military presence—it is hame tae [[Fort Sam Houston]], [[Lackland Air Force Base]], [[Randolph Air Force Base]], an [[Brooks City-Base]], wi [[Camp Bullis]] an Camp Stanley ootside the ceety. [[Kelly Air Force Base]] operatit oot o San Antonio till 2001, when the airfield wis transferred ower tae Lackland AFB an the remainin portions o the base became [[Port San Antonio]], an industrial/business pairk. San Antonio is hame tae five Fortune 500 companies an the [[South Texas Medical Center]], the anerlie medical research an care provider in the Sooth Texas region. == Internaitional relations == === Sister ceeties === * {{Flagicon|Mexico}} [[Monterrey]], [[Mexico]] (1953)<ref name=sister>[http://www.sainternationalrelations.org/sister-cities-program.html Sister Cities Program]. Sainternationalrelations.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-11.</ref> * {{Flagicon|Mexico}} [[Guadalajara, Jalisco|Guadalajara]], [[Mexico]] (1974)<ref name=sister/> * {{Flagicon|Spain}} [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]], [[Spain]] (1975)<ref name=sister/> * {{Flagicon|South Korea}} - [[Kwangju]], [[Republic o Korea]] (1981)<ref name=sister/> * {{Flagicon|Taiwan}} [[Kaohsiung]], [[Republic o Cheenae|Taiwan]] (1981)<ref name=sister/> * {{Flagicon|Spain}} [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]], [[Spain]] (1983)<ref name=sister/> * {{Flagicon|Japan}} [[Kumamoto]], [[Japan]] (1987)<ref name=sister/> * {{Flagicon|India}} [[Chennai]], [[Indie]] (2008)<ref name=sister/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sanantonio.gov/news/NewsMayorCouncil/nrChennaiSisterCity.asp?res=1280&ver=true|title=Mayor announces Chennai, India Sister City Agreement|publisher=Sanantonio.gov|date=2008-02-28 |accessdate=2010-06-30}}</ref> === Alliance/Friendship ceeties === * {{Flagicon|China}} [[Wuxi]], [[Jiangsu]], [[Cheenae]] (2010 freenship ceety)<ref name=sister/><ref name="gsaccc1">[http://www.gsaccc.org/content/view/137/98/ The Greater San Antonio Chinese Chamber of Commerce - Wuxi and Suzhou Are Friends with San Antonio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103034205/http://www.gsaccc.org/content/view/137/98/ |date=2011-01-03 }}. Gsaccc.org (2010-05-28). Retrieved on 2011-12-11.</ref> * {{Flagicon|China}} [[Suzhou]], [[Jiangsu]], [[Cheenae]]) (2010 freenship ceety)<ref name=sister/><ref name="gsaccc1"/> * {{Flagicon|Germany}} [[Dresden]], [[Saxony]], [[Germany]] (2009 alliance greement)<ref name=sister/> * {{Flagicon|Israel}} [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]] (2011 economic pact)<ref>[http://www.jta.org/news/article/2011/07/14/3088550/texas-mayor-signs-agreements-during-israel-trip San Antonio mayor boosts ties with Israel | JTA - Jewish & Israel News] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718102424/http://www.jta.org/news/article/2011/07/14/3088550/texas-mayor-signs-agreements-during-israel-trip |date=2011-07-18 }}. JTA (2011-07-14). Retrieved on 2011-12-11.</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} == Freemit airtins == {{Commons|San Antonio, Texas}} * [http://www.sanantonio.gov/ City of San Antonio] [[Category:San Antonio]] [[Category:Populatit places established in 1718]] [[Category:Populatit places in Bexar Coonty, Texas]] [[Category:Populatit places in Comal Coonty, Texas]] [[Category:Ceeties in Texas]] [[Category:Coonty seats in Texas]] [[Category:Unitit States colonial an territorial caipitals]] [[Category:Place names o Spaingie oreegin in the Unitit States]] [[Category:Populatit places in Texas wi Hispanic majority populations]] gor7k2bn4sdcgszaq23adrw6rv4r69w Jongno-gu 0 42666 916892 885228 2026-05-17T13:58:20Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916892 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement <!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions --> | name = Jongno-gu | official_name = 종로구 · 鐘路區 | native_name = | native_name_lang = kr | settlement_type = [[Leet o destricts o Seoul|Destrict]] <!-- images, nickname, motto ---> | image_skyline = | imagesize = | image_alt = | image_caption = [[Yi Sun-sin]] statue at Gwanghwamun Plaza | image_flag = | flag_alt = | image_seal = | seal_alt = | image_shield = | shield_alt = | image_blank_emblem = | nickname = | motto = <!-- maps and coordinates ------> | image_map = Seoul Jongno-gu.svg | map_alt = | map_caption = Location o Jongno-gu in [[Seoul]] | image_dot_map = | dot_mapsize = | dot_map_base_alt = | dot_map_alt = | dot_map_caption = | dot_x = |dot_y = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_label_position = <!-- position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = &nbsp; | coordinates = | coor_pinpoint = <!-- to specify exact location of coordinates (was coor_type) --> | coordinates_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> <!-- location ------------------> | subdivision_type = [[Leet o kintras|Kintra]] | subdivision_name = [[Sooth Korea]] | subdivision_type1 = [[Leet o regions of Korea|Region]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Seoul Naitional Caipital Aurie|Sudogwon]] | subdivision_type2 = [[Direct-controlled municipality#South Korea|Special Ceety]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Seoul]] | subdivision_type3 = Admeenistrative dong | subdivision_name3 = 19 <!-- established ---------------> | established_title = <!-- Settled --> | established_date = | founder = | named_for = <!-- seat, smaller parts -------> | seat_type = <!-- defaults to: Seat --> | seat = <!-- government type, leaders --> | government_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | leader_party = | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = Kim Choong-Yong (김영종) | leader_title1 = | leader_name1 = <!-- etc., up to leader_title4 / leader_name4 --> <!-- display settings ---------> | total_type = <!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --> | unit_pref = <!-- enter: Imperial, to display imperial before metric --> <!-- area ----------------------> | area_magnitude = <!-- use only to set a special wikilink --> | area_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | area_total_km2 = 23.92 | area_total_sq_mi = <!-- see table @ Template:Infobox settlement for details --> | area_land_km2 = | area_land_sq_mi = | area_water_km2 = | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent = | area_note = <!-- elevation -----------------> | elevation_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | elevation_m = | elevation_ft = <!-- population ----------------> | population_footnotes = | population_total = 155,575 | population_as_of = 2010<ref name="kosispop">[http://kosis.kr/abroad/abroad_01List.jsp?parentId=A Korean Statistical Information Service (Korean) > Population and Household > Census Result (2010) > Population by Administrative district, Sex and Age / Alien by Administrative district and Sex] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826055149/http://kosis.kr/abroad/abroad_01List.jsp?parentId=A |date=2013-08-26 }}, Retrieved 2010-06-02.</ref> | population_density_km2 = auto | population_density_sq_mi= | population_est = | pop_est_as_of = | population_demonym = <!-- demonym, ie. Liverpudlian for someone from Liverpool --> | population_note = <!-- time zone(s) --------------> | timezone1 = [[Korea Staundart Time]] | utc_offset1 = +9 | timezone1_DST = | utc_offset1_DST = <!-- postal codes, area code ---> | postal_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> | postal_code = | area_code_type = <!-- defaults to: Area code(s) --> | area_code = <!-- website, footnotes --------> | website = [http://www.jongno.go.kr/english/ Jongno-gu official website] | footnotes = }} '''Jongno-gu''' is a [[Admeenistrative diveesions o Sooth Korea|''gu'']], or destrict, in central [[Seoul]], [[Sooth Korea]]. It taks its name frae a major local street, [[Jongno]], whilk means "Bell Street". ==Characteristic== [[File:Gyeongbokgung-Gwanghwamun-01.jpg|thumb|[[Gwanghwamun]]]] Jongno-gu haes been the centre o the ceety for 600 year, syne it is whaur the [[Joseon]] dynasty established its caipital ceety. Jongno-gu is commonly referred tae as the face an hert o Korea acause o its important roles in the politics, economics, cultur, an history as the caipital ceety.<ref name="Jongno-gu site" /> Jongno-gu is hame tae pailaces in whilk the kings uised tae bide an work, lik [[Gyeongbokgung]], [[Changdeokgung]], [[Changgyeonggung]] an [[Unhyeongung]]. The Sooth Korean preses' current residence, the [[Blue Hoose]], is locatit in Jongno-gu an aw.<ref name="Jongno-gu site">{{cite web |url=http://www.jongno.go.kr/english/jongno/region.jsp |title=About Jongno-gu |publisher=Jongno-gu Official website |accessdate=2008-04-23 |archive-date=2004-08-05 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20040805131642/http://www.jongno.go.kr/english/jongno/region.jsp |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wi the historical value an cultural properties, Jongno-gu attracts visitors' attention. Thae include the restored [[Cheonggyecheon]] stream, the traditional neebourheid o [[Insa-dong]], an the [[Jongmyo]] shrine. [[Art Center Nabi]] an [[Gahoe Museum]], a relics museum is locatit in the destrict. A feck o colleges an varsities is locatit here; thae include the main campuses o [[Sungkyunkwan University]] an [[Baehwa Women's College]]. Jongno-gu is hame tae [[Jogyesa]] an aw, the chief temple o the [[Jogye Order]] o Korean Buddhism. ==Economy== As the tradeetional hert o Seoul, Jongno is still an important business center. Notable companies based in Jongno include [[Kumho Asiana Group]], [[Kyobo Life]]. [[Lotte Group]], [[SK Group]], [[Hyundai Engineering & Construction]], [[Daewoo E&C]], [[Daelim Group]], [[The Dong-a Ilbo|East Asia Daily]] an mony mair. The heidquairter o Sooth Korean skincare retailer [[The Face Shop]] is locatit in the LG Gwanghwamun Building on sinmunno 2-ga.<ref>{{cite web|title=Company location|url=http://international.thefaceshop.com/english/center/contact.jsp|work=The Face Shop official website|accessdate=9 October 2012|archive-date=2013-01-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130110053640/http://international.thefaceshop.com/english/center/contact.jsp|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Subdiveesions== Admeenistrative dong (행정동) {|width="600px" |- |{{Col-begin}} {{Col-2}} * [[Cheongun-dong]] (청운동 淸雲洞) * [[Hyoja-dong]] (효자동 孝子洞) * [[Sajik-dong, Seoul|Sajik-dong]] (사직동 社稷洞) * [[Samcheong-dong]] (삼청동 三淸洞) * [[Buam-dong, Seoul|Buam-dong]] (부암동 付岩洞) * [[Pyeongchang-dong]] (평창동 平倉洞) * [[Muak-dong]] (무악동 毋岳洞) * [[Gyonam-dong]] (교남동 橋南洞) * [[Gahoe-dong]] (가회동 嘉會洞) * [[Ihwa-dong, Seoul|Ihwa-dong]] (이화동 梨花洞) {{Col-2}} * [[Hyehwa-dong]] (혜화동 惠化洞) * [[Sejongno-dong]] (세종로동 世宗路洞) * [[Jongno-1.2.3.4 ga-dong]] (종로1.2.3.4가동 鍾路) * [[Jongno-5.6 ga-dong]] (종로5.6가동 鍾路5.6街洞) * [[Myeongnyun 3 ga-dong]] (명륜3가동 明倫洞) * [[Changsin 1-dong]] (창신1동 昌信洞) * [[Changsin 2-dong]] (창신2동 昌信洞) * [[Changsin 3-dong]] (창신3동 昌信洞) * [[Sungin 1-dong]] (숭인1동 崇仁洞) * [[Sungin 2-dong]] (숭인2동 崇仁洞) {{Col-end}} |} ==Attractions== {{Col-begin}} {{Col-2}} ===Palaces=== *[[Gyeongbokgung]] *[[Changgyeonggung]] *[[Changdeokgung]] *[[Gyeonghuigung]] ===Mercat=== * [[Dongdaemun Mercat]] {{Col-2}} ===Museums=== *[[National Fowk Museum o Korea]] *[[Naitional Palace Museum o Korea]] *[[Seoul Education Museum]] *[[SeMa GyeongHuiGung]] *[[Seoul Museum o History]] *[[Artsonje Center]] *[[Airt Centre Nabi]] *[[Bukchon Airt Museum]] *[[Gahoe Museum]] *[[Ilmin Museum o Airt]] *[[Tteok& Kitchen Utensil Museum]] {{Col-end}} ==Destrict Cooncil== The current mayor o Jong-no destrict is Kim Yeong-jong. The destrict cooncil serves admeenistrative functions sic as Foreign Seal Registration, Internaitional Marriage, Adoption, Acknowledgement reports an Alien Registration Certificates for foreigners residin in Jongno-gu. ==Sister ceeties== *{{flagicon|China}} [[Dongcheng Destrict, Beijing|Dongcheng Destrict]], [[Beijing]], [[Fowkrepublic o Cheenae]] ==See an aw== {{Commons category|Jongno-gu, Seoul|Jongno-gu}} *[[Geografie o Sooth Korea]] *[[Subdiveesions o Sooth Korea]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Freemit airtins== *[http://www.jongno.go.kr/english/ Destrict govrenment wabsteid, in Inglis] {{Destricts o Seoul}} [[Category:Jongno-gu| ]] 7ggbtrobkjbqimeyoufwi72fqnykrsd Maria Sharapova 0 44093 916897 907523 2026-05-17T18:07:46Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916897 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots}} {{Infobox tennis biography |name=Maria Sharapova <!-- PLEASE DON'T FORGET TO PLACE THE RELATED DATE IN THE "UPDATED" PARAMETER BELOW AFTER EACH UPDATE, THANKS --> |nickname=Masha([[Diminutive#Roushie|diminutive]]) |image=Maria Sharapova, December 2008.jpg |image_size= 200px |caption= |country={{flag|Roushie}} |residence=[[Bradenton, Florida]], <br>[[United States]] |birth_date={{birth date and age|df=yes|1987|4|19}} |birth_place=[[Nyagan]], [[Roushie SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]] |height=<!-- UNSOURCED CHANGES TO THIS WILL BE REMOVED -->.88 m (6 ft 2 in)<ref name="wtatennis">{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/page/Player/Stats/0,,12781~9499,00.html|title=WTA &#124; Players &#124; Stats &#124; Maria Sharapova|publisher=Wtatennis.com|accessdate=January 25, 2012}}</ref> |weight=<!-- UNSOURCED CHANGES TO THIS WILL BE REMOVED -->{{convert|59|kg|lb}}<ref name="wtatennis"/> |turnedpro=19 Aprile 2001 |retired= |plays=Richt-haundit (twa-haundit backhaund) |careerprizemoney=[[Unitit States dollar|$]]23,151,623<ref>WTA Official Site: [http://www.wtatennis.com/SEWTATour-Archive/Rankings_Stats/Millionaires.pdf WTA Million Dollar Club]. Retrieved October 8, 2012.</ref> *<small>[[WTA Tour records#WTA Prize money leaders|4t in aw-time rankins]]</small> |singlesrecord= 472–115 (80.41%) |singlestitles=27 WTA, 4 ITF |highestsinglesranking=No. '''1''' (22 August 2005) |currentsinglesranking=No. 180 (Julie 3, 2017) |AustralianOpenresult='''W''' ([[:en:2008 Australian Open – Women's Singles|2008]]) |FrenchOpenresult='''W''' ([[:en:2012 French Open – Women's Singles|2012]]) |Wimbledonresult='''W''' ([[:en:2004 Wimbledon Championships – Women's Singles|2004]]) |USOpenresult='''W''' ([[:en:2006 US Open – Women's Singles|2006]]) |Othertournaments=Yes |WTAChampionshipsresult='''W''' ([[:en:2004 WTA Tour Championships - Singles|2004]]) |Olympicsresult = [[Image:Silver medal.svg|20px]] [[Olympic medal|Siller medal]] ([[:en:Tennis at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's singles|2012]]) |doublesrecord=23–17 |doublestitles=3 WTA |highestdoublesranking=No. 41 (14 Juin 2004) |AustralianOpenDoublesresult= 2R (2003, 2004) |FrenchOpenDoublesresult= |WimbledonDoublesresult= |USOpenDoublesresult= 2R (2003) |updated=December 31, 2012 }} {{MedalTop}} {{MedalSport | Weemen's [[:en:Tennis at the Summer Olympics|tennis]]}} {{MedalCountry|{{flag|Roushie}}}} {{MedalSilver | [[2012 Simmer Olympics|2012 London]] | [[:en:Tennis at the 2012 Summer Olympics|Singles]]}} {{MedalBottom}} '''Maria Yuryevna Sharapova''' ({{lang-rus|Мари́я Ю́рьевна Шара́пова|p=mɐˈrʲijə ˈjʉrʲjɪvnə ʂɐˈrapəvə|a=Maria_sharapova.ogg}}; born 19 April 1987) is a [[Roushies|Roushie]] professional [[tennis]] player, that is rankit warld No. 180 bi the [[Weemen's Tennis Association]] (WTA). A [[Permanent residence (United States)|United States resident]] syne 1994,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/usopen/8728691/US-Open-2011-Elena-Baltacha-warns-Heather-Watson-of-the-extreme-intensity-of-Maria-Sharapova.html|title=US Open 2011: Elena Baltacha warns Heather Watson of the extreme intensity of Maria Sharapova|work=The Telegraph|author=Simon Briggs|date=August 28, 2013|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova haes competit on the WTA tour syne 2001. She haes been rankit [[List of WTA number 1 ranked players|warld No. 1]] in singles bi the WTA on five separate occasions, for a tot o 21 weeks. She is ane o ten weemen, an the ae Roushie, tae haud the [[Grand Slam (tennis)#Career Grand Slam|career Grand Slam]] an is an [[Olympic medalist]], haein earnt [[Olympic silver medal|silver]] for Roushie in [[Tennis at the 2012 Summer Olympics - Weemen's singles|weemen's singles]] at the [[2012 Simmer Olympics]] in [[Lunnon]]. Sharapova became the warld No. 1 for the first time on August 22, 2005 at the age o 18, an last haudit the rankin for the fift time for fower week frae 11 Juin 2012 til 8 Julie 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/SEWTATour-Archive/Archive/Notes&Netcords/2012/july16.pdf|title=Notes& Netcords|date=July 16, 2012|publisher=WTA|accessdate=May 19, 2013|format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.3news.co.nz/Maria-Sharapova-reclaims-world-number-one-ranking/tabid/415/articleID/257186/Default.aspx|title=Maria Sharapova reclaims world number one ranking|publisher=MediaWorks TV|work=3News|date=June 8, 2012|accessdate=May 4, 2013|archive-date=2013-07-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728161149/http://www.3news.co.nz/Maria-Sharapova-reclaims-world-number-one-ranking/tabid/415/articleID/257186/Default.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> Her 35 singles titles an five [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] titles — twa at the [[French Open]] an ane ilka at the [[Australian Open]], [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] an the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]] — rank third amang active players, ahint [[Serena Williams|Serena]] an [[Venus Williams]]. She won the year-endin [[WTA Finals]] in her debut in 2004. She haes won three doubles titles anaa. Despite an injury-prone career, Sharapova haes achieved a rare level o longevity in the weemen’s gemme. She haes won at least ane singles title a year frae 2003 until 2015, a streak anly bested bi [[Steffi Graf]], [[Martina Navratilova]] an [[Chris Evert]]. Several tennis pundits an umwhile players hae cried Sharapova ane o tennis’s best competitors, wi [[John McEnroe]] calling her ane o the best the sport haes ever seen.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PZUeNoPV-F0 | title= McEnroe Insights: Maria Sharapova|publisher=Youtube|work=3News|date=January 26, 2011|accessdate=January 11, 2015}}</ref> Sharapova haes been featurt in a feck o modelin assignments, includin a featur in the ''[[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue]]''. She appeared in mony advertisements, includin thaim for Nike, Prince, an Canon, bein the face o several [[fashion house]]s, maist notably [[Cole Haan]]. Syne Februar 2007, she haes been a [[UNDP Goodwill Ambassador|United Nations Development Programme Goodwill Ambassador]], concerned speceefically wi the [[Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme]]. In Juin 2011, she wis named ane o the "30 Legends of Women's Tennis: Past, Present and Future" bi ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'',<ref>{{cite news|title=30 Legends of Women's Tennis: Past, Present and Future – Maria Sharapova|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2079150_2079148_2079118,00.html|work=[[Time Magazine|Time]]|accessdate=August 19, 2011|author=William Lee Adams|date=June 22, 2011|archive-date=2012-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228142231/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2079150_2079148_2079118,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> an in Mairch 2012 wis named ane o the "[[100 Greatest of All Time]]" bi [[Tennis Channel]]. ==Early life== Maria Sharapova wis born on 19 Aprile 1987 in [[Nyagan]], [[Roushie SFSR]]. Her parents, Yuri an Yelena, are frae [[Gomel]], [[Belarussian SSR]]. Concerned aboot the regional effecks o the 1986 [[Chernobyl disaster|Chernobyl nuclear accident]], thay left thair homeland shortly afore Sharapova wis born.<ref name="ITH_2007_08_13">{{cite web|url=http://lenta.ru/lib/14164248/|publisher=[[Lenta.ru]]|script-title=ru:Шарапова, Мария|trans_title=Sharapova, Maria|language=Roushie|accessdate=2013-04-29}}</ref> ===Introduction tae tennis=== In 1989, whan Sharapova wis twa, the faimily flittit tae [[Sochi]], [[Krasnodar Krai]], [[Roushie]]. Ance yonder, her faither Yuri befreindit Aleksandr Kafelnikov, whase son [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov|Yevgeny]] wad gang on tae win twa Grand Slam singles titles an acome Roushie's first warld No. 1 rankit tennis player. Aleksandr gied Sharapova her first tennis racquet in 1991 whan she wis fower, whaurupn she began practicin raiglar-lik wi her faither at a local pairk.<ref name="times">{{cite news|author=Paul Kimmage|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/tennis/article3177376.ece|title=The Big Interview: Maria Sharapova|work=[[The Times]]|date=January 13, 2008|accessdate=2008-07-23|location=London|archive-date=2008-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918015756/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/tennis/article3177376.ece|url-status=dead}}</ref> Maria teuk her first tennis lessons wi veteran Roushie coach Yuri Yutkin, wha wis instantly impressed whan he saw her play, notin her "exceptional [[haun-ee coordination]]".<ref name="Article">{{cite web|url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-11732071-masha-was-a-star-at-four.do|author=Will Stewart|work=London Evening Standard|location=UK|title='Masha' was a star at four|date=July 2, 2004|accessdate=2010-06-12|archive-date=2011-07-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707185603/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-11732071-masha-was-a-star-at-four.do|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Start o professional training=== In 1993, at the age o sax, Sharapova attendit a tennis clinic in Moscow run bi [[Martina Navratilova]], wha recommendit professional trainin at the [[Nick Bollettieri|Nick Bollettieri Tennis Academy]] in [[Bradenton, Florida]], whilk haed previously trained players lik [[Andre Agassi]], [[Monica Seles]], an [[Anna Kournikova]].<ref name="times"/> Wi him bein skint, Yuri Sharapov borraed the sum that wad enable him an his dochter, neither o wham coud speak the Inglis, tae traivel tae the United States o Americae, whilk thay finally did in 1994.<ref name="Article" /> Visa restrictions preventit Sharapova's mither frae jynin thaim for twa year.<ref name="ITH_2007_08_13"/> Arrivin in Florida wi savings o US$700,<ref name="Article" /> Sharapova's faither teuk various law-paying jobs, includin dishwashing, tae fund her lessons tilt she wis auld eneuch tae be admit tae the academy. Afore she entert the IMG business, she trained wi Rick Macci, in the Rick Macci Tennis Academy. She wis then offered a deal frae IMG whilk forced her tae chynge academies. Oreeginally, she did train wi Rick Macci, but efter the deal wi IMG, she coudnae see Rick Macci ony mair. In 1995, she wis signed bi [[IMG (business)|IMG]], wha greed tae pey the annual tuition fee o $35,000 for Sharapova tae stey at the Academy, allouin her tae finally enroll at the age o 9.<ref name="times"/> ==Tennis career== ===Junior and early career=== Sharapova first hit the tennis scene in November 2000, when she won the Eddie Herr International Junior Tennis Championships in the girls' 16 division at the age o juist 13.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eddieherr.com/PastChampions.htm|publisher=Eddie Herr Official Website|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725075033/http://www.eddieherr.com/PastChampions.htm|archivedate=2012-07-25|title=Eddie Herr Past Champions|accessdate=June 12, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> She wis then gien a special distinction, the Rising Star Awaird, which is awairdit anly tae players o exceptional promise.<ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317171129/http://www.eddieherr.com/2009/PlayerPacket09.pdf|archivedate=2012-03-17|url=http://www.eddieherr.com/2009/PlayerPacket09.pdf|publisher=Eddie Herr Official Website|title=Eddie Herr International Special Awards|accessdate=June 12, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> Sharapova made her professional debut in 2001 on her 14t birthday on Aprile 19, an played her first WTA tournament at the [[Pacific Life Open]] in 2002, winnin a match afore losin tae [[Monica Seles]]. Due tae restrictions on how mony professional events she coud play, Sharapova went tae hone her gemme in junior tournaments, whaur she reached the finals o the girls' singles events at the Australian Open an Wimbledon in 2002. She wis the youngest girl ever tae reach the final o the Australian Open junior championship at 14 years an 9 month.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/5567102/Wimbledon-2009-Maria-Sharapova-20-facts-you-didnt-know.html|title=Wimbledon 2009: Maria Sharapova – 20 facts you didn't know|author=Nick Collins|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=June 24, 2009|accessdate=July 19, 2010}}</ref> Sharapova reached No. 6 in the [[International Tennis Federation|ITF]] junior warld singles ranking on October 21, 2002. In all, she won three junior singles tournaments an wis runner-up at five, includin twa junior Grand Slam events. Her win-loss record in junior competeetion wis 47–9.<ref>[http://www.itftennis.com/juniors/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=100013223 ITF Tennis Player Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616051543/http://www.itftennis.com/juniors/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=100013223 |date=2013-06-16 }}, ITF Juniors</ref> <u>Junior Grand Slam results:</u><br/> Australian Open: F ([[2002 Australian Open|2002]])<br/> French Open: 3R ([[2002 French Open|2002]])<br/> Wimbledon: F ([[2002 Wimbledon Championships|2002]])<br/> US Open: 2R ([[2001 US Open (tennis)|2001]]) ===Junior Grand Slam tournament finals=== ====Singles: 2 finals (2 runners-up)==== {|class="sortable wikitable" !Outcome !Year !width=200|Championship !Surface !width=200|Opponent !width=125|Score |-bgcolor=FFFFCC |bgcolor=FFA07A|Runner-up||[[2002 Australian Open|2002]]||[[Australian Open]]||Haurd||{{flagicon|CZE}} [[Barbora Strýcová]]||0–6, 5–7 |-bgcolor=CCFFCC |bgcolor=FFA07A|Runner-up||[[2002 Wimbledon Championships|2002]]||[[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]]||Gress||{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Vera Dushevina]]||6–4, 1–6, 2–6 |} ===2003: First toornament titles=== Frae 2003, Sharapova played a full saison an made a rapid climb intae the tap 50 bi the end o the year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/SEWTATour-Archive/Rankings_Stats/Singles_Numeric_2003.pdf|author=Liz Schroeder|publisher=WTA|title=WTA Tour Singles Ranking 2003|date=November 10, 2003|accessdate=June 12, 2010|archive-date=2017-09-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928193303/http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/SEWTATour-Archive/Rankings_Stats/Singles_Numeric_2003.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> She made her debuts at baith the [[2003 Australian Open|Australian Open]] an the [[2003 French Open|French Open]], but failed tae win a match in aither. Then, as a wildcard at [[2003 Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]], she defeatit 11t seed [[Jelena Dokić]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_2003/3028488.stm|title=Sharapova dismisses Dokic|publisher=BBC|date=June 28, 2003|accessdate=May 12, 2013}}</ref> her first win ower a tap-20 player, tae reach the fowert roond, whaur she lost in three sets tae [[Svetlana Kuznetsova]]. Bi the end o September, Sharapova haed already captured her first WTA title at a smawer event, the [[Japan Open Tennis Championships]], afore winnin her seicont in her final toornament o the saison, the [[Bell Challenge]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/2003-11-02-quebec_x.htm|title=Sharapova handed Bell Challenge title|work=[[USA Today]] Co.|date=November 2, 2003|accessdate=May 12, 2013}}</ref> Tae cap off her first full saison as a professional, she wis awairdit the WTA Newcomer o the Year honour.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/scontent/article/3010014/title/wta-awards|title=WTA Awards|accessdate=May 18, 2013}}</ref> ===2004: Wimbledon champion an rise tae fame=== Sharapova wis defeatit in the third roond o the [[2004 Australian Open|Australian Open]] bi saxt seed [[Anastasia Myskina]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2004/tennis/specials/australian_open/2004/01/24/bc.sport.tennis.open.myskina/|accessdate=May 29, 2013|date=January 24, 2004|work=Sports Illustrated|title=Myskina downs Sharapova in Russian clash|archive-date=2013-06-16|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616031055/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2004/tennis/specials/australian_open/2004/01/24/bc.sport.tennis.open.myskina/|url-status=dead}}</ref> She later reached the semifinals at the [[2004 Kroger St. Jude International and the Cellular South Cup|Cellular South Cup]], whaur she lost tae eventual champion [[Vera Zvonareva]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/2004-02-20-roundup_x.htm|title=Federer upset in Rotterdam; Roddick falls at Kroger|date=February 20, 2004|work=[[USA Today]]|accessdate=May 29, 2013}}</ref> During the spring clay-court saison, Sharapova entered the tap 20 on the WTA warld rankings as a result o reachin the third roond o the [[Qatar Telecom German Open]] an the [[Internazionali BNL d'Italia]], baith o which war Tier I events. At the latter event, she defeatit a player ranked in the tap 10 for the first time wi a straucht-sets win ower warld No. 10 an [[2004 French Open – Weemen's Singles|2004 French Open]] finalist [[Elena Dementieva]]. Later that clay-court saison, she went on tae mak the quarterfinals o a Grand Slam for the first time at the [[2004 French Open|French Open]], losin thare tae [[Paola Suárez]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/06/01/1086058856148.html|title=Suarez strikes another blow for Argentina|publisher=The Age|date=June 2, 2004|accessdate=June 8, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Maria Sharapova at Wimbledon (2004) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|200px|Sharapova at Wimbledon in 2004]] Sharapova won the third title o her career at the [[2004 Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] warm-up [[DFS Classic]], defeatin [[Tatiana Golovin]] in the final. Seedit 13t an aged 17 at Wimbledon, she reached her first Grand Slam semifinal bi defeatin [[Ai Sugiyama]]. Thare, she defeatit fift seed an umwhile champion [[Lindsay Davenport]]. In the final, Sharapova upset tap seed an defendin champion [[Serena Williams]] tae win her first Grand Slam singles title, an acome the third-youngest woman tae win the Wimbledon title, behind anly [[Lottie Dod]] an [[Martina Hingis]]. Sharapova an aa became the seicont Roushie woman (efter [[Anastasia Myskina]] haed won the year's previous major at [[French Open|Roland Garros]]) tae win a Grand Slam singles title. The victory wis hailed bi the media as "the most stunning upset in memory",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A25495-2004Jul3.html|title=Sharapova Wins Wimbledon After Improbable Journey|work=[[The Washington Post]]|author=Liz Clarke|date=April 7, 2004|accessdate=June 20, 2010}}</ref> wi ither writers commentin on her arrival as a serious challenger tae the [[Williams sisters|Williams']] dominance at Wimbledon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/sport/article-11722204-birth-of-a-superstar.do|title=Birth of a superstar|publisher=This Is London|author=Adrian Warner|date=February 7, 2004|accessdate=June 20, 2010|archive-date=2012-09-12|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120912142226/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/sport/article-11722204-birth-of-a-superstar.do|url-status=dead}}</ref> She entered the tap 10 in the rankings for the first time as a result o the win.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=1834581|title=Sharapova vaults into top 10|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=July 6, 2004|accessdate=May 19, 2013}}</ref> Follaein her Wimbledon win, attention an interest in Sharapova in the media greatly increased, a rise in popularity dubbed "Maria Mania."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/2004/08/27/commentary/column_sportsbiz/sportsbiz/index.htm|title=Maria Mania: no stopping her now|publisher=CNN|author=Chris Isidore|date=August 30, 2004|accessdate=June 20, 2010|archive-date=2015-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224172851/http://money.cnn.com/2004/08/27/commentary/column_sportsbiz/sportsbiz/index.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> She won three o sax matches in her preparations for the [[2004 US Open (tennis)|US Open]]. At the US Open itself, she reached the third roond, afore bein eliminated bi [[Mary Pierce]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/3628366.stm|title=Pierce shocks Sharapova|publisher=BBC|date=September 4, 2004|accessdate=June 8, 2013}}</ref> In order tae regain confidence, Sharapova played an won consecutive titles in Asia in the faw, the [[Hansol Korea Open Tennis Championships]] an the [[Japan Open Tennis Championships]]. In October, Sharapova defeatit [[Venus Williams]] en route tae makin the final o a Tier I event for the first time at the [[Zurich Open]], losin in the final tae [[Alicia Molik]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/10/25/1098556329960.html?from=storylhs|title=Molik stuns Sharapova in Zurich final|publisher=The Age|date=October 25, 2004|accessdate=June 8, 2013}}</ref> She then made her debut at the year-endin [[WTA Tour Championships]]. Thare, she won twa o her three roond-robin matches (includin a win ower US Open champion [[Svetlana Kuznetsova]]) in order tae advance tae the semifinals, whaur she defeatit Myskina. In the final, she defeatit Serena Williams, efter trailing 4–0 in the final set.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/4015111.stm|title=Sharapova wins season's finale|publisher=BBC|date=November 16, 2004|accessdate=June 8, 2013}}</ref> ===2005: Rise tae warld No. 1 ranking=== Sharapova stairtit the year at the [[2005 Australian Open|Australian Open]], whaur she defeatit fift seed [[Svetlana Kuznetsova]] tae reach the seicont Grand Slam semifinal o her career. Sharapova held match pynts in the third set o her semifinal match, afore losin tae eventual champion [[Serena Williams]]. In Februar, Sharapova won back-tae-back toornaments, the [[Toray Pan Pacific Open]] an the [[Qatar Total Open]], allouin her tae reach number 3 in the warld rankings for the first time. In the semifinals o the Tier I [[Pacific Life Open]], Sharapova wis defeatit bi [[Lindsay Davenport]], the first time she haed failed tae win a gemme in a match.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/4363185.stm|title=Sharapova humiliated by Davenport|publisher=BBC|date=March 18, 2005|accessdate=August 7, 2011}}</ref> She defeatit umwhile warld No. 1 players [[Justine Henin]] an [[Venus Williams]] tae reach the final at the Tier I [[NASDAQ-100 Open]], whaur she lost tae [[Kim Clijsters]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/01/sports/tennis/01tennis.html?n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fPeople%2fS%2fSharapova%2c%20Maria&_r=0|title=Sharapova Rights Her Game vs. Venus Williams|work=[[The New York Times]]|author=Sandra Harwitt|date=April 1, 2005|accessdate=June 8, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A21225-2005Apr2.html|title=Clijsters's Dream Continues|work=[[The Washington Post]]|author=Amy Shipley|date=April 3, 2005|accessdate=June 8, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova made the semifinals o a clay-court tournament for the first time at the [[Italian Open (tennis)|Italian Open]], whaur she lost tae [[Patty Schnyder]]. Sharapova wad hae acome warld No. 1 for the first time haed she won the tournament.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/4544729.stm|title=Sharapova edges nearer to summit|publisher=BBC|date=May 13, 2005|accessdate=August 7, 2011}}</ref> Sharapova then reached the quarterfinals o the [[2005 French Open|French Open]] for the seicont consecutive year, afore losin tae eventual champion Henin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2005/jun/01/tennis.frenchopen2005|title=Henin reduces Sharapova to dust|publisher=''[[The Guardian]]''|author=Stephen Bierley|date=June 1, 2005|accessdate=June 8, 2013}}</ref> On gress, Sharapova won her third title o the year when she successfully defended her title at the [[DFS Classic]], defeatin [[Jelena Janković]] in the final.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/4085880.stm|title=Sharapova keeps Birmingham title|publisher=BBC|date=June 12, 2005|accessdate=June 8, 2013}}</ref> As the defendin champion at [[2005 Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]], Sharapova reached the semifinals wioot dropping a set an losin a service gemme juist ance, extendin her winnin streak on gress tae 24 matches. Houiver, she wis then beaten bi eventual champion [[Venus Williams]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/4639341.stm|title=Williams ends Sharapova's defence|publisher=BBC|date=June 30, 2005|accessdate=June 8, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova haed far fewer pynts tae defend, an sae she became the first Roushie woman tae haud the warld No. 1 ranking on August 22, 2005.<ref name="wtacareer">{{cite web|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/qa-sharapovas-first-business-aims-for-the-sweet-spot/479274.html|title=Q&A: Sharapova's First Business Aims for the Sweet Spot|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|date=April 26, 2013|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> Her reign lasted anly ane week, houiver, as Davenport reclaimed the tap ranking efter winnin the [[Pilot Pen Tennis]] tournament.<ref name="wtacareer"/> As the tap seed at the [[2005 US Open – Weemen's Singles|US Open]], Sharapova lost in the semifinals tae [[Kim Clijsters]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/4228310.stm|title=Clijsters battles past Sharapova|publisher=BBC|date=September 9, 2005|accessdate=June 8, 2013}}</ref> meanin she haed lost tae the eventual champion in every Grand Slam o the saison. Houiver, she ance again leapfrogged Davenport tae tak the warld No. 1 ranking on September 12, 2005. She retained it for sax weeks, but efter playin few tournaments while injured, she again relinquished the ranking tae Davenport.<ref name="wtacareer"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.ndtv.com/tennis/news/17404-davenport-regains-no-1-ranking|title=Davenport regains No. 1 ranking|publisher=NDTV|date=August 27, 2005|accessdate=June 8, 2013|archive-date=2014-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610183939/http://sports.ndtv.com/tennis/news/17404-davenport-regains-no-1-ranking|url-status=dead}}</ref> Tae conclude the year, Sharapova failed tae defend her title at the year-end [[Sony Ericsson Championships]] in Los Angeles, defeatin Davenport in ane o her roond-robin matches, but ultimately losin in the semifinals tae eventual champion [[Amélie Mauresmo]]. ===2006: US Open champion=== [[File:MariaSharapova (cropped).JPG|thumb|upright|Sharapova celebrating efter winnin the [[2006 US Open (tennis)|2006 US Open]]]] Sharapova stairtit 2006 bi losin in the semifinals o the [[2006 Australian Open|Australian Open]] in three sets tae Henin,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/usopen06/news/story?id=2579411|title=Sharapova, Henin-Hardenne advance to Open final|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=September 8, 2006|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> an aa losin a rematch several weeks later at the [[Dubai Tennis Championships]], haein defeatit umwhile warld No. 1 [[Martina Hingis]] an warld No. 3 [[Lindsay Davenport]] in earlier roonds o the tournament. Sharapova claimed her first title in nine month at the Tier I tournament in Indian Wells, defeatin Hingis in the semifinals an [[Elena Dementieva]] in the final.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/4818828.stm|title=Sharapova into all-Russian final|publisher=BBC|date=March 18, 2006|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2006-03-19/sports/0603190381_1_pacific-life-open-title-indian-wells-james-blake|title=Sharapova wins Pacific Life|work=[[Chicago Tribune]]|date=March 19, 2006|accessdate=June 9, 2013|archive-date=2014-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606211142/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2006-03-19/sports/0603190381_1_pacific-life-open-title-indian-wells-james-blake|url-status=dead}}</ref> She reached the final in [[2006 NASDAQ-100 Open – Weemen's Singles|Miami]] afore losin tae Kuznetsova.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2006/apr/02/tennis.richardevans|title=Kuznetsova quiets Sharapova scream on the way to title|publisher=The Guardian|date=April 2, 2006|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova returned for the [[2006 French Open – Weemen's Singles|French Open]]. Thare, efter saving match pynts in defeatin [[Mashona Washington]] in the first roond, she wis eliminated bi [[Dinara Safina]] in the fowert roond.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/04/sports/tennis/04french-wire.html?_r=0|title= Sharapova Falls at French Open |work=[[The New York Times]]|date=June 4, 2006|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> On gress, Sharapova wis unsuccessful in her attempt tae win in Birmingham for the third consecutive year, losin in the semifinals tae [[Jamea Jackson]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/5091134.stm|title= Sharapova suffers surprise defeat |publisher=BBC|date=June 17, 2006|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Despite that, she wis amang the title favorites at [[2006 Wimbledon|Wimbledon]], whaur the eventual champion Mauresmo ended up beatin her in the semifinals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/sport/content/200607/s1680842.htm|title=Mauresmo survives lapse to reach Wimbledon final|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]|date=July 7, 2006|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova claimed her seicont title o the year at the Tier I [[Acura Classic]], defeatin Clijsters for the first time in the final.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/2006-08-06-acura-classic_x.htm|title=Sharapova outlasts Clijsters in Acura final|date=August 6, 2006|work=[[USA Today]]|accessdate=May 31, 2013}}</ref> As the third seed at the [[2006 US Open (tennis)|US Open]], Sharapova defeatit tap seed Mauresmo for the first time in the semifinals,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/open/2006-09-08-day-12_x.htm?POESPOISVA|title=Sharapova stops No. 1 Mauresmo, will meet Henin-Hardenne in U.S. Open final|date=September 8, 2006|work=[[USA Today]]|accessdate=May 31, 2013}}</ref> an then followed up bi beatin seicont seed [[Justine Henin]] tae win her seicont Grand Slam singles title.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/usopen06/news/story?id=2581102|title=Sharapova drops Henin-Hardenne to win U.S. Open title|date=September 12, 2006|publisher=ESPN|accessdate=May 31, 2013}}</ref> That hairst, Sharapova won titles in back-tae-back weeks at the [[Zurich Open]] an the [[Generali Ladies Linz]]. Bi winnin aw three o her roond-robin matches at the [[2006 WTA Tour Championships – Singles|WTA Tour Championships]], she extendit her win streak tae 19 matches, afore it wis snapped in the semifinals bi eventual champion Henin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2006-11-26/sports/0611250235_1_maria-sharapova-justine-henin-hardenne-wta-championships|title=Henin-Hardenne came up aces|publisher=[[Sun Sentinel]]|date=November 26, 2006|accessdate=June 9, 2013|archive-date=2014-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606204706/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2006-11-26/sports/0611250235_1_maria-sharapova-justine-henin-hardenne-wta-championships|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sharapova wad hae finished the saison as warld No. 1 haed she won the event. As it wis, she finished ranked warld No. 2, her best year-end finish yet. ===2007: Shoulder injury an faw frae the tap 5=== Sharapova wis the tap seed at the [[2007 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|Australian Open]] due tae tap-rankit [[Justine Henin]]'s withdrawal. Efter bein twa pynts awa frae defeat in the first roond agin [[Camille Pin]], she gaun on tae win till the final o the tournament for the first time, but wis routed thare bi [[Serena Williams]] wha wis rankit warld No. 81 at the time. Efter winnin till the final, Sharapova recaptured the warld No. 1 rankin.<ref name="wtacareer"/> She held it for seiven week, surrenderin it back tae Henin efter failin tae defend her title at the [[Pacific Life Open]], insteid losin in the fowert roond tae [[Vera Zvonareva]] efter strauchlin wi a hamstring injury.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/6326809.stm|title=Leg injury forces Sharapova out|publisher=BBC|date=February 3, 2007|accessdate=June 2, 2013}}</ref> The follaein fortnight, she defeatit [[Venus Williams]] in the third roond o the [[Sony Ericsson Open]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/03/25/us-tennis-miami-idUSL2308180420070325|title=Sharapova sets up Venus showdown in rainy Miami|publisher=Reuters|date=March 27, 2007|accessdate=June 9, 2013|archive-date=2015-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924113408/http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/03/25/us-tennis-miami-idUSL2308180420070325|url-status=dead}}</ref> afore bein beaten again bi Serena Williams.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://voices.yahoo.com/serena-williams-defeats-maria-sharapova-today-key-270447.html|title=Serena Williams Defeats Maria Sharapova Today in Key Biscayne|publisher=[[Yahoo]]|author=Verdell A. Wright|date=March 27, 2007|accessdate=June 9, 2013|archive-date=2014-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729030341/http://voices.yahoo.com/serena-williams-defeats-maria-sharapova-today-key-270447.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> A shoulder injury forced Sharapova tae miss maist o the clay-court saison for the seicont consecutive year, resultin in her anly tune-up for the [[2007 French Open|French Open]] bein the [[İstanbul Cup]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/6689561.stm|title=Sharapova battles to Istanbul win|publisher=BBC|date=May 24, 2007|accessdate=May 22, 2013}}</ref> whaur she lost in the semifinals tae [[Aravane Reza&iuml;]]. She reached the semifinals o the French Open for the first time in her career, afore losin tae [[Ana Ivanovic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2007/jun/07/tennis.frenchopen2007|title=Ivanovic stuns Sharapova to set up Henin showdown|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=June 7, 2007|accessdate=May 22, 2013}}</ref> On gress, Sharapova wis runner-up tae [[Jelena Janković]] at the [[DFS Classic]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/6762093.stm|title=Jankovic seals win over Sharapova|publisher=BBC|date=June 17, 2007|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Follaein that, she experienced her earliest Wimbledon loss syne 2003 bi losin in the fowert roond tae eventual champion Venus Williams.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2007/jul/04/tennis.wimbledon1|title=Henin sends Serena crashing out|publisher=The Guardian|date=July 4, 2007|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova clinched the [[US Open Series]] bi defendin her title at the [[Acura Classic]], her anly championship o the year, an reachin the semifinals in Los Angeles.<ref name="wtacareer"/> In her [[2007 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] title defence, Sharapova wis upset in her third-roond match tae 30t seed [[Agnieszka Radwańska]],<ref name="radwanska">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/6974187.stm|title=Sharapova loses to teen Radwanska|publisher=BBC|date=September 1, 2007|accessdate=July 23, 2008}}</ref> makin it her earliest exit at a Grand Slam singles tournament syne the [[2004 US Open (tennis)|2004 US Open]], whaur she lost in the same roond.<ref name="wtacareer"/> Follaein the US Open loss, Sharapova did nae play again until the [[Kremlin Cup]] in October, whaur she lost her openin match tae [[Victoria Azarenka]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/7038379.stm|title=Sharapova crashes out in Moscow|publisher=BBC|date=October 10, 2007|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Shortly efter this, she fell oot o the tap 5 in the warld rankings for the first time syne 2004. She qualified for the aicht-woman year-end [[2007 WTA Tour Championships|Sony Ericsson Championships]] acause o a withdrawal bi Venus Williams afore the stairt o the tournament.<ref name="wtacareer"/> Despite haein nae previously won a match in twa month, Sharapova topped her roond-robin group at the tournament, efter winnin aw three o her matches, defeatin [[Svetlana Kuznetsova]], Ana Ivanovic, an [[Daniela Hantuchová]]. She then defeatit [[Anna Chakvetadze]] in the semifinals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2007/nov/11/tennis.news|title=Sharapova straight in|author=Richard Evans |date=November 11, 2007|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> In the final, she lost tae warld No. 1 Henin in a match that lasted 3 oors an 24 minutes. Sharapova reached the tap five again tae end the year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=3149968|title=Strong finish for Sharapova; stronger return by Davenport|publisher=[[ESPN]]|author=Joel Drucker|date=December 13, 2007|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> ===2008: Australian Open champion an seicont shoulder injury=== Sharapova wis seedit fift at the [[2008 Australian Open|Australian Open]], but wis nae considered a favorite. Housomeiver, she defeatit umwhile warld No. 1 [[Lindsay Davenport]] in the seicont roond, an then warld No. 1 Henin in the quarterfinals,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/7201953.stm|title=Brilliant Sharapova hammers Henin|publisher=BBC|date=January 22, 2008|accessdate=August 7, 2011}}</ref> endin the latter's 32-match winnin streak.<ref>{{cite news|last=Clarey|first=Christopher|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/24/sports/tennis/24tennis.html?fta=y|title=Sharapova Reaches the Final Again and Hopes for a Better Outcome|work=The New York Times |date=January 24, 2008|accessdate=August 7, 2011}}</ref> She proceeded tae the finals bi defeatin [[Jelena Janković]] in the semifinals, an defeatit [[Ana Ivanovic]] in the final tae win her third Grand Slam title, haein nae dropped a set all tournament. Efter the Australian Open, Sharapova extendit her winnin streak tae 18 matches. This run encompassed twa wins includin at the Tier I [[2008 Qatar Total Open|Qatar Total Open]]. Her winnin streak wis ended in the semifinals o the [[2008 Pacific Life Open|Pacific Life Open]] bi Kuznetsova. In Aprile, Sharapova won the [[2008 Bausch & Lomb Championships|Bausch & Lomb Championships]], haein survived her langest-ever match, at 3 oors an 26 minutes lang, in the third roond against [[Anabel Medina Garrigues]].<ref name="epicbattle">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/7341970.stm|title=Sharapova wins epic battle|publisher=BBC|date=April 11, 2008|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> The follaein week, at the [[2008 Family Circle Cup|Family Circle Cup]], she lost in the quarterfinals tae [[Serena Williams]], her fowert consecutive loss tae the American.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/othersports/2004359654_digs19.html|title=Tennis: Serena Williams beats Maria Sharapova 4th time in a row|work=[[The Seattle Times]]|date=April 19, 2008|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> In Mey, Sharapova regained the warld No. 1 ranking acause o Henin's suddent retirement frae professional tennis an request tae the [[Weemen's Tennis Association|WTA]] that her ain ranking be removed immediately.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/wire?section=tennis&id=3397722|title=Sharapova to take over top ranking from retired Henin|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=May 15, 2008|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> As the tap-seedit player at the [[2008 French Open – Weemen's Singles|French Open]] Sharapova wis within twa pynts<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/french08/news/story?id=3415126|title=Sharapova needs 8–6 win in third set to overcome Rodina|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=May 28, 2008|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> o bein knocked oot bi [[Evgeniya Rodina]] in the first roond, afore eventually winnin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://msn.foxsports.com/tennis/story/8184486/Sharapova-a-long-way-from-Grand-Slam-form|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215040319/http://msn.foxsports.com/tennis/story/8184486/Sharapova-a-long-way-from-Grand-Slam-form|archivedate=2009-02-15|title=Sharapova a long way from Grand Slam form|publisher=[[Fox News Channel]]|date=May 28, 2008|accessdate=August 7, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result o losin tae eventual finalist [[Dinara Safina]] in the fowert roond (efter serving for the match),<ref>{{cite news|last=Clarey|first=Christopher|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/03/sports/tennis/03tennis.html|title=Sharapova Roars, but She Is Silenced by Safina Once Again|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=June 3, 2008|accessdate=August 7, 2011}}</ref> she relinquished her No. 1 ranking.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=3424588|title=Sharapova to drop from top spot after French Open|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=June 3, 2008|accessdate=August 7, 2011}}</ref> Her dip in form continued at [[Wimbledon 2008|Wimbledon]], whaur she lost in the seicont roond tae warld No. 154 [[Alla Kudryavtseva]]. This wis her earliest loss at Wimbledon, an at ony Grand Slam in awmaist five years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/wimbledon08/columns/story?columnist=garber_greg&id=3462202|title=Sharapova loss just the start of a chaotic day at Wimbledon|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=June 27, 2008|accessdate=August 7, 2011}}</ref> Sharapova withdrew frae the [[Rogers Cup (tennis)|Rogers Cup]] tournament in August follaein a shoulder injury.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/sports/story/2008/07/30/rogers-cup-three.html|title=Sharapova withdraws from Rogers Cup|publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]]|date=July 31, 2008|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> An [[magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] scan revealed that she haed been sufferin frae a [[rotator cuff tear]] syne Aprile, forcing her oot o aw tournaments for the rest o the saison, includin the [[Tennis at the 2008 Summer Olympics|Beijing Olympics]], the [[2008 US Open (tennis)|US Open]], an the [[2008 WTA Tour Championships|WTA Tour Championships]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/tennis/7536416.stm|title=Sharapova to miss US Open & Games|publisher=BBC|date=August 1, 2008|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> In spite o that, she still finished the year ranked warld No. 9. In October, efter a failed attempt tae rehabilitate the shoulder, Sharapova haed surgery tae repair the tear.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/brennan/2011-06-30-Brennan-maria-sharapova-wimbledon-final_n.htm|title=Sharapova back at last where she belongs|work=[[USA Today]]|author=Christine Brennan|date=June 30, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> ===2009: Shoulder surgery an rehabilitation=== Sharapova did nae attempt tae defend her [[2009 Australian Open|Australian Open]] title, as she continued tae recover frae surgery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/sport/tennis/sharapova-out/2009/01/11/1231608525444.html|title=Sharapova out after shoulder fails to recover|publisher=Fairfax Digital|work=The Age|author=Linda Pearce|date=January 12, 2009|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> She returned tae the sport in Mairch, in the doubles tournament at the [[2009 BNP Paribas Open – Weemen's Doubles|BNP Paribas Open]], but she an pairtner [[Elena Vesnina]] lost in the first roond. Efter this, Sharapova withdrew frae further singles tournaments, resultin in her staundin in the warld rankings bein severely affected. She dropped oot o the tap 100 for the first time in sax years in Mey, the nadir bein warld No. 126.<ref name="wtatennis" /> [[File:Maria Sharapova at 2009 Roland Garros, Paris, France.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Sharapova made the quarterfinals o the [[2009 French Open|French Open]], her best Grand Slam performance o 2009]] Playin her first singles tournament in nearly ten month, Sharapova made the quarterfinals o the clay-court [[2009 Warsaw Open – Singles|Warsaw Open]] in Mey, losin tae finalist [[Alona Bondarenko]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=4192265|title=Bondarenko wins in straight sets|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=May 21, 2009|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> The follaein week, in her first Grand Slam appearance syne her surgery, she reached the quarterfinals o the [[2009 French Open – Weemen's Singles|French Open]], afore her run wis ended bi [[Dominika Cibulková]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/frenchopen/5430320/French-Open-2009-Maria-Sharapova-and-the-curse-of-the-cover-stars.html|title=French Open 2009: Maria Sharapova and the curse of the cover stars |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|author=Mark Hodgkinson|date=June 2, 2009|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> During the summer gress-court saison, Sharapova played in [[2009 Aegon Classic – Singles|Birmingham]], losin in the semifinals tae Li Na.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=4256242|title=Sharapova broken six times in loss|date=June 13, 2009|publisher=[[ESPN]]|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova then played at [[2009 Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] as the 24t seed. She wis upset in the seicont roond bi [[Gisela Dulko]] in three sets.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/5624035/Wimbledon-2009-Maria-Sharapova-suffers-shock-defeat-by-Gisela-Dulko.html|title=Wimbledon 2009: Maria Sharapova suffers shock defeat by Gisela Dulko|last=Hodgkinson|first=Mark|date=June 24, 2009|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|accessdate=May 18, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova enjoyed considerable success in the summer months, reachin the quarterfinals at the [[2009 Bank o the Wast Classic|Bank o the Wast Classic]], the semifinals at the [[2009 LA Weemen's Tennis Championships|LA Weemen's Tennis Championships]], an finishinrunner-up at the [[2009 Rogers Cup|Rogers Cup]] tae [[Elena Dementieva]]. At the [[2009 US Open (tennis)|2009 US Open]], Sharapova wis seedit 29t. She foond her wey intae the third roond, defeatin [[Tsvetana Pironkova]] an [[Christina McHale]] all in straucht sets. She wis stunned in the third roond bi American teenager [[Melanie Oudin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/usopen09/news/story?id=4448907|title=Oudin's run continues; Safina exits early|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=September 6, 2009|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> It wis the seicont time in Sharapova's career that she lost tae a teenager at a [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]], haein lost tae [[Agnieszka Radwańska]] during the same event in 2007. The loss made Sharapova's ranking go doun tae No. 32.<ref name="wtatennis" /> The final stretch o the saison brocht Sharapova her first title o the year in [[2009 Toray Pan Pacific Open|Tokyo]], efter opponent [[Jelena Janković]] retired efter bein doun 2–5 tae Sharapova in the final.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/SPORT/10/03/tennis.sharapova.jankovic.venus/|title= Sharapova lands Tokyo title as Jankovic quits |publisher=CNN|date=October 3, 2009|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Bi virtue o that result, she wis the recipient o a bye at the [[2009 China Open (tennis)|China Open]], but failed tae capitalize on it, losin tae [[Peng Shuai]] in the third roond.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2009/oct/07/maria-sharapova-china-open-shuai|title=Tired Maria Sharapova knocked out of China Open by Peng Shuai|publisher=The Guardian|date=October 7, 2009|accessdate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> She ultimately finished the saison at warld No. 14, haein improved frae No. 126 when she stairtit her comeback frae injury.<ref name="wtatennis" /> ===2010: Comeback an struggles wi form=== Efter playin twa exhibition tournaments in Asia, Sharapova offeecially began her saison at the [[2010 Australian Open|Australian Open]], whaur she wis upset in her first-roond match against [[Maria Kirilenko]]. The loss meant that for the first time syne 2003, Sharapova haed lost her openin match at a Grand Slam event.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/australianopen/7016124/Australian-Open-2010-Maria-Sharapova-dumped-out-by-Maria-Kirilenko.html|author=Mark Hodgkinson|work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|title=Australian Open 2010: Maria Sharapova dumped out by Maria Kirilenko|date=January 18, 2010|accessdate=June 12, 2010|location=London}}</ref> She then rebounded bi winnin a smawer American event, the [[2010 Regions Morgan Keegan Championships and the Cellular South Cup|Cellular South Cup]], her 21st career WTA title an first o the year.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/8526723.stm|title=Maria Sharapova beats Sofia Arvidsson in Memphis final|date=January 21, 2010|work=BBC Sport |accessdate=February 22, 2010}}</ref> At the [[2010 BNP Paribas Open|BNP Paribas Open]], Sharapova lost in the third roond tae [[Zheng Jie]], aggravating a bruised bane on her right elbow in the process, which resulted in her eventual withdrawal frae the [[2010 Sony Ericsson Open|Sony Ericsson Open]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/SPORT/tennis/03/18/tennis.sharapova.injury.elbow/index.html|publisher=CNN|title=Sharapova suffers fresh setback after elbow injury|date=March 18, 2010|accessdate=June 12, 2010}}</ref> an the [[2010 Family Circle Cup|Family Circle Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usta.com/Global/Pro_Tennis/Pro_Tennis/Wire/2010/04/09/Serena_Williams_Sharapova_withdraw_from_Family_Circle_Cup.aspx|publisher=United States Tennis Association|title=Serena Williams, Sharapova withdraw from Family Circle Cup|date=April 9, 2010|accessdate=June 12, 2010|archive-date=2010-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413075534/http://www.usta.com/Global/Pro_Tennis/Pro_Tennis/Wire/2010/04/09/Serena_Williams_Sharapova_withdraw_from_Family_Circle_Cup.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> Returning at the [[2010 Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open]], Sharapova lost in the first roond tae [[Lucie Šafářová]]. She continued her French Open preparation at the [[2010 Internationaux de Strasbourg|Internationaux de Strasbourg]] as a wildcard, advancing tae the final, whaur she beat [[Kristina Barrois]]. This wis her first title on reid clay an 22nt oweraw title.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinapost.com.tw/sports/tennis/2010/05/24/257792/Sharapova-wins.htm|work=The China Post|location=Taiwan (ROC)|title=Sharapova wins second 2010 title at Strasbourg|date=May 24, 2010|accessdate=June 12, 2010|archive-date=2012-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925202148/http://www.chinapost.com.tw/sports/tennis/2010/05/24/257792/Sharapova-wins.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> At the [[2010 French Open|French Open]], Sharapova's brief clay saison culminatit wi a third-roond loss tae fower-time champion [[Justine Henin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/frenchopen/7785938/French-Open-2010-Justine-Henin-defeats-Maria-Sharapova.html|title=French Open 2010: Justine Henin defeats Maria Sharapova|publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|date=May 30, 2010|accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova began her preparations for Wimbledon at the [[2010 Aegon Classic|Aegon Classic]]. She advanced tae the final for the fowert time, whaur she lost tae [[Li Na]]. As the 16t seed at [[2010 Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]], Sharapova lost in the fowert roond tae warld No. 1 an eventual champion [[Serena Williams]], despite haein three set pynts in the openin set.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skysports.com/tennis/tournaments/story/0,25174,18898_6236218,00.html|title=Sharapova tests Serena|work=Sky Sports|date=June 29, 2010|accessdate=July 3, 2010|archive-date=2010-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701033332/http://www.skysports.com/tennis/tournaments/story/0%2C25174%2C18898_6236218%2C00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The match wis seen as anither encouraging performance for Sharapova, wi some statin thair belief that she wis approachin the form that wad see her contending for Grand Slams ance mair,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/serena-forced-into-top-gear-to-tame-sharapova-2013078.html|title=Serena forced into top gear to tame Sharapova|author=Chris McGrath|work=The Independent|location=UK|date=June 29, 2010|accessdate=July 3, 2010|archive-date=2015-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224182144/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/serena-forced-into-top-gear-to-tame-sharapova-2013078.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> an Sharapova hersel statin that she felt that she wis "in a much better spot than I was last year."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://straightsets.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/06/28/serena-williams-avoids-flashback-beats-sharapova/|title=Serena Williams Avoids Flashback, Beats Sharapova|author=John Martin|work=The New York Times|date=June 28, 2010|accessdate=July 3, 2010}}</ref> During the [[US Open Series]], Sharapova made twa straucht finals, losin tae [[Victoria Azarenka]] at the [[2010 Bank o the Wast Classic – Singles|Bank o the Wast Classic]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/2010-08-01-bank-of-the-west-classic_N.htm|title=Azarenka rolls past Sharapova to win Bank o the Wast title|publisher=[[USA Today]]|date=February 8, 2010|accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> an tae [[Kim Clijsters]] at the [[2010 Western & Southern Financial Group Weemen's Open – Singles|Western & Southern Financial Group Weemen's Open]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cincytennis.com/clijsters_wins/|title=Clijsters Storms Back to Win 2010 Women's Open|publisher=WTA|accessdate=June 14, 2013|archive-date=2015-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224182310/http://www.cincytennis.com/clijsters_wins/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the latter match, Sharapova held three match pynts while leadin 5–3 on Clijsters's serve late in the seicont set, but coud nae convert them. At the [[2010 US Open (tennis)|U.S. Open]], Sharapova wis the 14t seed. She made it tae the fowert roond, whaur she played tap seed an 2009 finalist [[Caroline Wozniacki]] an lost.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/usopen10/news/story?id=5539423|title=Maria Sharapova loses in 4th round|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=September 7, 2010|accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova's last twa tournaments o the saison ended in disappointment. She played in the [[2010 Toray Pan Pacific Open – Singles|Toray Pan Pacific Open]] in Tokyo, whaur she wis upset in the first roond bi 39-year-auld [[Kimiko Date-Krumm]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/2010-09-27-pan-pacific-open_N.htm|title=Japan's Date Krumm ousts Sharapova at Pan Pacific Open|work=USA Today|date=September 29, 2010|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> Her last tournament o the year wis the [[2010 Cheenae Open – Weemen's Singles|China Open]], whaur she lost in the seicont roond tae fellae Roushie [[Elena Vesnina]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2009/oct/07/maria-sharapova-china-open-shuai|title=Tired Maria Sharapova knocked out of China Open by Peng Shuai|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=October 7, 2010|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> She ended the year at number 18 in the warld.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/photos/article/2213795/title/2010-year-end-top-20|title=2010: Year-End Top 20|publisher=WTA|date=November 10, 2010|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> ===2011: Return tae the tap 10=== It wis annoonced that Sharapova wad bring in [[Thomas Högstedt]] as a coach for the 2011 saison, joining [[Michael Joyce (tennis)|Michael Joyce]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2010/12/sharapova-hires-hogstedt-to-co-coach-with-joyce/26210/|title=Sharapova hires Hogstedt to co-coach with Joyce|author=Matthew Cronin|publisher=TENNIS.com|date=December 4, 2010|accessdate=October 23, 2014|archive-date=2016-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108032712/http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2010/12/sharapova-hires-hogstedt-to-co-coach-with-joyce/26210/|url-status=dead}}</ref> On December 5, Sharapova won an exhibition match against warld No. 2 [[Vera Zvonareva]] in Monterrey, Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://origin-www.wtatennis.com/page/OffCourtNews/Read/0,,12781~2239156,00.html|title=Maria & Vera In Monterrey|publisher=WTA|date=December 7, 2010|accessdate=May 4, 2013|archive-date=2013-06-15|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615221220/http://origin-www.wtatennis.com/page/OffCourtNews/Read/0,,12781~2239156,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Sharapova's first offeecial Australian Open warm-up tournament at the [[2011 ASB Classic – Singles|2011 ASB Classic]] in Auckland, New Zealand, she wis seedit first. She lost tae the Hungarian veteran an eventual champion [[Gréta Arn]] in the quarterfinals. Efter the ASB Classic, Sharapova decidit tae split up wi Joyce, endin a successfu cooperation that haes brocht her twa Grand Slam victories an the Warld No. 1 ranking.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.ria.ru/sports/20110116/162167367.html|title=Sharapova's long-time coach leaves job|publisher=RIA Novosti|date=January 16, 2011|accessdate=October 23, 2014|archive-date=2014-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023230658/http://en.ria.ru/sports/20110116/162167367.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sharapova participated in the first Grand Slam o the saison at the [[2011 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|Australian Open]], whaur she wis the 14t seed, but lost tae [[Andrea Petkovic]] in the fowert roond.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/sports/20110123/162258814.html|title=Russia's Sharapova loses out to Germany's Petkovic in Australian Open|author=Anton Denisov|date=January 23, 2011|accessdate=July 5, 2011|archive-date=2011-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110327084430/http://en.rian.ru/sports/20110123/162258814.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> She an aa haed tae pull oot o the [[2011 Dubai Tennis Championships]] an [[2011 Qatar Ladies Open]] acause o an lug infection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/tennis/blog/_/name/espntennis/month/february-2011|title=Work to do for Roddick and the Americans|publisher=[[ESPN]]|author=Ravi Ubha|date=February 16, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova returned tae the tour in Mairch bi takin pairt in the [[2011 BNP Paribas Open]], whaur she wis seedit 16t. She defeatit umwhile warld No. 1 [[Dinara Safina]], in the fowert roond en route tae the semifinal, whaur she lost tae warld No. 1 [[Caroline Wozniacki]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/20/wozniacki-wins-bnp-paribaas-open_n_838169.html|title= Wozniacki Wins BNP Paribas Open, Beats Marion Bartoli In Finals |work=[[The Huffington Post]]|author=Beth Harris|date=March 20, 2011|accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> At the [[2011 Sony Ericsson Open]] in Key Biscayne, Sharapova defeatit 26t seed [[Alexandra Dulgheru]] in the quarterfinals, in a match lasting 3 oors an 28 minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/sports/20110330/163283242.html|title=Russia's Sharapova moves into semis at Miami tennis tournament|publisher=[[RIA Novosti]]|date=March 30, 2011|accessdate=June 14, 2013|archive-date=2012-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329023553/http://www.en.rian.ru/sports/20110330/163283242.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the semifinals, Sharapova teuk her [[2011 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|Australian Open]] reprisal on Germany's [[Andrea Petkovic]] bi defeatin her. In the final, she wis defeatit bi [[Victoria Azarenka]], despite a late comeback in the seicont set.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/tennis/aus12/story/_/id/7513049/2012-australian-open-victoria-azarenka-routs-maria-sharapova-win-title|title=Victoria Azarenka routs Sharapova|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=January 29, 2011|accessdate=June 14, 2013}}</ref> Wi this result, Sharapova returned tae the tap 10 for the first time syne Februar 2009.<ref name="wtatennis"/> During the clay-court saison, Sharapova participated in [[2011 Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open]], whaur she lost tae [[Dominika Cibulková]] in the third roond, an the [[2011 Internazionali BNL d'Italia]], whaur she wis seedit seivent. She defeatit tap seed Caroline Wozniacki in the semifinals an saxt seed Samantha Stosur in the final tae tak home the title, merking her biggest clay-court victory tae date.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/2360583/title/sharapovas-greatest-clay-court-triumph|title=Sharapova's Greatest Clay Court Triumph|publisher=WTA|date=May 15, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> At the [[2011 French Open]], Sharapova wis seedit seivent. She defeatit French wildcard [[Caroline Garcia]] in the seicont roond, despite trailing 3–6, 1–4, afore winnin the last 11 gemmes o the match. In the quarterfinals, she defeatit 15t seed [[Andrea Petkovic]], merking her first Grand Slam semifinal syne her comeback frae the career-threatening shoulder injury. She then lost tae saxt seed an eventual champion [[Li Na]], in the semifinals, endin her clay saison wi a win-loss record o 12–2.<ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322014754/http://www.rolandgarros.com/en_FR/news/articles/2011-06-02/201106021307029251097.html|archivedate=2012-03-22|url=http://www.rolandgarros.com/en_FR/news/articles/2011-06-02/201106021307029251097.html|title=Li sweeps Sharapova aside for tilt at title|author=Louisa Baker|date=June 2, 2011|accessdate=June 4, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> At the [[2011 Wimbledon Championships]], Sharapova haed nae dropped a set entering the final, afore losin tae aicht seed [[Petra Kvitová]] in straucht sets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/tennis/14002512|title=Wimbledon 2011: Petra Kvitova beats Maria Sharapova to title|publisher=BBC|author=Piers Newbery|date=July 2, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> This merked her first final in ower three years at a Grand Slam event. Sharapova stairtit her summer haurd-court saison at the [[2011 Bank o the Wast Classic]] in [[Stanford, Californie]]. In a heichly anticipatit match, Sharapova lost tae the eventual champion [[Serena Williams]] in the quarterfinals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/2405569/title/serena-shines-in-qfs-lisicki-awaits-in-sfs|title=Serena Shines In QFs, Lisicki Awaits In SFs|publisher=WTA|date=July 29, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> In her next event at the [[2011 Rogers Cup – Weemen's Singles|2011 Rogers Cup]] in Toronto, Canadae, Sharapova lost tae [[Galina Voskoboeva]] in the third roond, merking her 100th career loss.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/2417634/title/stosur-dismisses-li-tough-day-for-faves|title=Stosur Dismisses Li, Tough Day For Faves|publisher=WTA|date=August 11, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> [[File:Maria Sharapova 2011.jpg|thumb|right|Sharapova at the [[2011 Western & Southern Open|Western & Southern Open]], August 2011]] Sharapova then contested the [[2011 Western & Southern Open – Weemen's Singles|2011 Western & Southern Open]] in [[Cincinnati]], Ohio. As the fowert seed, she received a bye intae the seicont roond. On the wey tae her fowert final o the year, she beat [[Anastasia Rodionova]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/2422838/title/bartoli-back-on-track-serena-edges-hradecka|title=Bartoli Back On Track, Serena Edges Hradecka |publisher=WTA|date=August 16, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> 14t seed [[Svetlana Kuznetsova]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/2425089/title/hantuchova-gets-past-bartoli-zvonareva-next|title=Hantuchova Gets Past Bartoli, Zvonareva Next|publisher=WTA|date=August 18, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> tenth seed Samantha Stosur,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/2426294/title/zvonareva-sharapova-to-clash-in-semifinals|title=Zvonareva & Sharapova to clash in semifinals|publisher=WTA|date=August 19, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> an 2nt seed Vera Zvonareva.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/2427204/title/former-world-no1s-to-collide-in-cincinnati|title=Former world No. 1s to Collide in Cincinnati|publisher=WTA|date=August 20, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> In the final, she defeatit fellae umwhile warld No. 1 [[Jelena Janković]], in 2 oors an 49 minutes, makin it the langest WTA tour final o the year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.cincinnati.com/article/20110821/SPT/308210027/Sharapova-wins-women-s-title?odyssey|title=Sharapova wins women's title|publisher=Cincinnati.com|author=Shannon Russell|date=August 22, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> She subsequently moved up tae warld No. 4, her heichest ranking syne August 2008 an the heichest syne her comeback frae her shoulder injury.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/2428859/title/ranking-watch-maria-moves-up-to-no4|title=Ranking Watch: Maria Moves Up To No. 4|publisher=WTA|date=August 22, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova entered the [[US Open (tennis)|US Open]], whaur she wis seedit third. She beat [[Heather Watson]], an [[Anastasiya Yakimova]], tae reach the third roond. She wis then upset bi [[Flavia Pennetta]]. Houiver, acause o the faw o [[Kim Clijsters]] an Vera Zvonareva in the rankings, Sharapova climbed tae warld No. 2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tennisnow.com/News/Maria-Sharapova-Shocked-Out-of-US-Open,-More-From-.aspx|title=Maria Sharapova Shocked Out of US Open, More From New York|publisher=Tennisnow|date=September 2, 2011|accessdate=September 2, 2011|archive-date=2015-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706213624/http://www.tennisnow.com/News/Maria-Sharapova-Shocked-Out-of-US-Open,-More-From-.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sharapova's next tournament wis the [[2011 Toray Pan Pacific Open]] in Tokyo, Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ajw.asahi.com/article/sports/topics/AJ2011093012822|title=Sharapova limps out of Pan Pacific Open|publisher=The Asahi Shimbun Company|author=Rob Smaal|date=September 30, 2011|accessdate=June 2, 2013|archive-date=2014-02-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221231212/http://ajw.asahi.com/article/sports/topics/AJ2011093012822|url-status=dead}}</ref> As seicont seed, she received a bye intae the seicont roond, whaur she beat [[Tamarine Tanasugarn]]. She then beat 13t seed [[Julia Görges]], afore retiring against Petra Kvitová in the quarterfinal, 3–4, efter slipping on the baseline, sufferin an ankle injury. This an aa forced her tae withdraw frae the [[2011 China Open (tennis)|2011 China Open]] the follaein week. Sharapova then flew tae Istanbul tae prepare for the [[2011 WTA Tour Championships]], her first time qualifying syne 2007. During the WTA Tour Championships, Sharapova withdrew during the roond-robin stage efter defeats against Samantha Stosur an [[Li Na]], as a result o the ankle injury she haed suffered in Tokyo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/sports/20110929/167244910.html|title=Ankle injury forces Sharapova to retire in Tokyo QF against Kvitova|publisher=[[RIA Novosti]]|date=September 29, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}{{Dead link|date=May 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sharapova ended the year as No. 4 in the warld, her first tap-10 finish syne 2008 an first tap-5 finish syne 2007. ===2012: Career Grand Slam, return tae world No. 1 an Olympic siller medal=== Sharapova withdrew frae the [[2012 Brisbane International]] acause o her ongangin ankle injury.<ref>{{cite web|last=Musall|first=Jeff|url=http://sports.yahoo.com/tennis/news?slug=ycn-10746909|title=Maria Sharapova Withdraws from Brisbane, Still on for Australian Open: Fan Reaction – Tennis – Yahoo! Sports|publisher=Sports.yahoo.com|date=April 20, 2011|accessdate=January 25, 2012|archive-date=2013-06-21|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HXaiB2Dt?url=http://sports.yahoo.com/tennis/news?slug=ycn-10746909|url-status=dead}}</ref> Her first tournament o the saison wis the [[2012 Australian Open]], whaur she wis seedit fowert. Sharapova advanced tae the final roond conceding five gemmes, defeatin [[Gisela Dulko]], [[Jamie Hampton]], an 30t seed [[Angelique Kerber]], compatriot [[Ekaterina Makarova]] an warld No. 2 [[Petra Kvitová]]. She lost tae [[Victoria Azarenka]] in twa sets. As a result her ranking improved tae warld No. 3. She then played in the [[2012 Open GDF Suez|Paris]], whaur she lost in the quarterfinals tae eventual champion Angelique Kerber. As a result her ranking improved tae warld No. 2. [[File:Flickr - Carine06 - Maria Sharapova (1).jpg|thumb|left|Sharapova at the 2012 Summer Olympics, Julie 2012]] At the [[2012 BNP Paribas Open – Weemen's Singles|Indian Wells]], efter battling for ower three oors, Sharapova defeatit compatriot [[Maria Kirilenko]] tae set up a semifinal meetin wi [[Ana Ivanovic]]. Sharapova advanced tae the final efter Ivanovic retired due tae a hip injury.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jkWBQLZ15wdEi6m7Hpp14Jg8J8mg?docId=CNG.697f089e0b767f4cfb209463a0122c94.61|title=Ivanovic sweats on extent of hip injury|publisher=[[Google]]|author=Greg Heakes|date=May 17, 2012|accessdate=June 2, 2013|archive-date=2013-06-15|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615221223/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jkWBQLZ15wdEi6m7Hpp14Jg8J8mg?docId=CNG.697f089e0b767f4cfb209463a0122c94.61|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the final, she played warld No. 1 Victoria Azarenka in a rematch o the Australian Open final, but lost again in straucht sets. Sharapova's next tournament wis the [[2012 Sony Ericsson Open]], whaur she wis seedit 2nt an received a bye. In the final, Sharapova lost in straucht sets tae 5t seedit [[Agnieszka Radwańska]]. This wis her third loss o the year in finals oot o fower tournaments played sae far. In the [[2012 Porsche Tennis Grand Prix – Singles|Porsche Tennis Grand Prix]] in Stuttgart, Sharapova wis seedit seicont. She haed a bye in the first roond, an advanced tae the third roond efter [[Alizé Cornet]] retired in the seicont set. She won her first title o the year in Stuttgart efter defeatin warld number ane Victoria Azarenka. In daein sae, Sharapova defeatit three current Grand Slam title holders tae win the tournament. Sharapova then played on the [[2012 Mutua Madrid Open]], a premier mandatory event. In the third roond, Sharapova's opponent [[Lucie Šafářová]] wis unable tae compete an withdrew frae the tournament, earnin Sharapova a walkover intae the quarterfinals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/sports/2012/05/10/sharapova-serena-reach-madrid-open-quarters/|title=Sharapova, Serena reach Madrid Open quarters|publisher=[[Fox News]]|date=May 10, 2012|accessdate=June 2, 2013}}</ref> She wis then beaten bi eventual champion [[Serena Williams]] in straucht sets. As the defendin champion an seicont seed at the [[2012 Internazionali BNL d'Italia|Italian Open]], Sharapova haed a bye in the first roond. In the semifinals, Sharapova defeatit Angelique Kerber tae advance tae the final for the seicont year in a row. In the final, Sharapova saved match pynt for a 2-oor 52 minute win ower [[Li Na]] for her 26t career title.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/tennis/18138072|title=Maria Sharapova |publisher=BBC|date=May 20, 2013|accessdate=May 21, 2012}}</ref> This merked the fowert time Sharapova haed successfully defended a title. Sharapova wis seedit seicont at the [[2012 French Open|French Open]], whaur she defeatit [[Alexandra Cadanțu]], [[Petra Kvitová]] on her wey tae the finals, allouin her tae regain the warld No. 1 ranking. In the final, she defeatit [[Sara Errani]] for her first French Open title. Sharapova became anly the tenth woman tae complete a Career Grand Slam wi the French Open victory.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/sharapova-savours-her-sweetest-triumph-as-reward-for-comeback-7834856.html|title=Sharapova savours her 'sweetest triumph' as reward for comeback|date=June 11, 2012|work=[[The Independent]]|accessdate=June 11, 2012|archive-date=2012-06-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615110556/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/tennis/sharapova-savours-her-sweetest-triumph-as-reward-for-comeback-7834856.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> During the tournament, Sharapova wis an aa asked bi the [[Roushie Olympic Committee]] tae [[Leet o banner bearers for Roushie at the Olympics|cairy the Roushie banner]] in the [[2012 Simmer Olympics|Olympic Gemmes]], makin her the first female banner bearer for Roushie in Olympic history.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbssports.com/olympics/blog/eye-on-olympics/19352136/maria-sharapova-to-carry-russian-flag-in-opening-ceremony|title=Maria Sharapova to carry Russian flag in opening ceremony|publisher=CBS Sports|author=Reid Cherner|date=June 14, 2012|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova then extendit her win streak tae 15 matches when she competit in the [[2012 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles#Section 1|Wimbledon Championships]] as the tap seed thare for the first time in her career. Houiver, she wis upset in the fowert roond bi 15t-seedit [[Sabine Lisicki]], whom she beat in last year's semifinals. As a result, she lost her No. 1 ranking tae Victoria Azarenka. She played in the [[Tennis at the 2012 Summer Olympics|2012 Summer Olympic Gemmes]] in Lunnon, her first Olympics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/olympics/summer/2012/tennis/story/_/id/8229534/2012-london-olympics-serena-williams-maria-sharapova-play-gold-medal|title=Serena, Maria Sharapova in final|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=August 3, 2012|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> In the quarterfinals, Sharapova defeatit fellae umwhile No. 1 [[Kim Clijsters]] tae advance tae the semifinals, whaur she faced her compatriot, [[Maria Kirilenko]]. Sharapova defeatit Kirilenko tae reach the Olympic final, whaur she lost tae Serena Williams,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/tennis/9452056/London-2012-Olympics-Serena-Williams-storms-to-gold-medal-as-she-thrashes-Maria-Sharapova-in-womens-final.html|title=London 2012 Olympics: Serena Williams storms to gold medal as she thrashes Maria Sharapova in women's final |accessdate=August 4, 2012}}</ref> merking her worst defeat bi the American. Wi this performance, Sharapova owerteuk Agnieszka Radwańska as warld No. 2. Sharapova wis seedit third at the [[2012 US Open – Weemen's Singles|US Open]], but haed no haurd-court tune-ups efter the Olympics due tae a painch virus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2012/aug/27/sports/la-sp-sn-sharapova-not-pregnant-20120827|title=Maria Sharapova isn't pregnant, denies Istanbul wedding rumor|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|author=Diane Pucin|date=August 27, 2012|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> In the fowert roond, [[Nadia Petrova]] teuk it tae a third set an wis winnin tilt a rain delay. Efter the delay, Sharapova came back an bure the gree. In the quarterfinals, she faced [[Marion Bartoli]], wha wis 4–0 up afore a rain delay, whilk delayed the match a hale day. Sharapova then came back frae a set doun tae win.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/espnw/more-sports/8342222/2012-us-open-maria-sharapova-once-again-reigns-rain|title=Maria Sharapova reigns after rain|publisher=[[ESPN]]|author=Jane McManus|date=September 6, 2012|accessdate=June 2, 2013|archive-date=2012-09-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907134135/http://espn.go.com/espnw/more-sports/8342222/2012-us-open-maria-sharapova-once-again-reigns-rain|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the semifinals Sharapova lost tae warld No. 1 Victoria Azarenka. Sharapova's next tournament wis the [[2012 Toray Pan Pacific Open – Singles|Toray Pan Pacific Open]] in Tokyo. She made it tae the quarterfinals, losin tae [[Samantha Stosur]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espn.co.uk/tennis/sport/story/172129.html|title=Sharapova and Azarenka out in Tokyo|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=September 27, 2012|accessdate=June 2, 2013|archive-date=2015-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224184335/http://www.espn.co.uk/tennis/sport/story/172129.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> At the [[2012 Cheenae Open – Weemen's Singles|China Open]] she wis seedit seicont. In the finals she wis again defeatit bi Azarenka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.cntv.cn/program/sportsscene/20121008/104625.shtml|title=Azarenka overwhelms Sharapova to win China Open|publisher=China Central Television|date=October 8, 2012|accessdate=June 2, 2013|archive-date=2013-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104184818/http://english.cntv.cn/program/sportsscene/20121008/104625.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sharapova's next tournament wis the [[2012 WTA Tour Championships|year-end championships]] in Istanbul, whaur she wis seedit [[2012 WTA Tour Championships – Singles|seicont]]. She defeatit [[Sara Errani]], [[Agnieszka Radwańska]], an [[Samantha Stosur]] in the roond-robin matches. In the semifinals, Sharapova beat Azarenka, bringin thair head-tae-head meetins tae 7–5 in Azarenka's favour. Awtho Sharapova made it tae the final, Azarenka clinched the year-end No. 1 rankin wi her twa roond-robin wins. She losst tae Serena Williams for the 13t consecutive time in the final.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtachampionships.com/page/Scores/0,,12910,00.html|title=Scores|publisher=WTA|accessdate=June 2, 2013|archive-date=2013-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810072751/http://www.wtachampionships.com/page/Scores/0,,12910,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===2013: Third shoulder injury=== Sharapova's first scheduled toornament o the [[2013 WTA Tour|2013 saison]] wis the [[2013 Brisbane International|Brisbane International]], whaur she wis seedit seicont. Housomiver, she withdrew frae the tournament afore it began, citin a collarbone injury.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/tennis/story/_/id/8798746/maria-sharapova-withdraws-brisbane-international-due-collarbone-pain|title=Maria Sharapova skips Brisbane|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=January 1, 2013|accessdate=March 22, 2013}}</ref> She stairtit her saison at the [[2013 Australian Open|Australian Open]] seedit seicont. She defeatit [[Olga Puchkova]] an [[Misaki Doi]] in the first twa roonds wioot losin a gemme in aither match, the first time a player haes won in back-tae-back [[double bagel]]s at a Grand Slam tournament syne the [[1985 Australian Open]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wtatennis.com/news/article/3042968/title/once-in-a-lifetime-for-sharapova|title=Once In A Lifetime For Sharapova|publisher=WTA|date=January 16, 2013|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova then defeatit [[Venus Williams]], [[Kirsten Flipkens]], an [[Ekaterina Makarova]], whaur in losin anly nine gemmes she broke [[Monica Seles]]' record o fewest gemmes dropped heidin intae a Grand Slam semifinal.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/tennis/21133423 Maria Sharapova and Li Na reach Australian Open semi-finals], BBC Sport, Retrieved 22 January 2013</ref> She lost tae [[Li Na]] in the semifinals. [[File:Maria Sharapova - Roland-Garros 2013 - 002.jpg|thumb|right|Sharapova at the French Open, Mey 2013]] She reached the semifinals at the [[Qatar Total Open]], losin tae [[Serena Williams]] for the 10t straucht time in her career.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/articles/436019/20130216/serena-williams-maria-sharapova-wta-qatar-victoria.htm|title= Qatar Total Open: Williams Blasts Sharapova as New World Number One Rolls into Doha Final |publisher=International Business Times|author=Martin Baccardax|date=February 16, 2013|accessdate=May 22, 2013}}</ref> Her next tournament wis [[BNP Paribas Open|Indian Wells]], whaur she wis seedit seicont. She received a bye intae the seicont roond an successfully reached the final wioot dropping a set, whaur she faced 2011 Indian wells champion an umwhile warld No. 1 [[Caroline Wozniacki]]. Efter an oor an twenty-ane minutes, Sharapova won the tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/tennis/story/_/id/9062961/maria-sharapova-wins-indian-wells-title-caroline-wozniacki|title=Maria Sharapova wins Indian Wells|publisher=[[ESPN]]|author=Martin Baccardax|date=March 17, 2013|accessdate=May 22, 2013}}</ref> This wis Maria's 28t career title an seicont at Indian Wells. Her win an aa made her the No. 2 player in the warld behind [[Serena Williams]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tennis.si.com/2013/03/17/sharapova-wins-indian-wells-bnp-wozniacki/|title=Maria Sharapova dominates Caroline Wozniacki for second Indian Wells title|publisher=SI.com|date=March 17, 2013|accessdate=March 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ubitennis.com/english/sport/tennis/2013/03/21/862125-sharapova_aims_coast_coast_double.shtml|title=Sharapova aims for coast-to-coast double|publisher=Ubisporting|date=March 23, 2013|accessdate=March 22, 2013|archive-date=2014-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606213820/http://www.ubitennis.com/english/sport/tennis/2013/03/21/862125-sharapova_aims_coast_coast_double.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/sports/2013/03/17/sharapova-sails-past-wozniacki-in-indian-wells-final/|title=Sharapova sails past Wozniacki in Indian Wells final|publisher=[[Fox News]]|date=March 17, 2013|accessdate=March 22, 2013}}</ref> Maria then competit at the [[2013 Sony Open Tennis|Sony Open]]. Ance again she reached the final wioot dropping a set an faced warld No. 1 [[Serena Williams]]. Maria stairtit the match strang, winnin the first set. Houiver, Serena won the seicont an dominated the third set. This wis Maria's 11t consecutive loss against Serena.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/12/serena-williams-maria-sharapova-madrid-final_n_3262472.html|title= Serena Williams Beats Maria Sharapova To Win Madrid Open 2013, Retain No. 1 Ranking |author=Joseph Wilson|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=May 12, 2013|accessdate=May 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/1636598-serena-williams-vs-maria-sharapova-world-no-1-will-dominate-madrid-open-final|title=Serena Williams vs. Maria Sharapova: World No. 1 Will Dominate Madrid Open Final|publisher=Bleacher Report|author=Patrick Clarke|date=May 11, 2013|accessdate=May 22, 2013}}</ref> Next, she played at the indoor clay event in Stuttgart, whaur she wis the defendin champion. Maria wis tap seed an haed a bye in the first roond. Her first three matches war lang three-setters: she first beat warld No. 25 [[Lucie Šafářová]], dropping the seicont set on a tiebreak, then [[Ana Ivanovic]], then in the semifinals she won against third seed [[Angelique Kerber]]. In the final, in what wis her ninth victory against the Cheenese oot o 14 matches, she beat seicont seed warld No. 5 [[Li Na]] in straucht sets tae win her 29t career title.<ref>{{cite web|title=Maria Sharapova beats Li Na to retain Stuttgart title|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/tennis/22331232|accessdate=April 28, 2013}}</ref> A week later, she competit at the [[2013 Mutua Madrid Open|Madrid Open]], reachin the final, again wioot dropping a set. She faced [[Serena Williams]] for the 15t time, losin for the 12t consecutive time in straucht sets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Sports_News/2013/05/12/Serena-Williams-repeats-as-Madrid-Open-champion/UPI-57451368363562/|title=Serena Williams repeats as Madrid Open champion|publisher= United Press International|date=May 12, 2013|accessdate=June 2, 2013}}</ref> Next, she played in Roum, whaur she wis seedit seicont an haed a bye in the first roond. She beat 16t seed [[Sloane Stephens]] in straucht sets (wi the loss o juist three gemmes) in the third roond, but then did nae play her quarterfinal match against seivent seed [[Sara Errani]] an retired frae the tournament due tae a viral illness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/05/17/sport/tennis/djokovic-nadal-tennis-sharapova|title=Djokovic loses at Rome Masters, hurting French Open preparations|publisher=CNN|date=May 18, 2013|accessdate=May 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/sports/2013/05/17/serena-azarenka-reach-semis-sharapova-pulls-out-in-rome/|title=Serena, Azarenka reach semis; Sharapova pulls out in Rome|publisher=[[Fox News]]|date=May 17, 2013|accessdate=May 22, 2013}}</ref> At the [[2013 French Open]], Sharapova reached the final again, beatin Azarenka in three sets in the semifinals, but thare she lost in straucht sets tae [[Serena Williams]]. At [[2013 Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] she wis comprehensively beaten in the seicont roond bi qualifier [[Michelle Larcher de Brito]]. Sharapova then returned tae the tour at the [[2013 Western & Southern Open]], whaur she lost her openin match tae Sloane Stephens in three sets. A week later Sharapova withdrew frae the U.S. Open citing a shoulder injury, which prematurely ended her saison.<ref>{{cite web|title=Maria Sharapova withdraws from the U.S. Open|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/tennis/2013/08/21/maria-sharapova-withdraws-us-open/2683231/|publisher=USA Today|accessdate=22 August 2013}}</ref> ===2014: Comeback and second French Open title=== {{main|2014 Maria Sharapova tennis season}} Sharapova haed nae played syne August 2013 due tae a recurring shoulder injury an made her comeback at the [[2014 Brisbane International]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Maria Sharapova to make tennis comeback at Brisbane International|url=http://www.news.com.au/sport/tennis/maria-sharapova-to-make-tennis-comeback-at-brisbane-international/story-fndkzym4-1226759913966|publisher=News.com.au|accessdate=14 November 2013|archive-date=2016-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108032712/http://www.news.com.au/sport/tennis/maria-sharapova-to-make-tennis-comeback-at-brisbane-international/story-fndkzym4-1226759913966|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sharapova advanced tae the semi-finals whaur she wis beaten in straucht sets bi [[Serena Williams]]. At the [[2014 Australian Open]] Sharapova, ranked 3rd, wis knocked oot o the tournament in the 4t roond bi the 20t seed, an eventual finalist, [[Dominika Cibulkova]]. Sharapova lost the match in 3 sets. Sharapova then participated in [[2014 Open GDF Suez – Singles|GDF Suez]] whaur she wis upset in the semifinals tae fellae Roushie an eventual tournament winner [[Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova]] in three sets. In Mairch, playin in the [[2014 BNP Paribas Open|Indian Wells Masters]], she wis beaten bi 22-year-auld Italian [[Camila Giorgi]] in the third roond, in three sets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tennis.si.com/2014/03/10/maria-sharapova-camila-giorgi-indian-wells/ |title=Maria Sharapova ousted by Camila Giorgi in third round at Indian Wells &#124; Beyond The Baseline |publisher=Tennis.si.com |date= |accessdate=11 March 2014}}</ref> Therefore, due tae the WTA ranking seestem, this wad mean anither drop in ranking, bringin her tae warld No. 7. In Aprile, she won [[Weemen's Stuttgart Open|Stuttgart Open]], her first title o the year an 30t o her career bi defeatin [[Ana Ivanovic]] in three sets. Stuttgart is the anly tournament Sharapova haes won three times. In Mey, Maria won the [[2014 Mutua Madrid Open|Madrid Open]], her seicont title o the year an first in [[Madrid]], defeatin [[Simona Halep]] in three sets. Wi nine clay titles, she joins Venus Williams as the third maist successfu active player on the surface.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/Sharapova-wins-Madrid-Open-title/articleshow/34985579.cms|title=Sharapova wins Madrid Open title|publisher=Times of India|accessdate=May 11, 2014}}</ref> Sharapova then competit in the [[Italian Open (tennis)|Italian Open]] in Roum, whaur she made the third roond. She lost tae [[Ana Ivanovic]] in straucht sets. Sharapova wis seedit 7t at 2014 French Open an defeatit Ksenia Pervak, Tsvetana Pironkova, an Paula Ormaechea in the first 3 roonds, all in straucht sets. In the fowert roond she defeatit Samantha Stosur, reeling off nine straucht gemmes frae a set an 3–4 doun. This merked her 14t win in 16 meetins wi the Australian. In the quarters, she defeatit [[Garbine Muguruza]], again coming back frae a set doun, tae reach the semifinals at the French for the fowert consecutive year. In the semi-finals, she defeatit [[Eugenie Bouchard]], ance again coming back frae a set doun, tae reach her third consecutive [[French Open]] final. In the final, she defeatit [[Simona Halep]] in three sets tae win her seicont French Open title an fift oweraw Major title. This wis the first time syne 2001 whaur a third set wis contested in the final. The match teuk juist ower three oors, an haes been describit as ane o the best weemen's finals in recent years. <ref>{{cite news|last1=Meyers|first1=Nalia-Jean|title=Maria Sharapova Wins French Open|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/08/sports/tennis/maria-sharapova-wins-french-open.html?_r=0|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=June 7, 2014}}</ref> The [[2014 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|2014 Wimbledon Championships]] will be her next tournament as Sharapova chose nae tae play a warm-up event afore the third Grand Slam o the saison gets underway.<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/tennis/article-2654515/Maria-Sharapova-hops-London-Underground-seeing-boyfriend-Grigor-Dimitrov-beat-James-Ward-Queens-Club.html#ixzz34HRs4TtE Maria Sharapova hops on the London Underground] Dailymail. 10-06-2014. Retrieved 11-06-2014.</ref> At the [[2014 Wimbledon Championships]], Sharapova reached the fowert roond, whaur she lost tae German [[Angelique Kerber]], the ninth seed, in three sets. Sharapova then played the [[2014 Rogers Cup]] in [[Montreal]] whaur she wis the 4t seed. She received a first roond bye an faced [[Garbine Muguruza]] in her opener, she won in 3 sets. In the follaein roond she lost in 3 sets tae Muguruza's compatriot, [[Carla Suarez Navarro]]. At the [[2014 Western & Southern Open]], Sharapova wis seedit 5t an defeatit [[Madison Keys]] efter haein a first roond bye. She then went on tae defeat Pavlyuchenkova an newly crowned warld no.2 [[Simona Halep]] tae reach the last fower. She faced Ivanovic again but lost in a roller coaster three-setter despite haein twa match pynts. Sharapova then travelled tae New York for the [[2014 US Open (tennis)|US Open]] whaur she wis the 5t seed. She defeatit compatriot [[Maria Kirilenko]] an Romanian [[Alexandra Dulgheru]] afore overcoming 26t seedit German [[Sabine Lisicki]] in roond 3 tae set up a clash wi [[Caroline Wozniacki]] in the roond o 16. Sharapova lost tae the Dane in 3 sets. Sharapova next played the inaugural 2014 Wuhan open whaur she wis seedit 4t. Efter receiving a first roond bye she defeatit compatriot Svetlana Kuznetsova in 3 sets an next faced [[Timea Bacsinszky]]. Awtho Sharapova won thair 2 previous encounters she wis stunned bi Timea in 2 tight sets sicweys endin her campaign at the premier 5 tournament. The follaein week Sharapova played the China Open in Beijing a Premier Mandatory-level tournament. Reachin the final wioot dropping a set, Sharapova defeatit warld No. 9 Ana Ivanovic in the semis. In the final Sharapova met reigning Wimbledon champion an warld No. 3 Petra Kvitova. Sharapova won the match in 2 oors 30 minutes, defeatin the Czech in three sets. Bi virtue o the win, Sharapova's ranking rose frae No. 4 tae No. 2 in the warld an she secured hersel the seicont seeding for the WTA year end Championship. An aa, Sharapova closed in on the year end number ane ranking spot, bein juist 467 pynts behind Williams. Maria wis ranked No. 2 heidin intae the WTA Tour Championships, wi a chance o owertakin [[Serena Williams]] as warld No. 1. She wis drawn in the white group, wi [[Petra Kvitova]], [[Agnieszka Radwanska]] an [[Caroline Wozniacki]]. Her first match wis a three set loss tae Wozniacki. Maria an aa lost her 2nt roond robin match tae Kvitova in straucht sets; her first loss tae Petra syne 2011. Maria still haed a chance o makin the Semis, houiver she needed tae beat Radwanska in twa sets, an Wozniacki needed tae beat Petra in straucht sets as well. She ended her year wi a win against Radwanska in three sets, finishin3rd oweraw in the White group. She ended the year as warld No. 2, behind [[Serena Williams]]. ===2015: Fourth Australian Open final=== {{main|2015 Maria Sharapova tennis season}} Sharapova kicked off her 2015 saison at the Brisbane International whaur she wis tap seed an received a bye in the first roond. Sharapova defeatit Yaroslava Shvedova an Carla Suarez Navarro. In the semi finals Sharapova faced Elina Svitolina, beatin her in straucht sets. Reachin the final wioot dropping a set, Sharapova played an intense match against seicont seed Ana Ivanovic but came throu in three sets. This wis Sharapova's 10t win ower Ivanovic an bi winnin her 34th title, it meant that Sharapova haes won at least ane title every year for 13 consecutive years. An aa, it wis juist her seicont title in Australie sae far, an for baith she beat Ivanovic. Sharapova's next tournament wis the 2015 Australian Open, whaur she beat [[Petra Martić]] an fellae countrywoman [[Alexandra Panova]] (despite haein twa match pynts against her) in the first twa roonds, afore beatin [[Zarina Diyas]] an [[Peng Shuai]] in straucht sets. Thare, she beat seivent-seedit [[Eugenie Bouchard]] an fellae Roushie [[Ekaterina Makarova]] in straucht sets tae mak her fowert Australian Open final, whaur she lost tae [[Serena Williams]] in straucht sets, worsening her record against her tae 2–17. In Februar, follaein her participation in the [[2015 Fed Cup|Fed Cup]], Sharapova played in [[2015 Abierto Mexicano Telcel|Acapulco]], whaur she beat [[Shelby Rogers]], [[Mariana Duque Mariño]] an [[Magdaléna Rybáriková]] tae advance the semifinals. Sharapova later withdrew frae her match against [[Caroline Garcia]], citing a painch virus. Next, in [[2015 BNP Paribas Open|Indian Wells]], she beat [[Yanina Wickmayer]] an [[Victoria Azarenka]] in straucht sets, afore losin tae defendin champion [[Flavia Pennetta]] in the fowert roond in three sets. Efter receiving a bye in the first roond o the [[2015 Miami Open|Miami Open]], Sharapova lost in the seicont roond tae fellae Roushie [[Daria Gavrilova]] in straucht sets, merking her earliest exit frae the tournament syne her first appearance in Miami in 2003. Sharapova began her clay saison in [[2015 Porsche Tennis Grand Prix|Stuttgart]] whaur she wis the three time defendin champion. Efter receiving a first roond bye, she lost in the seicont roond tae [[Angelique Kerber]] in three sets, snapping Sharapova's win streak at the tournament an merking her first ever loss at the tournament haein won it three times in a row ([[2012 Porsche Tennis Grand Prix|2012]], [[2013 Porsche Tennis Grand Prix|2013]], & [[2014 Porsche Tennis Grand Prix|2014]]). The loss an aa snapped a 64 match win streak on clay whaur Sharapova won the first set an went on tae win the match. The last time Sharapova lost a match on clay efter winnin the first set wis against [[Dinara Safina]] in the fowert roond at the [[2008 French Open]]. As a result o the loss Sharapova lost the No. 2 ranking tae [[Simona Halep]]. Sharapova's next clay court tournament wis the Madrid Open whaur she wis the defendin champion. She advanced tae the semifinals. Thare, she wis beaten bi Svetlana Kuznetsova for the first time syne 2008. Sharapova's next tournament wis be the Italian Open in Roum whaur she wis seedit 3rd. She beat [[Victoria Azarenka]] in the quarterfinals in straucht sets tae set up a re-match wi [[Daria Gavrilova]]. She beat Gavrilova in straucht sets tae advance tae the final, whaur she faced [[Carla Suarez Navarro]]. Efter losin the first set, Sharapova managed tae claim the next twa sets an her third [[Internazionali BNL d'Italia|Roum]] title. Bi winnin Roum, Sharapova reclaimed the No. 2 ranking ower Halep. ==Fed Cup participation== Sharapova haes lived in the United States syne muivin thare at the age o seiven, but retains her Roushie citizenship, an is therefore eligible tae play in the [[Fed Cup]] for Roushie.<ref name="pravda">{{cite web|url=http://english.pravda.ru/society/stories/11-10-2005/9051-sharapova-0/|title=Maria Sharapova unwilling to trade her Russian citizenship for anything|publisher=[[Pravda]]|date=October 11, 2005|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> Houiver, the behaviour o Sharapova's faither during her matches on the WTA Tour, combined wi a perceived lack o commitment bi her tae the Fed Cup, haes made her selection for the [[Roushie Fed Cup team]] cause controversy in the past. Efter Sharapova haed beaten fellae Roushie [[Anastasia Myskina]] at the [[2004 WTA Tour Championships]], Myskina criticized Sharapova's faither, saying: "He was just yelling and screaming instructions to her and I thought he just might jump right on the court at one point in the match." At the Fed Cup semifinals twa weeks later, Myskina stated she wad stap playin for Roushie if Sharapova jynt the Roushie team the follaein saison: "If she joins our team next season you won't see me there for sure. His behaviour is totally incorrect, simply rude. I don't want to be around people like him." [[Larisa Neiland]], assistant tae Roushie Fed Cup captain Shamil Tarpishchev, added: "Her father's behaviour (at the WTA Tour Championships) was simply outrageous. I just don't see how he could work with the rest of us." Houiver Tarpishchev himsel played doun the problem, insisting: "I feel that things will calm down soon and we'll have Myskina, Sharapova, Kuznetsova and everyone else playing for Russia."<ref name="myskina">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/4040243.stm|title=Myskina stands by Fed Cup threat|publisher=BBC|date=November 25, 2004|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> At the end o 2005, Sharapova stated she wis nou keen tae mak her Fed Cup debut<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/4326784.stm|title=Sharapova keen to play for Russia|publisher=BBC|date=October 10, 2005|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> an wis set tae play against Belgium in Aprile 2006, but withdrew.<ref name="sharapovadelays">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/4788132.stm|title=Sharapova delays debut for Russia|publisher=BBC|date=March 8, 2006|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> She later withdrew frae ties against Spain in Aprile 2007<ref name="missfedcup">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/6520271.stm|title=Sharapova to miss Fed Cup debut|publisher=BBC|date=April 2, 2007|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> an against the United States in Julie 2007 acause o injuries.<ref name="pulloutangers">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/6288526.stm|title=Sharapova pull-out angers Russia|publisher=BBC|date=July 10, 2007|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> The latter withdrawal led tae Roushie's captain saying she wad be "ineligible for selection" for the Fed Cup final in September.<ref name="forfedcup">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/6904802.stm|title=Russia drop Sharapova for Fed Cup|publisher=BBC|date=July 16, 2007|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> Houiver, Sharapova attended the final, cheering frae the sidelines an actin as a "hitting partner" in practices, resultin in some o her Roushie teammates implying that she wis attending anly tae enable her tae play at the [[Tennis at the 2008 Summer Olympics|2008 Beijing Olympics]] (rules state that players must hae "shown commitment" tae Fed Cup in order tae play). [[Svetlana Kuznetsova]] said, "She said she wanted to be our practice partner but if you can't play how then can you practice?"<ref name="rowover">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/6999113.stm|title=Row over Sharapova's Fed Cup show|publisher=BBC|date=September 17, 2007|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova finally made her Fed Cup debut in Februar 2008, in Roushie's quarterfinal tie against [[Israel Fed Cup team|Israel]].<ref name="Fedcupdebut" >{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/tennis/sharapova-set-to-make-fed-cup-debut/2008/01/22/1200764265448.html|title=Sharapova set to make Fed Cup debut|work=The Age|accessdate=May 4, 2013|date=January 23, 2008}}</ref> She won baith her singles rubbers, against [[Tzipora Obziler]] an [[Shahar Pe'er]], helpin Roushie tae a 4–1 victory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fedcup.com/en/results/tie/details.aspx?tieId=100010107|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080630213658/http://www.fedcup.com/en/results/tie/details.aspx?tieId=100010107|archivedate=2008-06-30|publisher=Fed Cup|title=Fed Cup: Israel vs. Russia tie|date=February 2–3, 2008|accessdate=June 12, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> For the semifinals, she wis gien permission tae skip the tie, wi Tarpishchev annooncin that she will be on the team for the final.<ref name="theage">{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/tennis/sharapova-set-to-make-fed-cup-debut/2008/01/22/1200764265448.html|publisher=The Age Company Ltd.|work=The Age|accessdate=September 6, 2011|date=January 23, 2008|title=Sharapova set to make Fed Cup debut}}</ref> Houiver, the date o the final coincided wi the lay-off frae her shoulder injury, an sicweys she did nae play.<ref name="theage" /> In the 2011 first-roond tie, Sharapova played [[Virginie Razzano]] o Fraunce an lost. Sharapova wis supposed tae play [[Alizé Cornet]] but she wis sufferin frae a viral illness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/sport/tennis/sharapova-france-viral-illness/|title=Sharapova pulls out of Gaz de France due to viral illness|publisher=TV-Novosti|work=[[Roushie Today]]|date=February 10, 2011|accessdate=May 4, 2013|archive-date=2013-06-16|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616031235/http://rt.com/sport/tennis/sharapova-france-viral-illness/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Teammate [[Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova]] played an defeatit Cornet tae secure the 3–2 win for Roushie against Fraunce. Sharapova continued tae participate in 2012 an helped Roushie tae a 3–2 win against Spain in the first-roond tie. Sharapova defeatit [[Silvia Soler Espinosa]] in the first rubber, but wis unable tae play her seicont rubber due tae illness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/sport/tennis/sharapova-russia-serbia-fed-cup-tarpischev-573/|title=Sharapova to miss Fed Cup semis|publisher=TV-Novosti|work=[[Roushie Today]]|date=February 6, 2012|accessdate=May 22, 2013|archive-date=2013-06-15|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615221251/http://rt.com/sport/tennis/sharapova-russia-serbia-fed-cup-tarpischev-573/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2015, Sharapova helped Roushie earn a place in the semifinals efter beatin Pole [[Urszula Radwanska]] in the first tie an her sister [[Agnieszka Radwanska]] in the seicont tie. ==Playing style== Sharapova is an aggressive baseliner wi pouer, depth, an angles on her forehaund an backhaund.<ref name="profile">Jeff Cooper. [http://tennis.about.com/od/playersfemale/a/sharapovagp.htm Maria Sharapova – Tennis Game Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208143919/http://tennis.about.com/od/playersfemale/a/sharapovagp.htm |date=2016-12-08 }}, About.com. Retrieved July 23, 2008.</ref> She is ane o the few players on the WTA tour that aften uises the reverse forehaund. Insteid o uisin a tradeetional [[volley (tennis)|volley]] or owerheid [[Smash (tennis)|smash]], she wad as leif hit a pouerfu "swingin" volley whan approachin the net or attackin [[Lob (tennis)|lobs]].<ref>Douglas Robson. [http://www.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/wimb/2007-06-24-volleys_N.htm Swinging, midcourt volley becomes key weapon among pros], ''USA Today'', June 25, 2007. Retrieved July 23, 2008.</ref> Sharapova is thocht tae hae guid speed aroond the court, inspecially conseederin her heicht.<ref name="profile"/> At the beginnin o 2008, some observers noted that Sharapova haed developpit her game, shawin improved movement an footwork an the addition o a [[drop shot]] an sliced backhaund tae her repertoire o shots.<ref>Steve Bierley. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2008/jan/23/tennis.australianopen2008 Sharapova adds variety to end Henin run], ''The Guardian'', January 23, 2008. Retrieved July 23, 2008.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thetennistimes.com/maria-sharapova/|title=Maria Sharapova Scouting report|publisher=Thetennistimes.com|accessdate=August 7, 2011|archive-date=2011-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007231236/http://thetennistimes.com/maria-sharapova/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Despite her powerful game, Sharapova's greatest asset is considered tae be her mental toughness an competitive spirit, wi Nick Bollettieri statin that she is "tough as nails". Haw-o-famer [[John McEnroe]] said o Sharapova, "she's one of the best competitors in the history of the sport."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/07/04/1088879371559.html|author=Linda Pearce|work=The Age |title=Sharapova's arrival a victory for mental toughness|date=July 5, 2004|accessdate=June 12, 2010|location=Melbourne}}</ref> Sharapova is kent for on-court "[[grunting (tennis)|grunting]]", which reached a recorded 101 [[decibel]]s during a match at [[2005 Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon in 2005]].<ref name="grunting">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4118708.stm|title=Why do women tennis stars grunt?|author=Megan Lane|publisher=BBC|date=June 22, 2005|accessdate=July 23, 2008}}</ref> During her seicont roond match in Birmingham in 2003, Sharapova wis asked tae tone doun the level o her grunt efter opponent [[Nathalie Dechy]] complained tae the umpire, wi Sharapova's response saying that her grunting wis "a natural instinct."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2003/06/12/878185.htm|title=Scream queen Sharapova warned to silence screams|date=June 12, 2003|accessdate=July 4, 2010}}</ref> [[Monica Seles]] suggestit that gruntin is involuntary an a pairt o tennis.<ref name="GruntTelegraph">{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1523117/Grunting-is-just-part-of-my-game-claims-Sharapova.html|title=Grunting is just part of my game, claims Sharapova|author=Catriona Davies|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=September 24, 2008|accessdate=October 19, 2008}}</ref> When questioned bi the media aboot her grunting, Sharapova urged the media tae "just watch the match."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/4649550.stm|title=Beaten Sharapova turns on media|publisher=BBC|date=January 26, 2006|accessdate=June 2, 2008}}</ref> Her defensive gemme haes been worked on bi her new coach, an this haes reflected in her results, makin consecutive semi-finals at premier mandatory events on the tour. Later in her career, Sharapova an aa added drop shots tae her repertoire, makin for a mair unpredictable gemme style. ===Serve=== [[File:Maria Sharapova at the 2009 Wimbledon Championships 12 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Sharapova at The Championships, Wimbledon in 2009.]] Early in her career Sharapova's first an seicont serves war regarded as powerful,<ref name="profile"/> an she wis believed tae possess ane o the best deliveries on the Tour.<ref name="Serve1" /> Syne the beginnin o 2007, houiver, problems wi her shoulder hae reduced the effectiveness o her serve.<ref name="Serve1">{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=3046996|author=Joel Drucker|publisher=ESPN Tennis|title=Lingering injuries or limitations coming to light for Sharapova|date=October 3, 2007|accessdate=June 12, 2010}}</ref> The shoulder injury nae anly resulted in her inconsistent first serves, but an aa her hitting heich nummers o double faults.<ref>[http://www.tennis.com/features/general/features.aspx?id=108430 "Bottom line for the top women, 2007"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124055318/http://www.tennis.com/features/general/features.aspx?id=108430 |date=2007-11-24 }}, Tennis.com. Retrieved July 23, 2008.</ref> Twa-time US Open singles champion [[Tracy Austin]] believes that Sharapova eften loses confidence in the rest o her gemme when she experiences problems wi her serve an consequently produces mair unforced errors an generally plays mair tentatively,<ref name="austin">{{cite web|author=Tracy Austin|url=http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/25396610/|title=Austin: Sharapova loss a win for Venus and Serena|work=NBC Sports|date=June 27, 2008|accessdate=July 23, 2008|archive-date=2008-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080714023402/http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/25396610/|url-status=dead}}</ref> while tennis writer Joel Drucker remarked that her serve wis the "catalyst for her entire game", an that her struggles wi it left her "unmasked."<ref name="Serve1" /> In her return frae layoff in 2008 tae 2009, she uised an abbreviated motion, which wis somewhat less powerful, an tho producin aces an aa gae a very heich number o double faults. Efter her early loss at the [[2009 US Open (tennis)|2009 US Open]], Sharapova returned tae a mair elangatit motion, seemilar tae her pre-surgery serve. She haes syne been able tae produce speeds greater than afore, includin a 121&nbsp;mph serve hit at the Birmingham tournament in 2010 – the fastest serve o her career.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/7841792/Wimbledon-2010-Maria-Sharapova-fighting-fit-at-last-and-ready-to-reclaim-her-SW19-crown.html|title=Wimbledon 2010: Maria Sharapova fighting fit at last and ready to reclaim her SW19 crown|author=Mark Hodgkinson|date=June 21, 2010|accessdate=June 21, 2010|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref> Houiver syne her shoulder operation Sharapova haes been unable tae control her serve. This haes led tae numerous faults, as she is unable tae feel how much power she is generating.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2009/aug/09/sports/sp-la-women-tennis9|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|first=Diane|last=Pucin|title=Maria Sharapova can't control her serve|date=August 9, 2009}}</ref> The new action led tae an elbow injury, but unner Thomas Högstedt it haes improved but can still be erratic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.optimumtennis.net/maria-sharapova-serve.htm|title=Maria Sharapova Serve Analysis – A Look Behind the Sharapova Serve Technique|publisher=Optimumtennis.net|accessdate=January 25, 2012|archive-date=2015-02-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216153525/http://www.optimumtennis.net/maria-sharapova-serve.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> This improvement in serving can be seen in the 2013 Australian Open an follaein tournaments whaur Maria Sharapova committed fewer double faults than in previous years. ===Surfaces=== Acause she predicates her gemme on power, Sharapova's preferred surfaces early in her career war the fast-playin haurd an gress courts, as evident throu her 25 victories on haurd court an gress court. This is maist notable when she won the [[2004 Wimbledon]], [[2006 US Open (tennis)|2006 U.S. Open]] an [[2008 Australian Open]] crowns, whaur she haed her career breakthrough an played her peak tennis level, respectively. Sharapova initially wis nae as well-suited tae the slower clay courts as she is on haurd an gress courts. Sharapova admitted in 2007 that she wis nae as comfortable wi her movement on clay compared wi ither court surfaces an ance describit hersel as lik a "cow on ice" efter a match on clay,<ref name="cow">Barry Flatman. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/tennis/article1867693.ece Sharapova: a cow on ice?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322090351/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |date=2020-03-22 }}, ''The Times'', May 31, 2007. Retrieved July 23, 2008.</ref> due tae her inability tae slide. Later in her career, she showed improvement on this surface wi respect tae experience, as evidenced wi her first WTA reid clay title at the [[2010 Internationaux de Strasbourg]], 7 years syne playin on the WTA circuit. She won her first French Open title an capturt the career grand slam at the [[2012 French Open]] an as o 2014 leads the WTA tour o active players wi the heichest winnin percentage on clay, wi an 84.25% winnin rate.<ref name="tennis.com">{{Cite web |url=http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2014/04/dont-have-cow/51317/#.U2WX28JOVwU |title=tennis.com – Don't Have a Cow<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2015-06-09 |archive-date=2016-01-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108032712/http://www.tennis.com/pro-game/2014/04/dont-have-cow/51317/#.U2WX28JOVwU |url-status=dead }}</ref> Syne her shoulder injury, her best surface haes acome clay ower gress & haurd courts, an wi her victory at the [[2014 French Open]], she haes nou won the French Open twice, which is mair times than she haes won ony ither slam, an her last 3 Grand Slam Finals hae all been at the French Open (3 consecutive finals frae 2012–2014). ==Personal life== ===Relationships=== Sharapova haes dated [[Maroon 5]] sangster [[Adam Levine]]. The couple dated for a short time in 2005 efter meetin at Sharapova's 18t birthday pairty. Houiver, the couple broke up suin. In 2008, Sharapova briefly dated American telly producer [[Charlie Ebersol]] but the pair split suin efter. In 2011, Sharapova wis engaged tae Slovenian professional basketball player [[Sasha Vujačić]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tmz.com/2010/10/21/maria-sharapova-sasha-vujacic-engaged-proposed-los-angeles-lakers/|title=Maria Sharapova & Sasha Vujacic – Engaged|publisher=[[TMZ.com|TMZ]]|date=October 21, 2010|accessdate=October 21, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=5713080|title=Maria Sharapova betrothed to guard|publisher=[[ESPN]]|date=October 21, 2010|accessdate=October 22, 2010}}</ref> The twa haed been datin syne 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/sports_blog/2009/11/lakers-sasha-vujacic-maria-sharapova-dating.html|title=The Fabulous Forum: Are Sasha Vujacic and Maria Sharapova dating?|work=[[The Los Angeles Times]]|date=November 3, 2009|accessdate=June 18, 2010}}</ref> On August 31, 2012, Sharapova confirmed that the pair haed ended the engagement an separated during early 2012. Later that year, she began datin Bulgarian tennis player [[Grigor Dimitrov]]. The twa confirmed thair relationship efter the 2013 Madrid Open. ===Public profile=== Sharapova haes lived in the United States syne muivin thare at the age o seiven. Besides a home in [[Bradenton]], Florida, she an aa haes a residence in [[Manhattan Beach, California]].<ref name="peoplemagazine">{{cite web|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,26334,1183711,00.html|title=Celebrity Q & A – Maria Sharapova|publisher=[[People Magazine]]|date=April 17, 2006|author=Kathy Ehrich-Dowd|access-date=2015-06-09|archive-date=2008-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080223093250/http://www.people.com/people/article/0%2C26334%2C1183711%2C00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Frae 2005 tae 2011, Sharapova wis named tae the [[Forbes Celebrity 100]], which attempts tae compile the tap 100 maist powerful celebrities o that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/profile/maria-sharapova|title=The Celebrity 100|work=[[Forbes]]|accessdate=June 28, 2011}}</ref> Sharapova haes made varyin remarks on how lang she intends tae maintain her tennis career. Follaein the retirement o 25-year-auld [[Justine Henin]] in 2008, Sharapova said, "If I was 25 and I'd won so many Grand Slams, I'd quit too."<ref name="henin">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tennis/7401565.stm|title=Henin is best of her generation|publisher=BBC|date=May 15, 2008|accessdate=July 23, 2008}}</ref> In an interview efter the [[2008 Australian Open]], she balked at the idea o playin for anither ten years, saying that she hoped tae hae a "nice husband and a few kids" bi then.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/22856899/|title=Billie Jean King's text inspired Sharapova|agency=Associated Press|publisher=[[NBC Sports]]|date=January 26, 2008|accessdate=October 24, 2008|archive-date=2008-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607055611/http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/22856899/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Houiver in an interview afore her [[2012 Australian Open]] semifinal, Sharapova changed her stance, saying she intendit tae continue playin tennis for as lang as she enjoyed playin the game. Sharapova stated "I'm sure when I was 17 years old and someone said, you'll be playing for another eight years, it would be like, you're not going to see me at a press conference at 25 years old. But years go on. I missed a year in my career—I didn't play that year. I've said this, just before the tournament, a few weeks before, I woke up and I was just so happy to be going back on the court. I felt so fresh, full of energy, just with a really good perspective. Times change, obviously. I see myself playing this sport for many more years because it's something that gives me the most pleasure in my life. I think it helps when you know you're good at something, and you can always improve it. It obviously helps with the encouragement."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sportal.com.au/tennis-opinion-display/maria-not-ready-for-veterans-list-158083 |title=Maria not ready for veteran's list – Tennis – Sportal Australia |publisher=Sportal.com.au |date= |accessdate=June 11, 2012 |first=Bren |last=O'Brien at |archive-date=2012-09-15 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120915060011/http://www.sportal.com.au/tennis-opinion-display/maria-not-ready-for-veterans-list-158083 |url-status=dead }}</ref> At the [[2004 US Open (tennis)|2004 US Open]], Sharapova, alang wi several ither Roushie female tennis players, wore a black ribbon in observance o the tragedy efter the [[Beslan schuil hostage crisis]], whilk teuk place anly days afore.<ref name="espn">{{cite web|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/usopen04/news/story?id=1874900|title=Sharapova puts loss in perspective|publisher=[[ESPN]]|author=David Boroff|date=September 6, 2004|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> In 2005, she donated aroond US$50,000 tae thaim that wis affeckit bi the crisis.<ref name="wtacareer"/> On Februar 14, 2007, Sharapova wis appyntit a [[UNDP Goodwill Ambassador|Goodwill Ambassador]] for the [[UNDP|United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) an donated US$210,000 tae [[Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme (CRDP)|UNDP Chernobyl-recovery projects]]. She stated at the time that she wis planning tae traivel back tae the aurie efter Wimbledon in 2008,<ref name="usatoday">{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/tennis/2007-08-13-799623401_x.htm|title=Maria Sharapova plans 1st trip back to Chernobyl since family fled|publisher=USAToday|author=Beth Harris|date=August 13, 2007|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> tho it didn't happen, as she haed tae traivel back tae the US acause o shoulder injury.<ref name="wimbledon">{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629223721/http://www.wimbledon.org/en_GB/news/interviews/2010-06-28/201006281277743223156.html|archivedate=2010-06-29|url=http://www.wimbledon.org/en_GB/news/interviews/2010-06-28/201006281277743223156.html|title=Interview with Sharapova|publisher=WTA|accessdate=May 4, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> She fulfilled the trip in late Juin – early Julie 2010. Sharapova haes helped tae promote the [[2014 Winter Olympics]] in [[Sochi]], Roushie,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/sport/interview-with-maria-sharapova/|publisher=TV-Novosti|work=[[Roushie Today]]|accessdate=May 4, 2013|title=Interview with Maria Sharapova|date=May 11, 2007}}</ref> an wis the first torch bearer in the torch-lichtin ceremony during the openin festivities. In addition, wi [[Angela Haynes]], [[Maria Kirilenko]], [[Nicole Vaidišová]], [[Rennae Stubbs]], Governor [[Jeb Bush]] an [[Jennifer Capriati]], Sharapova participated in an exhibition in Tampa in December 2004, raisin money for the Florida Hurricane Relief Fund.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbssports.com/tennis/story/7874647|title=Capriati, Sharapova to play benefit for hurricane victims|publisher=CBS Sports|date=November 10, 2004|accessdate=May 4, 2013|archive-date=2013-06-15|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615221331/http://www.cbssports.com/tennis/story/7874647|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Julie 2008, Sharapova sent a message on DVD tae the memorial service o cancer victim Emily Bailes, wha haed performed the coin toss aheid o the [[2004 Wimbledon Championships|2004 Wimbledon final]] that Sharapova haed gane on tae win.<ref name="bbcnews">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/west_midlands/7489565.stm|title=Service held for Wimbledon girl|publisher=BBC|date=July 4, 2008|accessdate=May 4, 2013}}</ref> ==Endorsements== [[File:Maria Sharapova, December 2008.jpg|thumb|Sharapova at offeecial unveilin o her [[Canon PowerShot]] Diamond lineup]] Sharapova's tennis success an appearance hae enabled her tae secure commercial endorsements that greatly exceed the value o her tournament winnins.<ref name="marcganis">Marc Ganis, the president of SportsCorp Ltd., a sports-industry consultant in Chicago, said, "Never underestimate the importance of physical beauty to an athlete's endorsement opportunities. Other than performance on the court, it may be the single most important asset." ''The New York Times''. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/03/sports/tennis/03endorse.html?fta=y Serving Their Clients], September 7, 2006</ref><ref name="hbswk">"It does not hurt that Sharapova is regarded as one of the most beautiful athletes in the world." [http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/5607.html Marketing Maria: Managing the Athlete Endorsement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025025827/http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/5607.html |date=2015-10-25 }}, [[Harvard Business School]] Lessons from the classroom, Sara Jane Gilbert, October 29, 2007. Retrieved on June 1, 2008.</ref> In Mairch 2006, Forbes magazine listed her as the heichest-peyed female athlete in the warld, wi annual earnins o ower US $18&nbsp;million,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/2006/03/22/woods-sharapova-nike_cx_lr_0322athletes_2.html|title=The World's Best-Paid Athletes|work=[[Forbes]]|date=March 22, 2006}}</ref> the majority f which wis frae endorsements an sponsorships. She haes topped that leet every year syne, even efter her 2007 shoulder injury.<ref>{{cite web|title = World's Highest-Paid Women Athletes|url =http://www.topendsports.com/world/lists/earnings/women-paid.htm|accessdate =May 9, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/2008/07/22/women-athletes-endorsements-biz-sports-cx_tvr_kb_0722athletes.html|title=Top-Earning Female Athletes|work=[[Forbes]]|date=July 22, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/2010/08/18/top-earning-female-athletes-business-sportsmoney-female-athletes.html|title=The World's Highest-Paid Athletes|work=[[Forbes]]|date=August 18, 2010}}</ref> In 2011, ''Forbes'' listed Sharapova as No. 29 in thair leet o 50 tap-peyed athletes, the anly woman on the leet.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kurt Badenhausen |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106040824/http://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2011/05/31/the-worlds-highest-paid-athletes/2/ |archivedate=2012-11-06 |url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2011/05/31/the-worlds-highest-paid-athletes/ |title=The World's Highest-Paid Athletes |work=[[Forbes]] |date=April 18, 2012 |accessdate=May 5, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2012, she wis listed as No. 15, an wis jynt in the tap 20 bi [[Li Na]] at No. 16 an [[Serena Williams]] at No. 17.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2012/06/18/mayweather-tops-list-of-the-worlds-100-highest-paid-athletes/|title=Mayweather Tops List Of The World's 100 Highest-Paid Athletes|work=[[Forbes]]|author=Kurt Badenhausen|date=June 18, 2012|accessdate=May 5, 2013}}</ref> In Aprile 2005, ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'' named her ane o the 50 maist beautiful celebrities in the warld.<ref>{{cite web|title = PEOPLE's 50 Most Beautiful People|url = http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,1046248_1054061,00.html|date = April 27, 2005|accessdate = May 5, 2013|archive-date = 2016-05-04|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160504191335/http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,1046248_1054061,00.html|url-status = dead}}</ref> In 2006, ''[[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]]'' ranked Sharapova the hettest athlete in the warld for the fowert consecutive year. She posed in a sax-page bikini photoshuit spread in the 2006 [[Valentine's Day]] issue o the ''[[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue]]'', alangside 25 supermodels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/swimsuit/coverfeatured/10256/index.htm|title=2006 SWIMSUIT COVER|work=[[Sports Illustrated]]|date=September 4, 1995|accessdate=May 5, 2013|archive-date=2014-02-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209072152/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/swimsuit/coverfeatured/10256/index.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> In a poll run bi Britain's ''[[FHM]]'' magazine, she wis voted the seivent maist eligible bachelorette,<ref name="newscomau">{{cite web|url=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/story/0,23663,21300664-10388,00.html|work=News.com.au|title=Rod's daughter most eligible|date=February 28, 2007|accessdate=May 4, 2013|archive-date=2007-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303091807/http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/story/0,23663,21300664-10388,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> based on baith "wealth and looks." Immediately efter her win at the 2004 Wimbledon Championship, mobile phone company [[Motorola]] signed Sharapova tae endorse thair mobile phone line.<ref name=nytdress/> Additionally, she appeared in commercials for [[Land Rover]] an [[Canon (company)|Canon]], as well as approved o namesake items bi watch brand [[Tag Heuer]] an jeweller [[Tiffany & Co.|Tiffany]].<ref name=nytdress/> Tiffany an aa provides Sharapova wi earrings frae the "Tiffany for Maria Sharapova" collection at the fower major events, that are an aa retailed globally.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://press.tiffany.com/News/NewsItem.aspx?id=130 |title=Tiffany & Co. For The Press &#124; News &#124; Maria Sharapova to Wear Tiffany Earrings at the 2011 French Open &#124; United States |publisher=Tiffany & Co. |date=May 11, 2011 |accessdate=June 11, 2012 |archive-date=2013-01-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130108004447/http://press.tiffany.com/News/NewsItem.aspx?id=130 |url-status=dead }}</ref> She an aa starred in an awaird winnin campaign for the sports claedin brand Nike, "[[Pretty (advertisement)|Pretty]]", in the simmer o 2006. She signed a sponsorship deal in Januar 2007 wi [[Gatorade]] an [[Tropicana Products|Tropicana]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Daily/Issues/2007/01/Issue-72/Sponsorships-Advertising-Marketing/Pepsico-Inks-Sharapova-To-Promote-Gatorade-Tropicana-Brands.aspx |title=PepsiCo Inks Sharapova To Promote Gatorade, Tropicana Brands |publisher=SportsBusiness Journal |date=January 3, 2007 |accessdate=September 10, 2014 }}</ref> which ended in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/mariasharapova/5163203/Maria-Sharapova-loses-tennis-fizz-as-Pepsi-end-deal.html |title=Maria Sharapova loses tennis fizz as Pepsi end deal |publisher=''The Telegraph'' |date=April 16, 2009 |first=Rod |last=Gilmour |accessdate=September 10, 2014 }}</ref> In 2007, Sharapova wis featurt in a nummer o Canon USA's commercials for the PowerShot.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.letsgodigital.org/en/14539/maria-sharapova/|title=Maria Sharapova in Canon PowerShot commercial|publisher=LetsGoDigital|accessdate=May 5, 2013}}</ref> Sharapova haes an aa been depicted in mony tennis-relatit video gemmes. Some o the titles include the ''[[Top Spin (video game)|Top Spin series]]'', ''[[Virtua Tennis]]'' series, an ''[[Grand Slam Tennis]]'' series. During the layoff due tae her shoulder surgery, sensing the fleeting naitur o a professional athlete's career, Sharapova decidit tae focus on developin her name as a brand, beginnin wi meetin wi her sponsors mair extensively tae further her brand.<ref name=nytdress/> In Januar 2010, it wis annoonced that Sharapova haed renewed her contract wi Nike, signin an 8-year deal for $70&nbsp;million. This is the maist lucrative deal ever for a sportswoman, dwarfing the previous record, which wis Venus Williams' $43&nbsp;million deal wi Reebok.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2010/jan/12/maria-sharapova-nike-deal|title=Maria Sharapova signs £43m deal with Nike|work=[[The Guardian]]|author=Simon Cambers|accessdate=May 5, 2013|date=January 12, 2010}}</ref> Follaein in the fitsteps o tennis players wha stairtit claedin lines lik [[Fred Perry]] an [[René Lacoste]], Sharapova launched her ain tennis apparel line, the "Nike Maria Sharapova Collection", in 2010. The collection includes dresses that she designed for aw the major tournaments, in collaboration wi Nike an [[Cole Haan]].<ref name=cnn-ms>{{cite web| url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/27/sport/tennis/tennis-sharapova-grand-slam-design/index.html | publisher=CNN | title=Grand slam designs: Maria Sharapova's fashion statement | date=January 27, 2012|accessdate=May 19, 2013}}</ref> She haed previously foond that the outfits gien tae her bi Nike did nae suit her frame an war worn bi ower mony ither players.<ref name=nytdress/> She comes up wi design ideas an sketches in a process that begins 18 month afore the event<ref name=cnn-ms/> an receives royalties frae the sale o the collection, o which the corresponding dresses are coordinated tae be available simultaneously wi the correspondin major tournament.<ref name=nytdress/> The collection is worn bi ither WTA players, includin [[Sofia Arvidsson]], [[Eugenie Bouchard]], [[Kai-Chen Chang]], [[Andrea Hlaváčková]], [[Madison Keys]], [[Anastasia Pivovarova]] as well as junior players sic as [[Indy De Vroome]].<ref name=cnn-ms/> Sharapova haed earlier collaboratit wi Nike on the "little black dress" that she wore for her nicht matches at the 2006 US Open.<ref name=nytdress/> The dress featurt a roond crystal studded collar an wis inspired bi [[Audrey Hepburn]].<ref name=nytdress>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/26/fashion/maria-sharapovas-campaign-to-establish-herself-as-a-brand.html?pagewanted=all | work=[[The New York Times]] | first=Eric | last=Wilson | title=Maria Sharapova's Campaign to Establish Herself as a Brand | date=May 25, 2011|accessdate=May 5, 2013}}</ref> The dress wis well publicized an received but wis nae mass-produced.<ref name=nytdress/><ref name=cnn-ms/><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/sectionfront/life/sharapovas-little-black-dress-provokes-a-big-racket-at-us-open-448646/ | work=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]] | first=MacKenzie | last=Carpenter | title=Sharapova's little black dress provokes a big racket at U.S. Open | date=September 1, 2006|accessdate=May 5, 2013}}</ref> Additionally, she designs shoes an handbags for Cole Haan, for which her signature ballerina flats are ane o the biggest sellers o the entire brand.<ref name=nytdress/> Sharapova uised the [[Prince Sports|Prince]] Triple Threat Hornet for pairt o 2003 an then uised several different Prince racquets until the [[2004 US Open (tennis)|US Open]]. She gae the racquet she uised in the [[2004 Wimbledon]] final tae [[Regis Philbin]] when taping ''[[Live with Regis and Kelly]]''. Sharapova began uisin the Prince Shark OS at that tournament specially designed for her.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tennis-warehouse.com/Reviews/PSHKOS/PSHKOSReview.html|title=Prince Shark Racquet Review|accessdate=June 18, 2012|publisher=Tennis Warehouse|archive-date=2008-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327130507/http://www.tennis-warehouse.com/Reviews/PSHKOS/PSHKOSReview.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> She then switched tae the Prince O3 White racquet in Januar 2006. She switched tae the Prince O3 Speedport Black in Julie 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://princetennis.com/tennis/files/teamPrincePlayer.aspx?plyid=89|title=Tennis Racquets, Tennis Footwear, String, EXO3 Racquet|publisher=Prince Tennis|accessdate=August 31, 2010|archive-date=2008-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022085350/http://www.princetennis.com/tennis/files/teamPrincePlayer.aspx?plyid=89|url-status=dead}}</ref> Efter bein wi Prince for ten years,<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228161310/http://tennis.com/articles/templates/gear.aspx?articleid=9327&zoneid=24 |archivedate=2010-12-28 |url=http://tennis.com/articles/templates/gear.aspx?articleid=9327&zoneid=24 |title=Gear – Maria Sharapova’s New Head for the New Year? |publisher=TENNIS.com |date=December 21, 2010 |accessdate=June 11, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Sharapova began endorsing [[Head (company)|Head]] racquets in 2011 an uses the Head YOUTEK IG Instinct.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.head.com/tennis/news.php?region=us&id=758|title=Performance meets Style – Maria Sharapova joins the HEAD team!|publisher=Head Tennis|date=January 3, 2011|accessdate=January 18, 2011|archive-date=2015-07-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713071147/http://www.head.com/tennis/news.php?region=us&id=758|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tennis-warehouse.com/player.html?ccode=SHARAPOVA|title=Maria Sharapova|publisher=Tennis Warehouse|date=January 18, 2011|accessdate=January 18, 2011|archive-date=2015-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527060103/http://www.tennis-warehouse.com/player.html?ccode=SHARAPOVA|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sharapova signed a three-year deal tae be brand ambassador for [[Porsche]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|last=Harley|first=Michael|title=Porsche picks Maria Sharapova as brand ambassador|url=http://www.autoblog.com/2013/04/23/porsche-picks-maria-sharapova-as-brand-ambassador/|accessdate=2013-08-25}}</ref> ==Sugarpova== ''Sugarpova'' is a [[candy]] line creaut bi Maria Sharapova an candy veteran Jeff Rubin, foonder o internaitional retailer IT'SUGAR.<ref name="Sugarpova Candy: Sharapova's Sweet Taste of Success">{{cite web|title=Sugarpova Candy: Sharapova's Sweet Taste of Success|url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-01-17/sugarpova-candy-sharapovas-sweet-taste-of-success|accessdate=22 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="Sharapova's Sugarpova lolly range 'smacks of irresponsible marketing'">{{cite news|title=Sharapova's Sugarpova lolly range 'smacks of irresponsible marketing'|url=http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/food/sharapovas-sugarpova-lolly-range-smacks-of-irresponsible-marketing/story-fneuz8zj-1226552023463|accessdate=22 January 2013|archive-date=2016-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108032712/http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/food/sharapovas-sugarpova-lolly-range-smacks-of-irresponsible-marketing/story-fneuz8zj-1226552023463|url-status=dead}}</ref> Accordin tae the Sugarpova wabsteid, "Sugarpova is a premium candy line that reflects the fun, fashionable, sweet side of international tennis sensation Maria Sharapova."<ref name="sugarpova.com">{{Cite web |url=http://www.sugarpova.com/about/ |title=International Shipping {{!}} Sugarpova<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2015-06-09 |archive-date=2017-08-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803094456/http://www.sugarpova.com/about/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The line currently consists o 12 different flavors that range frae Flirty, tae Smitten Sour, tae Splashy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://shop.sugarpova.com/ |title=International Shipping {{!}} Sugarpova<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2015-06-09 |archive-date=2014-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328022826/http://shop.sugarpova.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> A portion o aw proceeds goes tae the Maria Sharapova Foundation, Sharapova's charity.<ref name="sugarpova.com"/> Sugarpova wis launched warldwide in 2013 throu IT'SUGAR an [[Selfridges]] stores. Accordin tae her agent, Sharapova seriously considered changing her last name tae "Sugarpova" for the [[2013 US Open (tennis)|2013 US Open]], but ultimately decidit against it.<ref>{{cite web|title=No name switch for Maria Sharapova|url=http://espn.go.com/tennis/usopen13/story/_/id/9584846/2013-us-open-maria-sharapova-nixes-sugarpova-name-change|date=August 20, 2013|accessdate=August 20, 2013}}</ref> Houiver, some reports suggest that she made an application tae a Florida Court tae that effect.<ref>{{cite web|title=Maria Sharapova wants to change her name|url=http://www.torontosun.com/2013/08/20/maria-sharapova-wants-to-change-her-name|date=August 20, 2013|accessdate=August 20, 2013}}</ref> ==Career statistics== {{Main|Maria Sharapova career statistics}} ===Grand Slam tournaments=== ====Singles performance timeline==== {{Performance key}} {|class=wikitable style=text-align:center |- !width=145|Tournament!![[2003 WTA Tour|2003]]!![[2004 WTA Tour|2004]]!![[2005 WTA Tour|2005]]!![[2006 WTA Tour|2006]]!![[2007 WTA Tour|2007]]!![[2008 WTA Tour|2008]]!![[2009 WTA Tour|2009]]!![[2010 WTA Tour|2010]]!![[2011 WTA Tour|2011]]!![[2012 WTA Tour|2012]]!![[2013 WTA Tour|2013]]!![[2014 WTA Tour|2014]]!![[2015 WTA Tour|2015]]!!width=65|{{Tooltip| SR | Strike Rate}} !!width=65|{{Tooltip| W–L | Win–Loss}}!!width=65|Win % |- |align=left|'''[[Australian Open]]''' |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2003 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|1R]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2004 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|3R]] | style="background:yellow;"|[[2005 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|SF]] | style="background:yellow;"|[[2006 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|SF]] | style="background:thistle;"|[[2007 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|F]] |bgcolor=lime|'''[[2008 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|W]]''' |A |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2010 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|1R]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2011 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|4R]] | style="background:thistle;"|[[2012 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|F]] | style="background:yellow;"|[[2013 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|SF]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2014 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|4R]] | style="background:thistle;"|[[2015 Australian Open – Weemen's Singles|F]] |1 / 12 |48–11 |81.36% |- |align=left|'''[[French Open]]''' |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2003 French Open – Weemen's Singles|1R]] |bgcolor=ffebcd|[[2004 French Open – Weemen's Singles|QF]] |bgcolor=ffebcd|[[2005 French Open – Weemen's Singles|QF]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2006 French Open – Weemen's Singles|4R]] | style="background:yellow;"|[[2007 French Open – Weemen's Singles|SF]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2008 French Open – Weemen's Singles|4R]] |bgcolor=ffebcd|[[2009 French Open – Weemen's Singles|QF]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2010 French Open – Weemen's Singles|3R]] | style="background:yellow;"|[[2011 French Open – Weemen's Singles|SF]] |bgcolor=lime|[[2012 French Open – Weemen's Singles|'''W''']] | style="background:thistle;"|[[2013 French Open – Weemen's Singles|F]] |bgcolor=lime|[[2014 French Open – Weemen's Singles|'''W''']] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2015 French Open – Weemen's Singles|4R]] |2 / 13 |53–11 |82.81% |- |align=left|'''[[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]]''' |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2003 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|4R]] |bgcolor=lime|[[2004 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|'''W''']] | style="background:yellow;"|[[2005 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|SF]] | style="background:yellow;"|[[2006 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|SF]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2007 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|4R]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2008 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|2R]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2009 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|2R]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2010 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|4R]] | style="background:thistle;"|[[2011 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|F]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2012 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|4R]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2013 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|2R]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2014 Wimbledon Championships – Weemen's Singles|4R]] | |1 / 12 |42–11 |79.25% |- |align=left|'''[[US Open (tennis)|US Open]]''' |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2003 US Open – Weemen's Singles|2R]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2004 US Open – Weemen's Singles|3R]] | style="background:yellow;"|[[2005 US Open – Weemen's Singles|SF]] |bgcolor=lime|[[2006 US Open – Weemen's Singles|'''W''']] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2007 US Open – Weemen's Singles|3R]] |A |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2009 US Open – Weemen's Singles|3R]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2010 US Open – Weemen's Singles|4R]] |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2011 US Open – Weemen's Singles|3R]] | style="background:yellow;"|[[2012 US Open – Weemen's Singles|SF]] |A |bgcolor=afeeee|[[2014 US Open – Weemen's Singles|4R]] | |1 / 10 |32–9 |78.38% |- !style=text-align:left|Win–Loss !4–4 !15–3 !19–4 !20–3 !16–4 !11–2 !7–3 !8–4 !16–4 !21–3 !12–3 !16–3 ! !5 / 46 !172–41 !80.25% |} <small> ''Note: At the [[2003 Australian Open]] an [[2003 French Open]], Sharapova won three qualifyin roond matches at each toornament in order tae enter the main draw.'' </small> ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Sharapova, Maria}} [[Category:1987 births]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:Australian Open (tennis) champions]] [[Category:Eastren Orthodox Christians frae Roushie]] [[Category:Expatriate sportsfowk in the Unitit States]] [[Category:French Open champions]] [[Category:Fowk frae Bradenton, Florida]] [[Category:Fowk frae Nyagan]] [[Category:Roushie expatriates in the Unitit States]] [[Category:Roushie female models]] [[Category:Roushie female tennis players]] [[Category:Roushie fowk o Belaroushie strynd]] [[Category:US Open (tennis) champions]] [[Category:Wimbledon champions]] [[Category:Warld No. 1 tennis players]] [[Category:Tennis players at the 2012 Simmer Olympics]] [[Category:Olympic tennis players o Roushie]] [[Category:Olympic medallists in tennis]] [[Category:Olympic siller medallists for Roushie]] [[Category:Grand Slam (tennis) champions in weemen's singles]] kzca7pbh0lif76kh8jj2qb4q18h8hjf Scarsdale 0 46348 916938 896908 2026-05-18T05:12:47Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916938 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fixscots}} {{Infobox settlement |official_name = Scarsdale, New York |settlement_type = [[:en:Village (New York)|Veelage]] & [[:en:Town (New York)|Toun]] |nickname = |motto = <!-- Images --> |image_skyline = |imagesize = |image_caption = |image_flag = |image_seal = <!-- Maps --> ||pushpin_map =New York |pushpin_label_position = <!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> |pushpin_map_caption =Location athin the state o New York, containin the hamlet o Edgemont |pushpin_mapsize = ||pushpin_map =New York |pushpin_label_position = <!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> |pushpin_map_caption = Location athin the state o New York |pushpin_mapsize = |image_map = |mapsize = |map_caption = |image_map1 = |mapsize1 = |map_caption1 = <!-- Location --> |subdivision_type = [[Leet o kintras|Kintra]] |subdivision_name = [[Unitit States]] |subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]] |subdivision_name1 = [[New York]] |subdivision_type2 = [[Leet o coonties in New York|Coonty]] |subdivision_name2 = [[Westchester Coonty, New York|Westchester]] |government_footnotes = |government_type = |leader_title = Veelage Manager |leader_name = Alfred A. Gatta |leader_title1 = |leader_name1 = |established_title = Settled |established_date = 21 Mairch 1701 |established_title1 = Incorporatit (toun) |established_date1 = 7 Mairch 1788 |established_title2 = Incorporatit (veelage) |established_date2 = 24 Mey 1915 <!-- Area --> |unit_pref = Imperial |area_footnotes = |area_magnitude = |area_total_km2 = 17.2 |area_land_km2 = 17.2 |area_water_km2 = 0.0 |area_total_sq_mi = 6.6 |area_land_sq_mi = 6.6 |area_water_sq_mi = 0.0 <!-- Population --> |population_as_of = [[2010 Unitit States Census|2010]] |population_footnotes = |population_total = 17166 |population_density_km2 = auto |population_density_sq_mi = <!-- General information --> |timezone = [[North American Eastren Time Zone|Eastren (EST)]] |utc_offset = -5 |timezone_DST = EDT |utc_offset_DST = -4 |elevation_footnotes = |elevation_m = 66 |elevation_ft = 217 |coordinates = {{coord|40|59|32|N|73|47|13|W|region:US_type:city|display=inline}} |postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]] |postal_code = 10583-4409 |area_code = [[Aurie code 914|914]] |blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]] |blank_info = 36-65431 |blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] featur |blank1_info = 0977410 |website = |footnotes = }} '''Scarsdale''' is a toun an veelage in [[Westchester Coonty, New York]], [[Unitit States]], in the northren suburbs o [[New York Ceety]]. The Town of Scarsdale is coextensive wi the Village of Scarsdale, but the commonty haes optit tae operate solely wi a veelage govrenment, ane o several veelages in the state that hae a seemilar govrenmental situation.<ref>See: [[:en:Political subdivisions of New York State#Town|description o toun in N.Y. State]]</ref> As o the [[2010 Unitit States Census|2010 census]], Scarsdale's population wis 17,166.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://factfinder2.census.gov| title=Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (DP-1): Scarsdale town, Westchester County, New York| publisher=U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder| accessdate=November 15, 2011}}</ref> CNN Money ranked Scarsdale third in the naition on its leet o "top earnin touns" in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2011/moneymag/1108/gallery.best_places_top_earning_towns.moneymag/3.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-02-17 |archive-date=2013-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308015342/http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2011/moneymag/1108/gallery.best_places_top_earning_towns.moneymag/3.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Geografie== Accordin tae the [[Unitit States Census Bureau]], the veelage haes a tot aurie o {{convert|6.6|sqmi}}, o which 0.15% is watter. ===Climate=== Scarsdale haes a het simmer ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Cfa'') temperate climate. {{Weather box |location = Scarsdale, NY |single line = Y |collapsed = Y |Jan record high F = 73 |Feb record high F = 75 |Mar record high F = 86 |Apr record high F = 96 |May record high F = 97 |Jun record high F = 99 |Jul record high F = 104 |Aug record high F = 102 |Sep record high F = 101 |Oct record high F = 89 |Nov record high F = 82 |Dec record high F = 77 |year record high F = 104 |Jan high F = 39.2 |Feb high F = 42.9 |Mar high F = 51.4 |Apr high F = 62.6 |May high F = 73.8 |Jun high F = 81.6 |Jul high F = 86.0 |Aug high F = 83.9 |Sep high F = 76.1 |Oct high F = 65.4 |Nov high F = 55.1 |Dec high F = 43.8 |Jan low F = 20.1 |Feb low F = 22.3 |Mar low F = 29.1 |Apr low F = 38.4 |May low F = 47.2 |Jun low F = 56.8 |Jul low F = 62.3 |Aug low F = 60.8 |Sep low F = 53.0 |Oct low F = 41.2 |Nov low F = 34.6 |Dec low F = 25.6 |Jan record low F = -10 |Feb record low F = -5 |Mar record low F = 2 |Apr record low F = 17 |May record low F = 29 |Jun record low F = 38 |Jul record low F = 49 |Aug record low F = 44 |Sep record low F = 34 |Oct record low F = 27 |Nov record low F = 12 |Dec record low F = -4 |year record low F = -10 |Jan precipitation inch = 3.56 |Feb precipitation inch = 2.84 |Mar precipitation inch = 4.07 |Apr precipitation inch = 4.16 |May precipitation inch = 4.33 |Jun precipitation inch = 3.44 |Jul precipitation inch = 4.20 |Aug precipitation inch = 3.93 |Sep precipitation inch = 4.37 |Oct precipitation inch = 3.67 |Nov precipitation inch = 4.09 |Dec precipitation inch = 3.80 |year precipitation inch = 46.46 |precipitation colour = green |Jan snow inch = 9.8 |Feb snow inch = 10.9 |Mar snow inch = 6.8 |Apr snow inch = 1.4 |May snow inch = .2 |Jun snow inch = 0 |Jul snow inch = 0 |Aug snow inch = 0 |Sep snow inch = 0 |Oct snow inch = .1 |Nov snow inch = .8 |Dec snow inch = 8.6 |year snow inch = 38.6 |Jan rain days = 8.5 |Feb rain days = 8.1 |Mar rain days = 9.3 |Apr rain days = 9.8 |May rain days = 10.9 |Jun rain days = 9.3 |Jul rain days = 9.0 |Aug rain days = 8.7 |Sep rain days = 7.6 |Oct rain days = 6.7 |Nov rain days = 9.2 |Dec rain days = 9.4 |year rain days = 113.4 |unit rain days = 0.01 in |source 1 = Weatherbase <ref name = Weatherbase.com >{{cite web | url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=794703&refer=&cityname=Scarsdale-New-York-United-States-of-America | title=Historical Weather for Scarsdale, New York, United States of America - Travel, Vacation and Reference Information | publisher=[[Canty and Associates LLC]] | accessdate=2011-10-24 | archive-date=2020-03-23 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323045721/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=794703&refer=&cityname=Scarsdale-New-York-United-States-of-America | url-status=dead }}</ref> |source 2 = Homefacts (precipitation only) <ref name= Homefacts.com > {{cite web | url = http://www.homefacts.com/weather/New-York/Westchester-County/Scarsdale.html | title = Scarsdale Westchester County New York average temperature, sunshine and precipitation data | publisher = Homefacts.com | accessdate = 2011-10-24}} </ref> The Weather Channel (extremes) <ref name= Weather.com >{{cite web | url = http://www.weather.com/outlook/travel/businesstraveler/wxclimatology/monthly/10583 | title = Monthly Averages for Scarsdale, NY (10583) | publisher = [[The Weather Channel]] | accessdate = 2011-11-12 |date=November 2011}}</ref> |date=November 2011 }} ==References== {{Reflist|2}} ==Freemit airtins== * [http://www.scarsdale.com/ Scarsdale offeecial wabsteid] {{Westchester Coonty, New York}} [[Category:Touns in New York]] [[Category:Veelages in New York]] [[Category:Populatit places in Westchester Coonty, New York]] [[Category:Walker Cup venues]] 9ppd1dyfahxwciu3xfrd63xpenn2isw Kōhei Uchimura 0 49454 916894 894010 2026-05-17T15:57:16Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916894 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox sportsperson |name= Kōhei Uchimura |image= Kohei Uchimura (2011).jpg |imagesize= 230px |caption= Kōhei Uchimura in 2011 |fullname= |country= {{JPN}} |formercountry= |birth_date= {{birth date and age|1989|01|03}} |birth_place= [[Kitakyushu]], [[Fukuoka Prefectur]] |hometown=[[Isahaya, Nagasaki|Isahaya Ceety]], [[Nagasaki Prefectur]] |height= 5 ft 3.5 in (1.61 m) |weight= 55kg |discipline=MAG |level= |natlteam= |club=KONAMI |gym= |coach= Hiroyuki Kato |assistcoach= Yoghiaki Hatakeda, Koji Gushiken |formercoach=[[Naoya Tsukahara]] |choreographer= |music= |retired= |show-medals = yes |medaltemplates= <!-- see [[Template:MedalRelatedTemplates]] --> {{MedalCount |[[Simmer Olympics|Olympic Gemmes]]|3|4|0 |[[Warld Airteestic Gymnastics Championships|Warld Championships]]|10|5|4 |[[Airteestic Gymnastics Warld Cup|Warld Cup Final]]|0|1|0 |[[Simmer Universiade]]|2|0|1 |'''Tot'''|'''15'''|'''10'''|'''5''' }} {{MedalOlympic}} {{MedalGold|[[2012 Simmer Olympics|2012 Lunnon]]|[[Gymnastics at the 2012 Simmer Olympics – Men's airtistic individual aw-aroond|Aw-Aroond]]}} {{MedalGold|[[2016 Simmer Olympics|2016 Rio de Janeiro]]|[[Gymnastics at the 2016 Simmer Olympics – Men's airteestic team aw-aroond|Team]]}} {{MedalGold|[[2016 Simmer Olympics|2016 Rio de Janeiro]]|[[Gymnastics at the 2016 Simmer Olympics – Men's airteestic individual all-aroond|Aw-Aroond]]}} {{MedalSilver|[[2008 Simmer Olympics|2008 Beijing]]|[[Gymnastics at the 2008 Simmer Olympics – Men's iartistic team all-around|Team]]}} {{MedalSilver|2008 Beijing|[[Gymnastics at the 2008 Simmer Olympics – Men's airtistic individual aw-aroond|Aw-Aroond]]}} {{MedalSilver|2012 Lunnon|[[Gymnastics at the 2012 Simmer Olympics – Men's airtistic team aw-aroond|Team]]}} {{MedalSilver|2012 London|[[Gymnastics at the 2012 Simmer Olympics – Men's floor|Floor Exercise]]}} {{MedalCompetition | [[Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|Warld Championships]]}} {{MedalGold|[[2009 Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2009 Lunnon]]|Aw-Aroond}} {{MedalGold|[[2010 Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2010 Rotterdam]]|Aw-Aroond}} {{MedalGold|[[2011 Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2011 Tokyo]]|Aw-Aroond}} {{MedalGold|2011 Tokyo|Fluir}} {{MedalGold|[[2013 Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2013 Antwerp]]|Aw-Aroond}} {{MedalGold|2013 Antwerp|Parallel Bars}} {{MedalGold|[[2014 Warld Airteestic Gymnastics Championships|2014 Nanning]]|Aw-Aroond}} {{MedalGold|[[2015 Warld Airteestic Gymnastics Championships|2015 Glesga]]|Team}} {{MedalGold|[[2015 Warld Airteestic Gymnastics Championships|2015 Glesga]]|Aw-Aroond}} {{MedalGold|[[2015 Warld Airteestic Gymnastics Championships|2015 Glesga]]|Horizontal Bar}} {{MedalSilver|2010 Rotterdam|Team}} {{MedalSilver|2010 Rotterdam|Fluir}} {{MedalSilver|2011 Tokyo|Team}} {{MedalSilver|2014 Nanning|Team}} {{MedalSilver|2014 Nanning|Horizontal Bar}} {{MedalBronze|2010 Rotterdam|Parallel bars}} {{MedalBronze|2011 Tokyo|Heich Bar}} {{MedalBronze|2013 Antwerp|Fluir}} {{MedalBronze|2013 Antwerp|Heich Bar}} {{MedalCompetition|[[Airtistic Gymnastics Warld Cup|Warld Cup]]}} {{MedalGold|2008 Tianjin|Fluir}} {{MedalGold|2009 Cottbus|Fluir}} {{MedalGold|2010 Paris|Heich Bar}} {{MedalSilver|2010 Paris|Rings}} {{MedalBronze|2007 Paris|Vault}} {{MedalCompetition|[[Simmer Universiade]]}} {{MedalGold|[[2007 Simmer Universiade|2007 Bangkok]]| Team}} {{MedalGold|[[2007 Simmer Universiade|2007 Bangkok]]| Fluir}} {{MedalBronze|[[2007 Simmer Universiade|2007 Bangkok]]| Vault}} }} {{nihongo|'''Kōhei Uchimura'''|内村 航平||born Januar 3, 1989 in [[Kitakyushu]], [[Fukuoka Prefectur]]}} is a [[Japan]]ese [[Airtistic gymnastics|airtistic gymnast]].<ref name =SRKU>[http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/uc/kohei-uchimura-1.html Sports Reference] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231031756/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/uc/kohei-uchimura-1.html |date=2008-12-31 }} Kohei Uchimura</ref> He is a five-time Olympic medallist (aw-aroond, team an floor exercise), winnin a gowd an fower sillers, a nine-time Warld medallist (aw-aroond, team, floor, heich bar, an parallel bars) an is considered bi mony tae be the greatest male gymnast o aw time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/london-olympics-2012/articles/gymnastics/2012/08/04/uchimura-goat-no-says-comaneci|title=uchimura-goat-no-says-comaneci|accessdate=20 November 2012|publisher=Reuters|archive-date=2012-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805233923/http://www.reuters.com/london-olympics-2012/articles/gymnastics/2012/08/04/uchimura-goat-no-says-comaneci|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2012/jul/13/london-2012-kohei-uchimura-gymnastics|title=london-2012-kohei-uchimura-gymnastics|accessdate=20 November 2012|publisher=Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ca.sports.yahoo.com/blogs/olympics-fourth-place-medal/kohei-uchimura-wins-around-gold-proves-pretty-much-185139398--oly.html|title=Kohei Uchimura wins all-around gold, proves he’s pretty much the best gymnast ever|accessdate=20 November 2012|publisher=Guardian|archive-date=2013-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007001109/http://ca.sports.yahoo.com/blogs/olympics-fourth-place-medal/kohei-uchimura-wins-around-gold-proves-pretty-much-185139398--oly.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> He is weel-kent for becomin the first gymnast (male or female) tae win ivery major aw-aroond title in a single Olympic cycle, includin three consecutive warld aw aroond titles (2009, 2010 an 2011)<ref name=Guardian>{{cite news|title=London 2012: Kohei Uchimura can bring perfection back to gymnastics|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2012/jul/13/london-2012-kohei-uchimura-gymnastics|accessdate=13 July 2012|newspaper=The Guardian|date=13 July 2012|author=Emma John}}</ref> an the 2012 Olympic Aw-Aroond Champion. He is kent for deliverin difficult an accurately executit routines an aw. His gymnastics skills wis praised bi ''Internaitional Gymnast Magazine'' as a "combination o tremendous difficulty, supreme consistency an extraordinary elegance o performance."<ref name = IGMDec2010>International Gymnast Magazine December 2010, "Superman", by Christian Ivanov, page 52</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} ==Freemit airtins== *{{cite news |publisher=New York Times |title=The Near Perfection of Kohei Uchimura |author=Lisa Katayama |date=2012-07-20 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/22/sports/olympics/the-near-perfection-of-kohei-uchimura.html?_r=1&hpw}} * {{Fig|id=5857|name=Kohei Uchimura}} * [https://archive.today/20130103211014/www.london2012.com/athlete/uchimura-kohei-1018136/ London 2012 Olympics profile] {{commonscat|Kōhei Uchimura}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Uchimura, Kohei}} [[Category:1989 births]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:Medallists at the Warld Airteestic Gymnastics Championships]] [[Category:Japanese male airtistic gymnasts]] [[Category:Olympic gymnasts o Japan]] [[Category:Gymnasts at the 2008 Simmer Olympics]] [[Category:Gymnasts at the 2012 Simmer Olympics]] [[Category:Gymnasts at the 2016 Simmer Olympics]] [[Category:Olympic gowd medallists for Japan]] [[Category:Olympic siller medallists for Japan]] [[Category:Olympic medallists in gymnastics]] [[Category:Medallists at the 2008 Simmer Olympics]] [[Category:Medallists at the 2012 Simmer Olympics]] [[Category:Medallists at the 2016 Simmer Olympics]] pn5yukcjo81xzht0tv4kkzgmb47xjmp IBM 0 50252 916889 904025 2026-05-17T12:33:03Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 4 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916889 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company |name = Internaitional Business Machines Corporation |logo = [[File:IBM logo.svg|200px|center]] |type = [[Public company|Public]] |traded_as = {{New York Stock Exchange|IBM}}<br />[[Dow Jones Industrial Average|Dow Jones Industrial Average Component]]<br />[[S&P 500|S&P 500 Component]] |industry = [[Personal computer hardware|Computer hardware]], [[Saftware|Computer saftware]],<br> [[IT service management|IT services]], [[Information technology consultin|IT consultin]] |products = [[Leet o IBM products|See IBM products]] |founder = [[Charles Ranlett Flint]] |foundation = [[Endicott, New York|Endicott]], New York, U.S.<br />({{Start date|1911|06|16}}) |location_city = [[Armonk, New York|Armonk]], New York |location_country = U.S. |area_served = Warldwide |key_people = [[Ginni Rometty]]<br />({{small|Chairman, Preses, an CEO}}) |revenue = {{Decrease}} US$ 79.919&nbsp;billion (2016)<ref name=10K>{{cite web |url=https://www.google.com/finance?q=NYSE%3AIBM&fstype=ii&ei=jDT6UOj7A4WQkAXViQE | title=IBM Corporation Financials Statements |work=United States Securities and Exchange Commission}}</ref> |operating_income = {{Decrease}} US$ 13.031&nbsp;billion (2016)<ref name="10K"/> |net_income = {{Decrease}} US$ 11.872&nbsp;billion (2016)<ref name=10K/> |assets = {{nowrap|{{Increase}} US$ 117.47&nbsp;billion (2016)<ref name=10K/>}} |equity = {{Increase}} US$ 18.392&nbsp;billion (2016)<ref name=10K/> |owner = |num_employees = 380,000 (2016)<ref>{{cite web|title=2016 IBM Annual Report|url=https://www.ibm.com/annualreport/2016/images/downloads/IBM-Annual-Report-2016.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=IBM.com}}</ref> |divisions = Financin, Hardware, Services, Saftware |homepage = {{URL|http://www.ibm.com/|IBM.com}} }} '''Internaitional Business Machines Corporation''', or '''IBM''', is an American [[Multinaitional corporation|multinaitional]] [[technology]] an [[Consultant|consultin]] corporation, wi heidquarters in [[Armonk, New York|Armonk]], [[New York]], [[Unitit States]]. IBM manufactures an mercats computer [[Personal computer hardware|hardware]] an [[computer saftware|saftware]], an offers [[infrastructur]], [[Internet hostin service|hostin]] an [[consultant|consultin services]] in auries rangin frae [[mainframe computer]]s tae [[nanotechnology]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research.nsf/pages/r.nanotech.html |title=Nanotechnology & Nanoscience |access-date=2013-05-04 |archive-date=2009-12-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091227114934/http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research.nsf/pages/r.nanotech.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The company wis foondit in 1911 as the [[Computin Tabulatin Recordin Company]] (CTR) throu a merger o three companies: the [[Tabulatin Machine Company]], the [[Time clock|Internaitional Time Recordin Company]], an the [[Computin]] Scale Company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/documents/pdf/faq.pdf| title=IBM Archives: Frequently Asked Questions}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Bennett|first1= Frank P. |coauthors= and Company |title= United States Investor |volume= 22, Part 1 |year= 1911 |month= June 17 |publisher= |page=1025 }}</ref> CTR adoptit the name Internaitional Business Machines in 1924, uisin a name previously designatiy tae CTR's subsidiar in Canadae an later [[Sooth Americae]]. Security analysts nicknamed IBM ''Big Blue'' in recognition o IBM's common uise o blue in products, packagin, an logo.<ref>{{cite book |last= Simmons |first= William W. |title= Inside IBM: The Watson Years, A Personal Memoir |url= https://archive.org/details/insideibmwatsony0000simm |publisher= Dorrance & Co. |year= 1988 |page=[https://archive.org/details/insideibmwatsony0000simm/page/137 137]}}</ref> In 2012, ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'' ranked IBM the #2 lairgest U.S. firm in terms o nummer o employees (433,362),<ref name="Fortune 500: IBM employees">{{cite news |url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2012/performers/companies/biggest/ |title=Fortune 500: IBM employees |author= |year=2012 |work= |publisher=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |accessdate=7 May 2012 |archive-date=2013-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503165432/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2012/performers/companies/biggest/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> the <!-- Please don't update market cap quarterly in order to keep consistency in prose -- quarterly updates can be found at [[Leet o corporations bi mercat caipitalization]] -->#4 lairgest in terms o [[mercat caipitalization]],<ref name="Fortune 500: IBM market cap">{{cite news |url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2012/performers/companies/biggest/marketvalue.html |title=Fortune 500: IBM employees |author= |year=2012 |work= |publisher=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |accessdate=7 May 2012 |archive-date=2013-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130417053736/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2012/performers/companies/biggest/marketvalue.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> the #9 maist profitable,<ref name="Fortune 500: IBM profit">{{cite news |url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2012/performers/companies/profits/ |title=Fortune 20 most profitable companies: IBM |author= |year=2012 |work= |publisher=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |accessdate=7 May 2012 |archive-date=2013-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502091658/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2012/performers/companies/profits/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> an the #19 lairgest firm in terms o revenue.<ref name="Fortune 500: IBM">{{cite news |url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2012/full_list/ |title=Fortune 500: IBM |author= |year=2012 |work= |publisher=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |accessdate=7 May 2012 |archive-date=2013-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123135424/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2012/full_list/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Globally, the company wis ranked the #31 lairgest in terms o revenue bi ''[[Forbes]]'' for 2011.<ref name="Forbes global">{{Cite news|title=The World's Biggest Public Companies|url=http://www.forbes.com/global2000/|work=[[Forbes]]|accessdate=June 7, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=IBM|url=http://www.forbes.com/companies/ibm/|work=[[Forbes]]|accessdate=June 7, 2011}}</ref> Ether rankins for 2011/2012 include #1 company for leaders (''Fortune''), #1 [[green company]] warldwide (''[[Newsweek]]''), #2 baist global brand (''[[Interbrand]]''), #2 maist respectit company (''[[Barron's (newspaper)|Barron's]]''), #5 maist admired company (''Fortune''), an #18 maist innovative company (''[[Fast Company (magazine)|Fast Company]]'').<ref name="Fast">{{cite web |url=http://rankingthebrands.com/Brand-detail.aspx?brandID=6 |title=IBM rankings |author= |date= |work= |publisher=Ranking the Brands |accessdate=17 December 2010 |archive-date=2013-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818101628/http://www.rankingthebrands.com/Brand-detail.aspx?brandID=6 |url-status=dead }}</ref> IBM haes 12 research laboratories warldwide an, as o 2013, haes held the record for maist [[patents]] generatit bi a company for 20 consecutive years.<ref name="patents">{{cite web|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-01-10/ibm-granted-most-u-s-patents-for-20th-straight-year.html|title=IBM Granted Most U.S. Patents for 20th Straight Year|date=2013-01-10}}</ref> Its employees hae garnered five [[Nobel Prize]]s, sax [[Turing Awaird]]s, ten [[Naitional Medal o Technology|Naitional Medals o Technology]], an five [[Naitional Medal o Science|Naitional Medals o Science]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.research.ibm.com/resources/awards.shtml |title=Awards & Achievements |accessdate=2012-05-23 |publisher=IBM}}</ref> Notable inventions bi IBM include the [[Automatit teller machine|automatit teller machine (ATM)]], the [[floppy disk]], the [[hard disk drive]], the [[magnetic stripe card]], the [[relational model|relational database]], the [[Universal Product Code|Universal Product Code (UPC)]], the [[swap (finance)|financial swap]], [[Sabre (computer seestem)|SABRE airline reservation seestem]], [[DRAM]], an [[Watson (computer)|Watson artifeecial intelligence]]. The company haes unnergone several organizational chynges syne its inception, acquirin companies sic as [[Kenexa]] (2012) an [[SPSS]] (2009) an organisations sic as [[PricewaterhouseCoopers|PwC]]'s consultin business (2002), [[Spin oot|spinnin aff]] companies lik [[Lexmark]] (1991), an sellin aff product lines lik [[ThinkPad]] tae [[Lenovo]] (2005). ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{Sister project links}} * {{official website|http://www.ibm.com/}} {{finance airts | name = IBM Corp. | symbol = IBM | sec_cik = 51143 | hoovers = 10796 }} {{IBM}} {{Major information technology companies}} [[Category:IBM|*]] [[Category:Companies leetit on the New York Stock Exchynge]] [[Category:1896 establishments in the Unitit States]] [[Category:1911 establishments in the Unitit States]] [[Category:Cloud computin providers]] [[Category:Companies based in Westchester Coonty, New York]] [[Category:Companies established in 1896]] [[Category:Companies established in 1911]] [[Category:Computer companies o the Unitit States]] [[Category:Computer haurdware companies]] [[Category:Computer storage companies]] [[Category:Display technology companies]] [[Category:Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average]] [[Category:Electronics companies o the Unitit States]] [[Category:Multinaitional companies heidquartered in the Unitit States]] [[Category:Naitional Medal o Technology recipients]] [[Category:Saftware companies based in New York]] [[Category:American buists]] [[Category:UML Pairtners]] [[Category:Collier Trophy recipients]] j4mpxmgus2c7ynhn6rpgzkgfz90duql The Walt Disney Company 0 54673 916942 911318 2026-05-18T08:32:48Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916942 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company |name = The Walt Disney Company |logo = [[File:The Walt Disney Company Logo.svg|250px]] | image = Walt Disney Studios Alameda Entrance.jpg | image_size = 250px |type = Public |traded_as = {{New York Stock Exchynge|DIS}}<br />[[Dow Jones Industrial Average|Dow Jones Industrial<br> Average Component]]<br />[[S&P 500|S&P 500 Component]] |industry = [[Mass media]] |foundation = {{Nowrap|Los Angeles, Californie, U.S.}}<ref name="disney-history">{{cite web |title=Company History |work=Corporate Information |publisher=The Walt Disney Company |url =http://corporate.disney.go.com/corporate/complete_history_1.html |accessdate=August 30, 2008}}</ref><br />({{Start date|1923|10|16}}) |founder = [[Walt Disney|Walt]] an [[Roy O. Disney|Roy Disney]] |location_city = [[Walt Disney Studios (Burbank)|Walt Disney Studios]],<br />500 S. Buena Vista Street,<br />[[Burbank, Californie|Burbank]], Californie |location_country = Unitit States |area_served = Warldwide | key_people = {{Plainlist| * [[Bob Iger]]<br>{{small|(Executive chairman)}} * [[Bob Chapek]]<br>{{small|(CEO)}} }} |products = [[Cable televeesion]], publishin,<br> movies, [[theme pairks]],<br> [[broadcastin]], [[radio]], [[wab portal]]s |services = Licensin | revenue = {{increase}} {{US$|69.570 billion|link=yes}} | revenue_year = 2019 | operating_income = {{decrease}} {{US$|14.868 billion}} | income_year = 2019 | net_income = {{decrease}} {{US$|11.054 billion}} | net_income_year = 2019 | assets = {{increase}} {{US$|193.984 billion}} | assets_year = 2019 | equity = {{increase}} {{US$|93.889 billion}} | equity_year = 2019 | num_employees = 223,000 | num_employees_year = 28 September 2019 |divisions = {{Collapsible list|framestyle = <!--(optional)-->|title=Divisions|titlestyle = <!--(optional)-->|liststyle = <!--(optional)-->|1 =[[The Walt Disney Studios (production company)|The Walt Disney Studios]]|2=[[Disney Media Networks]]|3=[[Walt Disney Pairks an Resorts]]|4=[[Disney Interactive]]|5=[[Disney Consumer Products]]}} |subsid = {{Collapsible list|framestyle = <!--(optional)-->|title=Subsidiaries|titlestyle = <!--(optional)-->|liststyle = <!--(optional)-->|1= [[Walt Disney Picturs]]|2=[[Walt Disney Animation Studios]]|3=[[Walt Disney Theatrical]]|4=[[The Walt Disney Company India Pvt. Ltd.|Walt Disney Indie Ltd.]]|5=[[Pixar|Pixar Animation Studios]]|6=[[Marvel Entertainment|Marvel Entertainment, LLC]]|7=[[Lucasfilm|Lucasfilm Ltd. LLC]]|8=[[The Muppets Studio|The Muppets Studio, LLC]]|9=[[American Broadcastin Company|ABC Inc.]]|10=[[ESPN Inc.]] (80%)|11=[[A+E Networks]] (50%)|12=[[Radio Disney]]|13=[[Hulu]] (27%)|14=[[UTV Software Communications]]}} |homepage = {{URL|www.thewaltdisneycompany.com}} }} '''The Walt Disney Company''', commonly kent as '''Disney''', is an American diversified [[Multinational corporation|multinaitional]] [[mass media]] corporation heidquartered in [[Walt Disney Studios (Burbank)|Walt Disney Studios]], [[Burbank, Californie|Burbank]], Californie. It is the lairgest media conglomerate in the warld in terms o revenue.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/2009/02/09/news/companies/disney_dreamworks.fortune/?postversion=2009020914|title=Why Disney wants DreamWorks|publisher=CNN/Money|date=February 9, 2009|accessdate=February 9, 2009|first=Richard|last=Siklos|archive-date=2018-12-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226120254/https://money.cnn.com/2009/02/09/news/companies/disney_dreamworks.fortune/?postversion=2009020914|url-status=dead}}</ref> Disney wis foondit on October 16, 1923, bi [[Walt Disney|Walt]] an [[Roy O. Disney|Roy Disney]] as the '''Disney Brithers Cartoon Studio''', an established itself as a leader in the American animation industry afore diversifyin intae live-action film production, telly, an travel. Takin on its current name in 1986, it expandit its existin operations an an aa stairtit diveesions focused upon theater, radio, muisic, publishin, an [[online media]]. In addeetion, Disney haes creatit new diveesions o the company in order tae mercat mair matur content than it typically associates wi its flagship faimily-orientit brands. The company is baist kent for the products o its film studio, the [[Walt Disney Studios (production)|Walt Disney Studios]], an the day ane o the [[Major film studio|lairgest an baist-kent studios]] in [[Cinema o the Unitit States|Hollywid]]. Disney an aa awns an operates the [[American Broadcastin Company|ABC]] broadcast telly network; cable telly networks such as [[Disney Chainel]], [[ESPN]], [[A+E Networks]], [[Lifetime (TV network)|LifeTime]] an [[ABC Faimily]]; publishin, [[merchandisin]], an theatre diveesions; an awns an licenses [[Walt Disney Pairks an Resorts|14 theme parks aroond the warld]]. It an aa haes a successful muisic diveesion. The company haes been a component o the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] syne May 6, 1991. An early an well-kent cartoon creation o the company, [[Mickey Mouse]], is the offeecial mascot o The Walt Disney Company. ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Freemit airtins== * {{Official website|https://thewaltdisneycompany.com/|name=Corporate wabsteid}} * {{Official website|http://www.disney.com|name=Disney.com}} * {{OpenCorp|Disney}} {{Finance links | name = Walt Disney | symbol = DIS | sec_cik = DIS | google = DIS | yahoo = DIS | stockrow = DIS }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Walt Disney Company, The}} [[Category:The Walt Disney Company| ]] [[Category:Companies based in Burbank, Californie]] [[Category:Companies established in 1923]] [[Category:Companies leetit on the New York Stock Exchynge]] [[Category:Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average]] [[Category:Enterteenment companies o the Unitit States]] [[Category:Media companies o the Unitit States]] [[Category:Multinational companies heidquartered in the Unitit States]] [[Category:1923 establishments in Californie]] [[Category:American buists]] ch98297z9jjiur77ot27d4wjfhab3a0 Warren Buffett 0 54961 916948 911098 2026-05-18T10:58:15Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916948 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Warren Buffett | image = Warren Buffett KU Visit.jpg | image_size = | caption = Buffett speakin tae students frae the Varsity<br> o Kansas Schuil o Business, Mey 6, 2005 | birth_name = Warren Edward Buffett | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1930|08|30|mf=yes}} | birth_place = [[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]], [[Nebraska]], U.S. | nationality = Unitit States | education = [[Master o Science]] in [[Economics]] | alma_mater = [[Varsity o Nebraska–Lincoln]]<br>[[Columbia Business Schuil]] | occupation = Chairman & CEO o<br>[[Berkshire Hathaway]] | years_active = 1951–present | salary = US$100,000<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/12/C0R3.html |title=Warren E Buffett, CEO Compensation |work=Forbes |date=March 30, 2006 |accessdate=February 23, 2009}}</ref> | networth = <!--No increase/decrease symbol-->[[Unitit States dollar|US$]]70.5&nbsp;billion<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/profile/warren-buffett/|title=Warren Buffett|website=Forbes|accessdate=March 16, 2020}}</ref> (Apryle 2020) | religion = Agnostic<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.theamericanview.com/index.php?id=649 |title=Warren Buffett "Agnostic," Bill Gates Rejects Sermon On The Mount, Not "Huge Believer" In "Specific Elements" Of Christianity |publisher=Archive.theamericanview.com |date=1996-01-13 |accessdate=2011-11-01 |archive-date=2011-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110001741/http://archive.theamericanview.com/index.php?id=649 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | spouse = {{Marriage|[[Susan Buffett|Susan Thompson Buffett]]|1952|2004}}<br>{{Marriage|[[Astrid Menks]]|2006}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/01/business/01buffett.html |title=How Does Warren Buffett Get Married? Frugally, It Turns Out |date=September 1, 2006 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=May 20, 2008 | first1=Jeff | last1=Bailey | first2=Eric | last2=Dash}}</ref> | children = [[Susan Alice Buffett]]<br>[[Howard Graham Buffett]]<br>[[Peter Andrew Buffett]] | signature = Warren Buffett Signature.svg }} '''Warren Edward Buffett''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ʌ|f|ɨ|t}}; born August 30, 1930) is an American [[business magnate]], investor, an philanthropist. He is widely considered the maist successfu investor o the 20t century. Buffett is the [[sharehaulder|primary sharehaulder]], chairman an CEO o [[Berkshire Hathaway]]<ref name=investopedia>{{cite web |url=http://www.investopedia.com/university/greatest/warrenbuffett.asp |title=The Greatest Investors: Warren Buffett |publisher=[[Investopedia.com]] |accessdate=March 6, 2009}}</ref> an consistently rankit amang the [[Forbes leet o billionaires|warld's wealthiest fowk]]. He wis rankit as the warld's wealthiest person in 2008<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.forbes.com/2009/03/11/worlds-richest-people-billionaires-2009-billionaires_land.html |title=The World's Billionaires |work=Forbes |date= March 11, 2009|accessdate=November 28, 2010}}</ref> an as the third wealthiest person in 2011.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.forbes.com/2010/03/10/worlds-richest-people-slim-gates-buffett-billionaires-2010_land.html?boxes=Homepagelighttop | title=The World's Billionaires | work=Forbes | author=Luisa Kroll, Matthew Miller | date=March 10, 2010 | accessdate=March 11, 2010 | archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121216083712/http://www.forbes.com/2010/03/10/worlds-richest-people-slim-gates-buffett-billionaires-2010_land.html?boxes=Homepagelighttop | archivedate=2012-12-16 | url-status=live }}</ref> In 2012, American magazine ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' named Buffett ane o the maist influential fowk in the warld.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2111975_2111976_2112005,00.html | work=Time | title=The 100 Most Influential People In The World | date=April 18, 2012 | access-date=2013-07-20 | archive-date=2018-12-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226115410/http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2111975_2111976_2112005,00.html%20 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Buffett is cried the "Wizard o Omaha", "Oracle o Omaha",<ref>{{cite journal| first=Alex|last=Markels| title=How to Make Money the Buffett Way| journal=[[U.S. News & World Report]]| date=July 29, 2007| url=http://www.usnews.com/usnews/biztech/articles/070729/6intro.htm| ref=harv}}</ref> or the "Sage o Omaha"<ref>{{cite journal| first=Aline|last=Sullivan| title=Buffett, the Sage of Omaha, Makes Value Strategy Seem Simple: Secrets of a High Plains Investor| journal=[[International Herald Tribune]]| date=December 20, 1997| url=http://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/20/your-money/20iht-mbuff.t.html| ref=harv}}</ref> an is notit for his adherence tae the [[value investin]] philosophy an for his personal [[frugality]] despite his immense wealth.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18555690/ |publisher=[[MSNBC]] |title=What Warren Buffett might buy |author=Gogoi, Pallavi |date=May 8, 2007 |accessdate=May 9, 2007 |archive-date=2007-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510011754/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18555690/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Buffett is an aa a notable philanthropist, havin pledged tae gie away 99 percent<ref>{{cite news | url=http://money.cnn.com/2010/06/15/news/newsmakers/Warren_Buffett_Pledge_Letter.fortune/ | publisher=CNN | title=My philanthropic pledge | first=Warren | last=Buffett | date=June 16, 2010 | access-date=2013-07-20 | archive-date=2013-07-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724132400/http://money.cnn.com/2010/06/15/news/newsmakers/Warren_Buffett_Pledge_Letter.fortune/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> o his fortun tae philanthropic causes, primarily via the [[Gates Foondation]]. On Aprile 11, 2012, he wis diagnosed wi [[prostate cancer]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Warren Buffett diagnosed with prostate cancer |author=Telegraph staff and agencies |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/banksandfinance/9210456/Warren-Buffett-diagnosed-with-prostate-cancer.html |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=17 April 2012 |accessdate=17 April 2012 |location=London}}</ref> for which he completit treatment in September 2012.<ref name=LATCancer>{{cite news|last=Lopez|first=Ricardo|title=Warren Buffett completes prostate cancer treatment|url=http://www.latimes.com/business/money/la-fi-mo-warren-buffett-cancer-20120916,0,714101.story|accessdate=22 September 2012|newspaper=The Los Angeles Times|date=September 16, 2012}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Freemit airtins== * [http://www.berkshirehathaway.com/ Berkshire Hathaway offeecial wabsteid] * [http://www.thebuffett.com/ The Buffett] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409020602/http://thebuffett.com/ |date=2013-04-09 }} * [http://www.buffettbuys.com/ Latest Holdings In Berkshire Hathaway Portfolio, Dynamically Updatit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308064929/http://buffettbuys.com/ |date=2018-03-08 }} * [http://www.dividendgrowthinvestor.com/2009/07/buffett-partnership-letters.html Buffett Partnership Letters] * [http://fundville.com/fund/300/BERKSHIRE-HATHAWAY-INC Berkshire Hathaway SEC 13F Filins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527012214/http://fundville.com/fund/300/BERKSHIRE-HATHAWAY-INC |date=2010-05-27 }} * {{C-SPAN|20494}} * {{Charlie Rose view|402}} * {{NYTtopic|people/b/warren_e_buffett}} * {{Guardiantopic|business/warrenbuffett}} {{Warld's richest fowk}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Buffett, Warren}} [[Category:1930 births]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:American agnostics]] [[Category:American billionaires]] [[Category:American chief executives]] [[Category:American financial analysts]] [[Category:American financiers]] [[Category:American insurance businesspeople]] [[Category:American investors]] [[Category:American money managers]] [[Category:American fowk o Inglis strynd]] [[Category:American philanthropists]] [[Category:American stockbrokers]] [[Category:American stock traders]] [[Category:Berkshire Hathaway employees]] [[Category:Bill & Melinda Gates Foondation fowk]] [[Category:Buffett faimily|Warren]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae Omaha, Nebraska]] [[Category:Cancer survivors]] [[Category:Columbia Business Schuil alumni]] [[Category:Directors o Berkshire Hathaway]] [[Category:Equity securities]] [[Category:Grinnell College fowk]] [[Category:Nebraska Democrats]] [[Category:Presidential Medal o Freedom recipients]] [[Category:Varsity o Nebraska–Lincoln alumni]] [[Category:Wharton School o the Varsity o Pennsylvanie alumni]] 4731zgczwdel12d7bbxofa71iaf840n Japanese general election, 2012 0 55911 916891 869349 2026-05-17T13:39:00Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916891 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox election | election_name = Japanese general election, 2012 | country = Japan | type = parliamentary | ongoing = no | previous_election = Japanese general election, 2009 | previous_year = 2009 | previous_mps = Representatives electit in the Japanese general election, 2009 | elected_mps = [[Representatives electit in the Japanese general election, 2012|members electit]] | next_election = Japanese general election, 2014 | next_year = 2014 | seats_for_election = Aw 480 seats tae the [[Hoose o Representatives (Japan)|Hoose o Representatives o Japan]] | majority_seats = 241 | election_date = 16 December 2012 | image1 = [[File:Abe Shinzo 2012 02.jpg|150x150px]] | leader1 = [[Shinzō Abe]] | leader_since1 = 26 September 2012 | party1 = Liberal Democratic Pairty (Japan) | leaders_seat1 = [[Yamaguchi 4t destrict|Yamaguchi-4t]] | last_election1 = 119 seats<br>38.68% (destrict)<br>26.73% (block) | seats_before1 = 118 | seats1 = 294 | seat_change1 = {{increase}} 176 | popular_vote1 = 25,643,309 (destrict)<br>16,624,457 (block) | percentage1 = 43.01% (destrict)<br>27.79% (block) | image2 = [[File:Yoshihiko Noda-3.jpg|150x150px]] | leader2 = [[Yoshihiko Noda]] | leader_since2 = 29 August 2011 | party2 = Democratic Pairty o Japan | leaders_seat2 = [[Chiba 4t destrict|Chiba-4t]] | last_election2 = 308 seats<br>47.43% (destrict)<br>42.41% (block) | seats_before2 = 230 | seats2 = 57 | seat_change2 = {{decrease}} 173 | popular_vote2 = 13,598,773 (destrict)<br> 9,268,653 (block) | percentage2 = 22.81% (destrict)<br>15.49% (block) | image3 = [[File:Ishihara Shintaro 1-1.jpg|150x150px]] | leader3 = [[Shintaro Ishihara]] | leader_since3 = 17 November 2012 | party3 = Japan Restoration Pairty | leaders_seat3 = {{nowrap|[[Tokyo proportional representation block|Tokyo PR]]}}<ref>''The Japan Times'', 19 November 2012: [http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20121119a2.html "Shintaro Ishihara to run in Tokyo proportional representation block in Japan's general election."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130220942/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20121119a2.html |date=2012-11-30 }}</ref> | last_election3 = ''new pairty'' | seats_before3 = 11 | seats3 = 54 | seat_change3 = {{increase}} 43 | popular_vote3 = 6,942,353 (destrict)<br>12,262,228 (block) | percentage3 = 11.64% (destrict)<br>20.5% (block) | image4 = [[File:Natsuo Yamaguchi-1.jpg|150x150px]] | leader4 = [[Natsuo Yamaguchi]] | leader_since4 = 8 September 2009 | party4 = New Komeito Pairty | leaders_seat4 = {{nowrap|''nae contesting'' ([[Hoose o Cooncillors|Coun.]])}} | last_election4 = 21 seats<br>1.11% (destrict)<br>11.45% (block) | seats_before4 = 21 | seats4 = 31 | seat_change4 = {{increase}} 10 | popular_vote4 = 885,881 (destrict)<br>7,116,474 (block) | percentage4 = 1.49% (destrict)<br>11.9% (block) | image5 = [[File:Yoshimi Watanabe cropped.jpg|150x150px]] | leader5 = [[Yoshimi Watanabe]] | leader_since5 = 8 August 2009 | party5 = Your Pairty | leaders_seat5 = [[Tochigi 3rd district|Tochigi-3rd]] | last_election5 = 8 seats<br>0.87% (destrict)<br>4.27% (block) | seats_before5 = 8 | seats5 = 18 | seat_change5 = {{increase}} 10 | popular_vote5 = 2,807,244 (destrict)<br>5,245,586 (block) | percentage5 = 4.71% (destrict)<br>8.77% (block) | image6 = [[File:Kada Yukiko 1-1.jpg|150x150px]] | leader6 = [[Yukiko Kada]] | leader_since6 = 28 November 2012 | party6 = Tomorrow Pairty o Japan | leaders_seat6 = {{nowrap|''nae contestin'' ([[Shiga Prefectur|Gov.]])}} | last_election6 = ''new pairty'' | seats_before6 = 61 | seats6 = 9 | seat_change6 = {{down}} 52 | popular_vote6 = 2,992,365 (destrict)<br>3,423,915 (block) | percentage6 = 5.02% (destrict)<br>5.72% (block) | image7 = [[File:Kazuo Shii cropped.jpg|150x150px]] | leader7 = [[Kazuo Shii]] | leader_since7 = 24 November 2000 | party7 = Japanese Communist Pairty | leaders_seat7 = {{nowrap|[[Soothren Kanto proportional representation block|Minami-Kantō PR]]}} | last_election7 = 9 seats<br>4.22% (destrict)<br>7.03% (block) | seats_before7 = 9 | seats7 = 8 | seat_change7 = {{down}} 1 | popular_vote7 = 4,700,289 (destrict)<br>3,689,159 (block) | percentage7 = 7.88% (destrict)<br>6.17% (block) | image8 = [[File:Mizuho Fukushima cropped.jpg|150x150px]] | leader8 = [[Mizuho Fukushima]] | leader_since8 = 15 November 2000 | party8 = Social Democratic Pairty (Japan) | leaders_seat8 = {{nowrap|''nae contestin'' ([[Hoose o Cooncillors|Coun.]])}} | last_election8 = 7 seats<br>1.95% (destrict)<br>4.27% (block) | seats_before8 = 5 | seats8 = 2 | seat_change8 = {{down}} 3 | popular_vote8 = 451,762 (destrict)<br>1,420,790 (block) | percentage8 = 0.76% (destrict)<br>2.38% (block) | image9 = <span style="line-height:150px; vertical-align:center; text-align:center; color:{{Fowk's New Pairty/meta/color}}; font-size:38px;"> '''PNP'''</span> | leader9 = [[Shozaburo Jimi]] | leader_since9 = 5 Aprile 2012 | party9 = Fowk's New Pairty | leaders_seat9 = {{nowrap|''nae contestin'' ([[Hoose o Cooncillors|Coun.]])}} | last_election9 = 3 seats<br>1.04% (destrict)<br>1.73% (block) | seats_before9 = 3 | seats9 = 1 | seat_change9 = {{down}} 2 | popular_vote9 = 117,185 (destrict)<br>70,847 (block) | percentage9 = 0.2% (destrict)<br>0.12% (block) | map_image = JapanGE20012.png | map_size = 350px | map_caption = [[Leet o Destricts o the Hoose o Representatives o Japan|destricts an PR destricts]] wan bi respective pairties | title = [[Prime Meenister o Japan|Prime Meenister]] | posttitle = | before_election = [[Yoshihiko Noda]] | before_party = Democratic Pairty o Japan | after_election = [[Shinzo Abe]] | after_party = Liberal Democratic Pairty (Japan)}} A '''[[Elections in Japan|general election]]''' wis held in [[Japan]] on 16 December 2012. Voters gae the [[Liberal Democratic Pairty (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Pairty]] a [[landslide victory]], ejectin the [[Democratic Pairty o Japan]] frae pouer efter three years. It wis the fowert worst defeat suffered bi a rulin pairty in Japanese history. Votin teuk place in aw [[Leet o destricts o the Hoose o Representatives o Japan|representatives' constituencies]] o [[Japan]] includin proportional blocks, in order tae appynt [[Leet o members o the Diet o Japan|Members o Diet]] tae seats in the [[Hoose o Representatives (Japan)|Hoose o Representatives]], the [[lawer hoose]] o the [[Naitional Diet|Naitional Diet o Japan]]. This wis the {{Nihongo|46t general election o members o the Hoose o Representatives|第46回衆議院議員総選挙|dai-yonjūrokkai Shūgiin giin sōsenkyo}} in Japan syne 1869. In Julie 2012 it wis reportit that the deputy prime meenister [[Katsuya Okada]] haed approached the Liberal Democratic Pairty tae soond them oot aboot dissolvin the hoose o representatives an hauldin the election in Januar 2013.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/T120729002608.htm | title=Okada eyes Jan. dissolution of lower house | work=Yomiuri Shimbun | date=30 July 2012 | agency=Jiji Press | accessdate=14 November 2012 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731135653/http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/T120729002608.htm | archivedate=2012-07-31 | url-status=live }}</ref> An agreement wis reached in August tae dissolve the Diet an hauld early elections "shortly" follaein the passage o a bill tae raise the naitional consumption tax.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-japan-too-new-taxes-levy-political-toll/2012/08/17/c41effb0-e6b6-11e1-8f62-58260e3940a0_story.html| title=In Japan, new taxes levy political toll on Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda | work=The Washington Post | date=18 August 2012 |accessdate=20 August 2012 | author=Harlan, Chico}}</ref> It wis reportit that as the result o introducin the consumption tax tae repay the [[Japan public debt]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c04cont.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-08-07 |archive-date=2013-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105175153/http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c04cont.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>http://www.nbr.org/research/activity.aspx?id=178</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://business.time.com/2011/04/06/a-hard-look-at-japans-debt-problem/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-08-07 |archive-date=2012-09-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120911094306/http://business.time.com/2011/04/06/a-hard-look-at-japans-debt-problem/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ajw.asahi.com/article/economy/business/AJ201205110051 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-08-07 |archive-date=2012-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102052451/http://ajw.asahi.com/article/economy/business/AJ201205110051 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-06-04/japan-s-debt-sustains-a-deflationary-depression.html</ref> the DPJ lost aroond 75% o its pre-election seats.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/politics/AJ201212250101 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-08-07 |archive-date=2012-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231074337/http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/politics/AJ201212250101 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mansfieldfdn.org/backup/polls/pdf/martin_commentary.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-08-07 |archive-date=2012-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330184342/http://mansfieldfdn.org/backup/polls/pdf/martin_commentary.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:2012 elections]] [[Category:Japanese general elections|2012]] 1wpdo14nlxgf7suyby0ajd9zs4q22wk Nestlé 0 65477 916904 736595 2026-05-17T20:26:52Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916904 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company |name = Nestlé S.A. |logo = Nestlé.svg |type = [[S.A. (corporation)|Société Anonyme]] |traded_as = {{SWX|NESN}}<br/>{{Euronext|isin=BE0004605466|NESTS}}<br/>{{OTCPink|NSRGY}} |foundation = Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company<br/>(1866)<br/>Farine Lactée Henri Nestlé<br/>(1867)<br/>Nestlé and Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company<br/>(1905) |founder = [[Henri Nestlé]], Charles Page, George Page |location = [[Vevey]], Swisserland |area_served = Warldwide |key_people = [[Paul Bulcke]]<ref name="Management">{{cite web|url=http://www.nestle.com/aboutus/management|title=Management|publisher=Nestlé|accessdate=29 May 2017}}</ref><br>{{small|(Chairman)}}<br>[[Ulf Mark Schneider]]<ref name="Management"/><br>{{small|(CEO)}} |industry = [[Fuid processin]] |products = [[Baby fuid]], coffee, [[dairy products]], [[breakfast cereals]], confectionery, [[bottled watter]], [[ice cream]], [[pet foods]] ([[Leet o Nestlé brands|leet...]]) |revenue = {{Increase}} [[Swiss Franc|CHF]]89.8&nbsp;billion (2017)<ref name="AR2015">{{cite web |url=http://www.rts.ch/info/economie/9336807-nestle-degage-un-benefice-net-en-baisse-de-15-8-en-2017.html |format=PDF|title=Nestlé dégage un bénéfice net en baisse de 15,8% en 2017 |accessdate=15 February 2017 |publisher=RTS}}</ref> |operating_income = {{Increase}} CHF13.16&nbsp;billion (2016)<ref name="AR2015" /> |net_income = {{Decrease}} CHF8.88&nbsp;billion (2016)<ref name="AR2015" /> |assets = {{Decrease}} CHF131.9&nbsp;billion (2016)<ref name="AR2015" /> |equity = {{Decrease}} CHF65.98&nbsp;billion (2016)<ref name="AR2015" /> |num_employees = 352,000 (2019) |homepage = {{url|http://www.nestle.com}} |intl = yes }} '''Nestlé S.A.''' ({{IPA-fr|nɛsle}}; {{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|n|ɛ|s|l|eɪ}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|ɛ|s|l|i}}) is a Swiss [[Multinaitional corporation|multinaitional]] fuid an beverage company heidquartered in [[Vevey]], Swisserland. It is the lairgest fuid company in the warld measured bi revenues.<ref name="money.cnn.com">[http://money.cnn.com/2011/04/01/news/companies/nestle_brabeck_medical_foods.fortune/index.htm "Nestlé's Brabeck: We have a "huge advantage" over big pharma in creating medical foods"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410191138/http://money.cnn.com/2011/04/01/news/companies/nestle_brabeck_medical_foods.fortune/index.htm |date=2014-04-10 }}, ''CNN Money'', 1 April 2011</ref><ref>[http://www.economist.com/node/14744982 "Nestlé: The unrepentant chocolatier"], ''The Economist'', 29 October 2009. Retrieved 17 May 2012</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nestle}} [[Category:Companies leetit on the Pink Sheets]] [[Category:Swiss confectionery]] [[Category:Chocolatiers]] [[Category:Companies established in 1866]] [[Category:Hoosehauld brands]] [[Category:Companies umwhile leetit on the Lunnon Stock Exchynge]] [[Category:Companies umwhile leetit on the Tokyo Stock Exchynge]] [[Category:Companies leetit on the SIX Swiss Exchynge]] [[Category:Breakfast cereal companies]] [[Category:Dairy products companies]] [[Category:Dairy products companies o Swisserland]] [[Category:Multinaitional fuid companies]] [[Category:Multinaitional companies heidquartert in Swisserland]] [[Category:Nestlé|*]] [[Category:Breetish Ryal Warrand hauders]] [[Category:Vevey]] q48szz0ohlqz6lyb3scu5cd4fwhc1qi Procter & Gamble 0 65492 916935 888897 2026-05-18T02:23:40Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916935 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots|date=Dizember 2020}} {{Infobox company | company_name = Procter & Gamble Co. | company_logo = Procter & Gamble logo.svg | logo_size = 160px | company_type = [[Public company|Public]] | slogan = ''Touching lives, improving life'' | traded_as = {{nyse|PG}}<br>[[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] component<br />[[S&P 500]] component | foundation = 1837 | founder = [[William Procter (candlemaker)|William Procter]]<br />[[James Gamble (industrialist)|James Gamble]] | location = [[Cincinnati]], Ohio, U.S. | area_served = Worldwide | key_people = [[A.G. Lafley]]<br><small>Chairman, President and CEO</small> | industry = [[Fast-movin consumer guids|Consumer guids]] | products = Fuids, beverages, [[cleanin agent]]s an [[personal care products]]<br />''[[Leet o Procter & Gamble brands|See P&G brands]]'' | revenue = {{decrease}} {{US$|65.29 billion|link=yes}}<ref name=10K>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/finance?q=NYSE%3APG&fstype=ii&ei=FFgDUeDOBcjFkgX6wAE|title=2016 Earnings Report, The Procter & Gamble Company|publisher=The Procter & Gamble Company|accessdate=August 14, 2016}}</ref> | revenue_year = 2016 | operating_income = {{increase}} {{US$|13.44 billion}}<ref name=10K/> | income_year = 2016 | net_income = {{increase}} {{US$|10.50 billion}}<ref name=10K/> | net_income_year = 2016 | assets = {{decrease}} {{US$|127.1 billion}}<ref name=10K/> | assets_year = 2016 | equity = {{decrease}} {{US$|57.34 billion}}<ref name=10K/> | equity_year = 2016 | num_employees = 105,000<ref name=10K/> | num_employees_year = 2016 | homepage = {{URL|1=http://www.pg.com/}} }} '''Procter & Gamble Co.''', forby kent as '''P&G,''' is an American [[multinaitional corporation|multinaitional]] [[Fast movin consumer goods|consumer guids]] company heidquartered in [[dountoun Cincinnati]], Ohio, Unitit States. Its products include pet fuids, [[cleanin agent]]s, an [[personal care products]]. Prior tae the sale o [[Pringles]] tae the [[Kellogg Company]], its product line included fuids an beverages.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bostonherald.com/business/general/view.bg?articleid=1177884&srvc=next_article |title=Procter & Gamble board meets amid CEO reports |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=Boston Herald |date=June 9, 2009 |accessdate=May 5, 2012 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In 2012, P&G recordit $83.68 billion in sales. ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'' magazine awairdit P&G a tap spot on its leet o "Global Top Companies for Leaders", an ranked the company at fifteent place o the "World's Most Admired Companies" leet.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/most-admired/2013/list/?iid=wma_sp_full |title=Fortune's List of World's Most Admired Companies |publisher=Fortune |date=August 7, 2013 |accessdate=August 7, 2013 |archive-date=2013-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808235056/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/most-admired/2013/list/?iid=wma_sp_full |url-status=dead }}</ref> Chief Executive Magazine named P&G the best oweraw company for leadership development in its leet o the "40 Best Companies for Leaders". ==References== {{Reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Procter and Gamble}} [[Category:Companies leetit on the New York Stock Exchynge]] [[Category:Companies established in 1837]] [[Category:Companies based in Cincinnati, Ohio]] [[Category:Companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average]] [[Category:Manufacturin companies based in Ohio]] [[Category:Naitional Medal o Technology recipients]] [[Category:Pharmaceutical companies o the Unitit States]] [[Category:Procter & Gamble| ]] [[Category:Pulp and paper companies o the Unitit States]] [[Category:Dental companies]] [[Category:Brand management]] [[Category:Warldwide Olympic sponsors]] {{stub}} rbo00m8te0su57y793c6ssvp45yopgn WarnerMedia 0 67523 916947 898910 2026-05-18T10:58:09Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916947 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company |name = WarnerMedia, LLC |logo = [[File:WarnerMedia.svg|200px]] |type = [[Public company|Public]] |traded_as = {{New York Stock Exchange|TWX}}<br />[[S&P 500|S&P 500 Component]] | predecessor = [[Time Inc.]]<br />[[Warner Communications]] |foundation = 1990 as Time Warner <br /> 2018 as WarnerMedia |location_city = 1 [[Time Warner Center]],<br />New York Ceety, New York |location_country = Unitit States |key_people = [[Jeffrey Bewkes]]<br />(Chairman & CEO) |area_served = Warldwide |industry = [[Mass media]] |products = Film an Entertainment, Televeesion, an Publishin |owner = |parent = [[AT&T]] |subsid = [[Leet o assets ained bi Time Warner|Leet o subsidiaries]] | revenue = {{Increase}} {{USD|28.11 billion|link=yes}} (2015)<ref name='xbrlus_1'>{{cite web |url=https://www.google.com/finance?q=NYSE%3ATWX&fstype=ii&ei=8DYvV8myEZGa0AS-g7GgCg|title=Time Warner Inc 2015 Annual Report Form (10-K) |publisher=United States Securities and Exchange Commission |website=EDGAR |date=February 27, 2016 |access-date=December 21, 2015}}</ref> | operating_income = {{Increase}} {{USD|6.865 billion}} (2015)<ref name='xbrlus_1'/> | net_income = {{Increase}} {{USD|3.833 billion}} (2015)<ref name='xbrlus_1'/> | assets = {{Increase}} {{USD|63.84 billion}} (2015)<ref name='xbrlus_1'/> | equity = {{Decrease}} {{USD|23.61 billion}} (2015)<ref name='xbrlus_1'/> | num_employees = 24,800 (2016)<ref name='xbrlus_1'/> |homepage = [http://www.timewarner.com/ www.TimeWarner.com] }} '''WarnerMedia, LLC''' (umwhile '''AOL Time Warner''' and '''TimeWarner''') is an American [[Multinaitional corporation|multinaitional]] [[mass media|media]] corporation heidquartered in the [[Time Warner Center]] in New York Ceety.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.timewarner.com/corp/aboutus/fact_sheet.html |title=TimeWarner.com Fact Sheet Page |access-date=2014-01-28 |archive-date=2008-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828133805/http://www.timewarner.com/corp/aboutus/fact_sheet.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> As o mid-2010, it wis the warld's seicont lairgest media an entertainment conglomerate in terms o revenue (behind [[The Walt Disney Company]]), as well as the warld's lairgest media [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2009/industries/145/index.html | work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] | accessdate=May 25, 2010 | title=Global 500 2009: Industries: Entertainment | date=July 20, 2009 | archive-date=2018-06-14 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614174856/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2009/industries/145/index.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.viacom.com/investorrelations/Investor_Relations_Docs/Q407%20Web%20Deck%20FINAL.pdf |title=PowerPoint Presentation |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=May 1, 2013 |archive-date=2010-09-16 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5smqiphfZ?url=http://www.viacom.com/investorrelations/Investor_Relations_Docs/Q407%20Web%20Deck%20FINAL.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://money.cnn.com/2009/02/09/news/companies/disney_dreamworks.fortune/?postversion=2009020914 | publisher=[[CNNMoney.com]] | title=Why Disney wants DreamWorks | date=February 9, 2009 | accessdate=May 25, 2010 | first=Richard | last=Siklos | archive-date=2018-12-26 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226120254/https://money.cnn.com/2009/02/09/news/companies/disney_dreamworks.fortune/?postversion=2009020914 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.newscorp.com/Report2007/AnnualReport2007/HTML2/news_corp_ar2007_0069.htm News Corporation - Annual Report 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513074959/http://www.newscorp.com/Report2007/AnnualReport2007/HTML2/news_corp_ar2007_0069.htm |date=2013-05-13 }}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Companies leetit on the New York Stock Exchynge]] [[Category:Atlanta Braves ainers]] [[Category:Companies based in Manhattan]] [[Category:Enterteenment companies o the Unitit States]] [[Category:Internet companies o the Unitit States]] [[Category:Magazine publishin companies o the Unitit States|Time Warner, Inc.]] [[Category:Multinaitional companies heidquartered in the Unitit States]] [[Category:Multinaitional companies based in New York Ceety]] [[Category:Publicly tradit companies based in New York Ceety]] [[Category:Publishin companies established in 1990]] [[Category:Telecommunications companies o the Unitit States]] [[Category:Time Warner| ]] [[Category:Turner Broadcastin Seestem]] [[Category:Conglomerate companies o the Unitit States]] 9xqidv3ty6v9xzyd31jrjb6d531xqns K-pop 0 75889 916893 891535 2026-05-17T14:23:24Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916893 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox muisic genre |[[Contemporar R&B|R&B]] • [[Bubblegum pop]] | color=black | bgcolor=#87CEEB | stylistic_origins = [[Rhythm an blues]] • [[Jazz]] • [[Fowk muisic|Fowk]] • [[Dance muisic|Dance]] • [[Clessical muisic|Clessical]] • [[Rock an roll]] • [[Synthpop]] • [[Korean muisic]] | cultural_origins = Nominally early 1990s, Sooth Korea (ruits tracit tae the 1960s) | instruments = [[Singin|Vocals]] • [[Rappin]] • [[Drum machine]] • [[Drum pad]] • [[Drum kit|Drums]] • [[Bass guitar|Electric bass]] • [[Keybuird graith|Keybuirds]] • [[Piano]] • [[Sampler (muisical graith)|Sampler]] • [[Muisic sequencer|Sequencer]] • [[Synthesizer]] | derivatives = | subgenrelist = | subgenres = | fusiongenres = | regional_scenes = | local_scenes = [[Seoul]] | other_topics = [[Muisic o Korea]]<br />[[C-pop]] • [[J-pop]] • [[Mandopop]] }} '''K-pop''' (a abbreviation o '''Korean popular muisic'''<ref name="mediasia" />; {{lang-ko|케이팝}} or {{lang|ko|K팝}}, romanisit ''keipap''<ref name="mediasia">{{cite book |title=Medi@sia: global media/tion in and out of context |last=Holden |first=Todd Joseph Miles |last2=Scrase |first2= Timothy J. |year=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-37155-1 |page=144 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=h5rBuzQudXYC&pg=PA144|quote=Since the 1990s, the term “K-pop” has become popularized to refer to Korean popular music, being widely used throughout East and Southeast Asia.}}</ref>) is a [[muisic genre|muisical genre]] oreeginatin in [[Sooth Korea]] that is characterisit bi a wide variety o [[audiovisual]] elements. Awtho it comprises aw genres o "popular muisic" athin Sooth Korea, the term is mair aften uised in a narraeer sense tae describe a modren form o Sooth Korean [[pop muisic]] coverin maistly [[dance-pop]], [[pop ballad]], electronic, rock, hip-hop, R&B, etc.<ref name="Naver">{{cite web|title=K-Pop|url=http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=1083184|publisher=[[Naver]]|work=[[Doosan Encyclopedia]]|accessdate=11 March 2012|archive-date=2020-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724212246/http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1381335|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1992, modren K-pop wis ushered in wi the formation o [[Seo Taiji & Boys]], whose successfu experimentation wi different [[Leet o muisic styles|muisic styles]] haed spairkit a [[paradigm shift]] in the [[muisic industry]] o Sooth Korea.<ref name=BP>{{cite news|last=Rothman|first=Lily|title=Beyond PSY: 5 Essential K-Pop Tracks|url=http://entertainment.time.com/2013/04/12/beyond-psy-5-essential-k-pop-tracks/|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|accessdate=April 13, 2013|date=2013-04-12}}</ref> As a result, the integration o foreign muisical elements haes nou acome a common practice in the K-pop industry.<ref>{{cite web|author=Dae Ryun Chang and Kyongon Choi|title=What Marketers Can Learn from Korean Pop Music|url=http://blogs.hbr.org/cs/2011/07/what_marketers_can_learn_from.html|work=Havard Business Review|accessdate=19 October 2012}}</ref> Bi tappin intae [[social netwirkin service]]s an the video sharin platform [[YouTube]], the K-pop industry's ability tae secure a sizable owerseas audience haes facilitatit a noticeable rise in the global proliferation o the genre.<ref name="autogenerated2">Yoon, Lina. (2010-08-26) "[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2013227,00.html K-Pop Online: Korean Stars Go Global with Social Media] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907161956/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2013227,00.html |date=2012-09-07 }}". ''Time''. Retrieved 2011-02-20.</ref> Syne the mid-2000s, the K-pop muisic mercat haes experienced dooble deegit growthe rates. In the first hauf of 2012, it grossed nearly US$3.4 billion,<ref name="billboardrevenue"/> an wis recognisit bi [[Time (magazine)|Time]] magazine as "South Korea's Greatest Export".<ref>{{cite news|title=South Korea’s Greatest Export: How K-Pop’s Rocking the World|url=http://world.time.com/2012/03/07/south-koreas-greatest-export-how-k-pops-rocking-the-world/|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|accessdate=28 April 2013|date=2012-03-07|archive-date=2012-09-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916232241/http://world.time.com/2012/03/07/south-koreas-greatest-export-how-k-pops-rocking-the-world/|url-status=dead}}</ref> First gainin popularity in [[East Asie]] in the late 1990s, K-pop entered the [[Japan]]ese muisic mercat towards the turn o the 21st century. In the late 2000s, it grew frae a muisical genre intae a [[subcultur]] amang teenagers an young adults o East an [[Sootheast Asie]].<ref>"[http://www.economist.com/node/15385735 South Korea’s pop-cultural exports]", ''The Economist''</ref> Currently, the spread o K-pop tae ither regions o the warld, via the [[Korean wave]], is seen in pairts o [[Laitin Americae]],<ref>{{cite news|author=Anjani Trivedi|title=Forget Politics, Let’s Dance: Why K-Pop Is a Latin American Smash|url=http://world.time.com/2013/08/01/forget-politics-lets-dance-why-k-pop-is-a-latin-american-smash/|accessdate=9 January 2014|publisher=[[Time (magazine)]]|date=Aug 1, 2013|archive-date=2013-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803061131/http://world.time.com/2013/08/01/forget-politics-lets-dance-why-k-pop-is-a-latin-american-smash/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Marlon Bishop|title=Meet Latin America's Teenage Korean Pop Fanatics|url=http://www.npr.org/2013/12/15/251021326/meet-latin-america-s-teenage-korean-pop-fanatics|accessdate=9 January 2014|publisher=[[NPR]]|date=December 15, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=South Korea's K-pop spreads to Latin America|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gxOWILlKeDQpqipMWx9fIFnKMVEA?docId=CNG.2675b7fded96e2e3c9f9668042c6fbc4.551|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|accessdate=28 March 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302233351/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gxOWILlKeDQpqipMWx9fIFnKMVEA?docId=CNG.2675b7fded96e2e3c9f9668042c6fbc4.551|archivedate=2013-03-02|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Northeast Indie]],<ref name="afpindia"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Anugya Chitransh|title=‘Korean Wave’ takes Indian kids in its sway|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-03/india/32005319_1_korean-drama-korean-wave-korean-tv|publisher=[[The Times of India]]|accessdate=9 January 2014|date=Jun 3, 2012|archive-date=2013-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130704080549/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-03/india/32005319_1_korean-drama-korean-wave-korean-tv|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[North Africae]],<ref name="kpopcairo">{{cite web|title=Korean pop culture spreads in Cairo|url=http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/korean-pop-culture-spreads-cairo|work=Egypt Independent|accessdate=14 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Egyptian-Korean ties endorsed through pop idol competition|url=http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/egyptian-korean-ties-endorsed-through-pop-idol-competition|publisher=[[Egypt Independent]]|accessdate=2011-07-30}}</ref> the [[Middle East]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Middle East: Korean pop 'brings hope for peace'|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-23606319|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=7 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Natalie Long|title=Infinite lead K-Pop invasion in Dubai|url=http://gulfnews.com/arts-entertainment/celebrity/infinite-lead-k-pop-invasion-in-dubai-1.1264255|date=December 7, 2013|publisher=[[Gulf News]]|accessdate=9 January 2014}}</ref> [[Eastren Europe]]<ref>{{cite web|title=K-pop Comes to Poland|url=http://www.warsawvoice.pl/WVpage/pages/article.php/23936/article|publisher=[[The Warsaw Voice]]}}</ref><ref name="mjrkpop">{{cite web|last=James Russell|first=Mark|title=The Gangnam Phenom|url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/09/27/the_gangnam_phenom|work=[[Foreign Policy]]|quote=First taking off in China and Southeast Asia in the late 1990s, but really spiking after 2002, Korean TV dramas and pop music have since moved to the Middle East and Eastern Europe, and now even parts of South America.|accessdate=11 October 2012|archive-date=2014-11-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118112718/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/09/27/the_gangnam_phenom|url-status=dead}}</ref> an [[immigrant]] [[Ethnic enclave|enclave]]s o the [[Wastren warld]].<ref name="latimeskpop">{{cite news|title=K-pop enters American pop consciousness|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2012/apr/29/entertainment/la-ca-kpop-20120429/2|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|accessdate=24 March 2013|quote=The fan scene in America has been largely centered on major immigrant hubs like Los Angeles and New York, where Girls' Generation sold out Madison Square Garden with a crop of rising K-pop acts including BoA and Super Junior.|first=August|last=Brown|date=2012-04-29|archive-date=2013-01-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105164619/http://articles.latimes.com/2012/apr/29/entertainment/la-ca-kpop-20120429/2|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="newyorker">{{cite web|last=Seabrook|first=John|title=Cultural technology and the making of K-pop|url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/10/08/121008fa_fact_seabrook?currentPage=all|work=[[The New Yorker]]|accessdate=4 March 2013|quote=The crowd was older than I’d expected, and the ambience felt more like a video-game convention than like a pop concert. About three out of four people were Asian-American, but there were also Caucasians of all ages, and a number of black women.}}</ref><ref name="huffingtonpost">{{cite news|last=Chen|first=Peter|title='Gangnam Style': How One Teen Immigrant Fell For K-Pop Music|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/02/09/going-gangnam-how-one-tee_n_2529142.html|work=[[Huffington Post]]|accessdate=4 March 2013|quote=It is common for Chinese teens in the U.S. to be fans of K-pop, too.|date=2013-02-09}}</ref><ref name="theoneshots">{{cite web|title=Black is the New K-Pop: Interview With 'Black K-Pop Fans'|url=http://www.theoneshots.com/2013/02/black-is-the-new-k-pop-interview-with-black-k-pop-fans/|publisher=The One Shots|accessdate=4 March 2013}}</ref> ==Notes== <references group="note" /> ==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} {{DEFAULTSORT:K-pop}} [[Category:K-pop| ]] [[Category:Sooth Korean youth cultur]] 2seco3bx9n5gml8uvqcbpwghlf5zsqj Volkswagen Group 0 77906 916946 862732 2026-05-18T10:47:43Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916946 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox company |name = Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft |logo = [[File:Volkswagen Group.svg|250px]] |image = Wolfsburg VWHochhaus und Kraftwerk.JPG |image_caption = Volkswagen Headquarters |type = [[Public company|Public]] ([[Aktiengesellschaft|AG]]) |traded_as = {{FWB|VOW}}<br>{{FWB3|VOW3}}<br>{{OTCQX|VLKAY}} |foundation = [[Berlin]], Germany ({{Start date|df=yes|1937|05|28}}) |location_city = Wolfsburg |location_country = Germany |locations = [[:en:list of Volkswagen Group factories|100 production facilities athort 27 kintras]] |area_served = Warldwide |key_people = [[Hans Dieter Pötsch]] (Chairman o the Supervisory Board)<br>[[Herbert Diess]] (Chairman o the Buird o Management)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.volkswagen-media-services.com/en/detailpage/-/detail/Extensive-revision-of-Volkswagen-Group-management-structure-decided/view/6821211/7a5bbec13158edd433c6630f5ac445da?p_auth=OUOY3Rd3|title=Extensive revision of Volkswagen Group management structure decided - volkswagen-media-services.com|website=www.volkswagen-media-services.com|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-04-12|archive-date=2018-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413043610/https://www.volkswagen-media-services.com/en/detailpage/-/detail/Extensive-revision-of-Volkswagen-Group-management-structure-decided/view/6821211/7a5bbec13158edd433c6630f5ac445da?p_auth=OUOY3Rd3|url-status=dead}}</ref> |industry = [[Automotive industry|Automotive]] |products = Automobiles, [[commercial vehicle]]s, [[internal combustion engine|engines]], motorcycles, turbomachinery |production = {{increase}} 10,777&nbsp;million <small>(2017)</small><ref name="AR17a">{{cite web|url=http://annualreport2017.volkswagenag.com/additional-information/five-year-overview.html |title=Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft Annual Report 2017|publisher=Volkswagen AG|date=13 March 2018|accessdate=17 March 2018}}</ref> |services = [[Banking]], [[financing]], [[fleet management]], [[insurance]], [[leasing]]{{Sfn|Volkswagen AG|2012|p=110}} |revenue = {{increase}} [[Euro|€]]230.682&nbsp;billion <small>(2017)</small><ref name="AR17a" /> |operating_income = {{increase}} €13.818&nbsp;billion <small>(2017)</small><ref name="AR17a" /> |net_income = {{increase}} €11.638&nbsp;billion <small>(2017)</small><ref name="AR17a" /> |assets = {{increase}} €422.193&nbsp;billion <small>(2017)</small><ref name="AR17a" /> |equity = {{increase}} €109.077&nbsp;billion <small>(2017)</small><ref name="AR17a" /> |owner = [[Porsche SE]] (50.7%)<ref name="Volkswagen Parent Company">{{cite web|url=http://www.porsche-se.com/pho/en/porschese/holdingstructure/|title=Holding Structure - Company - HOME - Porsche Automobil Holding SE|accessdate=9 March 2014|archive-date=2016-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901065434/http://www.porsche-se.com/pho/en/porschese/holdingstructure/|url-status=dead}}</ref><br/>[[Lawer Saxony|State o Lawer Saxony]] (20%)<br/>[[Qatar Investment Authority|Qatar Holding LLC]] (17%)<br>[[Capital Group Companies]] (4.097% participation, 5.6% voting rights) |num_employees = 642,292 <small>(31 December 2017)</small><ref name="AR17b">{{cite web|url=http://annualreport2017.volkswagenag.com/group-management-report/sustainable-value-enhancement/employees.html |title=Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft Annual Report 2017|publisher=Volkswagen AG|date=13 March 2018|accessdate=17 March 2018}}</ref> |divisions = {{unbulleted list | Automotive Division | Financial Services Division {{Sfn|Volkswagen AG|2012|p=110}} }} |subsid = {{Collapsible list|title=Transportation{{Sfn|Volkswagen AG|2012|pp=U60-U73}}|[[Audi|AUDI AG]]<br />[[Lamborghini|Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A.]]<br />[[Bentley]]<br />[[Bugatti Automobiles|Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.]]<br />[[Porsche|Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG]]<br />[[Ducati|Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A.]]<br>[[Ducati Corse|Ducati Corse S.r.l.]]<br />[[MAN SE]]<br />[[Scania (company)|Scania AB]]<br />[[SEAT|SEAT, S.A.]]<br />[[Škoda Auto|ŠKODA AUTO a.s.]]<br />[[Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles]]<br />[[Volkswagen|Volkswagen Passenger Cars]]<br />[[Volkswagen Marine]]}} {{Collapsible list|title=Designing Facilities|[[Italdesign Giugiaro]]}} {{Collapsible list|title=Financial Services|Volkswagen Financial Services AG<br />Volkswagen Leasing GmbH}} {{Collapsible list|title=Ithers|logistics:''<br />[[Volkswagen Group Fleet International]]<br />[[Volkswagen Group Supply]]<br />[[Volkswagen Air Service]]<br />''industrial:''<br />[[Volkswagen Industrial Motor]]<br />''international'':<br />[[Volkswagen Group China]]<br />[[Volkswagen Group India]]<br />{{nowrap|[[Volkswagen Group of America|Volkswagen Group of America, Inc.]]}}<br />[[Volkswagen Group Australia]]<br />[[Volkswagen do Brasil]]<br />[[History of Volkswagen in Ireland|Volkswagen Group Ireland]]<br />[[Volkswagen Group Italia|Volkswagen Group Italia S.p.A.]]<br />[[Volkswagen of South Africa (Pty) Ltd]]<br />[[Volkswagen Group United Kingdom Ltd.]]}} |homepage = {{URL|volkswagenag.com}} |footnotes = |intl = yes }} '''Volkswagen Group''' ({{IPA-de|ˈfɔlksˌvaːgən gʁuːp|pron}}, or '''Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft''', {{IPA-de|ˈfɔlksˌvaːgən ˈʔakt͡si̯əngəˌzɛlʃaft|pron}}) an its subsidiars, is a [[Germany|German]] [[multinaitional corporation|multinaitional]] [[Automotive industry|automotive]] manufacturin company heidquairtered in [[Wolfsburg]], [[Lawer Saxony]], [[Germany]]. It designs, manufacturs an distributes passenger an commercial vehicles, motorcycles, ingines, an turbomachinery an affers relatit services includin financin, leasin an fleet management. In 2016, it wis the warld's lairgest automakker bi sales, owertakin [[Toyota]]. It haes maintained the lairgest mercat share in Europe for ower twa decades.<ref name="ACEA2012">{{cite web|title=NEW PASSENGER CAR REGISTRATIONS BY MANUFACTURER EUROPEAN UNION (EU)|url=http://www.acea.be/images/uploads/files/20130116_PRPC-FINAL-1212.xls|format=XLS|publisher=ACEA|date=16 January 2013|accessdate=15 March 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203181621/http://www.acea.be/images/uploads/files/20130116_PRPC-FINAL-1212.xls|archivedate=2013-02-03|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web |url=http://www.acea.be/images/uploads/files/20130116_PRPC-FINAL-1212.xls |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-07-09 |archive-date=2013-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203181621/http://www.acea.be/images/uploads/files/20130116_PRPC-FINAL-1212.xls |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{ As of | 2013 }}, it rankit nint in the [[Fortune Global 500]] leet o the warld's lairgest companies.<ref>{{cite web | title = Volkswagen | work = [[Fortune Global 500]] | url = http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2013/snapshots/6729.html | year = 2013 | access-date = 2014-07-09 | archive-date = 2014-02-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140214104518/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2013/snapshots/6729.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Freemit airtins== {{Commons category}} *{{Official website|http://www.volkswagenag.com/vwag/vwcorp/content/en/homepage.html}} {{Volkswagen Group}} [[Category:Volkswagen Group| ]] [[Category:Companies based in Lawer Saxony]] [[Category:Companies established in 1937]] [[Category:Emergency services equipment makkers]] [[Category:Marine ingine manufacturers]] [[Category:Motor vehicle ingine manufacturers]] [[Category:Motor vehicle manufacturers o Germany]] [[Category:Companies o Germany]] e9djb6pv26quivsncj2sniyldozc6ne Anne Hathaway 0 80989 916899 916882 2026-05-17T19:33:57Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 dmy 916899 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Anne Hathaway | image = Anne Hathaway- Press conference for the film "The Devil Wears Prada 2" - 55194764955 (cropped).jpg | caption = Hathaway in 2026 | birth_name = Anne Jacqueline Hathaway | birth_date = {{birth date and age|1982|11|12}} | birth_place = [[Brooklyn]], [[New York Ceety]], [[New York]] | occupation = Actress | years_active = 1998–present | spouse = {{marriage|Adam Shulman|2012}} }} '''Anne Jacqueline Hathaway''' (born 12 November 1982) is an American actress. Her brakthrou debut film role wis as [[Mia Thermopolis]] in the [[Disney films|Disney]] [[Comedy film|comedy]] ''[[The Princess Diaries (film)|The Princess Diaries]]'' (2001). Hathaway made a transeetion tae adult roles in box office an creetically acclaimed films sic as ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005), ''[[The Devil Wears Prada (film)|The Devil Wears Prada]]'' (2006), as [[Jane Austen]] in ''[[Becoming Jane]]'' (2007), ''[[Rachel Getting Married]]'' (2008), ''[[Bride Wars]]'' (2009), ''[[Valentine's Day (2010 film)|Valentine's Day]]'' (2010), as the [[White Queen (Through the Looking-Glass)|White Queen]] in [[Tim Burton]]'s ''[[Alice in Wonderland (2010 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' (2010), ''[[Love & Other Drugs]]'' (2010), as [[DC Comics]] [[femme fatale]] [[Catwoman]] in [[Christopher Nolan]]'s ''[[The Dark Knight Rises]]'' (2012), as [[Fantine]] in [[Tom Hooper (director)|Tom Hooper]]'s ''[[Les Misérables (2012 film)|Les Misérables]]'' (2012), ''[[Interstellar (film)|Interstellar]]'' (2014), ''[[The Intern (2015 film)|The Intern]]'' (2015) an ''[[Alice Through the Looking Glass (2016 film)|Alice Through the Looking Glass]]'' (2016). {{authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hathaway, Anne}} [[Category:1982 births]] [[Category:20t-century American actresses]] [[Category:21st-century American actresses]] [[Category:Actresses frae New Jersey]] [[Category:Actresses frae New York Ceety]] [[Category:American film actresses]] [[Category:American fowk o French strynd]] [[Category:American fowk o German strynd]] [[Category:American fowk o Erse strynd]] [[Category:American fowk o Native American strynd]] [[Category:American stage actresses]] [[Category:American televeesion actresses]] [[Category:American vyce actresses]] [[Category:Best Supportin Actress BAFTA Awaird winners]] [[Category:Best Supportin Actress Gowden Globe (film) winners]] [[Category:Umwhile Roman Catholics]] [[Category:LGBT richts activists frae the Unitit States]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:Fowk frae Brooklyn]] [[Category:Fowk frae Millburn, New Jersey]] [[Category:Primetime Emmy Awaird winners]] [[Category:Ootstaundin Performance bi a Female Actor in a Supportin Role Screen Actors Guild Awaird winners]] [[Category:Best Supportin Actress Academy Awaird winners]] [[Category:American female sangsters]] [[Category:Vassar College alumni]] [[Category:New York Varsity alumni]] [[Category:American sopranos]] [[Category:American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni]] [[Category:American bairn actresses]] [[Category:American bairn sangsters]] [[Category:Seton Hall Preparatory Schuil alumni]] e19szsitdgj66kby84rl71sp4j102jn Steven Spielberg 0 83439 916898 916883 2026-05-17T19:32:28Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 dmy 916898 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | image = MKr25402 Steven Spielberg (Berlinale 2023) (3x4 cropped).jpg | caption = Steven Spielberg, 2023 | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|mf=yes|1946|12|18}}<ref>{{cite web|author=American Film Institute |url=http://www.afi.com/laa/laa95g.aspx |title=AFI Life Achievement Award |publisher=Afi.com |accessdate=October 20, 2013}}</ref> | birth_place = {{nowrap|[[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]], U.S.}} | residence = [[Los Angeles]], [[Californie]], U.S. | birth_name = Steven Allan Spielberg | spouse = {{unbulleted list | {{marriage|[[Amy Irving]]|1985|1989}} | {{marriage|[[Kate Capshaw]]|1991}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biography.com/articles/Steven-Spielberg-9490621 |title=Steven Spielberg Biography |publisher=Biography.com |date=December 18, 1947 |accessdate=January 31, 2011 |archive-date=2011-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514201106/https://www.biography.com/articles/Steven-Spielberg-9490621 |url-status=dead }}</ref> }} | children = 6 | occupation = {{hlist|Film director|film producer|screenwriter|entrepreneur}} | notable_works = {{unbulleted list | {{nowrap|''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]''}} | ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' | ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'' | ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]'' | ''[[Lincoln (2012 film)|Lincoln]]'' | ''[[Munich (film)|Munich]]'' | ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' | ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' | ''[[Schindler's List]]'' }} | education = [[Saratoga Heich Schuil (Californie)|Saratoga (CA) Heich Schuil]] | alma_mater = [[Californie State Varsity, Long Beach]] | religion = [[Judaism]] | networth = $3 billion (2014)<ref name="forbes1">[http://www.forbes.com/profile/steven-spielberg/ "Steven Spielberg"]. ''[[Forbes]]''. Retrieved 31 May 2014.</ref> | years_active = 1963–present }} '''Steven Allan Spielberg''' (born 18 December 1946)<ref>{{cite book| last = McBride| first = Joseph| title = Steven Spielberg| url = https://archive.org/details/stevenspielberg0000jose| publisher = Faber and Faber|year=1997| isbn = 0-571-19177-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/stevenspielberg0000jose/page/37 37]}}</ref> is an [[American fowk|American]] film director, producer an screenwriter. He is conseedert ane o the foondin pioneers o the [[New Hollywood]] era an ane o the maist popular directors an producers in film history.<ref>''The cinema of Steven Spielberg: Empire of light''. Nigel Morris. Wallflower Press. 2007</ref> Efter gainin traction in Hollywood wi directin telly an several minor theatrical releases, Spielberg becam a hoosehaud name as the director o ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'' (1975), that wis creetically an commercially successfu, an is conseedert the first simmer [[Blockbuster (enterteenment)|blockbuster]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Higgins|first1=Bill|title='Jaws': Revisiting Hollywood's First Summer Blockbuster|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/jaws-steven-spielberg-box-office-309339|accessdate=July 10, 2016|date=April 7, 2012|work=The Hollywood Reporter}}</ref> His subsequent releases focused teepically on science feection an adventur films, wi ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'' (1977), the ''[[Indiana Jones (franchise)|Indiana Jones]]'' series, ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' (1982), an the ''[[Jurassic Park]]'' series seen as archeteeps o modren Hollywood [[Escapism|escapist]] filmmakkin.<ref>{{cite news|title=Steven Spielberg to Harvard grads: Be the movie heroes of real life|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/steven-spielberg-to-harvard-grads-be-the-movie-heroes-of-real-life/articleshow/52463599.cms|work=The Economic Times}}</ref> Spielberg transeetioned intae addressin [[Humanism|humanistic]] issues in his later wark via the films ''[[The Color Purple (film)|The Color Purple]]'' (1985), ''[[Empire of the Sun (film)|Empire of the Sun]]'' (1987), ''[[Schindler's List]]'' (1993), ''[[Amistad (film)|Amistad]]'' (1997) an ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' (1998). He haes lairgely adhered tae this practice in the 21st century, wi ''[[Munich (film)|Munich]]'' (2005), ''[[Lincoln (film)|Lincoln]]'' (2012), ''[[Bridge of Spies (film)|Bridge of Spies]]'' (2015), an ''[[The Post (film)|The Post]]'' (2017). Spielberg co-foondit [[Amblin Entertainment]] an [[DreamWorks|DreamWorks Studios]], whaur he haes an aw served as a producer for several successfu films, includin the ''[[Back to the Future (franchise)|Back to the Future]]'', ''[[Men in Black (film series)|Men in Black]]'', an ''[[Transformers (film series)|Transformers]]'' series. Spielberg later transeetioned intae producin several gemmes within the video-gemme industrie. Spielberg is ane o the American film industrie's maist creetically successfu filmmakkers, wi praise for his directin talent an versatility,<ref>{{cite web|author1=[[Matt Zoller Seitz|Seitz, Matt Zoller]]|author2=Arikan, Ali|author3=Bramble, Serena|title=MAGIC AND LIGHT: THE FILMS OF STEVEN SPIELBERG: Chapter 1: Introduction|url=https://www.indiewire.com/2011/12/magic-and-light-the-films-of-steven-spielberg-chapter-1-introduction-132598/|website=[[IndieWire]]|date=December 15, 2011|quote=The fact that Spielberg is perfectly attuned to the commercial aspects of cinema does not preclude the idea that he is a master artist, who’s worthy of appreciation and study.... The longer Spielberg directs movies, the more apparent it becomes that his is a chameleonic talent, more versatile in some ways than the talents of two of his most profound cinematic influences, Alfred Hitchcock and Walt Disney.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author1=[[Manohla Dargis|Dargis, Manohla]]|author2=[[A. O. Scott|Scott, A. O.]]|title=The 25 Best Films of the 21st Century So Far.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/09/movies/the-25-best-films-of-the-21st-century.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]|accessdate=October 2, 2018|date=June 9, 2017|quote=In the 1990s, [Spielberg] made the transition from popular artist to prestige auteur.... His post-'[[Saving Private Ryan|Ryan]]' career has been distinguished by extraordinary productivity and equally remarkable range, but it hasn’t enjoyed the same level of acclaim. And yet, with characteristic verve and discipline, he has plunged into science fiction, history, politics, animation and espionage.}}</ref> an haes wan the [[Academy Awaird for Best Director]] twice.<ref>[[Academy Awaird for Best Director|Directors wi twa or mair Oscars]]</ref> Some o his movies are an aw amang the heichest-grossin movies o aw-time, while his tot wark, unadjuistit for ticket-price inflation, maks him the [[Leet o heichest-grossin directors|heichest-grossin film director in history]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/box-office-milestone-steven-spielberg-is-first-member-10b-directors-club-1103623|title=Box-Office Milestone: Steven Spielberg Is First Member of $10B Directors' Club|last=McClintock|first=Pamela|date=April 17, 2018|work=The Hollywood Reporter|access-date=April 18, 2018}}</ref> His [[net worth]] is estimatit tae be mair nor $3 billion.<ref name="forbes1" /> ==References== {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Spielberg, Steven}} [[Category:1946 births]] [[Category:20t-century American businessfowk]] [[Category:20t-century American male actors]] [[Category:20t-century American writers]] [[Category:21st-century American businessfowk]] [[Category:21st-century American male actors]] [[Category:21st-century American writers]] [[Category:Akira Kurosawa Awaird winners]] [[Category:American billionaires]] [[Category:American film eeditors]] [[Category:American film studio executives]] [[Category:American humanitarians]] [[Category:American male film actors]] [[Category:American male screenwriters]] [[Category:BAFTA fellaes]] [[Category:Best Directin Academy Awaird winners]] [[Category:Academy Awaird winners]] [[Category:Best Director BAFTA Awaird winners]] [[Category:Best Director Empire Awaird winners]] [[Category:Best Director Gowden Globe winners]] [[Category:Fowk frae Arizona]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae Californie]] [[Category:Fowk frae New Jersey]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae New York]] [[Category:Fowk frae Ohio]] [[Category:Californie Democrats]] [[Category:Californie State Varsity, Long Beach alumni]] [[Category:Cecil B. DeMille Awaird Gowden Globe winners]] [[Category:Chevaliers o the Légion d'honneur]] [[Category:Commanders o the Order o the Croun (Belgium)]] [[Category:David di Donatello Career Awaird winners]] [[Category:David di Donatello winners]] [[Category:Daytime Emmy Awaird winners]] [[Category:Eagle Scouts]] [[Category:Inglis-leid film directors]] [[Category:Film directors frae Californie]] [[Category:Film directors frae New York Ceety]] [[Category:Film theorists]] [[Category:Gowden Globe Awaird winnin producers]] [[Category:Honorary Knights Commander o the Order o the Breetish Empire]] [[Category:Jewish American airt collectors]] [[Category:Jewish American male actors]] [[Category:Jewish American philanthropists]] [[Category:Jewish American writers]] [[Category:Jews an Judaism]] [[Category:Kennedy Center honourees]] [[Category:Knicht Commanders o the Order o Meerit o the Federal Republic o Germany]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:Actors frae Arizona]] [[Category:Male actors frae Los Angeles]] [[Category:Male actors frae New Jersey]] [[Category:Male actors frae New York]] [[Category:Naitional Humanities Medal recipients]] [[Category:Fowk frae Cincinnati]] [[Category:East Hampton (toun), New York]] [[Category:Fowk frae Haddon Tounship, New Jersey]] [[Category:Philanthropists frae Californie]] [[Category:Producers that wan the Best Pictur Academy Awaird]] [[Category:Science feection fans]] [[Category:Science feection film directors]] [[Category:Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees]] [[Category:Short film directors]] [[Category:Special effects fowk]] [[Category:Televeesion producers frae Californie]] [[Category:Televeesion producers frae New York]] [[Category:Writers frae Los Angeles]] [[Category:Writers frae New Jersey]] [[Category:Writers frae New York]] [[Category:Fowk frae Scottsdale, Arizona]] [[Category:Directors Guild o Americae Awaird winners]] h6woigmbe6uhzagwqh6hpevjkhejije 916900 916898 2026-05-17T19:35:19Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916900 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | image = MKr25402 Steven Spielberg (Berlinale 2023) (3x4 cropped).jpg | caption = Steven Spielberg, 2023 | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|mf=yes|1946|12|18}}<ref>{{cite web|author=American Film Institute |url=http://www.afi.com/laa/laa95g.aspx |title=AFI Life Achievement Award |publisher=Afi.com |accessdate=October 20, 2013}}</ref> | birth_place = {{nowrap|[[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]], U.S.}} | residence = [[Los Angeles]], [[Californie]], U.S. | birth_name = Steven Allan Spielberg | spouse = {{unbulleted list | {{marriage|[[Amy Irving]]|1985|1989}} | {{marriage|[[Kate Capshaw]]|1991}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biography.com/articles/Steven-Spielberg-9490621 |title=Steven Spielberg Biography |publisher=Biography.com |date=December 18, 1947 |accessdate=January 31, 2011 |archive-date=2011-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514201106/https://www.biography.com/articles/Steven-Spielberg-9490621 |url-status=dead }}</ref> }} | children = 6 | occupation = {{hlist|Film director|film producer|screenwriter|entrepreneur}} | notable_works = {{unbulleted list | {{nowrap|''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]''}} | ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' | ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'' | ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]'' | ''[[Lincoln (2012 film)|Lincoln]]'' | ''[[Munich (film)|Munich]]'' | ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' | ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' | ''[[Schindler's List]]'' }} | education = [[Saratoga Heich Schuil (Californie)|Saratoga (CA) Heich Schuil]] | alma_mater = [[Californie State Varsity, Long Beach]] | religion = [[Judaism]] | networth = $3 billion (2014)<ref name="forbes1">[http://www.forbes.com/profile/steven-spielberg/ "Steven Spielberg"]. ''[[Forbes]]''. Retrieved 31 May 2014.</ref> | years_active = 1963–present }} '''Steven Allan Spielberg''' (born 18 December 1946)<ref>{{cite book| last = McBride| first = Joseph| title = Steven Spielberg| url = https://archive.org/details/stevenspielberg0000jose| publisher = Faber and Faber|year=1997| isbn = 0-571-19177-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/stevenspielberg0000jose/page/37 37]}}</ref> is an American film director, producer an screenwriter. He is conseedert ane o the foondin pioneers o the [[New Hollywood]] era an ane o the maist popular directors an producers in film history.<ref>''The cinema of Steven Spielberg: Empire of light''. Nigel Morris. Wallflower Press. 2007</ref> Efter gainin traction in Hollywood wi directin telly an several minor theatrical releases, Spielberg becam a hoosehaud name as the director o ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'' (1975), that wis creetically an commercially successfu, an is conseedert the first simmer [[Blockbuster (enterteenment)|blockbuster]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Higgins|first1=Bill|title='Jaws': Revisiting Hollywood's First Summer Blockbuster|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/jaws-steven-spielberg-box-office-309339|accessdate=July 10, 2016|date=April 7, 2012|work=The Hollywood Reporter}}</ref> His subsequent releases focused teepically on science feection an adventur films, wi ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'' (1977), the ''[[Indiana Jones (franchise)|Indiana Jones]]'' series, ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' (1982), an the ''[[Jurassic Park]]'' series seen as archeteeps o modren Hollywood [[Escapism|escapist]] filmmakkin.<ref>{{cite news|title=Steven Spielberg to Harvard grads: Be the movie heroes of real life|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/steven-spielberg-to-harvard-grads-be-the-movie-heroes-of-real-life/articleshow/52463599.cms|work=The Economic Times}}</ref> Spielberg transeetioned intae addressin [[Humanism|humanistic]] issues in his later wark via the films ''[[The Color Purple (film)|The Color Purple]]'' (1985), ''[[Empire of the Sun (film)|Empire of the Sun]]'' (1987), ''[[Schindler's List]]'' (1993), ''[[Amistad (film)|Amistad]]'' (1997) an ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' (1998). He haes lairgely adhered tae this practice in the 21st century, wi ''[[Munich (film)|Munich]]'' (2005), ''[[Lincoln (film)|Lincoln]]'' (2012), ''[[Bridge of Spies (film)|Bridge of Spies]]'' (2015), an ''[[The Post (film)|The Post]]'' (2017). Spielberg co-foondit [[Amblin Entertainment]] an [[DreamWorks|DreamWorks Studios]], whaur he haes an aw served as a producer for several successfu films, includin the ''[[Back to the Future (franchise)|Back to the Future]]'', ''[[Men in Black (film series)|Men in Black]]'', an ''[[Transformers (film series)|Transformers]]'' series. Spielberg later transeetioned intae producin several gemmes within the video-gemme industrie. Spielberg is ane o the American film industrie's maist creetically successfu filmmakkers, wi praise for his directin talent an versatility,<ref>{{cite web|author1=[[Matt Zoller Seitz|Seitz, Matt Zoller]]|author2=Arikan, Ali|author3=Bramble, Serena|title=MAGIC AND LIGHT: THE FILMS OF STEVEN SPIELBERG: Chapter 1: Introduction|url=https://www.indiewire.com/2011/12/magic-and-light-the-films-of-steven-spielberg-chapter-1-introduction-132598/|website=[[IndieWire]]|date=December 15, 2011|quote=The fact that Spielberg is perfectly attuned to the commercial aspects of cinema does not preclude the idea that he is a master artist, who’s worthy of appreciation and study.... The longer Spielberg directs movies, the more apparent it becomes that his is a chameleonic talent, more versatile in some ways than the talents of two of his most profound cinematic influences, Alfred Hitchcock and Walt Disney.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author1=[[Manohla Dargis|Dargis, Manohla]]|author2=[[A. O. Scott|Scott, A. O.]]|title=The 25 Best Films of the 21st Century So Far.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/06/09/movies/the-25-best-films-of-the-21st-century.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]|accessdate=October 2, 2018|date=June 9, 2017|quote=In the 1990s, [Spielberg] made the transition from popular artist to prestige auteur.... His post-'[[Saving Private Ryan|Ryan]]' career has been distinguished by extraordinary productivity and equally remarkable range, but it hasn’t enjoyed the same level of acclaim. And yet, with characteristic verve and discipline, he has plunged into science fiction, history, politics, animation and espionage.}}</ref> an haes wan the [[Academy Awaird for Best Director]] twice.<ref>[[Academy Awaird for Best Director|Directors wi twa or mair Oscars]]</ref> Some o his movies are an aw amang the heichest-grossin movies o aw-time, while his tot wark, unadjuistit for ticket-price inflation, maks him the [[Leet o heichest-grossin directors|heichest-grossin film director in history]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/box-office-milestone-steven-spielberg-is-first-member-10b-directors-club-1103623|title=Box-Office Milestone: Steven Spielberg Is First Member of $10B Directors' Club|last=McClintock|first=Pamela|date=April 17, 2018|work=The Hollywood Reporter|access-date=April 18, 2018}}</ref> His [[net worth]] is estimatit tae be mair nor $3 billion.<ref name="forbes1" /> ==References== {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Spielberg, Steven}} [[Category:1946 births]] [[Category:20t-century American businessfowk]] [[Category:20t-century American male actors]] [[Category:20t-century American writers]] [[Category:21st-century American businessfowk]] [[Category:21st-century American male actors]] [[Category:21st-century American writers]] [[Category:Akira Kurosawa Awaird winners]] [[Category:American billionaires]] [[Category:American film eeditors]] [[Category:American film studio executives]] [[Category:American humanitarians]] [[Category:American male film actors]] [[Category:American male screenwriters]] [[Category:BAFTA fellaes]] [[Category:Best Directin Academy Awaird winners]] [[Category:Academy Awaird winners]] [[Category:Best Director BAFTA Awaird winners]] [[Category:Best Director Empire Awaird winners]] [[Category:Best Director Gowden Globe winners]] [[Category:Fowk frae Arizona]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae Californie]] [[Category:Fowk frae New Jersey]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae New York]] [[Category:Fowk frae Ohio]] [[Category:Californie Democrats]] [[Category:Californie State Varsity, Long Beach alumni]] [[Category:Cecil B. DeMille Awaird Gowden Globe winners]] [[Category:Chevaliers o the Légion d'honneur]] [[Category:Commanders o the Order o the Croun (Belgium)]] [[Category:David di Donatello Career Awaird winners]] [[Category:David di Donatello winners]] [[Category:Daytime Emmy Awaird winners]] [[Category:Eagle Scouts]] [[Category:Inglis-leid film directors]] [[Category:Film directors frae Californie]] [[Category:Film directors frae New York Ceety]] [[Category:Film theorists]] [[Category:Gowden Globe Awaird winnin producers]] [[Category:Honorary Knights Commander o the Order o the Breetish Empire]] [[Category:Jewish American airt collectors]] [[Category:Jewish American male actors]] [[Category:Jewish American philanthropists]] [[Category:Jewish American writers]] [[Category:Jews an Judaism]] [[Category:Kennedy Center honourees]] [[Category:Knicht Commanders o the Order o Meerit o the Federal Republic o Germany]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:Actors frae Arizona]] [[Category:Male actors frae Los Angeles]] [[Category:Male actors frae New Jersey]] [[Category:Male actors frae New York]] [[Category:Naitional Humanities Medal recipients]] [[Category:Fowk frae Cincinnati]] [[Category:East Hampton (toun), New York]] [[Category:Fowk frae Haddon Tounship, New Jersey]] [[Category:Philanthropists frae Californie]] [[Category:Producers that wan the Best Pictur Academy Awaird]] [[Category:Science feection fans]] [[Category:Science feection film directors]] [[Category:Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees]] [[Category:Short film directors]] [[Category:Special effects fowk]] [[Category:Televeesion producers frae Californie]] [[Category:Televeesion producers frae New York]] [[Category:Writers frae Los Angeles]] [[Category:Writers frae New Jersey]] [[Category:Writers frae New York]] [[Category:Fowk frae Scottsdale, Arizona]] [[Category:Directors Guild o Americae Awaird winners]] 9whmepvu5u8rrzbku5er2y5d1gvz4dk Neubrandenburg 0 124553 916905 636182 2026-05-17T20:29:59Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916905 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox German location |type = Stadt |image_photo = NB-St-Marien-Kirche-26-VIII-2007-57.jpg |image_caption = St. Mary's Kirk (uised for concerts) |image_coa = DEU Neubrandenburg COA.svg |coordinates = {{coord|53|33|25|N|13|15|40|E|format=dms|display=inline,title}} |image_plan = Neubrandenburg in MBS.svg |state = Mecklenburg-Vorpommern |district = Mecklenburgische Seenplatte |elevation = 20 |area = 85.65 |population = 65282<!-- Bitte nicht per Hand aktualisieren: [[Wikipedia:WikiProjekt_Kommunen_und_Landkreise_in_Deutschland/Einwohnerzahlen]] --> |Stand = 2010-12-31 |postal_code = 17033, 17034, 17036, 17050<ref>[http://www.arbeitsagentur.de/Navigation/Dienststellen/RD-N/Neubrandenburg/Agentur/Agentur-Nav.html Agentur für Arbeit Neubrandenburg]</ref> |area_code = 0395 |licence = NB |Gemeindeschlüssel = 13 0 71 107 |LOCODE = DE NEB |NUTS = DE802 |divisions = 10 Stadtteile |Adresse = Friedrich-Engels-Ring 53<br>17033 Neubrandenburg |website = [http://www.neubrandenburg.de/ www.neubrandenburg.de] |mayor = Paul Krüger |Bürgermeistertitel = Oberbürgermeister |party = CDU }} '''Neubrandenburg''' (''"New Brandenburg"'', {{IPA-de|nɔʏˈbʁandənbʊʁk|IPA}}) is a ceety in the sootheast o [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Germany]]. ==Sister ceeties== * [[Collegno]], Italy – syne 1965 * [[Flensburg]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], Germany – syne 1987 * [[Gladsaxe]], Denmark – syne 1990 * [[Koszalin]] (German ''Köslin''), Poland – syne 1974 * [[Nazareth]], Israel – syne 1998 * [[Nevers]], France – syne 1973 * [[Petrozavodsk]], Roushie – syne 1983 * [[Villejuif]], Fraunce – syne 1966 * [[Yangzhou]], Cheenae – syne 1999<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.neubrandenburg.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=34&Itemid=184 |title=Partner cities at www.neubrandenburg.de |access-date=2015-08-03 |archive-date=2016-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308165927/http://www.neubrandenburg.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=34&Itemid=184 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Touns in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]] [[Category:Ceeties an touns in Mecklenburg]] [[Category:Populatit places established in 1248]] [[Category:Grand Duchy o Mecklenburg-Strelitz]] kcftdeq8vvm170vxg22bjnmyo3vay2x Sergey Brin 0 135126 916939 829781 2026-05-18T05:41:23Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916939 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Sergey Brin | image = Sergey Brin cropped.jpg | image_size = | caption = Sergey Brin in 2008 | birth_name = Sergey Mikhaylovich Brin{{brk}}Серге́й Миха́йлович Брин | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1973|08|21|mf=yes}} | birth_place = [[Moscow]], [[Roushie Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]]<ref name="autogenerated1">"[http://www.nndb.com/people/826/000044694/ Sergey Brin]". [[NNDB]]. Retrieved January 7, 2010.</ref> | residence = [[Los Altos, Californie]], U.S. | nationality = American | citizenship = [[Unitit States|American]]<br />[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] (1973{{ndash}}79, automatically) | alma_mater = [[Varsity o Maryland, College Pairk|Varsity o Maryland]] <small>([[B.S.]] 1993)</small><br />[[Stanford Varsity]] <small>([[M.S.]] 1995)</small> | title = <!--President of [[Alphabet Inc]]--> | known_for = Co-Foonder o [[Google]]<br>Directin [[Google X]] | salary = [[Ane-dollar salary]]<ref>{{cite web|title=9 top executives with $1 salaries|url=http://money.cnn.com/gallery/news/companies/2013/08/06/one-dollar-salaries/4.html|website=CNN Money|accessdate=11 August 2015|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304195125/http://money.cnn.com/gallery/news/companies/2013/08/06/one-dollar-salaries/4.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> | networth = {{increase}} US$36.8 billion (December 2015)<ref name="forbes brin">http://www.forbes.com/profile/sergey-brin/ , access date 14 December 2015</ref> | spouse = [[Anne Wojcicki]] (2007{{ndash}}15; {{abbrlink|d.|divorced}})<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/04/sergey-brin-google_n_3867789.html | work=Huffington Post | first=Bridget | last=Mallon | title=Google Co-Founder Confirms Separation | date=September 4, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3138519/Google-founder-Sergey-Brin-finalizes-divorce-Anne-Wojcicki-two-years-caught-having-affair-paying-settlement-30billion-fortune.html |first=Chris|last=Spargo |title=Google's Sergey Brin Finalizes Divorce |newspaper=[[Daily Mail]] |date=June 24, 2015}}</ref> | partner = | religion = | children = 2 | signature = Sergey Brin google signature.svg | website = {{URL|https://www.google.com/about/company/facts/management/#sergey|Google.com{{snds}}Sergey Brin}} }} '''Sergey Mikhaylovich Brin''' ({{lang-ru|link=no|Серге́й Миха́йлович Брин}}; born August 21, 1973) is a [[Roushie]]-born American [[Computer science|computer scientist]] an internet entrepreneur who, thegither wi [[Larry Page]], co-foonded [[Google]], ane o the warld's maist profitable Internet companies.<ref>{{cite web |title=Daily Market Beat&nbsp;– Trinity Investment Research |url=http://www.trinityinvestmentresearch.com/daily-market-beat/1106 |accessdate=August 18, 2011 |archive-date=2012-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330223451/http://www.trinityinvestmentresearch.com/daily-market-beat/1106 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Brin, Sergey}} [[Category:1973 births]] [[Category:Alphabet Inc. fowk]] [[Category:American billionaires]] [[Category:American business pioneers]] [[Category:American computer businessfowk]] [[Category:American computer scientists]] [[Category:American inventors]] [[Category:American fowk o Roushie-Jewish strynd]] [[Category:American technology chief executives]] [[Category:American technology company foonders]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae Maryland]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae the San Francisco Bay Aurie]] [[Category:Businessfowk in information technology]] [[Category:Businessfowk in saftware]] [[Category:Computer programmers]] [[Category:Directors o Google]] [[Category:Google employees]] [[Category:Jewish American filanthropists]] [[Category:Jewish American scientists]] [[Category:Jewish inventors]] [[Category:Life extensionists]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:Members o the Unitit States Naitional Academy o Ingineerin]] [[Category:Fowk frae Greenbelt, Maryland]] [[Category:Fowk frae Moscow]] [[Category:Fowk frae Adelphi, Maryland]] [[Category:Roushie emigrants tae the Unitit States]] [[Category:Soviet emigrants tae the Unitit States]] [[Category:Soviet Jews]] [[Category:Stanford Varsity alumni]] [[Category:Varsity o Maryland, College Park alumni]] [[Category:Wab developers]] [[Category:WEF YGL honorees]] 76se48iiuwih8gu4geyv73s9bdvmean Breetish Indian Ocean Territory 0 146705 916896 869294 2026-05-17T17:19:23Z Mangwanani 71963 916896 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Breetish Indian Ocean Territory |common_name = Breetish Indian Ocean Territory |native_name = British Indian Ocean Territory {{en icon}} |image_flag = Flag of the British Indian Ocean Territory 2026.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of the British Indian Ocean Territory.svg |image_map = British Indian Ocean Territory in United Kingdom.svg |map_width = 250px |national_motto = {{native phrase|la|"In tutela nostra Limuria"|italics=off}} |englishmotto= "[[Lemurie (continent)|Limurie]] is in oor charge" |national_anthem = "[[God Save the Queen]]" |official_languages = [[Inglis leid|Inglis]] |ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list |95.88% Breetish{{\}}American |4.12% ither}} |ethnic_groups_year = 2001<ref name="statesman">{{cite web| url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Br_Indian_Ocean_Terr.html| title=British Indian Ocean Territory| publisher=worldstatesman.com| accessdate=5 April 2013}}</ref> |capital = |largest_settlement = [[Camp Justice (Diego Garcia)|Camp Justice]]<br/>{{smaller|{{coord|7|18|S|72|24|E|display=inline,title}}}} |largest_settlement_type = settlement |status = {{nowrap|[[Breetish Owerseas Territories|Breetish Owerseas Territory]]}} |government_type = [[Dependent territory|Dependency]] unner a [[constitutional monarchy]] |leader_title1 = [[Monarchy o the Unitit Kinrick|Monarch]] |leader_name1 = [[Elizabeth II]] |leader_title2 = [[Commissioner for the Breetish Indian Ocean Territory|Commissioner]] |leader_name2 = [[Peter Hayes (diplomat)|Peter Hayes]]<ref name="FCO">[http://www.factba.se/fco-page.php?bc=IO British Indian Ocean Territory (British Overseas Territory)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013005056/http://www.factba.se/fco-page.php?bc=IO |date=2013-10-13 }}, [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]]. Retrieved 24 November 2012.</ref> |leader_title3 = Admeenistrator |leader_name3 = Tom Moody<ref name="FCO"/> |leader_title4 = Responsible Meenister<sup>a</sup> ([[UK govrenment|UK]]) |leader_name4 = {{nowrap|[[James Duddridge]] [[Member o Pairlament|MP]]}} |sovereignty_type = Established |sovereignty_note = in 1965 |area_magnitude = 1 E6 |area_km2 = 54,400 |area_sq_mi = 21,004 |area_label2 = Land |area_data2 = 60 km<sup>2</sup><br/>23 sq mi |percent_water = 99.89 |population_estimate = 3,000<ref name="po">{{cite web| title=About Us| url=http://www.biotpostoffice.com/about-1.asp| publisher=BIOT Post Office| accessdate=5 April 2013}}</ref> |population_estimate_year = |population_census = |population_census_year = |population_density_km2 = 58.3 |population_density_sq_mi = 160.0 |GDP_PPP = |GDP_PPP_year = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = |Gini_year = |Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> |Gini = <!--number only--> |Gini_ref = |HDI_year = |HDI_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> |HDI = <!--number only--> |HDI_ref = |currency = {{unbulleted list |[[Unitit States Dollar]] {{nowrap|([[ISO 4217|USD]]; ''de facto'')}}<ref>{{Wayback|df=y|date=20100610203832 |url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/asia-oceania/british-indian-ocean-territory?profile=all |title=FCO country profile }}</ref><ref name=CIA>{{cite web| title=British Indian Ocean Territory| url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/io.html| publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]| work=World Factbook| date=27 March 2013| accessdate=5 April 2013| archive-date=2017-11-29| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129045031/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/io.html| url-status=dead}}</ref> |[[Poond sterling]] {{nowrap|([[ISO 4217|GBP]]; ''de jure'')}}<ref name="po"/><ref name="gmt">{{cite web| title=British Indian Ocean Territory Currency| url=http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/asia/british-indian-ocean-territory/currency-british-indian-ocean-territory/index.htm| publisher=GreenwichMeantime.com| accessdate=5 April 2013| archive-date=2018-12-24| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224230007/https://greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/asia/british-indian-ocean-territory/currency-british-indian-ocean-territory%20/| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="coinnews">{{cite web| title=Launch of First Commemorative British Indian Ocean Territory Coin| url=http://www.coinnews.net/2009/05/17/launch-of-first-commemorative-british-indian-ocean-territory-coin/| date=17 May 2009| author=Pobjoy Mint Ltd| publisher=coinnews.net| accessdate=4 April 2014}}</ref> }} |currency_code = |country_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = +6 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = right |calling_code = [[+246]] |cctld = [[.io]] |footnote_a = For the [[Breetish Owerseas Territories|Owerseas Territories]]. }} The '''Breetish Indian Ocean Territory''' ('''BIOT''') is an [[Breetish Owerseas Territory|owerseas territory]] o the [[Unitit Kingdom]] situatit in the [[Indian Ocean]] haufway atween [[Tanzanie]] an [[Indonesie]]. ==References== {{reflist}} {{authority control}} [[Category:Breetish Owerseas Territories]] [[Category:Islands o the Indian Ocean]] [[Category:Disputit islands]] [[Category:Disputit territories in Asie]] [[Category:Special territories o the European Union]] [[Category:States an territories established in 1965]] [[Category:Inglis-speakin kintras an territories]] dyfbwa5jhtva7z4ubmuq6bivo6yocx0 Rupert Murdoch 0 157520 916936 832221 2026-05-18T03:48:50Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916936 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person |name = Rupert Murdoch |image = Rupert Murdoch - Flickr - Eva Rinaldi Celebrity and Live Music Photographer.jpg |birth_name = Keith Rupert Murdoch |birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1931|3|11}} |birth_place = [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australie)|Victoria]], [[Australie]] |death_date = |death_place = |citizenship = [[Australies|Australie]] {{small|(1931–1985)}}<br>[[Americans|American]] {{small|([[Naituralization Act o 1790|naituralised]] 1985)}}{{efn|Australie ceetizenship lost in 1985 (unner S17 o [[Australie naitionality law|Australie Ceetizenship Act 1948]]) wi acquisition o US naitionality.}} |alma_mater = {{nowrap|[[Worcester College, Oxford]] {{small|([[Bachelor o Airts|BA]])}}}} |known_for = Chairman an CEO o [[News Corporation]] {{small|(1979–2013)}}<br>Executive Chairman o [[News Corp]] {{small|(2013–present)}}<br>Chairman an CEO o [[21st Century Fox]] {{small|(2013–2015)}}<br>Executive Co-Chairman o [[21st Century Fox]] {{small|(2015–present)}}<br>Actin CEO o [[Fox News]] {{small|(2016–present)}} |net_worth = {{increase}} US$11.7 billion {{small|(March 2016)}}<ref name="Forbes">{{cite web |url=http://www.forbes.com/profile/rupert-murdoch |title=Rupert Murdoch profile |work=Forbes |accessdate=22 December 2014}}</ref> |boards = [[News Corp]]<br>[[21st Century Fox]] |spouse = Patricia Booker {{small|(1956–1967)}}<br>[[Anna Murdoch Mann|Anna Torv]] {{small|(1967–1999)}}<br>[[Wendi Deng Murdoch|Wendi Deng]] {{small|(1999–2013)}}<br>[[Jerry Hall]] {{small|(2016–present)}} |children = [[Prudence Murdoch|Prudence]] {{small|(wi Booker)}}<br>[[Elisabeth Murdoch (businesswoman)|Elisabeth]] {{small|(wi Torv)}}<br>[[Lachlan Murdoch|Lachlan]] {{small|(with Torv)}}<br>[[James Murdoch|James]] {{small|(wi Torv)}}<br>2 {{small|(wi Deng)}} |parents = [[Sir Keith Murdoch]] {{small|(faither)}}<br>[[Elisabeth Murdoch (philanthropist)|Elisabeth Joy]] {{small|(mither)}} |relatives = [[Ivon Murdoch|Ivan Murdoch]] {{small|(uncle)}}<br>[[Patrick John Murdoch|Patrick Murdoch]] {{small|(grandfaither)}}<br>[[Walter Murdoch]] {{small|(granduncle)}}<br>[[Sarah Murdoch|Sarah O'Hare]] {{small|(dauchter-in-law)}} |awards = Companion o the [[Order o Australie]] {{small|(1984)}}<ref name="ACorder">{{cite web |quote=AC AD84. For service to the media, particularly the newspaper publishing industry |url=http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/honours/honour_roll/search.cfm?aus_award_id=883065&search_type=advanced&showInd=true |title=Honours |publisher=Government of Australia |accessdate=27 February 2010 |archive-date=2010-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611161731/http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/honours/honour_roll/search.cfm?aus_award_id=883065&search_type=advanced&showInd=true |url-status=dead }}</ref> |footnotes = {{Notelist|close}} }} '''Keith Rupert Murdoch''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɜr|d|ɒ|k}},<ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|page=526|isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref> [[Order o Australie|AC]], [[Order o St. Gregory the Great|KCSG]] (born 11 Mairch 1931) is an Australie-American [[media mogul]]. His faither, Keith Arthur Murdoch, haed been a reporter, eeditor an senior executive o the Herald an Weekly Times newspaper publishin company coverin aw Australie states except New Sooth Wales. Efter his faither's daith in 1952 Keith Rupert Murdoch declined tae jyn his late faither's registered public company an creatit his ain private company, News Limited. Murdoch thus haed full control as Chairman an CEO o global media [[Hauldin Company|hauldin company]] [[News Corporation]], nou the warld's seicont-lairgest [[media conglomerate]], an its successors, [[News Corp]] an [[21st Century Fox]], efter the conglomerate split on 28 Juin 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2009/industries/145/index.html|work=CNN|title=Fortune|accessdate=20 May 2010|archive-date=2018-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614174856/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2009/industries/145/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.viacom.com/investorrelations/Investor_Relations_Docs/Q407%20Web%20Deck%20FINAL.pdf|title=PowerPoint Presentation|format=PDF|accessdate=11 July 2011|archive-date=2010-09-16|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5smqiphfZ?url=http://www.viacom.com/investorrelations/Investor_Relations_Docs/Q407%20Web%20Deck%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/2009/02/09/news/companies/disney_dreamworks.fortune/?postversion=2009020914|work=CNN|title=Why Disney wants DreamWorks|date=9 February 2009|accessdate=20 May 2010|first=Richard|last=Siklos|archive-date=2018-12-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226120254/https://money.cnn.com/2009/02/09/news/companies/disney_dreamworks.fortune/?postversion=2009020914|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newscorp.com/Report2007/AnnualReport2007/HTML2/news_corp_ar2007_0069.htm|title=News Corporation – Annual Report 2007|publisher=Newscorp|date=30 June 2007|accessdate=11 July 2011|archive-date=2013-05-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513074959/http://www.newscorp.com/Report2007/AnnualReport2007/HTML2/news_corp_ar2007_0069.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Murdoch, Rupert}} [[Category:1931 births]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:20t-century American businessfowk]] [[Category:21st-century American businessfowk]] [[Category:Alumni o Worcester College, Oxford]] [[Category:American billionaires]] [[Category:American chairmen o corporations]] [[Category:American chief executives in the media industry]] [[Category:American Christians]] [[Category:American libertarians]] [[Category:American mass media ainers]] [[Category:American media company foonders]] [[Category:American newspaper chain foonders]] [[Category:American newspaper publishers (fowk)]] [[Category:American victims o crime]] [[Category:Australie billionaires]] [[Category:Australie chairmen o corporations]] [[Category:Australie chief executives]] [[Category:Australie Christians]] [[Category:Australie emigrants tae the Unitit States]] [[Category:Australie expatriates in the Unitit Kinrick]] [[Category:Australie libertarians]] [[Category:Australie media company foonders]] [[Category:Australie newspaper chain foonders]] [[Category:Australie fowk o Inglis strynd]] [[Category:Australie fowk o Erse strynd]] [[Category:Australie fowk o Scots strynd]] [[Category:Australie republicans]] [[Category:Australie victims o crime]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae Los Angeles]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae Melbourne]] [[Category:Christian libertarians]] [[Category:Companions o the Order o Australie]] [[Category:Creetics o the European Union]] [[Category:Fox Broadcasting Company executives]] [[Category:Knichts Commander o the Order o St Gregory the Great]] [[Category:Los Angeles Dodgers ainers]] [[Category:Murdoch faimily]] [[Category:New York Post fowk]] [[Category:News Corporation fowk]] [[Category:Fowk associatit wi the News International phone hackin scandal]] [[Category:Fowk eddicatit at Geelong Grammar School]] [[Category:Fowk frae Adelaide]] [[Category:Fowk frae Beverly Hills, Californie]] [[Category:Fowk frae Centre Island, New York]] nzbl0r7d7fzbmzrz3pecpoe53mbb6nt Potomac, Maryland 0 162151 916934 895543 2026-05-18T02:18:52Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916934 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fixscots}} {{Infobox settlement |official_name = Potomac, Maryland |settlement_type = [[Census-designated place]] |nickname = |motto = <!-- Images --> |image_skyline = |imagesize = |image_caption = |image_flag = |image_seal = <!-- Maps --> |image_map = Montgomery_County_Maryland_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Potomac_Highlighted.svg |mapsize = 250px |map_caption = Location o Potomac, Maryland |image_map1 = |mapsize1 = |map_caption1 = <!-- Location --> | subdivision_type = [[Leet o kintras|Kintra]] | subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]] | subdivision_type2 = [[Leet o coonties in Maryland|Coonty]] | subdivision_name = {{nowrap|{{flag|Unitit States}}}} | subdivision_name1 = {{flag|Maryland}} | subdivision_name2 = {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Montgomery_County,_Maryland.svg}} [[Montgomery Coonty, Maryland|Montgomery]] |government_footnotes = |government_type = |leader_title = |leader_name = |leader_title1 = |leader_name1 = |established_title = |established_date = <!-- Area --> |unit_pref = Imperial |area_footnotes = |area_magnitude = |area_total_km2 = 68.8 |area_land_km2 = 65.2 |area_water_km2 = 3.6 |area_total_sq_mi = 26.6 |area_land_sq_mi = 25.2 |area_water_sq_mi = 1.4 <!-- Population --> |population_as_of = [[Unitit States Census, 2010|2010]] |population_footnotes = |population_total = 44965 |population_density_km2 = 653.56 |population_density_sq_mi = 1784.33 <!-- General information --> |timezone = [[North American Eastren Time Zone|Eastren (EST)]] |utc_offset = -5 |timezone_DST = EDT |utc_offset_DST = -4 |elevation_footnotes = |elevation_m = 110 |elevation_ft = 361 |coordinates = {{coord|39|1|N|77|13|W|region:US_type:city|display=inline,title}} |postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]s |postal_code = 20854, 20859 |area_code = [[Aurie code 301|301]], [[Aurie code 240|240]] |blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]] |blank_info = 24-63300 |blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] featur ID |blank1_info = 0591056 |website = |footnotes = }} '''Potomac''' ({{Audio|GT Potomac.ogg|listen}}) is a [[census-designated place]] (CDP) in [[Montgomery Coonty, Maryland|Montgomery Coonty]], [[Maryland]], [[Unitit States]], namit for the nearbi [[Potomac River]]. In 2013, [[CNNMoney.com]] leetit Potomac as the maist affluent toun in aw the Unitit States based on median hoosehauld income.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://money.cnn.com/pf/features/lists/household_income/|title=CNN/Money: Where the money makers live|publisher=|access-date=2017-03-10|archive-date=2017-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226073719/http://money.cnn.com/pf/features/lists/household_income/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Potomac is the seivent maist tap-eddicatit American smaw toun an aw accordin tae ''Forbes.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/2009/01/02/educated-small-towns-forbeslife-cx_jd_0105realestate_slide_15.html?thisSpeed=15000|title=In Depth: America's Most Educated Small Towns|author=Jacqueline Detwiler|date=5 January 2009|work=Forbes}}</ref> [[Bloomberg Businessweek]] labeled Potomac as the twinty-nint richest zip code in the Unitit States in 2011, statin that it haed the lairgest population o ony U.S. toun wi a median income o mair nor $240,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://images.businessweek.com/slideshows/20111206/america-s-richest-zip-codes-2011#slide24|title=America’s Richest Zip Codes 2011|author=Joel Stonington, Venessa Wong|work=Businessweek.com|access-date=2017-03-10|archive-date=2015-01-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150117050236/http://images.businessweek.com/slideshows/20111206/america-s-richest-zip-codes-2011#slide24|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2012, The Higley Elite 100 published a leet o heichest-income neebourheids bi mean hoosehauld income, which includit fower neebourheids in Potomac; ane o these neebourheids, "Carderock-The Palisades" wis rankit the heichest-income neebourheid in the Unitit States, follaed bi "Beverly Hills-North of Sunset" in [[Beverly Hills|Beverly Hills, CA,]] an "Swinks Mill-Dominion Reserve" o [[McLean, Virginie|Mclean, VA]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Higley Elite 100: Variance & Stability in the American Community Survey 2008-2012 {{!}} The Higley 1000|url = http://higley1000.com/archives/733|website = higley1000.com|access-date = 2016-02-03|first = Stephen R. Higley,|last = PhD|archive-date = 2016-01-24|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160124113542/http://higley1000.com/archives/733|url-status = dead}}</ref> Mair recently, twa Potomac neebourheids wur rankit amang the ten walthiest neebourheids in the kintra by [[CNBC]] in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Surprise! These are the richest US neighborhoods|url = http://www.cnbc.com/2014/02/26/10-richest-neighborhoods-in-us.html|website = CNBC|access-date = 2016-02-03}}</ref> Mony Potomac residents wirk in nearbi [[Washington, D.C.]] == References == {{reflist}} ==Freemit airtins== *{{wikivoyage-inline|Potomac}} {{Montgomery Coonty, Maryland}} [[Category:American upper cless]] [[Category:Potomac, Maryland| ]] [[Category:Census-designated places in Montgomery Coonty, Maryland]] [[Category:Census-designated places in Maryland]] [[Category:Maryland populatit places on the Potomac River]] h4dc3v802nov4cyh30n0gnvujd6e8o5 One World Trade Center 0 166797 916907 894684 2026-05-17T21:37:47Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916907 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox building | name = One World Trade Center | alternate_names = {{ublist|class=nowrap |1 WTC |Freedom Tower (pre-2009)<ref name="OnenotFreedom">{{cite news |last=Westfeldt |first=Amy |title=Freedom Tower has a new preferred name |url=http://www.wtc.com/news/freedom-tower-has-a-new-preferred-name |publisher=Silverstein Properties |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=March 26, 2009 |accessdate=March 30, 2009 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5hBhzvIg8?url=http://www.wtc.com/news/freedom-tower-has-a-new-preferred-name |archivedate=2009-05-31 |dead-url=no |url-status=live }}</ref>}} | status = Completed | image =OneWorldTradeCenter.jpg | image_size = | location = {{nowrap|285 [[Fulton Street (Manhattan)|Fulton Street]]}}, [[Manhattan]], [[New York Ceety]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Unitit States]] 10007 | coordinates = {{coord|40|42|46.8|N|74|0|48.6|W|display=inline,title}} | start_date = April 27, 2006 | completion_date = July 2013 | architect = {{ublist|class=nowrap |[[David Childs]]{{sup|b}} |[[Daniel Libeskind]] (2002)<ref name="OneWTCSilverstein">{{cite web|title=One World Trade Center|url=http://www.wtc.com/about/buildings/1-world-trade-center|publisher=[[Silverstein Properties]]|date=September 16, 2015|accessdate=September 16, 2015}}</ref>}} | cost = {{US$|3.9 billion}}{{sup|a}}{{thinsp}}<ref name=Forbes2012Cost>{{cite news |url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/morganbrennan/2012/04/30/1-world-trade-center-officially-new-yorks-new-tallest-building/ |title=1 World Trade Center Officially New York's New Tallest Building |work=Forbes |date=April 30, 2012 |accessdate=July 26, 2013 |first=Morgan |last=Brennan}}</ref><ref name="WSJPriceTag">{{cite web|last=Brown|first=Eliot|title=Tower Rises, And So Does Its Price Tag|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203920204577191371172049652|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=January 30, 2012|accessdate=September 16, 2015}}</ref> | floor_area = {{convert|3501274|sqft|m2|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="SkyscraperCenter"/> | top_floor = {{convert|1268|ft|m|1|abbr=on}}<ref name="SkyscraperCenter">{{cite web|title=One World Trade Center&nbsp;– The Skyscraper Center|url=http://skyscrapercenter.com/new-york-city/one-world-trade-center/98/|publisher=Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat|date=September 11, 2015|accessdate=September 11, 2015}}</ref> | floor_count = {{nowrap|104 (+5 below ground floors)<ref name="SkyscraperCenter"/><ref name="leasing">{{cite web |url=http://onewtc.com/leasing |title=Office Leasing |publisher=One World Trade Center |accessdate=November 3, 2014}}</ref><!--(end nowrap:)-->}} | references = <ref name="SkyscraperCenter"/><ref name="Skysc2012">{{skyscraperpage|7788}}. Retrieved January 17, 2012.</ref> | building_type = {{hlist |Office |Observation |Communication}} | architectural_style = [[Modren airchitectur|Contemporary modren]] | architectural = {{convert|1776|ft|m|1|abbr=on}}<ref name="SkyscraperCenter"/><ref name="emporis">{{cite web |url=http://www.emporis.com/application/?nav=building&lng=3&id=201521 |title=One World Trade Center |publisher=Emporis.com |accessdate=January 14, 2012}}</ref> | tip = {{convert|1792|ft|m|1|abbr=on}}<ref name="SkyscraperCenter"/> | roof = {{convert|1368|ft|m|1|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/us/2012/04/29/one-world-trade-center-to-retake-title-nyc-tallest-building/ |title=One World Trade Center to retake title of NYC's tallest building |publisher=Fox News Channel |agency=Associated Press |date=April 29, 2012 |accessdate=May 1, 2014}}</ref> | observatory = {{convert|1254|ft|m|1|abbr=on}}<ref name="SkyscraperCenter"/> | elevator_count = 73,<ref name="SkyscraperCenter"/> made by [[ThyssenKrupp]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thyssenkruppelevator.com/about-us/one-world |title=Elevating One World Trade Center |website=ThyssenKrupp Elevator |access-date=January 23, 2017 |archive-date=2017-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202021734/https://www.thyssenkruppelevator.com/about-us/one-world |url-status=dead }}</ref> | structural_engineer = [[WSP Group|WSP Cantor Seinuk]] | other_designers = [[Hill International]], The Louis Berger Group<ref>{{cite web |title=The Louis Berger Group and Hill International to Provide Program Management Services for Downtown Restoration Program and WTC Transportation Hub |website=Hill International, Inc. |date=2004-08-13 |url=http://ir.hillintl.com/releasedetail.cfm?releaseid=197766 |accessdate=2015-07-21 |archive-date=2015-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331013134/http://ir.hillintl.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=197766 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | main_contractor = [[Tishman Construction]] | logo = | logo_size = 200px | image_caption = {{longitem|One World Trade Center, the heichist skyscraper in the [[Wastren Hemisphere]]}} | end_date = May 10, 2013<ref>{{cite news |last=Stanglin |first=Doug |title=Spire permanently installed on WTC tower |work=USA Today |date=May 10, 2013 |url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/05/10/world-trade-center-spire/2149449/ |accessdate=May 10, 2013}}</ref> | opened = November 3, 2014<ref>{{cite web|last1=Smith|first1=Aaron|title=One World Trade Center, the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, is open for business.|url=http://money.cnn.com/2014/11/03/news/companies/one-world-trade-center/index.html|website=money.cnn.com|publisher=CNN Money|accessdate=30 March 2017|archive-date=2020-01-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118211856/https://money.cnn.com/2014/11/03/news/companies/one-world-trade-center/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> | opening of the One World Observatory = May 29, 2015<ref>{{cite web|title=One World Trade Center Observatory Opens to Public|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/us/articles/2015/05/29/observatory-at-one-world-trade-center-opens-to-public|website=usnews.com|publisher=U.S. News|accessdate=30 March 2017}}</ref>. | developer = [[Port Authority of New York and New Jersey]]<ref name="SkyscraperCenter"/> | footnotes = : a. Aprile 2012 estimate. : b. [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]]. }} '''One World Trade Center''' (kent as '''1 World Trade Center''', '''1 WTC''' or '''Freedom Tower'''<ref>During the plannin stages, the biggin ineetially dubbed '''Freedom Tower''' as the offeecial name. Later the awners decidit tae cry it '''One World Trade Center'''.</ref> an aw) is the main biggin o the rebiggit [[World Trade Center (2001–present)|World Trade Center]] complex in [[Lawer Manhattan]], [[New York Ceety]]. It is the heichist [[skyscraper|biggin]] in the [[Wastren Hemisphere]], an the saxt-heichist in the warld. The superhei structur haes the same name as the North Tower o the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|oreeginal World Trade Center]], that wis completely raxed in the [[September 11 attacks|terrorist attacks o September 11, 2001]]. The new skyscraper staunds on the northwast corner o the {{convert|16|acre|ha|adj=on}} [[World Trade Center steid]], on the steid o the oreeginal [[6 World Trade Center]]. ==References== {{Reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:1 World Trade Center}} [[Category:Biggins an structurs in Manhattan]] [[Category:Daniel Libeskind biggins]] [[Category:Financial District, Manhattan]] [[Category:Skyscraper office biggins in Manhattan]] [[Category:Office biggins completit in 2014]] [[Category:Skidmore, Owings & Merrill biggins]] [[Category:Skyscrapers ower 350 meters]] [[Category:World Trade Center]] [[Category:2013 establishments]] {{stub/USA}} rr0ufytu9t4v3d9wobqh6tj0sacgebv Hyundai 0 176415 916888 693667 2026-05-17T12:28:14Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916888 wikitext text/x-wiki {{other uses}} {{Infobox company |company name = Hyundai Chung Ju-yung car <br /><small>{{lang|ko|현대}}</small><br /><small>{{lang|ko|現代}}</small> |logo = [[File:Hyundai logo (english).svg|230px]] |image = |image_caption = |type = |fate = Breuken up |foundation = 1947 |founder = [[Chung Ju-yung]] |location = [[Seoul]], [[Sooth Korea]] |area_served = Warldwide |industry = Sevice business ||homepage = http://www.hyundaigroup.com }} {{Contains Korean text}} {{Infobox Korean name |hangul={{lang|ko|현대}} |hanja={{lang|ko|現代}} |rr=Hyeondae |mr=Hyŏndae }} '''Hyundai Group'''<ref>Pronunciations in Inglis vary. Amang the variants are: *{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|j|ʌ|n|d|eɪ}} {{respell|HYUN|day}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʌ|n|d|eɪ}} {{respell|HUN|day}} *{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|j|ʌ|n|d|aɪ}} {{respell|HYUN|dy}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʌ|n|d|aɪ}} {{respell|HUN|dy}} *{{IPAc-en|h|aɪ|ˈ|uː|n|d|aɪ}} {{respell|hy|OON|dy}} or {{IPAc-en|h|i|ˈ|uː|n|d|aɪ}} {{respell|hee|OON|dy}} *{{IPAc-en|h|i|ˈ|ʌ|n|d|eɪ}} {{respell|hee|UN|day}}.</ref> ({{korean|hangul={{lang|ko|현대그룹}}|hanja={{lang|ko|現代그룹}}}}, {{IPA-ko|hjəːndɛ|pron}}) is a corporate group heidquairtered in [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]. It wis foondit bi [[Chung Ju-yung]] in 1947 as a [[construction]] firm an Chung wis directly in control o the company till his daith in 2001. Follaein the [[1997 Asie financial creesis]] an Chung's daith, Hyundai unnerwent a major restructurin an break-up, which reducit the [[Hyundai Group]]'s business tae encompass anerly conteener shippin services, the manufacturin o elevators, an tourism. The day, maist companies bearin the name Hyundai are no legally connectit tae Hyundai Group. They include [[Hyundai Motor Group]], [[Hyundai Department Store Group]], [[Hyundai Heavy Industries Group]] an [[Hyundai Development Company]]. Housomeivver, maist o the umwhile subsidiars o the Hyundai conglomerate continue tae be run bi relatives o Chung. If these companies wur considered as fuirmin a single broad faimily business, then it wad remain the lairgest company in Sooth Korea wi enormous economic an poleetical pouer in the kintra. ==Etymologie== The name "Hyundai" comes frae the Korean wird 現代 ([[hanja]] form), which means "modrenity".<ref name=smokescompetition>{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/2010/01/04/autos/hyundai_competition.fortune/index.htm|title=Hyundai smokes the competition|accessdate=11 January 2012|publisher=CNN Money|date=5 January 2010|first=Alex|last=Taylor III|archive-date=2018-05-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524133007/http://money.cnn.com/2010/01/04/autos/hyundai_competition.fortune/index.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist|2}} ==Freemit airtins== {{Commons category}} * [http://hyundaigroup.com/eng/index.html Hyundai Group website] [[Category:Hyundai| ]] [[Category:Conglomerate companies o Sooth Korea]] [[Category:Electronics companies o Sooth Korea]] [[Category:Manufacturin companies o Sooth Korea]] [[Category:Conglomerate companies established in 1947]] [[Category:Manufacturin companies established in 1947]] [[Category:Vehicle manufacturin companies established in 1947]] [[Category:1947 establishments in Korea]] [[Category:Sooth Korean buists]] eutr61hzw0uqnz8fzyro2boykuq7j6x Uiser:Mr.Murdoch78 2 232706 916932 916725 2026-05-18T01:17:45Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916932 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bodie |name= Mr.Murdoch |image= A small loch in the saddle between Beinn an Dothaidh and Beinn Dorain, Scotland 01.jpg |caption= This photae o a [[Loch|smaa loch]] locatit atween Beinn an Dothaidh an Beinn Dorain shaws hou bonnie wir [[Scotland|kintra]] is. |birth_date= 21 Mairch 1978 |birth_place= [[Glesga]], Scotland |residence= [[Lunnon]], Ingland |nationality= Scots |education= [[Glesga Varsity]] |occupation= Wikipaedian |years active= Syne 2025 |notable works= {{hlist|Creaut airticles on Wikipaedia|Fecht against vandalism|Walcomin new uisers an providin support whan needit}} |spouse= She wis a gey guid bairnheid freend; ane day we becam closer, an then we got marriet in 2002. Syne then, she haes been ma true luve. <3 |children= 3 }} Hullo, this is Mr. Murdoch! A'm frae [[Glesga|Glesgae]], bit a bide in [[Lunnon]] nou. A mainly contreibute tae the [[Scots Wikipaedia]], bit ye kin find me on the [[Simple Inglis Wikipaedia]] an Wikidata an aa. == Aboot me == === Whit a'm daein here === ==== The raeson why a'm here ==== Afore creatin ma accoont an stairtin tae contreibute, a occasionally veesitit [[Wikipaedia]] throu ma wab brouser tae read mony airticles, an a noticed that mony airticles warnae written correctly in [[Scots leid|Scots]], an that mony airticles wis missin compared tae ither Wikipaedias in ither leids. A then decidit tae creaut an accoont wi the aim o impruivin existin airticles an enrichin the [[Scots Wikipaedia]] bi creatin new anes. ==== Hou a write ma airticles ==== Maist o the time a contreibute bi owersettin airticles frae the Inglis Wikipaedia, bit a creaut airticles wioot copyin content frae the Inglis Wikipaedia an aa, pairticulairly whan a diskiver a topic that isnae yit on Wikipaedia or that exists bit coud be impruivit. Syne a dinnae lik reid links, whan a creaut an airticle a aften creaut relatit airticles tae mak wir encyclopaedia mair complete. ==== Ma ither goal here ==== A dinnae lik vandalism an a fecht against it. A dinnae lik fowk wha mak thir edits an a'm against it. A dinnae unnerstaund thaim, acause we shoud be a unitit commonty wirkin tae impruive this projeck. A dinnae see the pynt fur thir fowk in destroyin sic a guid projeck that brings thegither sae muckle knawledge. Anither pynt: if ye're readin this, please mynd ye're on the Scots Wikipaedia, nae the Inglis Wikipaedia. [[Scots leid|Scots]] isnae [[Inglis leid|Inglis]]; it's nae Inglis wi mistaks, sae dinnae replace it wi Inglis. It's a [[leid]] in its awn richt, sae please respect it ! [[Inglis leid|Inglis]]: ''Scottish Wikipedia is not English Wikipedia; Scottish is not English, it is not English with spelling mistakes, it is a language in its own right, so avoid replacing it with English.'' ==== Commonty ==== A'm forby ane o the fowk wha will walcome ye whan ye arrive here an will help ye if ye encoonter ony difficulties; if sae, ye kin write tae me on ma [[Uiser collogue:Mr.Murdoch78|collogue page]]! :) == Uisefu links == * [[Wikipedia:Policies an guidelines]] * [[Help:Eeditin]] * [[Wikipedia:Scots-English-Scots dictionar]] == Leet o airticles a hae creatit == Currently, a hae creatit 47 airticles on the Scots Wikipaedia: * [[Companion (film)|''Companion'' (film)]] * [[Hrishikesh Hirway]] * [[Leet o actors wha hae pleyed the Doctor]] * ''[[It – Welcome to Derry]]'' * [[Jay Harrington]] * ''[[13 Reasons Why]]'' * [[Christophe Maé]] * [[Amir Haddad]] * [[Gaëtan Roussel]] * [[Louise Attaque]] * [[Molly Brown (actress)]] * ''[[Deadline Hollywood]]'' * ''[[TVLine]]'' * [[Katherine Langford]] * [[Dylan Minnette]] * [[Alisha Boe]] * [[Justin Prentice]] * [[Clay Jensen]] * [[Luke Bracey]] * [[Lord Huron]] * [[AllMusic]] * ''[[The Night We Met]]'' * [[Elizabeth Lail]] * [[Iris Mittenaere]] * ''[[La Voix du Nord]]'' * ''[[Le Parisien]]'' * ''[[Le Progrès]]'' * ''[[Gala (magazine)]]'' * ''[[Midi Libre]]'' * ''[[Paris Match]]'' * ''[[Me Before You]]'' * ''[[A Star Is Born (2018 film)]]'' * [[Eric Winter]] * [[Melissa O'Neil]] * [[Alyssa Diaz]] * ''[[Holidate]]'' * [[Jean-Pierre Pernaut]] * [[Mercedes Mason]] * [[Tru Valentino]] * [[Titus Makin Jr.]] * ''[[Red Notice (film)]]'' * [[Ellie MacDowall]] * ''[[Lewis Capaldi: How I'm Feeling Now]]'' * [[Dysorthography]] * [[Dyslexia]] * [[Survive (Lewis Capaldi sang)]] * [[Developmental coordination ail]] == Request tae create an airticle == * [[Scots leid|Scots]]: If ye cannae find the airticle ye're leukin fur in yer sairch, an ye dinnae ken [[Scots leid|Scots]] or dinnae want tae contreibute yersel, ye kin ask me tae creaut the missin airticle on the [[Scots Wikipaedia]] via [[Uiser collogue:Mr.Murdoch78|ma collogue page]]. Please provide me wi the title o the page tae be creatit, a short description, ane or mair soorces, an specify if the airticle awready exists on [[Wikipaedia|Wikipaedia in anither leid]]. If it's an airticle that disnae exist on ony ither Wikipaedia version, mak shuir aforehaund that it complies wi the [[:Category:Wikipaedia policies|Scots Wikipaedia policies]]. * [[Inglis leid|Inglis]]: ''If you can't find the article you're looking for and you don't know [[Scots leid|Scots]] or don't want to contribute yourself, you can ask me to create the missing article on [[Scots Wikipaedia|Scottish Wikipedia]] via [[Uiser collogue:Mr.Murdoch78|my talk page]]. Please provide me with the title of the page to be created, a short description, one or more sources, and specify if the article already exists on [[Wikipaedia|Wikipedia in another language]]. If it's an article that doesn't exist on any other Wikipedia version, make sure beforehand that it complies with the [[:Category:Wikipaedia policies|Scottish Wikipedia policies]].'' epgpe29qwtbakm7773b0hv63ygncal4 Titus Makin Jr. 0 233431 916943 916506 2026-05-18T08:44:22Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916943 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bodie | name = Titus Makin Jr. | image = Titus Makin, Jr. WonderCon 2014 (cropped-J1).jpg | image_size = 350 | caption = Makin in 2014 | alias = {{flatlist| * Butterfly Ali }} | birth_date = {{birth date and age|1989|06|10}} | birth_place = [[Honolulu, Hawaii]], U.S. | education = [[New York Conservatory fur Dramatic Airts]] | occupation = {{flatlist| * Actor * dancer * sangster * sangwriter }} | years_active = 2009–present | module = {{Infobox musical artist | embed = yes | genre = {{flatlist| * [[Soul music|Soul]] * [[Contemporary R&B|R&B]] * [[funk]] * [[Hip hop music|hip hop]]}} | instrument = Vocals | label = }} }} '''Titus Odell Makin Jr.''' (born 10 Juin 1989), forby kent bi his [[Stage name|muisical stage name]] '''Butterfly Ali''', is an American actor, sangster, dancer, an sangwriter. He is best kent fur his role as Jackson West in the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] polis procedural telly series ''[[The Rookie]]'' (2018–2021). He forby portrayed chairacters in telly series sic as David in ''[[Glee (TV series)|Glee]]'' (2010–2012), Lukas Parnell in ''[[Star-Crossed (TV series)|Star-Crossed]]'' (2014), Clark Wilkins in ''[[Pretty Little Liars]]'' (2015), an Caleb Matthews in ''[[The Path (TV series)|The Path]]'' (2018). Makin forby pleyed Trey in the 2021 featur film ''[[On the Come Up (film)|On the Come Up]]''. He is a sangster an sangwriter an aa, blendin elements o [[Soul muisic|soul]], [[Contemporary R&B|R&B]], [[funk]], an [[Hip hop muisic|hip hop]] in his wirk. == Early life == Titus Makin Jr. wis born on 10 Juin 1989 in [[Honolulu]], Hawaii, whaur he bidit fur the furst three years o his life.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Hrovat|first=Jessica|date=2020-02-24|title=Titus Makin is Feeling "Righteous" as Butterfly Ali|url=https://americansongwriter.com/titus-makin-is-feeling-righteous-as-butterfly-ali/|access-date=2026-05-10|website=American Songwriter|language=en-US}}</ref> His faither wis a sodger an his faimily flittit aroond the Unitit States, includin staps in [[Colorado]] an [[Arizona]], as weel as in [[Germany]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Cabbagestalk|first=Shawn|date=2021-04-04|title=Titus Makin talks ABC’s “The Rookie” with WJBF’s Shawn Cabbagestalk|url=https://www.wjbf.com/news/u-s-world-news/titus-makin-talks-abcs-the-rookie-with-wjbfs-shawn-cabbagestalk/|access-date=2026-05-10|website=WJBF|language=en-US}}</ref> He haes a sister an aa. Growin up, Makin teuk up sports, singin an performin, an practicit gymnastics an dance. He begound actin in heich schuil, performin in schuil muisicals, an efter graduatin, he attendit the [[New York Conservatory fur Dramatic Airts]]. Whiles thare, he forby becam an acrobat an dancer fur the [[cheerleadin]] teams o the [[New York Knicks]] an [[New York Liberty]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> == Actin career == In 2009, Makin flittit tae [[Los Angeles]], whaur he begound actin in films an telly series.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Frae 2010 tae 2012, Makin portrayed the recurrin chairacter o David in the [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] muisical comedy drama ''[[Glee (TV series)|Glee]]'', an in 2011, he pleyed Mickey O'Malley in the direct-tae-video teen comedy muisical film ''[[A Cinderella Story: Once Upon a Song]]''. Later, he portrayed Lukas Parnell in [[The CW]] science fiction romantic teen drama series ''[[Star-Crossed (TV series)|Star-Crossed]]'' (2014), Clark Wilkins in the [[Freeform (TV chainel)|Freeform]] meestery teen drama series ''[[Pretty Little Liars]]'' (2015), an Caleb Matthews in the [[Hulu]] drama series ''[[The Path (TV series)|The Path]]'' (2018).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Price|first=Jason|date=2014-01-28|title=Titus Makin, Jr. Discusses His Career, Role On 'Star-Crossed,' Music and More!|url=https://www.iconvsicon.com/2014/01/28/titus-makin-jr-discusses-his-career-role-on-star-crossed-his-music-and-more/|access-date=2026-05-10|website=Icon Vs. Icon|language=en-US}}</ref> Frae 2018 tae 2021, Makin forby haed the leadin role o Jackson West in the furst three seasons o the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] polis procedural telly series ''[[The Rookie]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Petski|first=Denise|date=2018-02-15|title=‘The Rookie’ ABC Casts Titus Makin; Xavier De Guzman In ‘Take Two’|url=https://deadline.com/2018/02/the-rookie-abc-cast-titus-makin-xavier-de-guzman-take-two-1202289168/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-10|website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Petski|first=Denise|date=2021-09-27|title=‘The Rookie’ Bids Farewell To Original Cast Member|url=https://deadline.com/2021/09/the-rookie-bids-farewell-original-cast-member-titus-makin-jr-1234844933/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-10|website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Makin forby kythed in telly series sic as ''[[The Closer]]'' (2011), ''[[Grimm (TV series)|Grimm]]'' (2012), ''[[Castle (TV series)|Castle]]'' (2013), ''[[Grey's Anatomy]]'' (2014), ''[[NCIS (TV series)|NCIS]]'' (2014), ''[[FBI (TV series)|FBI]]'' (2019), an ''[[NCIS: Hawaiʻi]]'' (2021). In 2022, he portrayed Trey in the [[Paramount+]] muisical drama featur film ''[[On the Come Up (film)|On the Come Up]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Zacharek|first=Stephanie|date=2022-09-23|title=A teenage rapper finds her own way to the top in On the Come Up|url=https://time.com/6216188/on-the-come-up-review/|url-status=dead|access-date=2026-05-10|website=time.com|language=en|archive-date=2025-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250720161319/https://time.com/6216188/on-the-come-up-review/}}</ref> == Muisical career == Makin is a sangster an sangwriter an aa, blendin elements o [[Soul muisic|soul]], [[Contemporary R&B|R&B]], [[funk]], an [[Hip hop muisic|hip hop]], amang ithers. Syne 2020, he haes performed unner the [[stage name]] Butterfly Ali, in homage tae [[Muhammad Ali]]. His [[Single (muisic)|singles]] include "Pray for 'Em", "5 Minutes", "Listen to Me", "Rose", an "Righteous".<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Turner|first=J. K.|date=2020-04-14|title=Witness the metamorphosis of Butterfly Ali|url=https://andscape.com/features/witness-the-metamorphosis-of-butterfly-ali/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-10|website=Andscape|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Mosk|first=Mitch|date=2021-06-11|title="Honest, Expressive, & Funky": Butterfly Ali Soars in 'Preacher's Kid,' His Energizing Debut EP|url=https://atwoodmagazine.com/bapk-butterfly-ali-preachers-kid-ep-review-music-feature/|access-date=2026-05-10|website=Atwood Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> == Personal life == Makin identifies as [[Christianity|Christian]].<ref name=":2" /> == Filmography == === Films === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" |- ! scope="col" | Year ! scope="col" | Title ! scope="col" | Role ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes |- | rowspan=2|2009 | ''Ticked'' | Jamie | Short film |- | ''Tran-si-tions'' | Subway ladfreend | Short film |- | 2010 | ''Taking a Stand'' | Shawn | Short film |- | rowspan=4|2011 | ''[[A Cinderella Story: Once Upon a Song]]'' | Mickey O'Malley | Direct-tae-video film |- | ''Game of Your Life'' | Zach Taylor | Direct-tae-video film |- | rowspan=2|''[[Glee: The 3D Concert Movie]]'' | David | rowspan=2|Documentary film |- | Himsel |- | 2013 | ''So This Is Christmas'' | Jason | Direct-to-video film |- | 2017 | ''Once Upon a Date'' | Charlie | Telly series |- | 2018 | ''Marital Bliss'' | Rick | Short film |- | rowspan=2|2021 | ''Aliens on Halloween'' | Jerry Butterfly | Short film |- | ''[[On the Come Up (film)|On the Come Up]]'' | Trey | Featur film |- | 2022 | ''Pool Service, Inc.'' | Xavier | Short film |- | 2024 | ''Sins of the Bride'' | Jack Benson | Featur film |} === Televeesion === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" |- ! scope="col" | Year ! scope="col" | Title ! scope="col" | Role ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes |- | 2009 | ''[[Celebrity Ghost Stories]]'' | Rob's brither | Episode no. 9 |- | 2010–2012 | ''[[Glee (TV series)|Glee]]'' | David | Recurrin role; 10 episodes |- | rowspan=2|2011 | ''[[The Closer]]'' | Lewis Rivers | Episode: "Necessary Evil" (no. 99) |- | ''[[Victorious]]'' | Dancer | 2 episodes |- | rowspan=2|2012 | ''[[Grimm (TV series)|Grimm]]'' | Brandon Kingston | Episode: "The Other Side" (no. 30) |- | ''[[Castle (TV series)|Castle]]'' | Tim Cabot | Episode: "Secret Santa" (no. 90) |- | 2013–2014 | ''[[Buffering (TV series)|Buffering]]'' | Roger Murtaugh | 2 episodes |- | rowspan=4|2014 | ''[[Grey's Anatomy]]'' | Rick Schultz | Episode: "Risk" (no. 228) |- | ''[[NCIS (TV series)|NCIS]]'' | Thomas Burke | Episode: "Alleged" (no. 255) |- | ''[[Perception (TV series)|Perception]]'' | Charlie Clark | Episode: "Brotherhood" (no. 22) |- | ''[[Star-Crossed (TV series)|Star-Crossed]]'' | Lukas Parnell | Leadin role; 10 episodes |- | rowspan=3| 2015 | ''[[Key & Peele]]'' | Yung man at a bar | Episode: "A Cappella Club" (no. 45) |- | ''[[NCIS: New Orleans]]'' | Officer Boone | Episode: "I Do" (no. 27) |- | ''[[Pretty Little Liars]]'' | Clark Wilkins | Recurrin role; 5 episodes |- | 2018 | ''[[The Path (TV series)|The Path]]'' | Caleb Matthews | Recurrin role; 11 episodes |- | 2018–2021 | ''[[The Rookie (TV series)|The Rookie]]'' | Jackson West | Leadin role; 54 episodes |- | rowspan=3|2019 | ''[[FBI (TV series)|FBI]]'' | Art Perkins | Episode: "What Lies Beneath" (no. 20) |- | rowspan=2|''Millennials: The Musical'' | Elise | rowspan=2| Wabseries; 3 episodes |- | DJ Downward Dog |- | 2020 | ''[[Wayward Guide for the Untrained Eye]]'' | Silas Torsen | Recurrin role; wabseries; 10 episodes |- | 2021 | ''[[NCIS: Hawaiʻi]]'' | Adam Parish | Episode: "The Tourist" (no. 6) |} == References == {{Reflist}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q15616536|q=no|c=no|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} * {{IMDb name}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Makin, Titus, Jr.}} [[Category:1989 births]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:American male film actors]] [[Category:American male televeesion actors]] [[Category:Fowk frae Honolulu]] [[Category:Male actors frae Honolulu]] [[Category:Muisickers frae Honolulu]] [[Category:Writers frae Honolulu]] [[Category:Entertainers frae Los Angeles]] [[Category:Male actors frae Los Angeles]] [[Category:Sangsters frae Los Angeles]] [[Category:Writers frae Los Angeles]] [[Category:21st-century African-American male actors]] [[Category:21st-century American male actors]] [[Category:21st-century American sangster-sangwriters]] [[Category:African-American male sangster-sangwriters]] [[Category:American male sangster-sangwriters]] [[Category:21st-century American dancers]] [[Category:African-American male dancers]] [[Category:African-American Christians]] [[Category:20t-century Christians]] [[Category:21st-century Christians]] [[Category:American soul sangsters]] [[Category:American contemporary R&B sangsters]] [[Category:American funk sangsters]] [[Category:American hip-hop sangsters]] [[Category:20t-century fowk frae Californie]] [[Category:20t-century fowk frae Hawaii]] [[Category:21st-century fowk frae Californie]] [[Category:21st-century fowk frae Hawaii]] [[Category:20t-century American fowk]] [[Category:20t-century African-American fowk]] s2dnmfa2gyxxsbrg5gdt4syx4vm2jml Dyslexia 0 233451 916902 916878 2026-05-17T19:44:17Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916902 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Dyslexia | synonyms = Readin ail | image = File:Dislexia nens.jpg | caption = Dyslexia involves difficulties in processin letters an wirds. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɛ|k|s|i|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Dyslexia.wav}} {{respell|dis|LEK|see|ə}} | types = [[Surface dyslexia]] | field = [[Neurology]], [[pediatrics]] | symptoms = Trouble [[Readin (process)|readin]]<ref name="ninds1"/> | onset = Schuil age<ref name=Lancet2012/> | causes = [[Genetics|Genetic]] an environmental factors<ref name=Lancet2012 /> | risks = Faimily history, [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]]<ref name=NIH2014Def/> | diagnosis = Series memory, spellin, veesion, an readin test<ref name=NIH2015Diag/> | differential = [[Hearin problems|Hearin]] or [[veesion problems]], insufficient [[Readin eddication|teachin]]<ref name=Lancet2012/> | treatment = Adjustin teachin methods<ref name=ninds1/> | frequency = 3–7%<ref name=Lancet2012/><ref name=Koo2013/> }} '''Dyslexia''', forby kent as '''wird blindness''', is a [[learnin disabeelity]] that affecks either readin or writin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Dyslexia-Information-Page|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Linda S.|date=November 2006|title=Perspectives on dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2528651/|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=11|issue=9|pages=581–587|doi=10.1093/pch/11.9.581|issn=1205-7088|pmc=2528651|pmid=19030329}}</ref> Different fowk are affeckit tae different degrees.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/disorders|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Problems mey include difficulties in spellin wirds, readin quickly, writin wirds, "soondin oot" wirds [[Subvocalisation|in the heid]], pronouncin wirds whan readin alood an unnerstaundin whit ane reads.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are the symptoms of reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/symptoms|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Aften thir difficulties are furst noticed at schuil.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=RL|last2=Pennington|first2=BF|date=2012-05-26|title=Developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3465717/|journal=Lancet|volume=379|issue=9830|pages=1997–2007|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6|issn=1474-547X|pmc=3465717|pmid=22513218}}</ref> The difficulties are involuntary, an fowk wi this ail hae a normal desire tae learn.<ref name=":1" /> Fowk wi dyslexia hae heicher rates o [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] (ADHA), [[Developmental leid ail|developmental leid ails]], an [[Dyscalculia|difficulties wi nummers]].<ref name=":2" /> Dyslexia is believed tae be caused bi the [[Gene–environment interaction|interaction]] o [[Genetics|genetic]] an environmental factors.<ref name=":2" /> Some cases rin in faimilies.<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia that develops owin tae a [[traumatic harn injury]], [[stroke]], or [[dementia]] is whiles cried "acquired dyslexia"<ref name=":0" /> or '''alexia'''.<ref name=":1" /> The unnerlyin mechanisms o dyslexia result frae differences athin [[Leid processin in the harn|the harn's leid processin]].<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia is diagnosed throu a series o tests o memory, veesion, spellin, an readin skeels.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/diagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is separate frae readin difficulties caused bi [[Hearin loss|hearin]] or [[Veesual impairment|veesion problems]] or bi insufficient [[Readin|teachin]] or opportunity tae learn.<ref name=":2" /> Treatment involves adjustin teachin methods tae meet the person's needs.<ref name=":0" /> Whiles nae curin the unnerlyin problem, it mey decrease the degree or impact o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/treatment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Treatments targetin veesion are nae effective. Dyslexia is the maist common [[learnin disabeelity]] an occurs in aw areas o the warld.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Umphred|first=Darcy Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA383|title=Neurological Rehabilitation - E-Book|last2=Lazaro|first2=Rolando T.|last3=Roller|first3=Margaret|last4=Burton|first4=Gordon|date=2013-08-07|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9|language=en}}</ref> It affecks 3–7% o the population;<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Kooij|first=J. J. Sandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&pg=PA83|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment|date=2012-12-11|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-4138-9|language=en}}</ref> houiver, up tae 20% o the general population mey hae some degree o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en-us|archive-date=2015-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx}}</ref> Whiles dyslexia is mair aften diagnosed in lads, this is pairtly exponed bi a sel-fulfillin [[Selection bias|referral bias]] amang teachers an professionals.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Anne B.|last2=Pennington|first2=Bruce F.|last3=Peterson|first3=Robin L.|last4=Willcutt|first4=Erik G.|last5=DeFries|first5=John C.|last6=Olson|first6=Richard K.|date=2017|title=Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438271/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=58|issue=6|pages=719–727|doi=10.1111/jcpp.12691|issn=1469-7610|pmc=5438271|pmid=28176347}}</ref> It haes even been suggestit that the condeetion affecks men an wummen equally.<ref name=":3" /> Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different wey o learnin, wit baith benefits an dounsides.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Venton|first=Danielle|date=September 2011|title=Q&A: The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia|language=en-US|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805001607/http://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage|archive-date=2016-08-05|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Schneps|first=Matthew H.|date=August 2014|title=The Advantages of Dyslexia|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804232616/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|archive-date=2016-08-04|access-date=2026-05-17|website=ScientificAmerican.com|publisher=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> == Clessification == Dyslexia is dividit intae developmental an acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent tae neurological insult, sic as [[traumatic harn injury]] or [[stroke]]. Fowk wi acquired dyslexia exhibit some o the signs or symptoms o the developmental ail, bit require different assessment strategies an treatment approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woollams|first=Anna M.|date=2014|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866427/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20120398|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866427|pmid=24324241}}</ref> ''Pure alexia'', forby kent as ''agnosic alexia'' or ''pure wird blindness'', is ane form o [[Alexia (condeetion)|alexia]] that maks up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. == Signs an symptoms == In early bairnheid, symptoms that correlate wi a later diagnosis o dyslexia include [[Speech delay|delayed onset o speech]] an a lack o [[phonological awareness]]. A common meeth closely associates dyslexia wi [[mirror writin]] an readin letters or wirds backwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lilienfeld|first=Scott O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior|last2=Lynn|first2=Steven Jay|last3=Ruscio|first3=John|last4=Beyerstein|first4=Barry L.|date=2011-09-15|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5|language=en}}</ref> Thir behaviours are seen in mony bairn as thay learn tae read an write, an are nae considered tae be definin chairactereestics o dyslexia. Schuil-age bairn wi dyslexia mey exhibit signs o difficulty in identifyin or generatin rhymin wirds, or coontin the nummer o seellables in wirds—baith o that depend on phonological awareness. Thay mey forby shaw difficulty in segmentin wirds intae individual soonds (sic as soondin oot the three soonds o ''k'', ''a'', an ''t'' in ''cat'') or mey struggle tae blend soonds, indicatin reduced [[phonemic awareness]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5|language=en}}</ref> Difficulties wi wird retrieval or namin things is associatit wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Swanson|first=H. Lee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities|last2=Harris|first2=Karen R.|last3=Graham|first3=Steve|date=2013-02-11|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3|language=en}}</ref> Fowk wi dyslexia are commonly puir spellers, a featur whiles cried ''dysorthographia'' or ''[[dysgraphia]]'', that depends on the skeel o [[Orthography|orthographic codin]]. Problems persist intae adolescence an adultheid an mey include difficulties wi summarising stories, memorisation, readin alood, or learnin foreign leids. Adults wi dyslexia can aften read wi guid comprehension, thou thay tend tae read mair slawly nor ithers wioot a learnin difficulty an perform worse in spellin tests or whan readin nonsense wirds—a measure o phonological awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lum|first=Jarrad A. G.|last2=Ullman|first2=Michael T.|last3=Conti-Ramsden|first3=Gina|date=October 2013|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3784964/|journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities|volume=34|issue=10|pages=3460–3476|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017|issn=1873-3379|pmc=3784964|pmid=23920029}}</ref> === Associatit condeetions === Dyslexia aften co-occurs wi ither learnin ails, bit the raisons fur this comorbidity hae nae been clearly identifee'd. Thir associatit disabeelities include: ; [[Dysgraphia]] : A ail involvin difficulties wi writin or typin, whiles owin tae problems wi [[Haund–ee coordination|ee–haund coordination]]; it can impede direction- or sequence-orientit processes an aa, sic as tyin knots or carryin oot repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is aften multifactorial, owin tae impaired letter-writin [[automaticity]], organisational an elaborative difficulties, an impaired veesual wird formin, that maks it mair difficult tae retrieve the veesual pictur o wirds required fur spellin. ; [[Attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] : A ail chairacterised bi problems sustainin attention, hyperactivity, or actin impulsively. Dyslexia an ADHA commonly occur thegither.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Comer|first=Ronald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|title=Psychology Around Us|last2=Gould|first2=Elizabeth|date=2010-01-19|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6|language=en}}</ref> Approximately 15% or 12–24% o fowk wi dyslexia hae ADHA;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fatemi|first=S. Hossein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry|last2=Clayton|first2=Paula J.|date=2008-05-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6|language=en}}</ref> an up tae 35% o fowk wi ADHA hae dyslexia. ; [[Auditory processin ail]] : A listenin ail that affecks the abeelity tae process auditory information.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capellini|first=Simone Aparecida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities|date=2007|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7|language=en}}</ref> This can lead tae problems wi [[Echoic memory|auditory memory]] an auditory [[Sequence learnin|sequencin]]. Mony fowk wi dyslexia hae auditory processin problems, an mey develop thair awn [[logographic cues]] tae compensate fur this teep o deficit. Some resairch suggests that auditory processin skeels coud be the primary shortfaw in dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pammer|first=Kristen|date=2014|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913493/|journal=Scientifica|volume=2014|pages=802741|doi=10.1155/2014/802741|issn=2090-908X|pmc=3913493|pmid=24527259}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Law|first=Jeremy M.|last2=Vandermosten|first2=Maaike|last3=Ghesquiere|first3=Pol|last4=Wouters|first4=Jan|date=2014|title=The relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4078926/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=482|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4078926|pmid=25071512}}</ref> ; [[Developmental coordination ail]] : A neurological condeetion chairacterised bi difficulty in carryin oot routine tasks involvin balance, fine-[[motor control]] an [[Proprioception|kinesthetic]] coordination; difficulty in the uise o speech soonds; an problems wi [[short-term memory]] an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alloway|first=Tracy Packiam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders|last2=Gathercole|first2=Susan E.|date=2012-08-06|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2|language=en}}</ref> == Causes == [[File:Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif|thumb|300px| Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation]] Resairchers hae been tryin tae find the neurobiological basis o dyslexia syne the condeetion wis furst identifee'd in 1881. Fur ensaumple, some hae tree'd tae associate the common problem amang fowk wi dyslexia o nae bein able tae see letters clearly tae abnormal development o thair veesual nerve cells. === Neuroanatomy === [[Neuroeemagin]] techniques, sic as [[functional magnetic resonance eemagin]] (fMRI) an [[positron emission tomography]] (PET), hae shawn a correlation atween baith functional an structural differences in the harns o bairn wi readin difficulties. Some fowk wi dyslexia shaw less activation in pairts o the [[Lateralisation o harn function|left hemisphere]] o the harn involvit wi readin, sic as the [[inferior frontal gyrus]], [[inferior parietal lobule]], an the middle an [[Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]]. Meta-analyses o fMRI studies hae foond unner-activation whaur the [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] an [[Occipital lobe|occipital lobes]] meet in the left hemisphere in dyslexic subjecks (includin the [[veesual wird form area]]). Ower the past decade, harn activation studies uisin PET tae study leid hae produced a breakthrou in the unnerstaundin o the neural basis o leid. Neural bases fur the veesual [[lexicon]] an fur auditory verbal [[short-term memory]] components hae been proponed, wi some implication that the observed neural manifestation o developmental dyslexia is task-speceefic (i.e., functional raither nor structural). fMRIs o fowk wi dyslexia indicate an interactive role o the [[cerebellum]] an cerebral cortex as weel as ither harn structurs in readin. The cerebellar theory o dyslexia propones that impairment o cerebellum-controlled muscle muivement affecks the formation o wirds bi the tongue and facial muscles, resultin in the [[fluency]] problems that some fowk wi dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is involvit in the [[Autonomic nervous seestem|automatisation]] o some tasks an aa, sic as readin. The fact that some bairn wi dyslexia hae motor task an balance impairments coud be conseestent wi a cerebellar role in thair readin difficulties. Houiver, the cerebellar theory haes nae been supportit bi controlled resairch studies. === Genetics === Resairch intae potential genetic causes o dyslexia haes its ruits in post-autopsy examination o the harns o fowk wi dyslexia. Observed anatomical differences in the [[Leid centre|leid centres]] o sic harns include microscopic [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations kent as ectopias, an mair rarely, [[Bluid veshel|vascular]] micro-malformations, an [[microgyrus]]—a smawer nor uisual size fur the gyrus. The previously citit studies an ithers suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed tae occur afore or durin the saxt month o [[Fetus|fetal]] harn development, mey have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in fowk wi dyslexia hae forby been reportit in non-leid cerebral an subcortical harn structurs. Mony genes hae been associatit wi dyslexia, includin [[DCDC2]] an [[Dyslexia-associatit protein|KIAA0319]] on [[chromosome 6]], an [[DYX1C1]] on [[chromosome 15]]. === Gene–environment interaction === The contreibution o [[gene–environment interaction]] tae [[Readin disabeelity|readin (dis)abeelity]], that estimates the proportion o variance (the differences in readin abeelity across individuals) attributable tae environmental an genetic factors, haes been studied extensively bi comparin sets o [[Twin|identical twins]] an [[Twin|fraternal twins]]. Sic twin studies shaw that baith environmental an genetic influences contreibute tae readin development, wi thir twa influences' kin impact varyin bi contex. Fur ensaumple, parental eddication haes been foond tae moderate genetic influences on readin (dis)abeelity, an teacher quality can moderate genetic effecks on early readin abeelity. Mairower, in mair supportive environments, genetic risk factors accoont fur a lairger proportion o the variation in dyslexia. This occurs acause reducin environmental risks—throu heich-quality instruction an supportive caregiein—lowers environmental differences, makin genetic effecks easier tae detect. If environmental risk factors are reduced wi guid teachin an a supportin caregier environment, genetic risk factors mey pley a muckler role in exponin why some fowk hae dyslexia acause the genetic effeck is easier tae detect gien that muckle environmental noise is [[Bracketin (phenomenology)|bracketed-oot]]. As environment pleys a lairge role in learnin an memory, it is likly that [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] modifications pley an important role in readin abeelity. Measures o [[gene expression]], [[Histone|histone modifications]], an [[methylation]] in the bodie periphery are uised tae study epigenetic processes; houiver, aw o thir hae leemitations in the extrapolation o results fur application tae the bodie harn. ==== Leid ==== The [[Orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] o a leid directly affecks hou difficult it is tae learn tae read it. Inglis an French hae comparatively "deep" [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] athin the [[Laitin alphabet]] [[writin seestem]], wi complex structurs employin spellin patterns on mony levels: letter-soond correspondence, seellables, an [[Morpheme|morphemes]]. Leids sic as Spainish, Italian an Finnish primarily employ letter-soond correspondence—sae-cried "shallae" orthographies—that maks thaim easier tae learn fur fowk wi dyslexia. [[Logogram|Logographic]] writin seestems, sic as [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]], hae extensive seembol uise, an thir pose problems fur dyslexic learners an aa. ==Pathophysiology== [[File:Gray733.png|thumb|140px|Corpus callosum view, front pairt at tap o eemage]] Fur maist fowk wha are richt-haund dominant, the left hemisphere o thair harn is mair specialised fur [[Lateralisation o harn function|leid processin]]. Wi regard tae the mechanism o dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialisation is less pronounced or absent in fowk wi dyslexia. In ither studies, dyslexia is correlatit wi anatomical differences in the [[corpus callosum]], the bundle o nerve fibers that connects the left an richt hemispheres. Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate chynges in connectivity or in gray maiter density in areas relatit tae readin an leid. Finally, the left [[inferior frontal gyrus]] haes shawn differences in phonological processin in fowk wi dyslexia. Neurophysiological an eemagin procedures are bein uised tae ascertain phenotypic chairactereestics in fowk wi dyslexia, thus identifyin the effecks o dyslexia-relatit genes. === Dual route theory === The dual-route theory o readin alood wis furst descrieved in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that twa separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involvit in readin alood. Ane mechanism is the lexical route, that is the process whaurbi skeelt readers can recognise kent wirds bi sicht alane, throu a "dictionary" leukup procedure. The ither mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, that is the process whaurbi the reader can "soond oot" a written wird. This is duin bi identifyin the wird's constituent pairts (letters, [[Phoneme|phonemes]], [[Grapheme|graphemes]]) an applyin knawledge o hou thir pairts are associatit wi ilka ither — fur ensaumple, hou a string o neebourin letters soond thegither. The dual-route seestem coud expone the different rates o dyslexia occurrence atween different leids (e.g., the consistency o phonological rules in the Spainish leid coud accoont fur the fact that Spainish-speakin bairn shaw a heicher level o performance in non-wird readin, whan compared tae Inglis-speakers). == Diagnosis == Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learnin ail that impairs accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin. Teepical—but nae universal—featurs include difficulties wi phonological awareness, inefficient an aften inaccurate processin o soonds in oral leid (''phonological processin''), an verbal wirkin memory deficits. Dyslexia is a [[neurodevelopmental ail]], subcategorisit in diagnostic guides as a ''learnin'' ''ail wi impairment in readin'' (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" tae "learnin ail"; DSM-5 uises "speceefic"). Dyslexia is nae a problem wi intelligence. [[Emotional an behavioural ails|Emotional problems]] aften arise seicontary tae learnin difficulties. The [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] descrieves dyslexia as "difficulty wi phonological processin (the manipulation o soonds), spellin, an/or rapid veesual-verbal respondin". The Breetish Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learnin difficulty that maistly affecks the skeels involvit in accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin" an is chairacterised bi "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory an verbal processin speed". ''Phonological awareness'' enables ane tae identify, discriminate, mynd ([[wirkin memory]]), an mentally manipulate the soond structurs o leid—[[Phoneme|phonemes]], onsteid-rime segments, seellables, an wirds. === Assessment === The follaein can be duin tae assess fur dyslexia: Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involvin the bairn's parent(s) an teacher(s), schuil psychologist, pediatrician, an, as appropriate, [[Speech–leid pathology|speech an leid pathologist (speech therapist)]], an [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]]. Gain faimiliarity wi teepical ages bairn reach mony general developmental milestanes, an domain-speceefic milestanes, sic as phonological awareness (recognisin rhymin wirds; identifyin the initial soonds in wirds). Dinna rely on tests exclusively. Carefu observation o the bairn in the schuil an hame environments, an sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are juist as important as tests. Leuk at the empirically supportit [[repone tae intervention]] (RTI) approach, that "... involves monitorin the progress o a group o bairn throu a programme o intervention raither nor unnertakin a static assessment o thair current skeels. Bairn wi the maist need are thaim wha fail tae respond tae effective teachin, an thay are readily identifee'd uisin this approach." ==== Assessment tests ==== Thare is a wide range o tests that are uised in clinical an eddicational settins tae evaluate the possibility o dyslexia. If initial testin suggests that a person micht hae dyslexia, sic tests are aften follaed up wi a fou diagnostic assessment tae determine the extent an naitur o the ail. Some tests can be admeenistered bi a teacher or computer; ithers require specialised trainin an are gien bi psychologists. Some test results indicate hou tae carry oot teachin strategies. Acause a variety o different cognitive, behavioural, emotional, an environmental factors aw coud contreibute tae difficulty learnin tae read, a comprehensive evaluation shoud consider thir different possibilities. Thir tests an observations can include: * General meisurs o cognitive abeelity, sic as the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale fur Bairn]], [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities]], or [[Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive abeelity wad mak readin mair difficult. Cognitive abeelity meisurs aften try tae meisur different cognitive processes an aa, sic as verbal abeelity, nonverbal an spatial raisonin, wirkin memory, an processin speed. Thare are different versions o thir tests fur different age groups. Awmaist aw o thir require addeetional trainin tae gie an score correctly, an are duin bi psychologists. Accordin tae Mather an Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile an/or pattern o scores on cognitive tests confirmin or rulin-oot readin ail haes nae yit been identifee'd. * Screenin or evaluation fur mental heal condeetions: Parents an teachers can complete ratin scales or behaviour checkleets tae gaither information aboot emotional an behavioural functionin fur yunger fowk. Mony checkleets hae seemilar versions fur parents, teachers, an yunger fowk auld eneuch tae read raisonably weel (aften 11 years an aulder) tae complete. Ensaumples include the Behavioural Assessment Seestem fur Bairn, an the [[Strenths an Difficulties Questionnaire]]. Aw o thir hae naitionally representative norms, makin it possible tae compare the level o symptoms tae whit wad be teepical fur the yunger person's age an biological sex. Ither checkleets link mair speceefically tae psychiatric diagnoses, sic as the [[Vanderbilt ADHD Ratin Scales]] or the [[Screen fur bairn anxiety relatit ails|Screen fur Bairn Anxiety Relatit Emotional Ail]] (SBAREA). [[Screenin (medicin)|Screenin]] uises brief tuils that are designed tae catch cases wi a ail, but thay aften get false positive scores fur fowk wha dae nae hae the ail. Screeners shoud be follaed up bi a mair accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive ails an anxiety ails are two-three times heicher in fowk wi dyslexia, an attention-deficit/hyperactivity ail is mair common, as weel. * Review o academic achievement an skeels: Average spellin/readin abeelity fur a dyslexic is a percentage rankin <16, weel belaw normal. In addeetion tae reviewin grades an teacher notes, staundardised test results are helpfu in evaluatin progress. Thir include group admeenistered tests, sic as the [[Iowa Tests o Eddicational Development]], that a teacher mey gie tae a group or hale clessruim o yunger fowk at the same time. Thay coud include individually admeenistered tests o achievement an aa, sic as the [[Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (that includes a set o achievement tests an aa). The individually admeenistered tests again require mair specialised trainin. == Screenin == Screenin procedures seek tae identify bairn wha shaw signs o possible dyslexia. In the preschuil years, a faimily history o dyslexia, pairticulairly in biological parents an siblins, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better nor ony test. In primary schuil (ages 5–7), the ideal screenin procedure consists o trainin primary schuil teachers tae carefully observe an record thair pupils' progress throu the phonics curriculum, an tharebi identify bairn progressin slawly. Whan teachers identify sic students thay can supplement thair observations wi screenin tests sic as the ''Phonics screenin check'' uised bi Unitit Kinrick schuils durin Year 1. In the medical settin, bairn an adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasises that "[g]ien the heich prevalence o developmental ails in schuil-aged bairn, aw bairn seen in clinics shoud be seestematically screened fur developmental ails irrespective o the presentin problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screenin fur developmental ails, includin dyslexia, bi conductin a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, an obtainin a schuil report regardin academic an social functionin. == Management == Throu the uise o compensation strategies, therapy an eddicational support, individuals wi dyslexia can learn tae read an write. Thare are techniques an technical aids that help tae manage or conceal symptoms o the ail. Reducin stress an anxiety can whiles impruive written comprehension. Fur [[Management o dyslexia|dyslexia intervention]] wi alphabet-writin seestems, the fundamental aim is tae increase a bairn's awareness o correspondences atween [[Grapheme|graphemes]] (letters) an [[Phoneme|phonemes]] (soonds), an tae relate thir tae readin an spellin bi teaching hou soonds blend intae wirds. Reinforced collateral trainin focused on readin an spellin mey yield langer-lastin gains nor oral phonological trainin alane. Early intervention can be successfu in reducin readin failur. Resairch daes nae suggest that specially-tailored fonts (sic as [[Dyslexie]] an [[OpenDyslexic]]) help wi readin. In experiments, a mair signeeficant difference in readin performance wis driven bi [[Leadin|interline spacin]], an the difference wis nae signeeficant ance variables sic as interline spacin an [[x-hicht]] wis normalised atween the candidate fonts. Bairn wi dyslexia read tex set in a regular font sic as [[Times New Roman]] an [[Arial]] juist as quickly, an thay shaw a preference fur regular fonts ower specially-tailored fonts. Some resairch haes pyntit tae increased [[Letter spacin|letter-spacin]] bein beneficial. Thare is currently nae evidence shawin that muisic eddication signeeficantly impruives the readin skeels o adolescents wi dyslexia. == Prognosis == Dyslexic bairn require special instruction fur wird analysis an spellin frae an early age. The prognosis, generally speakin, is positive fur individuals wha are identifee'd in bairnheid an receive support frae freends an faimily. The New York eddicational seestem (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterruptit 90-meenit block o instruction in readin" an "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, readin fluency" sae as tae impruive the individual's readin abeelity. == Epidemiology == The prevalence o dyslexia is unkent, but it haes been estimatit tae be as low as 5% an as heich as 17% o the population. Dyslexia is diagnosed mair aften in males. Thare are different defineetions o dyslexia uised throuoot the warld. Further, differences in writin seestems mey affeck development o written leid abeelity owin tae the interpley atween auditory an written representations o phonemes. Dyslexia is nae limitit tae difficulty in convertin letters tae soonds, an Cheenese fowk wi dyslexia mey hae difficulty convertin [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]] intae thair meanins. The Cheenese vocabulary uises logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writin whaur ane chairacter can represent an individual phoneme. The phonological-processin hypothesis attempts tae expone why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety o leids. Furthermair, the relationship atween phonological capacity an readin appears tae be influenced bi orthography. == History == Dyslexia wis clinically descrieved bi [[Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881, but the term ''dyslexia'' wis coined in 1883 bi [[Rudolf Berlin]], an [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologist]] in [[Stuttgart]]. He uised the term tae refer tae the case o a yung lad wha haed severe difficulty learnin tae read an write, in maugre o shawin teepical intelligence an pheesical abeelities in aw ither respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a Breetish physeecian frae [[Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description o a readin-speceefic learnin ail in a report tae the ''[[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' titled "Congenital Word Blindness". The distinction atween phonological versus surface teeps o dyslexia is anly descriptive, an wioot ony etiological assumption as tae the unnerlyin harn mechanisms. Houiver, studies hae alludit tae potential differences owin tae variation in performance. Ower time, the consensus haes chynged frae an intelligence-based model tae an age-based model fur dyslexia . == Society an cultur == As is the case wi ony ail, society aften maks an assessment based on incomplete information. Afore the 1980s, dyslexia wis thoucht tae be a consequence o eddication, raither nor a neurological disabeelity. As a result, society aften misjudges thaim wi the ail. Thare is whiles a wirkplace stigma an negative attitude towards thir wi dyslexia an aa. If the instructors o a person wi dyslexia lack the necessary trainin tae support a bairn wi the condeetion, thare is aften a negative effeck on the student's learnin pairteecipation. Syne at least the 1960s in the UK, the bairn diagnosed wi developmental dyslexia hae consistently been frae privileged faimilies. Awthou hauf o preesoners in the UK hae signeeficant readin difficulties, gey few hae iver been evaluatit fur dyslexia. Access tae some special eddicational resoorces an fundin is contingent upon haein a diagnosis o dyslexia. As a result, whan [[Staffordshire]] an [[Warwickshire]] proponed in 2018 tae teach readin tae aw bairn wi readin difficulties, uisin techniques proven tae be successfu fur maist bairn wi a diagnosis o dyslexia, wioot furst requirin the faimilies tae obteen an offeecial diagnosis, dyslexia advocates an parents o bairn wi dyslexia wur fearfu that thay wur losin a privileged status. === Stigma an success === Owin tae the mony cognitive processes that dyslexia affecks an the owerwhelmin societal stigma athort the disabeelity, individuals wi dyslexia aften employ behaviours o sel-stigma an perfectionistic sel-presentation in order tae cope wi thair disabeelity. The perfectionist sel-presentation is whan an individual attempts tae present thaimsels as the perfect ideal eemage an hides ony imperfections. This behaviour presents serious risk as it aften results in mental heal issues an refusal tae seek help fur thair disabeelity. == Resairch == [[File:Writing Systems Template Image.svg|thumb|120px|Writin seestems]] Maist dyslexia resairch relates tae [[Alphabetic writin seestem|alphabetic writin seestems]], an inspecially tae [[Leids o Europe|European leids]]. Houiver, substantial resairch is forby available regardin fowk wi dyslexia wha spik Arabic, Cheenese, Hebrew, or ither leids. The ootward expression o individuals wi readin disabeelity, an regular peer readers, is the same in sum respects. == See an aw == * [[Dyscalculia]], difficulty comprehendin nummers an math * [[Readin|Learnin tae read]] * [[Orton-Gillingham]] * [[Structured literacy]] * [[Leet o fowk wi dyslexia]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further readin == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L | title = Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 434–452 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28797557 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001 | s2cid = 33176236 }} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|first = Alan | last = Beaton |date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research| first = Thomas Richard | last = Miles |date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|author-link=Thomas Richard Miles}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice| vauthors = Reid G, Fawcett A |date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|first = Michael | last = Thomson |date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia| first = Gavin | last = Reid |date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties| first = Mark | last = Selikowitz |date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis| first = Andrew W. | last = Ellis |date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate| vauthors = Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL |date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|author-link=Julian Elliott}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD | title = Neurobiology of dyslexia | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 30 | pages = 73–8 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25290881 | pmc = 4293303 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007 | hdl = 1721.1/102416 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs V, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert N, Blatow M, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither S, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A | title = Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 10 | page = 324 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27471442 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2016.00324 | pmc = 4945653 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo X, Zhang J, Song R | title = Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | article-number = 30454 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27464509 | pmc = 4964335 | doi = 10.1038/srep30454 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...630454S }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR | title = Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1137–44 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 26883091 | pmc = 4872837 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2015.277 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F | title = Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms | journal = Translational Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = e987 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28045463 | pmc = 5545717 | doi = 10.1038/tp.2016.240 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fraga González G, Žarić G, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW | title = Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies | journal = Brain Sciences | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 10 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28106790 | pmc = 5297299 | doi = 10.3390/brainsci7010010 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC | title = Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment | journal = Epigenetics | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = 1023–9 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23949389 | pmc = 3891682 | doi = 10.4161/epi.26026 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Vágvölgyi R, Coldea A, Dresler T, Schrader J, Nuerk HC | title = A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 7 | page = 1617 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27891100 | pmc = 5102880 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617 | doi-access = free }} {{refend}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q132971|q=no|c=category:Dyslexia|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=dyslexia}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Dyslexia| ]] [[Category:Leeteracy]] [[Category:Learnin tae read]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] [[Category:Readin (process)|*Dyslexia]] [[Category:Wikipaedia medicin airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Wikipaedia neurology airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Writin]] cqmv9mw8jevkmq34ko3ac0rej6oicg7 916903 916902 2026-05-17T19:49:32Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916903 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Dyslexia | synonyms = Readin ail | image = File:Dislexia nens.jpg | caption = Dyslexia involves difficulties in processin letters an wirds. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɛ|k|s|i|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Dyslexia.wav}} {{respell|dis|LEK|see|ə}} | types = [[Surface dyslexia]] | field = [[Neurology]], [[pediatrics]] | symptoms = Trouble [[Readin (process)|readin]]<ref name="ninds1"/> | onset = Schuil age<ref name=Lancet2012/> | causes = [[Genetics|Genetic]] an environmental factors<ref name=Lancet2012 /> | risks = Faimily history, [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]]<ref name=NIH2014Def/> | diagnosis = Series memory, spellin, veesion, an readin test<ref name=NIH2015Diag/> | differential = [[Hearin problems|Hearin]] or [[veesion problems]], insufficient [[Readin eddication|teachin]]<ref name=Lancet2012/> | treatment = Adjustin teachin methods<ref name=ninds1/> | frequency = 3–7%<ref name=Lancet2012/><ref name=Koo2013/> }} '''Dyslexia''', forby kent as '''wird blindness''', is a [[learnin disabeelity]] that affecks either readin or writin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Dyslexia-Information-Page|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Linda S.|date=November 2006|title=Perspectives on dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2528651/|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=11|issue=9|pages=581–587|doi=10.1093/pch/11.9.581|issn=1205-7088|pmc=2528651|pmid=19030329}}</ref> Different fowk are affeckit tae different degrees.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/disorders|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Problems mey include difficulties in spellin wirds, readin quickly, writin wirds, "soondin oot" wirds [[Subvocalisation|in the heid]], pronouncin wirds whan readin alood an unnerstaundin whit ane reads.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are the symptoms of reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/symptoms|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Aften thir difficulties are furst noticed at schuil.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=RL|last2=Pennington|first2=BF|date=2012-05-26|title=Developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3465717/|journal=Lancet|volume=379|issue=9830|pages=1997–2007|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6|issn=1474-547X|pmc=3465717|pmid=22513218}}</ref> The difficulties are involuntary, an fowk wi this ail hae a normal desire tae learn.<ref name=":1" /> Fowk wi dyslexia hae heicher rates o [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] (ADHA), [[Developmental leid ail|developmental leid ails]], an [[Dyscalculia|difficulties wi nummers]].<ref name=":2" /> Dyslexia is believed tae be caused bi the [[Gene–environment interaction|interaction]] o [[Genetics|genetic]] an environmental factors.<ref name=":2" /> Some cases rin in faimilies.<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia that develops owin tae a [[traumatic harn injury]], [[stroke]], or [[dementia]] is whiles cried "acquired dyslexia"<ref name=":0" /> or '''alexia'''.<ref name=":1" /> The unnerlyin mechanisms o dyslexia result frae differences athin [[Leid processin in the harn|the harn's leid processin]].<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia is diagnosed throu a series o tests o memory, veesion, spellin, an readin skeels.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/diagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is separate frae readin difficulties caused bi [[Hearin loss|hearin]] or [[Veesual impairment|veesion problems]] or bi insufficient [[Readin|teachin]] or opportunity tae learn.<ref name=":2" /> Treatment involves adjustin teachin methods tae meet the person's needs.<ref name=":0" /> Whiles nae curin the unnerlyin problem, it mey decrease the degree or impact o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/treatment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Treatments targetin veesion are nae effective. Dyslexia is the maist common [[learnin disabeelity]] an occurs in aw areas o the warld.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Umphred|first=Darcy Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA383|title=Neurological Rehabilitation - E-Book|last2=Lazaro|first2=Rolando T.|last3=Roller|first3=Margaret|last4=Burton|first4=Gordon|date=2013-08-07|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9|language=en}}</ref> It affecks 3–7% o the population;<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Kooij|first=J. J. Sandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&pg=PA83|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment|date=2012-12-11|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-4138-9|language=en}}</ref> houiver, up tae 20% o the general population mey hae some degree o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en-us|archive-date=2015-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx}}</ref> Whiles dyslexia is mair aften diagnosed in lads, this is pairtly exponed bi a sel-fulfillin [[Selection bias|referral bias]] amang teachers an professionals.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Anne B.|last2=Pennington|first2=Bruce F.|last3=Peterson|first3=Robin L.|last4=Willcutt|first4=Erik G.|last5=DeFries|first5=John C.|last6=Olson|first6=Richard K.|date=2017|title=Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438271/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=58|issue=6|pages=719–727|doi=10.1111/jcpp.12691|issn=1469-7610|pmc=5438271|pmid=28176347}}</ref> It haes even been suggestit that the condeetion affecks men an wummen equally.<ref name=":3" /> Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different wey o learnin, wit baith benefits an dounsides.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Venton|first=Danielle|date=September 2011|title=Q&A: The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia|language=en-US|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805001607/http://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage|archive-date=2016-08-05|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Schneps|first=Matthew H.|date=August 2014|title=The Advantages of Dyslexia|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804232616/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|archive-date=2016-08-04|access-date=2026-05-17|website=ScientificAmerican.com|publisher=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> == Clessification == Dyslexia is dividit intae developmental an acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent tae neurological insult, sic as [[traumatic harn injury]] or [[stroke]]. Fowk wi acquired dyslexia exhibit some o the signs or symptoms o the developmental ail, bit require different assessment strategies an treatment approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woollams|first=Anna M.|date=2014|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866427/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20120398|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866427|pmid=24324241}}</ref> ''Pure alexia'', forby kent as ''agnosic alexia'' or ''pure wird blindness'', is ane form o [[Alexia (condeetion)|alexia]] that maks up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. == Signs an symptoms == In early bairnheid, symptoms that correlate wi a later diagnosis o dyslexia include [[Speech delay|delayed onset o speech]] an a lack o [[phonological awareness]]. A common meeth closely associates dyslexia wi [[mirror writin]] an readin letters or wirds backwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lilienfeld|first=Scott O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior|last2=Lynn|first2=Steven Jay|last3=Ruscio|first3=John|last4=Beyerstein|first4=Barry L.|date=2011-09-15|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5|language=en}}</ref> Thir behaviours are seen in mony bairn as thay learn tae read an write, an are nae considered tae be definin chairactereestics o dyslexia. Schuil-age bairn wi dyslexia mey exhibit signs o difficulty in identifyin or generatin rhymin wirds, or coontin the nummer o seellables in wirds—baith o that depend on phonological awareness. Thay mey forby shaw difficulty in segmentin wirds intae individual soonds (sic as soondin oot the three soonds o ''k'', ''a'', an ''t'' in ''cat'') or mey struggle tae blend soonds, indicatin reduced [[phonemic awareness]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5|language=en}}</ref> Difficulties wi wird retrieval or namin things is associatit wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Swanson|first=H. Lee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities|last2=Harris|first2=Karen R.|last3=Graham|first3=Steve|date=2013-02-11|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3|language=en}}</ref> Fowk wi dyslexia are commonly puir spellers, a featur whiles cried ''dysorthographia'' or ''[[dysgraphia]]'', that depends on the skeel o [[Orthography|orthographic codin]]. Problems persist intae adolescence an adultheid an mey include difficulties wi summarising stories, memorisation, readin alood, or learnin foreign leids. Adults wi dyslexia can aften read wi guid comprehension, thou thay tend tae read mair slawly nor ithers wioot a learnin difficulty an perform worse in spellin tests or whan readin nonsense wirds—a measure o phonological awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lum|first=Jarrad A. G.|last2=Ullman|first2=Michael T.|last3=Conti-Ramsden|first3=Gina|date=October 2013|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3784964/|journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities|volume=34|issue=10|pages=3460–3476|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017|issn=1873-3379|pmc=3784964|pmid=23920029}}</ref> === Associatit condeetions === Dyslexia aften co-occurs wi ither learnin ails, bit the raisons fur this comorbidity hae nae been clearly identifee'd. Thir associatit disabeelities include: ; [[Dysgraphia]] : A ail involvin difficulties wi writin or typin, whiles owin tae problems wi [[Haund–ee coordination|ee–haund coordination]]; it can impede direction- or sequence-orientit processes an aa, sic as tyin knots or carryin oot repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is aften multifactorial, owin tae impaired letter-writin [[automaticity]], organisational an elaborative difficulties, an impaired veesual wird formin, that maks it mair difficult tae retrieve the veesual pictur o wirds required fur spellin. ; [[Attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] : A ail chairacterised bi problems sustainin attention, hyperactivity, or actin impulsively. Dyslexia an ADHA commonly occur thegither.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Comer|first=Ronald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|title=Psychology Around Us|last2=Gould|first2=Elizabeth|date=2010-01-19|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6|language=en}}</ref> Approximately 15% or 12–24% o fowk wi dyslexia hae ADHA;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fatemi|first=S. Hossein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry|last2=Clayton|first2=Paula J.|date=2008-05-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6|language=en}}</ref> an up tae 35% o fowk wi ADHA hae dyslexia. ; [[Auditory processin ail]] : A listenin ail that affecks the abeelity tae process auditory information.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capellini|first=Simone Aparecida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities|date=2007|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7|language=en}}</ref> This can lead tae problems wi [[Echoic memory|auditory memory]] an auditory [[Sequence learnin|sequencin]]. Mony fowk wi dyslexia hae auditory processin problems, an mey develop thair awn [[logographic cues]] tae compensate fur this teep o deficit. Some resairch suggests that auditory processin skeels coud be the primary shortfaw in dyslexia.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pammer|first=Kristen|date=2014|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913493/|journal=Scientifica|volume=2014|pages=802741|doi=10.1155/2014/802741|issn=2090-908X|pmc=3913493|pmid=24527259}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Law|first=Jeremy M.|last2=Vandermosten|first2=Maaike|last3=Ghesquiere|first3=Pol|last4=Wouters|first4=Jan|date=2014|title=The relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4078926/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=482|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4078926|pmid=25071512}}</ref> ; [[Developmental coordination ail]] : A neurological condeetion chairacterised bi difficulty in carryin oot routine tasks involvin balance, fine-[[motor control]] an [[Proprioception|kinesthetic]] coordination; difficulty in the uise o speech soonds; an problems wi [[short-term memory]] an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alloway|first=Tracy Packiam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders|last2=Gathercole|first2=Susan E.|date=2012-08-06|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2|language=en}}</ref> == Causes == [[File:Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif|thumb|300px| Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation]] Resairchers hae been tryin tae find the neurobiological basis o dyslexia syne the condeetion wis furst identifee'd in 1881.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&q=Wortblindheit|title=Neurologisches Centralblatt|date=1917|publisher=J. Springer|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&pg=PA127|title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia|last2=Fawcett|first2=Angela|last3=Manis|first3=Frank|last4=Siegel|first4=Linda|date=2008-09-18|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9|language=en}}</ref> Fur ensaumple, some hae tree'd tae associate the common problem amang fowk wi dyslexia o nae bein able tae see letters clearly tae abnormal development o thair veesual nerve cells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stein|first=John|date=2014|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4203994/|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports|volume=1|issue=4|pages=267–280|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6|issn=2196-2987|pmc=4203994|pmid=25346883}}</ref> === Neuroanatomy === [[Neuroeemagin]] techniques, sic as [[functional magnetic resonance eemagin]] (fMRI) an [[positron emission tomography]] (PET), hae shawn a correlation atween baith functional an structural differences in the harns o bairn wi readin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitaker|first=Harry A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&pg=PA180|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language|date=2010-04-08|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7|language=en}}</ref> Some fowk wi dyslexia shaw less activation in pairts o the [[Lateralisation o harn function|left hemisphere]] o the harn involvit wi readin, sic as the [[inferior frontal gyrus]], [[inferior parietal lobule]], an the middle an [[Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].<ref name=":5" /> Meta-analyses o fMRI studies hae foond unner-activation whaur the [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] an [[Occipital lobe|occipital lobes]] meet in the left hemisphere in dyslexic subjecks (includin the [[veesual wird form area]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Anna|last2=Kronbichler|first2=Martin|last3=Richlan|first3=Fabio|date=2016|title=Dyslexic brain activation abnormalities in deep and shallow orthographies: A meta-analysis of 28 functional neuroimaging studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5103175/|journal=Human Brain Mapping|volume=37|issue=7|pages=2676–2699|doi=10.1002/hbm.23202|issn=1097-0193|pmc=5103175|pmid=27061464}}</ref> Ower the past decade, harn activation studies uisin PET tae study leid hae produced a breakthrou in the unnerstaundin o the neural basis o leid. Neural bases fur the veesual [[lexicon]] an fur auditory verbal [[short-term memory]] components hae been proponed,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Price|first=Cathy J.|date=2012-08-15|title=A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3398395/|journal=NeuroImage|volume=62|issue=2|pages=816–847|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062|issn=1095-9572|pmc=3398395|pmid=22584224}}</ref> wi some implication that the observed neural manifestation o developmental dyslexia is task-speceefic (i.e., functional raither nor structural). fMRIs o fowk wi dyslexia indicate an interactive role o the [[cerebellum]] an cerebral cortex as weel as ither harn structurs in readin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Sarvi|last2=Nederveen|first2=Aart J.|last3=Booij|first3=Jan|last4=van Rootselaar|first4=Anne-Fleur|date=2014|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4110352/|journal=NeuroImage. Clinical|volume=5|pages=217–231|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003|issn=2213-1582|pmc=4110352|pmid=25068111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brandler|first=William M.|last2=Paracchini|first2=Silvia|date=2014-02|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3969300/|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=20|issue=2|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008|issn=1471-499X|pmc=3969300|pmid=24275328}}</ref> The cerebellar theory o dyslexia propones that impairment o cerebellum-controlled muscle muivement affecks the formation o wirds bi the tongue and facial muscles, resultin in the [[fluency]] problems that some fowk wi dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is involvit in the [[Autonomic nervous seestem|automatisation]] o some tasks an aa, sic as readin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cain|first=Kate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA134|title=Reading Development and Difficulties|date=2010-06-28|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-5155-9|language=en}}</ref> The fact that some bairn wi dyslexia hae motor task an balance impairments coud be conseestent wi a cerebellar role in thair readin difficulties. Houiver, the cerebellar theory haes nae been supportit bi controlled resairch studies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Levav|first=Itshak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA52|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental Health Action|date=2009|publisher=Gefen Publishing House Ltd|isbn=978-965-229-468-5|language=en}}</ref> === Genetics === Resairch intae potential genetic causes o dyslexia haes its ruits in post-autopsy examination o the harns o fowk wi dyslexia. Observed anatomical differences in the [[Leid centre|leid centres]] o sic harns include microscopic [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations kent as ectopias, an mair rarely, [[Bluid veshel|vascular]] micro-malformations, an [[microgyrus]]—a smawer nor uisual size fur the gyrus. The previously citit studies an ithers suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed tae occur afore or durin the saxt month o [[Fetus|fetal]] harn development, mey have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in fowk wi dyslexia hae forby been reportit in non-leid cerebral an subcortical harn structurs. Mony genes hae been associatit wi dyslexia, includin [[DCDC2]] an [[Dyslexia-associatit protein|KIAA0319]] on [[chromosome 6]], an [[DYX1C1]] on [[chromosome 15]]. === Gene–environment interaction === The contreibution o [[gene–environment interaction]] tae [[Readin disabeelity|readin (dis)abeelity]], that estimates the proportion o variance (the differences in readin abeelity across individuals) attributable tae environmental an genetic factors, haes been studied extensively bi comparin sets o [[Twin|identical twins]] an [[Twin|fraternal twins]]. Sic twin studies shaw that baith environmental an genetic influences contreibute tae readin development, wi thir twa influences' kin impact varyin bi contex. Fur ensaumple, parental eddication haes been foond tae moderate genetic influences on readin (dis)abeelity, an teacher quality can moderate genetic effecks on early readin abeelity. Mairower, in mair supportive environments, genetic risk factors accoont fur a lairger proportion o the variation in dyslexia. This occurs acause reducin environmental risks—throu heich-quality instruction an supportive caregiein—lowers environmental differences, makin genetic effecks easier tae detect. If environmental risk factors are reduced wi guid teachin an a supportin caregier environment, genetic risk factors mey pley a muckler role in exponin why some fowk hae dyslexia acause the genetic effeck is easier tae detect gien that muckle environmental noise is [[Bracketin (phenomenology)|bracketed-oot]]. As environment pleys a lairge role in learnin an memory, it is likly that [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] modifications pley an important role in readin abeelity. Measures o [[gene expression]], [[Histone|histone modifications]], an [[methylation]] in the bodie periphery are uised tae study epigenetic processes; houiver, aw o thir hae leemitations in the extrapolation o results fur application tae the bodie harn. ==== Leid ==== The [[Orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] o a leid directly affecks hou difficult it is tae learn tae read it. Inglis an French hae comparatively "deep" [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] athin the [[Laitin alphabet]] [[writin seestem]], wi complex structurs employin spellin patterns on mony levels: letter-soond correspondence, seellables, an [[Morpheme|morphemes]]. Leids sic as Spainish, Italian an Finnish primarily employ letter-soond correspondence—sae-cried "shallae" orthographies—that maks thaim easier tae learn fur fowk wi dyslexia. [[Logogram|Logographic]] writin seestems, sic as [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]], hae extensive seembol uise, an thir pose problems fur dyslexic learners an aa. ==Pathophysiology== [[File:Gray733.png|thumb|140px|Corpus callosum view, front pairt at tap o eemage]] Fur maist fowk wha are richt-haund dominant, the left hemisphere o thair harn is mair specialised fur [[Lateralisation o harn function|leid processin]]. Wi regard tae the mechanism o dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialisation is less pronounced or absent in fowk wi dyslexia. In ither studies, dyslexia is correlatit wi anatomical differences in the [[corpus callosum]], the bundle o nerve fibers that connects the left an richt hemispheres. Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate chynges in connectivity or in gray maiter density in areas relatit tae readin an leid. Finally, the left [[inferior frontal gyrus]] haes shawn differences in phonological processin in fowk wi dyslexia. Neurophysiological an eemagin procedures are bein uised tae ascertain phenotypic chairactereestics in fowk wi dyslexia, thus identifyin the effecks o dyslexia-relatit genes. === Dual route theory === The dual-route theory o readin alood wis furst descrieved in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that twa separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involvit in readin alood. Ane mechanism is the lexical route, that is the process whaurbi skeelt readers can recognise kent wirds bi sicht alane, throu a "dictionary" leukup procedure. The ither mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, that is the process whaurbi the reader can "soond oot" a written wird. This is duin bi identifyin the wird's constituent pairts (letters, [[Phoneme|phonemes]], [[Grapheme|graphemes]]) an applyin knawledge o hou thir pairts are associatit wi ilka ither — fur ensaumple, hou a string o neebourin letters soond thegither. The dual-route seestem coud expone the different rates o dyslexia occurrence atween different leids (e.g., the consistency o phonological rules in the Spainish leid coud accoont fur the fact that Spainish-speakin bairn shaw a heicher level o performance in non-wird readin, whan compared tae Inglis-speakers). == Diagnosis == Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learnin ail that impairs accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin. Teepical—but nae universal—featurs include difficulties wi phonological awareness, inefficient an aften inaccurate processin o soonds in oral leid (''phonological processin''), an verbal wirkin memory deficits. Dyslexia is a [[neurodevelopmental ail]], subcategorisit in diagnostic guides as a ''learnin'' ''ail wi impairment in readin'' (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" tae "learnin ail"; DSM-5 uises "speceefic"). Dyslexia is nae a problem wi intelligence. [[Emotional an behavioural ails|Emotional problems]] aften arise seicontary tae learnin difficulties. The [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] descrieves dyslexia as "difficulty wi phonological processin (the manipulation o soonds), spellin, an/or rapid veesual-verbal respondin". The Breetish Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learnin difficulty that maistly affecks the skeels involvit in accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin" an is chairacterised bi "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory an verbal processin speed". ''Phonological awareness'' enables ane tae identify, discriminate, mynd ([[wirkin memory]]), an mentally manipulate the soond structurs o leid—[[Phoneme|phonemes]], onsteid-rime segments, seellables, an wirds. === Assessment === The follaein can be duin tae assess fur dyslexia: Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involvin the bairn's parent(s) an teacher(s), schuil psychologist, pediatrician, an, as appropriate, [[Speech–leid pathology|speech an leid pathologist (speech therapist)]], an [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]]. Gain faimiliarity wi teepical ages bairn reach mony general developmental milestanes, an domain-speceefic milestanes, sic as phonological awareness (recognisin rhymin wirds; identifyin the initial soonds in wirds). Dinna rely on tests exclusively. Carefu observation o the bairn in the schuil an hame environments, an sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are juist as important as tests. Leuk at the empirically supportit [[repone tae intervention]] (RTI) approach, that "... involves monitorin the progress o a group o bairn throu a programme o intervention raither nor unnertakin a static assessment o thair current skeels. Bairn wi the maist need are thaim wha fail tae respond tae effective teachin, an thay are readily identifee'd uisin this approach." ==== Assessment tests ==== Thare is a wide range o tests that are uised in clinical an eddicational settins tae evaluate the possibility o dyslexia. If initial testin suggests that a person micht hae dyslexia, sic tests are aften follaed up wi a fou diagnostic assessment tae determine the extent an naitur o the ail. Some tests can be admeenistered bi a teacher or computer; ithers require specialised trainin an are gien bi psychologists. Some test results indicate hou tae carry oot teachin strategies. Acause a variety o different cognitive, behavioural, emotional, an environmental factors aw coud contreibute tae difficulty learnin tae read, a comprehensive evaluation shoud consider thir different possibilities. Thir tests an observations can include: * General meisurs o cognitive abeelity, sic as the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale fur Bairn]], [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities]], or [[Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive abeelity wad mak readin mair difficult. Cognitive abeelity meisurs aften try tae meisur different cognitive processes an aa, sic as verbal abeelity, nonverbal an spatial raisonin, wirkin memory, an processin speed. Thare are different versions o thir tests fur different age groups. Awmaist aw o thir require addeetional trainin tae gie an score correctly, an are duin bi psychologists. Accordin tae Mather an Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile an/or pattern o scores on cognitive tests confirmin or rulin-oot readin ail haes nae yit been identifee'd. * Screenin or evaluation fur mental heal condeetions: Parents an teachers can complete ratin scales or behaviour checkleets tae gaither information aboot emotional an behavioural functionin fur yunger fowk. Mony checkleets hae seemilar versions fur parents, teachers, an yunger fowk auld eneuch tae read raisonably weel (aften 11 years an aulder) tae complete. Ensaumples include the Behavioural Assessment Seestem fur Bairn, an the [[Strenths an Difficulties Questionnaire]]. Aw o thir hae naitionally representative norms, makin it possible tae compare the level o symptoms tae whit wad be teepical fur the yunger person's age an biological sex. Ither checkleets link mair speceefically tae psychiatric diagnoses, sic as the [[Vanderbilt ADHD Ratin Scales]] or the [[Screen fur bairn anxiety relatit ails|Screen fur Bairn Anxiety Relatit Emotional Ail]] (SBAREA). [[Screenin (medicin)|Screenin]] uises brief tuils that are designed tae catch cases wi a ail, but thay aften get false positive scores fur fowk wha dae nae hae the ail. Screeners shoud be follaed up bi a mair accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive ails an anxiety ails are two-three times heicher in fowk wi dyslexia, an attention-deficit/hyperactivity ail is mair common, as weel. * Review o academic achievement an skeels: Average spellin/readin abeelity fur a dyslexic is a percentage rankin <16, weel belaw normal. In addeetion tae reviewin grades an teacher notes, staundardised test results are helpfu in evaluatin progress. Thir include group admeenistered tests, sic as the [[Iowa Tests o Eddicational Development]], that a teacher mey gie tae a group or hale clessruim o yunger fowk at the same time. Thay coud include individually admeenistered tests o achievement an aa, sic as the [[Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (that includes a set o achievement tests an aa). The individually admeenistered tests again require mair specialised trainin. == Screenin == Screenin procedures seek tae identify bairn wha shaw signs o possible dyslexia. In the preschuil years, a faimily history o dyslexia, pairticulairly in biological parents an siblins, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better nor ony test. In primary schuil (ages 5–7), the ideal screenin procedure consists o trainin primary schuil teachers tae carefully observe an record thair pupils' progress throu the phonics curriculum, an tharebi identify bairn progressin slawly. Whan teachers identify sic students thay can supplement thair observations wi screenin tests sic as the ''Phonics screenin check'' uised bi Unitit Kinrick schuils durin Year 1. In the medical settin, bairn an adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasises that "[g]ien the heich prevalence o developmental ails in schuil-aged bairn, aw bairn seen in clinics shoud be seestematically screened fur developmental ails irrespective o the presentin problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screenin fur developmental ails, includin dyslexia, bi conductin a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, an obtainin a schuil report regardin academic an social functionin. == Management == Throu the uise o compensation strategies, therapy an eddicational support, individuals wi dyslexia can learn tae read an write. Thare are techniques an technical aids that help tae manage or conceal symptoms o the ail. Reducin stress an anxiety can whiles impruive written comprehension. Fur [[Management o dyslexia|dyslexia intervention]] wi alphabet-writin seestems, the fundamental aim is tae increase a bairn's awareness o correspondences atween [[Grapheme|graphemes]] (letters) an [[Phoneme|phonemes]] (soonds), an tae relate thir tae readin an spellin bi teaching hou soonds blend intae wirds. Reinforced collateral trainin focused on readin an spellin mey yield langer-lastin gains nor oral phonological trainin alane. Early intervention can be successfu in reducin readin failur. Resairch daes nae suggest that specially-tailored fonts (sic as [[Dyslexie]] an [[OpenDyslexic]]) help wi readin. In experiments, a mair signeeficant difference in readin performance wis driven bi [[Leadin|interline spacin]], an the difference wis nae signeeficant ance variables sic as interline spacin an [[x-hicht]] wis normalised atween the candidate fonts. Bairn wi dyslexia read tex set in a regular font sic as [[Times New Roman]] an [[Arial]] juist as quickly, an thay shaw a preference fur regular fonts ower specially-tailored fonts. Some resairch haes pyntit tae increased [[Letter spacin|letter-spacin]] bein beneficial. Thare is currently nae evidence shawin that muisic eddication signeeficantly impruives the readin skeels o adolescents wi dyslexia. == Prognosis == Dyslexic bairn require special instruction fur wird analysis an spellin frae an early age. The prognosis, generally speakin, is positive fur individuals wha are identifee'd in bairnheid an receive support frae freends an faimily. The New York eddicational seestem (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterruptit 90-meenit block o instruction in readin" an "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, readin fluency" sae as tae impruive the individual's readin abeelity. == Epidemiology == The prevalence o dyslexia is unkent, but it haes been estimatit tae be as low as 5% an as heich as 17% o the population. Dyslexia is diagnosed mair aften in males. Thare are different defineetions o dyslexia uised throuoot the warld. Further, differences in writin seestems mey affeck development o written leid abeelity owin tae the interpley atween auditory an written representations o phonemes. Dyslexia is nae limitit tae difficulty in convertin letters tae soonds, an Cheenese fowk wi dyslexia mey hae difficulty convertin [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]] intae thair meanins. The Cheenese vocabulary uises logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writin whaur ane chairacter can represent an individual phoneme. The phonological-processin hypothesis attempts tae expone why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety o leids. Furthermair, the relationship atween phonological capacity an readin appears tae be influenced bi orthography. == History == Dyslexia wis clinically descrieved bi [[Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881, but the term ''dyslexia'' wis coined in 1883 bi [[Rudolf Berlin]], an [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologist]] in [[Stuttgart]]. He uised the term tae refer tae the case o a yung lad wha haed severe difficulty learnin tae read an write, in maugre o shawin teepical intelligence an pheesical abeelities in aw ither respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a Breetish physeecian frae [[Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description o a readin-speceefic learnin ail in a report tae the ''[[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' titled "Congenital Word Blindness". The distinction atween phonological versus surface teeps o dyslexia is anly descriptive, an wioot ony etiological assumption as tae the unnerlyin harn mechanisms. Houiver, studies hae alludit tae potential differences owin tae variation in performance. Ower time, the consensus haes chynged frae an intelligence-based model tae an age-based model fur dyslexia . == Society an cultur == As is the case wi ony ail, society aften maks an assessment based on incomplete information. Afore the 1980s, dyslexia wis thoucht tae be a consequence o eddication, raither nor a neurological disabeelity. As a result, society aften misjudges thaim wi the ail. Thare is whiles a wirkplace stigma an negative attitude towards thir wi dyslexia an aa. If the instructors o a person wi dyslexia lack the necessary trainin tae support a bairn wi the condeetion, thare is aften a negative effeck on the student's learnin pairteecipation. Syne at least the 1960s in the UK, the bairn diagnosed wi developmental dyslexia hae consistently been frae privileged faimilies. Awthou hauf o preesoners in the UK hae signeeficant readin difficulties, gey few hae iver been evaluatit fur dyslexia. Access tae some special eddicational resoorces an fundin is contingent upon haein a diagnosis o dyslexia. As a result, whan [[Staffordshire]] an [[Warwickshire]] proponed in 2018 tae teach readin tae aw bairn wi readin difficulties, uisin techniques proven tae be successfu fur maist bairn wi a diagnosis o dyslexia, wioot furst requirin the faimilies tae obteen an offeecial diagnosis, dyslexia advocates an parents o bairn wi dyslexia wur fearfu that thay wur losin a privileged status. === Stigma an success === Owin tae the mony cognitive processes that dyslexia affecks an the owerwhelmin societal stigma athort the disabeelity, individuals wi dyslexia aften employ behaviours o sel-stigma an perfectionistic sel-presentation in order tae cope wi thair disabeelity. The perfectionist sel-presentation is whan an individual attempts tae present thaimsels as the perfect ideal eemage an hides ony imperfections. This behaviour presents serious risk as it aften results in mental heal issues an refusal tae seek help fur thair disabeelity. == Resairch == [[File:Writing Systems Template Image.svg|thumb|120px|Writin seestems]] Maist dyslexia resairch relates tae [[Alphabetic writin seestem|alphabetic writin seestems]], an inspecially tae [[Leids o Europe|European leids]]. Houiver, substantial resairch is forby available regardin fowk wi dyslexia wha spik Arabic, Cheenese, Hebrew, or ither leids. The ootward expression o individuals wi readin disabeelity, an regular peer readers, is the same in sum respects. == See an aw == * [[Dyscalculia]], difficulty comprehendin nummers an math * [[Readin|Learnin tae read]] * [[Orton-Gillingham]] * [[Structured literacy]] * [[Leet o fowk wi dyslexia]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further readin == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L | title = Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 434–452 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28797557 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001 | s2cid = 33176236 }} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|first = Alan | last = Beaton |date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research| first = Thomas Richard | last = Miles |date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|author-link=Thomas Richard Miles}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice| vauthors = Reid G, Fawcett A |date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|first = Michael | last = Thomson |date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia| first = Gavin | last = Reid |date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties| first = Mark | last = Selikowitz |date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis| first = Andrew W. | last = Ellis |date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate| vauthors = Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL |date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|author-link=Julian Elliott}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD | title = Neurobiology of dyslexia | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 30 | pages = 73–8 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25290881 | pmc = 4293303 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007 | hdl = 1721.1/102416 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs V, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert N, Blatow M, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither S, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A | title = Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 10 | page = 324 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27471442 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2016.00324 | pmc = 4945653 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo X, Zhang J, Song R | title = Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | article-number = 30454 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27464509 | pmc = 4964335 | doi = 10.1038/srep30454 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...630454S }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR | title = Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1137–44 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 26883091 | pmc = 4872837 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2015.277 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F | title = Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms | journal = Translational Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = e987 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28045463 | pmc = 5545717 | doi = 10.1038/tp.2016.240 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fraga González G, Žarić G, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW | title = Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies | journal = Brain Sciences | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 10 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28106790 | pmc = 5297299 | doi = 10.3390/brainsci7010010 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC | title = Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment | journal = Epigenetics | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = 1023–9 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23949389 | pmc = 3891682 | doi = 10.4161/epi.26026 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Vágvölgyi R, Coldea A, Dresler T, Schrader J, Nuerk HC | title = A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 7 | page = 1617 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27891100 | pmc = 5102880 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617 | doi-access = free }} {{refend}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q132971|q=no|c=category:Dyslexia|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=dyslexia}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Dyslexia| ]] [[Category:Leeteracy]] [[Category:Learnin tae read]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] [[Category:Readin (process)|*Dyslexia]] [[Category:Wikipaedia medicin airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Wikipaedia neurology airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Writin]] 2ll071i87b8mdu5higi9jtlwczywllw 916908 916903 2026-05-17T21:46:33Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916908 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Dyslexia | synonyms = Readin ail | image = File:Dislexia nens.jpg | caption = Dyslexia involves difficulties in processin letters an wirds. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɛ|k|s|i|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Dyslexia.wav}} {{respell|dis|LEK|see|ə}} | types = [[Surface dyslexia]] | field = [[Neurology]], [[pediatrics]] | symptoms = Trouble [[Readin (process)|readin]]<ref name="ninds1"/> | onset = Schuil age<ref name=Lancet2012/> | causes = [[Genetics|Genetic]] an environmental factors<ref name=Lancet2012 /> | risks = Faimily history, [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]]<ref name=NIH2014Def/> | diagnosis = Series memory, spellin, veesion, an readin test<ref name=NIH2015Diag/> | differential = [[Hearin problems|Hearin]] or [[veesion problems]], insufficient [[Readin eddication|teachin]]<ref name=Lancet2012/> | treatment = Adjustin teachin methods<ref name=ninds1/> | frequency = 3–7%<ref name=Lancet2012/><ref name=Koo2013/> }} '''Dyslexia''', forby kent as '''wird blindness''', is a [[learnin disabeelity]] that affecks either readin or writin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Dyslexia-Information-Page|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Linda S.|date=November 2006|title=Perspectives on dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2528651/|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=11|issue=9|pages=581–587|doi=10.1093/pch/11.9.581|issn=1205-7088|pmc=2528651|pmid=19030329}}</ref> Different fowk are affeckit tae different degrees.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/disorders|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Problems mey include difficulties in spellin wirds, readin quickly, writin wirds, "soondin oot" wirds [[Subvocalisation|in the heid]], pronouncin wirds whan readin alood an unnerstaundin whit ane reads.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are the symptoms of reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/symptoms|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Aften thir difficulties are furst noticed at schuil.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=RL|last2=Pennington|first2=BF|date=2012-05-26|title=Developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3465717/|journal=Lancet|volume=379|issue=9830|pages=1997–2007|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6|issn=1474-547X|pmc=3465717|pmid=22513218}}</ref> The difficulties are involuntary, an fowk wi this ail hae a normal desire tae learn.<ref name=":1" /> Fowk wi dyslexia hae heicher rates o [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] (ADHA), [[Developmental leid ail|developmental leid ails]], an [[Dyscalculia|difficulties wi nummers]].<ref name=":2" /> Dyslexia is believed tae be caused bi the [[Gene–environment interaction|interaction]] o [[Genetics|genetic]] an environmental factors.<ref name=":2" /> Some cases rin in faimilies.<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia that develops owin tae a [[traumatic harn injury]], [[stroke]], or [[dementia]] is whiles cried "acquired dyslexia"<ref name=":0" /> or '''alexia'''.<ref name=":1" /> The unnerlyin mechanisms o dyslexia result frae differences athin [[Leid processin in the harn|the harn's leid processin]].<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia is diagnosed throu a series o tests o memory, veesion, spellin, an readin skeels.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/diagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is separate frae readin difficulties caused bi [[Hearin loss|hearin]] or [[Veesual impairment|veesion problems]] or bi insufficient [[Readin|teachin]] or opportunity tae learn.<ref name=":2" /> Treatment involves adjustin teachin methods tae meet the person's needs.<ref name=":0" /> Whiles nae curin the unnerlyin problem, it mey decrease the degree or impact o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/treatment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Treatments targetin veesion are nae effective. Dyslexia is the maist common [[learnin disabeelity]] an occurs in aw areas o the warld.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Umphred|first=Darcy Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA383|title=Neurological Rehabilitation - E-Book|last2=Lazaro|first2=Rolando T.|last3=Roller|first3=Margaret|last4=Burton|first4=Gordon|date=2013-08-07|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9|language=en}}</ref> It affecks 3–7% o the population;<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Kooij|first=J. J. Sandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&pg=PA83|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment|date=2012-12-11|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-4138-9|language=en}}</ref> houiver, up tae 20% o the general population mey hae some degree o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en-us|archive-date=2015-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx}}</ref> Whiles dyslexia is mair aften diagnosed in lads, this is pairtly exponed bi a sel-fulfillin [[Selection bias|referral bias]] amang teachers an professionals.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Anne B.|last2=Pennington|first2=Bruce F.|last3=Peterson|first3=Robin L.|last4=Willcutt|first4=Erik G.|last5=DeFries|first5=John C.|last6=Olson|first6=Richard K.|date=2017|title=Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438271/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=58|issue=6|pages=719–727|doi=10.1111/jcpp.12691|issn=1469-7610|pmc=5438271|pmid=28176347}}</ref> It haes even been suggestit that the condeetion affecks men an wummen equally.<ref name=":3" /> Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different wey o learnin, wit baith benefits an dounsides.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Venton|first=Danielle|date=September 2011|title=Q&A: The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia|language=en-US|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805001607/http://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage|archive-date=2016-08-05|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Schneps|first=Matthew H.|date=August 2014|title=The Advantages of Dyslexia|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804232616/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|archive-date=2016-08-04|access-date=2026-05-17|website=ScientificAmerican.com|publisher=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> == Clessification == Dyslexia is dividit intae developmental an acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent tae neurological insult, sic as [[traumatic harn injury]] or [[stroke]]. Fowk wi acquired dyslexia exhibit some o the signs or symptoms o the developmental ail, bit require different assessment strategies an treatment approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woollams|first=Anna M.|date=2014|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866427/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20120398|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866427|pmid=24324241}}</ref> ''Pure alexia'', forby kent as ''agnosic alexia'' or ''pure wird blindness'', is ane form o [[Alexia (condeetion)|alexia]] that maks up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. == Signs an symptoms == In early bairnheid, symptoms that correlate wi a later diagnosis o dyslexia include [[Speech delay|delayed onset o speech]] an a lack o [[phonological awareness]]. A common meeth closely associates dyslexia wi [[mirror writin]] an readin letters or wirds backwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lilienfeld|first=Scott O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior|last2=Lynn|first2=Steven Jay|last3=Ruscio|first3=John|last4=Beyerstein|first4=Barry L.|date=2011-09-15|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5|language=en}}</ref> Thir behaviours are seen in mony bairn as thay learn tae read an write, an are nae considered tae be definin chairactereestics o dyslexia. Schuil-age bairn wi dyslexia mey exhibit signs o difficulty in identifyin or generatin rhymin wirds, or coontin the nummer o seellables in wirds—baith o that depend on phonological awareness. Thay mey forby shaw difficulty in segmentin wirds intae individual soonds (sic as soondin oot the three soonds o ''k'', ''a'', an ''t'' in ''cat'') or mey struggle tae blend soonds, indicatin reduced [[phonemic awareness]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5|language=en}}</ref> Difficulties wi wird retrieval or namin things is associatit wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Swanson|first=H. Lee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities|last2=Harris|first2=Karen R.|last3=Graham|first3=Steve|date=2013-02-11|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3|language=en}}</ref> Fowk wi dyslexia are commonly puir spellers, a featur whiles cried ''dysorthographia'' or ''[[dysgraphia]]'', that depends on the skeel o [[Orthography|orthographic codin]]. Problems persist intae adolescence an adultheid an mey include difficulties wi summarising stories, memorisation, readin alood, or learnin foreign leids. Adults wi dyslexia can aften read wi guid comprehension, thou thay tend tae read mair slawly nor ithers wioot a learnin difficulty an perform worse in spellin tests or whan readin nonsense wirds—a measure o phonological awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lum|first=Jarrad A. G.|last2=Ullman|first2=Michael T.|last3=Conti-Ramsden|first3=Gina|date=October 2013|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3784964/|journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities|volume=34|issue=10|pages=3460–3476|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017|issn=1873-3379|pmc=3784964|pmid=23920029}}</ref> === Associatit condeetions === Dyslexia aften co-occurs wi ither learnin ails, bit the raisons fur this comorbidity hae nae been clearly identifee'd. Thir associatit disabeelities include: ; [[Dysgraphia]] : A ail involvin difficulties wi writin or typin, whiles owin tae problems wi [[Haund–ee coordination|ee–haund coordination]]; it can impede direction- or sequence-orientit processes an aa, sic as tyin knots or carryin oot repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is aften multifactorial, owin tae impaired letter-writin [[automaticity]], organisational an elaborative difficulties, an impaired veesual wird formin, that maks it mair difficult tae retrieve the veesual pictur o wirds required fur spellin. ; [[Attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] : A ail chairacterised bi problems sustainin attention, hyperactivity, or actin impulsively. Dyslexia an ADHA commonly occur thegither.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Comer|first=Ronald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|title=Psychology Around Us|last2=Gould|first2=Elizabeth|date=2010-01-19|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6|language=en}}</ref> Approximately 15% or 12–24% o fowk wi dyslexia hae ADHA;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fatemi|first=S. Hossein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry|last2=Clayton|first2=Paula J.|date=2008-05-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6|language=en}}</ref> an up tae 35% o fowk wi ADHA hae dyslexia. ; [[Auditory processin ail]] : A listenin ail that affecks the abeelity tae process auditory information.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capellini|first=Simone Aparecida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities|date=2007|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7|language=en}}</ref> This can lead tae problems wi [[Echoic memory|auditory memory]] an auditory [[Sequence learnin|sequencin]]. Mony fowk wi dyslexia hae auditory processin problems, an mey develop thair awn [[logographic cues]] tae compensate fur this teep o deficit. Some resairch suggests that auditory processin skeels coud be the primary shortfaw in dyslexia.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pammer|first=Kristen|date=2014|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913493/|journal=Scientifica|volume=2014|pages=802741|doi=10.1155/2014/802741|issn=2090-908X|pmc=3913493|pmid=24527259}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Law|first=Jeremy M.|last2=Vandermosten|first2=Maaike|last3=Ghesquiere|first3=Pol|last4=Wouters|first4=Jan|date=2014|title=The relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4078926/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=482|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4078926|pmid=25071512}}</ref> ; [[Developmental coordination ail]] : A neurological condeetion chairacterised bi difficulty in carryin oot routine tasks involvin balance, fine-[[motor control]] an [[Proprioception|kinesthetic]] coordination; difficulty in the uise o speech soonds; an problems wi [[short-term memory]] an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alloway|first=Tracy Packiam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders|last2=Gathercole|first2=Susan E.|date=2012-08-06|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2|language=en}}</ref> == Causes == [[File:Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif|thumb|300px| Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation]] Resairchers hae been tryin tae find the neurobiological basis o dyslexia syne the condeetion wis furst identifee'd in 1881.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&q=Wortblindheit|title=Neurologisches Centralblatt|date=1917|publisher=J. Springer|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&pg=PA127|title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia|last2=Fawcett|first2=Angela|last3=Manis|first3=Frank|last4=Siegel|first4=Linda|date=2008-09-18|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9|language=en}}</ref> Fur ensaumple, some hae tree'd tae associate the common problem amang fowk wi dyslexia o nae bein able tae see letters clearly tae abnormal development o thair veesual nerve cells.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Stein|first=John|date=2014|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4203994/|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports|volume=1|issue=4|pages=267–280|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6|issn=2196-2987|pmc=4203994|pmid=25346883}}</ref> === Neuroanatomy === [[Neuroeemagin]] techniques, sic as [[functional magnetic resonance eemagin]] (fMRI) an [[positron emission tomography]] (PET), hae shawn a correlation atween baith functional an structural differences in the harns o bairn wi readin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitaker|first=Harry A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&pg=PA180|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language|date=2010-04-08|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7|language=en}}</ref> Some fowk wi dyslexia shaw less activation in pairts o the [[Lateralisation o harn function|left hemisphere]] o the harn involvit wi readin, sic as the [[inferior frontal gyrus]], [[inferior parietal lobule]], an the middle an [[Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].<ref name=":5" /> Meta-analyses o fMRI studies hae foond unner-activation whaur the [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] an [[Occipital lobe|occipital lobes]] meet in the left hemisphere in dyslexic subjecks (includin the [[veesual wird form area]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Anna|last2=Kronbichler|first2=Martin|last3=Richlan|first3=Fabio|date=2016|title=Dyslexic brain activation abnormalities in deep and shallow orthographies: A meta-analysis of 28 functional neuroimaging studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5103175/|journal=Human Brain Mapping|volume=37|issue=7|pages=2676–2699|doi=10.1002/hbm.23202|issn=1097-0193|pmc=5103175|pmid=27061464}}</ref> Ower the past decade, harn activation studies uisin PET tae study leid hae produced a breakthrou in the unnerstaundin o the neural basis o leid. Neural bases fur the veesual [[lexicon]] an fur auditory verbal [[short-term memory]] components hae been proponed,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Price|first=Cathy J.|date=2012-08-15|title=A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3398395/|journal=NeuroImage|volume=62|issue=2|pages=816–847|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062|issn=1095-9572|pmc=3398395|pmid=22584224}}</ref> wi some implication that the observed neural manifestation o developmental dyslexia is task-speceefic (i.e., functional raither nor structural). fMRIs o fowk wi dyslexia indicate an interactive role o the [[cerebellum]] an cerebral cortex as weel as ither harn structurs in readin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Sarvi|last2=Nederveen|first2=Aart J.|last3=Booij|first3=Jan|last4=van Rootselaar|first4=Anne-Fleur|date=2014|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4110352/|journal=NeuroImage. Clinical|volume=5|pages=217–231|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003|issn=2213-1582|pmc=4110352|pmid=25068111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brandler|first=William M.|last2=Paracchini|first2=Silvia|date=2014-02|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3969300/|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=20|issue=2|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008|issn=1471-499X|pmc=3969300|pmid=24275328}}</ref> The cerebellar theory o dyslexia propones that impairment o cerebellum-controlled muscle muivement affecks the formation o wirds bi the tongue and facial muscles, resultin in the [[fluency]] problems that some fowk wi dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is involvit in the [[Autonomic nervous seestem|automatisation]] o some tasks an aa, sic as readin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cain|first=Kate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA134|title=Reading Development and Difficulties|date=2010-06-28|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-5155-9|language=en}}</ref> The fact that some bairn wi dyslexia hae motor task an balance impairments coud be conseestent wi a cerebellar role in thair readin difficulties. Houiver, the cerebellar theory haes nae been supportit bi controlled resairch studies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Levav|first=Itshak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA52|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental Health Action|date=2009|publisher=Gefen Publishing House Ltd|isbn=978-965-229-468-5|language=en}}</ref> === Genetics === Resairch intae potential genetic causes o dyslexia haes its ruits in post-autopsy examination o the harns o fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":6" /> Observed anatomical differences in the [[Leid centre|leid centres]] o sic harns include microscopic [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations kent as ectopias, an mair rarely, [[Bluid veshel|vascular]] micro-malformations, an [[microgyrus]]—a smawer nor uisual size fur the gyrus.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Miriam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&pg=PA941|title=The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language, 2 Volume Set|date=2012-02-13|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3040-3|language=en}}</ref> The previously citit studies an ithers suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed tae occur afore or durin the saxt month o [[Fetus|fetal]] harn development, mey have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in fowk wi dyslexia hae forby been reportit in non-leid cerebral an subcortical harn structurs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kere|first=Juha|date=2014-09-19|title=The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006291X14013515|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications|series=Genomic Aspects of Common Diseases|volume=452|issue=2|pages=236–243|doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102|issn=0006-291X}}</ref> Mony genes hae been associatit wi dyslexia, includin [[DCDC2]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&pg=PA53|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2012-10-12|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7|language=en}}</ref> an [[Dyslexia-associatit protein|KIAA0319]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paracchini|first=Silvia|last2=Thomas|first2=Ankur|last3=Castro|first3=Sandra|last4=Lai|first4=Cecilia|last5=Paramasivam|first5=Murugan|last6=Wang|first6=Yu|last7=Keating|first7=Brendan J.|last8=Taylor|first8=Jennifer M.|last9=Hacking|first9=Douglas F.|last10=Scerri|first10=Thomas|last11=Francks|first11=Clyde|date=2006-05-15|title=The chromosome 6p22 haplotype associated with dyslexia reduces the expression of KIAA0319 , a novel gene involved in neuronal migration|url=http://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/15/10/1659/2355904/The-chromosome-6p22-haplotype-associated-with|journal=Human Molecular Genetics|language=en|volume=15|issue=10|pages=1659–1666|doi=10.1093/hmg/ddl089|issn=1460-2083}}</ref> on [[chromosome 6]], an [[DYX1C1]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosen|first=Glenn D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&pg=PA342|title=The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery|date=2013-05-13|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-81550-0|language=en}}</ref> on [[chromosome 15]]. === Gene–environment interaction === The contreibution o [[gene–environment interaction]] tae [[Readin disabeelity|readin (dis)abeelity]], that estimates the proportion o variance (the differences in readin abeelity across individuals) attributable tae environmental an genetic factors, haes been studied extensively bi comparin sets o [[Twin|identical twins]] an [[Twin|fraternal twins]]. Sic twin studies shaw that baith environmental an genetic influences contreibute tae readin development, wi thir twa influences' kin impact varyin bi contex. Fur ensaumple, parental eddication haes been foond tae moderate genetic influences on readin (dis)abeelity,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Friend|first=Angela|last2=DeFries|first2=John C.|last3=Olson|first3=Richard K.|date=November 2008|title=Parental education moderates genetic influences on reading disability|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2605635/|journal=Psychological Science|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1124–1130|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x|issn=1467-9280|pmc=2605635|pmid=19076484}}</ref> an teacher quality can moderate genetic effecks on early readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=J.|last2=Roehrig|first2=A. D.|last3=Hensler|first3=B. Soden|last4=Connor|first4=C. M.|last5=Schatschneider|first5=C.|date=2010-04-23|title=Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1186149|journal=Science|language=en|volume=328|issue=5977|pages=512–514|doi=10.1126/science.1186149|issn=0036-8075|pmc=2905841|pmid=20413504}}</ref> Mairower, in mair supportive environments, genetic risk factors accoont fur a lairger proportion o the variation in dyslexia.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Pennington|first=Bruce F.|last2=McGrath|first2=Lauren M.|last3=Rosenberg|first3=Jenni|last4=Barnard|first4=Holly|last5=Smith|first5=Shelley D.|last6=Willcutt|first6=Erik G.|last7=Friend|first7=Angela|last8=Defries|first8=John C.|last9=Olson|first9=Richard K.|date=Januar 2009|title=Gene X environment interactions in reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2743891/|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=77–89|doi=10.1037/a0014549|issn=0012-1649|pmc=2743891|pmid=19209992}}</ref> This occurs acause reducin environmental risks—throu heich-quality instruction an supportive caregiein—lowers environmental differences, makin genetic effecks easier tae detect. If environmental risk factors are reduced wi guid teachin an a supportin caregier environment, genetic risk factors mey pley a muckler role in exponin why some fowk hae dyslexia<ref name=":7" /> acause the genetic effeck is easier tae detect gien that muckle environmental noise is [[Bracketin (phenomenology)|bracketed-oot]]. As environment pleys a lairge role in learnin an memory, it is likly that [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] modifications pley an important role in readin abeelity. Measures o [[gene expression]], [[Histone|histone modifications]], an [[methylation]] in the bodie periphery are uised tae study epigenetic processes; houiver, aw o thir hae leemitations in the extrapolation o results fur application tae the bodie harn.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Shelley D.|date=December 2011|title=Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3261263/|journal=Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders|volume=3|issue=4|pages=356–364|doi=10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y|issn=1866-1955|pmc=3261263|pmid=22113455}}</ref> ==== Leid ==== The [[Orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] o a leid directly affecks hou difficult it is tae learn tae read it.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vJ5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA266|title=Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies|last2=McDougall|first2=Sine|last3=Davies|first3=Paul de Mornay|date=2010-06-10|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-16781-3|language=en}}</ref> Inglis an French hae comparatively "deep" [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] athin the [[Laitin alphabet]] [[writin seestem]], wi complex structurs employin spellin patterns on mony levels: letter-soond correspondence, seellables, an [[Morpheme|morphemes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dickinson|first=David K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA421|title=Handbook of Early Literacy Research, Volume 2|last2=Neuman|first2=Susan B.|date=2013-10-15|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=978-1-4625-1470-0|language=en}}</ref> Leids sic as Spainish, Italian an Finnish primarily employ letter-soond correspondence—sae-cried "shallae" orthographies—that maks thaim easier tae learn fur fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":8" /> [[Logogram|Logographic]] writin seestems, sic as [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]], hae extensive seembol uise, an thir pose problems fur dyslexic learners an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|last2=Hulme|first2=Charles|date=2012-05-01|title=Annual research review: the nature and classification of reading disorders--a commentary on proposals for DSM-5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3492851/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=53|issue=5|pages=593–607|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x|issn=1469-7610|pmc=3492851|pmid=22141434}}</ref> ==Pathophysiology== [[File:Gray733.png|thumb|140px|Corpus callosum view, front pairt at tap o eemage]] Fur maist fowk wha are richt-haund dominant, the left hemisphere o thair harn is mair specialised fur [[Lateralisation o harn function|leid processin]]. Wi regard tae the mechanism o dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialisation is less pronounced or absent in fowk wi dyslexia. In ither studies, dyslexia is correlatit wi anatomical differences in the [[corpus callosum]], the bundle o nerve fibers that connects the left an richt hemispheres.<ref name=":9">{{Citation|title=Dyslexia|date=2013-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/handbook/abs/pii/B9780444528919000233|work=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|volume=111|pages=229–235|publisher=Elsevier|language=en-US|access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate chynges in connectivity or in gray maiter density in areas relatit tae readin an leid. Finally, the left [[inferior frontal gyrus]] haes shawn differences in phonological processin in fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":9" /> Neurophysiological an eemagin procedures are bein uised tae ascertain phenotypic chairactereestics in fowk wi dyslexia, thus identifyin the effecks o dyslexia-relatit genes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schumacher|first=Johannes|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Per|last3=Schmäl|first3=Christine|last4=Schulte-Körne|first4=Gerd|last5=Nöthen|first5=Markus M.|date=2007|title=Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2597981/|journal=Journal of Medical Genetics|volume=44|issue=5|pages=289–297|doi=10.1136/jmg.2006.046516|issn=1468-6244|pmc=2597981|pmid=17307837}}</ref> === Dual route theory === The dual-route theory o readin alood wis furst descrieved in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that twa separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involvit in readin alood.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA373|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> Ane mechanism is the lexical route, that is the process whaurbi skeelt readers can recognise kent wirds bi sicht alane, throu a "dictionary" leukup procedure.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA450|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> The ither mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, that is the process whaurbi the reader can "soond oot" a written wird.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hulme|first=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&pg=PT151|title=Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders|last2=Joshi|first2=R. Malatesha|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-49807-7|language=en}}</ref> This is duin bi identifyin the wird's constituent pairts (letters, [[Phoneme|phonemes]], [[Grapheme|graphemes]]) an applyin knawledge o hou thir pairts are associatit wi ilka ither — fur ensaumple, hou a string o neebourin letters soond thegither. The dual-route seestem coud expone the different rates o dyslexia occurrence atween different leids (e.g., the consistency o phonological rules in the Spainish leid coud accoont fur the fact that Spainish-speakin bairn shaw a heicher level o performance in non-wird readin, whan compared tae Inglis-speakers).<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sprenger-Charolles|first=Liliane|last2=Siegel|first2=Linda S|last3=Jimenez|first3=Juan E.|last4=Ziegler|first4=Johannes|date=2011|title=Prevalence and reliability of phonological, surface, and mixed profiles in dyslexia: A review of studies conducted in languages varying in orthographic depth|url=https://hal.science/hal-00733553|journal=Scientific Study of Reading|volume=15|issue=6|pages=498–521}}</ref> == Diagnosis == Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learnin ail that impairs accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin. Teepical—but nae universal—featurs include difficulties wi phonological awareness, inefficient an aften inaccurate processin o soonds in oral leid (''phonological processin''), an verbal wirkin memory deficits. Dyslexia is a [[neurodevelopmental ail]], subcategorisit in diagnostic guides as a ''learnin'' ''ail wi impairment in readin'' (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" tae "learnin ail"; DSM-5 uises "speceefic"). Dyslexia is nae a problem wi intelligence. [[Emotional an behavioural ails|Emotional problems]] aften arise seicontary tae learnin difficulties. The [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] descrieves dyslexia as "difficulty wi phonological processin (the manipulation o soonds), spellin, an/or rapid veesual-verbal respondin". The Breetish Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learnin difficulty that maistly affecks the skeels involvit in accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin" an is chairacterised bi "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory an verbal processin speed". ''Phonological awareness'' enables ane tae identify, discriminate, mynd ([[wirkin memory]]), an mentally manipulate the soond structurs o leid—[[Phoneme|phonemes]], onsteid-rime segments, seellables, an wirds. === Assessment === The follaein can be duin tae assess fur dyslexia: Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involvin the bairn's parent(s) an teacher(s), schuil psychologist, pediatrician, an, as appropriate, [[Speech–leid pathology|speech an leid pathologist (speech therapist)]], an [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]]. Gain faimiliarity wi teepical ages bairn reach mony general developmental milestanes, an domain-speceefic milestanes, sic as phonological awareness (recognisin rhymin wirds; identifyin the initial soonds in wirds). Dinna rely on tests exclusively. Carefu observation o the bairn in the schuil an hame environments, an sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are juist as important as tests. Leuk at the empirically supportit [[repone tae intervention]] (RTI) approach, that "... involves monitorin the progress o a group o bairn throu a programme o intervention raither nor unnertakin a static assessment o thair current skeels. Bairn wi the maist need are thaim wha fail tae respond tae effective teachin, an thay are readily identifee'd uisin this approach." ==== Assessment tests ==== Thare is a wide range o tests that are uised in clinical an eddicational settins tae evaluate the possibility o dyslexia. If initial testin suggests that a person micht hae dyslexia, sic tests are aften follaed up wi a fou diagnostic assessment tae determine the extent an naitur o the ail. Some tests can be admeenistered bi a teacher or computer; ithers require specialised trainin an are gien bi psychologists. Some test results indicate hou tae carry oot teachin strategies. Acause a variety o different cognitive, behavioural, emotional, an environmental factors aw coud contreibute tae difficulty learnin tae read, a comprehensive evaluation shoud consider thir different possibilities. Thir tests an observations can include: * General meisurs o cognitive abeelity, sic as the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale fur Bairn]], [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities]], or [[Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive abeelity wad mak readin mair difficult. Cognitive abeelity meisurs aften try tae meisur different cognitive processes an aa, sic as verbal abeelity, nonverbal an spatial raisonin, wirkin memory, an processin speed. Thare are different versions o thir tests fur different age groups. Awmaist aw o thir require addeetional trainin tae gie an score correctly, an are duin bi psychologists. Accordin tae Mather an Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile an/or pattern o scores on cognitive tests confirmin or rulin-oot readin ail haes nae yit been identifee'd. * Screenin or evaluation fur mental heal condeetions: Parents an teachers can complete ratin scales or behaviour checkleets tae gaither information aboot emotional an behavioural functionin fur yunger fowk. Mony checkleets hae seemilar versions fur parents, teachers, an yunger fowk auld eneuch tae read raisonably weel (aften 11 years an aulder) tae complete. Ensaumples include the Behavioural Assessment Seestem fur Bairn, an the [[Strenths an Difficulties Questionnaire]]. Aw o thir hae naitionally representative norms, makin it possible tae compare the level o symptoms tae whit wad be teepical fur the yunger person's age an biological sex. Ither checkleets link mair speceefically tae psychiatric diagnoses, sic as the [[Vanderbilt ADHD Ratin Scales]] or the [[Screen fur bairn anxiety relatit ails|Screen fur Bairn Anxiety Relatit Emotional Ail]] (SBAREA). [[Screenin (medicin)|Screenin]] uises brief tuils that are designed tae catch cases wi a ail, but thay aften get false positive scores fur fowk wha dae nae hae the ail. Screeners shoud be follaed up bi a mair accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive ails an anxiety ails are two-three times heicher in fowk wi dyslexia, an attention-deficit/hyperactivity ail is mair common, as weel. * Review o academic achievement an skeels: Average spellin/readin abeelity fur a dyslexic is a percentage rankin <16, weel belaw normal. In addeetion tae reviewin grades an teacher notes, staundardised test results are helpfu in evaluatin progress. Thir include group admeenistered tests, sic as the [[Iowa Tests o Eddicational Development]], that a teacher mey gie tae a group or hale clessruim o yunger fowk at the same time. Thay coud include individually admeenistered tests o achievement an aa, sic as the [[Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (that includes a set o achievement tests an aa). The individually admeenistered tests again require mair specialised trainin. == Screenin == Screenin procedures seek tae identify bairn wha shaw signs o possible dyslexia. In the preschuil years, a faimily history o dyslexia, pairticulairly in biological parents an siblins, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better nor ony test. In primary schuil (ages 5–7), the ideal screenin procedure consists o trainin primary schuil teachers tae carefully observe an record thair pupils' progress throu the phonics curriculum, an tharebi identify bairn progressin slawly. Whan teachers identify sic students thay can supplement thair observations wi screenin tests sic as the ''Phonics screenin check'' uised bi Unitit Kinrick schuils durin Year 1. In the medical settin, bairn an adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasises that "[g]ien the heich prevalence o developmental ails in schuil-aged bairn, aw bairn seen in clinics shoud be seestematically screened fur developmental ails irrespective o the presentin problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screenin fur developmental ails, includin dyslexia, bi conductin a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, an obtainin a schuil report regardin academic an social functionin. == Management == Throu the uise o compensation strategies, therapy an eddicational support, individuals wi dyslexia can learn tae read an write. Thare are techniques an technical aids that help tae manage or conceal symptoms o the ail. Reducin stress an anxiety can whiles impruive written comprehension. Fur [[Management o dyslexia|dyslexia intervention]] wi alphabet-writin seestems, the fundamental aim is tae increase a bairn's awareness o correspondences atween [[Grapheme|graphemes]] (letters) an [[Phoneme|phonemes]] (soonds), an tae relate thir tae readin an spellin bi teaching hou soonds blend intae wirds. Reinforced collateral trainin focused on readin an spellin mey yield langer-lastin gains nor oral phonological trainin alane. Early intervention can be successfu in reducin readin failur. Resairch daes nae suggest that specially-tailored fonts (sic as [[Dyslexie]] an [[OpenDyslexic]]) help wi readin. In experiments, a mair signeeficant difference in readin performance wis driven bi [[Leadin|interline spacin]], an the difference wis nae signeeficant ance variables sic as interline spacin an [[x-hicht]] wis normalised atween the candidate fonts. Bairn wi dyslexia read tex set in a regular font sic as [[Times New Roman]] an [[Arial]] juist as quickly, an thay shaw a preference fur regular fonts ower specially-tailored fonts. Some resairch haes pyntit tae increased [[Letter spacin|letter-spacin]] bein beneficial. Thare is currently nae evidence shawin that muisic eddication signeeficantly impruives the readin skeels o adolescents wi dyslexia. == Prognosis == Dyslexic bairn require special instruction fur wird analysis an spellin frae an early age. The prognosis, generally speakin, is positive fur individuals wha are identifee'd in bairnheid an receive support frae freends an faimily. The New York eddicational seestem (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterruptit 90-meenit block o instruction in readin" an "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, readin fluency" sae as tae impruive the individual's readin abeelity. == Epidemiology == The prevalence o dyslexia is unkent, but it haes been estimatit tae be as low as 5% an as heich as 17% o the population. Dyslexia is diagnosed mair aften in males. Thare are different defineetions o dyslexia uised throuoot the warld. Further, differences in writin seestems mey affeck development o written leid abeelity owin tae the interpley atween auditory an written representations o phonemes. Dyslexia is nae limitit tae difficulty in convertin letters tae soonds, an Cheenese fowk wi dyslexia mey hae difficulty convertin [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]] intae thair meanins. The Cheenese vocabulary uises logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writin whaur ane chairacter can represent an individual phoneme. The phonological-processin hypothesis attempts tae expone why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety o leids. Furthermair, the relationship atween phonological capacity an readin appears tae be influenced bi orthography. == History == Dyslexia wis clinically descrieved bi [[Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881, but the term ''dyslexia'' wis coined in 1883 bi [[Rudolf Berlin]], an [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologist]] in [[Stuttgart]]. He uised the term tae refer tae the case o a yung lad wha haed severe difficulty learnin tae read an write, in maugre o shawin teepical intelligence an pheesical abeelities in aw ither respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a Breetish physeecian frae [[Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description o a readin-speceefic learnin ail in a report tae the ''[[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' titled "Congenital Word Blindness". The distinction atween phonological versus surface teeps o dyslexia is anly descriptive, an wioot ony etiological assumption as tae the unnerlyin harn mechanisms. Houiver, studies hae alludit tae potential differences owin tae variation in performance. Ower time, the consensus haes chynged frae an intelligence-based model tae an age-based model fur dyslexia . == Society an cultur == As is the case wi ony ail, society aften maks an assessment based on incomplete information. Afore the 1980s, dyslexia wis thoucht tae be a consequence o eddication, raither nor a neurological disabeelity. As a result, society aften misjudges thaim wi the ail. Thare is whiles a wirkplace stigma an negative attitude towards thir wi dyslexia an aa. If the instructors o a person wi dyslexia lack the necessary trainin tae support a bairn wi the condeetion, thare is aften a negative effeck on the student's learnin pairteecipation. Syne at least the 1960s in the UK, the bairn diagnosed wi developmental dyslexia hae consistently been frae privileged faimilies. Awthou hauf o preesoners in the UK hae signeeficant readin difficulties, gey few hae iver been evaluatit fur dyslexia. Access tae some special eddicational resoorces an fundin is contingent upon haein a diagnosis o dyslexia. As a result, whan [[Staffordshire]] an [[Warwickshire]] proponed in 2018 tae teach readin tae aw bairn wi readin difficulties, uisin techniques proven tae be successfu fur maist bairn wi a diagnosis o dyslexia, wioot furst requirin the faimilies tae obteen an offeecial diagnosis, dyslexia advocates an parents o bairn wi dyslexia wur fearfu that thay wur losin a privileged status. === Stigma an success === Owin tae the mony cognitive processes that dyslexia affecks an the owerwhelmin societal stigma athort the disabeelity, individuals wi dyslexia aften employ behaviours o sel-stigma an perfectionistic sel-presentation in order tae cope wi thair disabeelity. The perfectionist sel-presentation is whan an individual attempts tae present thaimsels as the perfect ideal eemage an hides ony imperfections. This behaviour presents serious risk as it aften results in mental heal issues an refusal tae seek help fur thair disabeelity. == Resairch == [[File:Writing Systems Template Image.svg|thumb|120px|Writin seestems]] Maist dyslexia resairch relates tae [[Alphabetic writin seestem|alphabetic writin seestems]], an inspecially tae [[Leids o Europe|European leids]]. Houiver, substantial resairch is forby available regardin fowk wi dyslexia wha spik Arabic, Cheenese, Hebrew, or ither leids. The ootward expression o individuals wi readin disabeelity, an regular peer readers, is the same in sum respects. == See an aw == * [[Dyscalculia]], difficulty comprehendin nummers an math * [[Readin|Learnin tae read]] * [[Orton-Gillingham]] * [[Structured literacy]] * [[Leet o fowk wi dyslexia]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further readin == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L | title = Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 434–452 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28797557 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001 | s2cid = 33176236 }} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|first = Alan | last = Beaton |date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research| first = Thomas Richard | last = Miles |date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|author-link=Thomas Richard Miles}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice| vauthors = Reid G, Fawcett A |date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|first = Michael | last = Thomson |date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia| first = Gavin | last = Reid |date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties| first = Mark | last = Selikowitz |date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis| first = Andrew W. | last = Ellis |date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate| vauthors = Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL |date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|author-link=Julian Elliott}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD | title = Neurobiology of dyslexia | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 30 | pages = 73–8 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25290881 | pmc = 4293303 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007 | hdl = 1721.1/102416 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs V, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert N, Blatow M, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither S, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A | title = Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 10 | page = 324 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27471442 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2016.00324 | pmc = 4945653 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo X, Zhang J, Song R | title = Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | article-number = 30454 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27464509 | pmc = 4964335 | doi = 10.1038/srep30454 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...630454S }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR | title = Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1137–44 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 26883091 | pmc = 4872837 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2015.277 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F | title = Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms | journal = Translational Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = e987 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28045463 | pmc = 5545717 | doi = 10.1038/tp.2016.240 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fraga González G, Žarić G, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW | title = Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies | journal = Brain Sciences | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 10 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28106790 | pmc = 5297299 | doi = 10.3390/brainsci7010010 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC | title = Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment | journal = Epigenetics | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = 1023–9 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23949389 | pmc = 3891682 | doi = 10.4161/epi.26026 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Vágvölgyi R, Coldea A, Dresler T, Schrader J, Nuerk HC | title = A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 7 | page = 1617 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27891100 | pmc = 5102880 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617 | doi-access = free }} {{refend}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q132971|q=no|c=category:Dyslexia|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=dyslexia}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Dyslexia| ]] [[Category:Leeteracy]] [[Category:Learnin tae read]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] [[Category:Readin (process)|*Dyslexia]] [[Category:Wikipaedia medicin airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Wikipaedia neurology airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Writin]] nmu2timgh24vyay8mre9h1frp3o9f7r 916909 916908 2026-05-17T21:55:28Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916909 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Dyslexia | synonyms = Readin ail | image = File:Dislexia nens.jpg | caption = Dyslexia involves difficulties in processin letters an wirds. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɛ|k|s|i|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Dyslexia.wav}} {{respell|dis|LEK|see|ə}} | types = [[Surface dyslexia]] | field = [[Neurology]], [[pediatrics]] | symptoms = Trouble [[Readin (process)|readin]]<ref name="ninds1"/> | onset = Schuil age<ref name=Lancet2012/> | causes = [[Genetics|Genetic]] an environmental factors<ref name=Lancet2012 /> | risks = Faimily history, [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]]<ref name=NIH2014Def/> | diagnosis = Series memory, spellin, veesion, an readin test<ref name=NIH2015Diag/> | differential = [[Hearin problems|Hearin]] or [[veesion problems]], insufficient [[Readin eddication|teachin]]<ref name=Lancet2012/> | treatment = Adjustin teachin methods<ref name=ninds1/> | frequency = 3–7%<ref name=Lancet2012/><ref name=Koo2013/> }} '''Dyslexia''', forby kent as '''wird blindness''', is a [[learnin disabeelity]] that affecks either readin or writin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Dyslexia-Information-Page|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Linda S.|date=November 2006|title=Perspectives on dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2528651/|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=11|issue=9|pages=581–587|doi=10.1093/pch/11.9.581|issn=1205-7088|pmc=2528651|pmid=19030329}}</ref> Different fowk are affeckit tae different degrees.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/disorders|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Problems mey include difficulties in spellin wirds, readin quickly, writin wirds, "soondin oot" wirds [[Subvocalisation|in the heid]], pronouncin wirds whan readin alood an unnerstaundin whit ane reads.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are the symptoms of reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/symptoms|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Aften thir difficulties are furst noticed at schuil.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=RL|last2=Pennington|first2=BF|date=2012-05-26|title=Developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3465717/|journal=Lancet|volume=379|issue=9830|pages=1997–2007|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6|issn=1474-547X|pmc=3465717|pmid=22513218}}</ref> The difficulties are involuntary, an fowk wi this ail hae a normal desire tae learn.<ref name=":1" /> Fowk wi dyslexia hae heicher rates o [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] (ADHA), [[Developmental leid ail|developmental leid ails]], an [[Dyscalculia|difficulties wi nummers]].<ref name=":2" /> Dyslexia is believed tae be caused bi the [[Gene–environment interaction|interaction]] o [[Genetics|genetic]] an environmental factors.<ref name=":2" /> Some cases rin in faimilies.<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia that develops owin tae a [[traumatic harn injury]], [[stroke]], or [[dementia]] is whiles cried "acquired dyslexia"<ref name=":0" /> or '''alexia'''.<ref name=":1" /> The unnerlyin mechanisms o dyslexia result frae differences athin [[Leid processin in the harn|the harn's leid processin]].<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia is diagnosed throu a series o tests o memory, veesion, spellin, an readin skeels.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/diagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is separate frae readin difficulties caused bi [[Hearin loss|hearin]] or [[Veesual impairment|veesion problems]] or bi insufficient [[Readin|teachin]] or opportunity tae learn.<ref name=":2" /> Treatment involves adjustin teachin methods tae meet the person's needs.<ref name=":0" /> Whiles nae curin the unnerlyin problem, it mey decrease the degree or impact o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/treatment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Treatments targetin veesion are nae effective. Dyslexia is the maist common [[learnin disabeelity]] an occurs in aw areas o the warld.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Umphred|first=Darcy Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA383|title=Neurological Rehabilitation - E-Book|last2=Lazaro|first2=Rolando T.|last3=Roller|first3=Margaret|last4=Burton|first4=Gordon|date=2013-08-07|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9|language=en}}</ref> It affecks 3–7% o the population;<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Kooij|first=J. J. Sandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&pg=PA83|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment|date=2012-12-11|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-4138-9|language=en}}</ref> houiver, up tae 20% o the general population mey hae some degree o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en-us|archive-date=2015-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx}}</ref> Whiles dyslexia is mair aften diagnosed in lads, this is pairtly exponed bi a sel-fulfillin [[Selection bias|referral bias]] amang teachers an professionals.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Anne B.|last2=Pennington|first2=Bruce F.|last3=Peterson|first3=Robin L.|last4=Willcutt|first4=Erik G.|last5=DeFries|first5=John C.|last6=Olson|first6=Richard K.|date=2017|title=Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438271/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=58|issue=6|pages=719–727|doi=10.1111/jcpp.12691|issn=1469-7610|pmc=5438271|pmid=28176347}}</ref> It haes even been suggestit that the condeetion affecks men an wummen equally.<ref name=":3" /> Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different wey o learnin, wit baith benefits an dounsides.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Venton|first=Danielle|date=September 2011|title=Q&A: The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia|language=en-US|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805001607/http://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage|archive-date=2016-08-05|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Schneps|first=Matthew H.|date=August 2014|title=The Advantages of Dyslexia|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804232616/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|archive-date=2016-08-04|access-date=2026-05-17|website=ScientificAmerican.com|publisher=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> == Clessification == Dyslexia is dividit intae developmental an acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent tae neurological insult, sic as [[traumatic harn injury]] or [[stroke]]. Fowk wi acquired dyslexia exhibit some o the signs or symptoms o the developmental ail, bit require different assessment strategies an treatment approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woollams|first=Anna M.|date=2014|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866427/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20120398|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866427|pmid=24324241}}</ref> ''Pure alexia'', forby kent as ''agnosic alexia'' or ''pure wird blindness'', is ane form o [[Alexia (condeetion)|alexia]] that maks up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. == Signs an symptoms == In early bairnheid, symptoms that correlate wi a later diagnosis o dyslexia include [[Speech delay|delayed onset o speech]] an a lack o [[phonological awareness]]. A common meeth closely associates dyslexia wi [[mirror writin]] an readin letters or wirds backwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lilienfeld|first=Scott O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior|last2=Lynn|first2=Steven Jay|last3=Ruscio|first3=John|last4=Beyerstein|first4=Barry L.|date=2011-09-15|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5|language=en}}</ref> Thir behaviours are seen in mony bairn as thay learn tae read an write, an are nae considered tae be definin chairactereestics o dyslexia. Schuil-age bairn wi dyslexia mey exhibit signs o difficulty in identifyin or generatin rhymin wirds, or coontin the nummer o seellables in wirds—baith o that depend on phonological awareness. Thay mey forby shaw difficulty in segmentin wirds intae individual soonds (sic as soondin oot the three soonds o ''k'', ''a'', an ''t'' in ''cat'') or mey struggle tae blend soonds, indicatin reduced [[phonemic awareness]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5|language=en}}</ref> Difficulties wi wird retrieval or namin things is associatit wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Swanson|first=H. Lee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities|last2=Harris|first2=Karen R.|last3=Graham|first3=Steve|date=2013-02-11|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3|language=en}}</ref> Fowk wi dyslexia are commonly puir spellers, a featur whiles cried ''dysorthographia'' or ''[[dysgraphia]]'', that depends on the skeel o [[Orthography|orthographic codin]]. Problems persist intae adolescence an adultheid an mey include difficulties wi summarising stories, memorisation, readin alood, or learnin foreign leids. Adults wi dyslexia can aften read wi guid comprehension, thou thay tend tae read mair slawly nor ithers wioot a learnin difficulty an perform worse in spellin tests or whan readin nonsense wirds—a measure o phonological awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lum|first=Jarrad A. G.|last2=Ullman|first2=Michael T.|last3=Conti-Ramsden|first3=Gina|date=October 2013|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3784964/|journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities|volume=34|issue=10|pages=3460–3476|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017|issn=1873-3379|pmc=3784964|pmid=23920029}}</ref> === Associatit condeetions === Dyslexia aften co-occurs wi ither learnin ails, bit the raisons fur this comorbidity hae nae been clearly identifee'd. Thir associatit disabeelities include: ; [[Dysgraphia]] : A ail involvin difficulties wi writin or typin, whiles owin tae problems wi [[Haund–ee coordination|ee–haund coordination]]; it can impede direction- or sequence-orientit processes an aa, sic as tyin knots or carryin oot repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is aften multifactorial, owin tae impaired letter-writin [[automaticity]], organisational an elaborative difficulties, an impaired veesual wird formin, that maks it mair difficult tae retrieve the veesual pictur o wirds required fur spellin. ; [[Attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] : A ail chairacterised bi problems sustainin attention, hyperactivity, or actin impulsively. Dyslexia an ADHA commonly occur thegither.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Comer|first=Ronald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|title=Psychology Around Us|last2=Gould|first2=Elizabeth|date=2010-01-19|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6|language=en}}</ref> Approximately 15% or 12–24% o fowk wi dyslexia hae ADHA;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fatemi|first=S. Hossein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry|last2=Clayton|first2=Paula J.|date=2008-05-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6|language=en}}</ref> an up tae 35% o fowk wi ADHA hae dyslexia. ; [[Auditory processin ail]] : A listenin ail that affecks the abeelity tae process auditory information.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capellini|first=Simone Aparecida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities|date=2007|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7|language=en}}</ref> This can lead tae problems wi [[Echoic memory|auditory memory]] an auditory [[Sequence learnin|sequencin]]. Mony fowk wi dyslexia hae auditory processin problems, an mey develop thair awn [[logographic cues]] tae compensate fur this teep o deficit. Some resairch suggests that auditory processin skeels coud be the primary shortfaw in dyslexia.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pammer|first=Kristen|date=2014|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913493/|journal=Scientifica|volume=2014|pages=802741|doi=10.1155/2014/802741|issn=2090-908X|pmc=3913493|pmid=24527259}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Law|first=Jeremy M.|last2=Vandermosten|first2=Maaike|last3=Ghesquiere|first3=Pol|last4=Wouters|first4=Jan|date=2014|title=The relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4078926/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=482|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4078926|pmid=25071512}}</ref> ; [[Developmental coordination ail]] : A neurological condeetion chairacterised bi difficulty in carryin oot routine tasks involvin balance, fine-[[motor control]] an [[Proprioception|kinesthetic]] coordination; difficulty in the uise o speech soonds; an problems wi [[short-term memory]] an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alloway|first=Tracy Packiam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders|last2=Gathercole|first2=Susan E.|date=2012-08-06|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2|language=en}}</ref> == Causes == [[File:Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif|thumb|300px| Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation]] Resairchers hae been tryin tae find the neurobiological basis o dyslexia syne the condeetion wis furst identifee'd in 1881.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&q=Wortblindheit|title=Neurologisches Centralblatt|date=1917|publisher=J. Springer|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&pg=PA127|title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia|last2=Fawcett|first2=Angela|last3=Manis|first3=Frank|last4=Siegel|first4=Linda|date=2008-09-18|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9|language=en}}</ref> Fur ensaumple, some hae tree'd tae associate the common problem amang fowk wi dyslexia o nae bein able tae see letters clearly tae abnormal development o thair veesual nerve cells.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Stein|first=John|date=2014|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4203994/|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports|volume=1|issue=4|pages=267–280|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6|issn=2196-2987|pmc=4203994|pmid=25346883}}</ref> === Neuroanatomy === [[Neuroeemagin]] techniques, sic as [[functional magnetic resonance eemagin]] (fMRI) an [[positron emission tomography]] (PET), hae shawn a correlation atween baith functional an structural differences in the harns o bairn wi readin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitaker|first=Harry A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&pg=PA180|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language|date=2010-04-08|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7|language=en}}</ref> Some fowk wi dyslexia shaw less activation in pairts o the [[Lateralisation o harn function|left hemisphere]] o the harn involvit wi readin, sic as the [[inferior frontal gyrus]], [[inferior parietal lobule]], an the middle an [[Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].<ref name=":5" /> Meta-analyses o fMRI studies hae foond unner-activation whaur the [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] an [[Occipital lobe|occipital lobes]] meet in the left hemisphere in dyslexic subjecks (includin the [[veesual wird form area]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Anna|last2=Kronbichler|first2=Martin|last3=Richlan|first3=Fabio|date=2016|title=Dyslexic brain activation abnormalities in deep and shallow orthographies: A meta-analysis of 28 functional neuroimaging studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5103175/|journal=Human Brain Mapping|volume=37|issue=7|pages=2676–2699|doi=10.1002/hbm.23202|issn=1097-0193|pmc=5103175|pmid=27061464}}</ref> Ower the past decade, harn activation studies uisin PET tae study leid hae produced a breakthrou in the unnerstaundin o the neural basis o leid. Neural bases fur the veesual [[lexicon]] an fur auditory verbal [[short-term memory]] components hae been proponed,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Price|first=Cathy J.|date=2012-08-15|title=A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3398395/|journal=NeuroImage|volume=62|issue=2|pages=816–847|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062|issn=1095-9572|pmc=3398395|pmid=22584224}}</ref> wi some implication that the observed neural manifestation o developmental dyslexia is task-speceefic (i.e., functional raither nor structural). fMRIs o fowk wi dyslexia indicate an interactive role o the [[cerebellum]] an cerebral cortex as weel as ither harn structurs in readin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Sarvi|last2=Nederveen|first2=Aart J.|last3=Booij|first3=Jan|last4=van Rootselaar|first4=Anne-Fleur|date=2014|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4110352/|journal=NeuroImage. Clinical|volume=5|pages=217–231|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003|issn=2213-1582|pmc=4110352|pmid=25068111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brandler|first=William M.|last2=Paracchini|first2=Silvia|date=2014-02|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3969300/|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=20|issue=2|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008|issn=1471-499X|pmc=3969300|pmid=24275328}}</ref> The cerebellar theory o dyslexia propones that impairment o cerebellum-controlled muscle muivement affecks the formation o wirds bi the tongue and facial muscles, resultin in the [[fluency]] problems that some fowk wi dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is involvit in the [[Autonomic nervous seestem|automatisation]] o some tasks an aa, sic as readin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cain|first=Kate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA134|title=Reading Development and Difficulties|date=2010-06-28|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-5155-9|language=en}}</ref> The fact that some bairn wi dyslexia hae motor task an balance impairments coud be conseestent wi a cerebellar role in thair readin difficulties. Houiver, the cerebellar theory haes nae been supportit bi controlled resairch studies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Levav|first=Itshak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA52|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental Health Action|date=2009|publisher=Gefen Publishing House Ltd|isbn=978-965-229-468-5|language=en}}</ref> === Genetics === Resairch intae potential genetic causes o dyslexia haes its ruits in post-autopsy examination o the harns o fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":6" /> Observed anatomical differences in the [[Leid centre|leid centres]] o sic harns include microscopic [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations kent as ectopias, an mair rarely, [[Bluid veshel|vascular]] micro-malformations, an [[microgyrus]]—a smawer nor uisual size fur the gyrus.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Miriam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&pg=PA941|title=The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language, 2 Volume Set|date=2012-02-13|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3040-3|language=en}}</ref> The previously citit studies an ithers suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed tae occur afore or durin the saxt month o [[Fetus|fetal]] harn development, mey have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in fowk wi dyslexia hae forby been reportit in non-leid cerebral an subcortical harn structurs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kere|first=Juha|date=2014-09-19|title=The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006291X14013515|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications|series=Genomic Aspects of Common Diseases|volume=452|issue=2|pages=236–243|doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102|issn=0006-291X}}</ref> Mony genes hae been associatit wi dyslexia, includin [[DCDC2]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&pg=PA53|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2012-10-12|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7|language=en}}</ref> an [[Dyslexia-associatit protein|KIAA0319]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paracchini|first=Silvia|last2=Thomas|first2=Ankur|last3=Castro|first3=Sandra|last4=Lai|first4=Cecilia|last5=Paramasivam|first5=Murugan|last6=Wang|first6=Yu|last7=Keating|first7=Brendan J.|last8=Taylor|first8=Jennifer M.|last9=Hacking|first9=Douglas F.|last10=Scerri|first10=Thomas|last11=Francks|first11=Clyde|date=2006-05-15|title=The chromosome 6p22 haplotype associated with dyslexia reduces the expression of KIAA0319 , a novel gene involved in neuronal migration|url=http://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/15/10/1659/2355904/The-chromosome-6p22-haplotype-associated-with|journal=Human Molecular Genetics|language=en|volume=15|issue=10|pages=1659–1666|doi=10.1093/hmg/ddl089|issn=1460-2083}}</ref> on [[chromosome 6]], an [[DYX1C1]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosen|first=Glenn D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&pg=PA342|title=The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery|date=2013-05-13|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-81550-0|language=en}}</ref> on [[chromosome 15]]. === Gene–environment interaction === The contreibution o [[gene–environment interaction]] tae [[Readin disabeelity|readin (dis)abeelity]], that estimates the proportion o variance (the differences in readin abeelity across individuals) attributable tae environmental an genetic factors, haes been studied extensively bi comparin sets o [[Twin|identical twins]] an [[Twin|fraternal twins]]. Sic twin studies shaw that baith environmental an genetic influences contreibute tae readin development, wi thir twa influences' kin impact varyin bi contex. Fur ensaumple, parental eddication haes been foond tae moderate genetic influences on readin (dis)abeelity,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Friend|first=Angela|last2=DeFries|first2=John C.|last3=Olson|first3=Richard K.|date=November 2008|title=Parental education moderates genetic influences on reading disability|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2605635/|journal=Psychological Science|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1124–1130|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x|issn=1467-9280|pmc=2605635|pmid=19076484}}</ref> an teacher quality can moderate genetic effecks on early readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=J.|last2=Roehrig|first2=A. D.|last3=Hensler|first3=B. Soden|last4=Connor|first4=C. M.|last5=Schatschneider|first5=C.|date=2010-04-23|title=Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1186149|journal=Science|language=en|volume=328|issue=5977|pages=512–514|doi=10.1126/science.1186149|issn=0036-8075|pmc=2905841|pmid=20413504}}</ref> Mairower, in mair supportive environments, genetic risk factors accoont fur a lairger proportion o the variation in dyslexia.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Pennington|first=Bruce F.|last2=McGrath|first2=Lauren M.|last3=Rosenberg|first3=Jenni|last4=Barnard|first4=Holly|last5=Smith|first5=Shelley D.|last6=Willcutt|first6=Erik G.|last7=Friend|first7=Angela|last8=Defries|first8=John C.|last9=Olson|first9=Richard K.|date=Januar 2009|title=Gene X environment interactions in reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2743891/|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=77–89|doi=10.1037/a0014549|issn=0012-1649|pmc=2743891|pmid=19209992}}</ref> This occurs acause reducin environmental risks—throu heich-quality instruction an supportive caregiein—lowers environmental differences, makin genetic effecks easier tae detect. If environmental risk factors are reduced wi guid teachin an a supportin caregier environment, genetic risk factors mey pley a muckler role in exponin why some fowk hae dyslexia<ref name=":7" /> acause the genetic effeck is easier tae detect gien that muckle environmental noise is [[Bracketin (phenomenology)|bracketed-oot]]. As environment pleys a lairge role in learnin an memory, it is likly that [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] modifications pley an important role in readin abeelity. Measures o [[gene expression]], [[Histone|histone modifications]], an [[methylation]] in the bodie periphery are uised tae study epigenetic processes; houiver, aw o thir hae leemitations in the extrapolation o results fur application tae the bodie harn.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Shelley D.|date=December 2011|title=Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3261263/|journal=Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders|volume=3|issue=4|pages=356–364|doi=10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y|issn=1866-1955|pmc=3261263|pmid=22113455}}</ref> ==== Leid ==== The [[Orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] o a leid directly affecks hou difficult it is tae learn tae read it.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vJ5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA266|title=Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies|last2=McDougall|first2=Sine|last3=Davies|first3=Paul de Mornay|date=2010-06-10|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-16781-3|language=en}}</ref> Inglis an French hae comparatively "deep" [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] athin the [[Laitin alphabet]] [[writin seestem]], wi complex structurs employin spellin patterns on mony levels: letter-soond correspondence, seellables, an [[Morpheme|morphemes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dickinson|first=David K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA421|title=Handbook of Early Literacy Research, Volume 2|last2=Neuman|first2=Susan B.|date=2013-10-15|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=978-1-4625-1470-0|language=en}}</ref> Leids sic as Spainish, Italian an Finnish primarily employ letter-soond correspondence—sae-cried "shallae" orthographies—that maks thaim easier tae learn fur fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":8" /> [[Logogram|Logographic]] writin seestems, sic as [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]], hae extensive seembol uise, an thir pose problems fur dyslexic learners an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|last2=Hulme|first2=Charles|date=2012-05-01|title=Annual research review: the nature and classification of reading disorders--a commentary on proposals for DSM-5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3492851/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=53|issue=5|pages=593–607|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x|issn=1469-7610|pmc=3492851|pmid=22141434}}</ref> ==Pathophysiology== [[File:Gray733.png|thumb|140px|Corpus callosum view, front pairt at tap o eemage]] Fur maist fowk wha are richt-haund dominant, the left hemisphere o thair harn is mair specialised fur [[Lateralisation o harn function|leid processin]]. Wi regard tae the mechanism o dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialisation is less pronounced or absent in fowk wi dyslexia. In ither studies, dyslexia is correlatit wi anatomical differences in the [[corpus callosum]], the bundle o nerve fibers that connects the left an richt hemispheres.<ref name=":9">{{Citation|title=Dyslexia|date=2013-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/handbook/abs/pii/B9780444528919000233|work=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|volume=111|pages=229–235|publisher=Elsevier|language=en-US|access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate chynges in connectivity or in gray maiter density in areas relatit tae readin an leid. Finally, the left [[inferior frontal gyrus]] haes shawn differences in phonological processin in fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":9" /> Neurophysiological an eemagin procedures are bein uised tae ascertain phenotypic chairactereestics in fowk wi dyslexia, thus identifyin the effecks o dyslexia-relatit genes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schumacher|first=Johannes|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Per|last3=Schmäl|first3=Christine|last4=Schulte-Körne|first4=Gerd|last5=Nöthen|first5=Markus M.|date=2007|title=Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2597981/|journal=Journal of Medical Genetics|volume=44|issue=5|pages=289–297|doi=10.1136/jmg.2006.046516|issn=1468-6244|pmc=2597981|pmid=17307837}}</ref> === Dual route theory === The dual-route theory o readin alood wis furst descrieved in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that twa separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involvit in readin alood.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA373|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> Ane mechanism is the lexical route, that is the process whaurbi skeelt readers can recognise kent wirds bi sicht alane, throu a "dictionary" leukup procedure.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA450|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> The ither mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, that is the process whaurbi the reader can "soond oot" a written wird.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hulme|first=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&pg=PT151|title=Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders|last2=Joshi|first2=R. Malatesha|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-49807-7|language=en}}</ref> This is duin bi identifyin the wird's constituent pairts (letters, [[Phoneme|phonemes]], [[Grapheme|graphemes]]) an applyin knawledge o hou thir pairts are associatit wi ilka ither — fur ensaumple, hou a string o neebourin letters soond thegither. The dual-route seestem coud expone the different rates o dyslexia occurrence atween different leids (e.g., the consistency o phonological rules in the Spainish leid coud accoont fur the fact that Spainish-speakin bairn shaw a heicher level o performance in non-wird readin, whan compared tae Inglis-speakers).<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sprenger-Charolles|first=Liliane|last2=Siegel|first2=Linda S|last3=Jimenez|first3=Juan E.|last4=Ziegler|first4=Johannes|date=2011|title=Prevalence and reliability of phonological, surface, and mixed profiles in dyslexia: A review of studies conducted in languages varying in orthographic depth|url=https://hal.science/hal-00733553|journal=Scientific Study of Reading|volume=15|issue=6|pages=498–521}}</ref> == Diagnosis == Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learnin ail that impairs accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin. Teepical—but nae universal—featurs include difficulties wi phonological awareness, inefficient an aften inaccurate processin o soonds in oral leid (''phonological processin''), an verbal wirkin memory deficits. Dyslexia is a [[neurodevelopmental ail]], subcategorisit in diagnostic guides as a ''learnin'' ''ail wi impairment in readin'' (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" tae "learnin ail"; DSM-5 uises "speceefic").<ref>{{Cite web|title=6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Mortality and Morbidity Statistics|publisher=World Health Organization|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5|date=2013|publisher=Arlington, VA : American Psychiatric Association|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-89042-554-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=FragaGonzález|first=Gorka|last2=Karipidis|first2=Iliana I.|last3=Tijms|first3=Jurgen|date=2018-10-19|title=Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes It Different from a Chess Disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6209961/|journal=Brain Sciences|volume=8|issue=10|pages=189|doi=10.3390/brainsci8100189|issn=2076-3425|pmc=6209961|pmid=30347764}}</ref> Dyslexia is nae a problem wi intelligence. [[Emotional an behavioural ails|Emotional problems]] aften arise seicontary tae learnin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Campbell|first=Robert Jean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&pg=PA310|title=Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534159-1|language=en}}</ref> The [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] descrieves dyslexia as "difficulty wi phonological processin (the manipulation o soonds), spellin, an/or rapid veesual-verbal respondin".<ref name=":0" /> The Breetish Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learnin difficulty that maistly affecks the skeels involvit in accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin" an is chairacterised bi "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory an verbal processin speed".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Phillips|first=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties|last2=Kelly|first2=Kathleen|last3=Symes|first3=Liz|date=2013-08-20|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4462-8704-0|language=en}}</ref> ''Phonological awareness'' enables ane tae identify, discriminate, mynd ([[wirkin memory]]), an mentally manipulate the soond structurs o leid—[[Phoneme|phonemes]], onsteid-rime segments, seellables, an wirds. === Assessment === The follaein can be duin tae assess fur dyslexia: Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involvin the bairn's parent(s) an teacher(s), schuil psychologist, pediatrician, an, as appropriate, [[Speech–leid pathology|speech an leid pathologist (speech therapist)]], an [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]]. Gain faimiliarity wi teepical ages bairn reach mony general developmental milestanes, an domain-speceefic milestanes, sic as phonological awareness (recognisin rhymin wirds; identifyin the initial soonds in wirds). Dinna rely on tests exclusively. Carefu observation o the bairn in the schuil an hame environments, an sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are juist as important as tests. Leuk at the empirically supportit [[repone tae intervention]] (RTI) approach, that "... involves monitorin the progress o a group o bairn throu a programme o intervention raither nor unnertakin a static assessment o thair current skeels. Bairn wi the maist need are thaim wha fail tae respond tae effective teachin, an thay are readily identifee'd uisin this approach."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|date=2013-01-01|title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4538781/|journal=Journal of research in special educational needs: JORSEN|volume=13|issue=1|pages=7–14|doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x|issn=1471-3802|pmc=4538781|pmid=26290655}}</ref> ==== Assessment tests ==== Thare is a wide range o tests that are uised in clinical an eddicational settins tae evaluate the possibility o dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-05-04|title=Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities - Dyslexia Help|url=https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/,%20https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/|access-date=2026-05-17|language=en-US}}</ref> If initial testin suggests that a person micht hae dyslexia, sic tests are aften follaed up wi a fou diagnostic assessment tae determine the extent an naitur o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT35|title=Introduction to Dyslexia|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2013-08-21|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-37290-3|language=en}}</ref> Some tests can be admeenistered bi a teacher or computer; ithers require specialised trainin an are gien bi psychologists.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Assessments|url=https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/services/assessments|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=British Dyslexia Association|language=en}}</ref> Some test results indicate hou tae carry oot teachin strategies.<ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fletcher|first=Jack M.|date=2009|title=Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3079378/|journal=Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS|volume=15|issue=4|pages=501–508|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900|issn=1469-7661|pmc=3079378|pmid=19573267}}</ref> Acause a variety o different cognitive, behavioural, emotional, an environmental factors aw coud contreibute tae difficulty learnin tae read, a comprehensive evaluation shoud consider thir different possibilities. Thir tests an observations can include:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> * General meisurs o cognitive abeelity, sic as the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale fur Bairn]], [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities]], or [[Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive abeelity wad mak readin mair difficult. Cognitive abeelity meisurs aften try tae meisur different cognitive processes an aa, sic as verbal abeelity, nonverbal an spatial raisonin, wirkin memory, an processin speed. Thare are different versions o thir tests fur different age groups. Awmaist aw o thir require addeetional trainin tae gie an score correctly, an are duin bi psychologists. Accordin tae Mather an Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile an/or pattern o scores on cognitive tests confirmin or rulin-oot readin ail haes nae yit been identifee'd.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Sam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylzEBQAAQBAJ&q=Handbook+of+Intelligence:+Evolutionary+theory,+historical+perspective,+and+current+concepts|title=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts|last2=Princiotta|first2=Dana|last3=Naglieri|first3=Jack A.|date=2014-12-08|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4939-1562-0|language=en}}</ref> * Screenin or evaluation fur mental heal condeetions: Parents an teachers can complete ratin scales or behaviour checkleets tae gaither information aboot emotional an behavioural functionin fur yunger fowk. Mony checkleets hae seemilar versions fur parents, teachers, an yunger fowk auld eneuch tae read raisonably weel (aften 11 years an aulder) tae complete. Ensaumples include the Behavioural Assessment Seestem fur Bairn, an the [[Strenths an Difficulties Questionnaire]]. Aw o thir hae naitionally representative norms, makin it possible tae compare the level o symptoms tae whit wad be teepical fur the yunger person's age an biological sex. Ither checkleets link mair speceefically tae psychiatric diagnoses, sic as the [[Vanderbilt ADHD Ratin Scales]] or the [[Screen fur bairn anxiety relatit ails|Screen fur Bairn Anxiety Relatit Emotional Ail]] (SBAREA). [[Screenin (medicin)|Screenin]] uises brief tuils that are designed tae catch cases wi a ail, but thay aften get false positive scores fur fowk wha dae nae hae the ail. Screeners shoud be follaed up bi a mair accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive ails an anxiety ails are two-three times heicher in fowk wi dyslexia, an attention-deficit/hyperactivity ail is mair common, as weel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collett|first=Brent R.|last2=Ohan|first2=Jeneva L.|last3=Myers|first3=Kathleen M.|date=2003-09-01|title=Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder|url=https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)60999-0/abstract|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry|language=English|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1015–1037|doi=10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6|issn=0890-8567|pmid=12960702}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stone|first=Lisanne L.|last2=Janssens|first2=Jan M. A. M.|last3=Vermulst|first3=Ad A.|last4=Van Der Maten|first4=Marloes|last5=Engels|first5=Rutger C. M. E.|last6=Otten|first6=Roy|date=2015|title=The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4-7|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4364334/|journal=BMC psychology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=4|doi=10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8|issn=2050-7283|pmc=4364334|pmid=25815194}}</ref> * Review o academic achievement an skeels: Average spellin/readin abeelity fur a dyslexic is a percentage rankin <16, weel belaw normal. In addeetion tae reviewin grades an teacher notes, staundardised test results are helpfu in evaluatin progress. Thir include group admeenistered tests, sic as the [[Iowa Tests o Eddicational Development]], that a teacher mey gie tae a group or hale clessruim o yunger fowk at the same time. Thay coud include individually admeenistered tests o achievement an aa, sic as the [[Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (that includes a set o achievement tests an aa). The individually admeenistered tests again require mair specialised trainin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lindquist|first=E. F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yOc9AAAAYAAJ&q=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development|title=The Iowa Tests of Educational Development: How to Use the Test Results; a Manual for Teachers and Counselors|date=1953|publisher=Science Research Associates|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Semrud-Clikeman|first=Margaret|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGSF9Jyg6AC&pg=PT119|title=Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2nd Edition|last2=Ellison|first2=Phyllis Anne Teeter|date=2009-06-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-88963-4|language=en}}</ref> == Screenin == Screenin procedures seek tae identify bairn wha shaw signs o possible dyslexia. In the preschuil years, a faimily history o dyslexia, pairticulairly in biological parents an siblins, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better nor ony test. In primary schuil (ages 5–7), the ideal screenin procedure consists o trainin primary schuil teachers tae carefully observe an record thair pupils' progress throu the phonics curriculum, an tharebi identify bairn progressin slawly. Whan teachers identify sic students thay can supplement thair observations wi screenin tests sic as the ''Phonics screenin check'' uised bi Unitit Kinrick schuils durin Year 1. In the medical settin, bairn an adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasises that "[g]ien the heich prevalence o developmental ails in schuil-aged bairn, aw bairn seen in clinics shoud be seestematically screened fur developmental ails irrespective o the presentin problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screenin fur developmental ails, includin dyslexia, bi conductin a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, an obtainin a schuil report regardin academic an social functionin. == Management == Throu the uise o compensation strategies, therapy an eddicational support, individuals wi dyslexia can learn tae read an write. Thare are techniques an technical aids that help tae manage or conceal symptoms o the ail. Reducin stress an anxiety can whiles impruive written comprehension. Fur [[Management o dyslexia|dyslexia intervention]] wi alphabet-writin seestems, the fundamental aim is tae increase a bairn's awareness o correspondences atween [[Grapheme|graphemes]] (letters) an [[Phoneme|phonemes]] (soonds), an tae relate thir tae readin an spellin bi teaching hou soonds blend intae wirds. Reinforced collateral trainin focused on readin an spellin mey yield langer-lastin gains nor oral phonological trainin alane. Early intervention can be successfu in reducin readin failur. Resairch daes nae suggest that specially-tailored fonts (sic as [[Dyslexie]] an [[OpenDyslexic]]) help wi readin. In experiments, a mair signeeficant difference in readin performance wis driven bi [[Leadin|interline spacin]], an the difference wis nae signeeficant ance variables sic as interline spacin an [[x-hicht]] wis normalised atween the candidate fonts. Bairn wi dyslexia read tex set in a regular font sic as [[Times New Roman]] an [[Arial]] juist as quickly, an thay shaw a preference fur regular fonts ower specially-tailored fonts. Some resairch haes pyntit tae increased [[Letter spacin|letter-spacin]] bein beneficial. Thare is currently nae evidence shawin that muisic eddication signeeficantly impruives the readin skeels o adolescents wi dyslexia. == Prognosis == Dyslexic bairn require special instruction fur wird analysis an spellin frae an early age. The prognosis, generally speakin, is positive fur individuals wha are identifee'd in bairnheid an receive support frae freends an faimily. The New York eddicational seestem (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterruptit 90-meenit block o instruction in readin" an "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, readin fluency" sae as tae impruive the individual's readin abeelity. == Epidemiology == The prevalence o dyslexia is unkent, but it haes been estimatit tae be as low as 5% an as heich as 17% o the population. Dyslexia is diagnosed mair aften in males. Thare are different defineetions o dyslexia uised throuoot the warld. Further, differences in writin seestems mey affeck development o written leid abeelity owin tae the interpley atween auditory an written representations o phonemes. Dyslexia is nae limitit tae difficulty in convertin letters tae soonds, an Cheenese fowk wi dyslexia mey hae difficulty convertin [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]] intae thair meanins. The Cheenese vocabulary uises logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writin whaur ane chairacter can represent an individual phoneme. The phonological-processin hypothesis attempts tae expone why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety o leids. Furthermair, the relationship atween phonological capacity an readin appears tae be influenced bi orthography. == History == Dyslexia wis clinically descrieved bi [[Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881, but the term ''dyslexia'' wis coined in 1883 bi [[Rudolf Berlin]], an [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologist]] in [[Stuttgart]]. He uised the term tae refer tae the case o a yung lad wha haed severe difficulty learnin tae read an write, in maugre o shawin teepical intelligence an pheesical abeelities in aw ither respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a Breetish physeecian frae [[Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description o a readin-speceefic learnin ail in a report tae the ''[[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' titled "Congenital Word Blindness". The distinction atween phonological versus surface teeps o dyslexia is anly descriptive, an wioot ony etiological assumption as tae the unnerlyin harn mechanisms. Houiver, studies hae alludit tae potential differences owin tae variation in performance. Ower time, the consensus haes chynged frae an intelligence-based model tae an age-based model fur dyslexia . == Society an cultur == As is the case wi ony ail, society aften maks an assessment based on incomplete information. Afore the 1980s, dyslexia wis thoucht tae be a consequence o eddication, raither nor a neurological disabeelity. As a result, society aften misjudges thaim wi the ail. Thare is whiles a wirkplace stigma an negative attitude towards thir wi dyslexia an aa. If the instructors o a person wi dyslexia lack the necessary trainin tae support a bairn wi the condeetion, thare is aften a negative effeck on the student's learnin pairteecipation. Syne at least the 1960s in the UK, the bairn diagnosed wi developmental dyslexia hae consistently been frae privileged faimilies. Awthou hauf o preesoners in the UK hae signeeficant readin difficulties, gey few hae iver been evaluatit fur dyslexia. Access tae some special eddicational resoorces an fundin is contingent upon haein a diagnosis o dyslexia. As a result, whan [[Staffordshire]] an [[Warwickshire]] proponed in 2018 tae teach readin tae aw bairn wi readin difficulties, uisin techniques proven tae be successfu fur maist bairn wi a diagnosis o dyslexia, wioot furst requirin the faimilies tae obteen an offeecial diagnosis, dyslexia advocates an parents o bairn wi dyslexia wur fearfu that thay wur losin a privileged status. === Stigma an success === Owin tae the mony cognitive processes that dyslexia affecks an the owerwhelmin societal stigma athort the disabeelity, individuals wi dyslexia aften employ behaviours o sel-stigma an perfectionistic sel-presentation in order tae cope wi thair disabeelity. The perfectionist sel-presentation is whan an individual attempts tae present thaimsels as the perfect ideal eemage an hides ony imperfections. This behaviour presents serious risk as it aften results in mental heal issues an refusal tae seek help fur thair disabeelity. == Resairch == [[File:Writing Systems Template Image.svg|thumb|120px|Writin seestems]] Maist dyslexia resairch relates tae [[Alphabetic writin seestem|alphabetic writin seestems]], an inspecially tae [[Leids o Europe|European leids]]. Houiver, substantial resairch is forby available regardin fowk wi dyslexia wha spik Arabic, Cheenese, Hebrew, or ither leids. The ootward expression o individuals wi readin disabeelity, an regular peer readers, is the same in sum respects. == See an aw == * [[Dyscalculia]], difficulty comprehendin nummers an math * [[Readin|Learnin tae read]] * [[Orton-Gillingham]] * [[Structured literacy]] * [[Leet o fowk wi dyslexia]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further readin == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L | title = Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 434–452 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28797557 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001 | s2cid = 33176236 }} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|first = Alan | last = Beaton |date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research| first = Thomas Richard | last = Miles |date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|author-link=Thomas Richard Miles}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice| vauthors = Reid G, Fawcett A |date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|first = Michael | last = Thomson |date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia| first = Gavin | last = Reid |date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties| first = Mark | last = Selikowitz |date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis| first = Andrew W. | last = Ellis |date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate| vauthors = Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL |date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|author-link=Julian Elliott}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD | title = Neurobiology of dyslexia | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 30 | pages = 73–8 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25290881 | pmc = 4293303 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007 | hdl = 1721.1/102416 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs V, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert N, Blatow M, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither S, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A | title = Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 10 | page = 324 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27471442 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2016.00324 | pmc = 4945653 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo X, Zhang J, Song R | title = Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | article-number = 30454 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27464509 | pmc = 4964335 | doi = 10.1038/srep30454 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...630454S }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR | title = Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1137–44 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 26883091 | pmc = 4872837 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2015.277 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F | title = Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms | journal = Translational Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = e987 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28045463 | pmc = 5545717 | doi = 10.1038/tp.2016.240 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fraga González G, Žarić G, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW | title = Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies | journal = Brain Sciences | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 10 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28106790 | pmc = 5297299 | doi = 10.3390/brainsci7010010 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC | title = Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment | journal = Epigenetics | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = 1023–9 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23949389 | pmc = 3891682 | doi = 10.4161/epi.26026 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Vágvölgyi R, Coldea A, Dresler T, Schrader J, Nuerk HC | title = A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 7 | page = 1617 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27891100 | pmc = 5102880 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617 | doi-access = free }} {{refend}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q132971|q=no|c=category:Dyslexia|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=dyslexia}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Dyslexia| ]] [[Category:Leeteracy]] [[Category:Learnin tae read]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] [[Category:Readin (process)|*Dyslexia]] [[Category:Wikipaedia medicin airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Wikipaedia neurology airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Writin]] f1u2rsh35r5k2380o587txtecohxt5n 916910 916909 2026-05-17T22:01:40Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916910 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Dyslexia | synonyms = Readin ail | image = File:Dislexia nens.jpg | caption = Dyslexia involves difficulties in processin letters an wirds. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɛ|k|s|i|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Dyslexia.wav}} {{respell|dis|LEK|see|ə}} | types = [[Surface dyslexia]] | field = [[Neurology]], [[pediatrics]] | symptoms = Trouble [[Readin (process)|readin]]<ref name="ninds1"/> | onset = Schuil age<ref name=Lancet2012/> | causes = [[Genetics|Genetic]] an environmental factors<ref name=Lancet2012 /> | risks = Faimily history, [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]]<ref name=NIH2014Def/> | diagnosis = Series memory, spellin, veesion, an readin test<ref name=NIH2015Diag/> | differential = [[Hearin problems|Hearin]] or [[veesion problems]], insufficient [[Readin eddication|teachin]]<ref name=Lancet2012/> | treatment = Adjustin teachin methods<ref name=ninds1/> | frequency = 3–7%<ref name=Lancet2012/><ref name=Koo2013/> }} '''Dyslexia''', forby kent as '''wird blindness''', is a [[learnin disabeelity]] that affecks either readin or writin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Dyslexia-Information-Page|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Linda S.|date=November 2006|title=Perspectives on dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2528651/|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=11|issue=9|pages=581–587|doi=10.1093/pch/11.9.581|issn=1205-7088|pmc=2528651|pmid=19030329}}</ref> Different fowk are affeckit tae different degrees.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/disorders|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Problems mey include difficulties in spellin wirds, readin quickly, writin wirds, "soondin oot" wirds [[Subvocalisation|in the heid]], pronouncin wirds whan readin alood an unnerstaundin whit ane reads.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are the symptoms of reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/symptoms|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Aften thir difficulties are furst noticed at schuil.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=RL|last2=Pennington|first2=BF|date=2012-05-26|title=Developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3465717/|journal=Lancet|volume=379|issue=9830|pages=1997–2007|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6|issn=1474-547X|pmc=3465717|pmid=22513218}}</ref> The difficulties are involuntary, an fowk wi this ail hae a normal desire tae learn.<ref name=":1" /> Fowk wi dyslexia hae heicher rates o [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] (ADHA), [[Developmental leid ail|developmental leid ails]], an [[Dyscalculia|difficulties wi nummers]].<ref name=":2" /> Dyslexia is believed tae be caused bi the [[Gene–environment interaction|interaction]] o [[Genetics|genetic]] an environmental factors.<ref name=":2" /> Some cases rin in faimilies.<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia that develops owin tae a [[traumatic harn injury]], [[stroke]], or [[dementia]] is whiles cried "acquired dyslexia"<ref name=":0" /> or '''alexia'''.<ref name=":1" /> The unnerlyin mechanisms o dyslexia result frae differences athin [[Leid processin in the harn|the harn's leid processin]].<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia is diagnosed throu a series o tests o memory, veesion, spellin, an readin skeels.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/diagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is separate frae readin difficulties caused bi [[Hearin loss|hearin]] or [[Veesual impairment|veesion problems]] or bi insufficient [[Readin|teachin]] or opportunity tae learn.<ref name=":2" /> Treatment involves adjustin teachin methods tae meet the person's needs.<ref name=":0" /> Whiles nae curin the unnerlyin problem, it mey decrease the degree or impact o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/treatment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Treatments targetin veesion are nae effective. Dyslexia is the maist common [[learnin disabeelity]] an occurs in aw areas o the warld.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Umphred|first=Darcy Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA383|title=Neurological Rehabilitation - E-Book|last2=Lazaro|first2=Rolando T.|last3=Roller|first3=Margaret|last4=Burton|first4=Gordon|date=2013-08-07|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9|language=en}}</ref> It affecks 3–7% o the population;<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Kooij|first=J. J. Sandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&pg=PA83|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment|date=2012-12-11|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-4138-9|language=en}}</ref> houiver, up tae 20% o the general population mey hae some degree o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en-us|archive-date=2015-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx}}</ref> Whiles dyslexia is mair aften diagnosed in lads, this is pairtly exponed bi a sel-fulfillin [[Selection bias|referral bias]] amang teachers an professionals.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Anne B.|last2=Pennington|first2=Bruce F.|last3=Peterson|first3=Robin L.|last4=Willcutt|first4=Erik G.|last5=DeFries|first5=John C.|last6=Olson|first6=Richard K.|date=2017|title=Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438271/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=58|issue=6|pages=719–727|doi=10.1111/jcpp.12691|issn=1469-7610|pmc=5438271|pmid=28176347}}</ref> It haes even been suggestit that the condeetion affecks men an wummen equally.<ref name=":3" /> Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different wey o learnin, wit baith benefits an dounsides.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Venton|first=Danielle|date=September 2011|title=Q&A: The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia|language=en-US|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805001607/http://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage|archive-date=2016-08-05|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Schneps|first=Matthew H.|date=August 2014|title=The Advantages of Dyslexia|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804232616/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|archive-date=2016-08-04|access-date=2026-05-17|website=ScientificAmerican.com|publisher=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> == Clessification == Dyslexia is dividit intae developmental an acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent tae neurological insult, sic as [[traumatic harn injury]] or [[stroke]]. Fowk wi acquired dyslexia exhibit some o the signs or symptoms o the developmental ail, bit require different assessment strategies an treatment approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woollams|first=Anna M.|date=2014|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866427/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20120398|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866427|pmid=24324241}}</ref> ''Pure alexia'', forby kent as ''agnosic alexia'' or ''pure wird blindness'', is ane form o [[Alexia (condeetion)|alexia]] that maks up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. == Signs an symptoms == In early bairnheid, symptoms that correlate wi a later diagnosis o dyslexia include [[Speech delay|delayed onset o speech]] an a lack o [[phonological awareness]]. A common meeth closely associates dyslexia wi [[mirror writin]] an readin letters or wirds backwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lilienfeld|first=Scott O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior|last2=Lynn|first2=Steven Jay|last3=Ruscio|first3=John|last4=Beyerstein|first4=Barry L.|date=2011-09-15|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5|language=en}}</ref> Thir behaviours are seen in mony bairn as thay learn tae read an write, an are nae considered tae be definin chairactereestics o dyslexia. Schuil-age bairn wi dyslexia mey exhibit signs o difficulty in identifyin or generatin rhymin wirds, or coontin the nummer o seellables in wirds—baith o that depend on phonological awareness. Thay mey forby shaw difficulty in segmentin wirds intae individual soonds (sic as soondin oot the three soonds o ''k'', ''a'', an ''t'' in ''cat'') or mey struggle tae blend soonds, indicatin reduced [[phonemic awareness]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5|language=en}}</ref> Difficulties wi wird retrieval or namin things is associatit wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Swanson|first=H. Lee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities|last2=Harris|first2=Karen R.|last3=Graham|first3=Steve|date=2013-02-11|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3|language=en}}</ref> Fowk wi dyslexia are commonly puir spellers, a featur whiles cried ''dysorthographia'' or ''[[dysgraphia]]'', that depends on the skeel o [[Orthography|orthographic codin]]. Problems persist intae adolescence an adultheid an mey include difficulties wi summarising stories, memorisation, readin alood, or learnin foreign leids. Adults wi dyslexia can aften read wi guid comprehension, thou thay tend tae read mair slawly nor ithers wioot a learnin difficulty an perform worse in spellin tests or whan readin nonsense wirds—a measure o phonological awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lum|first=Jarrad A. G.|last2=Ullman|first2=Michael T.|last3=Conti-Ramsden|first3=Gina|date=October 2013|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3784964/|journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities|volume=34|issue=10|pages=3460–3476|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017|issn=1873-3379|pmc=3784964|pmid=23920029}}</ref> === Associatit condeetions === Dyslexia aften co-occurs wi ither learnin ails, bit the raisons fur this comorbidity hae nae been clearly identifee'd. Thir associatit disabeelities include: ; [[Dysgraphia]] : A ail involvin difficulties wi writin or typin, whiles owin tae problems wi [[Haund–ee coordination|ee–haund coordination]]; it can impede direction- or sequence-orientit processes an aa, sic as tyin knots or carryin oot repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is aften multifactorial, owin tae impaired letter-writin [[automaticity]], organisational an elaborative difficulties, an impaired veesual wird formin, that maks it mair difficult tae retrieve the veesual pictur o wirds required fur spellin. ; [[Attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] : A ail chairacterised bi problems sustainin attention, hyperactivity, or actin impulsively. Dyslexia an ADHA commonly occur thegither.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Comer|first=Ronald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|title=Psychology Around Us|last2=Gould|first2=Elizabeth|date=2010-01-19|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6|language=en}}</ref> Approximately 15% or 12–24% o fowk wi dyslexia hae ADHA;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fatemi|first=S. Hossein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry|last2=Clayton|first2=Paula J.|date=2008-05-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6|language=en}}</ref> an up tae 35% o fowk wi ADHA hae dyslexia. ; [[Auditory processin ail]] : A listenin ail that affecks the abeelity tae process auditory information.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capellini|first=Simone Aparecida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities|date=2007|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7|language=en}}</ref> This can lead tae problems wi [[Echoic memory|auditory memory]] an auditory [[Sequence learnin|sequencin]]. Mony fowk wi dyslexia hae auditory processin problems, an mey develop thair awn [[logographic cues]] tae compensate fur this teep o deficit. Some resairch suggests that auditory processin skeels coud be the primary shortfaw in dyslexia.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pammer|first=Kristen|date=2014|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913493/|journal=Scientifica|volume=2014|pages=802741|doi=10.1155/2014/802741|issn=2090-908X|pmc=3913493|pmid=24527259}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Law|first=Jeremy M.|last2=Vandermosten|first2=Maaike|last3=Ghesquiere|first3=Pol|last4=Wouters|first4=Jan|date=2014|title=The relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4078926/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=482|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4078926|pmid=25071512}}</ref> ; [[Developmental coordination ail]] : A neurological condeetion chairacterised bi difficulty in carryin oot routine tasks involvin balance, fine-[[motor control]] an [[Proprioception|kinesthetic]] coordination; difficulty in the uise o speech soonds; an problems wi [[short-term memory]] an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alloway|first=Tracy Packiam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders|last2=Gathercole|first2=Susan E.|date=2012-08-06|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2|language=en}}</ref> == Causes == [[File:Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif|thumb|300px| Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation]] Resairchers hae been tryin tae find the neurobiological basis o dyslexia syne the condeetion wis furst identifee'd in 1881.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&q=Wortblindheit|title=Neurologisches Centralblatt|date=1917|publisher=J. Springer|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&pg=PA127|title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia|last2=Fawcett|first2=Angela|last3=Manis|first3=Frank|last4=Siegel|first4=Linda|date=2008-09-18|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9|language=en}}</ref> Fur ensaumple, some hae tree'd tae associate the common problem amang fowk wi dyslexia o nae bein able tae see letters clearly tae abnormal development o thair veesual nerve cells.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Stein|first=John|date=2014|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4203994/|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports|volume=1|issue=4|pages=267–280|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6|issn=2196-2987|pmc=4203994|pmid=25346883}}</ref> === Neuroanatomy === [[Neuroeemagin]] techniques, sic as [[functional magnetic resonance eemagin]] (fMRI) an [[positron emission tomography]] (PET), hae shawn a correlation atween baith functional an structural differences in the harns o bairn wi readin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitaker|first=Harry A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&pg=PA180|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language|date=2010-04-08|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7|language=en}}</ref> Some fowk wi dyslexia shaw less activation in pairts o the [[Lateralisation o harn function|left hemisphere]] o the harn involvit wi readin, sic as the [[inferior frontal gyrus]], [[inferior parietal lobule]], an the middle an [[Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].<ref name=":5" /> Meta-analyses o fMRI studies hae foond unner-activation whaur the [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] an [[Occipital lobe|occipital lobes]] meet in the left hemisphere in dyslexic subjecks (includin the [[veesual wird form area]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Anna|last2=Kronbichler|first2=Martin|last3=Richlan|first3=Fabio|date=2016|title=Dyslexic brain activation abnormalities in deep and shallow orthographies: A meta-analysis of 28 functional neuroimaging studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5103175/|journal=Human Brain Mapping|volume=37|issue=7|pages=2676–2699|doi=10.1002/hbm.23202|issn=1097-0193|pmc=5103175|pmid=27061464}}</ref> Ower the past decade, harn activation studies uisin PET tae study leid hae produced a breakthrou in the unnerstaundin o the neural basis o leid. Neural bases fur the veesual [[lexicon]] an fur auditory verbal [[short-term memory]] components hae been proponed,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Price|first=Cathy J.|date=2012-08-15|title=A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3398395/|journal=NeuroImage|volume=62|issue=2|pages=816–847|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062|issn=1095-9572|pmc=3398395|pmid=22584224}}</ref> wi some implication that the observed neural manifestation o developmental dyslexia is task-speceefic (i.e., functional raither nor structural). fMRIs o fowk wi dyslexia indicate an interactive role o the [[cerebellum]] an cerebral cortex as weel as ither harn structurs in readin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Sarvi|last2=Nederveen|first2=Aart J.|last3=Booij|first3=Jan|last4=van Rootselaar|first4=Anne-Fleur|date=2014|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4110352/|journal=NeuroImage. Clinical|volume=5|pages=217–231|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003|issn=2213-1582|pmc=4110352|pmid=25068111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brandler|first=William M.|last2=Paracchini|first2=Silvia|date=2014-02|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3969300/|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=20|issue=2|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008|issn=1471-499X|pmc=3969300|pmid=24275328}}</ref> The cerebellar theory o dyslexia propones that impairment o cerebellum-controlled muscle muivement affecks the formation o wirds bi the tongue and facial muscles, resultin in the [[fluency]] problems that some fowk wi dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is involvit in the [[Autonomic nervous seestem|automatisation]] o some tasks an aa, sic as readin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cain|first=Kate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA134|title=Reading Development and Difficulties|date=2010-06-28|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-5155-9|language=en}}</ref> The fact that some bairn wi dyslexia hae motor task an balance impairments coud be conseestent wi a cerebellar role in thair readin difficulties. Houiver, the cerebellar theory haes nae been supportit bi controlled resairch studies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Levav|first=Itshak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA52|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental Health Action|date=2009|publisher=Gefen Publishing House Ltd|isbn=978-965-229-468-5|language=en}}</ref> === Genetics === Resairch intae potential genetic causes o dyslexia haes its ruits in post-autopsy examination o the harns o fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":6" /> Observed anatomical differences in the [[Leid centre|leid centres]] o sic harns include microscopic [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations kent as ectopias, an mair rarely, [[Bluid veshel|vascular]] micro-malformations, an [[microgyrus]]—a smawer nor uisual size fur the gyrus.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Miriam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&pg=PA941|title=The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language, 2 Volume Set|date=2012-02-13|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3040-3|language=en}}</ref> The previously citit studies an ithers suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed tae occur afore or durin the saxt month o [[Fetus|fetal]] harn development, mey have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in fowk wi dyslexia hae forby been reportit in non-leid cerebral an subcortical harn structurs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kere|first=Juha|date=2014-09-19|title=The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006291X14013515|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications|series=Genomic Aspects of Common Diseases|volume=452|issue=2|pages=236–243|doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102|issn=0006-291X}}</ref> Mony genes hae been associatit wi dyslexia, includin [[DCDC2]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&pg=PA53|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2012-10-12|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7|language=en}}</ref> an [[Dyslexia-associatit protein|KIAA0319]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paracchini|first=Silvia|last2=Thomas|first2=Ankur|last3=Castro|first3=Sandra|last4=Lai|first4=Cecilia|last5=Paramasivam|first5=Murugan|last6=Wang|first6=Yu|last7=Keating|first7=Brendan J.|last8=Taylor|first8=Jennifer M.|last9=Hacking|first9=Douglas F.|last10=Scerri|first10=Thomas|last11=Francks|first11=Clyde|date=2006-05-15|title=The chromosome 6p22 haplotype associated with dyslexia reduces the expression of KIAA0319 , a novel gene involved in neuronal migration|url=http://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/15/10/1659/2355904/The-chromosome-6p22-haplotype-associated-with|journal=Human Molecular Genetics|language=en|volume=15|issue=10|pages=1659–1666|doi=10.1093/hmg/ddl089|issn=1460-2083}}</ref> on [[chromosome 6]], an [[DYX1C1]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosen|first=Glenn D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&pg=PA342|title=The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery|date=2013-05-13|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-81550-0|language=en}}</ref> on [[chromosome 15]]. === Gene–environment interaction === The contreibution o [[gene–environment interaction]] tae [[Readin disabeelity|readin (dis)abeelity]], that estimates the proportion o variance (the differences in readin abeelity across individuals) attributable tae environmental an genetic factors, haes been studied extensively bi comparin sets o [[Twin|identical twins]] an [[Twin|fraternal twins]]. Sic twin studies shaw that baith environmental an genetic influences contreibute tae readin development, wi thir twa influences' kin impact varyin bi contex. Fur ensaumple, parental eddication haes been foond tae moderate genetic influences on readin (dis)abeelity,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Friend|first=Angela|last2=DeFries|first2=John C.|last3=Olson|first3=Richard K.|date=November 2008|title=Parental education moderates genetic influences on reading disability|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2605635/|journal=Psychological Science|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1124–1130|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x|issn=1467-9280|pmc=2605635|pmid=19076484}}</ref> an teacher quality can moderate genetic effecks on early readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=J.|last2=Roehrig|first2=A. D.|last3=Hensler|first3=B. Soden|last4=Connor|first4=C. M.|last5=Schatschneider|first5=C.|date=2010-04-23|title=Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1186149|journal=Science|language=en|volume=328|issue=5977|pages=512–514|doi=10.1126/science.1186149|issn=0036-8075|pmc=2905841|pmid=20413504}}</ref> Mairower, in mair supportive environments, genetic risk factors accoont fur a lairger proportion o the variation in dyslexia.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Pennington|first=Bruce F.|last2=McGrath|first2=Lauren M.|last3=Rosenberg|first3=Jenni|last4=Barnard|first4=Holly|last5=Smith|first5=Shelley D.|last6=Willcutt|first6=Erik G.|last7=Friend|first7=Angela|last8=Defries|first8=John C.|last9=Olson|first9=Richard K.|date=Januar 2009|title=Gene X environment interactions in reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2743891/|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=77–89|doi=10.1037/a0014549|issn=0012-1649|pmc=2743891|pmid=19209992}}</ref> This occurs acause reducin environmental risks—throu heich-quality instruction an supportive caregiein—lowers environmental differences, makin genetic effecks easier tae detect. If environmental risk factors are reduced wi guid teachin an a supportin caregier environment, genetic risk factors mey pley a muckler role in exponin why some fowk hae dyslexia<ref name=":7" /> acause the genetic effeck is easier tae detect gien that muckle environmental noise is [[Bracketin (phenomenology)|bracketed-oot]]. As environment pleys a lairge role in learnin an memory, it is likly that [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] modifications pley an important role in readin abeelity. Measures o [[gene expression]], [[Histone|histone modifications]], an [[methylation]] in the bodie periphery are uised tae study epigenetic processes; houiver, aw o thir hae leemitations in the extrapolation o results fur application tae the bodie harn.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Shelley D.|date=December 2011|title=Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3261263/|journal=Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders|volume=3|issue=4|pages=356–364|doi=10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y|issn=1866-1955|pmc=3261263|pmid=22113455}}</ref> ==== Leid ==== The [[Orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] o a leid directly affecks hou difficult it is tae learn tae read it.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vJ5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA266|title=Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies|last2=McDougall|first2=Sine|last3=Davies|first3=Paul de Mornay|date=2010-06-10|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-16781-3|language=en}}</ref> Inglis an French hae comparatively "deep" [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] athin the [[Laitin alphabet]] [[writin seestem]], wi complex structurs employin spellin patterns on mony levels: letter-soond correspondence, seellables, an [[Morpheme|morphemes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dickinson|first=David K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA421|title=Handbook of Early Literacy Research, Volume 2|last2=Neuman|first2=Susan B.|date=2013-10-15|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=978-1-4625-1470-0|language=en}}</ref> Leids sic as Spainish, Italian an Finnish primarily employ letter-soond correspondence—sae-cried "shallae" orthographies—that maks thaim easier tae learn fur fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":8" /> [[Logogram|Logographic]] writin seestems, sic as [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]], hae extensive seembol uise, an thir pose problems fur dyslexic learners an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|last2=Hulme|first2=Charles|date=2012-05-01|title=Annual research review: the nature and classification of reading disorders--a commentary on proposals for DSM-5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3492851/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=53|issue=5|pages=593–607|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x|issn=1469-7610|pmc=3492851|pmid=22141434}}</ref> ==Pathophysiology== [[File:Gray733.png|thumb|140px|Corpus callosum view, front pairt at tap o eemage]] Fur maist fowk wha are richt-haund dominant, the left hemisphere o thair harn is mair specialised fur [[Lateralisation o harn function|leid processin]]. Wi regard tae the mechanism o dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialisation is less pronounced or absent in fowk wi dyslexia. In ither studies, dyslexia is correlatit wi anatomical differences in the [[corpus callosum]], the bundle o nerve fibers that connects the left an richt hemispheres.<ref name=":9">{{Citation|title=Dyslexia|date=2013-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/handbook/abs/pii/B9780444528919000233|work=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|volume=111|pages=229–235|publisher=Elsevier|language=en-US|access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate chynges in connectivity or in gray maiter density in areas relatit tae readin an leid. Finally, the left [[inferior frontal gyrus]] haes shawn differences in phonological processin in fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":9" /> Neurophysiological an eemagin procedures are bein uised tae ascertain phenotypic chairactereestics in fowk wi dyslexia, thus identifyin the effecks o dyslexia-relatit genes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schumacher|first=Johannes|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Per|last3=Schmäl|first3=Christine|last4=Schulte-Körne|first4=Gerd|last5=Nöthen|first5=Markus M.|date=2007|title=Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2597981/|journal=Journal of Medical Genetics|volume=44|issue=5|pages=289–297|doi=10.1136/jmg.2006.046516|issn=1468-6244|pmc=2597981|pmid=17307837}}</ref> === Dual route theory === The dual-route theory o readin alood wis furst descrieved in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that twa separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involvit in readin alood.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA373|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> Ane mechanism is the lexical route, that is the process whaurbi skeelt readers can recognise kent wirds bi sicht alane, throu a "dictionary" leukup procedure.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA450|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> The ither mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, that is the process whaurbi the reader can "soond oot" a written wird.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hulme|first=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&pg=PT151|title=Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders|last2=Joshi|first2=R. Malatesha|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-49807-7|language=en}}</ref> This is duin bi identifyin the wird's constituent pairts (letters, [[Phoneme|phonemes]], [[Grapheme|graphemes]]) an applyin knawledge o hou thir pairts are associatit wi ilka ither — fur ensaumple, hou a string o neebourin letters soond thegither. The dual-route seestem coud expone the different rates o dyslexia occurrence atween different leids (e.g., the consistency o phonological rules in the Spainish leid coud accoont fur the fact that Spainish-speakin bairn shaw a heicher level o performance in non-wird readin, whan compared tae Inglis-speakers).<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sprenger-Charolles|first=Liliane|last2=Siegel|first2=Linda S|last3=Jimenez|first3=Juan E.|last4=Ziegler|first4=Johannes|date=2011|title=Prevalence and reliability of phonological, surface, and mixed profiles in dyslexia: A review of studies conducted in languages varying in orthographic depth|url=https://hal.science/hal-00733553|journal=Scientific Study of Reading|volume=15|issue=6|pages=498–521}}</ref> == Diagnosis == Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learnin ail that impairs accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin. Teepical—but nae universal—featurs include difficulties wi phonological awareness, inefficient an aften inaccurate processin o soonds in oral leid (''phonological processin''), an verbal wirkin memory deficits. Dyslexia is a [[neurodevelopmental ail]], subcategorisit in diagnostic guides as a ''learnin'' ''ail wi impairment in readin'' (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" tae "learnin ail"; DSM-5 uises "speceefic").<ref>{{Cite web|title=6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Mortality and Morbidity Statistics|publisher=World Health Organization|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5|date=2013|publisher=Arlington, VA : American Psychiatric Association|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-89042-554-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=FragaGonzález|first=Gorka|last2=Karipidis|first2=Iliana I.|last3=Tijms|first3=Jurgen|date=2018-10-19|title=Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes It Different from a Chess Disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6209961/|journal=Brain Sciences|volume=8|issue=10|pages=189|doi=10.3390/brainsci8100189|issn=2076-3425|pmc=6209961|pmid=30347764}}</ref> Dyslexia is nae a problem wi intelligence. [[Emotional an behavioural ails|Emotional problems]] aften arise seicontary tae learnin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Campbell|first=Robert Jean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&pg=PA310|title=Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534159-1|language=en}}</ref> The [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] descrieves dyslexia as "difficulty wi phonological processin (the manipulation o soonds), spellin, an/or rapid veesual-verbal respondin".<ref name=":0" /> The Breetish Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learnin difficulty that maistly affecks the skeels involvit in accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin" an is chairacterised bi "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory an verbal processin speed".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Phillips|first=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties|last2=Kelly|first2=Kathleen|last3=Symes|first3=Liz|date=2013-08-20|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4462-8704-0|language=en}}</ref> ''Phonological awareness'' enables ane tae identify, discriminate, mynd ([[wirkin memory]]), an mentally manipulate the soond structurs o leid—[[Phoneme|phonemes]], onsteid-rime segments, seellables, an wirds. === Assessment === The follaein can be duin tae assess fur dyslexia: Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involvin the bairn's parent(s) an teacher(s), schuil psychologist, pediatrician, an, as appropriate, [[Speech–leid pathology|speech an leid pathologist (speech therapist)]], an [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]]. Gain faimiliarity wi teepical ages bairn reach mony general developmental milestanes, an domain-speceefic milestanes, sic as phonological awareness (recognisin rhymin wirds; identifyin the initial soonds in wirds). Dinna rely on tests exclusively. Carefu observation o the bairn in the schuil an hame environments, an sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are juist as important as tests. Leuk at the empirically supportit [[repone tae intervention]] (RTI) approach, that "... involves monitorin the progress o a group o bairn throu a programme o intervention raither nor unnertakin a static assessment o thair current skeels. Bairn wi the maist need are thaim wha fail tae respond tae effective teachin, an thay are readily identifee'd uisin this approach."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|date=2013-01-01|title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4538781/|journal=Journal of research in special educational needs: JORSEN|volume=13|issue=1|pages=7–14|doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x|issn=1471-3802|pmc=4538781|pmid=26290655}}</ref> ==== Assessment tests ==== Thare is a wide range o tests that are uised in clinical an eddicational settins tae evaluate the possibility o dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-05-04|title=Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities - Dyslexia Help|url=https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/,%20https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/|access-date=2026-05-17|language=en-US}}</ref> If initial testin suggests that a person micht hae dyslexia, sic tests are aften follaed up wi a fou diagnostic assessment tae determine the extent an naitur o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT35|title=Introduction to Dyslexia|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2013-08-21|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-37290-3|language=en}}</ref> Some tests can be admeenistered bi a teacher or computer; ithers require specialised trainin an are gien bi psychologists.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Assessments|url=https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/services/assessments|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=British Dyslexia Association|language=en}}</ref> Some test results indicate hou tae carry oot teachin strategies.<ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fletcher|first=Jack M.|date=2009|title=Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3079378/|journal=Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS|volume=15|issue=4|pages=501–508|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900|issn=1469-7661|pmc=3079378|pmid=19573267}}</ref> Acause a variety o different cognitive, behavioural, emotional, an environmental factors aw coud contreibute tae difficulty learnin tae read, a comprehensive evaluation shoud consider thir different possibilities. Thir tests an observations can include:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> * General meisurs o cognitive abeelity, sic as the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale fur Bairn]], [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities]], or [[Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive abeelity wad mak readin mair difficult. Cognitive abeelity meisurs aften try tae meisur different cognitive processes an aa, sic as verbal abeelity, nonverbal an spatial raisonin, wirkin memory, an processin speed. Thare are different versions o thir tests fur different age groups. Awmaist aw o thir require addeetional trainin tae gie an score correctly, an are duin bi psychologists. Accordin tae Mather an Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile an/or pattern o scores on cognitive tests confirmin or rulin-oot readin ail haes nae yit been identifee'd.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Sam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylzEBQAAQBAJ&q=Handbook+of+Intelligence:+Evolutionary+theory,+historical+perspective,+and+current+concepts|title=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts|last2=Princiotta|first2=Dana|last3=Naglieri|first3=Jack A.|date=2014-12-08|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4939-1562-0|language=en}}</ref> * Screenin or evaluation fur mental heal condeetions: Parents an teachers can complete ratin scales or behaviour checkleets tae gaither information aboot emotional an behavioural functionin fur yunger fowk. Mony checkleets hae seemilar versions fur parents, teachers, an yunger fowk auld eneuch tae read raisonably weel (aften 11 years an aulder) tae complete. Ensaumples include the Behavioural Assessment Seestem fur Bairn, an the [[Strenths an Difficulties Questionnaire]]. Aw o thir hae naitionally representative norms, makin it possible tae compare the level o symptoms tae whit wad be teepical fur the yunger person's age an biological sex. Ither checkleets link mair speceefically tae psychiatric diagnoses, sic as the [[Vanderbilt ADHD Ratin Scales]] or the [[Screen fur bairn anxiety relatit ails|Screen fur Bairn Anxiety Relatit Emotional Ail]] (SBAREA). [[Screenin (medicin)|Screenin]] uises brief tuils that are designed tae catch cases wi a ail, but thay aften get false positive scores fur fowk wha dae nae hae the ail. Screeners shoud be follaed up bi a mair accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive ails an anxiety ails are two-three times heicher in fowk wi dyslexia, an attention-deficit/hyperactivity ail is mair common, as weel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collett|first=Brent R.|last2=Ohan|first2=Jeneva L.|last3=Myers|first3=Kathleen M.|date=2003-09-01|title=Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder|url=https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)60999-0/abstract|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry|language=English|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1015–1037|doi=10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6|issn=0890-8567|pmid=12960702}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stone|first=Lisanne L.|last2=Janssens|first2=Jan M. A. M.|last3=Vermulst|first3=Ad A.|last4=Van Der Maten|first4=Marloes|last5=Engels|first5=Rutger C. M. E.|last6=Otten|first6=Roy|date=2015|title=The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4-7|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4364334/|journal=BMC psychology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=4|doi=10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8|issn=2050-7283|pmc=4364334|pmid=25815194}}</ref> * Review o academic achievement an skeels: Average spellin/readin abeelity fur a dyslexic is a percentage rankin <16, weel belaw normal. In addeetion tae reviewin grades an teacher notes, staundardised test results are helpfu in evaluatin progress. Thir include group admeenistered tests, sic as the [[Iowa Tests o Eddicational Development]], that a teacher mey gie tae a group or hale clessruim o yunger fowk at the same time. Thay coud include individually admeenistered tests o achievement an aa, sic as the [[Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (that includes a set o achievement tests an aa). The individually admeenistered tests again require mair specialised trainin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lindquist|first=E. F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yOc9AAAAYAAJ&q=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development|title=The Iowa Tests of Educational Development: How to Use the Test Results; a Manual for Teachers and Counselors|date=1953|publisher=Science Research Associates|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Semrud-Clikeman|first=Margaret|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGSF9Jyg6AC&pg=PT119|title=Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2nd Edition|last2=Ellison|first2=Phyllis Anne Teeter|date=2009-06-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-88963-4|language=en}}</ref> == Screenin == Screenin procedures seek tae identify bairn wha shaw signs o possible dyslexia. In the preschuil years, a faimily history o dyslexia, pairticulairly in biological parents an siblins, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better nor ony test. In primary schuil (ages 5–7), the ideal screenin procedure consists o trainin primary schuil teachers tae carefully observe an record thair pupils' progress throu the phonics curriculum, an tharebi identify bairn progressin slawly. Whan teachers identify sic students thay can supplement thair observations wi screenin tests sic as the ''Phonics screenin check''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-23|title=Phonics screening check: 2019 materials|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-curriculum-assessments-past-test-materials|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=United Kingdom Department for Education, Standards and Testing Agency|language=en}}</ref> uised bi Unitit Kinrick schuils durin Year 1. In the medical settin, bairn an adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasises that "[g]ien the heich prevalence o developmental ails in schuil-aged bairn, aw bairn seen in clinics shoud be seestematically screened fur developmental ails irrespective o the presentin problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screenin fur developmental ails, includin dyslexia, bi conductin a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, an obtainin a schuil report regardin academic an social functionin. == Management == Throu the uise o compensation strategies, therapy an eddicational support, individuals wi dyslexia can learn tae read an write.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bogon|first=Johanna|last2=Finke|first2=Kathrin|last3=Stenneken|first3=Prisca|date=2014|title=TVA-based assessment of visual attentional functions in developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4199262/|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=5|pages=1172|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172|issn=1664-1078|pmc=4199262|pmid=25360129}}</ref> Thare are techniques an technical aids that help tae manage or conceal symptoms o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&pg=PA115|title=Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace|date=2012-04-02|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-97479-7|language=en}}</ref> Reducin stress an anxiety can whiles impruive written comprehension.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> Fur [[Management o dyslexia|dyslexia intervention]] wi alphabet-writin seestems, the fundamental aim is tae increase a bairn's awareness o correspondences atween [[Grapheme|graphemes]] (letters) an [[Phoneme|phonemes]] (soonds), an tae relate thir tae readin an spellin bi teaching hou soonds blend intae wirds. Reinforced collateral trainin focused on readin an spellin mey yield langer-lastin gains nor oral phonological trainin alane.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoff|first=Erika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&pg=PA454|title=Blackwell Handbook of Language Development|last2=Shatz|first2=Marilyn|date=2009-05-18|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-9459-4|language=en}}</ref> Early intervention can be successfu in reducin readin failur. Resairch daes nae suggest that specially-tailored fonts (sic as [[Dyslexie]] an [[OpenDyslexic]]) help wi readin. In experiments, a mair signeeficant difference in readin performance wis driven bi [[Leadin|interline spacin]], an the difference wis nae signeeficant ance variables sic as interline spacin an [[x-hicht]] wis normalised atween the candidate fonts.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kuster|first=Sanne M.|last2=van Weerdenburg|first2=Marjolijn|last3=Gompel|first3=Marjolein|last4=Bosman|first4=Anna M. T.|date=Apryle 2018|title=Dyslexie font does not benefit reading in children with or without dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5934461/|journal=Annals of Dyslexia|volume=68|issue=1|pages=25–42|doi=10.1007/s11881-017-0154-6|issn=1934-7243|pmc=5934461|pmid=29204931}}</ref> Bairn wi dyslexia read tex set in a regular font sic as [[Times New Roman]] an [[Arial]] juist as quickly, an thay shaw a preference fur regular fonts ower specially-tailored fonts.<ref name=":12" /> Some resairch haes pyntit tae increased [[Letter spacin|letter-spacin]] bein beneficial.<ref name=":12" /> Thare is currently nae evidence shawin that muisic eddication signeeficantly impruives the readin skeels o adolescents wi dyslexia. == Prognosis == Dyslexic bairn require special instruction fur wird analysis an spellin frae an early age. The prognosis, generally speakin, is positive fur individuals wha are identifee'd in bairnheid an receive support frae freends an faimily. The New York eddicational seestem (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterruptit 90-meenit block o instruction in readin" an "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, readin fluency" sae as tae impruive the individual's readin abeelity. == Epidemiology == The prevalence o dyslexia is unkent, but it haes been estimatit tae be as low as 5% an as heich as 17% o the population. Dyslexia is diagnosed mair aften in males. Thare are different defineetions o dyslexia uised throuoot the warld. Further, differences in writin seestems mey affeck development o written leid abeelity owin tae the interpley atween auditory an written representations o phonemes. Dyslexia is nae limitit tae difficulty in convertin letters tae soonds, an Cheenese fowk wi dyslexia mey hae difficulty convertin [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]] intae thair meanins. The Cheenese vocabulary uises logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writin whaur ane chairacter can represent an individual phoneme. The phonological-processin hypothesis attempts tae expone why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety o leids. Furthermair, the relationship atween phonological capacity an readin appears tae be influenced bi orthography. == History == Dyslexia wis clinically descrieved bi [[Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881, but the term ''dyslexia'' wis coined in 1883 bi [[Rudolf Berlin]], an [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologist]] in [[Stuttgart]]. He uised the term tae refer tae the case o a yung lad wha haed severe difficulty learnin tae read an write, in maugre o shawin teepical intelligence an pheesical abeelities in aw ither respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a Breetish physeecian frae [[Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description o a readin-speceefic learnin ail in a report tae the ''[[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' titled "Congenital Word Blindness". The distinction atween phonological versus surface teeps o dyslexia is anly descriptive, an wioot ony etiological assumption as tae the unnerlyin harn mechanisms. Houiver, studies hae alludit tae potential differences owin tae variation in performance. Ower time, the consensus haes chynged frae an intelligence-based model tae an age-based model fur dyslexia . == Society an cultur == As is the case wi ony ail, society aften maks an assessment based on incomplete information. Afore the 1980s, dyslexia wis thoucht tae be a consequence o eddication, raither nor a neurological disabeelity. As a result, society aften misjudges thaim wi the ail. Thare is whiles a wirkplace stigma an negative attitude towards thir wi dyslexia an aa. If the instructors o a person wi dyslexia lack the necessary trainin tae support a bairn wi the condeetion, thare is aften a negative effeck on the student's learnin pairteecipation. Syne at least the 1960s in the UK, the bairn diagnosed wi developmental dyslexia hae consistently been frae privileged faimilies. Awthou hauf o preesoners in the UK hae signeeficant readin difficulties, gey few hae iver been evaluatit fur dyslexia. Access tae some special eddicational resoorces an fundin is contingent upon haein a diagnosis o dyslexia. As a result, whan [[Staffordshire]] an [[Warwickshire]] proponed in 2018 tae teach readin tae aw bairn wi readin difficulties, uisin techniques proven tae be successfu fur maist bairn wi a diagnosis o dyslexia, wioot furst requirin the faimilies tae obteen an offeecial diagnosis, dyslexia advocates an parents o bairn wi dyslexia wur fearfu that thay wur losin a privileged status. === Stigma an success === Owin tae the mony cognitive processes that dyslexia affecks an the owerwhelmin societal stigma athort the disabeelity, individuals wi dyslexia aften employ behaviours o sel-stigma an perfectionistic sel-presentation in order tae cope wi thair disabeelity. The perfectionist sel-presentation is whan an individual attempts tae present thaimsels as the perfect ideal eemage an hides ony imperfections. This behaviour presents serious risk as it aften results in mental heal issues an refusal tae seek help fur thair disabeelity. == Resairch == [[File:Writing Systems Template Image.svg|thumb|120px|Writin seestems]] Maist dyslexia resairch relates tae [[Alphabetic writin seestem|alphabetic writin seestems]], an inspecially tae [[Leids o Europe|European leids]]. Houiver, substantial resairch is forby available regardin fowk wi dyslexia wha spik Arabic, Cheenese, Hebrew, or ither leids. The ootward expression o individuals wi readin disabeelity, an regular peer readers, is the same in sum respects. == See an aw == * [[Dyscalculia]], difficulty comprehendin nummers an math * [[Readin|Learnin tae read]] * [[Orton-Gillingham]] * [[Structured literacy]] * [[Leet o fowk wi dyslexia]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further readin == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L | title = Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 434–452 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28797557 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001 | s2cid = 33176236 }} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|first = Alan | last = Beaton |date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research| first = Thomas Richard | last = Miles |date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|author-link=Thomas Richard Miles}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice| vauthors = Reid G, Fawcett A |date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|first = Michael | last = Thomson |date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia| first = Gavin | last = Reid |date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties| first = Mark | last = Selikowitz |date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis| first = Andrew W. | last = Ellis |date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate| vauthors = Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL |date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|author-link=Julian Elliott}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD | title = Neurobiology of dyslexia | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 30 | pages = 73–8 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25290881 | pmc = 4293303 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007 | hdl = 1721.1/102416 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs V, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert N, Blatow M, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither S, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A | title = Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 10 | page = 324 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27471442 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2016.00324 | pmc = 4945653 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo X, Zhang J, Song R | title = Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | article-number = 30454 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27464509 | pmc = 4964335 | doi = 10.1038/srep30454 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...630454S }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR | title = Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1137–44 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 26883091 | pmc = 4872837 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2015.277 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F | title = Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms | journal = Translational Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = e987 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28045463 | pmc = 5545717 | doi = 10.1038/tp.2016.240 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fraga González G, Žarić G, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW | title = Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies | journal = Brain Sciences | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 10 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28106790 | pmc = 5297299 | doi = 10.3390/brainsci7010010 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC | title = Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment | journal = Epigenetics | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = 1023–9 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23949389 | pmc = 3891682 | doi = 10.4161/epi.26026 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Vágvölgyi R, Coldea A, Dresler T, Schrader J, Nuerk HC | title = A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 7 | page = 1617 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27891100 | pmc = 5102880 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617 | doi-access = free }} {{refend}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q132971|q=no|c=category:Dyslexia|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=dyslexia}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Dyslexia| ]] [[Category:Leeteracy]] [[Category:Learnin tae read]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] [[Category:Readin (process)|*Dyslexia]] [[Category:Wikipaedia medicin airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Wikipaedia neurology airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Writin]] jj29zq7g3esnq7rjptalsz3o3wtmvpa 916911 916910 2026-05-17T22:14:04Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916911 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Dyslexia | synonyms = Readin ail | image = File:Dislexia nens.jpg | caption = Dyslexia involves difficulties in processin letters an wirds. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɛ|k|s|i|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Dyslexia.wav}} {{respell|dis|LEK|see|ə}} | types = [[Surface dyslexia]] | field = [[Neurology]], [[pediatrics]] | symptoms = Trouble [[Readin (process)|readin]]<ref name="ninds1"/> | onset = Schuil age<ref name=Lancet2012/> | causes = [[Genetics|Genetic]] an environmental factors<ref name=Lancet2012 /> | risks = Faimily history, [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]]<ref name=NIH2014Def/> | diagnosis = Series memory, spellin, veesion, an readin test<ref name=NIH2015Diag/> | differential = [[Hearin problems|Hearin]] or [[veesion problems]], insufficient [[Readin eddication|teachin]]<ref name=Lancet2012/> | treatment = Adjustin teachin methods<ref name=ninds1/> | frequency = 3–7%<ref name=Lancet2012/><ref name=Koo2013/> }} '''Dyslexia''', forby kent as '''wird blindness''', is a [[learnin disabeelity]] that affecks either readin or writin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Dyslexia-Information-Page|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Linda S.|date=November 2006|title=Perspectives on dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2528651/|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=11|issue=9|pages=581–587|doi=10.1093/pch/11.9.581|issn=1205-7088|pmc=2528651|pmid=19030329}}</ref> Different fowk are affeckit tae different degrees.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/disorders|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Problems mey include difficulties in spellin wirds, readin quickly, writin wirds, "soondin oot" wirds [[Subvocalisation|in the heid]], pronouncin wirds whan readin alood an unnerstaundin whit ane reads.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are the symptoms of reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/symptoms|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Aften thir difficulties are furst noticed at schuil.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=RL|last2=Pennington|first2=BF|date=2012-05-26|title=Developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3465717/|journal=Lancet|volume=379|issue=9830|pages=1997–2007|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6|issn=1474-547X|pmc=3465717|pmid=22513218}}</ref> The difficulties are involuntary, an fowk wi this ail hae a normal desire tae learn.<ref name=":1" /> Fowk wi dyslexia hae heicher rates o [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] (ADHA), [[Developmental leid ail|developmental leid ails]], an [[Dyscalculia|difficulties wi nummers]].<ref name=":2" /> Dyslexia is believed tae be caused bi the [[Gene–environment interaction|interaction]] o [[Genetics|genetic]] an environmental factors.<ref name=":2" /> Some cases rin in faimilies.<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia that develops owin tae a [[traumatic harn injury]], [[stroke]], or [[dementia]] is whiles cried "acquired dyslexia"<ref name=":0" /> or '''alexia'''.<ref name=":1" /> The unnerlyin mechanisms o dyslexia result frae differences athin [[Leid processin in the harn|the harn's leid processin]].<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia is diagnosed throu a series o tests o memory, veesion, spellin, an readin skeels.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/diagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is separate frae readin difficulties caused bi [[Hearin loss|hearin]] or [[Veesual impairment|veesion problems]] or bi insufficient [[Readin|teachin]] or opportunity tae learn.<ref name=":2" /> Treatment involves adjustin teachin methods tae meet the person's needs.<ref name=":0" /> Whiles nae curin the unnerlyin problem, it mey decrease the degree or impact o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/treatment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Treatments targetin veesion are nae effective. Dyslexia is the maist common [[learnin disabeelity]] an occurs in aw areas o the warld.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Umphred|first=Darcy Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA383|title=Neurological Rehabilitation - E-Book|last2=Lazaro|first2=Rolando T.|last3=Roller|first3=Margaret|last4=Burton|first4=Gordon|date=2013-08-07|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9|language=en}}</ref> It affecks 3–7% o the population;<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Kooij|first=J. J. Sandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&pg=PA83|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment|date=2012-12-11|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-4138-9|language=en}}</ref> houiver, up tae 20% o the general population mey hae some degree o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en-us|archive-date=2015-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx}}</ref> Whiles dyslexia is mair aften diagnosed in lads, this is pairtly exponed bi a sel-fulfillin [[Selection bias|referral bias]] amang teachers an professionals.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Anne B.|last2=Pennington|first2=Bruce F.|last3=Peterson|first3=Robin L.|last4=Willcutt|first4=Erik G.|last5=DeFries|first5=John C.|last6=Olson|first6=Richard K.|date=2017|title=Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438271/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=58|issue=6|pages=719–727|doi=10.1111/jcpp.12691|issn=1469-7610|pmc=5438271|pmid=28176347}}</ref> It haes even been suggestit that the condeetion affecks men an wummen equally.<ref name=":3" /> Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different wey o learnin, wit baith benefits an dounsides.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Venton|first=Danielle|date=September 2011|title=Q&A: The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia|language=en-US|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805001607/http://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage|archive-date=2016-08-05|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Schneps|first=Matthew H.|date=August 2014|title=The Advantages of Dyslexia|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804232616/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|archive-date=2016-08-04|access-date=2026-05-17|website=ScientificAmerican.com|publisher=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> == Clessification == Dyslexia is dividit intae developmental an acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent tae neurological insult, sic as [[traumatic harn injury]] or [[stroke]]. Fowk wi acquired dyslexia exhibit some o the signs or symptoms o the developmental ail, bit require different assessment strategies an treatment approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woollams|first=Anna M.|date=2014|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866427/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20120398|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866427|pmid=24324241}}</ref> ''Pure alexia'', forby kent as ''agnosic alexia'' or ''pure wird blindness'', is ane form o [[Alexia (condeetion)|alexia]] that maks up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. == Signs an symptoms == In early bairnheid, symptoms that correlate wi a later diagnosis o dyslexia include [[Speech delay|delayed onset o speech]] an a lack o [[phonological awareness]]. A common meeth closely associates dyslexia wi [[mirror writin]] an readin letters or wirds backwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lilienfeld|first=Scott O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior|last2=Lynn|first2=Steven Jay|last3=Ruscio|first3=John|last4=Beyerstein|first4=Barry L.|date=2011-09-15|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5|language=en}}</ref> Thir behaviours are seen in mony bairn as thay learn tae read an write, an are nae considered tae be definin chairactereestics o dyslexia. Schuil-age bairn wi dyslexia mey exhibit signs o difficulty in identifyin or generatin rhymin wirds, or coontin the nummer o seellables in wirds—baith o that depend on phonological awareness. Thay mey forby shaw difficulty in segmentin wirds intae individual soonds (sic as soondin oot the three soonds o ''k'', ''a'', an ''t'' in ''cat'') or mey struggle tae blend soonds, indicatin reduced [[phonemic awareness]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5|language=en}}</ref> Difficulties wi wird retrieval or namin things is associatit wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Swanson|first=H. Lee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities|last2=Harris|first2=Karen R.|last3=Graham|first3=Steve|date=2013-02-11|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3|language=en}}</ref> Fowk wi dyslexia are commonly puir spellers, a featur whiles cried ''dysorthographia'' or ''[[dysgraphia]]'', that depends on the skeel o [[Orthography|orthographic codin]]. Problems persist intae adolescence an adultheid an mey include difficulties wi summarising stories, memorisation, readin alood, or learnin foreign leids. Adults wi dyslexia can aften read wi guid comprehension, thou thay tend tae read mair slawly nor ithers wioot a learnin difficulty an perform worse in spellin tests or whan readin nonsense wirds—a measure o phonological awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lum|first=Jarrad A. G.|last2=Ullman|first2=Michael T.|last3=Conti-Ramsden|first3=Gina|date=October 2013|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3784964/|journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities|volume=34|issue=10|pages=3460–3476|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017|issn=1873-3379|pmc=3784964|pmid=23920029}}</ref> === Associatit condeetions === Dyslexia aften co-occurs wi ither learnin ails, bit the raisons fur this comorbidity hae nae been clearly identifee'd. Thir associatit disabeelities include: ; [[Dysgraphia]] : A ail involvin difficulties wi writin or typin, whiles owin tae problems wi [[Haund–ee coordination|ee–haund coordination]]; it can impede direction- or sequence-orientit processes an aa, sic as tyin knots or carryin oot repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is aften multifactorial, owin tae impaired letter-writin [[automaticity]], organisational an elaborative difficulties, an impaired veesual wird formin, that maks it mair difficult tae retrieve the veesual pictur o wirds required fur spellin. ; [[Attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] : A ail chairacterised bi problems sustainin attention, hyperactivity, or actin impulsively. Dyslexia an ADHA commonly occur thegither.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Comer|first=Ronald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|title=Psychology Around Us|last2=Gould|first2=Elizabeth|date=2010-01-19|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6|language=en}}</ref> Approximately 15% or 12–24% o fowk wi dyslexia hae ADHA;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fatemi|first=S. Hossein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry|last2=Clayton|first2=Paula J.|date=2008-05-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6|language=en}}</ref> an up tae 35% o fowk wi ADHA hae dyslexia. ; [[Auditory processin ail]] : A listenin ail that affecks the abeelity tae process auditory information.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capellini|first=Simone Aparecida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities|date=2007|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7|language=en}}</ref> This can lead tae problems wi [[Echoic memory|auditory memory]] an auditory [[Sequence learnin|sequencin]]. Mony fowk wi dyslexia hae auditory processin problems, an mey develop thair awn [[logographic cues]] tae compensate fur this teep o deficit. Some resairch suggests that auditory processin skeels coud be the primary shortfaw in dyslexia.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pammer|first=Kristen|date=2014|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913493/|journal=Scientifica|volume=2014|pages=802741|doi=10.1155/2014/802741|issn=2090-908X|pmc=3913493|pmid=24527259}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Law|first=Jeremy M.|last2=Vandermosten|first2=Maaike|last3=Ghesquiere|first3=Pol|last4=Wouters|first4=Jan|date=2014|title=The relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4078926/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=482|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4078926|pmid=25071512}}</ref> ; [[Developmental coordination ail]] : A neurological condeetion chairacterised bi difficulty in carryin oot routine tasks involvin balance, fine-[[motor control]] an [[Proprioception|kinesthetic]] coordination; difficulty in the uise o speech soonds; an problems wi [[short-term memory]] an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alloway|first=Tracy Packiam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders|last2=Gathercole|first2=Susan E.|date=2012-08-06|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2|language=en}}</ref> == Causes == [[File:Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif|thumb|300px| Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation]] Resairchers hae been tryin tae find the neurobiological basis o dyslexia syne the condeetion wis furst identifee'd in 1881.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&q=Wortblindheit|title=Neurologisches Centralblatt|date=1917|publisher=J. Springer|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&pg=PA127|title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia|last2=Fawcett|first2=Angela|last3=Manis|first3=Frank|last4=Siegel|first4=Linda|date=2008-09-18|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9|language=en}}</ref> Fur ensaumple, some hae tree'd tae associate the common problem amang fowk wi dyslexia o nae bein able tae see letters clearly tae abnormal development o thair veesual nerve cells.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Stein|first=John|date=2014|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4203994/|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports|volume=1|issue=4|pages=267–280|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6|issn=2196-2987|pmc=4203994|pmid=25346883}}</ref> === Neuroanatomy === [[Neuroeemagin]] techniques, sic as [[functional magnetic resonance eemagin]] (fMRI) an [[positron emission tomography]] (PET), hae shawn a correlation atween baith functional an structural differences in the harns o bairn wi readin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitaker|first=Harry A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&pg=PA180|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language|date=2010-04-08|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7|language=en}}</ref> Some fowk wi dyslexia shaw less activation in pairts o the [[Lateralisation o harn function|left hemisphere]] o the harn involvit wi readin, sic as the [[inferior frontal gyrus]], [[inferior parietal lobule]], an the middle an [[Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].<ref name=":5" /> Meta-analyses o fMRI studies hae foond unner-activation whaur the [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] an [[Occipital lobe|occipital lobes]] meet in the left hemisphere in dyslexic subjecks (includin the [[veesual wird form area]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Anna|last2=Kronbichler|first2=Martin|last3=Richlan|first3=Fabio|date=2016|title=Dyslexic brain activation abnormalities in deep and shallow orthographies: A meta-analysis of 28 functional neuroimaging studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5103175/|journal=Human Brain Mapping|volume=37|issue=7|pages=2676–2699|doi=10.1002/hbm.23202|issn=1097-0193|pmc=5103175|pmid=27061464}}</ref> Ower the past decade, harn activation studies uisin PET tae study leid hae produced a breakthrou in the unnerstaundin o the neural basis o leid. Neural bases fur the veesual [[lexicon]] an fur auditory verbal [[short-term memory]] components hae been proponed,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Price|first=Cathy J.|date=2012-08-15|title=A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3398395/|journal=NeuroImage|volume=62|issue=2|pages=816–847|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062|issn=1095-9572|pmc=3398395|pmid=22584224}}</ref> wi some implication that the observed neural manifestation o developmental dyslexia is task-speceefic (i.e., functional raither nor structural). fMRIs o fowk wi dyslexia indicate an interactive role o the [[cerebellum]] an cerebral cortex as weel as ither harn structurs in readin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Sarvi|last2=Nederveen|first2=Aart J.|last3=Booij|first3=Jan|last4=van Rootselaar|first4=Anne-Fleur|date=2014|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4110352/|journal=NeuroImage. Clinical|volume=5|pages=217–231|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003|issn=2213-1582|pmc=4110352|pmid=25068111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brandler|first=William M.|last2=Paracchini|first2=Silvia|date=2014-02|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3969300/|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=20|issue=2|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008|issn=1471-499X|pmc=3969300|pmid=24275328}}</ref> The cerebellar theory o dyslexia propones that impairment o cerebellum-controlled muscle muivement affecks the formation o wirds bi the tongue and facial muscles, resultin in the [[fluency]] problems that some fowk wi dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is involvit in the [[Autonomic nervous seestem|automatisation]] o some tasks an aa, sic as readin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cain|first=Kate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA134|title=Reading Development and Difficulties|date=2010-06-28|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-5155-9|language=en}}</ref> The fact that some bairn wi dyslexia hae motor task an balance impairments coud be conseestent wi a cerebellar role in thair readin difficulties. Houiver, the cerebellar theory haes nae been supportit bi controlled resairch studies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Levav|first=Itshak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA52|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental Health Action|date=2009|publisher=Gefen Publishing House Ltd|isbn=978-965-229-468-5|language=en}}</ref> === Genetics === Resairch intae potential genetic causes o dyslexia haes its ruits in post-autopsy examination o the harns o fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":6" /> Observed anatomical differences in the [[Leid centre|leid centres]] o sic harns include microscopic [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations kent as ectopias, an mair rarely, [[Bluid veshel|vascular]] micro-malformations, an [[microgyrus]]—a smawer nor uisual size fur the gyrus.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Miriam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&pg=PA941|title=The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language, 2 Volume Set|date=2012-02-13|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3040-3|language=en}}</ref> The previously citit studies an ithers suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed tae occur afore or durin the saxt month o [[Fetus|fetal]] harn development, mey have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in fowk wi dyslexia hae forby been reportit in non-leid cerebral an subcortical harn structurs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kere|first=Juha|date=2014-09-19|title=The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006291X14013515|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications|series=Genomic Aspects of Common Diseases|volume=452|issue=2|pages=236–243|doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102|issn=0006-291X}}</ref> Mony genes hae been associatit wi dyslexia, includin [[DCDC2]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&pg=PA53|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2012-10-12|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7|language=en}}</ref> an [[Dyslexia-associatit protein|KIAA0319]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paracchini|first=Silvia|last2=Thomas|first2=Ankur|last3=Castro|first3=Sandra|last4=Lai|first4=Cecilia|last5=Paramasivam|first5=Murugan|last6=Wang|first6=Yu|last7=Keating|first7=Brendan J.|last8=Taylor|first8=Jennifer M.|last9=Hacking|first9=Douglas F.|last10=Scerri|first10=Thomas|last11=Francks|first11=Clyde|date=2006-05-15|title=The chromosome 6p22 haplotype associated with dyslexia reduces the expression of KIAA0319 , a novel gene involved in neuronal migration|url=http://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/15/10/1659/2355904/The-chromosome-6p22-haplotype-associated-with|journal=Human Molecular Genetics|language=en|volume=15|issue=10|pages=1659–1666|doi=10.1093/hmg/ddl089|issn=1460-2083}}</ref> on [[chromosome 6]], an [[DYX1C1]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosen|first=Glenn D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&pg=PA342|title=The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery|date=2013-05-13|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-81550-0|language=en}}</ref> on [[chromosome 15]]. === Gene–environment interaction === The contreibution o [[gene–environment interaction]] tae [[Readin disabeelity|readin (dis)abeelity]], that estimates the proportion o variance (the differences in readin abeelity across individuals) attributable tae environmental an genetic factors, haes been studied extensively bi comparin sets o [[Twin|identical twins]] an [[Twin|fraternal twins]]. Sic twin studies shaw that baith environmental an genetic influences contreibute tae readin development, wi thir twa influences' kin impact varyin bi contex. Fur ensaumple, parental eddication haes been foond tae moderate genetic influences on readin (dis)abeelity,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Friend|first=Angela|last2=DeFries|first2=John C.|last3=Olson|first3=Richard K.|date=November 2008|title=Parental education moderates genetic influences on reading disability|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2605635/|journal=Psychological Science|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1124–1130|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x|issn=1467-9280|pmc=2605635|pmid=19076484}}</ref> an teacher quality can moderate genetic effecks on early readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=J.|last2=Roehrig|first2=A. D.|last3=Hensler|first3=B. Soden|last4=Connor|first4=C. M.|last5=Schatschneider|first5=C.|date=2010-04-23|title=Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1186149|journal=Science|language=en|volume=328|issue=5977|pages=512–514|doi=10.1126/science.1186149|issn=0036-8075|pmc=2905841|pmid=20413504}}</ref> Mairower, in mair supportive environments, genetic risk factors accoont fur a lairger proportion o the variation in dyslexia.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Pennington|first=Bruce F.|last2=McGrath|first2=Lauren M.|last3=Rosenberg|first3=Jenni|last4=Barnard|first4=Holly|last5=Smith|first5=Shelley D.|last6=Willcutt|first6=Erik G.|last7=Friend|first7=Angela|last8=Defries|first8=John C.|last9=Olson|first9=Richard K.|date=Januar 2009|title=Gene X environment interactions in reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2743891/|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=77–89|doi=10.1037/a0014549|issn=0012-1649|pmc=2743891|pmid=19209992}}</ref> This occurs acause reducin environmental risks—throu heich-quality instruction an supportive caregiein—lowers environmental differences, makin genetic effecks easier tae detect. If environmental risk factors are reduced wi guid teachin an a supportin caregier environment, genetic risk factors mey pley a muckler role in exponin why some fowk hae dyslexia<ref name=":7" /> acause the genetic effeck is easier tae detect gien that muckle environmental noise is [[Bracketin (phenomenology)|bracketed-oot]]. As environment pleys a lairge role in learnin an memory, it is likly that [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] modifications pley an important role in readin abeelity. Measures o [[gene expression]], [[Histone|histone modifications]], an [[methylation]] in the bodie periphery are uised tae study epigenetic processes; houiver, aw o thir hae leemitations in the extrapolation o results fur application tae the bodie harn.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Shelley D.|date=December 2011|title=Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3261263/|journal=Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders|volume=3|issue=4|pages=356–364|doi=10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y|issn=1866-1955|pmc=3261263|pmid=22113455}}</ref> ==== Leid ==== The [[Orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] o a leid directly affecks hou difficult it is tae learn tae read it.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vJ5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA266|title=Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies|last2=McDougall|first2=Sine|last3=Davies|first3=Paul de Mornay|date=2010-06-10|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-16781-3|language=en}}</ref> Inglis an French hae comparatively "deep" [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] athin the [[Laitin alphabet]] [[writin seestem]], wi complex structurs employin spellin patterns on mony levels: letter-soond correspondence, seellables, an [[Morpheme|morphemes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dickinson|first=David K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA421|title=Handbook of Early Literacy Research, Volume 2|last2=Neuman|first2=Susan B.|date=2013-10-15|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=978-1-4625-1470-0|language=en}}</ref> Leids sic as Spainish, Italian an Finnish primarily employ letter-soond correspondence—sae-cried "shallae" orthographies—that maks thaim easier tae learn fur fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":8" /> [[Logogram|Logographic]] writin seestems, sic as [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]], hae extensive seembol uise, an thir pose problems fur dyslexic learners an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|last2=Hulme|first2=Charles|date=2012-05-01|title=Annual research review: the nature and classification of reading disorders--a commentary on proposals for DSM-5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3492851/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=53|issue=5|pages=593–607|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x|issn=1469-7610|pmc=3492851|pmid=22141434}}</ref> ==Pathophysiology== [[File:Gray733.png|thumb|140px|Corpus callosum view, front pairt at tap o eemage]] Fur maist fowk wha are richt-haund dominant, the left hemisphere o thair harn is mair specialised fur [[Lateralisation o harn function|leid processin]]. Wi regard tae the mechanism o dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialisation is less pronounced or absent in fowk wi dyslexia. In ither studies, dyslexia is correlatit wi anatomical differences in the [[corpus callosum]], the bundle o nerve fibers that connects the left an richt hemispheres.<ref name=":9">{{Citation|title=Dyslexia|date=2013-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/handbook/abs/pii/B9780444528919000233|work=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|volume=111|pages=229–235|publisher=Elsevier|language=en-US|access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate chynges in connectivity or in gray maiter density in areas relatit tae readin an leid. Finally, the left [[inferior frontal gyrus]] haes shawn differences in phonological processin in fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":9" /> Neurophysiological an eemagin procedures are bein uised tae ascertain phenotypic chairactereestics in fowk wi dyslexia, thus identifyin the effecks o dyslexia-relatit genes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schumacher|first=Johannes|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Per|last3=Schmäl|first3=Christine|last4=Schulte-Körne|first4=Gerd|last5=Nöthen|first5=Markus M.|date=2007|title=Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2597981/|journal=Journal of Medical Genetics|volume=44|issue=5|pages=289–297|doi=10.1136/jmg.2006.046516|issn=1468-6244|pmc=2597981|pmid=17307837}}</ref> === Dual route theory === The dual-route theory o readin alood wis furst descrieved in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that twa separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involvit in readin alood.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA373|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> Ane mechanism is the lexical route, that is the process whaurbi skeelt readers can recognise kent wirds bi sicht alane, throu a "dictionary" leukup procedure.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA450|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> The ither mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, that is the process whaurbi the reader can "soond oot" a written wird.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hulme|first=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&pg=PT151|title=Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders|last2=Joshi|first2=R. Malatesha|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-49807-7|language=en}}</ref> This is duin bi identifyin the wird's constituent pairts (letters, [[Phoneme|phonemes]], [[Grapheme|graphemes]]) an applyin knawledge o hou thir pairts are associatit wi ilka ither — fur ensaumple, hou a string o neebourin letters soond thegither. The dual-route seestem coud expone the different rates o dyslexia occurrence atween different leids (e.g., the consistency o phonological rules in the Spainish leid coud accoont fur the fact that Spainish-speakin bairn shaw a heicher level o performance in non-wird readin, whan compared tae Inglis-speakers).<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sprenger-Charolles|first=Liliane|last2=Siegel|first2=Linda S|last3=Jimenez|first3=Juan E.|last4=Ziegler|first4=Johannes|date=2011|title=Prevalence and reliability of phonological, surface, and mixed profiles in dyslexia: A review of studies conducted in languages varying in orthographic depth|url=https://hal.science/hal-00733553|journal=Scientific Study of Reading|volume=15|issue=6|pages=498–521}}</ref> == Diagnosis == Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learnin ail that impairs accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin. Teepical—but nae universal—featurs include difficulties wi phonological awareness, inefficient an aften inaccurate processin o soonds in oral leid (''phonological processin''), an verbal wirkin memory deficits. Dyslexia is a [[neurodevelopmental ail]], subcategorisit in diagnostic guides as a ''learnin'' ''ail wi impairment in readin'' (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" tae "learnin ail"; DSM-5 uises "speceefic").<ref>{{Cite web|title=6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Mortality and Morbidity Statistics|publisher=World Health Organization|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5|date=2013|publisher=Arlington, VA : American Psychiatric Association|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-89042-554-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=FragaGonzález|first=Gorka|last2=Karipidis|first2=Iliana I.|last3=Tijms|first3=Jurgen|date=2018-10-19|title=Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes It Different from a Chess Disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6209961/|journal=Brain Sciences|volume=8|issue=10|pages=189|doi=10.3390/brainsci8100189|issn=2076-3425|pmc=6209961|pmid=30347764}}</ref> Dyslexia is nae a problem wi intelligence. [[Emotional an behavioural ails|Emotional problems]] aften arise seicontary tae learnin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Campbell|first=Robert Jean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&pg=PA310|title=Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534159-1|language=en}}</ref> The [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] descrieves dyslexia as "difficulty wi phonological processin (the manipulation o soonds), spellin, an/or rapid veesual-verbal respondin".<ref name=":0" /> The Breetish Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learnin difficulty that maistly affecks the skeels involvit in accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin" an is chairacterised bi "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory an verbal processin speed".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Phillips|first=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties|last2=Kelly|first2=Kathleen|last3=Symes|first3=Liz|date=2013-08-20|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4462-8704-0|language=en}}</ref> ''Phonological awareness'' enables ane tae identify, discriminate, mynd ([[wirkin memory]]), an mentally manipulate the soond structurs o leid—[[Phoneme|phonemes]], onsteid-rime segments, seellables, an wirds. === Assessment === The follaein can be duin tae assess fur dyslexia: Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involvin the bairn's parent(s) an teacher(s), schuil psychologist, pediatrician, an, as appropriate, [[Speech–leid pathology|speech an leid pathologist (speech therapist)]], an [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]]. Gain faimiliarity wi teepical ages bairn reach mony general developmental milestanes, an domain-speceefic milestanes, sic as phonological awareness (recognisin rhymin wirds; identifyin the initial soonds in wirds). Dinna rely on tests exclusively. Carefu observation o the bairn in the schuil an hame environments, an sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are juist as important as tests. Leuk at the empirically supportit [[repone tae intervention]] (RTI) approach, that "... involves monitorin the progress o a group o bairn throu a programme o intervention raither nor unnertakin a static assessment o thair current skeels. Bairn wi the maist need are thaim wha fail tae respond tae effective teachin, an thay are readily identifee'd uisin this approach."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|date=2013-01-01|title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4538781/|journal=Journal of research in special educational needs: JORSEN|volume=13|issue=1|pages=7–14|doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x|issn=1471-3802|pmc=4538781|pmid=26290655}}</ref> ==== Assessment tests ==== Thare is a wide range o tests that are uised in clinical an eddicational settins tae evaluate the possibility o dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-05-04|title=Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities - Dyslexia Help|url=https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/,%20https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/|access-date=2026-05-17|language=en-US}}</ref> If initial testin suggests that a person micht hae dyslexia, sic tests are aften follaed up wi a fou diagnostic assessment tae determine the extent an naitur o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT35|title=Introduction to Dyslexia|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2013-08-21|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-37290-3|language=en}}</ref> Some tests can be admeenistered bi a teacher or computer; ithers require specialised trainin an are gien bi psychologists.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Assessments|url=https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/services/assessments|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=British Dyslexia Association|language=en}}</ref> Some test results indicate hou tae carry oot teachin strategies.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Fletcher|first=Jack M.|date=2009|title=Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3079378/|journal=Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS|volume=15|issue=4|pages=501–508|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900|issn=1469-7661|pmc=3079378|pmid=19573267}}</ref> Acause a variety o different cognitive, behavioural, emotional, an environmental factors aw coud contreibute tae difficulty learnin tae read, a comprehensive evaluation shoud consider thir different possibilities. Thir tests an observations can include:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> * General meisurs o cognitive abeelity, sic as the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale fur Bairn]], [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities]], or [[Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive abeelity wad mak readin mair difficult. Cognitive abeelity meisurs aften try tae meisur different cognitive processes an aa, sic as verbal abeelity, nonverbal an spatial raisonin, wirkin memory, an processin speed. Thare are different versions o thir tests fur different age groups. Awmaist aw o thir require addeetional trainin tae gie an score correctly, an are duin bi psychologists. Accordin tae Mather an Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile an/or pattern o scores on cognitive tests confirmin or rulin-oot readin ail haes nae yit been identifee'd.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Sam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylzEBQAAQBAJ&q=Handbook+of+Intelligence:+Evolutionary+theory,+historical+perspective,+and+current+concepts|title=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts|last2=Princiotta|first2=Dana|last3=Naglieri|first3=Jack A.|date=2014-12-08|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4939-1562-0|language=en}}</ref> * Screenin or evaluation fur mental heal condeetions: Parents an teachers can complete ratin scales or behaviour checkleets tae gaither information aboot emotional an behavioural functionin fur yunger fowk. Mony checkleets hae seemilar versions fur parents, teachers, an yunger fowk auld eneuch tae read raisonably weel (aften 11 years an aulder) tae complete. Ensaumples include the Behavioural Assessment Seestem fur Bairn, an the [[Strenths an Difficulties Questionnaire]]. Aw o thir hae naitionally representative norms, makin it possible tae compare the level o symptoms tae whit wad be teepical fur the yunger person's age an biological sex. Ither checkleets link mair speceefically tae psychiatric diagnoses, sic as the [[Vanderbilt ADHD Ratin Scales]] or the [[Screen fur bairn anxiety relatit ails|Screen fur Bairn Anxiety Relatit Emotional Ail]] (SBAREA). [[Screenin (medicin)|Screenin]] uises brief tuils that are designed tae catch cases wi a ail, but thay aften get false positive scores fur fowk wha dae nae hae the ail. Screeners shoud be follaed up bi a mair accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive ails an anxiety ails are two-three times heicher in fowk wi dyslexia, an attention-deficit/hyperactivity ail is mair common, as weel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collett|first=Brent R.|last2=Ohan|first2=Jeneva L.|last3=Myers|first3=Kathleen M.|date=2003-09-01|title=Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder|url=https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)60999-0/abstract|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry|language=English|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1015–1037|doi=10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6|issn=0890-8567|pmid=12960702}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stone|first=Lisanne L.|last2=Janssens|first2=Jan M. A. M.|last3=Vermulst|first3=Ad A.|last4=Van Der Maten|first4=Marloes|last5=Engels|first5=Rutger C. M. E.|last6=Otten|first6=Roy|date=2015|title=The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4-7|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4364334/|journal=BMC psychology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=4|doi=10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8|issn=2050-7283|pmc=4364334|pmid=25815194}}</ref> * Review o academic achievement an skeels: Average spellin/readin abeelity fur a dyslexic is a percentage rankin <16, weel belaw normal. In addeetion tae reviewin grades an teacher notes, staundardised test results are helpfu in evaluatin progress. Thir include group admeenistered tests, sic as the [[Iowa Tests o Eddicational Development]], that a teacher mey gie tae a group or hale clessruim o yunger fowk at the same time. Thay coud include individually admeenistered tests o achievement an aa, sic as the [[Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (that includes a set o achievement tests an aa). The individually admeenistered tests again require mair specialised trainin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lindquist|first=E. F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yOc9AAAAYAAJ&q=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development|title=The Iowa Tests of Educational Development: How to Use the Test Results; a Manual for Teachers and Counselors|date=1953|publisher=Science Research Associates|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Semrud-Clikeman|first=Margaret|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGSF9Jyg6AC&pg=PT119|title=Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2nd Edition|last2=Ellison|first2=Phyllis Anne Teeter|date=2009-06-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-88963-4|language=en}}</ref> == Screenin == Screenin procedures seek tae identify bairn wha shaw signs o possible dyslexia. In the preschuil years, a faimily history o dyslexia, pairticulairly in biological parents an siblins, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better nor ony test. In primary schuil (ages 5–7), the ideal screenin procedure consists o trainin primary schuil teachers tae carefully observe an record thair pupils' progress throu the phonics curriculum, an tharebi identify bairn progressin slawly. Whan teachers identify sic students thay can supplement thair observations wi screenin tests sic as the ''Phonics screenin check''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-23|title=Phonics screening check: 2019 materials|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-curriculum-assessments-past-test-materials|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=United Kingdom Department for Education, Standards and Testing Agency|language=en}}</ref> uised bi Unitit Kinrick schuils durin Year 1. In the medical settin, bairn an adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasises that "[g]ien the heich prevalence o developmental ails in schuil-aged bairn, aw bairn seen in clinics shoud be seestematically screened fur developmental ails irrespective o the presentin problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screenin fur developmental ails, includin dyslexia, bi conductin a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, an obtainin a schuil report regardin academic an social functionin. == Management == Throu the uise o compensation strategies, therapy an eddicational support, individuals wi dyslexia can learn tae read an write.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bogon|first=Johanna|last2=Finke|first2=Kathrin|last3=Stenneken|first3=Prisca|date=2014|title=TVA-based assessment of visual attentional functions in developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4199262/|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=5|pages=1172|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172|issn=1664-1078|pmc=4199262|pmid=25360129}}</ref> Thare are techniques an technical aids that help tae manage or conceal symptoms o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&pg=PA115|title=Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace|date=2012-04-02|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-97479-7|language=en}}</ref> Reducin stress an anxiety can whiles impruive written comprehension.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> Fur [[Management o dyslexia|dyslexia intervention]] wi alphabet-writin seestems, the fundamental aim is tae increase a bairn's awareness o correspondences atween [[Grapheme|graphemes]] (letters) an [[Phoneme|phonemes]] (soonds), an tae relate thir tae readin an spellin bi teaching hou soonds blend intae wirds. Reinforced collateral trainin focused on readin an spellin mey yield langer-lastin gains nor oral phonological trainin alane.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoff|first=Erika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&pg=PA454|title=Blackwell Handbook of Language Development|last2=Shatz|first2=Marilyn|date=2009-05-18|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-9459-4|language=en}}</ref> Early intervention can be successfu in reducin readin failur. Resairch daes nae suggest that specially-tailored fonts (sic as [[Dyslexie]] an [[OpenDyslexic]]) help wi readin. In experiments, a mair signeeficant difference in readin performance wis driven bi [[Leadin|interline spacin]], an the difference wis nae signeeficant ance variables sic as interline spacin an [[x-hicht]] wis normalised atween the candidate fonts.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kuster|first=Sanne M.|last2=van Weerdenburg|first2=Marjolijn|last3=Gompel|first3=Marjolein|last4=Bosman|first4=Anna M. T.|date=Apryle 2018|title=Dyslexie font does not benefit reading in children with or without dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5934461/|journal=Annals of Dyslexia|volume=68|issue=1|pages=25–42|doi=10.1007/s11881-017-0154-6|issn=1934-7243|pmc=5934461|pmid=29204931}}</ref> Bairn wi dyslexia read tex set in a regular font sic as [[Times New Roman]] an [[Arial]] juist as quickly, an thay shaw a preference fur regular fonts ower specially-tailored fonts.<ref name=":12" /> Some resairch haes pyntit tae increased [[Letter spacin|letter-spacin]] bein beneficial.<ref name=":12" /> Thare is currently nae evidence shawin that muisic eddication signeeficantly impruives the readin skeels o adolescents wi dyslexia. == Prognosis == Dyslexic bairn require special instruction fur wird analysis an spellin frae an early age. The prognosis, generally speakin, is positive fur individuals wha are identifee'd in bairnheid an receive support frae freends an faimily.<ref name=":0" /> The New York eddicational seestem (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterruptit 90-meenit block o instruction in readin" an "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, readin fluency" sae as tae impruive the individual's readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Response to Intervention Guidance - Minimum Requirements of a Response to Intervention Program (RtI) - Instruction Matched to Student Need: Special Education : P12 : NYSED|url=http://www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance/instruction.htm|access-date=2026-05-17|website=www.p12.nysed.gov|language=en}}</ref> == Epidemiology == The prevalence o dyslexia is unkent, but it haes been estimatit tae be as low as 5% an as heich as 17% o the population.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tasman|first=Allan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rp0BgAAQBAJ|title=Psychiatry|last2=Kay|first2=Jerald|last3=Lieberman|first3=Jeffrey A.|last4=First|first4=Michael B.|last5=Riba|first5=Michelle|date=2015-01-29|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-84549-3|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is diagnosed mair aften in males.<ref name=":2" /> Thare are different defineetions o dyslexia uised throuoot the warld. Further, differences in writin seestems mey affeck development o written leid abeelity owin tae the interpley atween auditory an written representations o phonemes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Protopapas|first=Athanassios|date=2014|title=From temporal processing to developmental language disorders: mind the gap|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866431/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20130090|doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0090|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866431|pmid=24324245}}</ref> Dyslexia is nae limitit tae difficulty in convertin letters tae soonds, an Cheenese fowk wi dyslexia mey hae difficulty convertin [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]] intae thair meanins.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhao|first=Jing|last2=Qian|first2=Yi|last3=Bi|first3=Hong-Yan|last4=Coltheart|first4=Max|date=2014-11-20|title=The visual magnocellular-dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4238300/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=4|pages=7068|doi=10.1038/srep07068|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4238300|pmid=25412386}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VK_TWsQ3N4C&pg=PA152|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2013|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-84872-084-8|language=en}}</ref> The Cheenese vocabulary uises logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writin whaur ane chairacter can represent an individual phoneme.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Garralda|first=Elena|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ujeVaMa9U0C&pg=PA177|title=Brain, Mind, and Developmental Psychopathology in Childhood|last2=Raynaud|first2=Jean-Philippe|date=2012-02-16|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing PLC|isbn=978-0-7657-0866-3|language=en}}</ref> The phonological-processin hypothesis attempts tae expone why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety o leids. Furthermair, the relationship atween phonological capacity an readin appears tae be influenced bi orthography.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Navas|first=Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto|last2=Ferraz|first2=Érica de Cássia|last3=Borges|first3=Juliana Postigo Amorina|date=2014|title=Phonological processing deficits as a universal model for dyslexia: evidence from different orthographies|url=https://www.scielo.br/j/codas/a/LLLqpM6vQq9mVrHWCyNTPCP/?lang=en|journal=CoDAS|language=en|volume=26|pages=509–519|doi=10.1590/2317-1782/20142014135|issn=2317-1782}}</ref> == History == Dyslexia wis clinically descrieved bi [[Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881, but the term ''dyslexia'' wis coined in 1883 bi [[Rudolf Berlin]], an [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologist]] in [[Stuttgart]]. He uised the term tae refer tae the case o a yung lad wha haed severe difficulty learnin tae read an write, in maugre o shawin teepical intelligence an pheesical abeelities in aw ither respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a Breetish physeecian frae [[Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description o a readin-speceefic learnin ail in a report tae the ''[[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' titled "Congenital Word Blindness".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brooks|first=Patricia J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvfSAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR30|title=Encyclopedia of Language Development|last2=Kempe|first2=Vera|date=2014-03-28|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4833-4643-4|language=en}}</ref> The distinction atween phonological versus surface teeps o dyslexia is anly descriptive, an wioot ony etiological assumption as tae the unnerlyin harn mechanisms. Houiver, studies hae alludit tae potential differences owin tae variation in performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Srikanta K.|date=2014|title=Medial efferent mechanisms in children with auditory processing disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4209830/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=860|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00860|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4209830|pmid=25386132}}</ref> Ower time, the consensus haes chynged frae an intelligence-based model tae an age-based model fur dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Al-Shidhani|first=Thuraya Ahmed|last2=Arora|first2=Vinita|date=2012|title=Understanding Dyslexia in Children through Human Development Theories|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3529662/|journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal|volume=12|issue=3|pages=286–294|doi=10.12816/0003141|issn=2075-0528|pmc=3529662|pmid=23269949}}</ref><ref name=":13" /> == Society an cultur == As is the case wi ony ail, society aften maks an assessment based on incomplete information. Afore the 1980s, dyslexia wis thoucht tae be a consequence o eddication, raither nor a neurological disabeelity. As a result, society aften misjudges thaim wi the ail.<ref name=":14" /> Thare is whiles a wirkplace stigma an negative attitude towards thir wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Beer|first=Joost|last2=Engels|first2=Josephine|last3=Heerkens|first3=Yvonne|last4=van der Klink|first4=Jac|date=2014-01-24|title=Factors influencing work participation of adults with developmental dyslexia: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913008/|journal=BMC public health|volume=14|pages=77|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-14-77|issn=1471-2458|pmc=3913008|pmid=24460949}}</ref> If the instructors o a person wi dyslexia lack the necessary trainin tae support a bairn wi the condeetion, thare is aften a negative effeck on the student's learnin pairteecipation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pino|first=Marco|last2=Mortari|first2=Luigina|date=2014-11-01|title=The inclusion of students with dyslexia in higher education: a systematic review using narrative synthesis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4253321/|journal=Dyslexia (Chichester, England)|volume=20|issue=4|pages=346–369|doi=10.1002/dys.1484|issn=1099-0909|pmc=4253321|pmid=25293652}}</ref> Syne at least the 1960s in the UK, the bairn diagnosed wi developmental dyslexia hae consistently been frae privileged faimilies.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|last=Kale|first=Sirin|date=2020-09-17|title=The battle over dyslexia|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2020/sep/17/battle-over-dyslexia-warwickshire-staffordshire|access-date=2026-05-17|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Awthou hauf o preesoners in the UK hae signeeficant readin difficulties, gey few hae iver been evaluatit fur dyslexia.<ref name=":15" /> Access tae some special eddicational resoorces an fundin is contingent upon haein a diagnosis o dyslexia.<ref name=":15" /> As a result, whan [[Staffordshire]] an [[Warwickshire]] proponed in 2018 tae teach readin tae aw bairn wi readin difficulties, uisin techniques proven tae be successfu fur maist bairn wi a diagnosis o dyslexia, wioot furst requirin the faimilies tae obteen an offeecial diagnosis, dyslexia advocates an parents o bairn wi dyslexia wur fearfu that thay wur losin a privileged status.<ref name=":15" /> === Stigma an success === Owin tae the mony cognitive processes that dyslexia affecks an the owerwhelmin societal stigma athort the disabeelity, individuals wi dyslexia aften employ behaviours o sel-stigma an perfectionistic sel-presentation in order tae cope wi thair disabeelity. The perfectionist sel-presentation is whan an individual attempts tae present thaimsels as the perfect ideal eemage an hides ony imperfections. This behaviour presents serious risk as it aften results in mental heal issues an refusal tae seek help fur thair disabeelity. == Resairch == [[File:Writing Systems Template Image.svg|thumb|120px|Writin seestems]] Maist dyslexia resairch relates tae [[Alphabetic writin seestem|alphabetic writin seestems]], an inspecially tae [[Leids o Europe|European leids]]. Houiver, substantial resairch is forby available regardin fowk wi dyslexia wha spik Arabic, Cheenese, Hebrew, or ither leids. The ootward expression o individuals wi readin disabeelity, an regular peer readers, is the same in sum respects. == See an aw == * [[Dyscalculia]], difficulty comprehendin nummers an math * [[Readin|Learnin tae read]] * [[Orton-Gillingham]] * [[Structured literacy]] * [[Leet o fowk wi dyslexia]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further readin == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L | title = Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 434–452 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28797557 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001 | s2cid = 33176236 }} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|first = Alan | last = Beaton |date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research| first = Thomas Richard | last = Miles |date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|author-link=Thomas Richard Miles}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice| vauthors = Reid G, Fawcett A |date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|first = Michael | last = Thomson |date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia| first = Gavin | last = Reid |date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties| first = Mark | last = Selikowitz |date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis| first = Andrew W. | last = Ellis |date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate| vauthors = Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL |date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|author-link=Julian Elliott}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD | title = Neurobiology of dyslexia | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 30 | pages = 73–8 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25290881 | pmc = 4293303 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007 | hdl = 1721.1/102416 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs V, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert N, Blatow M, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither S, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A | title = Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 10 | page = 324 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27471442 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2016.00324 | pmc = 4945653 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo X, Zhang J, Song R | title = Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | article-number = 30454 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27464509 | pmc = 4964335 | doi = 10.1038/srep30454 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...630454S }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR | title = Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1137–44 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 26883091 | pmc = 4872837 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2015.277 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F | title = Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms | journal = Translational Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = e987 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28045463 | pmc = 5545717 | doi = 10.1038/tp.2016.240 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fraga González G, Žarić G, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW | title = Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies | journal = Brain Sciences | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 10 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28106790 | pmc = 5297299 | doi = 10.3390/brainsci7010010 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC | title = Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment | journal = Epigenetics | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = 1023–9 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23949389 | pmc = 3891682 | doi = 10.4161/epi.26026 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Vágvölgyi R, Coldea A, Dresler T, Schrader J, Nuerk HC | title = A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 7 | page = 1617 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27891100 | pmc = 5102880 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617 | doi-access = free }} {{refend}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q132971|q=no|c=category:Dyslexia|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=dyslexia}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Dyslexia| ]] [[Category:Leeteracy]] [[Category:Learnin tae read]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] [[Category:Readin (process)|*Dyslexia]] [[Category:Wikipaedia medicin airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Wikipaedia neurology airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Writin]] arjqga1s2fhmpw4ak24mftaqyzvks46 916912 916911 2026-05-17T22:16:37Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916912 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Dyslexia | synonyms = Readin ail | image = File:Dislexia nens.jpg | caption = Dyslexia involves difficulties in processin letters an wirds. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɛ|k|s|i|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Dyslexia.wav}} {{respell|dis|LEK|see|ə}} | types = [[Surface dyslexia]] | field = [[Neurology]], [[pediatrics]] | symptoms = Trouble [[Readin (process)|readin]]<ref name="ninds1"/> | onset = Schuil age<ref name=Lancet2012/> | causes = [[Genetics|Genetic]] an environmental factors<ref name=Lancet2012 /> | risks = Faimily history, [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]]<ref name=NIH2014Def/> | diagnosis = Series memory, spellin, veesion, an readin test<ref name=NIH2015Diag/> | differential = [[Hearin problems|Hearin]] or [[veesion problems]], insufficient [[Readin eddication|teachin]]<ref name=Lancet2012/> | treatment = Adjustin teachin methods<ref name=ninds1/> | frequency = 3–7%<ref name=Lancet2012/><ref name=Koo2013/> }} '''Dyslexia''', forby kent as '''wird blindness''', is a [[learnin disabeelity]] that affecks either readin or writin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Dyslexia-Information-Page|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Linda S.|date=November 2006|title=Perspectives on dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2528651/|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=11|issue=9|pages=581–587|doi=10.1093/pch/11.9.581|issn=1205-7088|pmc=2528651|pmid=19030329}}</ref> Different fowk are affeckit tae different degrees.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/disorders|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Problems mey include difficulties in spellin wirds, readin quickly, writin wirds, "soondin oot" wirds [[Subvocalisation|in the heid]], pronouncin wirds whan readin alood an unnerstaundin whit ane reads.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are the symptoms of reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/symptoms|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Aften thir difficulties are furst noticed at schuil.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=RL|last2=Pennington|first2=BF|date=2012-05-26|title=Developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3465717/|journal=Lancet|volume=379|issue=9830|pages=1997–2007|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6|issn=1474-547X|pmc=3465717|pmid=22513218}}</ref> The difficulties are involuntary, an fowk wi this ail hae a normal desire tae learn.<ref name=":1" /> Fowk wi dyslexia hae heicher rates o [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] (ADHA), [[Developmental leid ail|developmental leid ails]], an [[Dyscalculia|difficulties wi nummers]].<ref name=":2" /> Dyslexia is believed tae be caused bi the [[Gene–environment interaction|interaction]] o [[Genetics|genetic]] an environmental factors.<ref name=":2" /> Some cases rin in faimilies.<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia that develops owin tae a [[traumatic harn injury]], [[stroke]], or [[dementia]] is whiles cried "acquired dyslexia"<ref name=":0" /> or '''alexia'''.<ref name=":1" /> The unnerlyin mechanisms o dyslexia result frae differences athin [[Leid processin in the harn|the harn's leid processin]].<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia is diagnosed throu a series o tests o memory, veesion, spellin, an readin skeels.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/diagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is separate frae readin difficulties caused bi [[Hearin loss|hearin]] or [[Veesual impairment|veesion problems]] or bi insufficient [[Readin|teachin]] or opportunity tae learn.<ref name=":2" /> Treatment involves adjustin teachin methods tae meet the person's needs.<ref name=":0" /> Whiles nae curin the unnerlyin problem, it mey decrease the degree or impact o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/treatment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Treatments targetin veesion are nae effective. Dyslexia is the maist common [[learnin disabeelity]] an occurs in aw areas o the warld.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Umphred|first=Darcy Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA383|title=Neurological Rehabilitation - E-Book|last2=Lazaro|first2=Rolando T.|last3=Roller|first3=Margaret|last4=Burton|first4=Gordon|date=2013-08-07|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9|language=en}}</ref> It affecks 3–7% o the population;<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Kooij|first=J. J. Sandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&pg=PA83|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment|date=2012-12-11|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-4138-9|language=en}}</ref> houiver, up tae 20% o the general population mey hae some degree o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en-us|archive-date=2015-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx}}</ref> Whiles dyslexia is mair aften diagnosed in lads, this is pairtly exponed bi a sel-fulfillin [[Selection bias|referral bias]] amang teachers an professionals.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Anne B.|last2=Pennington|first2=Bruce F.|last3=Peterson|first3=Robin L.|last4=Willcutt|first4=Erik G.|last5=DeFries|first5=John C.|last6=Olson|first6=Richard K.|date=2017|title=Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438271/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=58|issue=6|pages=719–727|doi=10.1111/jcpp.12691|issn=1469-7610|pmc=5438271|pmid=28176347}}</ref> It haes even been suggestit that the condeetion affecks men an wummen equally.<ref name=":3" /> Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different wey o learnin, wit baith benefits an dounsides.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Venton|first=Danielle|date=September 2011|title=Q&A: The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia|language=en-US|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805001607/http://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage|archive-date=2016-08-05|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Schneps|first=Matthew H.|date=August 2014|title=The Advantages of Dyslexia|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804232616/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|archive-date=2016-08-04|access-date=2026-05-17|website=ScientificAmerican.com|publisher=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> == Clessification == Dyslexia is dividit intae developmental an acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent tae neurological insult, sic as [[traumatic harn injury]] or [[stroke]]. Fowk wi acquired dyslexia exhibit some o the signs or symptoms o the developmental ail, bit require different assessment strategies an treatment approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woollams|first=Anna M.|date=2014|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866427/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20120398|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866427|pmid=24324241}}</ref> ''Pure alexia'', forby kent as ''agnosic alexia'' or ''pure wird blindness'', is ane form o [[Alexia (condeetion)|alexia]] that maks up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. == Signs an symptoms == In early bairnheid, symptoms that correlate wi a later diagnosis o dyslexia include [[Speech delay|delayed onset o speech]] an a lack o [[phonological awareness]]. A common meeth closely associates dyslexia wi [[mirror writin]] an readin letters or wirds backwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lilienfeld|first=Scott O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior|last2=Lynn|first2=Steven Jay|last3=Ruscio|first3=John|last4=Beyerstein|first4=Barry L.|date=2011-09-15|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5|language=en}}</ref> Thir behaviours are seen in mony bairn as thay learn tae read an write, an are nae considered tae be definin chairactereestics o dyslexia. Schuil-age bairn wi dyslexia mey exhibit signs o difficulty in identifyin or generatin rhymin wirds, or coontin the nummer o seellables in wirds—baith o that depend on phonological awareness. Thay mey forby shaw difficulty in segmentin wirds intae individual soonds (sic as soondin oot the three soonds o ''k'', ''a'', an ''t'' in ''cat'') or mey struggle tae blend soonds, indicatin reduced [[phonemic awareness]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5|language=en}}</ref> Difficulties wi wird retrieval or namin things is associatit wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Swanson|first=H. Lee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities|last2=Harris|first2=Karen R.|last3=Graham|first3=Steve|date=2013-02-11|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3|language=en}}</ref> Fowk wi dyslexia are commonly puir spellers, a featur whiles cried ''dysorthographia'' or ''[[dysgraphia]]'', that depends on the skeel o [[Orthography|orthographic codin]]. Problems persist intae adolescence an adultheid an mey include difficulties wi summarising stories, memorisation, readin alood, or learnin foreign leids. Adults wi dyslexia can aften read wi guid comprehension, thou thay tend tae read mair slawly nor ithers wioot a learnin difficulty an perform worse in spellin tests or whan readin nonsense wirds—a measure o phonological awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lum|first=Jarrad A. G.|last2=Ullman|first2=Michael T.|last3=Conti-Ramsden|first3=Gina|date=October 2013|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3784964/|journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities|volume=34|issue=10|pages=3460–3476|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017|issn=1873-3379|pmc=3784964|pmid=23920029}}</ref> === Associatit condeetions === Dyslexia aften co-occurs wi ither learnin ails, bit the raisons fur this comorbidity hae nae been clearly identifee'd. Thir associatit disabeelities include: ; [[Dysgraphia]] : A ail involvin difficulties wi writin or typin, whiles owin tae problems wi [[Haund–ee coordination|ee–haund coordination]]; it can impede direction- or sequence-orientit processes an aa, sic as tyin knots or carryin oot repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is aften multifactorial, owin tae impaired letter-writin [[automaticity]], organisational an elaborative difficulties, an impaired veesual wird formin, that maks it mair difficult tae retrieve the veesual pictur o wirds required fur spellin. ; [[Attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] : A ail chairacterised bi problems sustainin attention, hyperactivity, or actin impulsively. Dyslexia an ADHA commonly occur thegither.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Comer|first=Ronald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|title=Psychology Around Us|last2=Gould|first2=Elizabeth|date=2010-01-19|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6|language=en}}</ref> Approximately 15% or 12–24% o fowk wi dyslexia hae ADHA;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fatemi|first=S. Hossein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry|last2=Clayton|first2=Paula J.|date=2008-05-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6|language=en}}</ref> an up tae 35% o fowk wi ADHA hae dyslexia. ; [[Auditory processin ail]] : A listenin ail that affecks the abeelity tae process auditory information.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capellini|first=Simone Aparecida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities|date=2007|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7|language=en}}</ref> This can lead tae problems wi [[Echoic memory|auditory memory]] an auditory [[Sequence learnin|sequencin]]. Mony fowk wi dyslexia hae auditory processin problems, an mey develop thair awn [[logographic cues]] tae compensate fur this teep o deficit. Some resairch suggests that auditory processin skeels coud be the primary shortfaw in dyslexia.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pammer|first=Kristen|date=2014|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913493/|journal=Scientifica|volume=2014|pages=802741|doi=10.1155/2014/802741|issn=2090-908X|pmc=3913493|pmid=24527259}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Law|first=Jeremy M.|last2=Vandermosten|first2=Maaike|last3=Ghesquiere|first3=Pol|last4=Wouters|first4=Jan|date=2014|title=The relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4078926/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=482|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4078926|pmid=25071512}}</ref> ; [[Developmental coordination ail]] : A neurological condeetion chairacterised bi difficulty in carryin oot routine tasks involvin balance, fine-[[motor control]] an [[Proprioception|kinesthetic]] coordination; difficulty in the uise o speech soonds; an problems wi [[short-term memory]] an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alloway|first=Tracy Packiam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders|last2=Gathercole|first2=Susan E.|date=2012-08-06|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2|language=en}}</ref> == Causes == [[File:Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif|thumb|300px| Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation]] Resairchers hae been tryin tae find the neurobiological basis o dyslexia syne the condeetion wis furst identifee'd in 1881.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&q=Wortblindheit|title=Neurologisches Centralblatt|date=1917|publisher=J. Springer|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&pg=PA127|title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia|last2=Fawcett|first2=Angela|last3=Manis|first3=Frank|last4=Siegel|first4=Linda|date=2008-09-18|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9|language=en}}</ref> Fur ensaumple, some hae tree'd tae associate the common problem amang fowk wi dyslexia o nae bein able tae see letters clearly tae abnormal development o thair veesual nerve cells.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Stein|first=John|date=2014|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4203994/|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports|volume=1|issue=4|pages=267–280|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6|issn=2196-2987|pmc=4203994|pmid=25346883}}</ref> === Neuroanatomy === [[Neuroeemagin]] techniques, sic as [[functional magnetic resonance eemagin]] (fMRI) an [[positron emission tomography]] (PET), hae shawn a correlation atween baith functional an structural differences in the harns o bairn wi readin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitaker|first=Harry A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&pg=PA180|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language|date=2010-04-08|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7|language=en}}</ref> Some fowk wi dyslexia shaw less activation in pairts o the [[Lateralisation o harn function|left hemisphere]] o the harn involvit wi readin, sic as the [[inferior frontal gyrus]], [[inferior parietal lobule]], an the middle an [[Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].<ref name=":5" /> Meta-analyses o fMRI studies hae foond unner-activation whaur the [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] an [[Occipital lobe|occipital lobes]] meet in the left hemisphere in dyslexic subjecks (includin the [[veesual wird form area]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Anna|last2=Kronbichler|first2=Martin|last3=Richlan|first3=Fabio|date=2016|title=Dyslexic brain activation abnormalities in deep and shallow orthographies: A meta-analysis of 28 functional neuroimaging studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5103175/|journal=Human Brain Mapping|volume=37|issue=7|pages=2676–2699|doi=10.1002/hbm.23202|issn=1097-0193|pmc=5103175|pmid=27061464}}</ref> Ower the past decade, harn activation studies uisin PET tae study leid hae produced a breakthrou in the unnerstaundin o the neural basis o leid. Neural bases fur the veesual [[lexicon]] an fur auditory verbal [[short-term memory]] components hae been proponed,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Price|first=Cathy J.|date=2012-08-15|title=A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3398395/|journal=NeuroImage|volume=62|issue=2|pages=816–847|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062|issn=1095-9572|pmc=3398395|pmid=22584224}}</ref> wi some implication that the observed neural manifestation o developmental dyslexia is task-speceefic (i.e., functional raither nor structural). fMRIs o fowk wi dyslexia indicate an interactive role o the [[cerebellum]] an cerebral cortex as weel as ither harn structurs in readin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Sarvi|last2=Nederveen|first2=Aart J.|last3=Booij|first3=Jan|last4=van Rootselaar|first4=Anne-Fleur|date=2014|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4110352/|journal=NeuroImage. Clinical|volume=5|pages=217–231|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003|issn=2213-1582|pmc=4110352|pmid=25068111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brandler|first=William M.|last2=Paracchini|first2=Silvia|date=2014-02|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3969300/|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=20|issue=2|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008|issn=1471-499X|pmc=3969300|pmid=24275328}}</ref> The cerebellar theory o dyslexia propones that impairment o cerebellum-controlled muscle muivement affecks the formation o wirds bi the tongue and facial muscles, resultin in the [[fluency]] problems that some fowk wi dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is involvit in the [[Autonomic nervous seestem|automatisation]] o some tasks an aa, sic as readin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cain|first=Kate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA134|title=Reading Development and Difficulties|date=2010-06-28|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-5155-9|language=en}}</ref> The fact that some bairn wi dyslexia hae motor task an balance impairments coud be conseestent wi a cerebellar role in thair readin difficulties. Houiver, the cerebellar theory haes nae been supportit bi controlled resairch studies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Levav|first=Itshak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA52|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental Health Action|date=2009|publisher=Gefen Publishing House Ltd|isbn=978-965-229-468-5|language=en}}</ref> === Genetics === Resairch intae potential genetic causes o dyslexia haes its ruits in post-autopsy examination o the harns o fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":6" /> Observed anatomical differences in the [[Leid centre|leid centres]] o sic harns include microscopic [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations kent as ectopias, an mair rarely, [[Bluid veshel|vascular]] micro-malformations, an [[microgyrus]]—a smawer nor uisual size fur the gyrus.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Miriam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&pg=PA941|title=The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language, 2 Volume Set|date=2012-02-13|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3040-3|language=en}}</ref> The previously citit studies an ithers suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed tae occur afore or durin the saxt month o [[Fetus|fetal]] harn development, mey have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in fowk wi dyslexia hae forby been reportit in non-leid cerebral an subcortical harn structurs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kere|first=Juha|date=2014-09-19|title=The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006291X14013515|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications|series=Genomic Aspects of Common Diseases|volume=452|issue=2|pages=236–243|doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102|issn=0006-291X}}</ref> Mony genes hae been associatit wi dyslexia, includin [[DCDC2]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&pg=PA53|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2012-10-12|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7|language=en}}</ref> an [[Dyslexia-associatit protein|KIAA0319]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paracchini|first=Silvia|last2=Thomas|first2=Ankur|last3=Castro|first3=Sandra|last4=Lai|first4=Cecilia|last5=Paramasivam|first5=Murugan|last6=Wang|first6=Yu|last7=Keating|first7=Brendan J.|last8=Taylor|first8=Jennifer M.|last9=Hacking|first9=Douglas F.|last10=Scerri|first10=Thomas|last11=Francks|first11=Clyde|date=2006-05-15|title=The chromosome 6p22 haplotype associated with dyslexia reduces the expression of KIAA0319 , a novel gene involved in neuronal migration|url=http://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/15/10/1659/2355904/The-chromosome-6p22-haplotype-associated-with|journal=Human Molecular Genetics|language=en|volume=15|issue=10|pages=1659–1666|doi=10.1093/hmg/ddl089|issn=1460-2083}}</ref> on [[chromosome 6]], an [[DYX1C1]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosen|first=Glenn D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&pg=PA342|title=The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery|date=2013-05-13|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-81550-0|language=en}}</ref> on [[chromosome 15]]. === Gene–environment interaction === The contreibution o [[gene–environment interaction]] tae [[Readin disabeelity|readin (dis)abeelity]], that estimates the proportion o variance (the differences in readin abeelity across individuals) attributable tae environmental an genetic factors, haes been studied extensively bi comparin sets o [[Twin|identical twins]] an [[Twin|fraternal twins]]. Sic twin studies shaw that baith environmental an genetic influences contreibute tae readin development, wi thir twa influences' kin impact varyin bi contex. Fur ensaumple, parental eddication haes been foond tae moderate genetic influences on readin (dis)abeelity,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Friend|first=Angela|last2=DeFries|first2=John C.|last3=Olson|first3=Richard K.|date=November 2008|title=Parental education moderates genetic influences on reading disability|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2605635/|journal=Psychological Science|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1124–1130|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x|issn=1467-9280|pmc=2605635|pmid=19076484}}</ref> an teacher quality can moderate genetic effecks on early readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=J.|last2=Roehrig|first2=A. D.|last3=Hensler|first3=B. Soden|last4=Connor|first4=C. M.|last5=Schatschneider|first5=C.|date=2010-04-23|title=Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1186149|journal=Science|language=en|volume=328|issue=5977|pages=512–514|doi=10.1126/science.1186149|issn=0036-8075|pmc=2905841|pmid=20413504}}</ref> Mairower, in mair supportive environments, genetic risk factors accoont fur a lairger proportion o the variation in dyslexia.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Pennington|first=Bruce F.|last2=McGrath|first2=Lauren M.|last3=Rosenberg|first3=Jenni|last4=Barnard|first4=Holly|last5=Smith|first5=Shelley D.|last6=Willcutt|first6=Erik G.|last7=Friend|first7=Angela|last8=Defries|first8=John C.|last9=Olson|first9=Richard K.|date=Januar 2009|title=Gene X environment interactions in reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2743891/|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=77–89|doi=10.1037/a0014549|issn=0012-1649|pmc=2743891|pmid=19209992}}</ref> This occurs acause reducin environmental risks—throu heich-quality instruction an supportive caregiein—lowers environmental differences, makin genetic effecks easier tae detect. If environmental risk factors are reduced wi guid teachin an a supportin caregier environment, genetic risk factors mey pley a muckler role in exponin why some fowk hae dyslexia<ref name=":7" /> acause the genetic effeck is easier tae detect gien that muckle environmental noise is [[Bracketin (phenomenology)|bracketed-oot]]. As environment pleys a lairge role in learnin an memory, it is likly that [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] modifications pley an important role in readin abeelity. Measures o [[gene expression]], [[Histone|histone modifications]], an [[methylation]] in the bodie periphery are uised tae study epigenetic processes; houiver, aw o thir hae leemitations in the extrapolation o results fur application tae the bodie harn.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Shelley D.|date=December 2011|title=Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3261263/|journal=Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders|volume=3|issue=4|pages=356–364|doi=10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y|issn=1866-1955|pmc=3261263|pmid=22113455}}</ref> ==== Leid ==== The [[Orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] o a leid directly affecks hou difficult it is tae learn tae read it.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vJ5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA266|title=Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies|last2=McDougall|first2=Sine|last3=Davies|first3=Paul de Mornay|date=2010-06-10|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-16781-3|language=en}}</ref> Inglis an French hae comparatively "deep" [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] athin the [[Laitin alphabet]] [[writin seestem]], wi complex structurs employin spellin patterns on mony levels: letter-soond correspondence, seellables, an [[Morpheme|morphemes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dickinson|first=David K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA421|title=Handbook of Early Literacy Research, Volume 2|last2=Neuman|first2=Susan B.|date=2013-10-15|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=978-1-4625-1470-0|language=en}}</ref> Leids sic as Spainish, Italian an Finnish primarily employ letter-soond correspondence—sae-cried "shallae" orthographies—that maks thaim easier tae learn fur fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":8" /> [[Logogram|Logographic]] writin seestems, sic as [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]], hae extensive seembol uise, an thir pose problems fur dyslexic learners an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|last2=Hulme|first2=Charles|date=2012-05-01|title=Annual research review: the nature and classification of reading disorders--a commentary on proposals for DSM-5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3492851/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=53|issue=5|pages=593–607|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x|issn=1469-7610|pmc=3492851|pmid=22141434}}</ref> ==Pathophysiology== [[File:Gray733.png|thumb|140px|Corpus callosum view, front pairt at tap o eemage]] Fur maist fowk wha are richt-haund dominant, the left hemisphere o thair harn is mair specialised fur [[Lateralisation o harn function|leid processin]]. Wi regard tae the mechanism o dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialisation is less pronounced or absent in fowk wi dyslexia. In ither studies, dyslexia is correlatit wi anatomical differences in the [[corpus callosum]], the bundle o nerve fibers that connects the left an richt hemispheres.<ref name=":9">{{Citation|title=Dyslexia|date=2013-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/handbook/abs/pii/B9780444528919000233|work=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|volume=111|pages=229–235|publisher=Elsevier|language=en-US|access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate chynges in connectivity or in gray maiter density in areas relatit tae readin an leid. Finally, the left [[inferior frontal gyrus]] haes shawn differences in phonological processin in fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":9" /> Neurophysiological an eemagin procedures are bein uised tae ascertain phenotypic chairactereestics in fowk wi dyslexia, thus identifyin the effecks o dyslexia-relatit genes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schumacher|first=Johannes|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Per|last3=Schmäl|first3=Christine|last4=Schulte-Körne|first4=Gerd|last5=Nöthen|first5=Markus M.|date=2007|title=Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2597981/|journal=Journal of Medical Genetics|volume=44|issue=5|pages=289–297|doi=10.1136/jmg.2006.046516|issn=1468-6244|pmc=2597981|pmid=17307837}}</ref> === Dual route theory === The dual-route theory o readin alood wis furst descrieved in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that twa separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involvit in readin alood.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA373|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> Ane mechanism is the lexical route, that is the process whaurbi skeelt readers can recognise kent wirds bi sicht alane, throu a "dictionary" leukup procedure.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA450|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> The ither mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, that is the process whaurbi the reader can "soond oot" a written wird.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hulme|first=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&pg=PT151|title=Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders|last2=Joshi|first2=R. Malatesha|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-49807-7|language=en}}</ref> This is duin bi identifyin the wird's constituent pairts (letters, [[Phoneme|phonemes]], [[Grapheme|graphemes]]) an applyin knawledge o hou thir pairts are associatit wi ilka ither — fur ensaumple, hou a string o neebourin letters soond thegither. The dual-route seestem coud expone the different rates o dyslexia occurrence atween different leids (e.g., the consistency o phonological rules in the Spainish leid coud accoont fur the fact that Spainish-speakin bairn shaw a heicher level o performance in non-wird readin, whan compared tae Inglis-speakers).<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sprenger-Charolles|first=Liliane|last2=Siegel|first2=Linda S|last3=Jimenez|first3=Juan E.|last4=Ziegler|first4=Johannes|date=2011|title=Prevalence and reliability of phonological, surface, and mixed profiles in dyslexia: A review of studies conducted in languages varying in orthographic depth|url=https://hal.science/hal-00733553|journal=Scientific Study of Reading|volume=15|issue=6|pages=498–521}}</ref> == Diagnosis == Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learnin ail that impairs accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin. Teepical—but nae universal—featurs include difficulties wi phonological awareness, inefficient an aften inaccurate processin o soonds in oral leid (''phonological processin''), an verbal wirkin memory deficits. Dyslexia is a [[neurodevelopmental ail]], subcategorisit in diagnostic guides as a ''learnin'' ''ail wi impairment in readin'' (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" tae "learnin ail"; DSM-5 uises "speceefic").<ref>{{Cite web|title=6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Mortality and Morbidity Statistics|publisher=World Health Organization|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5|date=2013|publisher=Arlington, VA : American Psychiatric Association|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-89042-554-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=FragaGonzález|first=Gorka|last2=Karipidis|first2=Iliana I.|last3=Tijms|first3=Jurgen|date=2018-10-19|title=Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes It Different from a Chess Disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6209961/|journal=Brain Sciences|volume=8|issue=10|pages=189|doi=10.3390/brainsci8100189|issn=2076-3425|pmc=6209961|pmid=30347764}}</ref> Dyslexia is nae a problem wi intelligence. [[Emotional an behavioural ails|Emotional problems]] aften arise seicontary tae learnin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Campbell|first=Robert Jean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&pg=PA310|title=Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534159-1|language=en}}</ref> The [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] descrieves dyslexia as "difficulty wi phonological processin (the manipulation o soonds), spellin, an/or rapid veesual-verbal respondin".<ref name=":0" /> The Breetish Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learnin difficulty that maistly affecks the skeels involvit in accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin" an is chairacterised bi "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory an verbal processin speed".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Phillips|first=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties|last2=Kelly|first2=Kathleen|last3=Symes|first3=Liz|date=2013-08-20|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4462-8704-0|language=en}}</ref> ''Phonological awareness'' enables ane tae identify, discriminate, mynd ([[wirkin memory]]), an mentally manipulate the soond structurs o leid—[[Phoneme|phonemes]], onsteid-rime segments, seellables, an wirds. === Assessment === The follaein can be duin tae assess fur dyslexia: Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involvin the bairn's parent(s) an teacher(s), schuil psychologist, pediatrician, an, as appropriate, [[Speech–leid pathology|speech an leid pathologist (speech therapist)]], an [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]]. Gain faimiliarity wi teepical ages bairn reach mony general developmental milestanes, an domain-speceefic milestanes, sic as phonological awareness (recognisin rhymin wirds; identifyin the initial soonds in wirds). Dinna rely on tests exclusively. Carefu observation o the bairn in the schuil an hame environments, an sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are juist as important as tests. Leuk at the empirically supportit [[repone tae intervention]] (RTI) approach, that "... involves monitorin the progress o a group o bairn throu a programme o intervention raither nor unnertakin a static assessment o thair current skeels. Bairn wi the maist need are thaim wha fail tae respond tae effective teachin, an thay are readily identifee'd uisin this approach."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|date=2013-01-01|title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4538781/|journal=Journal of research in special educational needs: JORSEN|volume=13|issue=1|pages=7–14|doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x|issn=1471-3802|pmc=4538781|pmid=26290655}}</ref> ==== Assessment tests ==== Thare is a wide range o tests that are uised in clinical an eddicational settins tae evaluate the possibility o dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-05-04|title=Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities - Dyslexia Help|url=https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/,%20https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/|access-date=2026-05-17|language=en-US}}</ref> If initial testin suggests that a person micht hae dyslexia, sic tests are aften follaed up wi a fou diagnostic assessment tae determine the extent an naitur o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT35|title=Introduction to Dyslexia|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2013-08-21|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-37290-3|language=en}}</ref> Some tests can be admeenistered bi a teacher or computer; ithers require specialised trainin an are gien bi psychologists.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Assessments|url=https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/services/assessments|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=British Dyslexia Association|language=en}}</ref> Some test results indicate hou tae carry oot teachin strategies.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Fletcher|first=Jack M.|date=2009|title=Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3079378/|journal=Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS|volume=15|issue=4|pages=501–508|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900|issn=1469-7661|pmc=3079378|pmid=19573267}}</ref> Acause a variety o different cognitive, behavioural, emotional, an environmental factors aw coud contreibute tae difficulty learnin tae read, a comprehensive evaluation shoud consider thir different possibilities. Thir tests an observations can include:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> * General meisurs o cognitive abeelity, sic as the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale fur Bairn]], [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities]], or [[Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive abeelity wad mak readin mair difficult. Cognitive abeelity meisurs aften try tae meisur different cognitive processes an aa, sic as verbal abeelity, nonverbal an spatial raisonin, wirkin memory, an processin speed. Thare are different versions o thir tests fur different age groups. Awmaist aw o thir require addeetional trainin tae gie an score correctly, an are duin bi psychologists. Accordin tae Mather an Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile an/or pattern o scores on cognitive tests confirmin or rulin-oot readin ail haes nae yit been identifee'd.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Sam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylzEBQAAQBAJ&q=Handbook+of+Intelligence:+Evolutionary+theory,+historical+perspective,+and+current+concepts|title=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts|last2=Princiotta|first2=Dana|last3=Naglieri|first3=Jack A.|date=2014-12-08|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4939-1562-0|language=en}}</ref> * Screenin or evaluation fur mental heal condeetions: Parents an teachers can complete ratin scales or behaviour checkleets tae gaither information aboot emotional an behavioural functionin fur yunger fowk. Mony checkleets hae seemilar versions fur parents, teachers, an yunger fowk auld eneuch tae read raisonably weel (aften 11 years an aulder) tae complete. Ensaumples include the Behavioural Assessment Seestem fur Bairn, an the [[Strenths an Difficulties Questionnaire]]. Aw o thir hae naitionally representative norms, makin it possible tae compare the level o symptoms tae whit wad be teepical fur the yunger person's age an biological sex. Ither checkleets link mair speceefically tae psychiatric diagnoses, sic as the [[Vanderbilt ADHD Ratin Scales]] or the [[Screen fur bairn anxiety relatit ails|Screen fur Bairn Anxiety Relatit Emotional Ail]] (SBAREA). [[Screenin (medicin)|Screenin]] uises brief tuils that are designed tae catch cases wi a ail, but thay aften get false positive scores fur fowk wha dae nae hae the ail. Screeners shoud be follaed up bi a mair accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive ails an anxiety ails are two-three times heicher in fowk wi dyslexia, an attention-deficit/hyperactivity ail is mair common, as weel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collett|first=Brent R.|last2=Ohan|first2=Jeneva L.|last3=Myers|first3=Kathleen M.|date=2003-09-01|title=Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder|url=https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)60999-0/abstract|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry|language=English|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1015–1037|doi=10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6|issn=0890-8567|pmid=12960702}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stone|first=Lisanne L.|last2=Janssens|first2=Jan M. A. M.|last3=Vermulst|first3=Ad A.|last4=Van Der Maten|first4=Marloes|last5=Engels|first5=Rutger C. M. E.|last6=Otten|first6=Roy|date=2015|title=The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4-7|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4364334/|journal=BMC psychology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=4|doi=10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8|issn=2050-7283|pmc=4364334|pmid=25815194}}</ref> * Review o academic achievement an skeels: Average spellin/readin abeelity fur a dyslexic is a percentage rankin <16, weel belaw normal. In addeetion tae reviewin grades an teacher notes, staundardised test results are helpfu in evaluatin progress. Thir include group admeenistered tests, sic as the [[Iowa Tests o Eddicational Development]], that a teacher mey gie tae a group or hale clessruim o yunger fowk at the same time. Thay coud include individually admeenistered tests o achievement an aa, sic as the [[Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (that includes a set o achievement tests an aa). The individually admeenistered tests again require mair specialised trainin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lindquist|first=E. F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yOc9AAAAYAAJ&q=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development|title=The Iowa Tests of Educational Development: How to Use the Test Results; a Manual for Teachers and Counselors|date=1953|publisher=Science Research Associates|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Semrud-Clikeman|first=Margaret|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGSF9Jyg6AC&pg=PT119|title=Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2nd Edition|last2=Ellison|first2=Phyllis Anne Teeter|date=2009-06-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-88963-4|language=en}}</ref> == Screenin == Screenin procedures seek tae identify bairn wha shaw signs o possible dyslexia. In the preschuil years, a faimily history o dyslexia, pairticulairly in biological parents an siblins, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better nor ony test. In primary schuil (ages 5–7), the ideal screenin procedure consists o trainin primary schuil teachers tae carefully observe an record thair pupils' progress throu the phonics curriculum, an tharebi identify bairn progressin slawly. Whan teachers identify sic students thay can supplement thair observations wi screenin tests sic as the ''Phonics screenin check''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-23|title=Phonics screening check: 2019 materials|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-curriculum-assessments-past-test-materials|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=United Kingdom Department for Education, Standards and Testing Agency|language=en}}</ref> uised bi Unitit Kinrick schuils durin Year 1. In the medical settin, bairn an adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasises that "[g]ien the heich prevalence o developmental ails in schuil-aged bairn, aw bairn seen in clinics shoud be seestematically screened fur developmental ails irrespective o the presentin problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screenin fur developmental ails, includin dyslexia, bi conductin a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, an obtainin a schuil report regardin academic an social functionin. == Management == Throu the uise o compensation strategies, therapy an eddicational support, individuals wi dyslexia can learn tae read an write.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bogon|first=Johanna|last2=Finke|first2=Kathrin|last3=Stenneken|first3=Prisca|date=2014|title=TVA-based assessment of visual attentional functions in developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4199262/|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=5|pages=1172|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172|issn=1664-1078|pmc=4199262|pmid=25360129}}</ref> Thare are techniques an technical aids that help tae manage or conceal symptoms o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&pg=PA115|title=Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace|date=2012-04-02|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-97479-7|language=en}}</ref> Reducin stress an anxiety can whiles impruive written comprehension.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> Fur [[Management o dyslexia|dyslexia intervention]] wi alphabet-writin seestems, the fundamental aim is tae increase a bairn's awareness o correspondences atween [[Grapheme|graphemes]] (letters) an [[Phoneme|phonemes]] (soonds), an tae relate thir tae readin an spellin bi teaching hou soonds blend intae wirds. Reinforced collateral trainin focused on readin an spellin mey yield langer-lastin gains nor oral phonological trainin alane.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoff|first=Erika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&pg=PA454|title=Blackwell Handbook of Language Development|last2=Shatz|first2=Marilyn|date=2009-05-18|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-9459-4|language=en}}</ref> Early intervention can be successfu in reducin readin failur. Resairch daes nae suggest that specially-tailored fonts (sic as [[Dyslexie]] an [[OpenDyslexic]]) help wi readin. In experiments, a mair signeeficant difference in readin performance wis driven bi [[Leadin|interline spacin]], an the difference wis nae signeeficant ance variables sic as interline spacin an [[x-hicht]] wis normalised atween the candidate fonts.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kuster|first=Sanne M.|last2=van Weerdenburg|first2=Marjolijn|last3=Gompel|first3=Marjolein|last4=Bosman|first4=Anna M. T.|date=Apryle 2018|title=Dyslexie font does not benefit reading in children with or without dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5934461/|journal=Annals of Dyslexia|volume=68|issue=1|pages=25–42|doi=10.1007/s11881-017-0154-6|issn=1934-7243|pmc=5934461|pmid=29204931}}</ref> Bairn wi dyslexia read tex set in a regular font sic as [[Times New Roman]] an [[Arial]] juist as quickly, an thay shaw a preference fur regular fonts ower specially-tailored fonts.<ref name=":12" /> Some resairch haes pyntit tae increased [[Letter spacin|letter-spacin]] bein beneficial.<ref name=":12" /> Thare is currently nae evidence shawin that muisic eddication signeeficantly impruives the readin skeels o adolescents wi dyslexia. == Prognosis == Dyslexic bairn require special instruction fur wird analysis an spellin frae an early age. The prognosis, generally speakin, is positive fur individuals wha are identifee'd in bairnheid an receive support frae freends an faimily.<ref name=":0" /> The New York eddicational seestem (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterruptit 90-meenit block o instruction in readin" an "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, readin fluency" sae as tae impruive the individual's readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Response to Intervention Guidance - Minimum Requirements of a Response to Intervention Program (RtI) - Instruction Matched to Student Need: Special Education : P12 : NYSED|url=http://www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance/instruction.htm|access-date=2026-05-17|website=www.p12.nysed.gov|language=en}}</ref> == Epidemiology == The prevalence o dyslexia is unkent, but it haes been estimatit tae be as low as 5% an as heich as 17% o the population.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tasman|first=Allan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rp0BgAAQBAJ|title=Psychiatry|last2=Kay|first2=Jerald|last3=Lieberman|first3=Jeffrey A.|last4=First|first4=Michael B.|last5=Riba|first5=Michelle|date=2015-01-29|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-84549-3|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is diagnosed mair aften in males.<ref name=":2" /> Thare are different defineetions o dyslexia uised throuoot the warld. Further, differences in writin seestems mey affeck development o written leid abeelity owin tae the interpley atween auditory an written representations o phonemes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Protopapas|first=Athanassios|date=2014|title=From temporal processing to developmental language disorders: mind the gap|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866431/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20130090|doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0090|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866431|pmid=24324245}}</ref> Dyslexia is nae limitit tae difficulty in convertin letters tae soonds, an Cheenese fowk wi dyslexia mey hae difficulty convertin [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]] intae thair meanins.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhao|first=Jing|last2=Qian|first2=Yi|last3=Bi|first3=Hong-Yan|last4=Coltheart|first4=Max|date=2014-11-20|title=The visual magnocellular-dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4238300/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=4|pages=7068|doi=10.1038/srep07068|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4238300|pmid=25412386}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VK_TWsQ3N4C&pg=PA152|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2013|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-84872-084-8|language=en}}</ref> The Cheenese vocabulary uises logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writin whaur ane chairacter can represent an individual phoneme.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Garralda|first=Elena|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ujeVaMa9U0C&pg=PA177|title=Brain, Mind, and Developmental Psychopathology in Childhood|last2=Raynaud|first2=Jean-Philippe|date=2012-02-16|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing PLC|isbn=978-0-7657-0866-3|language=en}}</ref> The phonological-processin hypothesis attempts tae expone why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety o leids. Furthermair, the relationship atween phonological capacity an readin appears tae be influenced bi orthography.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Navas|first=Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto|last2=Ferraz|first2=Érica de Cássia|last3=Borges|first3=Juliana Postigo Amorina|date=2014|title=Phonological processing deficits as a universal model for dyslexia: evidence from different orthographies|url=https://www.scielo.br/j/codas/a/LLLqpM6vQq9mVrHWCyNTPCP/?lang=en|journal=CoDAS|language=en|volume=26|pages=509–519|doi=10.1590/2317-1782/20142014135|issn=2317-1782}}</ref> == History == Dyslexia wis clinically descrieved bi [[Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881, but the term ''dyslexia'' wis coined in 1883 bi [[Rudolf Berlin]], an [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologist]] in [[Stuttgart]]. He uised the term tae refer tae the case o a yung lad wha haed severe difficulty learnin tae read an write, in maugre o shawin teepical intelligence an pheesical abeelities in aw ither respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a Breetish physeecian frae [[Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description o a readin-speceefic learnin ail in a report tae the ''[[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' titled "Congenital Word Blindness".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brooks|first=Patricia J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvfSAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR30|title=Encyclopedia of Language Development|last2=Kempe|first2=Vera|date=2014-03-28|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4833-4643-4|language=en}}</ref> The distinction atween phonological versus surface teeps o dyslexia is anly descriptive, an wioot ony etiological assumption as tae the unnerlyin harn mechanisms. Houiver, studies hae alludit tae potential differences owin tae variation in performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Srikanta K.|date=2014|title=Medial efferent mechanisms in children with auditory processing disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4209830/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=860|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00860|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4209830|pmid=25386132}}</ref> Ower time, the consensus haes chynged frae an intelligence-based model tae an age-based model fur dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Al-Shidhani|first=Thuraya Ahmed|last2=Arora|first2=Vinita|date=2012|title=Understanding Dyslexia in Children through Human Development Theories|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3529662/|journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal|volume=12|issue=3|pages=286–294|doi=10.12816/0003141|issn=2075-0528|pmc=3529662|pmid=23269949}}</ref><ref name=":13" /> == Society an cultur == As is the case wi ony ail, society aften maks an assessment based on incomplete information. Afore the 1980s, dyslexia wis thoucht tae be a consequence o eddication, raither nor a neurological disabeelity. As a result, society aften misjudges thaim wi the ail.<ref name=":14" /> Thare is whiles a wirkplace stigma an negative attitude towards thir wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Beer|first=Joost|last2=Engels|first2=Josephine|last3=Heerkens|first3=Yvonne|last4=van der Klink|first4=Jac|date=2014-01-24|title=Factors influencing work participation of adults with developmental dyslexia: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913008/|journal=BMC public health|volume=14|pages=77|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-14-77|issn=1471-2458|pmc=3913008|pmid=24460949}}</ref> If the instructors o a person wi dyslexia lack the necessary trainin tae support a bairn wi the condeetion, thare is aften a negative effeck on the student's learnin pairteecipation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pino|first=Marco|last2=Mortari|first2=Luigina|date=2014-11-01|title=The inclusion of students with dyslexia in higher education: a systematic review using narrative synthesis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4253321/|journal=Dyslexia (Chichester, England)|volume=20|issue=4|pages=346–369|doi=10.1002/dys.1484|issn=1099-0909|pmc=4253321|pmid=25293652}}</ref> Syne at least the 1960s in the UK, the bairn diagnosed wi developmental dyslexia hae consistently been frae privileged faimilies.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|last=Kale|first=Sirin|date=2020-09-17|title=The battle over dyslexia|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2020/sep/17/battle-over-dyslexia-warwickshire-staffordshire|access-date=2026-05-17|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Awthou hauf o preesoners in the UK hae signeeficant readin difficulties, gey few hae iver been evaluatit fur dyslexia.<ref name=":15" /> Access tae some special eddicational resoorces an fundin is contingent upon haein a diagnosis o dyslexia.<ref name=":15" /> As a result, whan [[Staffordshire]] an [[Warwickshire]] proponed in 2018 tae teach readin tae aw bairn wi readin difficulties, uisin techniques proven tae be successfu fur maist bairn wi a diagnosis o dyslexia, wioot furst requirin the faimilies tae obteen an offeecial diagnosis, dyslexia advocates an parents o bairn wi dyslexia wur fearfu that thay wur losin a privileged status.<ref name=":15" /> === Stigma an success === Owin tae the mony cognitive processes that dyslexia affecks an the owerwhelmin societal stigma athort the disabeelity, individuals wi dyslexia aften employ behaviours o sel-stigma an perfectionistic sel-presentation in order tae cope wi thair disabeelity.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Stoeber|first=Joachim|last2=Rountree|first2=Margaret L.|date=Februar 2021|title=Perfectionism, self‐stigma , and coping in students with dyslexia: The central role of perfectionistic self‐presentation|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dys.1666|journal=Dyslexia|language=en|volume=27|issue=1|pages=62–78|doi=10.1002/dys.1666|issn=1076-9242}}</ref> The perfectionist sel-presentation is whan an individual attempts tae present thaimsels as the perfect ideal eemage an hides ony imperfections.<ref name=":16" /> This behaviour presents serious risk as it aften results in mental heal issues an refusal tae seek help fur thair disabeelity.<ref name=":16" /> == Resairch == [[File:Writing Systems Template Image.svg|thumb|120px|Writin seestems]] Maist dyslexia resairch relates tae [[Alphabetic writin seestem|alphabetic writin seestems]], an inspecially tae [[Leids o Europe|European leids]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrBQAmfXYooC&pg=PA16|title=The Routledge Companion to Dyslexia|date=2012-06-25|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-61710-2|language=en}}</ref> Houiver, substantial resairch is forby available regardin fowk wi dyslexia wha spik Arabic, Cheenese, Hebrew, or ither leids.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richlan|first=Fabio|date=2014|title=Functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: the role of orthographic depth|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4033006/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=347|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00347|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4033006|pmid=24904383}}</ref> The ootward expression o individuals wi readin disabeelity, an regular peer readers, is the same in sum respects. == See an aw == * [[Dyscalculia]], difficulty comprehendin nummers an math * [[Readin|Learnin tae read]] * [[Orton-Gillingham]] * [[Structured literacy]] * [[Leet o fowk wi dyslexia]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further readin == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L | title = Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 434–452 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28797557 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001 | s2cid = 33176236 }} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|first = Alan | last = Beaton |date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research| first = Thomas Richard | last = Miles |date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|author-link=Thomas Richard Miles}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice| vauthors = Reid G, Fawcett A |date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|first = Michael | last = Thomson |date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia| first = Gavin | last = Reid |date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties| first = Mark | last = Selikowitz |date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis| first = Andrew W. | last = Ellis |date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate| vauthors = Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL |date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|author-link=Julian Elliott}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD | title = Neurobiology of dyslexia | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 30 | pages = 73–8 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25290881 | pmc = 4293303 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007 | hdl = 1721.1/102416 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs V, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert N, Blatow M, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither S, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A | title = Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 10 | page = 324 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27471442 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2016.00324 | pmc = 4945653 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo X, Zhang J, Song R | title = Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | article-number = 30454 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27464509 | pmc = 4964335 | doi = 10.1038/srep30454 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...630454S }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR | title = Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1137–44 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 26883091 | pmc = 4872837 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2015.277 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F | title = Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms | journal = Translational Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = e987 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28045463 | pmc = 5545717 | doi = 10.1038/tp.2016.240 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fraga González G, Žarić G, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW | title = Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies | journal = Brain Sciences | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 10 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28106790 | pmc = 5297299 | doi = 10.3390/brainsci7010010 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC | title = Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment | journal = Epigenetics | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = 1023–9 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23949389 | pmc = 3891682 | doi = 10.4161/epi.26026 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Vágvölgyi R, Coldea A, Dresler T, Schrader J, Nuerk HC | title = A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 7 | page = 1617 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27891100 | pmc = 5102880 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617 | doi-access = free }} {{refend}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q132971|q=no|c=category:Dyslexia|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=dyslexia}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Dyslexia| ]] [[Category:Leeteracy]] [[Category:Learnin tae read]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] [[Category:Readin (process)|*Dyslexia]] [[Category:Wikipaedia medicin airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Wikipaedia neurology airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Writin]] n0i38cgjen2ier7pqmnhf2m9ibv7tzy 916913 916912 2026-05-17T22:18:18Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916913 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Dyslexia | synonyms = Readin ail | image = File:Dislexia nens.jpg | caption = Dyslexia involves difficulties in processin letters an wirds. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɛ|k|s|i|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Dyslexia.wav}} {{respell|dis|LEK|see|ə}} | types = [[Surface dyslexia]] | field = [[Neurology]], [[pediatrics]] | symptoms = Trouble [[Readin (process)|readin]] | onset = Schuil age | causes = [[Genetics|Genetic]] an environmental factors | risks = Faimily history, [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] | diagnosis = Series memory, spellin, veesion, an readin test | differential = [[Hearin problems|Hearin]] or [[veesion problems]], insufficient [[Readin eddication|teachin]] | treatment = Adjustin teachin methods | frequency = 3–7% }} '''Dyslexia''', forby kent as '''wird blindness''', is a [[learnin disabeelity]] that affecks either readin or writin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Dyslexia-Information-Page|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Linda S.|date=November 2006|title=Perspectives on dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2528651/|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=11|issue=9|pages=581–587|doi=10.1093/pch/11.9.581|issn=1205-7088|pmc=2528651|pmid=19030329}}</ref> Different fowk are affeckit tae different degrees.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/disorders|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Problems mey include difficulties in spellin wirds, readin quickly, writin wirds, "soondin oot" wirds [[Subvocalisation|in the heid]], pronouncin wirds whan readin alood an unnerstaundin whit ane reads.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are the symptoms of reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/symptoms|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Aften thir difficulties are furst noticed at schuil.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=RL|last2=Pennington|first2=BF|date=2012-05-26|title=Developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3465717/|journal=Lancet|volume=379|issue=9830|pages=1997–2007|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6|issn=1474-547X|pmc=3465717|pmid=22513218}}</ref> The difficulties are involuntary, an fowk wi this ail hae a normal desire tae learn.<ref name=":1" /> Fowk wi dyslexia hae heicher rates o [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] (ADHA), [[Developmental leid ail|developmental leid ails]], an [[Dyscalculia|difficulties wi nummers]].<ref name=":2" /> Dyslexia is believed tae be caused bi the [[Gene–environment interaction|interaction]] o [[Genetics|genetic]] an environmental factors.<ref name=":2" /> Some cases rin in faimilies.<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia that develops owin tae a [[traumatic harn injury]], [[stroke]], or [[dementia]] is whiles cried "acquired dyslexia"<ref name=":0" /> or '''alexia'''.<ref name=":1" /> The unnerlyin mechanisms o dyslexia result frae differences athin [[Leid processin in the harn|the harn's leid processin]].<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia is diagnosed throu a series o tests o memory, veesion, spellin, an readin skeels.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/diagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is separate frae readin difficulties caused bi [[Hearin loss|hearin]] or [[Veesual impairment|veesion problems]] or bi insufficient [[Readin|teachin]] or opportunity tae learn.<ref name=":2" /> Treatment involves adjustin teachin methods tae meet the person's needs.<ref name=":0" /> Whiles nae curin the unnerlyin problem, it mey decrease the degree or impact o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/treatment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Treatments targetin veesion are nae effective. Dyslexia is the maist common [[learnin disabeelity]] an occurs in aw areas o the warld.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Umphred|first=Darcy Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA383|title=Neurological Rehabilitation - E-Book|last2=Lazaro|first2=Rolando T.|last3=Roller|first3=Margaret|last4=Burton|first4=Gordon|date=2013-08-07|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9|language=en}}</ref> It affecks 3–7% o the population;<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Kooij|first=J. J. Sandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&pg=PA83|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment|date=2012-12-11|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-4138-9|language=en}}</ref> houiver, up tae 20% o the general population mey hae some degree o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en-us|archive-date=2015-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx}}</ref> Whiles dyslexia is mair aften diagnosed in lads, this is pairtly exponed bi a sel-fulfillin [[Selection bias|referral bias]] amang teachers an professionals.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Anne B.|last2=Pennington|first2=Bruce F.|last3=Peterson|first3=Robin L.|last4=Willcutt|first4=Erik G.|last5=DeFries|first5=John C.|last6=Olson|first6=Richard K.|date=2017|title=Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438271/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=58|issue=6|pages=719–727|doi=10.1111/jcpp.12691|issn=1469-7610|pmc=5438271|pmid=28176347}}</ref> It haes even been suggestit that the condeetion affecks men an wummen equally.<ref name=":3" /> Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different wey o learnin, wit baith benefits an dounsides.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Venton|first=Danielle|date=September 2011|title=Q&A: The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia|language=en-US|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805001607/http://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage|archive-date=2016-08-05|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Schneps|first=Matthew H.|date=August 2014|title=The Advantages of Dyslexia|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804232616/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|archive-date=2016-08-04|access-date=2026-05-17|website=ScientificAmerican.com|publisher=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> == Clessification == Dyslexia is dividit intae developmental an acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent tae neurological insult, sic as [[traumatic harn injury]] or [[stroke]]. Fowk wi acquired dyslexia exhibit some o the signs or symptoms o the developmental ail, bit require different assessment strategies an treatment approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woollams|first=Anna M.|date=2014|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866427/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20120398|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866427|pmid=24324241}}</ref> ''Pure alexia'', forby kent as ''agnosic alexia'' or ''pure wird blindness'', is ane form o [[Alexia (condeetion)|alexia]] that maks up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. == Signs an symptoms == In early bairnheid, symptoms that correlate wi a later diagnosis o dyslexia include [[Speech delay|delayed onset o speech]] an a lack o [[phonological awareness]]. A common meeth closely associates dyslexia wi [[mirror writin]] an readin letters or wirds backwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lilienfeld|first=Scott O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior|last2=Lynn|first2=Steven Jay|last3=Ruscio|first3=John|last4=Beyerstein|first4=Barry L.|date=2011-09-15|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5|language=en}}</ref> Thir behaviours are seen in mony bairn as thay learn tae read an write, an are nae considered tae be definin chairactereestics o dyslexia. Schuil-age bairn wi dyslexia mey exhibit signs o difficulty in identifyin or generatin rhymin wirds, or coontin the nummer o seellables in wirds—baith o that depend on phonological awareness. Thay mey forby shaw difficulty in segmentin wirds intae individual soonds (sic as soondin oot the three soonds o ''k'', ''a'', an ''t'' in ''cat'') or mey struggle tae blend soonds, indicatin reduced [[phonemic awareness]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5|language=en}}</ref> Difficulties wi wird retrieval or namin things is associatit wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Swanson|first=H. Lee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities|last2=Harris|first2=Karen R.|last3=Graham|first3=Steve|date=2013-02-11|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3|language=en}}</ref> Fowk wi dyslexia are commonly puir spellers, a featur whiles cried ''dysorthographia'' or ''[[dysgraphia]]'', that depends on the skeel o [[Orthography|orthographic codin]]. Problems persist intae adolescence an adultheid an mey include difficulties wi summarising stories, memorisation, readin alood, or learnin foreign leids. Adults wi dyslexia can aften read wi guid comprehension, thou thay tend tae read mair slawly nor ithers wioot a learnin difficulty an perform worse in spellin tests or whan readin nonsense wirds—a measure o phonological awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lum|first=Jarrad A. G.|last2=Ullman|first2=Michael T.|last3=Conti-Ramsden|first3=Gina|date=October 2013|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3784964/|journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities|volume=34|issue=10|pages=3460–3476|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017|issn=1873-3379|pmc=3784964|pmid=23920029}}</ref> === Associatit condeetions === Dyslexia aften co-occurs wi ither learnin ails, bit the raisons fur this comorbidity hae nae been clearly identifee'd. Thir associatit disabeelities include: ; [[Dysgraphia]] : A ail involvin difficulties wi writin or typin, whiles owin tae problems wi [[Haund–ee coordination|ee–haund coordination]]; it can impede direction- or sequence-orientit processes an aa, sic as tyin knots or carryin oot repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is aften multifactorial, owin tae impaired letter-writin [[automaticity]], organisational an elaborative difficulties, an impaired veesual wird formin, that maks it mair difficult tae retrieve the veesual pictur o wirds required fur spellin. ; [[Attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] : A ail chairacterised bi problems sustainin attention, hyperactivity, or actin impulsively. Dyslexia an ADHA commonly occur thegither.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Comer|first=Ronald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|title=Psychology Around Us|last2=Gould|first2=Elizabeth|date=2010-01-19|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6|language=en}}</ref> Approximately 15% or 12–24% o fowk wi dyslexia hae ADHA;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fatemi|first=S. Hossein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry|last2=Clayton|first2=Paula J.|date=2008-05-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6|language=en}}</ref> an up tae 35% o fowk wi ADHA hae dyslexia. ; [[Auditory processin ail]] : A listenin ail that affecks the abeelity tae process auditory information.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capellini|first=Simone Aparecida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities|date=2007|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7|language=en}}</ref> This can lead tae problems wi [[Echoic memory|auditory memory]] an auditory [[Sequence learnin|sequencin]]. Mony fowk wi dyslexia hae auditory processin problems, an mey develop thair awn [[logographic cues]] tae compensate fur this teep o deficit. Some resairch suggests that auditory processin skeels coud be the primary shortfaw in dyslexia.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pammer|first=Kristen|date=2014|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913493/|journal=Scientifica|volume=2014|pages=802741|doi=10.1155/2014/802741|issn=2090-908X|pmc=3913493|pmid=24527259}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Law|first=Jeremy M.|last2=Vandermosten|first2=Maaike|last3=Ghesquiere|first3=Pol|last4=Wouters|first4=Jan|date=2014|title=The relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4078926/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=482|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4078926|pmid=25071512}}</ref> ; [[Developmental coordination ail]] : A neurological condeetion chairacterised bi difficulty in carryin oot routine tasks involvin balance, fine-[[motor control]] an [[Proprioception|kinesthetic]] coordination; difficulty in the uise o speech soonds; an problems wi [[short-term memory]] an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alloway|first=Tracy Packiam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders|last2=Gathercole|first2=Susan E.|date=2012-08-06|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2|language=en}}</ref> == Causes == [[File:Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif|thumb|300px| Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation]] Resairchers hae been tryin tae find the neurobiological basis o dyslexia syne the condeetion wis furst identifee'd in 1881.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&q=Wortblindheit|title=Neurologisches Centralblatt|date=1917|publisher=J. Springer|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&pg=PA127|title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia|last2=Fawcett|first2=Angela|last3=Manis|first3=Frank|last4=Siegel|first4=Linda|date=2008-09-18|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9|language=en}}</ref> Fur ensaumple, some hae tree'd tae associate the common problem amang fowk wi dyslexia o nae bein able tae see letters clearly tae abnormal development o thair veesual nerve cells.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Stein|first=John|date=2014|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4203994/|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports|volume=1|issue=4|pages=267–280|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6|issn=2196-2987|pmc=4203994|pmid=25346883}}</ref> === Neuroanatomy === [[Neuroeemagin]] techniques, sic as [[functional magnetic resonance eemagin]] (fMRI) an [[positron emission tomography]] (PET), hae shawn a correlation atween baith functional an structural differences in the harns o bairn wi readin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitaker|first=Harry A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&pg=PA180|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language|date=2010-04-08|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7|language=en}}</ref> Some fowk wi dyslexia shaw less activation in pairts o the [[Lateralisation o harn function|left hemisphere]] o the harn involvit wi readin, sic as the [[inferior frontal gyrus]], [[inferior parietal lobule]], an the middle an [[Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].<ref name=":5" /> Meta-analyses o fMRI studies hae foond unner-activation whaur the [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] an [[Occipital lobe|occipital lobes]] meet in the left hemisphere in dyslexic subjecks (includin the [[veesual wird form area]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Anna|last2=Kronbichler|first2=Martin|last3=Richlan|first3=Fabio|date=2016|title=Dyslexic brain activation abnormalities in deep and shallow orthographies: A meta-analysis of 28 functional neuroimaging studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5103175/|journal=Human Brain Mapping|volume=37|issue=7|pages=2676–2699|doi=10.1002/hbm.23202|issn=1097-0193|pmc=5103175|pmid=27061464}}</ref> Ower the past decade, harn activation studies uisin PET tae study leid hae produced a breakthrou in the unnerstaundin o the neural basis o leid. Neural bases fur the veesual [[lexicon]] an fur auditory verbal [[short-term memory]] components hae been proponed,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Price|first=Cathy J.|date=2012-08-15|title=A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3398395/|journal=NeuroImage|volume=62|issue=2|pages=816–847|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062|issn=1095-9572|pmc=3398395|pmid=22584224}}</ref> wi some implication that the observed neural manifestation o developmental dyslexia is task-speceefic (i.e., functional raither nor structural). fMRIs o fowk wi dyslexia indicate an interactive role o the [[cerebellum]] an cerebral cortex as weel as ither harn structurs in readin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Sarvi|last2=Nederveen|first2=Aart J.|last3=Booij|first3=Jan|last4=van Rootselaar|first4=Anne-Fleur|date=2014|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4110352/|journal=NeuroImage. Clinical|volume=5|pages=217–231|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003|issn=2213-1582|pmc=4110352|pmid=25068111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brandler|first=William M.|last2=Paracchini|first2=Silvia|date=2014-02|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3969300/|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=20|issue=2|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008|issn=1471-499X|pmc=3969300|pmid=24275328}}</ref> The cerebellar theory o dyslexia propones that impairment o cerebellum-controlled muscle muivement affecks the formation o wirds bi the tongue and facial muscles, resultin in the [[fluency]] problems that some fowk wi dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is involvit in the [[Autonomic nervous seestem|automatisation]] o some tasks an aa, sic as readin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cain|first=Kate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA134|title=Reading Development and Difficulties|date=2010-06-28|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-5155-9|language=en}}</ref> The fact that some bairn wi dyslexia hae motor task an balance impairments coud be conseestent wi a cerebellar role in thair readin difficulties. Houiver, the cerebellar theory haes nae been supportit bi controlled resairch studies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Levav|first=Itshak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA52|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental Health Action|date=2009|publisher=Gefen Publishing House Ltd|isbn=978-965-229-468-5|language=en}}</ref> === Genetics === Resairch intae potential genetic causes o dyslexia haes its ruits in post-autopsy examination o the harns o fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":6" /> Observed anatomical differences in the [[Leid centre|leid centres]] o sic harns include microscopic [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations kent as ectopias, an mair rarely, [[Bluid veshel|vascular]] micro-malformations, an [[microgyrus]]—a smawer nor uisual size fur the gyrus.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Miriam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&pg=PA941|title=The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language, 2 Volume Set|date=2012-02-13|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3040-3|language=en}}</ref> The previously citit studies an ithers suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed tae occur afore or durin the saxt month o [[Fetus|fetal]] harn development, mey have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in fowk wi dyslexia hae forby been reportit in non-leid cerebral an subcortical harn structurs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kere|first=Juha|date=2014-09-19|title=The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006291X14013515|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications|series=Genomic Aspects of Common Diseases|volume=452|issue=2|pages=236–243|doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102|issn=0006-291X}}</ref> Mony genes hae been associatit wi dyslexia, includin [[DCDC2]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&pg=PA53|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2012-10-12|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7|language=en}}</ref> an [[Dyslexia-associatit protein|KIAA0319]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paracchini|first=Silvia|last2=Thomas|first2=Ankur|last3=Castro|first3=Sandra|last4=Lai|first4=Cecilia|last5=Paramasivam|first5=Murugan|last6=Wang|first6=Yu|last7=Keating|first7=Brendan J.|last8=Taylor|first8=Jennifer M.|last9=Hacking|first9=Douglas F.|last10=Scerri|first10=Thomas|last11=Francks|first11=Clyde|date=2006-05-15|title=The chromosome 6p22 haplotype associated with dyslexia reduces the expression of KIAA0319 , a novel gene involved in neuronal migration|url=http://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/15/10/1659/2355904/The-chromosome-6p22-haplotype-associated-with|journal=Human Molecular Genetics|language=en|volume=15|issue=10|pages=1659–1666|doi=10.1093/hmg/ddl089|issn=1460-2083}}</ref> on [[chromosome 6]], an [[DYX1C1]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosen|first=Glenn D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&pg=PA342|title=The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery|date=2013-05-13|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-81550-0|language=en}}</ref> on [[chromosome 15]]. === Gene–environment interaction === The contreibution o [[gene–environment interaction]] tae [[Readin disabeelity|readin (dis)abeelity]], that estimates the proportion o variance (the differences in readin abeelity across individuals) attributable tae environmental an genetic factors, haes been studied extensively bi comparin sets o [[Twin|identical twins]] an [[Twin|fraternal twins]]. Sic twin studies shaw that baith environmental an genetic influences contreibute tae readin development, wi thir twa influences' kin impact varyin bi contex. Fur ensaumple, parental eddication haes been foond tae moderate genetic influences on readin (dis)abeelity,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Friend|first=Angela|last2=DeFries|first2=John C.|last3=Olson|first3=Richard K.|date=November 2008|title=Parental education moderates genetic influences on reading disability|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2605635/|journal=Psychological Science|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1124–1130|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x|issn=1467-9280|pmc=2605635|pmid=19076484}}</ref> an teacher quality can moderate genetic effecks on early readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=J.|last2=Roehrig|first2=A. D.|last3=Hensler|first3=B. Soden|last4=Connor|first4=C. M.|last5=Schatschneider|first5=C.|date=2010-04-23|title=Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1186149|journal=Science|language=en|volume=328|issue=5977|pages=512–514|doi=10.1126/science.1186149|issn=0036-8075|pmc=2905841|pmid=20413504}}</ref> Mairower, in mair supportive environments, genetic risk factors accoont fur a lairger proportion o the variation in dyslexia.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Pennington|first=Bruce F.|last2=McGrath|first2=Lauren M.|last3=Rosenberg|first3=Jenni|last4=Barnard|first4=Holly|last5=Smith|first5=Shelley D.|last6=Willcutt|first6=Erik G.|last7=Friend|first7=Angela|last8=Defries|first8=John C.|last9=Olson|first9=Richard K.|date=Januar 2009|title=Gene X environment interactions in reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2743891/|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=77–89|doi=10.1037/a0014549|issn=0012-1649|pmc=2743891|pmid=19209992}}</ref> This occurs acause reducin environmental risks—throu heich-quality instruction an supportive caregiein—lowers environmental differences, makin genetic effecks easier tae detect. If environmental risk factors are reduced wi guid teachin an a supportin caregier environment, genetic risk factors mey pley a muckler role in exponin why some fowk hae dyslexia<ref name=":7" /> acause the genetic effeck is easier tae detect gien that muckle environmental noise is [[Bracketin (phenomenology)|bracketed-oot]]. As environment pleys a lairge role in learnin an memory, it is likly that [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] modifications pley an important role in readin abeelity. Measures o [[gene expression]], [[Histone|histone modifications]], an [[methylation]] in the bodie periphery are uised tae study epigenetic processes; houiver, aw o thir hae leemitations in the extrapolation o results fur application tae the bodie harn.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Shelley D.|date=December 2011|title=Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3261263/|journal=Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders|volume=3|issue=4|pages=356–364|doi=10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y|issn=1866-1955|pmc=3261263|pmid=22113455}}</ref> ==== Leid ==== The [[Orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] o a leid directly affecks hou difficult it is tae learn tae read it.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vJ5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA266|title=Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies|last2=McDougall|first2=Sine|last3=Davies|first3=Paul de Mornay|date=2010-06-10|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-16781-3|language=en}}</ref> Inglis an French hae comparatively "deep" [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] athin the [[Laitin alphabet]] [[writin seestem]], wi complex structurs employin spellin patterns on mony levels: letter-soond correspondence, seellables, an [[Morpheme|morphemes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dickinson|first=David K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA421|title=Handbook of Early Literacy Research, Volume 2|last2=Neuman|first2=Susan B.|date=2013-10-15|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=978-1-4625-1470-0|language=en}}</ref> Leids sic as Spainish, Italian an Finnish primarily employ letter-soond correspondence—sae-cried "shallae" orthographies—that maks thaim easier tae learn fur fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":8" /> [[Logogram|Logographic]] writin seestems, sic as [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]], hae extensive seembol uise, an thir pose problems fur dyslexic learners an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|last2=Hulme|first2=Charles|date=2012-05-01|title=Annual research review: the nature and classification of reading disorders--a commentary on proposals for DSM-5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3492851/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=53|issue=5|pages=593–607|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x|issn=1469-7610|pmc=3492851|pmid=22141434}}</ref> ==Pathophysiology== [[File:Gray733.png|thumb|140px|Corpus callosum view, front pairt at tap o eemage]] Fur maist fowk wha are richt-haund dominant, the left hemisphere o thair harn is mair specialised fur [[Lateralisation o harn function|leid processin]]. Wi regard tae the mechanism o dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialisation is less pronounced or absent in fowk wi dyslexia. In ither studies, dyslexia is correlatit wi anatomical differences in the [[corpus callosum]], the bundle o nerve fibers that connects the left an richt hemispheres.<ref name=":9">{{Citation|title=Dyslexia|date=2013-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/handbook/abs/pii/B9780444528919000233|work=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|volume=111|pages=229–235|publisher=Elsevier|language=en-US|access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate chynges in connectivity or in gray maiter density in areas relatit tae readin an leid. Finally, the left [[inferior frontal gyrus]] haes shawn differences in phonological processin in fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":9" /> Neurophysiological an eemagin procedures are bein uised tae ascertain phenotypic chairactereestics in fowk wi dyslexia, thus identifyin the effecks o dyslexia-relatit genes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schumacher|first=Johannes|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Per|last3=Schmäl|first3=Christine|last4=Schulte-Körne|first4=Gerd|last5=Nöthen|first5=Markus M.|date=2007|title=Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2597981/|journal=Journal of Medical Genetics|volume=44|issue=5|pages=289–297|doi=10.1136/jmg.2006.046516|issn=1468-6244|pmc=2597981|pmid=17307837}}</ref> === Dual route theory === The dual-route theory o readin alood wis furst descrieved in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that twa separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involvit in readin alood.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA373|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> Ane mechanism is the lexical route, that is the process whaurbi skeelt readers can recognise kent wirds bi sicht alane, throu a "dictionary" leukup procedure.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA450|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> The ither mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, that is the process whaurbi the reader can "soond oot" a written wird.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hulme|first=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&pg=PT151|title=Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders|last2=Joshi|first2=R. Malatesha|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-49807-7|language=en}}</ref> This is duin bi identifyin the wird's constituent pairts (letters, [[Phoneme|phonemes]], [[Grapheme|graphemes]]) an applyin knawledge o hou thir pairts are associatit wi ilka ither — fur ensaumple, hou a string o neebourin letters soond thegither. The dual-route seestem coud expone the different rates o dyslexia occurrence atween different leids (e.g., the consistency o phonological rules in the Spainish leid coud accoont fur the fact that Spainish-speakin bairn shaw a heicher level o performance in non-wird readin, whan compared tae Inglis-speakers).<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sprenger-Charolles|first=Liliane|last2=Siegel|first2=Linda S|last3=Jimenez|first3=Juan E.|last4=Ziegler|first4=Johannes|date=2011|title=Prevalence and reliability of phonological, surface, and mixed profiles in dyslexia: A review of studies conducted in languages varying in orthographic depth|url=https://hal.science/hal-00733553|journal=Scientific Study of Reading|volume=15|issue=6|pages=498–521}}</ref> == Diagnosis == Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learnin ail that impairs accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin. Teepical—but nae universal—featurs include difficulties wi phonological awareness, inefficient an aften inaccurate processin o soonds in oral leid (''phonological processin''), an verbal wirkin memory deficits. Dyslexia is a [[neurodevelopmental ail]], subcategorisit in diagnostic guides as a ''learnin'' ''ail wi impairment in readin'' (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" tae "learnin ail"; DSM-5 uises "speceefic").<ref>{{Cite web|title=6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Mortality and Morbidity Statistics|publisher=World Health Organization|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5|date=2013|publisher=Arlington, VA : American Psychiatric Association|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-89042-554-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=FragaGonzález|first=Gorka|last2=Karipidis|first2=Iliana I.|last3=Tijms|first3=Jurgen|date=2018-10-19|title=Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes It Different from a Chess Disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6209961/|journal=Brain Sciences|volume=8|issue=10|pages=189|doi=10.3390/brainsci8100189|issn=2076-3425|pmc=6209961|pmid=30347764}}</ref> Dyslexia is nae a problem wi intelligence. [[Emotional an behavioural ails|Emotional problems]] aften arise seicontary tae learnin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Campbell|first=Robert Jean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&pg=PA310|title=Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534159-1|language=en}}</ref> The [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] descrieves dyslexia as "difficulty wi phonological processin (the manipulation o soonds), spellin, an/or rapid veesual-verbal respondin".<ref name=":0" /> The Breetish Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learnin difficulty that maistly affecks the skeels involvit in accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin" an is chairacterised bi "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory an verbal processin speed".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Phillips|first=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties|last2=Kelly|first2=Kathleen|last3=Symes|first3=Liz|date=2013-08-20|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4462-8704-0|language=en}}</ref> ''Phonological awareness'' enables ane tae identify, discriminate, mynd ([[wirkin memory]]), an mentally manipulate the soond structurs o leid—[[Phoneme|phonemes]], onsteid-rime segments, seellables, an wirds. === Assessment === The follaein can be duin tae assess fur dyslexia: Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involvin the bairn's parent(s) an teacher(s), schuil psychologist, pediatrician, an, as appropriate, [[Speech–leid pathology|speech an leid pathologist (speech therapist)]], an [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]]. Gain faimiliarity wi teepical ages bairn reach mony general developmental milestanes, an domain-speceefic milestanes, sic as phonological awareness (recognisin rhymin wirds; identifyin the initial soonds in wirds). Dinna rely on tests exclusively. Carefu observation o the bairn in the schuil an hame environments, an sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are juist as important as tests. Leuk at the empirically supportit [[repone tae intervention]] (RTI) approach, that "... involves monitorin the progress o a group o bairn throu a programme o intervention raither nor unnertakin a static assessment o thair current skeels. Bairn wi the maist need are thaim wha fail tae respond tae effective teachin, an thay are readily identifee'd uisin this approach."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|date=2013-01-01|title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4538781/|journal=Journal of research in special educational needs: JORSEN|volume=13|issue=1|pages=7–14|doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x|issn=1471-3802|pmc=4538781|pmid=26290655}}</ref> ==== Assessment tests ==== Thare is a wide range o tests that are uised in clinical an eddicational settins tae evaluate the possibility o dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-05-04|title=Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities - Dyslexia Help|url=https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/,%20https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/|access-date=2026-05-17|language=en-US}}</ref> If initial testin suggests that a person micht hae dyslexia, sic tests are aften follaed up wi a fou diagnostic assessment tae determine the extent an naitur o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT35|title=Introduction to Dyslexia|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2013-08-21|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-37290-3|language=en}}</ref> Some tests can be admeenistered bi a teacher or computer; ithers require specialised trainin an are gien bi psychologists.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Assessments|url=https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/services/assessments|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=British Dyslexia Association|language=en}}</ref> Some test results indicate hou tae carry oot teachin strategies.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Fletcher|first=Jack M.|date=2009|title=Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3079378/|journal=Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS|volume=15|issue=4|pages=501–508|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900|issn=1469-7661|pmc=3079378|pmid=19573267}}</ref> Acause a variety o different cognitive, behavioural, emotional, an environmental factors aw coud contreibute tae difficulty learnin tae read, a comprehensive evaluation shoud consider thir different possibilities. Thir tests an observations can include:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> * General meisurs o cognitive abeelity, sic as the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale fur Bairn]], [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities]], or [[Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive abeelity wad mak readin mair difficult. Cognitive abeelity meisurs aften try tae meisur different cognitive processes an aa, sic as verbal abeelity, nonverbal an spatial raisonin, wirkin memory, an processin speed. Thare are different versions o thir tests fur different age groups. Awmaist aw o thir require addeetional trainin tae gie an score correctly, an are duin bi psychologists. Accordin tae Mather an Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile an/or pattern o scores on cognitive tests confirmin or rulin-oot readin ail haes nae yit been identifee'd.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Sam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylzEBQAAQBAJ&q=Handbook+of+Intelligence:+Evolutionary+theory,+historical+perspective,+and+current+concepts|title=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts|last2=Princiotta|first2=Dana|last3=Naglieri|first3=Jack A.|date=2014-12-08|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4939-1562-0|language=en}}</ref> * Screenin or evaluation fur mental heal condeetions: Parents an teachers can complete ratin scales or behaviour checkleets tae gaither information aboot emotional an behavioural functionin fur yunger fowk. Mony checkleets hae seemilar versions fur parents, teachers, an yunger fowk auld eneuch tae read raisonably weel (aften 11 years an aulder) tae complete. Ensaumples include the Behavioural Assessment Seestem fur Bairn, an the [[Strenths an Difficulties Questionnaire]]. Aw o thir hae naitionally representative norms, makin it possible tae compare the level o symptoms tae whit wad be teepical fur the yunger person's age an biological sex. Ither checkleets link mair speceefically tae psychiatric diagnoses, sic as the [[Vanderbilt ADHD Ratin Scales]] or the [[Screen fur bairn anxiety relatit ails|Screen fur Bairn Anxiety Relatit Emotional Ail]] (SBAREA). [[Screenin (medicin)|Screenin]] uises brief tuils that are designed tae catch cases wi a ail, but thay aften get false positive scores fur fowk wha dae nae hae the ail. Screeners shoud be follaed up bi a mair accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive ails an anxiety ails are two-three times heicher in fowk wi dyslexia, an attention-deficit/hyperactivity ail is mair common, as weel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collett|first=Brent R.|last2=Ohan|first2=Jeneva L.|last3=Myers|first3=Kathleen M.|date=2003-09-01|title=Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder|url=https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)60999-0/abstract|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry|language=English|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1015–1037|doi=10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6|issn=0890-8567|pmid=12960702}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stone|first=Lisanne L.|last2=Janssens|first2=Jan M. A. M.|last3=Vermulst|first3=Ad A.|last4=Van Der Maten|first4=Marloes|last5=Engels|first5=Rutger C. M. E.|last6=Otten|first6=Roy|date=2015|title=The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4-7|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4364334/|journal=BMC psychology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=4|doi=10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8|issn=2050-7283|pmc=4364334|pmid=25815194}}</ref> * Review o academic achievement an skeels: Average spellin/readin abeelity fur a dyslexic is a percentage rankin <16, weel belaw normal. In addeetion tae reviewin grades an teacher notes, staundardised test results are helpfu in evaluatin progress. Thir include group admeenistered tests, sic as the [[Iowa Tests o Eddicational Development]], that a teacher mey gie tae a group or hale clessruim o yunger fowk at the same time. Thay coud include individually admeenistered tests o achievement an aa, sic as the [[Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (that includes a set o achievement tests an aa). The individually admeenistered tests again require mair specialised trainin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lindquist|first=E. F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yOc9AAAAYAAJ&q=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development|title=The Iowa Tests of Educational Development: How to Use the Test Results; a Manual for Teachers and Counselors|date=1953|publisher=Science Research Associates|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Semrud-Clikeman|first=Margaret|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGSF9Jyg6AC&pg=PT119|title=Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2nd Edition|last2=Ellison|first2=Phyllis Anne Teeter|date=2009-06-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-88963-4|language=en}}</ref> == Screenin == Screenin procedures seek tae identify bairn wha shaw signs o possible dyslexia. In the preschuil years, a faimily history o dyslexia, pairticulairly in biological parents an siblins, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better nor ony test. In primary schuil (ages 5–7), the ideal screenin procedure consists o trainin primary schuil teachers tae carefully observe an record thair pupils' progress throu the phonics curriculum, an tharebi identify bairn progressin slawly. Whan teachers identify sic students thay can supplement thair observations wi screenin tests sic as the ''Phonics screenin check''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-23|title=Phonics screening check: 2019 materials|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-curriculum-assessments-past-test-materials|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=United Kingdom Department for Education, Standards and Testing Agency|language=en}}</ref> uised bi Unitit Kinrick schuils durin Year 1. In the medical settin, bairn an adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasises that "[g]ien the heich prevalence o developmental ails in schuil-aged bairn, aw bairn seen in clinics shoud be seestematically screened fur developmental ails irrespective o the presentin problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screenin fur developmental ails, includin dyslexia, bi conductin a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, an obtainin a schuil report regardin academic an social functionin. == Management == Throu the uise o compensation strategies, therapy an eddicational support, individuals wi dyslexia can learn tae read an write.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bogon|first=Johanna|last2=Finke|first2=Kathrin|last3=Stenneken|first3=Prisca|date=2014|title=TVA-based assessment of visual attentional functions in developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4199262/|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=5|pages=1172|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172|issn=1664-1078|pmc=4199262|pmid=25360129}}</ref> Thare are techniques an technical aids that help tae manage or conceal symptoms o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&pg=PA115|title=Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace|date=2012-04-02|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-97479-7|language=en}}</ref> Reducin stress an anxiety can whiles impruive written comprehension.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> Fur [[Management o dyslexia|dyslexia intervention]] wi alphabet-writin seestems, the fundamental aim is tae increase a bairn's awareness o correspondences atween [[Grapheme|graphemes]] (letters) an [[Phoneme|phonemes]] (soonds), an tae relate thir tae readin an spellin bi teaching hou soonds blend intae wirds. Reinforced collateral trainin focused on readin an spellin mey yield langer-lastin gains nor oral phonological trainin alane.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoff|first=Erika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&pg=PA454|title=Blackwell Handbook of Language Development|last2=Shatz|first2=Marilyn|date=2009-05-18|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-9459-4|language=en}}</ref> Early intervention can be successfu in reducin readin failur. Resairch daes nae suggest that specially-tailored fonts (sic as [[Dyslexie]] an [[OpenDyslexic]]) help wi readin. In experiments, a mair signeeficant difference in readin performance wis driven bi [[Leadin|interline spacin]], an the difference wis nae signeeficant ance variables sic as interline spacin an [[x-hicht]] wis normalised atween the candidate fonts.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kuster|first=Sanne M.|last2=van Weerdenburg|first2=Marjolijn|last3=Gompel|first3=Marjolein|last4=Bosman|first4=Anna M. T.|date=Apryle 2018|title=Dyslexie font does not benefit reading in children with or without dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5934461/|journal=Annals of Dyslexia|volume=68|issue=1|pages=25–42|doi=10.1007/s11881-017-0154-6|issn=1934-7243|pmc=5934461|pmid=29204931}}</ref> Bairn wi dyslexia read tex set in a regular font sic as [[Times New Roman]] an [[Arial]] juist as quickly, an thay shaw a preference fur regular fonts ower specially-tailored fonts.<ref name=":12" /> Some resairch haes pyntit tae increased [[Letter spacin|letter-spacin]] bein beneficial.<ref name=":12" /> Thare is currently nae evidence shawin that muisic eddication signeeficantly impruives the readin skeels o adolescents wi dyslexia. == Prognosis == Dyslexic bairn require special instruction fur wird analysis an spellin frae an early age. The prognosis, generally speakin, is positive fur individuals wha are identifee'd in bairnheid an receive support frae freends an faimily.<ref name=":0" /> The New York eddicational seestem (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterruptit 90-meenit block o instruction in readin" an "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, readin fluency" sae as tae impruive the individual's readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Response to Intervention Guidance - Minimum Requirements of a Response to Intervention Program (RtI) - Instruction Matched to Student Need: Special Education : P12 : NYSED|url=http://www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance/instruction.htm|access-date=2026-05-17|website=www.p12.nysed.gov|language=en}}</ref> == Epidemiology == The prevalence o dyslexia is unkent, but it haes been estimatit tae be as low as 5% an as heich as 17% o the population.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tasman|first=Allan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rp0BgAAQBAJ|title=Psychiatry|last2=Kay|first2=Jerald|last3=Lieberman|first3=Jeffrey A.|last4=First|first4=Michael B.|last5=Riba|first5=Michelle|date=2015-01-29|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-84549-3|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is diagnosed mair aften in males.<ref name=":2" /> Thare are different defineetions o dyslexia uised throuoot the warld. Further, differences in writin seestems mey affeck development o written leid abeelity owin tae the interpley atween auditory an written representations o phonemes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Protopapas|first=Athanassios|date=2014|title=From temporal processing to developmental language disorders: mind the gap|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866431/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20130090|doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0090|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866431|pmid=24324245}}</ref> Dyslexia is nae limitit tae difficulty in convertin letters tae soonds, an Cheenese fowk wi dyslexia mey hae difficulty convertin [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]] intae thair meanins.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhao|first=Jing|last2=Qian|first2=Yi|last3=Bi|first3=Hong-Yan|last4=Coltheart|first4=Max|date=2014-11-20|title=The visual magnocellular-dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4238300/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=4|pages=7068|doi=10.1038/srep07068|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4238300|pmid=25412386}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VK_TWsQ3N4C&pg=PA152|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2013|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-84872-084-8|language=en}}</ref> The Cheenese vocabulary uises logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writin whaur ane chairacter can represent an individual phoneme.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Garralda|first=Elena|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ujeVaMa9U0C&pg=PA177|title=Brain, Mind, and Developmental Psychopathology in Childhood|last2=Raynaud|first2=Jean-Philippe|date=2012-02-16|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing PLC|isbn=978-0-7657-0866-3|language=en}}</ref> The phonological-processin hypothesis attempts tae expone why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety o leids. Furthermair, the relationship atween phonological capacity an readin appears tae be influenced bi orthography.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Navas|first=Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto|last2=Ferraz|first2=Érica de Cássia|last3=Borges|first3=Juliana Postigo Amorina|date=2014|title=Phonological processing deficits as a universal model for dyslexia: evidence from different orthographies|url=https://www.scielo.br/j/codas/a/LLLqpM6vQq9mVrHWCyNTPCP/?lang=en|journal=CoDAS|language=en|volume=26|pages=509–519|doi=10.1590/2317-1782/20142014135|issn=2317-1782}}</ref> == History == Dyslexia wis clinically descrieved bi [[Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881, but the term ''dyslexia'' wis coined in 1883 bi [[Rudolf Berlin]], an [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologist]] in [[Stuttgart]]. He uised the term tae refer tae the case o a yung lad wha haed severe difficulty learnin tae read an write, in maugre o shawin teepical intelligence an pheesical abeelities in aw ither respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a Breetish physeecian frae [[Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description o a readin-speceefic learnin ail in a report tae the ''[[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' titled "Congenital Word Blindness".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brooks|first=Patricia J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvfSAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR30|title=Encyclopedia of Language Development|last2=Kempe|first2=Vera|date=2014-03-28|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4833-4643-4|language=en}}</ref> The distinction atween phonological versus surface teeps o dyslexia is anly descriptive, an wioot ony etiological assumption as tae the unnerlyin harn mechanisms. Houiver, studies hae alludit tae potential differences owin tae variation in performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Srikanta K.|date=2014|title=Medial efferent mechanisms in children with auditory processing disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4209830/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=860|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00860|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4209830|pmid=25386132}}</ref> Ower time, the consensus haes chynged frae an intelligence-based model tae an age-based model fur dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Al-Shidhani|first=Thuraya Ahmed|last2=Arora|first2=Vinita|date=2012|title=Understanding Dyslexia in Children through Human Development Theories|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3529662/|journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal|volume=12|issue=3|pages=286–294|doi=10.12816/0003141|issn=2075-0528|pmc=3529662|pmid=23269949}}</ref><ref name=":13" /> == Society an cultur == As is the case wi ony ail, society aften maks an assessment based on incomplete information. Afore the 1980s, dyslexia wis thoucht tae be a consequence o eddication, raither nor a neurological disabeelity. As a result, society aften misjudges thaim wi the ail.<ref name=":14" /> Thare is whiles a wirkplace stigma an negative attitude towards thir wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Beer|first=Joost|last2=Engels|first2=Josephine|last3=Heerkens|first3=Yvonne|last4=van der Klink|first4=Jac|date=2014-01-24|title=Factors influencing work participation of adults with developmental dyslexia: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913008/|journal=BMC public health|volume=14|pages=77|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-14-77|issn=1471-2458|pmc=3913008|pmid=24460949}}</ref> If the instructors o a person wi dyslexia lack the necessary trainin tae support a bairn wi the condeetion, thare is aften a negative effeck on the student's learnin pairteecipation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pino|first=Marco|last2=Mortari|first2=Luigina|date=2014-11-01|title=The inclusion of students with dyslexia in higher education: a systematic review using narrative synthesis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4253321/|journal=Dyslexia (Chichester, England)|volume=20|issue=4|pages=346–369|doi=10.1002/dys.1484|issn=1099-0909|pmc=4253321|pmid=25293652}}</ref> Syne at least the 1960s in the UK, the bairn diagnosed wi developmental dyslexia hae consistently been frae privileged faimilies.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|last=Kale|first=Sirin|date=2020-09-17|title=The battle over dyslexia|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2020/sep/17/battle-over-dyslexia-warwickshire-staffordshire|access-date=2026-05-17|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Awthou hauf o preesoners in the UK hae signeeficant readin difficulties, gey few hae iver been evaluatit fur dyslexia.<ref name=":15" /> Access tae some special eddicational resoorces an fundin is contingent upon haein a diagnosis o dyslexia.<ref name=":15" /> As a result, whan [[Staffordshire]] an [[Warwickshire]] proponed in 2018 tae teach readin tae aw bairn wi readin difficulties, uisin techniques proven tae be successfu fur maist bairn wi a diagnosis o dyslexia, wioot furst requirin the faimilies tae obteen an offeecial diagnosis, dyslexia advocates an parents o bairn wi dyslexia wur fearfu that thay wur losin a privileged status.<ref name=":15" /> === Stigma an success === Owin tae the mony cognitive processes that dyslexia affecks an the owerwhelmin societal stigma athort the disabeelity, individuals wi dyslexia aften employ behaviours o sel-stigma an perfectionistic sel-presentation in order tae cope wi thair disabeelity.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Stoeber|first=Joachim|last2=Rountree|first2=Margaret L.|date=Februar 2021|title=Perfectionism, self‐stigma , and coping in students with dyslexia: The central role of perfectionistic self‐presentation|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dys.1666|journal=Dyslexia|language=en|volume=27|issue=1|pages=62–78|doi=10.1002/dys.1666|issn=1076-9242}}</ref> The perfectionist sel-presentation is whan an individual attempts tae present thaimsels as the perfect ideal eemage an hides ony imperfections.<ref name=":16" /> This behaviour presents serious risk as it aften results in mental heal issues an refusal tae seek help fur thair disabeelity.<ref name=":16" /> == Resairch == [[File:Writing Systems Template Image.svg|thumb|120px|Writin seestems]] Maist dyslexia resairch relates tae [[Alphabetic writin seestem|alphabetic writin seestems]], an inspecially tae [[Leids o Europe|European leids]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrBQAmfXYooC&pg=PA16|title=The Routledge Companion to Dyslexia|date=2012-06-25|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-61710-2|language=en}}</ref> Houiver, substantial resairch is forby available regardin fowk wi dyslexia wha spik Arabic, Cheenese, Hebrew, or ither leids.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richlan|first=Fabio|date=2014|title=Functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: the role of orthographic depth|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4033006/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=347|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00347|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4033006|pmid=24904383}}</ref> The ootward expression o individuals wi readin disabeelity, an regular peer readers, is the same in sum respects. == See an aw == * [[Dyscalculia]], difficulty comprehendin nummers an math * [[Readin|Learnin tae read]] * [[Orton-Gillingham]] * [[Structured literacy]] * [[Leet o fowk wi dyslexia]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further readin == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L | title = Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 434–452 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28797557 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001 | s2cid = 33176236 }} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|first = Alan | last = Beaton |date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research| first = Thomas Richard | last = Miles |date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|author-link=Thomas Richard Miles}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice| vauthors = Reid G, Fawcett A |date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|first = Michael | last = Thomson |date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia| first = Gavin | last = Reid |date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties| first = Mark | last = Selikowitz |date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis| first = Andrew W. | last = Ellis |date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate| vauthors = Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL |date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|author-link=Julian Elliott}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD | title = Neurobiology of dyslexia | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 30 | pages = 73–8 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25290881 | pmc = 4293303 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007 | hdl = 1721.1/102416 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs V, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert N, Blatow M, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither S, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A | title = Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 10 | page = 324 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27471442 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2016.00324 | pmc = 4945653 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo X, Zhang J, Song R | title = Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | article-number = 30454 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27464509 | pmc = 4964335 | doi = 10.1038/srep30454 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...630454S }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR | title = Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1137–44 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 26883091 | pmc = 4872837 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2015.277 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F | title = Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms | journal = Translational Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = e987 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28045463 | pmc = 5545717 | doi = 10.1038/tp.2016.240 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fraga González G, Žarić G, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW | title = Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies | journal = Brain Sciences | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 10 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28106790 | pmc = 5297299 | doi = 10.3390/brainsci7010010 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC | title = Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment | journal = Epigenetics | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = 1023–9 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23949389 | pmc = 3891682 | doi = 10.4161/epi.26026 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Vágvölgyi R, Coldea A, Dresler T, Schrader J, Nuerk HC | title = A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 7 | page = 1617 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27891100 | pmc = 5102880 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617 | doi-access = free }} {{refend}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q132971|q=no|c=category:Dyslexia|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=dyslexia}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Dyslexia| ]] [[Category:Leeteracy]] [[Category:Learnin tae read]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] [[Category:Readin (process)|*Dyslexia]] [[Category:Wikipaedia medicin airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Wikipaedia neurology airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Writin]] 3tnsxofql5a59ru7rfp0nt1og5z8yjs 916914 916913 2026-05-17T22:19:18Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916914 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Dyslexia | synonyms = Readin ail | image = File:Dislexia nens.jpg | caption = Dyslexia involves difficulties in processin letters an wirds. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|d|ɪ|s|ˈ|l|ɛ|k|s|i|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-Dyslexia.wav}} {{respell|dis|LEK|see|ə}} | types = [[Surface dyslexia]] | field = [[Neurology]], [[pediatrics]] | symptoms = Trouble [[Readin (process)|readin]] | onset = Schuil age | causes = [[Genetics|Genetic]] an environmental factors | risks = Faimily history, [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] | diagnosis = Series memory, spellin, veesion, an readin test | differential = [[Hearin problems|Hearin]] or [[veesion problems]], insufficient [[Readin eddication|teachin]] | treatment = Adjustin teachin methods | frequency = 3–7% }} '''Dyslexia''', forby kent as '''wird blindness''', is a [[learnin disabeelity]] that affecks either readin or writin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Dyslexia-Information-Page|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siegel|first=Linda S.|date=November 2006|title=Perspectives on dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2528651/|journal=Paediatrics & Child Health|volume=11|issue=9|pages=581–587|doi=10.1093/pch/11.9.581|issn=1205-7088|pmc=2528651|pmid=19030329}}</ref> Different fowk are affeckit tae different degrees.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/disorders|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Problems mey include difficulties in spellin wirds, readin quickly, writin wirds, "soondin oot" wirds [[Subvocalisation|in the heid]], pronouncin wirds whan readin alood an unnerstaundin whit ane reads.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-01|title=What are the symptoms of reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/symptoms|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Aften thir difficulties are furst noticed at schuil.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=RL|last2=Pennington|first2=BF|date=2012-05-26|title=Developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3465717/|journal=Lancet|volume=379|issue=9830|pages=1997–2007|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6|issn=1474-547X|pmc=3465717|pmid=22513218}}</ref> The difficulties are involuntary, an fowk wi this ail hae a normal desire tae learn.<ref name=":1" /> Fowk wi dyslexia hae heicher rates o [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] (ADHA), [[Developmental leid ail|developmental leid ails]], an [[Dyscalculia|difficulties wi nummers]].<ref name=":2" /> Dyslexia is believed tae be caused bi the [[Gene–environment interaction|interaction]] o [[Genetics|genetic]] an environmental factors.<ref name=":2" /> Some cases rin in faimilies.<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia that develops owin tae a [[traumatic harn injury]], [[stroke]], or [[dementia]] is whiles cried "acquired dyslexia"<ref name=":0" /> or '''alexia'''.<ref name=":1" /> The unnerlyin mechanisms o dyslexia result frae differences athin [[Leid processin in the harn|the harn's leid processin]].<ref name=":1" /> Dyslexia is diagnosed throu a series o tests o memory, veesion, spellin, an readin skeels.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/diagnosed|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is separate frae readin difficulties caused bi [[Hearin loss|hearin]] or [[Veesual impairment|veesion problems]] or bi insufficient [[Readin|teachin]] or opportunity tae learn.<ref name=":2" /> Treatment involves adjustin teachin methods tae meet the person's needs.<ref name=":0" /> Whiles nae curin the unnerlyin problem, it mey decrease the degree or impact o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/treatment|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx|archive-date=2015-04-02|access-date=2026-05-17|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref> Treatments targetin veesion are nae effective. Dyslexia is the maist common [[learnin disabeelity]] an occurs in aw areas o the warld.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Umphred|first=Darcy Ann|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA383|title=Neurological Rehabilitation - E-Book|last2=Lazaro|first2=Rolando T.|last3=Roller|first3=Margaret|last4=Burton|first4=Gordon|date=2013-08-07|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9|language=en}}</ref> It affecks 3–7% o the population;<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Kooij|first=J. J. Sandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&pg=PA83|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment|date=2012-12-11|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-4138-9|language=en}}</ref> houiver, up tae 20% o the general population mey hae some degree o symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=2026-05-17|website=|publisher=National Institutes of Health|language=en-us|archive-date=2015-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx}}</ref> Whiles dyslexia is mair aften diagnosed in lads, this is pairtly exponed bi a sel-fulfillin [[Selection bias|referral bias]] amang teachers an professionals.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arnett|first=Anne B.|last2=Pennington|first2=Bruce F.|last3=Peterson|first3=Robin L.|last4=Willcutt|first4=Erik G.|last5=DeFries|first5=John C.|last6=Olson|first6=Richard K.|date=2017|title=Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438271/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=58|issue=6|pages=719–727|doi=10.1111/jcpp.12691|issn=1469-7610|pmc=5438271|pmid=28176347}}</ref> It haes even been suggestit that the condeetion affecks men an wummen equally.<ref name=":3" /> Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different wey o learnin, wit baith benefits an dounsides.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Venton|first=Danielle|date=September 2011|title=Q&A: The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia|language=en-US|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805001607/http://www.wired.com/2011/09/dyslexic-advantage|archive-date=2016-08-05|issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Schneps|first=Matthew H.|date=August 2014|title=The Advantages of Dyslexia|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804232616/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-advantages-of-dyslexia/|archive-date=2016-08-04|access-date=2026-05-17|website=ScientificAmerican.com|publisher=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> == Clessification == Dyslexia is dividit intae developmental an acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent tae neurological insult, sic as [[traumatic harn injury]] or [[stroke]]. Fowk wi acquired dyslexia exhibit some o the signs or symptoms o the developmental ail, bit require different assessment strategies an treatment approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woollams|first=Anna M.|date=2014|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866427/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20120398|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866427|pmid=24324241}}</ref> ''Pure alexia'', forby kent as ''agnosic alexia'' or ''pure wird blindness'', is ane form o [[Alexia (condeetion)|alexia]] that maks up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. == Signs an symptoms == In early bairnheid, symptoms that correlate wi a later diagnosis o dyslexia include [[Speech delay|delayed onset o speech]] an a lack o [[phonological awareness]]. A common meeth closely associates dyslexia wi [[mirror writin]] an readin letters or wirds backwards.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lilienfeld|first=Scott O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior|last2=Lynn|first2=Steven Jay|last3=Ruscio|first3=John|last4=Beyerstein|first4=Barry L.|date=2011-09-15|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5|language=en}}</ref> Thir behaviours are seen in mony bairn as thay learn tae read an write, an are nae considered tae be definin chairactereestics o dyslexia. Schuil-age bairn wi dyslexia mey exhibit signs o difficulty in identifyin or generatin rhymin wirds, or coontin the nummer o seellables in wirds—baith o that depend on phonological awareness. Thay mey forby shaw difficulty in segmentin wirds intae individual soonds (sic as soondin oot the three soonds o ''k'', ''a'', an ''t'' in ''cat'') or mey struggle tae blend soonds, indicatin reduced [[phonemic awareness]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5|language=en}}</ref> Difficulties wi wird retrieval or namin things is associatit wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Swanson|first=H. Lee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities|last2=Harris|first2=Karen R.|last3=Graham|first3=Steve|date=2013-02-11|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3|language=en}}</ref> Fowk wi dyslexia are commonly puir spellers, a featur whiles cried ''dysorthographia'' or ''[[dysgraphia]]'', that depends on the skeel o [[Orthography|orthographic codin]]. Problems persist intae adolescence an adultheid an mey include difficulties wi summarising stories, memorisation, readin alood, or learnin foreign leids. Adults wi dyslexia can aften read wi guid comprehension, thou thay tend tae read mair slawly nor ithers wioot a learnin difficulty an perform worse in spellin tests or whan readin nonsense wirds—a measure o phonological awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lum|first=Jarrad A. G.|last2=Ullman|first2=Michael T.|last3=Conti-Ramsden|first3=Gina|date=October 2013|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3784964/|journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities|volume=34|issue=10|pages=3460–3476|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017|issn=1873-3379|pmc=3784964|pmid=23920029}}</ref> === Associatit condeetions === Dyslexia aften co-occurs wi ither learnin ails, bit the raisons fur this comorbidity hae nae been clearly identifee'd. Thir associatit disabeelities include: ; [[Dysgraphia]] : A ail involvin difficulties wi writin or typin, whiles owin tae problems wi [[Haund–ee coordination|ee–haund coordination]]; it can impede direction- or sequence-orientit processes an aa, sic as tyin knots or carryin oot repetitive tasks. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is aften multifactorial, owin tae impaired letter-writin [[automaticity]], organisational an elaborative difficulties, an impaired veesual wird formin, that maks it mair difficult tae retrieve the veesual pictur o wirds required fur spellin. ; [[Attention deficit hyperactivity ail]] : A ail chairacterised bi problems sustainin attention, hyperactivity, or actin impulsively. Dyslexia an ADHA commonly occur thegither.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Comer|first=Ronald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|title=Psychology Around Us|last2=Gould|first2=Elizabeth|date=2010-01-19|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6|language=en}}</ref> Approximately 15% or 12–24% o fowk wi dyslexia hae ADHA;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fatemi|first=S. Hossein|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry|last2=Clayton|first2=Paula J.|date=2008-05-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6|language=en}}</ref> an up tae 35% o fowk wi ADHA hae dyslexia. ; [[Auditory processin ail]] : A listenin ail that affecks the abeelity tae process auditory information.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capellini|first=Simone Aparecida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities|date=2007|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7|language=en}}</ref> This can lead tae problems wi [[Echoic memory|auditory memory]] an auditory [[Sequence learnin|sequencin]]. Mony fowk wi dyslexia hae auditory processin problems, an mey develop thair awn [[logographic cues]] tae compensate fur this teep o deficit. Some resairch suggests that auditory processin skeels coud be the primary shortfaw in dyslexia.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Pammer|first=Kristen|date=2014|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913493/|journal=Scientifica|volume=2014|pages=802741|doi=10.1155/2014/802741|issn=2090-908X|pmc=3913493|pmid=24527259}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Law|first=Jeremy M.|last2=Vandermosten|first2=Maaike|last3=Ghesquiere|first3=Pol|last4=Wouters|first4=Jan|date=2014|title=The relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4078926/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=482|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4078926|pmid=25071512}}</ref> ; [[Developmental coordination ail]] : A neurological condeetion chairacterised bi difficulty in carryin oot routine tasks involvin balance, fine-[[motor control]] an [[Proprioception|kinesthetic]] coordination; difficulty in the uise o speech soonds; an problems wi [[short-term memory]] an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alloway|first=Tracy Packiam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders|last2=Gathercole|first2=Susan E.|date=2012-08-06|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2|language=en}}</ref> == Causes == [[File:Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif|thumb|300px| Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation]] Resairchers hae been tryin tae find the neurobiological basis o dyslexia syne the condeetion wis furst identifee'd in 1881.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&q=Wortblindheit|title=Neurologisches Centralblatt|date=1917|publisher=J. Springer|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&pg=PA127|title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia|last2=Fawcett|first2=Angela|last3=Manis|first3=Frank|last4=Siegel|first4=Linda|date=2008-09-18|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9|language=en}}</ref> Fur ensaumple, some hae tree'd tae associate the common problem amang fowk wi dyslexia o nae bein able tae see letters clearly tae abnormal development o thair veesual nerve cells.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Stein|first=John|date=2014|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4203994/|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports|volume=1|issue=4|pages=267–280|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6|issn=2196-2987|pmc=4203994|pmid=25346883}}</ref> === Neuroanatomy === [[Neuroeemagin]] techniques, sic as [[functional magnetic resonance eemagin]] (fMRI) an [[positron emission tomography]] (PET), hae shawn a correlation atween baith functional an structural differences in the harns o bairn wi readin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitaker|first=Harry A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&pg=PA180|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language|date=2010-04-08|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7|language=en}}</ref> Some fowk wi dyslexia shaw less activation in pairts o the [[Lateralisation o harn function|left hemisphere]] o the harn involvit wi readin, sic as the [[inferior frontal gyrus]], [[inferior parietal lobule]], an the middle an [[Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].<ref name=":5" /> Meta-analyses o fMRI studies hae foond unner-activation whaur the [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] an [[Occipital lobe|occipital lobes]] meet in the left hemisphere in dyslexic subjecks (includin the [[veesual wird form area]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=Anna|last2=Kronbichler|first2=Martin|last3=Richlan|first3=Fabio|date=2016|title=Dyslexic brain activation abnormalities in deep and shallow orthographies: A meta-analysis of 28 functional neuroimaging studies|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5103175/|journal=Human Brain Mapping|volume=37|issue=7|pages=2676–2699|doi=10.1002/hbm.23202|issn=1097-0193|pmc=5103175|pmid=27061464}}</ref> Ower the past decade, harn activation studies uisin PET tae study leid hae produced a breakthrou in the unnerstaundin o the neural basis o leid. Neural bases fur the veesual [[lexicon]] an fur auditory verbal [[short-term memory]] components hae been proponed,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Price|first=Cathy J.|date=2012-08-15|title=A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3398395/|journal=NeuroImage|volume=62|issue=2|pages=816–847|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062|issn=1095-9572|pmc=3398395|pmid=22584224}}</ref> wi some implication that the observed neural manifestation o developmental dyslexia is task-speceefic (i.e., functional raither nor structural). fMRIs o fowk wi dyslexia indicate an interactive role o the [[cerebellum]] an cerebral cortex as weel as ither harn structurs in readin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharifi|first=Sarvi|last2=Nederveen|first2=Aart J.|last3=Booij|first3=Jan|last4=van Rootselaar|first4=Anne-Fleur|date=2014|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4110352/|journal=NeuroImage. Clinical|volume=5|pages=217–231|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003|issn=2213-1582|pmc=4110352|pmid=25068111}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brandler|first=William M.|last2=Paracchini|first2=Silvia|date=Februar 2014|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3969300/|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine|volume=20|issue=2|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008|issn=1471-499X|pmc=3969300|pmid=24275328}}</ref> The cerebellar theory o dyslexia propones that impairment o cerebellum-controlled muscle muivement affecks the formation o wirds bi the tongue and facial muscles, resultin in the [[fluency]] problems that some fowk wi dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is involvit in the [[Autonomic nervous seestem|automatisation]] o some tasks an aa, sic as readin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cain|first=Kate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA134|title=Reading Development and Difficulties|date=2010-06-28|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-5155-9|language=en}}</ref> The fact that some bairn wi dyslexia hae motor task an balance impairments coud be conseestent wi a cerebellar role in thair readin difficulties. Houiver, the cerebellar theory haes nae been supportit bi controlled resairch studies.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Levav|first=Itshak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&q=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia&pg=PA52|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental Health Action|date=2009|publisher=Gefen Publishing House Ltd|isbn=978-965-229-468-5|language=en}}</ref> === Genetics === Resairch intae potential genetic causes o dyslexia haes its ruits in post-autopsy examination o the harns o fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":6" /> Observed anatomical differences in the [[Leid centre|leid centres]] o sic harns include microscopic [[Cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations kent as ectopias, an mair rarely, [[Bluid veshel|vascular]] micro-malformations, an [[microgyrus]]—a smawer nor uisual size fur the gyrus.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Faust|first=Miriam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&pg=PA941|title=The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language, 2 Volume Set|date=2012-02-13|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3040-3|language=en}}</ref> The previously citit studies an ithers suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed tae occur afore or durin the saxt month o [[Fetus|fetal]] harn development, mey have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in fowk wi dyslexia hae forby been reportit in non-leid cerebral an subcortical harn structurs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kere|first=Juha|date=2014-09-19|title=The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006291X14013515|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications|series=Genomic Aspects of Common Diseases|volume=452|issue=2|pages=236–243|doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102|issn=0006-291X}}</ref> Mony genes hae been associatit wi dyslexia, includin [[DCDC2]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&pg=PA53|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2012-10-12|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7|language=en}}</ref> an [[Dyslexia-associatit protein|KIAA0319]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paracchini|first=Silvia|last2=Thomas|first2=Ankur|last3=Castro|first3=Sandra|last4=Lai|first4=Cecilia|last5=Paramasivam|first5=Murugan|last6=Wang|first6=Yu|last7=Keating|first7=Brendan J.|last8=Taylor|first8=Jennifer M.|last9=Hacking|first9=Douglas F.|last10=Scerri|first10=Thomas|last11=Francks|first11=Clyde|date=2006-05-15|title=The chromosome 6p22 haplotype associated with dyslexia reduces the expression of KIAA0319 , a novel gene involved in neuronal migration|url=http://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/15/10/1659/2355904/The-chromosome-6p22-haplotype-associated-with|journal=Human Molecular Genetics|language=en|volume=15|issue=10|pages=1659–1666|doi=10.1093/hmg/ddl089|issn=1460-2083}}</ref> on [[chromosome 6]], an [[DYX1C1]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosen|first=Glenn D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&pg=PA342|title=The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery|date=2013-05-13|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-81550-0|language=en}}</ref> on [[chromosome 15]]. === Gene–environment interaction === The contreibution o [[gene–environment interaction]] tae [[Readin disabeelity|readin (dis)abeelity]], that estimates the proportion o variance (the differences in readin abeelity across individuals) attributable tae environmental an genetic factors, haes been studied extensively bi comparin sets o [[Twin|identical twins]] an [[Twin|fraternal twins]]. Sic twin studies shaw that baith environmental an genetic influences contreibute tae readin development, wi thir twa influences' kin impact varyin bi contex. Fur ensaumple, parental eddication haes been foond tae moderate genetic influences on readin (dis)abeelity,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Friend|first=Angela|last2=DeFries|first2=John C.|last3=Olson|first3=Richard K.|date=November 2008|title=Parental education moderates genetic influences on reading disability|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2605635/|journal=Psychological Science|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1124–1130|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x|issn=1467-9280|pmc=2605635|pmid=19076484}}</ref> an teacher quality can moderate genetic effecks on early readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=J.|last2=Roehrig|first2=A. D.|last3=Hensler|first3=B. Soden|last4=Connor|first4=C. M.|last5=Schatschneider|first5=C.|date=2010-04-23|title=Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1186149|journal=Science|language=en|volume=328|issue=5977|pages=512–514|doi=10.1126/science.1186149|issn=0036-8075|pmc=2905841|pmid=20413504}}</ref> Mairower, in mair supportive environments, genetic risk factors accoont fur a lairger proportion o the variation in dyslexia.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Pennington|first=Bruce F.|last2=McGrath|first2=Lauren M.|last3=Rosenberg|first3=Jenni|last4=Barnard|first4=Holly|last5=Smith|first5=Shelley D.|last6=Willcutt|first6=Erik G.|last7=Friend|first7=Angela|last8=Defries|first8=John C.|last9=Olson|first9=Richard K.|date=Januar 2009|title=Gene X environment interactions in reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2743891/|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=77–89|doi=10.1037/a0014549|issn=0012-1649|pmc=2743891|pmid=19209992}}</ref> This occurs acause reducin environmental risks—throu heich-quality instruction an supportive caregiein—lowers environmental differences, makin genetic effecks easier tae detect. If environmental risk factors are reduced wi guid teachin an a supportin caregier environment, genetic risk factors mey pley a muckler role in exponin why some fowk hae dyslexia<ref name=":7" /> acause the genetic effeck is easier tae detect gien that muckle environmental noise is [[Bracketin (phenomenology)|bracketed-oot]]. As environment pleys a lairge role in learnin an memory, it is likly that [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] modifications pley an important role in readin abeelity. Measures o [[gene expression]], [[Histone|histone modifications]], an [[methylation]] in the bodie periphery are uised tae study epigenetic processes; houiver, aw o thir hae leemitations in the extrapolation o results fur application tae the bodie harn.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Shelley D.|date=December 2011|title=Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3261263/|journal=Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders|volume=3|issue=4|pages=356–364|doi=10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y|issn=1866-1955|pmc=3261263|pmid=22113455}}</ref> ==== Leid ==== The [[Orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] o a leid directly affecks hou difficult it is tae learn tae read it.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vJ5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA266|title=Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies|last2=McDougall|first2=Sine|last3=Davies|first3=Paul de Mornay|date=2010-06-10|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-16781-3|language=en}}</ref> Inglis an French hae comparatively "deep" [[Phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] athin the [[Laitin alphabet]] [[writin seestem]], wi complex structurs employin spellin patterns on mony levels: letter-soond correspondence, seellables, an [[Morpheme|morphemes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dickinson|first=David K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA421|title=Handbook of Early Literacy Research, Volume 2|last2=Neuman|first2=Susan B.|date=2013-10-15|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=978-1-4625-1470-0|language=en}}</ref> Leids sic as Spainish, Italian an Finnish primarily employ letter-soond correspondence—sae-cried "shallae" orthographies—that maks thaim easier tae learn fur fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":8" /> [[Logogram|Logographic]] writin seestems, sic as [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]], hae extensive seembol uise, an thir pose problems fur dyslexic learners an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|last2=Hulme|first2=Charles|date=2012-05-01|title=Annual research review: the nature and classification of reading disorders--a commentary on proposals for DSM-5|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3492851/|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines|volume=53|issue=5|pages=593–607|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x|issn=1469-7610|pmc=3492851|pmid=22141434}}</ref> ==Pathophysiology== [[File:Gray733.png|thumb|140px|Corpus callosum view, front pairt at tap o eemage]] Fur maist fowk wha are richt-haund dominant, the left hemisphere o thair harn is mair specialised fur [[Lateralisation o harn function|leid processin]]. Wi regard tae the mechanism o dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialisation is less pronounced or absent in fowk wi dyslexia. In ither studies, dyslexia is correlatit wi anatomical differences in the [[corpus callosum]], the bundle o nerve fibers that connects the left an richt hemispheres.<ref name=":9">{{Citation|title=Dyslexia|date=2013-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/handbook/abs/pii/B9780444528919000233|work=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|volume=111|pages=229–235|publisher=Elsevier|language=en-US|access-date=2026-05-17}}</ref> Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate chynges in connectivity or in gray maiter density in areas relatit tae readin an leid. Finally, the left [[inferior frontal gyrus]] haes shawn differences in phonological processin in fowk wi dyslexia.<ref name=":9" /> Neurophysiological an eemagin procedures are bein uised tae ascertain phenotypic chairactereestics in fowk wi dyslexia, thus identifyin the effecks o dyslexia-relatit genes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schumacher|first=Johannes|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Per|last3=Schmäl|first3=Christine|last4=Schulte-Körne|first4=Gerd|last5=Nöthen|first5=Markus M.|date=2007|title=Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2597981/|journal=Journal of Medical Genetics|volume=44|issue=5|pages=289–297|doi=10.1136/jmg.2006.046516|issn=1468-6244|pmc=2597981|pmid=17307837}}</ref> === Dual route theory === The dual-route theory o readin alood wis furst descrieved in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that twa separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involvit in readin alood.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA373|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> Ane mechanism is the lexical route, that is the process whaurbi skeelt readers can recognise kent wirds bi sicht alane, throu a "dictionary" leukup procedure.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Eysenck|first=Michael W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&pg=PA450|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook, 6th Edition|last2=Keane|first2=Mark T.|date=2013-09-11|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|language=en}}</ref> The ither mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, that is the process whaurbi the reader can "soond oot" a written wird.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hulme|first=Charles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&pg=PT151|title=Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders|last2=Joshi|first2=R. Malatesha|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-49807-7|language=en}}</ref> This is duin bi identifyin the wird's constituent pairts (letters, [[Phoneme|phonemes]], [[Grapheme|graphemes]]) an applyin knawledge o hou thir pairts are associatit wi ilka ither — fur ensaumple, hou a string o neebourin letters soond thegither. The dual-route seestem coud expone the different rates o dyslexia occurrence atween different leids (e.g., the consistency o phonological rules in the Spainish leid coud accoont fur the fact that Spainish-speakin bairn shaw a heicher level o performance in non-wird readin, whan compared tae Inglis-speakers).<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sprenger-Charolles|first=Liliane|last2=Siegel|first2=Linda S|last3=Jimenez|first3=Juan E.|last4=Ziegler|first4=Johannes|date=2011|title=Prevalence and reliability of phonological, surface, and mixed profiles in dyslexia: A review of studies conducted in languages varying in orthographic depth|url=https://hal.science/hal-00733553|journal=Scientific Study of Reading|volume=15|issue=6|pages=498–521}}</ref> == Diagnosis == Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learnin ail that impairs accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin. Teepical—but nae universal—featurs include difficulties wi phonological awareness, inefficient an aften inaccurate processin o soonds in oral leid (''phonological processin''), an verbal wirkin memory deficits. Dyslexia is a [[neurodevelopmental ail]], subcategorisit in diagnostic guides as a ''learnin'' ''ail wi impairment in readin'' (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" tae "learnin ail"; DSM-5 uises "speceefic").<ref>{{Cite web|title=6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Mortality and Morbidity Statistics|publisher=World Health Organization|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5|date=2013|publisher=Arlington, VA : American Psychiatric Association|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-89042-554-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=FragaGonzález|first=Gorka|last2=Karipidis|first2=Iliana I.|last3=Tijms|first3=Jurgen|date=2018-10-19|title=Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes It Different from a Chess Disorder|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6209961/|journal=Brain Sciences|volume=8|issue=10|pages=189|doi=10.3390/brainsci8100189|issn=2076-3425|pmc=6209961|pmid=30347764}}</ref> Dyslexia is nae a problem wi intelligence. [[Emotional an behavioural ails|Emotional problems]] aften arise seicontary tae learnin difficulties.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Campbell|first=Robert Jean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&pg=PA310|title=Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534159-1|language=en}}</ref> The [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] descrieves dyslexia as "difficulty wi phonological processin (the manipulation o soonds), spellin, an/or rapid veesual-verbal respondin".<ref name=":0" /> The Breetish Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learnin difficulty that maistly affecks the skeels involvit in accurate an fluent wird readin an spellin" an is chairacterised bi "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory an verbal processin speed".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Phillips|first=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties|last2=Kelly|first2=Kathleen|last3=Symes|first3=Liz|date=2013-08-20|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4462-8704-0|language=en}}</ref> ''Phonological awareness'' enables ane tae identify, discriminate, mynd ([[wirkin memory]]), an mentally manipulate the soond structurs o leid—[[Phoneme|phonemes]], onsteid-rime segments, seellables, an wirds. === Assessment === The follaein can be duin tae assess fur dyslexia: Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involvin the bairn's parent(s) an teacher(s), schuil psychologist, pediatrician, an, as appropriate, [[Speech–leid pathology|speech an leid pathologist (speech therapist)]], an [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]]. Gain faimiliarity wi teepical ages bairn reach mony general developmental milestanes, an domain-speceefic milestanes, sic as phonological awareness (recognisin rhymin wirds; identifyin the initial soonds in wirds). Dinna rely on tests exclusively. Carefu observation o the bairn in the schuil an hame environments, an sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are juist as important as tests. Leuk at the empirically supportit [[repone tae intervention]] (RTI) approach, that "... involves monitorin the progress o a group o bairn throu a programme o intervention raither nor unnertakin a static assessment o thair current skeels. Bairn wi the maist need are thaim wha fail tae respond tae effective teachin, an thay are readily identifee'd uisin this approach."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Snowling|first=Margaret J.|date=2013-01-01|title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4538781/|journal=Journal of research in special educational needs: JORSEN|volume=13|issue=1|pages=7–14|doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x|issn=1471-3802|pmc=4538781|pmid=26290655}}</ref> ==== Assessment tests ==== Thare is a wide range o tests that are uised in clinical an eddicational settins tae evaluate the possibility o dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-05-04|title=Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities - Dyslexia Help|url=https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/,%20https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/parents/learn-about-dyslexia/evaluation/tests/|access-date=2026-05-17|language=en-US}}</ref> If initial testin suggests that a person micht hae dyslexia, sic tests are aften follaed up wi a fou diagnostic assessment tae determine the extent an naitur o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Peer|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT35|title=Introduction to Dyslexia|last2=Reid|first2=Gavin|date=2013-08-21|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-37290-3|language=en}}</ref> Some tests can be admeenistered bi a teacher or computer; ithers require specialised trainin an are gien bi psychologists.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Assessments|url=https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/services/assessments|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=British Dyslexia Association|language=en}}</ref> Some test results indicate hou tae carry oot teachin strategies.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Fletcher|first=Jack M.|date=2009|title=Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3079378/|journal=Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS|volume=15|issue=4|pages=501–508|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900|issn=1469-7661|pmc=3079378|pmid=19573267}}</ref> Acause a variety o different cognitive, behavioural, emotional, an environmental factors aw coud contreibute tae difficulty learnin tae read, a comprehensive evaluation shoud consider thir different possibilities. Thir tests an observations can include:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> * General meisurs o cognitive abeelity, sic as the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale fur Bairn]], [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities]], or [[Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive abeelity wad mak readin mair difficult. Cognitive abeelity meisurs aften try tae meisur different cognitive processes an aa, sic as verbal abeelity, nonverbal an spatial raisonin, wirkin memory, an processin speed. Thare are different versions o thir tests fur different age groups. Awmaist aw o thir require addeetional trainin tae gie an score correctly, an are duin bi psychologists. Accordin tae Mather an Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile an/or pattern o scores on cognitive tests confirmin or rulin-oot readin ail haes nae yit been identifee'd.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Sam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylzEBQAAQBAJ&q=Handbook+of+Intelligence:+Evolutionary+theory,+historical+perspective,+and+current+concepts|title=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts|last2=Princiotta|first2=Dana|last3=Naglieri|first3=Jack A.|date=2014-12-08|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4939-1562-0|language=en}}</ref> * Screenin or evaluation fur mental heal condeetions: Parents an teachers can complete ratin scales or behaviour checkleets tae gaither information aboot emotional an behavioural functionin fur yunger fowk. Mony checkleets hae seemilar versions fur parents, teachers, an yunger fowk auld eneuch tae read raisonably weel (aften 11 years an aulder) tae complete. Ensaumples include the Behavioural Assessment Seestem fur Bairn, an the [[Strenths an Difficulties Questionnaire]]. Aw o thir hae naitionally representative norms, makin it possible tae compare the level o symptoms tae whit wad be teepical fur the yunger person's age an biological sex. Ither checkleets link mair speceefically tae psychiatric diagnoses, sic as the [[Vanderbilt ADHD Ratin Scales]] or the [[Screen fur bairn anxiety relatit ails|Screen fur Bairn Anxiety Relatit Emotional Ail]] (SBAREA). [[Screenin (medicin)|Screenin]] uises brief tuils that are designed tae catch cases wi a ail, but thay aften get false positive scores fur fowk wha dae nae hae the ail. Screeners shoud be follaed up bi a mair accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive ails an anxiety ails are two-three times heicher in fowk wi dyslexia, an attention-deficit/hyperactivity ail is mair common, as weel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collett|first=Brent R.|last2=Ohan|first2=Jeneva L.|last3=Myers|first3=Kathleen M.|date=2003-09-01|title=Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder|url=https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)60999-0/abstract|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry|language=English|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1015–1037|doi=10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6|issn=0890-8567|pmid=12960702}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stone|first=Lisanne L.|last2=Janssens|first2=Jan M. A. M.|last3=Vermulst|first3=Ad A.|last4=Van Der Maten|first4=Marloes|last5=Engels|first5=Rutger C. M. E.|last6=Otten|first6=Roy|date=2015|title=The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4-7|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4364334/|journal=BMC psychology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=4|doi=10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8|issn=2050-7283|pmc=4364334|pmid=25815194}}</ref> * Review o academic achievement an skeels: Average spellin/readin abeelity fur a dyslexic is a percentage rankin <16, weel belaw normal. In addeetion tae reviewin grades an teacher notes, staundardised test results are helpfu in evaluatin progress. Thir include group admeenistered tests, sic as the [[Iowa Tests o Eddicational Development]], that a teacher mey gie tae a group or hale clessruim o yunger fowk at the same time. Thay coud include individually admeenistered tests o achievement an aa, sic as the [[Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[Woodcock-Johnson Tests o Cognitive Abeelities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (that includes a set o achievement tests an aa). The individually admeenistered tests again require mair specialised trainin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lindquist|first=E. F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yOc9AAAAYAAJ&q=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development|title=The Iowa Tests of Educational Development: How to Use the Test Results; a Manual for Teachers and Counselors|date=1953|publisher=Science Research Associates|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Semrud-Clikeman|first=Margaret|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGSF9Jyg6AC&pg=PT119|title=Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2nd Edition|last2=Ellison|first2=Phyllis Anne Teeter|date=2009-06-15|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-88963-4|language=en}}</ref> == Screenin == Screenin procedures seek tae identify bairn wha shaw signs o possible dyslexia. In the preschuil years, a faimily history o dyslexia, pairticulairly in biological parents an siblins, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better nor ony test. In primary schuil (ages 5–7), the ideal screenin procedure consists o trainin primary schuil teachers tae carefully observe an record thair pupils' progress throu the phonics curriculum, an tharebi identify bairn progressin slawly. Whan teachers identify sic students thay can supplement thair observations wi screenin tests sic as the ''Phonics screenin check''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-05-23|title=Phonics screening check: 2019 materials|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-curriculum-assessments-past-test-materials|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-17|website=United Kingdom Department for Education, Standards and Testing Agency|language=en}}</ref> uised bi Unitit Kinrick schuils durin Year 1. In the medical settin, bairn an adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasises that "[g]ien the heich prevalence o developmental ails in schuil-aged bairn, aw bairn seen in clinics shoud be seestematically screened fur developmental ails irrespective o the presentin problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screenin fur developmental ails, includin dyslexia, bi conductin a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, an obtainin a schuil report regardin academic an social functionin. == Management == Throu the uise o compensation strategies, therapy an eddicational support, individuals wi dyslexia can learn tae read an write.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bogon|first=Johanna|last2=Finke|first2=Kathrin|last3=Stenneken|first3=Prisca|date=2014|title=TVA-based assessment of visual attentional functions in developmental dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4199262/|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=5|pages=1172|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172|issn=1664-1078|pmc=4199262|pmid=25360129}}</ref> Thare are techniques an technical aids that help tae manage or conceal symptoms o the ail.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brunswick|first=Nicola|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&pg=PA115|title=Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace|date=2012-04-02|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-97479-7|language=en}}</ref> Reducin stress an anxiety can whiles impruive written comprehension.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Schulte-Körne|first=Gerd|date=October 2010|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2967798/|journal=Deutsches Arzteblatt International|volume=107|issue=41|pages=718–726; quiz 27|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718|issn=1866-0452|pmc=2967798|pmid=21046003}}</ref> Fur [[Management o dyslexia|dyslexia intervention]] wi alphabet-writin seestems, the fundamental aim is tae increase a bairn's awareness o correspondences atween [[Grapheme|graphemes]] (letters) an [[Phoneme|phonemes]] (soonds), an tae relate thir tae readin an spellin bi teaching hou soonds blend intae wirds. Reinforced collateral trainin focused on readin an spellin mey yield langer-lastin gains nor oral phonological trainin alane.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hoff|first=Erika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&pg=PA454|title=Blackwell Handbook of Language Development|last2=Shatz|first2=Marilyn|date=2009-05-18|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-9459-4|language=en}}</ref> Early intervention can be successfu in reducin readin failur. Resairch daes nae suggest that specially-tailored fonts (sic as [[Dyslexie]] an [[OpenDyslexic]]) help wi readin. In experiments, a mair signeeficant difference in readin performance wis driven bi [[Leadin|interline spacin]], an the difference wis nae signeeficant ance variables sic as interline spacin an [[x-hicht]] wis normalised atween the candidate fonts.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kuster|first=Sanne M.|last2=van Weerdenburg|first2=Marjolijn|last3=Gompel|first3=Marjolein|last4=Bosman|first4=Anna M. T.|date=Apryle 2018|title=Dyslexie font does not benefit reading in children with or without dyslexia|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5934461/|journal=Annals of Dyslexia|volume=68|issue=1|pages=25–42|doi=10.1007/s11881-017-0154-6|issn=1934-7243|pmc=5934461|pmid=29204931}}</ref> Bairn wi dyslexia read tex set in a regular font sic as [[Times New Roman]] an [[Arial]] juist as quickly, an thay shaw a preference fur regular fonts ower specially-tailored fonts.<ref name=":12" /> Some resairch haes pyntit tae increased [[Letter spacin|letter-spacin]] bein beneficial.<ref name=":12" /> Thare is currently nae evidence shawin that muisic eddication signeeficantly impruives the readin skeels o adolescents wi dyslexia. == Prognosis == Dyslexic bairn require special instruction fur wird analysis an spellin frae an early age. The prognosis, generally speakin, is positive fur individuals wha are identifee'd in bairnheid an receive support frae freends an faimily.<ref name=":0" /> The New York eddicational seestem (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterruptit 90-meenit block o instruction in readin" an "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, readin fluency" sae as tae impruive the individual's readin abeelity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Response to Intervention Guidance - Minimum Requirements of a Response to Intervention Program (RtI) - Instruction Matched to Student Need: Special Education : P12 : NYSED|url=http://www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance/instruction.htm|access-date=2026-05-17|website=www.p12.nysed.gov|language=en}}</ref> == Epidemiology == The prevalence o dyslexia is unkent, but it haes been estimatit tae be as low as 5% an as heich as 17% o the population.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tasman|first=Allan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rp0BgAAQBAJ|title=Psychiatry|last2=Kay|first2=Jerald|last3=Lieberman|first3=Jeffrey A.|last4=First|first4=Michael B.|last5=Riba|first5=Michelle|date=2015-01-29|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-84549-3|language=en}}</ref> Dyslexia is diagnosed mair aften in males.<ref name=":2" /> Thare are different defineetions o dyslexia uised throuoot the warld. Further, differences in writin seestems mey affeck development o written leid abeelity owin tae the interpley atween auditory an written representations o phonemes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Protopapas|first=Athanassios|date=2014|title=From temporal processing to developmental language disorders: mind the gap|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866431/|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=369|issue=1634|pages=20130090|doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0090|issn=1471-2970|pmc=3866431|pmid=24324245}}</ref> Dyslexia is nae limitit tae difficulty in convertin letters tae soonds, an Cheenese fowk wi dyslexia mey hae difficulty convertin [[Cheenese chairacter|Cheenese chairacters]] intae thair meanins.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhao|first=Jing|last2=Qian|first2=Yi|last3=Bi|first3=Hong-Yan|last4=Coltheart|first4=Max|date=2014-11-20|title=The visual magnocellular-dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4238300/|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=4|pages=7068|doi=10.1038/srep07068|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4238300|pmid=25412386}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=Chloë R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VK_TWsQ3N4C&pg=PA152|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders|date=2013|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-84872-084-8|language=en}}</ref> The Cheenese vocabulary uises logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writin whaur ane chairacter can represent an individual phoneme.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Garralda|first=Elena|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ujeVaMa9U0C&pg=PA177|title=Brain, Mind, and Developmental Psychopathology in Childhood|last2=Raynaud|first2=Jean-Philippe|date=2012-02-16|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing PLC|isbn=978-0-7657-0866-3|language=en}}</ref> The phonological-processin hypothesis attempts tae expone why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety o leids. Furthermair, the relationship atween phonological capacity an readin appears tae be influenced bi orthography.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Navas|first=Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto|last2=Ferraz|first2=Érica de Cássia|last3=Borges|first3=Juliana Postigo Amorina|date=2014|title=Phonological processing deficits as a universal model for dyslexia: evidence from different orthographies|url=https://www.scielo.br/j/codas/a/LLLqpM6vQq9mVrHWCyNTPCP/?lang=en|journal=CoDAS|language=en|volume=26|pages=509–519|doi=10.1590/2317-1782/20142014135|issn=2317-1782}}</ref> == History == Dyslexia wis clinically descrieved bi [[Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881, but the term ''dyslexia'' wis coined in 1883 bi [[Rudolf Berlin]], an [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologist]] in [[Stuttgart]]. He uised the term tae refer tae the case o a yung lad wha haed severe difficulty learnin tae read an write, in maugre o shawin teepical intelligence an pheesical abeelities in aw ither respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a Breetish physeecian frae [[Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description o a readin-speceefic learnin ail in a report tae the ''[[The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' titled "Congenital Word Blindness".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brooks|first=Patricia J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvfSAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR30|title=Encyclopedia of Language Development|last2=Kempe|first2=Vera|date=2014-03-28|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4833-4643-4|language=en}}</ref> The distinction atween phonological versus surface teeps o dyslexia is anly descriptive, an wioot ony etiological assumption as tae the unnerlyin harn mechanisms. Houiver, studies hae alludit tae potential differences owin tae variation in performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mishra|first=Srikanta K.|date=2014|title=Medial efferent mechanisms in children with auditory processing disorders|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4209830/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=860|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00860|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4209830|pmid=25386132}}</ref> Ower time, the consensus haes chynged frae an intelligence-based model tae an age-based model fur dyslexia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Al-Shidhani|first=Thuraya Ahmed|last2=Arora|first2=Vinita|date=2012|title=Understanding Dyslexia in Children through Human Development Theories|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3529662/|journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal|volume=12|issue=3|pages=286–294|doi=10.12816/0003141|issn=2075-0528|pmc=3529662|pmid=23269949}}</ref><ref name=":13" /> == Society an cultur == As is the case wi ony ail, society aften maks an assessment based on incomplete information. Afore the 1980s, dyslexia wis thoucht tae be a consequence o eddication, raither nor a neurological disabeelity. As a result, society aften misjudges thaim wi the ail.<ref name=":14" /> Thare is whiles a wirkplace stigma an negative attitude towards thir wi dyslexia an aa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Beer|first=Joost|last2=Engels|first2=Josephine|last3=Heerkens|first3=Yvonne|last4=van der Klink|first4=Jac|date=2014-01-24|title=Factors influencing work participation of adults with developmental dyslexia: a systematic review|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3913008/|journal=BMC public health|volume=14|pages=77|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-14-77|issn=1471-2458|pmc=3913008|pmid=24460949}}</ref> If the instructors o a person wi dyslexia lack the necessary trainin tae support a bairn wi the condeetion, thare is aften a negative effeck on the student's learnin pairteecipation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pino|first=Marco|last2=Mortari|first2=Luigina|date=2014-11-01|title=The inclusion of students with dyslexia in higher education: a systematic review using narrative synthesis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4253321/|journal=Dyslexia (Chichester, England)|volume=20|issue=4|pages=346–369|doi=10.1002/dys.1484|issn=1099-0909|pmc=4253321|pmid=25293652}}</ref> Syne at least the 1960s in the UK, the bairn diagnosed wi developmental dyslexia hae consistently been frae privileged faimilies.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news|last=Kale|first=Sirin|date=2020-09-17|title=The battle over dyslexia|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2020/sep/17/battle-over-dyslexia-warwickshire-staffordshire|access-date=2026-05-17|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Awthou hauf o preesoners in the UK hae signeeficant readin difficulties, gey few hae iver been evaluatit fur dyslexia.<ref name=":15" /> Access tae some special eddicational resoorces an fundin is contingent upon haein a diagnosis o dyslexia.<ref name=":15" /> As a result, whan [[Staffordshire]] an [[Warwickshire]] proponed in 2018 tae teach readin tae aw bairn wi readin difficulties, uisin techniques proven tae be successfu fur maist bairn wi a diagnosis o dyslexia, wioot furst requirin the faimilies tae obteen an offeecial diagnosis, dyslexia advocates an parents o bairn wi dyslexia wur fearfu that thay wur losin a privileged status.<ref name=":15" /> === Stigma an success === Owin tae the mony cognitive processes that dyslexia affecks an the owerwhelmin societal stigma athort the disabeelity, individuals wi dyslexia aften employ behaviours o sel-stigma an perfectionistic sel-presentation in order tae cope wi thair disabeelity.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Stoeber|first=Joachim|last2=Rountree|first2=Margaret L.|date=Februar 2021|title=Perfectionism, self‐stigma , and coping in students with dyslexia: The central role of perfectionistic self‐presentation|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dys.1666|journal=Dyslexia|language=en|volume=27|issue=1|pages=62–78|doi=10.1002/dys.1666|issn=1076-9242}}</ref> The perfectionist sel-presentation is whan an individual attempts tae present thaimsels as the perfect ideal eemage an hides ony imperfections.<ref name=":16" /> This behaviour presents serious risk as it aften results in mental heal issues an refusal tae seek help fur thair disabeelity.<ref name=":16" /> == Resairch == [[File:Writing Systems Template Image.svg|thumb|120px|Writin seestems]] Maist dyslexia resairch relates tae [[Alphabetic writin seestem|alphabetic writin seestems]], an inspecially tae [[Leids o Europe|European leids]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Reid|first=Gavin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrBQAmfXYooC&pg=PA16|title=The Routledge Companion to Dyslexia|date=2012-06-25|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-61710-2|language=en}}</ref> Houiver, substantial resairch is forby available regardin fowk wi dyslexia wha spik Arabic, Cheenese, Hebrew, or ither leids.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richlan|first=Fabio|date=2014|title=Functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: the role of orthographic depth|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4033006/|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|volume=8|pages=347|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00347|issn=1662-5161|pmc=4033006|pmid=24904383}}</ref> The ootward expression o individuals wi readin disabeelity, an regular peer readers, is the same in sum respects. == See an aw == * [[Dyscalculia]], difficulty comprehendin nummers an math * [[Readin|Learnin tae read]] * [[Orton-Gillingham]] * [[Structured literacy]] * [[Leet o fowk wi dyslexia]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further readin == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L | title = Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise | journal = Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews | volume = 84 | pages = 434–452 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28797557 | doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001 | s2cid = 33176236 }} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|first = Alan | last = Beaton |date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research| first = Thomas Richard | last = Miles |date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|author-link=Thomas Richard Miles}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice| vauthors = Reid G, Fawcett A |date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|first = Michael | last = Thomson |date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia| first = Gavin | last = Reid |date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties| first = Mark | last = Selikowitz |date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis| first = Andrew W. | last = Ellis |date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate| vauthors = Elliott JG, Grigorenko EL |date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|author-link=Julian Elliott}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD | title = Neurobiology of dyslexia | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 30 | pages = 73–8 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25290881 | pmc = 4293303 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007 | hdl = 1721.1/102416 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs V, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert N, Blatow M, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither S, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A | title = Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children | journal = Frontiers in Neuroscience | volume = 10 | page = 324 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27471442 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2016.00324 | pmc = 4945653 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo X, Zhang J, Song R | title = Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6 | article-number = 30454 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27464509 | pmc = 4964335 | doi = 10.1038/srep30454 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...630454S }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR | title = Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = 1137–44 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 26883091 | pmc = 4872837 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2015.277 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F | title = Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms | journal = Translational Psychiatry | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = e987 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28045463 | pmc = 5545717 | doi = 10.1038/tp.2016.240 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fraga González G, Žarić G, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW | title = Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies | journal = Brain Sciences | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 10 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28106790 | pmc = 5297299 | doi = 10.3390/brainsci7010010 | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC | title = Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment | journal = Epigenetics | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = 1023–9 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23949389 | pmc = 3891682 | doi = 10.4161/epi.26026 }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Vágvölgyi R, Coldea A, Dresler T, Schrader J, Nuerk HC | title = A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 7 | page = 1617 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27891100 | pmc = 5102880 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617 | doi-access = free }} {{refend}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q132971|q=no|c=category:Dyslexia|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=dyslexia}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Dyslexia| ]] [[Category:Leeteracy]] [[Category:Learnin tae read]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] [[Category:Readin (process)|*Dyslexia]] [[Category:Wikipaedia medicin airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Wikipaedia neurology airticles ready tae owerset]] [[Category:Writin]] 61cwoub31dtx2ectaj8nvdhm5byp19g Unitit States UAP files 0 233458 916945 916748 2026-05-18T09:51:28Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 2 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 916945 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fix Scots|date=Mey 2026}}[[File:UAP_Photo_December_2025.jpg|right|thumb|Photae lowsed 8 Mey 2026]] [[File:1952_UFO_Flap_-_Air_Force_frequency_graph_of_UFO_reports.png|thumb|Air Force frequency graph o UFO reports]] [[File:UFO_Sightings_by_Shape.svg|thumb|UFO sightings bi shape]] [[File:UFO_Sightings_Chart.jpg|thumb|A UFO sightings chairt]] The '''Unitit States UAP files''', forby kent as the '''UFO files''', are a collection o declassifee’d Unitit States govrenment records concernin unidentifee'd anomalous phenomena (UAPs) lowsed bi the admeenistration o [[Donald Trump]] beginnin on 8 Mey 2026, an annoonced tae continue as repeatin, ongaun, expandin lowses o UFO materials.<ref>{{Cite web|title=New UFO files released by U.S. government - CBS News|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/video/new-ufo-files-released-by-us-government/|access-date=2026-05-08|website=www.cbsnews.com|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="CNN UFO 2026-05-08">{{Cite web|date=2026-05-08|title=Pentagon releases ‘never-before-seen’ files detailin UFOs|url=https://www.cnn.com/2026/05/08/politics/ufo-files-pentagon-release-aliens|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260508150434/https://www.cnn.com/2026/05/08/politics/ufo-files-pentagon-release-aliens|archive-date=2026-05-08|access-date=2026-05-08|website=CNN|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Military UFOs 2026-05-08">{{Cite web|last=Radzius|first=Darius|date=2026-05-08|title=Trump Opens UFO Files in Historic Govrenment Release|url=https://www.military.com/trump-opens-ufo-files-in-historic-government-release|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260509030757/https://www.military.com/trump-opens-ufo-files-in-historic-government-release|archive-date=2026-05-09|access-date=2026-05-08|website=Military.com|language=en}}</ref> The files wis published throu the Presidential Unsealin an Reportin Seestem fur UAP Encoonters (PURSUE), a [[Govrenment o the Unitit States|govrenment]] wabsteid creatit tae lowse reviewed UAP-relatit material tae the public.<ref>{{Cite web|date=May 8, 2026|title=Presidential Unsealin an Reportin System for UAP Encounters (PURSUE)|url=https://www.war.gov/UFO/|url-status=live|website=U.S. Department of War}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The furst tranche includit reports, photographs, videos, witness accoonts, military records, astronaut transcripts, an ither historical materials connectit tae unresolved sightings an investigations frae 1947 tae recent years.<ref name="Time">{{cite news|last=Kluger|first=Jeffrey|author-link=|date=May 11, 2026|title=The Pentagon Just Released Ower a Hunder UFO Files. Here's What We Foond Inside|work=Time (magazine){{!}}Time|url=https://time.com/article/2026/05/11/whats-inside-new-government-ufo-files/|url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2026}}</ref><ref name="The Independent">{{cite news|last=Hawkinson|first=Katie|date=May 8, 2026|title=Buzz Aldrin's 'unusual' sightings an photos frae the moon landins. Whit we learned frae the first batch o the UFO files|work=The Independent|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/ufo-files-sightings-nasa-moon-landing-photos-b2973322.html|url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2026}}</ref> The initial lowse follaed years o renewed U.S govrenment an congressional attention tae UAPs, includin the public disclosur o the Pentagon UFO videos, the creation o the Aw-domain Anomaly Resolution Office (AARO), congressional hearins, an pressur frae memmers o Congress wha argued that the govrenment shoud disclose mair information aboot UFOs an alleged extraterrestrial maiters.<ref name="WAPO UFO 2026-05-08">{{Cite news|last=Diamond|first=Dan|date=2026-05-08|title=Trump releases UFO files, says public can judge for theirsels|language=en-US|work=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2026/05/08/trump-ufo-files-release/|url-access=subscription|access-date=2026-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260511215734/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2026/05/08/trump-ufo-files-release/|archive-date=2026-05-11|issn=0190-8286|quote=The release also follows years o news reports an govrenment releases that hae shifted officials’ willingness tae openly engage wi the possibility o extraterrestrial life. Beginnin in 2017, the New York Times an ither media outlets hae run reports on secret federal programmes that hae studied unusual, seemingly inexplicable phenomena. Govrenment agencies hae released videos o aircraft that appeared tae defy the laws o physics. Even past presidents hae acknowledged their questions aboot potential govrenment cover-ups.}}</ref><ref name="Military UFOs 2026-05-08" /> In Februar 2026, Trump directit federal agencies tae identify an declassify records connectit tae UFOs, UAPs, an extraterrestrials.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Diamond|first1=Dan|date=February 19, 2026|title=Trump says he will release govrenment files on alien life, UFOs|work=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2026/02/19/trump-obama-ufo-classified/|url-status=live|access-date=May 8, 2026}}</ref> The furst tranche o records did nae confirm the existence o extraterrestrial life. The Pentagon descrieved the lowsed materials as unresolved cases fur that the govrenment coud nae mak a definitive determination based on available evidence, that some scientists an sceptics said mony files wur ambiguous, previously public, or potentially exponable as camera artefacts, balloons, debris, or unreliable eewitness accoonts.<ref name="WAPO UFO 2026-05-08" /><ref name="apn">{{cite news|last1=Binkley|first1=Collin|date=May 8, 2026|title=Bright lichts an hot orbs: UFO files shed licht on sightings but leave interpretation tae the public|work=[[Associated Press]]|url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-ufos-uap-aliens-pentagon-records-investigation-3e658d2cf3742465127c0049c872240a|access-date=May 8, 2026}}</ref> == Backgrund == Belief that the U.S Govrenment is concealn information relatit tae non-human intelligence, aliens or extraterrestrials veesitin [[Yird]] is a lang-runnin conspiracy theory.<ref>{{cite web|title=UFO Evidence an Censorship|url=https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/visual-arts/ufo-evidence-and-censorship|url-status=live|access-date=May 8, 2026|website=Research Starters|publisher=EBSCO Information Services{{!}}EBSCO}}</ref> Beginnin in 2017, the ''[[New York Times]]'' an ither ootlets disclosed the Pentagon UFO videos an secret govrenment programmes tae investigate “unuisual, seemingly inexplicable phenomena”.<ref name="WAPO UFO 2026-05-08" /> In 2022, [[NASA]] conductit an inquiry intae potential alien veesitation an foond nae evidence fur it. In 2024, the U.S Depairtment o Defense said it haed nae information confirmn extraterrestrial life.<ref name="apn" /> == Conspiracy theories == Some conspiracy theories claim govrenments are concealn evidence o UFOs operatit bi extraterrestrial intelligence. Scientists an sceptics say thare is wee evidence an that claims rely on speculation an misidentifee'd observations. == Initial 8 Mey 2026 release == The 8 Mey 2026 lowse wis the furst PURSUE tranche o declassifee’d records. Offeecials descrieved it as the stairt o a rollin disclosur process. === Details === The Depairtment o Defense launched PURSUE tae lowse UFO-relatit data.<ref name="Military UFOs 2026-05-08" /> The files includit reports, videos, Apollo mission transcripts, an military accoonts. Some descrieved unexpleened objecks muivin in unuisual weys. The Pentagon said mony cases remain unresolved owin tae lack o data. Amang materials wis Apollo mission photaes an astronaut accoonts. Buzz Aldrin descrieved unuisual lichts observed durin missions. Some eemages shawed unexpleened objecks near the Muin. === Public reception === Reaction wis mixed. Some memmers o the public demaundit mair evidence, whiles offeecials said the files did nae confirm extraterrestrial life. ==== Govrenment offeecials ==== Some poleeticians creeticised the lowse, sayin it lacked definitive evidence. ==== Media ==== Media reactions wis mixed, wi some sayin the files contained awready-kent material. ==== Scientists ==== Scientists generally said the evidence wis inconclusive or exponable bi naitural or technical causes. ==== Sceptics ==== Sceptics said the files contained wee new information. == Planned Juin 2026 release == Further lowses are expectit 30 days efter the furst tranche. == References == <references /> == Fremmit airtins == [https://www.war.gov/ufo/ U.S Department of Defense official website (UFO section)]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[Category:NASA]] [[Category:Donald Trump]] qvtfhvpmsbbllhwm90nfegolz4gtt09 Uiser collogue:Mangwanani 3 233475 916901 2026-05-17T19:36:12Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 Walcome tae the Scots Wikipaedia ! 916901 wikitext text/x-wiki ==''Walcome!''== Hullo, Mangwanani, an [[Wikipedia:Walcome, ane an aw|walcome]] til the Wikipedie! Guid tae see ye. Thank ye for [[Special:Contributions/Mangwanani|yer contribution]]. Some gibbles ye'll find uissfu: * [[Wikipedia:Aboot|Aboot Wikipedie]] – whit it is an isna. * [[Wikipedia:Five pillars|The five pillars o Wikipaedia]] * [[Wikipedia:Lessons (Editin)|Hou tae edit a page]] an [[Wikipedia:Lessons (Stairt an airticle)|Stairtin airticles]] – gang til the [[Wikipedia:Lessons|Wikipedie Lessons]]. * [[Wikipedia:Mercat Cross|Mercat Cross]] – tae caw the crack anent the technical wirkins here * [[Wikipedia:Spellin an grammar]] – gin yer interestit in writin airticles Bi gaun throu the [[Wikipedia:Commonty Yett|Commontie Yett]] ye'll can find aw kynd o wittins adae wi uisin an eikin til the Wikipedie. For tae hae a sey shottie, veesit oor [[Wikipedia:Saundpit|Saundpit]]. '''Dinna haud yer wheesht, haud yer ain!'''<!--Template:Walcome--> [[Uiser:Mr.Murdoch78|Mr.Murdoch78]] ([[Uiser collogue:Mr.Murdoch78|tauk]]) 19:36, 17 Mey 2026 (UTC) e0p2mwkeeud1yru3iuy0dgx5dwt04lk Developmental coordination ail 0 233476 916915 2026-05-17T22:55:13Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 NOTE: This airtin haes been owersettit frae the existin Inglis Wikipaedia airtin at [[:en:Developmental coordination disorder]]; see its history fur attreibution 916915 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Developmental coordination''' '''ail''' ('''DCA'''), forby kent as '''developmental motor coordination''' '''ail''', '''developmental dyspraxia''', or simply '''dyspraxia''' (frae Auncient Greek ''praxis'' 'activity'), is a motor ail chairacterised bi impairt coordination o pheesical muivements as a result o harn messages nae bein accurately transmittit tae the bouk. Deficits in fine or gross motor skeels muivements interfere wi activities o daily livin. It is aften descrieved as ail in skeel acquisition, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Difficulties mey present as clumsiness, slawness an inaccuracy o performance o motor skeels (e.g., catchin objecks, uisin cutlery, haundwritin, ridin a bike, uise o tuils or pairteecipatin in team sports or soummin). It is aften accompanee'd bi difficulty wi organisation an/or problems wi attention, wirkin memory an time management. A diagnosis o DCD is reached anly in the absence o ither neurological impairments sic as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson's dishailth. The condeetion is lifelang an its onset is in early bairnheid. It is thoucht tae affeck aboot 5% o the population. Occupational therapy can help fowk wi dyspraxia tae develop thair coordination an achieve things that thay micht itherwise find extremely challengin tae accomplish. Dyspraxia haes naething tae dae wi intelligence but fowk wi dyspraxia mey struggle wi sel-esteem acause thair peers can easily dae things thay struggle wi on a daily basis. Dyspraxia is nae aften kent as a disabeelity in the general public. == Signs an symptoms == The Warld Heal Organisation (WHO) recognises DCA as a condeetion an hae published thair defineetion in the Internaitional Clessification o Dishailths. The American Psychiatric Association (APA)'s Diagnostic an Stateestical Manual, DSM-5 clessifies Developmental Coordination Ail (DCA) as a discrete motor ail unner the broader heidin o neurodevelopmental ails. It is aften descrieved as a ail in skeel acquisition or motor learnin, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Mony areas o development can be affeckit bi DCA an thir mey persist intae adultheid. In bairn, DCA mey exhibit as delays in early development o sittin, crawlin, walkin; peer abeelity or difficulties wi bairnheid activities sic as rinnin, jumpin, happin, catchin, sports an soummin; slawness; frequent trippin an bruisin; peer haundwritin skeels; difficulties wi sel care; difficulties wi skeels sic as uisin cutlery or tyin shaelaces; peer spatial unnerstaundin; difficulty follaein instructions; peer time management; an aften losin objecks. In adultheid, in addeetion tae a bairnheid history as abuin, the condeetion mey manifest as a difficulty learnin new motor skeels or applyin skeels in a different or busy environment, peer organisation an time management skeels, missed deidlines an lateness fur appyntments (or earliness as a copin strategy), an awkward pauses afore answerin in conversation. Thare is aften a history o unnerachievement in eddication or the wirkplace. Awthou skeels can be acquired, sic as neat haundwritin, haundwritin speed will then be muckle lower nor expectit. enccn0q4frxbuu4ldzelx8xn2p9njn8 916916 916915 2026-05-17T23:10:48Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916916 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Developmental coordination''' '''ail''' ('''DCA'''), forby kent as '''developmental motor coordination''' '''ail''', '''developmental dyspraxia''', or simply '''dyspraxia''' (frae Auncient Greek ''praxis'' 'activity'), is a motor ail chairacterised bi impairt coordination o pheesical muivements as a result o harn messages nae bein accurately transmittit tae the bouk. Deficits in fine or gross motor skeels muivements interfere wi activities o daily livin. It is aften descrieved as ail in skeel acquisition, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Difficulties mey present as clumsiness, slawness an inaccuracy o performance o motor skeels (e.g., catchin objecks, uisin cutlery, haundwritin, ridin a bike, uise o tuils or pairteecipatin in team sports or soummin). It is aften accompanee'd bi difficulty wi organisation an/or problems wi attention, wirkin memory an time management. A diagnosis o DCD is reached anly in the absence o ither neurological impairments sic as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson's dishailth. The condeetion is lifelang an its onset is in early bairnheid. It is thoucht tae affeck aboot 5% o the population. Occupational therapy can help fowk wi dyspraxia tae develop thair coordination an achieve things that thay micht itherwise find extremely challengin tae accomplish. Dyspraxia haes naething tae dae wi intelligence but fowk wi dyspraxia mey struggle wi sel-esteem acause thair peers can easily dae things thay struggle wi on a daily basis. Dyspraxia is nae aften kent as a disabeelity in the general public. == Signs an symptoms == The Warld Heal Organisation (WHO) recognises DCA as a condeetion an hae published thair defineetion in the Internaitional Clessification o Dishailths. The American Psychiatric Association (APA)'s Diagnostic an Stateestical Manual, DSM-5 clessifies Developmental Coordination Ail (DCA) as a discrete motor ail unner the broader heidin o neurodevelopmental ails. It is aften descrieved as a ail in skeel acquisition or motor learnin, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Mony areas o development can be affeckit bi DCA an thir mey persist intae adultheid. In bairn, DCA mey exhibit as delays in early development o sittin, crawlin, walkin; peer abeelity or difficulties wi bairnheid activities sic as rinnin, jumpin, happin, catchin, sports an soummin; slawness; frequent trippin an bruisin; peer haundwritin skeels; difficulties wi sel care; difficulties wi skeels sic as uisin cutlery or tyin shaelaces; peer spatial unnerstaundin; difficulty follaein instructions; peer time management; an aften losin objecks. In adultheid, in addeetion tae a bairnheid history as abuin, the condeetion mey manifest as a difficulty learnin new motor skeels or applyin skeels in a different or busy environment, peer organisation an time management skeels, missed deidlines an lateness fur appyntments (or earliness as a copin strategy), an awkward pauses afore answerin in conversation. Thare is aften a history o unnerachievement in eddication or the wirkplace. Awthou skeels can be acquired, sic as neat haundwritin, haundwritin speed will then be muckle lower nor expectit. Evidence frae resairch an clinical practice indicates that DCA is nae juist a pheesical ail, an thare mey be deficits in executive functions, behavioural organisation an emotional regulation that extend furth the motor impairments an that are independent o diagnoses o co-morbidities. In addeetion tae the pheesical or motor impairments, developmental coordination ail is associatit wi problems wi memory, inspecially wirkin memory. This teepically results in difficulty myndin instructions, difficulty organisin ane's time an myndin deidlines, increased propensity tae lose things or problems carryin oot tasks that require myndin seevral steps in sequence (sic as cuikin). Whilst maist o the general population experience thir problems tae some extent, thay hae a muckle mair signeeficant impact on the lives o dyspraxic fowk. Houiver, mony dyspraxics hae excellent lang-term memories, in maugre o peer short-term memory. Mony dyspraxic fowk benefit frae wirkin in a structured environment, as repeatin the same routine minimises difficulty wi time-management an allous thaim tae commit procedurs tae lang-term memory. Fowk wi developmental coordination ail whiles hae difficulty moderatin the amoont o sensory information that thair bouk is constantly sendin thaim, sae as a result thir dyspraxic fowk mey be prone tae sensory owerload an panic attacks. Moderate tae extreme difficulty daein pheesical tasks is experienced bi some fowk wi dyspraxia, an fatigue is common acause sae muckle energy is expendit tryin tae execute pheesical muivements correctly. Some dyspraxic fowk hae hypotonia, low muscle tone, that can detrimentally affeck balance an aa. m9lyao286bgri15soqou38v1ldg8odw 916917 916916 2026-05-17T23:34:40Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916917 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Developmental coordination''' '''ail''' ('''DCA'''), forby kent as '''developmental motor coordination''' '''ail''', '''developmental dyspraxia''', or simply '''dyspraxia''' (frae Auncient Greek ''praxis'' 'activity'), is a motor ail chairacterised bi impairt coordination o pheesical muivements as a result o harn messages nae bein accurately transmittit tae the bouk. Deficits in fine or gross motor skeels muivements interfere wi activities o daily livin. It is aften descrieved as ail in skeel acquisition, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Difficulties mey present as clumsiness, slawness an inaccuracy o performance o motor skeels (e.g., catchin objecks, uisin cutlery, haundwritin, ridin a bike, uise o tuils or pairteecipatin in team sports or soummin). It is aften accompanee'd bi difficulty wi organisation an/or problems wi attention, wirkin memory an time management. A diagnosis o DCD is reached anly in the absence o ither neurological impairments sic as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson's dishailth. The condeetion is lifelang an its onset is in early bairnheid. It is thoucht tae affeck aboot 5% o the population. Occupational therapy can help fowk wi dyspraxia tae develop thair coordination an achieve things that thay micht itherwise find extremely challengin tae accomplish. Dyspraxia haes naething tae dae wi intelligence but fowk wi dyspraxia mey struggle wi sel-esteem acause thair peers can easily dae things thay struggle wi on a daily basis. Dyspraxia is nae aften kent as a disabeelity in the general public. == Signs an symptoms == The Warld Heal Organisation (WHO) recognises DCA as a condeetion an hae published thair defineetion in the Internaitional Clessification o Dishailths. The American Psychiatric Association (APA)'s Diagnostic an Stateestical Manual, DSM-5 clessifies Developmental Coordination Ail (DCA) as a discrete motor ail unner the broader heidin o neurodevelopmental ails. It is aften descrieved as a ail in skeel acquisition or motor learnin, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Mony areas o development can be affeckit bi DCA an thir mey persist intae adultheid. In bairn, DCA mey exhibit as delays in early development o sittin, crawlin, walkin; peer abeelity or difficulties wi bairnheid activities sic as rinnin, jumpin, happin, catchin, sports an soummin; slawness; frequent trippin an bruisin; peer haundwritin skeels; difficulties wi sel care; difficulties wi skeels sic as uisin cutlery or tyin shaelaces; peer spatial unnerstaundin; difficulty follaein instructions; peer time management; an aften losin objecks. In adultheid, in addeetion tae a bairnheid history as abuin, the condeetion mey manifest as a difficulty learnin new motor skeels or applyin skeels in a different or busy environment, peer organisation an time management skeels, missed deidlines an lateness fur appyntments (or earliness as a copin strategy), an awkward pauses afore answerin in conversation. Thare is aften a history o unnerachievement in eddication or the wirkplace. Awthou skeels can be acquired, sic as neat haundwritin, haundwritin speed will then be muckle lower nor expectit. Evidence frae resairch an clinical practice indicates that DCA is nae juist a pheesical ail, an thare mey be deficits in executive functions, behavioural organisation an emotional regulation that extend furth the motor impairments an that are independent o diagnoses o co-morbidities. In addeetion tae the pheesical or motor impairments, developmental coordination ail is associatit wi problems wi memory, inspecially wirkin memory. This teepically results in difficulty myndin instructions, difficulty organisin ane's time an myndin deidlines, increased propensity tae lose things or problems carryin oot tasks that require myndin seevral steps in sequence (sic as cuikin). Whilst maist o the general population experience thir problems tae some extent, thay hae a muckle mair signeeficant impact on the lives o dyspraxic fowk. Houiver, mony dyspraxics hae excellent lang-term memories, in maugre o peer short-term memory. Mony dyspraxic fowk benefit frae wirkin in a structured environment, as repeatin the same routine minimises difficulty wi time-management an allous thaim tae commit procedurs tae lang-term memory. Fowk wi developmental coordination ail whiles hae difficulty moderatin the amoont o sensory information that thair bouk is constantly sendin thaim, sae as a result thir dyspraxic fowk mey be prone tae sensory owerload an panic attacks. Moderate tae extreme difficulty daein pheesical tasks is experienced bi some fowk wi dyspraxia, an fatigue is common acause sae muckle energy is expendit tryin tae execute pheesical muivements correctly. Some dyspraxic fowk hae hypotonia, low muscle tone, that can detrimentally affeck balance an aa. === Gross motor control === Hale bouk muivement an motor coordination issues mean that major developmental targets includin walkin, rinnin, climbin an jumpin can be affeckit. The difficulties vary frae person tae person an can include the follaein: * Peer timin. * Peer balance (whiles even fawin ower in mid-step). Trippin ower ane's awn feet is common an aa. * Difficulty combinin muivements intae a controlled sequence. * Difficulty myndin the nixt muivement in a sequence. * Problems wi spatial awareness, or proprioception. * Trouble pickin up an hauldin ontae simple objecks sic as pincils, owin tae peer muscle tone or proprioception. * Clumsiness tae the pynt o knockin things ower, causin minor injuries tae anesel an bumpin intae fowk accidentally. * Difficulty in determinin left frae richt. * Cross-laterality, ambidexterity, an a shift in the preferred haund are common in fowk wi developmental coordination ail an aa. * Problems wi chewin fuids. === Fine motor control === Fine-motor problems can cause difficulty wi a wide variety o ither tasks sic as uisin a knife an fork, fastenin buttons an shaelaces, cuikin, brushin tuith, stylin hair, shavin, applyin cosmetics, appenin jars an packets, lackin an unlackin duirs, an daein hoosewirk. Difficulties wi fine motor co-ordination lead tae problems wi haundwritin, Problems associatit wi this area mey include: * Learnin basic muivement patterns. * Developin a desired writin speed. * Establishin the correct pincil grip. * Haundwritin that is difficult tae read an mey miss wirds in sentences or place wirds in the incorrect order * Acquirin graphemes, e.g. the letters o the Laitin alphabet, as weel as nummers. === Developmental verbal dyspraxia === Developmental verbal dyspraxia (DVD) is a teep o ideational dyspraxia, causin speech an leid impairments. This is the favoured term in the UK; houiver, it is whiles referred tae as airticulatory dyspraxia an aa, an in the Unitit States the uisual term is bairnheid apraxia o speech (BAS). Key problems include: * Difficulties controllin the speech organs. * Difficulties makin speech soonds. * Difficulty sequencin soonds athin a wird. * Difficulty sequencin soonds formin wirds intae sentences. * Difficulty controllin breithin, suppressin salivation an phonation whan taukin or singin wi leerics. * Slaw leid development. === Associatit ails an secondary consequences === DCA is kent tae co-occur wi ither neurodevelopmental ails. Maist common is attention deficit hyperactivity ail (ADHA), wi an estimatit 50% o fowk wi ADHA haein DCA an aa, an vice versa. Ither co-occurrin condeetions are autism, developmental leid ail, prosopagnosia an developmental learnin ail. Fowk wha hae developmental coordination ail mey hae ane or mair o thir ither co-morbid condeetions: * Fetal alcohol spectrum ail * Dyscalculia (difficulty wi nummers) * Dysgraphia (an inabeelity tae write neatly or draw) * Dyslexia (difficulty wi readin an spellin) * Hypermobility * Hypotonia (low muscle tone) * Nonverbal learnin ail * Sensory processin ail * Veesual perception deficits Houiver, a person wi DCA is unlikely tae hae aw o thir condeetions. The pattern o difficulty varies widely frae person tae person; an area o major weakness fur ane dyspraxic person can be an area o strenth or gift fur anither. Fur ensaumple, whiles some dyspraxic fowk hae difficulty wi readin an spellin owin tae dyslexia, or wi numeracy owin tae dyscalculia, ithers mey hae brilliant readin an spellin or mathematical abeelities. Co-morbidity atween ADHA an DCA is pairticulairly heich. k624sifqdvsa5weh5h31v06hwbgtv3t 916918 916917 2026-05-17T23:40:21Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916918 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Developmental coordination ail | synonyms = Developmental motor coordination ail, dyspraxia | field = [[Psychiatry]], [[neurology]] | symptoms = Motor skeels deficit an informational processin difficulties | complications = Learnin difficulties, low sel-esteem, wee tae nae engagement in pheesical activities lik sports, leadin tae [[obesity]] | onset = syne birth | duration = Lifelang | treatment = Pheesical therapy, occupational therapy | frequency = 5–6% (o aw age groups) | differential = Motor impairments owin tae anither medical condeetion, [[autism]], [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]], [[dysgraphia]], [[jynt hypermobility syndrome]], [[hypotonia]], [[fetal alcohol spectrum ail]] | image = File:Black Chuck Taylors.jpg | alt = Shaes wi unduin laces | caption = Mony fowk wi dyspraxia hae difficulty wi tyin shaelaces, writin, an performin tasks that require coordination. }} '''Developmental coordination''' '''ail''' ('''DCA'''), forby kent as '''developmental motor coordination''' '''ail''', '''developmental dyspraxia''', or simply '''dyspraxia''' (frae Auncient Greek ''praxis'' 'activity'), is a motor ail chairacterised bi impairt coordination o pheesical muivements as a result o harn messages nae bein accurately transmittit tae the bouk. Deficits in fine or gross motor skeels muivements interfere wi activities o daily livin. It is aften descrieved as ail in skeel acquisition, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Difficulties mey present as clumsiness, slawness an inaccuracy o performance o motor skeels (e.g., catchin objecks, uisin cutlery, haundwritin, ridin a bike, uise o tuils or pairteecipatin in team sports or soummin). It is aften accompanee'd bi difficulty wi organisation an/or problems wi attention, wirkin memory an time management. A diagnosis o DCD is reached anly in the absence o ither neurological impairments sic as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson's dishailth. The condeetion is lifelang an its onset is in early bairnheid. It is thoucht tae affeck aboot 5% o the population. Occupational therapy can help fowk wi dyspraxia tae develop thair coordination an achieve things that thay micht itherwise find extremely challengin tae accomplish. Dyspraxia haes naething tae dae wi intelligence but fowk wi dyspraxia mey struggle wi sel-esteem acause thair peers can easily dae things thay struggle wi on a daily basis. Dyspraxia is nae aften kent as a disabeelity in the general public. == Signs an symptoms == The Warld Heal Organisation (WHO) recognises DCA as a condeetion an hae published thair defineetion in the Internaitional Clessification o Dishailths. The American Psychiatric Association (APA)'s Diagnostic an Stateestical Manual, DSM-5 clessifies Developmental Coordination Ail (DCA) as a discrete motor ail unner the broader heidin o neurodevelopmental ails. It is aften descrieved as a ail in skeel acquisition or motor learnin, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Mony areas o development can be affeckit bi DCA an thir mey persist intae adultheid. In bairn, DCA mey exhibit as delays in early development o sittin, crawlin, walkin; peer abeelity or difficulties wi bairnheid activities sic as rinnin, jumpin, happin, catchin, sports an soummin; slawness; frequent trippin an bruisin; peer haundwritin skeels; difficulties wi sel care; difficulties wi skeels sic as uisin cutlery or tyin shaelaces; peer spatial unnerstaundin; difficulty follaein instructions; peer time management; an aften losin objecks. In adultheid, in addeetion tae a bairnheid history as abuin, the condeetion mey manifest as a difficulty learnin new motor skeels or applyin skeels in a different or busy environment, peer organisation an time management skeels, missed deidlines an lateness fur appyntments (or earliness as a copin strategy), an awkward pauses afore answerin in conversation. Thare is aften a history o unnerachievement in eddication or the wirkplace. Awthou skeels can be acquired, sic as neat haundwritin, haundwritin speed will then be muckle lower nor expectit. Evidence frae resairch an clinical practice indicates that DCA is nae juist a pheesical ail, an thare mey be deficits in executive functions, behavioural organisation an emotional regulation that extend furth the motor impairments an that are independent o diagnoses o co-morbidities. In addeetion tae the pheesical or motor impairments, developmental coordination ail is associatit wi problems wi memory, inspecially wirkin memory. This teepically results in difficulty myndin instructions, difficulty organisin ane's time an myndin deidlines, increased propensity tae lose things or problems carryin oot tasks that require myndin seevral steps in sequence (sic as cuikin). Whilst maist o the general population experience thir problems tae some extent, thay hae a muckle mair signeeficant impact on the lives o dyspraxic fowk. Houiver, mony dyspraxics hae excellent lang-term memories, in maugre o peer short-term memory. Mony dyspraxic fowk benefit frae wirkin in a structured environment, as repeatin the same routine minimises difficulty wi time-management an allous thaim tae commit procedurs tae lang-term memory. Fowk wi developmental coordination ail whiles hae difficulty moderatin the amoont o sensory information that thair bouk is constantly sendin thaim, sae as a result thir dyspraxic fowk mey be prone tae sensory owerload an panic attacks. Moderate tae extreme difficulty daein pheesical tasks is experienced bi some fowk wi dyspraxia, an fatigue is common acause sae muckle energy is expendit tryin tae execute pheesical muivements correctly. Some dyspraxic fowk hae hypotonia, low muscle tone, that can detrimentally affeck balance an aa. === Gross motor control === Hale bouk muivement an motor coordination issues mean that major developmental targets includin walkin, rinnin, climbin an jumpin can be affeckit. The difficulties vary frae person tae person an can include the follaein: * Peer timin. * Peer balance (whiles even fawin ower in mid-step). Trippin ower ane's awn feet is common an aa. * Difficulty combinin muivements intae a controlled sequence. * Difficulty myndin the nixt muivement in a sequence. * Problems wi spatial awareness, or proprioception. * Trouble pickin up an hauldin ontae simple objecks sic as pincils, owin tae peer muscle tone or proprioception. * Clumsiness tae the pynt o knockin things ower, causin minor injuries tae anesel an bumpin intae fowk accidentally. * Difficulty in determinin left frae richt. * Cross-laterality, ambidexterity, an a shift in the preferred haund are common in fowk wi developmental coordination ail an aa. * Problems wi chewin fuids. === Fine motor control === Fine-motor problems can cause difficulty wi a wide variety o ither tasks sic as uisin a knife an fork, fastenin buttons an shaelaces, cuikin, brushin tuith, stylin hair, shavin, applyin cosmetics, appenin jars an packets, lackin an unlackin duirs, an daein hoosewirk. Difficulties wi fine motor co-ordination lead tae problems wi haundwritin, Problems associatit wi this area mey include: * Learnin basic muivement patterns. * Developin a desired writin speed. * Establishin the correct pincil grip. * Haundwritin that is difficult tae read an mey miss wirds in sentences or place wirds in the incorrect order * Acquirin graphemes, e.g. the letters o the Laitin alphabet, as weel as nummers. === Developmental verbal dyspraxia === Developmental verbal dyspraxia (DVD) is a teep o ideational dyspraxia, causin speech an leid impairments. This is the favoured term in the UK; houiver, it is whiles referred tae as airticulatory dyspraxia an aa, an in the Unitit States the uisual term is bairnheid apraxia o speech (BAS). Key problems include: * Difficulties controllin the speech organs. * Difficulties makin speech soonds. * Difficulty sequencin soonds athin a wird. * Difficulty sequencin soonds formin wirds intae sentences. * Difficulty controllin breithin, suppressin salivation an phonation whan taukin or singin wi leerics. * Slaw leid development. === Associatit ails an secondary consequences === DCA is kent tae co-occur wi ither neurodevelopmental ails. Maist common is attention deficit hyperactivity ail (ADHA), wi an estimatit 50% o fowk wi ADHA haein DCA an aa, an vice versa. Ither co-occurrin condeetions are autism, developmental leid ail, prosopagnosia an developmental learnin ail. Fowk wha hae developmental coordination ail mey hae ane or mair o thir ither co-morbid condeetions: * Fetal alcohol spectrum ail * Dyscalculia (difficulty wi nummers) * Dysgraphia (an inabeelity tae write neatly or draw) * Dyslexia (difficulty wi readin an spellin) * Hypermobility * Hypotonia (low muscle tone) * Nonverbal learnin ail * Sensory processin ail * Veesual perception deficits Houiver, a person wi DCA is unlikely tae hae aw o thir condeetions. The pattern o difficulty varies widely frae person tae person; an area o major weakness fur ane dyspraxic person can be an area o strenth or gift fur anither. Fur ensaumple, whiles some dyspraxic fowk hae difficulty wi readin an spellin owin tae dyslexia, or wi numeracy owin tae dyscalculia, ithers mey hae brilliant readin an spellin or mathematical abeelities. Co-morbidity atween ADHA an DCA is pairticulairly heich. 2z6yij1bqvxfm9elbemq80s2b70nq7x 916919 916918 2026-05-18T00:01:40Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916919 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Developmental coordination ail | synonyms = Developmental motor coordination ail, dyspraxia | field = [[Psychiatry]], [[neurology]] | symptoms = Motor skeels deficit an informational processin difficulties | complications = Learnin difficulties, low sel-esteem, wee tae nae engagement in pheesical activities lik sports, leadin tae [[obesity]] | onset = syne birth | duration = Lifelang | treatment = Pheesical therapy, occupational therapy | frequency = 5–6% (o aw age groups) | differential = Motor impairments owin tae anither medical condeetion, [[autism]], [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]], [[dysgraphia]], [[jynt hypermobility syndrome]], [[hypotonia]], [[fetal alcohol spectrum ail]] | image = File:Black Chuck Taylors.jpg | alt = Shaes wi unduin laces | caption = Mony fowk wi dyspraxia hae difficulty wi tyin shaelaces, writin, an performin tasks that require coordination. }} '''Developmental coordination''' '''ail''' ('''DCA'''), forby kent as '''developmental motor coordination''' '''ail''', '''developmental dyspraxia''', or simply '''dyspraxia''' (frae Auncient Greek ''praxis'' 'activity'), is a motor ail chairacterised bi impairt coordination o pheesical muivements as a result o harn messages nae bein accurately transmittit tae the bouk. Deficits in fine or gross motor skeels muivements interfere wi activities o daily livin. It is aften descrieved as ail in skeel acquisition, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Difficulties mey present as clumsiness, slawness an inaccuracy o performance o motor skeels (e.g., catchin objecks, uisin cutlery, haundwritin, ridin a bike, uise o tuils or pairteecipatin in team sports or soummin). It is aften accompanee'd bi difficulty wi organisation an/or problems wi attention, wirkin memory an time management. A diagnosis o DCD is reached anly in the absence o ither neurological impairments sic as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson's dishailth. The condeetion is lifelang an its onset is in early bairnheid. It is thoucht tae affeck aboot 5% o the population. Occupational therapy can help fowk wi dyspraxia tae develop thair coordination an achieve things that thay micht itherwise find extremely challengin tae accomplish. Dyspraxia haes naething tae dae wi intelligence but fowk wi dyspraxia mey struggle wi sel-esteem acause thair peers can easily dae things thay struggle wi on a daily basis. Dyspraxia is nae aften kent as a disabeelity in the general public. == Signs an symptoms == The Warld Heal Organisation (WHO) recognises DCA as a condeetion an hae published thair defineetion in the Internaitional Clessification o Dishailths. The American Psychiatric Association (APA)'s Diagnostic an Stateestical Manual, DSM-5 clessifies Developmental Coordination Ail (DCA) as a discrete motor ail unner the broader heidin o neurodevelopmental ails. It is aften descrieved as a ail in skeel acquisition or motor learnin, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Mony areas o development can be affeckit bi DCA an thir mey persist intae adultheid. In bairn, DCA mey exhibit as delays in early development o sittin, crawlin, walkin; peer abeelity or difficulties wi bairnheid activities sic as rinnin, jumpin, happin, catchin, sports an soummin; slawness; frequent trippin an bruisin; peer haundwritin skeels; difficulties wi sel care; difficulties wi skeels sic as uisin cutlery or tyin shaelaces; peer spatial unnerstaundin; difficulty follaein instructions; peer time management; an aften losin objecks. In adultheid, in addeetion tae a bairnheid history as abuin, the condeetion mey manifest as a difficulty learnin new motor skeels or applyin skeels in a different or busy environment, peer organisation an time management skeels, missed deidlines an lateness fur appyntments (or earliness as a copin strategy), an awkward pauses afore answerin in conversation. Thare is aften a history o unnerachievement in eddication or the wirkplace. Awthou skeels can be acquired, sic as neat haundwritin, haundwritin speed will then be muckle lower nor expectit. Evidence frae resairch an clinical practice indicates that DCA is nae juist a pheesical ail, an thare mey be deficits in executive functions, behavioural organisation an emotional regulation that extend furth the motor impairments an that are independent o diagnoses o co-morbidities. In addeetion tae the pheesical or motor impairments, developmental coordination ail is associatit wi problems wi memory, inspecially wirkin memory. This teepically results in difficulty myndin instructions, difficulty organisin ane's time an myndin deidlines, increased propensity tae lose things or problems carryin oot tasks that require myndin seevral steps in sequence (sic as cuikin). Whilst maist o the general population experience thir problems tae some extent, thay hae a muckle mair signeeficant impact on the lives o dyspraxic fowk. Houiver, mony dyspraxics hae excellent lang-term memories, in maugre o peer short-term memory. Mony dyspraxic fowk benefit frae wirkin in a structured environment, as repeatin the same routine minimises difficulty wi time-management an allous thaim tae commit procedurs tae lang-term memory. Fowk wi developmental coordination ail whiles hae difficulty moderatin the amoont o sensory information that thair bouk is constantly sendin thaim, sae as a result thir dyspraxic fowk mey be prone tae sensory owerload an panic attacks. Moderate tae extreme difficulty daein pheesical tasks is experienced bi some fowk wi dyspraxia, an fatigue is common acause sae muckle energy is expendit tryin tae execute pheesical muivements correctly. Some dyspraxic fowk hae hypotonia, low muscle tone, that can detrimentally affeck balance an aa. === Gross motor control === Hale bouk muivement an motor coordination issues mean that major developmental targets includin walkin, rinnin, climbin an jumpin can be affeckit. The difficulties vary frae person tae person an can include the follaein: * Peer timin. * Peer balance (whiles even fawin ower in mid-step). Trippin ower ane's awn feet is common an aa. * Difficulty combinin muivements intae a controlled sequence. * Difficulty myndin the nixt muivement in a sequence. * Problems wi spatial awareness, or proprioception. * Trouble pickin up an hauldin ontae simple objecks sic as pincils, owin tae peer muscle tone or proprioception. * Clumsiness tae the pynt o knockin things ower, causin minor injuries tae anesel an bumpin intae fowk accidentally. * Difficulty in determinin left frae richt. * Cross-laterality, ambidexterity, an a shift in the preferred haund are common in fowk wi developmental coordination ail an aa. * Problems wi chewin fuids. === Fine motor control === Fine-motor problems can cause difficulty wi a wide variety o ither tasks sic as uisin a knife an fork, fastenin buttons an shaelaces, cuikin, brushin tuith, stylin hair, shavin, applyin cosmetics, appenin jars an packets, lackin an unlackin duirs, an daein hoosewirk. Difficulties wi fine motor co-ordination lead tae problems wi haundwritin, Problems associatit wi this area mey include: * Learnin basic muivement patterns. * Developin a desired writin speed. * Establishin the correct pincil grip. * Haundwritin that is difficult tae read an mey miss wirds in sentences or place wirds in the incorrect order * Acquirin graphemes, e.g. the letters o the Laitin alphabet, as weel as nummers. === Developmental verbal dyspraxia === Developmental verbal dyspraxia (DVD) is a teep o ideational dyspraxia, causin speech an leid impairments. This is the favoured term in the UK; houiver, it is whiles referred tae as airticulatory dyspraxia an aa, an in the Unitit States the uisual term is bairnheid apraxia o speech (BAS). Key problems include: * Difficulties controllin the speech organs. * Difficulties makin speech soonds. * Difficulty sequencin soonds athin a wird. * Difficulty sequencin soonds formin wirds intae sentences. * Difficulty controllin breithin, suppressin salivation an phonation whan taukin or singin wi leerics. * Slaw leid development. === Associatit ails an secondary consequences === DCA is kent tae co-occur wi ither neurodevelopmental ails. Maist common is attention deficit hyperactivity ail (ADHA), wi an estimatit 50% o fowk wi ADHA haein DCA an aa, an vice versa. Ither co-occurrin condeetions are autism, developmental leid ail, prosopagnosia an developmental learnin ail. Fowk wha hae developmental coordination ail mey hae ane or mair o thir ither co-morbid condeetions: * Fetal alcohol spectrum ail * Dyscalculia (difficulty wi nummers) * Dysgraphia (an inabeelity tae write neatly or draw) * Dyslexia (difficulty wi readin an spellin) * Hypermobility * Hypotonia (low muscle tone) * Nonverbal learnin ail * Sensory processin ail * Veesual perception deficits Houiver, a person wi DCA is unlikely tae hae aw o thir condeetions. The pattern o difficulty varies widely frae person tae person; an area o major weakness fur ane dyspraxic person can be an area o strenth or gift fur anither. Fur ensaumple, whiles some dyspraxic fowk hae difficulty wi readin an spellin owin tae dyslexia, or wi numeracy owin tae dyscalculia, ithers mey hae brilliant readin an spellin or mathematical abeelities. Co-morbidity atween ADHA an DCA is pairticulairly heich. ==== Sensory processin ail ==== Sensory processin ail (SPA) concerns haein owersensitivity or unnersensitivity tae pheesical stimuli, sic as touch, licht, soond, an smell. This mey manifest itsel as an inabeelity tae tolerate certain texturs sic as saundpaper or certain fabrics sic as wool, oral intolerance o excessively textured fuid (commonly kent as picky eatin), bein touched bi anither individual (in the case o touch owersensitivity) or it mey require the consistent uise o sunglesses ootduirs syne sunlicht mey be intense eneuch tae cause discomfort tae a dyspraxic person (in the case o licht owersensitivity). An aversion tae lood muisic an naiturally lood environments (sic as clubs an bars) is teepical behaviour o individuals wi dyspraxia wha hae auditory owersensitivity, whiles anly bein comfortable in unuisually wairm or cauld environments is teepical o a dyspraxic person wi temperatur owersensitivity. Unnersensitivity tae stimuli mey cause problems an aa, as individuals dae nae receive the sensory inpit thay need tae unnerstaund whaur thair bouks are in space. This can mak it even mair challengin tae complete tasks. Dyspraxic fowk wha are unnersensitive tae pain mey injur thaimsels wioot realisin it. Some dyspraxic fowk mey be owersensitive tae some stimuli an unnersensitive tae ithers. ==== Developmental leid ail ==== Developmental leid ail (DLA) resairch haes foond that students wi developmental coordination ail an normal leid skeels aye experience learnin difficulties maugre o relative strenths in leid. This means that, fur students wi developmental coordination ail, thair wirkin memory abeelities determine thair learnin difficulties. Ony strenth in leid that thay hae is nae able tae sufficiently support thair learnin. Students wi developmental coordination ail struggle maist in veesual-spatial memory. Whan compared tae thair peers wioot motor difficulties, students wi developmental coordination ail are seiven times mair likely nor teepically developin students tae achieve vera peer scores in veesual-spatial memory. As a result o this wirkin memory impairment, students wi developmental coordination ail hae learnin deficits as weel. '''Pheesical consequences''' Dyspraxic individuals face a heicher prevalence o negative ootcomes, includin peer cardiovascular heal, challenges wi pheesical heal an sel-care. ==== Psychological an social consequences ==== '''Psychological domain:''' Bairn wi DCA mey struggle wi lower sel-efficacy an lower sel-perceived competence in peer an social relations. Some demonstrate muckler aggressiveness an hyperactivity. '''Social domain:''' Bairn mey be mair vulnerable tae social rejection an bullyin, possibly resultin in heicher levels o laneliness. '''Support domain:''' In the Unitit Kinrick, dyspraxic adults are less likely tae be awairdit disabeelity support fur heicher eddication nor thair dyslexic peers or thaim wi co-occurrin neurodivergence. Consequently, misinterpretations an inadequate support in thir settins are mair likely tae occur an are less likely tae be includit an supportit. kzr9l4j03nysztvxitt92lwahvzp5le 916920 916919 2026-05-18T00:18:50Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916920 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Developmental coordination ail | synonyms = Developmental motor coordination ail, dyspraxia | field = [[Psychiatry]], [[neurology]] | symptoms = Motor skeels deficit an informational processin difficulties | complications = Learnin difficulties, low sel-esteem, wee tae nae engagement in pheesical activities lik sports, leadin tae [[obesity]] | onset = syne birth | duration = Lifelang | treatment = Pheesical therapy, occupational therapy | frequency = 5–6% (o aw age groups) | differential = Motor impairments owin tae anither medical condeetion, [[autism]], [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]], [[dysgraphia]], [[jynt hypermobility syndrome]], [[hypotonia]], [[fetal alcohol spectrum ail]] | image = File:Black Chuck Taylors.jpg | alt = Shaes wi unduin laces | caption = Mony fowk wi dyspraxia hae difficulty wi tyin shaelaces, writin, an performin tasks that require coordination. }} '''Developmental coordination''' '''ail''' ('''DCA'''), forby kent as '''developmental motor coordination''' '''ail''', '''developmental dyspraxia''', or simply '''dyspraxia''' (frae Auncient Greek ''praxis'' 'activity'), is a motor ail chairacterised bi impairt coordination o pheesical muivements as a result o harn messages nae bein accurately transmittit tae the bouk. Deficits in fine or gross motor skeels muivements interfere wi activities o daily livin. It is aften descrieved as ail in skeel acquisition, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Difficulties mey present as clumsiness, slawness an inaccuracy o performance o motor skeels (e.g., catchin objecks, uisin cutlery, haundwritin, ridin a bike, uise o tuils or pairteecipatin in team sports or soummin). It is aften accompanee'd bi difficulty wi organisation an/or problems wi attention, wirkin memory an time management. A diagnosis o DCD is reached anly in the absence o ither neurological impairments sic as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson's dishailth. The condeetion is lifelang an its onset is in early bairnheid. It is thoucht tae affeck aboot 5% o the population. Occupational therapy can help fowk wi dyspraxia tae develop thair coordination an achieve things that thay micht itherwise find extremely challengin tae accomplish. Dyspraxia haes naething tae dae wi intelligence but fowk wi dyspraxia mey struggle wi sel-esteem acause thair peers can easily dae things thay struggle wi on a daily basis. Dyspraxia is nae aften kent as a disabeelity in the general public. == Signs an symptoms == The Warld Heal Organisation (WHO) recognises DCA as a condeetion an hae published thair defineetion in the Internaitional Clessification o Dishailths. The American Psychiatric Association (APA)'s Diagnostic an Stateestical Manual, DSM-5 clessifies Developmental Coordination Ail (DCA) as a discrete motor ail unner the broader heidin o neurodevelopmental ails. It is aften descrieved as a ail in skeel acquisition or motor learnin, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Mony areas o development can be affeckit bi DCA an thir mey persist intae adultheid. In bairn, DCA mey exhibit as delays in early development o sittin, crawlin, walkin; peer abeelity or difficulties wi bairnheid activities sic as rinnin, jumpin, happin, catchin, sports an soummin; slawness; frequent trippin an bruisin; peer haundwritin skeels; difficulties wi sel care; difficulties wi skeels sic as uisin cutlery or tyin shaelaces; peer spatial unnerstaundin; difficulty follaein instructions; peer time management; an aften losin objecks. In adultheid, in addeetion tae a bairnheid history as abuin, the condeetion mey manifest as a difficulty learnin new motor skeels or applyin skeels in a different or busy environment, peer organisation an time management skeels, missed deidlines an lateness fur appyntments (or earliness as a copin strategy), an awkward pauses afore answerin in conversation. Thare is aften a history o unnerachievement in eddication or the wirkplace. Awthou skeels can be acquired, sic as neat haundwritin, haundwritin speed will then be muckle lower nor expectit. Evidence frae resairch an clinical practice indicates that DCA is nae juist a pheesical ail, an thare mey be deficits in executive functions, behavioural organisation an emotional regulation that extend furth the motor impairments an that are independent o diagnoses o co-morbidities. In addeetion tae the pheesical or motor impairments, developmental coordination ail is associatit wi problems wi memory, inspecially wirkin memory. This teepically results in difficulty myndin instructions, difficulty organisin ane's time an myndin deidlines, increased propensity tae lose things or problems carryin oot tasks that require myndin seevral steps in sequence (sic as cuikin). Whilst maist o the general population experience thir problems tae some extent, thay hae a muckle mair signeeficant impact on the lives o dyspraxic fowk. Houiver, mony dyspraxics hae excellent lang-term memories, in maugre o peer short-term memory. Mony dyspraxic fowk benefit frae wirkin in a structured environment, as repeatin the same routine minimises difficulty wi time-management an allous thaim tae commit procedurs tae lang-term memory. Fowk wi developmental coordination ail whiles hae difficulty moderatin the amoont o sensory information that thair bouk is constantly sendin thaim, sae as a result thir dyspraxic fowk mey be prone tae sensory owerload an panic attacks. Moderate tae extreme difficulty daein pheesical tasks is experienced bi some fowk wi dyspraxia, an fatigue is common acause sae muckle energy is expendit tryin tae execute pheesical muivements correctly. Some dyspraxic fowk hae hypotonia, low muscle tone, that can detrimentally affeck balance an aa. === Gross motor control === Hale bouk muivement an motor coordination issues mean that major developmental targets includin walkin, rinnin, climbin an jumpin can be affeckit. The difficulties vary frae person tae person an can include the follaein: * Peer timin. * Peer balance (whiles even fawin ower in mid-step). Trippin ower ane's awn feet is common an aa. * Difficulty combinin muivements intae a controlled sequence. * Difficulty myndin the nixt muivement in a sequence. * Problems wi spatial awareness, or proprioception. * Trouble pickin up an hauldin ontae simple objecks sic as pincils, owin tae peer muscle tone or proprioception. * Clumsiness tae the pynt o knockin things ower, causin minor injuries tae anesel an bumpin intae fowk accidentally. * Difficulty in determinin left frae richt. * Cross-laterality, ambidexterity, an a shift in the preferred haund are common in fowk wi developmental coordination ail an aa. * Problems wi chewin fuids. === Fine motor control === Fine-motor problems can cause difficulty wi a wide variety o ither tasks sic as uisin a knife an fork, fastenin buttons an shaelaces, cuikin, brushin tuith, stylin hair, shavin, applyin cosmetics, appenin jars an packets, lackin an unlackin duirs, an daein hoosewirk. Difficulties wi fine motor co-ordination lead tae problems wi haundwritin, Problems associatit wi this area mey include: * Learnin basic muivement patterns. * Developin a desired writin speed. * Establishin the correct pincil grip. * Haundwritin that is difficult tae read an mey miss wirds in sentences or place wirds in the incorrect order * Acquirin graphemes, e.g. the letters o the Laitin alphabet, as weel as nummers. === Developmental verbal dyspraxia === Developmental verbal dyspraxia (DVD) is a teep o ideational dyspraxia, causin speech an leid impairments. This is the favoured term in the UK; houiver, it is whiles referred tae as airticulatory dyspraxia an aa, an in the Unitit States the uisual term is bairnheid apraxia o speech (BAS). Key problems include: * Difficulties controllin the speech organs. * Difficulties makin speech soonds. * Difficulty sequencin soonds athin a wird. * Difficulty sequencin soonds formin wirds intae sentences. * Difficulty controllin breithin, suppressin salivation an phonation whan taukin or singin wi leerics. * Slaw leid development. === Associatit ails an secondary consequences === DCA is kent tae co-occur wi ither neurodevelopmental ails. Maist common is attention deficit hyperactivity ail (ADHA), wi an estimatit 50% o fowk wi ADHA haein DCA an aa, an vice versa. Ither co-occurrin condeetions are autism, developmental leid ail, prosopagnosia an developmental learnin ail. Fowk wha hae developmental coordination ail mey hae ane or mair o thir ither co-morbid condeetions: * Fetal alcohol spectrum ail * Dyscalculia (difficulty wi nummers) * Dysgraphia (an inabeelity tae write neatly or draw) * Dyslexia (difficulty wi readin an spellin) * Hypermobility * Hypotonia (low muscle tone) * Nonverbal learnin ail * Sensory processin ail * Veesual perception deficits Houiver, a person wi DCA is unlikely tae hae aw o thir condeetions. The pattern o difficulty varies widely frae person tae person; an area o major weakness fur ane dyspraxic person can be an area o strenth or gift fur anither. Fur ensaumple, whiles some dyspraxic fowk hae difficulty wi readin an spellin owin tae dyslexia, or wi numeracy owin tae dyscalculia, ithers mey hae brilliant readin an spellin or mathematical abeelities. Co-morbidity atween ADHA an DCA is pairticulairly heich. ==== Sensory processin ail ==== Sensory processin ail (SPA) concerns haein owersensitivity or unnersensitivity tae pheesical stimuli, sic as touch, licht, soond, an smell. This mey manifest itsel as an inabeelity tae tolerate certain texturs sic as saundpaper or certain fabrics sic as wool, oral intolerance o excessively textured fuid (commonly kent as picky eatin), bein touched bi anither individual (in the case o touch owersensitivity) or it mey require the consistent uise o sunglesses ootduirs syne sunlicht mey be intense eneuch tae cause discomfort tae a dyspraxic person (in the case o licht owersensitivity). An aversion tae lood muisic an naiturally lood environments (sic as clubs an bars) is teepical behaviour o individuals wi dyspraxia wha hae auditory owersensitivity, whiles anly bein comfortable in unuisually wairm or cauld environments is teepical o a dyspraxic person wi temperatur owersensitivity. Unnersensitivity tae stimuli mey cause problems an aa, as individuals dae nae receive the sensory inpit thay need tae unnerstaund whaur thair bouks are in space. This can mak it even mair challengin tae complete tasks. Dyspraxic fowk wha are unnersensitive tae pain mey injur thaimsels wioot realisin it. Some dyspraxic fowk mey be owersensitive tae some stimuli an unnersensitive tae ithers. ==== Developmental leid ail ==== Developmental leid ail (DLA) resairch haes foond that students wi developmental coordination ail an normal leid skeels aye experience learnin difficulties maugre o relative strenths in leid. This means that, fur students wi developmental coordination ail, thair wirkin memory abeelities determine thair learnin difficulties. Ony strenth in leid that thay hae is nae able tae sufficiently support thair learnin. Students wi developmental coordination ail struggle maist in veesual-spatial memory. Whan compared tae thair peers wioot motor difficulties, students wi developmental coordination ail are seiven times mair likely nor teepically developin students tae achieve vera peer scores in veesual-spatial memory. As a result o this wirkin memory impairment, students wi developmental coordination ail hae learnin deficits as weel. '''Pheesical consequences''' Dyspraxic individuals face a heicher prevalence o negative ootcomes, includin peer cardiovascular heal, challenges wi pheesical heal an sel-care. ==== Psychological an social consequences ==== '''Psychological domain:''' Bairn wi DCA mey struggle wi lower sel-efficacy an lower sel-perceived competence in peer an social relations. Some demonstrate muckler aggressiveness an hyperactivity. '''Social domain:''' Bairn mey be mair vulnerable tae social rejection an bullyin, possibly resultin in heicher levels o laneliness. '''Support domain:''' In the Unitit Kinrick, dyspraxic adults are less likely tae be awairdit disabeelity support fur heicher eddication nor thair dyslexic peers or thaim wi co-occurrin neurodivergence. Consequently, misinterpretations an inadequate support in thir settins are mair likely tae occur an are less likely tae be includit an supportit. ==In popular cultur== [[File:Daniel Radcliffe SDCC 2014.jpg|thumb|Daniel Radcliffe, actor, haes dyspraxia.]] === Feectional chairacters === * Helen Burns, a chairacter frae [[Charlotte Brontë]]'s ''[[Jane Eyre]]'', is allegit tae hae been based on the author's dyspraxic elder sister Maria Brontë. * [[Ryan Sinclair]], a chairacter in the [[BBC]] [[Science feection on televeesion|science feection telly]] programme ''[[Doctor Who]]''. ===Public feegurs=== Fowk wha hae publicly statit thay hae been diagnosed wi developmental coordination ail include: * [[David Bailey (photographer)|David Bailey]], photographer * [[TotalBiscuit|John "TotalBiscuit" Bain]], gemmes creetic * [[Cara Delevingne]], model * [[Ellis Genge]], Rugby Union pleyer * [[Gage Golightly]], actress * [[Olive Gray]], actor * [[Tom Hunt (poleetician)|Tom Hunt]], poleetician * [[Harriet Kemsley]], comedian * [[Emma Lewell-Buck]], poleetician * [[Mel B]], sangster * [[Will Poulter]], actor * [[Daniel Radcliffe]], actor * [[Holly Smale]], author * [[Florence Welch]], sangster * [[Toyah Willcox]], muisicker == See an aw == {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Agin muivement control]] * [[Apraxia]] * [[Autism]] * [[Deficits in attention, motor control an perception]] * [[Fetal alcohol spectrum ail]] * [[Global developmental delay]] * [[Hypermobility (jynts)|Hypermobility]] * [[KE faimily]] * [[Leets o leid ails]] * [[Motor control]] * [[Motor coordination]] * [[Multisensory integration]] * [[Nonverbal learnin ail]] * [[Sensory-motor couplin]] * [[Workin memory]] {{div col end}} == References == {{Reflist|4}} === Soorces === {{refbegin|2}} * <!-- To cite the DSM-5-TR ebook, use{{sfn|DSM-5-TR}} -->{{cite book |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) |pages=74–77 |location=Arlington, VA |publisher=American Psychiatric Association Publishing |lccn=2021051782 |isbn=978-0-89042-559-6 |orig-date=adopted in 2019<!-- This is when it was adopted by the World Health Assembly -->|doi=10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 |date=February 2022<!-- The most recent update as of the access date -->|ref={{harvid|DSM-5-TR}} |last1=American Psychiatric Association }} * <!-- To cite the ICD-11, use{{sfn|ICD-11}} -->{{cite encyclopedia |title=6A04 Developmental motor coordination disorder |date=February 2022<!-- The most recent update as of the access date --> |orig-date=adopted in 2019<!-- This is when it was adopted by the World Health Assembly --> |url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/148247104 |encyclopedia=International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision (ICD-11) |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=14 May 2022 |id={{ICD11|6A04|148247104}} |ref={{harvid|ICD-11}} }} <!-- A --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Alloway 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Alloway TP | title = Working memory, reading, and mathematical skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | volume = 96 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–36 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17010988 | doi = 10.1016/j.jecp.2006.07.002 | hdl = 1893/800 | url = https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1587343 |hdl-access=free | ref = {{harvid|Alloway 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Alloway 2008}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Alloway TP, Archibald L | title = Working memory and learning in children with developmental coordination disorder and specific language impairment | journal = Journal of Learning Disabilities | volume = 41 | issue = 3 | pages = 251–62 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18434291 | doi = 10.1177/0022219408315815 |ref={{harvid|Alloway 2008}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Alloway, Rajendran & Archibald 2009}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Alloway TP, Rajendran G, Archibald LM | title = Working memory in children with developmental disorders | journal = Journal of Learning Disabilities | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 372–82 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19380495 | doi = 10.1177/0022219409335214 | hdl = 1893/863 | url = https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/8128/6/strathprints008128.pdf | ref = {{harvid|Alloway, Rajendran & Archibald 2009}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Alloway, Temple 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Alloway TP, Temple K | title=A Comparison of Working Memory Profiles and Learning in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder and Moderate Learning Difficulties|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology| volume=21| issue=4| pages=473–487| year=2007 |doi=10.1002/acp.1284 |ref={{harvid|Alloway, Temple 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Anchor 2021a}} -->{{Cite web|title=Olive Gray {{!}} Dyspraxic Actor, Musician and Poet by The Dyspraxic Help 4U Podcast|url=https://anchor.fm/dyspraxichelp4u/episodes/Olive-Gray--Dyspraxic-Actor--Musician-and-Poet-eil2db|access-date=2021-10-23|website=Anchor|language=en|ref={{harvid|Anchor 2021a}}}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Anchor 2021b}} -->{{Cite web|title=Toyah Willcox Life Story {{!}} Punk Princess {{!}} Longevity & Success {{!}} Dyspraxic Star by The Dyspraxic Help 4U Podcast|url=https://anchor.fm/dyspraxichelp4u/episodes/Toyah-Willcox-Life-Story--Punk-Princess--Longevity--Success--Dyspraxic-Star-e18hcnj|access-date=2021-10-23|website=Anchor|language=en|ref={{harvid|Anchor 2021b}}}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Ayres 1972}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Ayres AJ | title = Types of sensory integrative dysfunction among disabled learners | journal = The American Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–8 | year = 1972 |id={{ERIC|EJ050431}} | pmid = 5008164 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-occupational-therapy_january-february-1972_26_1 |ref={{harvid|Ayres 1972}} }} <!-- B --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Bacon & Rappold 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Bacon C, Rappold GA | title = The distinct and overlapping phenotypic spectra of FOXP1 and FOXP2 in cognitive disorders | journal = Human Genetics | volume = 131 | issue = 11 | pages = 1687–98 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22736078 | pmc = 3470686 | doi = 10.1007/s00439-012-1193-z |ref={{harvid|Bacon & Rappold 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Bain 2020}} -->{{cite web |last1=Bain |first1=John |title=Sorry, diagnosed dyspraxic with a step-son who as you probably know has adhd and aspergers. This is a topic I care deeply about. |url=https://twitter.com/totalbiscuit/status/558618703890501634?lang=en |website=[[Twitter]] |access-date=22 May 2020 |ref={{harvid|Bain 2020}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Barkley 1990}} -->{{cite book | last = Barkley | first = Russell A. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a handbook for diagnosis and treatment |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-89862-443-4 |oclc=21335369 |ref={{harvid|Barkley 1990}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Barnhart et al. 2003}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Barnhart RC, Davenport MJ, Epps SB, Nordquist VM | title = Developmental coordination disorder | journal = Physical Therapy | volume = 83 | issue = 8 | pages = 722–31 | date = August 2003 | doi = 10.1093/ptj/83.8.722 | pmid = 12882613 | doi-access = free | ref = {{harvid|Barnhart et al. 2003}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Beater 2019}} -->{{cite news |last1=Beater |first1=Emily |title=Studying with dyspraxia: 'I never truly understood an academic text' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2019/mar/05/studying-with-dyspraxia-i-never-truly-understood-an-academic-text |work=The Guardian |date=5 March 2019 |ref={{harvid|Beater 2019}}}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Biggs 2005}} -->{{cite book | last1 = Biggs | first1 = Victoria | name-list-style = vanc | title = Caged in chaos: a dyspraxic guide to breaking free | chapter = 3 A Survival Guide to School | publisher = Jessica Kingsley Publishers | year = 2005 | location = London; Philadelphia |oclc=57316751 | isbn = 978-1-84310-347-9 |ref={{harvid|Biggs 2005}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Blank et al. 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Blank R, Smits-Engelsman B, Polatajko H, Wilson P | title = European Academy for Childhood Disability (EACD): recommendations on the definition, diagnosis and intervention of developmental coordination disorder (long version) | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 54 | issue = 1 | pages = 54–93 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22171930 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04171.x | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Blank et al. 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Blank et al. 2019}} -->{{cite journal|author6-link=Helene Polatajko | vauthors = Blank R, Barnett AL, Cairney J, Green D, Kirby A, Polatajko H, Rosenblum S, Smits-Engelsman B, Sugden D, Wilson P, Vincon S | display-authors = 6 | title = International clinical practice recommendations on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of developmental coordination disorder | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 242–285 | date = March 2019 | pmid = 30671947 | pmc = 6850610 | doi = 10.1111/dmcn.14132 |ref={{harvid|Blank et al. 2019}} }} <!-- C --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|CanChild 2016}} -->{{cite web |url=http://dcd.canchild.ca/en/dcdresources/consensusstatements.asp |title=Consensus Statements |work=CanChild |access-date=15 August 2022 |date=2016 |ref={{harvid|CanChild 2016}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Cools et al. 2009}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Cools W, Martelaer KD, Samaey C, Andries C | title = Movement skill assessment of typically developing preschool children: a review of seven movement skill assessment tools | journal = Journal of Sports Science & Medicine | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 154–68 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 24149522 | pmc = 3761481 |ref={{harvid|Cools et al. 2009}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Cravedi et al. 2017}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Cravedi E, Deniau E, Giannitelli M, Xavier J, Hartmann A, Cohen D | title = Tourette syndrome and other neurodevelopmental disorders: a comprehensive review | journal = Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health | volume = 11 | article-number = 59 | date = 2017-12-04 | pmid = 29225671 | pmc = 5715991 | doi = 10.1186/s13034-017-0196-x |ref={{harvid|Cravedi et al. 2017}} | doi-access = free }} <!-- D --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Dyspraxia Foundation 2022}} -->{{cite web |title=What is Dyspraxia |url=https://dyspraxiafoundation.org.uk/what_is_dyspraxia/dyspraxia-at-a-glance/ |website=Dyspraxia Foundation |access-date=15 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521211453/https://www.dyspraxiafoundation.org.uk/what_is_dyspraxia/dyspraxia-at-a-glance/ |archive-date=21 May 2023 |ref={{harvid|Dyspraxia Foundation 2022}} }} * <!--{{sfn|Dyspraxia Ireland 2022}} -->{{cite web |title=Dyspraxia/DCD Ireland - Adults with Dyspraxia/DCD |url=https://www.dyspraxia.ie/Adults-with-Dyspraxia-DCD |website=www.dyspraxia.ie |language=en |access-date=9 September 2022 |ref={{harvid|Dyspraxia Ireland 2022}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Dziuk et al. 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Dziuk MA, Gidley Larson JC, Apostu A, Mahone EM, Denckla MB, Mostofsky SH | title = Dyspraxia in autism: association with motor, social, and communicative deficits | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 49 | issue = 10 | pages = 734–9 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17880641 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00734.x | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Dziuk et al. 2007}} }} <!-- E --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Elbasan, Kayihan & Duzgun 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Elbasan B, Kayıhan H, Duzgun I | title = Sensory integration and activities of daily living in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Italian Journal of Pediatrics | volume = 38 | issue = 1 | page = 14 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22546072 | pmc = 3395584 | doi = 10.1186/1824-7288-38-14 |ref={{harvid|Elbasan, Kayihan & Duzgun 2012}} | doi-access = free }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Ellinoudis et al. 2011}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Ellinoudis T, Evaggelinou C, Kourtessis T, Konstantinidou Z, Venetsanou F, Kambas A | title = Reliability and validity of age band 1 of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children--second edition | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 1046–51 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21333488 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.035 |ref={{harvid|Ellinoudis et al. 2011}} }} <!-- F --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Fitts 2019}} -->{{Cite web|url=https://thesensorytoolbox.com/explaining-motor-dyspraxia-children-ways-address/|title=Explaining Motor Dyspraxia in Children and Ways to Address It|last=Fitts|first=Diana|date=2019-03-25|website=The Sensory Toolbox|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-02|ref={{harvid|Fitts 2019}}|archive-date=15 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115155932/https://thesensorytoolbox.com/explaining-motor-dyspraxia-children-ways-address/}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Fliers, Franke & Buitelaar 2011}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Fliers EA, Franke B, Buitelaar JK | title = Motorische problemen bij kinderen met ADHD: Onderbelicht in de klinische praktijk |trans-title=Motor problems in children with ADHD receive too little attention in clinical practice | language = nl | journal = Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde | volume = 155 | issue = 50 | pages = A3559 | year = 2011 | pmid = 22186361 |url=https://www.ntvg.nl/artikelen/motorische-problemen-bij-kinderen-met-adhd |ref={{harvid|Fliers, Franke & Buitelaar 2011}} }} <!-- G --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Gaines et al. 2008}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Gaines R, Missiuna C, Egan M, McLean J | title = Educational outreach and collaborative care enhances physician's perceived knowledge about Developmental Coordination Disorder | journal = BMC Health Services Research | volume = 8 | article-number = 21 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18218082 | pmc = 2254381 | doi = 10.1186/1472-6963-8-21 |ref={{harvid|Gaines et al. 2008}} | doi-access = free }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Gerken 2018}} -->{{cite news |last1=Gerken |first1=Tom |title=Doctor Who: How the dyspraxic assistant became my hero |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-45784822 |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC |access-date=16 October 2018 |date=2018-10-08 |ref={{harvid|Gerken 2018}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Geuze 2005}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Geuze RH | title = Postural control in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Neural Plasticity | volume = 12 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 183–96; discussion 263–72 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16097486 | pmc = 2565450 | doi = 10.1155/NP.2005.183 | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Geuze 2005}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Gibbs, Appleton & Appleton 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Gibbs J, Appleton J, Appleton R | title = Dyspraxia or developmental coordination disorder? Unravelling the enigma | journal = Archives of Disease in Childhood | volume = 92 | issue = 6 | pages = 534–9 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17515623 | pmc = 2066137 | doi = 10.1136/adc.2005.088054 |ref={{harvid|Gibbs, Appleton & Appleton 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Gillberg & Kadesjö 2003}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Gillberg C, Kadesjö B | title = Why bother about clumsiness? The implications of having developmental coordination disorder (DCD) | journal = Neural Plasticity | volume = 10 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 59–68 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14640308 | pmc = 2565425 | doi = 10.1155/NP.2003.59 | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Gillberg & Kadesjö 2003}} }} * {{cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/BFYtiY-Rn_a/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/BFYtiY-Rn_a |archive-date=December 24, 2021 |url-access=registration|title=May 14th is Apraxia Awareness Day.|date=May 14, 2016|last=Golightly|first=Gage|access-date=May 8, 2018|publisher=[[Instagram]]}}{{cbignore}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Goulardins et al. 2015}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Goulardins |first1=Juliana B. |last2=Rigoli |first2=Daniela |last3=Licari |first3=Melissa |last4=Piek |first4=Jan P. |last5=Hasue |first5=Renata H. |last6=Oosterlaan |first6=Jaap |last7=Oliveira |first7=Jorge A. |title=Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and developmental coordination disorder: Two separate disorders or do they share a common etiology. |journal=Behavioural Brain Research |date=October 2015 |volume=292 |pages=484–492 |doi=10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.009 |pmid=26168770 |ref={{harvid|Goulardins et al. 2015}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Grant 2009}} -->{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9780470742259.ch3 |chapter=The Psychological Assessment of Neurodiversity |title=Neurodiversity in Higher Education |date=2009 |last1=Grant |first1=David |pages=33–62 |isbn=978-0-470-74159-7 |ref={{harvid|Grant 2009}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Green & Payne 2018}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=D. |last2=Payne |first2=S.|title=Understanding Organisational Ability and Self-Regulation in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder.|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports |volume=5 |doi=10.1007/s40474-018-0129-2|date=2018|issue=1 | pages=34–42|pmid=29497596 |pmc=5818572 |ref={{harvid|Green & Payne 2018}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Gubbay 1978}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Gubbay SS | title = The management of developmental apraxia | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 643–6 | date = October 1978 | pmid = 729912 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1978.tb15283.x |ref={{harvid|Gubbay 1978}} }} <!-- H --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Haskell 2015}} -->{{cite news |last1=Haskell |first1=Rob |title=Cara Delevingne Opens Up About Her Childhood, Love Life, and Why Modeling Just Isn't Enough |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/cara-delevingne-actress-july-2015-cover |work=Vogue |date=19 June 2015 |ref={{harvid|Haskell 2015}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Hay, Hawes & Faught 2004}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Hay JA, Hawes R, Faught BE | title = Evaluation of a screening instrument for developmental coordination disorder | journal = The Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 308–13 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15041000 | doi = 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.07.004 |ref={{harvid|Hay, Hawes & Faught 2004}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Henderson & Henderson 2003}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Henderson SE, Henderson L | title = Toward an understanding of developmental coordination disorder: terminological and diagnostic issues | journal = Neural Plasticity | volume = 10 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 1–13 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14640303 | pmc = 2565424 | doi = 10.1155/NP.2003.1 | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Henderson & Henderson 2003}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Hennessy 2018}} -->{{cite web|url=http://rugbylad.ie/ellis-genge-talk-tv-last-night-incredible-interview/|title=Ellis Genge Was The Talk Of Television Last Night Following This Incredible Interview|first=Jason|last=Hennessy|date=6 September 2018|ref={{harvid|Hennessy 2018}}}} * {{Cite Hansard|house=House of Commons |title=Education and Local Government - Volume 669 |url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2020-01-14/debates/10029540-3911-4F21-9FC8-E32E31F06F90/details |date=14 January 2020 |column_start=950 |column_end=950 |speaker=Tom Hunt|ref={{harvid|Hansard|2020}}}} <!-- I --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Irvine 2008}} -->{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2573230/Harry-Potters-Daniel-Radcliffe-has-dyspraxia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821035608/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2573230/Harry-Potters-Daniel-Radcliffe-has-dyspraxia.html |archive-date=2008-08-21 |title=Harry Potter's Daniel Radcliffe has dyspraxia |access-date=2010-05-16 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |first=Chris |last=Irvine |name-list-style=vanc |date=2008-08-17 |ref={{harvid|Irvine 2008}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Irvine 2013}} -->{{cite news |url=https://12ft.io/proxy?q=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fwomen%2Fwomens-life%2F10341479%2FId-love-to-wear-eyeliner-but-that-requires-a-steady-hand.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/10341479/Id-love-to-wear-eyeliner-but-that-requires-a-steady-hand.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-status=live |title="I'd love to wear eyeliner, but that requires a steady hand" Labour MP Emma Lewell-Buck struggled with clumsiness, until a diagnosis of dyspraxia helped her become a politician |access-date=2013-09-28 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |first=Chris |last=Irvine |name-list-style=vanc |date=2013-09-28 |ref={{harvid|Irvine 2013}} }} <!-- J --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Jeste 2011}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeste SS | title = The neurology of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Current Opinion in Neurology | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 132–9 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21293268 | pmc = 3160764 | doi = 10.1097/WCO.0b013e3283446450 |ref={{harvid|Jeste 2011}} }} <!-- K --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Kambas et al. 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Kambas A, Venetsanou F, Giannakidou D, Fatouros IG, Avloniti A, Chatzinikolaou A, Draganidis D, Zimmer R | display-authors = 6 | title = The Motor-Proficiency-Test for children between 4 and 6 years of age (MOT 4-6): an investigation of its suitability in Greece | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 33 | issue = 5 | pages = 1626–32 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22543059 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2012.04.002 |ref={{harvid|Kambas et al. 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Kemsley 2018}} -->{{cite web|first=Harriet|last=Kemsley|url=http://www.dyspraxialifemagazine.co.uk/2018/10/01/standing-up-for-dyspraxia/|title=The Big Interview with Harriet Kemsley|publisher=Dyspraxia Life Magazine|access-date=24 August 2022|date=2018|ref={{harvid|Kemsley 2018}}}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Kirby & Sugden 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirby A, Sugden DA | title = Children with developmental coordination disorders | journal = Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 100 | issue = 4 | pages = 182–6 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17404341 | pmc = 1847727 | doi = 10.1177/014107680710011414 |ref={{harvid|Kirby & Sugden 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Kirby et al. 2010}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirby A, Edwards L, Sugden D, Rosenblum S | title = The development and standardization of the Adult Developmental Co-ordination Disorders/Dyspraxia Checklist (ADC) | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 131–9 | year = 2010 | pmid = 19819107 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2009.08.010 |ref={{harvid|Kirby et al. 2010}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Kirby, Davies & Bryant 2005}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Kirby |first1=Amanda |last2=Davies |first2=Rhys |last3=Bryant |first3=Amy |title=Do teachers know more about specific learning difficulties than general practitioners? |journal=British Journal of Special Education |date=31 August 2005 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=122–126 |doi=10.1111/j.0952-3383.2005.00384.x |ref={{harvid|Kirby, Davies & Bryant 2005}} }} <!-- L --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Lacquaniti 1989}} -->{{cite journal |author-link1=Francesco Lacquaniti | vauthors = Lacquaniti F | title = Central representations of human limb movement as revealed by studies of drawing and handwriting | journal = Trends in Neurosciences | volume = 12 | issue = 8 | pages = 287–91 | date = August 1989 | pmid = 2475946 | doi = 10.1016/0166-2236(89)90008-8 |ref={{harvid|Lacquaniti 1989}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Lucas et al. 2013}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Lucas BR, Latimer J, Doney R, Ferreira ML, Adams R, Hawkes G, Fitzpatrick JP, Hand M, Oscar J, Carter M, Elliott EJ | display-authors = 6 | title = The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Short Form is reliable in children living in remote Australian Aboriginal communities | journal = BMC Pediatrics | volume = 13 | article-number = 135 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24010634 | pmc = 3844452 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2431-13-135 |ref={{harvid|Lucas et al. 2013}} | doi-access = free }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Lucas et al. 2016}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=Barbara R |last2=Doney |first2=Robyn |last3=Latimer |first3=Jane |last4=Watkins |first4=Rochelle E |last5=Tsang |first5=Tracey W |last6=Hawkes |first6=Genevieve |last7=Fitzpatrick |first7=James P |last8=Oscar |first8=June |last9=Carter |first9=Maureen |last10=Elliott |first10=Elizabeth J |title=Impairment of motor skills in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in remote Australia: The Lililwan Project |journal=Drug and Alcohol Review |year=2016 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=719–727 |publisher=Australasian Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs |doi=10.1111/dar.12375 |pmid=26879822 |ref={{harvid|Lucas et al. 2016}} }} <!-- M --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Magalhães, Missiuna & Wong 2006}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Magalhães |first1=Lívia C |last2=Missiuna |first2=Cheryl |last3=Wong |first3=Shirley |title=Terminology used in research reports of developmental coordination disorder |journal=Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology |volume=48 |issue=11 |date=November 2006 |pages=937–941 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8749.2006.02040a.x |id={{ProQuest|195593851}} |pmid=17044965 |ref={{harvid|Magalhães, Missiuna & Wong 2006}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Martini, St-Pierre & Wilson 2011}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Martini R, St-Pierre MF, Wilson BN | title = French Canadian cross-cultural adaptation of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire '07: DCDQ-FC | journal = Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 78 | issue = 5 | pages = 318–27 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 22338299 | doi = 10.2182/cjot.2011.78.5.7 |ref={{harvid|Martini, St-Pierre & Wilson 2011}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Meachon, Semp & Alpers 2022}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Meachon EJ, Zemp M, Alpers GW | title = Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): Relevance for Clinical Psychologists in Europe | journal = Clinical Psychology in Europe | volume = 4 | issue = 2 |date = June 2022 | article-number = e4165 | doi = 10.32872/cpe.4165| pmid = 36397944 | pmc = 9667416 |ref={{harvid|Meachon, Semp & Alpers 2022}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Miller et al. 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Miller LJ, Anzalone ME, Lane SJ, Cermak SA, Osten ET | title = Concept evolution in sensory integration: a proposed nosology for diagnosis | journal = The American Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 61 | issue = 2 | pages = 135–40 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17436834 | doi = 10.5014/ajot.61.2.135 | ref = {{harvid|Miller et al. 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Missiuna et al. 2006}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Missiuna C, Gaines R, Soucie H, McLean J | title = Parental questions about developmental coordination disorder: A synopsis of current evidence | journal = Paediatrics & Child Health | volume = 11 | issue = 8 | pages = 507–12 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 19030319 | pmc = 2528644 | doi = 10.1093/pch/11.8.507 |ref={{harvid|Missiuna et al. 2006}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Miyahara 2013}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Miyahara M | title = Meta review of systematic and meta analytic reviews on movement differences, effect of movement based interventions, and the underlying neural mechanisms in autism spectrum disorder | journal = Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience | volume = 7 | page = 16 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23532374 | pmc = 3607787 | doi = 10.3389/fnint.2013.00016 | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Miyahara 2013}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Miyahara et al. 2017}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Miyahara |first1=Motohide |last2=Hillier |first2=Susan L |last3=Pridham |first3=Liz |last4=Nakagawa |first4=Shinichi |title=Task-oriented interventions for children with developmental co-ordination disorder |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=31 July 2017 |volume=2017 |issue=8 |article-number=CD010914 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010914.pub2 |pmc=6483344 |pmid=28758189 |ref={{harvid|Miyahara et al. 2017}} }} <!-- N --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|NHS 2019}} -->{{cite web |title=Dyspraxia in adults |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/developmental-coordination-disorder-dyspraxia-adults/ |website=[[National Health Service]] |date=18 October 2017 | ref={{harvid|NHS 2019}} }} <!-- P --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Pearsall-Jones, Piek & Levy 2003}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Pearsall-Jones JG, Piek JP, Levy F | title = Developmental Coordination Disorder and cerebral palsy: categories or a continuum? | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 29 | issue = 5 | pages = 787–98 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20594606 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2010.04.006 |ref={{harvid|Pearsall-Jones, Piek & Levy 2003}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Pickering 2012}} -->{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9780203013403 |title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-135-42135-9 |editor-last1=Alloway |editor-last2=Gathercole |editor-first1=Tracy Packiam |editor-first2=Susan E. |last1=Pickering |first1=Susan J |chapter=Working Memory in Dyslexia |pages=7–40 | ref = {{harvid|Pickering 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Pieters et al. 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Pieters S, Desoete A, Van Waelvelde H, Vanderswalmen R, Roeyers H | title = Mathematical problems in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 33 | issue = 4 | pages = 1128–35 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22502838 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2012.02.007 |ref={{harvid|Pieters et al. 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Polatajko & Cantin 2005}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Polatajko HJ, Cantin N | title = Developmental coordination disorder (dyspraxia): an overview of the state of the art | journal = Seminars in Pediatric Neurology | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 250–8 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16780296 | doi = 10.1016/j.spen.2005.12.007 |ref={{harvid|Polatajko & Cantin 2005}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Poletti 2011}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Poletti |first1=Michele |title=Disturbo di Sviluppo della Coordinazione Motoria e Sindrome Non Verbale: esistono aree di sovrapposizione clinica? |trans-title=Developmental Coordination Disorder and Nonverbal Learning Disability: do areas of clinical overlapping exist? |language=it |journal=Psicologia Clinica Dello Sviluppo |date=2011 |issue=3 |pages=525–550 |doi=10.1449/35886 |ref={{harvid|Poletti 2011}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Psynso 2022}} -->{{cite web |title=Developmental Dyspraxia |url=https://psynso.com/developmental-dyspraxia/ |website=Psynso |access-date=19 August 2022 |ref={{harvid|Psynso 2022}} }} <!-- R --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Ray-Kaeser et al. 2019}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Ray-Kaeser S, Thommen E, Martini R, Jover M, Gurtner B, Bertrand AM | title = Psychometric assessment of the French European Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ-FE) | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | article-number = e0217280 | date = 2019-05-23 | pmid = 31120966 | pmc = 6532915 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0217280 | editor-first = Chung-Ying | editor-last = Lin | bibcode = 2019PLoSO..1417280R | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Ray-Kaeser et al. 2019}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Rosenblum 2013}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Rosenblum S | title = Handwriting measures as reflectors of executive functions among adults with Developmental Coordination Disorders (DCD) | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 4 | page = 357 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23805113 | pmc = 3693067 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00357 | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Rosenblum 2013}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Hussey 2008}} -->{{cite web |last=Hussey |first=Patrick |name-list-style=vanc |url=http://www.run-riot.com/articles/blogs/interview-florence-machine |title=Interview: Florence & The Machine |publisher=Run Riot |date=15 May 2008 |access-date=7 March 2010 |ref={{harvid|Hussey 2008}} }} <!-- S --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Saban & Kirby 2018}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Saban MT, Kirby A | title = Adulthood in Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): a Review of Current Literature Based on ICF Perspective | journal = Current Developmental Disorders Reports | issue = 5 | pages = 9–17 | date = March 2018 | volume = 5 | doi = 10.1007/s40474-018-0126-5 |ref={{harvid|Saban & Kirby 2018}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Scharff & Petri 2011}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Scharff C, Petri J | title = Evo-devo, deep homology and FoxP2: implications for the evolution of speech and language | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 366 | issue = 1574 | pages = 2124–40 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21690130 | pmc = 3130369 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2011.0001 |ref={{harvid|Scharff & Petri 2011}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Schoemaker et al. 2001}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoemaker MM, van der Wees M, Flapper B, Verheij-Jansen N, Scholten-Jaegers S, Geuze RH | title = Perceptual skills of children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 20 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 111–33 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11471393 | doi = 10.1016/s0167-9457(01)00031-8 | ref = {{harvid|Schoemaker et al. 2001}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Schoemaker et al. 2006}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoemaker MM, Flapper B, Verheij NP, Wilson BN, Reinders-Messelink HA, de Kloet A | title = Evaluation of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire as a screening instrument | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 48 | issue = 8 | pages = 668–73 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16836779 | doi = 10.1017/S001216220600140X |ref={{harvid|Schoemaker et al. 2006}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Schoemaker et al. 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoemaker MM, Niemeijer AS, Flapper BC, Smits-Engelsman BC | title = Validity and reliability of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 Checklist for children with and without motor impairments | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 368–75 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22320829 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04226.x | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Schoemaker et al. 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Smale 2021}} -->{{cite tweet |last=Smale |first=Holly |user=HolSmale |number=1409923031615643648 |date=June 29, 2021 |title=Just got my results through! I'm officially dyspraxic. Which comes as no surprise to anyone who has ever met me, but may stop me beating myself up for... beating myself up. ❤ |language=en |access-date=June 6, 2021 |ref={{harvid|Smale 2021}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Smits-Engelsman et al. 2015}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Smits-Engelsman |first1=Bouwien C. M. |last2=Jelsma |first2=Lemke Dorothee |last3=Ferguson |first3=Gillian D. |last4=Geuze |first4=Reint H. |title=Motor Learning: An Analysis of 100 Trials of a Ski Slalom Game in Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder |journal=PLOS ONE |date=14 October 2015 |volume=10 |issue=10 |article-number=e0140470 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0140470 |pmid=26466324 |pmc=4605617 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1040470S |doi-access=free |ref={{harvid|Smits-Engelsman et al. 2015}} }} <!-- T --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Thompson 2019}} -->{{cite news |last1=Thompson |first1=Alexandra |title=Mel B opens up about her ADHD, ADD and dyspraxia - but what are they? |url=https://uk.style.yahoo.com/adhd-add-dyspraxia-mel-b-110123731.html |work=Yahoo!Life |date=29 October 2019 |ref={{harvid|Thompson 2019}}}} <!-- V --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Van Waelvelde et al. 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Van Waelvelde H, Hellinckx T, Peersman W, Smits-Engelsman BC | title = SOS: a screening instrument to identify children with handwriting impairments | journal = Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 306–19 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22515913 | doi = 10.3109/01942638.2012.678971 | hdl = 1854/LU-2103056 | url = https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/2103056 | ref = {{harvid|Van Waelvelde et al. 2012}} | hdl-access = free }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Vargha-Khadem et al. 2005}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Vargha-Khadem F, Gadian DG, Copp A, Mishkin M | title = FOXP2 and the neuroanatomy of speech and language | journal = Nature Reviews. Neuroscience | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 131–8 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15685218 | doi = 10.1038/nrn1605 | ref = {{harvid|Vargha-Khadem et al. 2005}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Venetsanou et al. 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Venetsanou F, Kambas A, Aggeloussis N, Serbezis V, Taxildaris K | title = Use of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency for identifying children with motor impairment | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 49 | issue = 11 | pages = 846–8 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 17979863 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00846.x | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Venetsanou et al. 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Venetsanou et al. 2009}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Venetsanou F, Kambas A, Aggeloussis N, Fatouros I, Taxildaris K | title = Motor assessment of preschool aged children: A preliminary investigation of the validity of the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency - short form | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 543–50 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19443065 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2009.03.002 | url = https://hal.science/hal-00557316/file/PEER_stage2_10.1016%252Fj.humov.2009.03.002.pdf | ref = {{harvid|Venetsanou et al. 2009}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Venetsanou et al. 2011}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Venetsanou |first1=Fotini |last2=Kambas |first2=Antonis |last3=Ellinoudis |first3=Theodoros |last4=Fatouros |first4=Ioannis |last5=Giannakidou |first5=Dimitra |last6=Kourtessis |first6=Thomas |title=Can the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Test be the 'gold standard' for the motor assessment of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder? |journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities |date=January 2011 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2010.09.006 |pmid=20940096 |ref={{harvid|Venetsanou et al. 2011}} }} <!-- W --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Walsh 2016}} -->{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=John |title=David Bailey was a scowling, socially mobile rude boy |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/david-bailey-introduced-us-to-the-concept-of-the-portrait-photographer-as-style-arbiter-and-sex-god-a6788881.html |work=The Independent |date=2 January 2016 |ref={{harvid|Walsh 2016}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Williams 2013}} -->{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Holly |title=The big picture: How Will Poulter shook off the tough tearaway tag to become Hollywood's latest loveable dork |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/the-big-picture-how-will-poulter-shook-off-the-tough-tearaway-tag-to-become-hollywood-s-latest-loveable-dork-8779097.html |work=The Independent |date=24 August 2013 |ref={{harvid|Williams 2013}}}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Willoughby & Polatajko 1995}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Willoughby C, Polatajko HJ | title = Motor problems in children with developmental coordination disorder: review of the literature | journal = The American Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 49 | issue = 8 | pages = 787–94 | date = September 1995 | pmid = 8526224 | doi = 10.5014/ajot.49.8.787 |ref={{harvid|Willoughby & Polatajko 1995}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Wilson & McKenzie 1998}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilson PH, McKenzie BE | title = Information processing deficits associated with developmental coordination disorder: a meta-analysis of research findings | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 39 | issue = 6 | pages = 829–40 | date = September 1998 | pmid = 9758192 | doi = 10.1111/1469-7610.00384 |ref={{harvid|Wilson & McKenzie 1998}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Wright & Sugden 1996}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Wright HC, Sugden DA | title = A two-step procedure for the identification of children with developmental co-ordination disorder in Singapore | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 38 | issue = 12 | pages = 1099–105 | date = December 1996 | pmid = 8973295 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1996.tb15073.x |ref={{harvid|Wright & Sugden 1996}} }} <!-- Z --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Zwicker 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Zwicker JG, Missiuna C, Harris SR, Boyd LA | title = Developmental coordination disorder: a review and update | journal = European Journal of Paediatric Neurology | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 573–81 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22705270 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejpn.2012.05.005 |ref={{harvid|Zwicker 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Zwicker, Harris & Klassen 2013}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Zwicker JG, Harris SR, Klassen AF | title = Quality of life domains affected in children with developmental coordination disorder: a systematic review | journal = Child: Care, Health and Development | volume = 39 | pages = 562–580 | date = 2012-04-20 | issue = 4 | pmid = 22515477 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2214.2012.01379.x | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Zwicker, Harris & Klassen 2013}} }} {{refend}} === Further readin === * {{cite journal|author1-link=Helene Polatajko | vauthors = Polatajko H, Fox M, Missiuna C | title=An International Consensus on Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder|journal=Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy|volume=62| issue=1|year=1995|pages=3–6 |doi=10.1177/000841749506200101}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mandich A, Polatajko HJ | title = Developmental coordination disorder: mechanisms, measurement and management | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 22 | issue = 4–5 | pages = 407–11 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14624825 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2003.09.001 }} * {{cite book | vauthors = Talukdar, A | title = Dyspraxia/DCD pocketbook | series = Teachers' Pocketbooks | publisher = Management Pocketbooks | year = 2012 | location = Hampshire; UK | isbn = 978-1-906610-38-8 |oclc = 1162296987 | url=http://www.teacherspocketbooks.co.uk/media_tp/preview/9781906610388(Preview).pdf }} * {{cite book |chapter=6A04 Developmental motor coordination disorder |pages=139–142 |title=Clinical descriptions and diagnostic requirements for ICD-11 mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders |date=2024 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-007726-3 |hdl=10665/375767 |hdl-access=free }} * {{cite web |last1=Sutton Hamilton |first1=S |title=Developmental coordination disorder: Management and outcome |url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/developmental-coordination-disorder-management-and-outcome |work=UpToDate }} ==Fremmit airtins== {{Authority control}} [[Category:Motor control]] [[Category:Neurological ails]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] 5bz294t95fd8ij0nrty5gkn9vpym7ke 916924 916920 2026-05-18T00:29:02Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916924 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Developmental coordination ail | synonyms = Developmental motor coordination ail, dyspraxia | field = [[Psychiatry]], [[neurology]] | symptoms = Motor skeels deficit an informational processin difficulties | complications = Learnin difficulties, low sel-esteem, wee tae nae engagement in pheesical activities lik sports, leadin tae [[obesity]] | onset = syne birth | duration = Lifelang | treatment = Pheesical therapy, occupational therapy | frequency = 5–6% (o aw age groups) | differential = Motor impairments owin tae anither medical condeetion, [[autism]], [[attention deficit hyperactivity ail]], [[dysgraphia]], [[jynt hypermobility syndrome]], [[hypotonia]], [[fetal alcohol spectrum ail]] | image = File:Black Chuck Taylors.jpg | alt = Shaes wi unduin laces | caption = Mony fowk wi dyspraxia hae difficulty wi tyin shaelaces, writin, an performin tasks that require coordination. }} '''Developmental coordination''' '''ail''' ('''DCA'''), forby kent as '''developmental motor coordination''' '''ail''', '''developmental dyspraxia''', or simply '''dyspraxia''' (frae Auncient Greek ''praxis'' 'activity'), is a motor ail chairacterised bi impairt coordination o pheesical muivements as a result o harn messages nae bein accurately transmittit tae the bouk. Deficits in fine or gross motor skeels muivements interfere wi activities o daily livin. It is aften descrieved as ail in skeel acquisition, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Difficulties mey present as clumsiness, slawness an inaccuracy o performance o motor skeels (e.g., catchin objecks, uisin cutlery, haundwritin, ridin a bike, uise o tuils or pairteecipatin in team sports or soummin). It is aften accompanee'd bi difficulty wi organisation an/or problems wi attention, wirkin memory an time management. A diagnosis o DCD is reached anly in the absence o ither neurological impairments sic as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson's dishailth. The condeetion is lifelang an its onset is in early bairnheid. It is thoucht tae affeck aboot 5% o the population. Occupational therapy can help fowk wi dyspraxia tae develop thair coordination an achieve things that thay micht itherwise find extremely challengin tae accomplish. Dyspraxia haes naething tae dae wi intelligence but fowk wi dyspraxia mey struggle wi sel-esteem acause thair peers can easily dae things thay struggle wi on a daily basis. Dyspraxia is nae aften kent as a disabeelity in the general public. == Signs an symptoms == The Warld Heal Organisation (WHO) recognises DCA as a condeetion an hae published thair defineetion in the Internaitional Clessification o Dishailths. The American Psychiatric Association (APA)'s Diagnostic an Stateestical Manual, DSM-5 clessifies Developmental Coordination Ail (DCA) as a discrete motor ail unner the broader heidin o neurodevelopmental ails. It is aften descrieved as a ail in skeel acquisition or motor learnin, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Mony areas o development can be affeckit bi DCA an thir mey persist intae adultheid. In bairn, DCA mey exhibit as delays in early development o sittin, crawlin, walkin; peer abeelity or difficulties wi bairnheid activities sic as rinnin, jumpin, happin, catchin, sports an soummin; slawness; frequent trippin an bruisin; peer haundwritin skeels; difficulties wi sel care; difficulties wi skeels sic as uisin cutlery or tyin shaelaces; peer spatial unnerstaundin; difficulty follaein instructions; peer time management; an aften losin objecks. In adultheid, in addeetion tae a bairnheid history as abuin, the condeetion mey manifest as a difficulty learnin new motor skeels or applyin skeels in a different or busy environment, peer organisation an time management skeels, missed deidlines an lateness fur appyntments (or earliness as a copin strategy), an awkward pauses afore answerin in conversation. Thare is aften a history o unnerachievement in eddication or the wirkplace. Awthou skeels can be acquired, sic as neat haundwritin, haundwritin speed will then be muckle lower nor expectit. Evidence frae resairch an clinical practice indicates that DCA is nae juist a pheesical ail, an thare mey be deficits in executive functions, behavioural organisation an emotional regulation that extend furth the motor impairments an that are independent o diagnoses o co-morbidities. In addeetion tae the pheesical or motor impairments, developmental coordination ail is associatit wi problems wi memory, inspecially wirkin memory. This teepically results in difficulty myndin instructions, difficulty organisin ane's time an myndin deidlines, increased propensity tae lose things or problems carryin oot tasks that require myndin seevral steps in sequence (sic as cuikin). Whilst maist o the general population experience thir problems tae some extent, thay hae a muckle mair signeeficant impact on the lives o dyspraxic fowk. Houiver, mony dyspraxics hae excellent lang-term memories, in maugre o peer short-term memory. Mony dyspraxic fowk benefit frae wirkin in a structured environment, as repeatin the same routine minimises difficulty wi time-management an allous thaim tae commit procedurs tae lang-term memory. Fowk wi developmental coordination ail whiles hae difficulty moderatin the amoont o sensory information that thair bouk is constantly sendin thaim, sae as a result thir dyspraxic fowk mey be prone tae sensory owerload an panic attacks. Moderate tae extreme difficulty daein pheesical tasks is experienced bi some fowk wi dyspraxia, an fatigue is common acause sae muckle energy is expendit tryin tae execute pheesical muivements correctly. Some dyspraxic fowk hae hypotonia, low muscle tone, that can detrimentally affeck balance an aa. === Gross motor control === Hale bouk muivement an motor coordination issues mean that major developmental targets includin walkin, rinnin, climbin an jumpin can be affeckit. The difficulties vary frae person tae person an can include the follaein: * Peer timin. * Peer balance (whiles even fawin ower in mid-step). Trippin ower ane's awn feet is common an aa. * Difficulty combinin muivements intae a controlled sequence. * Difficulty myndin the nixt muivement in a sequence. * Problems wi spatial awareness, or proprioception. * Trouble pickin up an hauldin ontae simple objecks sic as pincils, owin tae peer muscle tone or proprioception. * Clumsiness tae the pynt o knockin things ower, causin minor injuries tae anesel an bumpin intae fowk accidentally. * Difficulty in determinin left frae richt. * Cross-laterality, ambidexterity, an a shift in the preferred haund are common in fowk wi developmental coordination ail an aa. * Problems wi chewin fuids. === Fine motor control === Fine-motor problems can cause difficulty wi a wide variety o ither tasks sic as uisin a knife an fork, fastenin buttons an shaelaces, cuikin, brushin tuith, stylin hair, shavin, applyin cosmetics, appenin jars an packets, lackin an unlackin duirs, an daein hoosewirk. Difficulties wi fine motor co-ordination lead tae problems wi haundwritin, Problems associatit wi this area mey include: * Learnin basic muivement patterns. * Developin a desired writin speed. * Establishin the correct pincil grip. * Haundwritin that is difficult tae read an mey miss wirds in sentences or place wirds in the incorrect order * Acquirin graphemes, e.g. the letters o the Laitin alphabet, as weel as nummers. === Developmental verbal dyspraxia === Developmental verbal dyspraxia (DVD) is a teep o ideational dyspraxia, causin speech an leid impairments. This is the favoured term in the UK; houiver, it is whiles referred tae as airticulatory dyspraxia an aa, an in the Unitit States the uisual term is bairnheid apraxia o speech (BAS). Key problems include: * Difficulties controllin the speech organs. * Difficulties makin speech soonds. * Difficulty sequencin soonds athin a wird. * Difficulty sequencin soonds formin wirds intae sentences. * Difficulty controllin breithin, suppressin salivation an phonation whan taukin or singin wi leerics. * Slaw leid development. === Associatit ails an secondary consequences === DCA is kent tae co-occur wi ither neurodevelopmental ails. Maist common is attention deficit hyperactivity ail (ADHA), wi an estimatit 50% o fowk wi ADHA haein DCA an aa, an vice versa. Ither co-occurrin condeetions are autism, developmental leid ail, prosopagnosia an developmental learnin ail. Fowk wha hae developmental coordination ail mey hae ane or mair o thir ither co-morbid condeetions: * Fetal alcohol spectrum ail * Dyscalculia (difficulty wi nummers) * Dysgraphia (an inabeelity tae write neatly or draw) * Dyslexia (difficulty wi readin an spellin) * Hypermobility * Hypotonia (low muscle tone) * Nonverbal learnin ail * Sensory processin ail * Veesual perception deficits Houiver, a person wi DCA is unlikely tae hae aw o thir condeetions. The pattern o difficulty varies widely frae person tae person; an area o major weakness fur ane dyspraxic person can be an area o strenth or gift fur anither. Fur ensaumple, whiles some dyspraxic fowk hae difficulty wi readin an spellin owin tae dyslexia, or wi numeracy owin tae dyscalculia, ithers mey hae brilliant readin an spellin or mathematical abeelities. Co-morbidity atween ADHA an DCA is pairticulairly heich. ==== Sensory processin ail ==== Sensory processin ail (SPA) concerns haein owersensitivity or unnersensitivity tae pheesical stimuli, sic as touch, licht, soond, an smell. This mey manifest itsel as an inabeelity tae tolerate certain texturs sic as saundpaper or certain fabrics sic as wool, oral intolerance o excessively textured fuid (commonly kent as picky eatin), bein touched bi anither individual (in the case o touch owersensitivity) or it mey require the consistent uise o sunglesses ootduirs syne sunlicht mey be intense eneuch tae cause discomfort tae a dyspraxic person (in the case o licht owersensitivity). An aversion tae lood muisic an naiturally lood environments (sic as clubs an bars) is teepical behaviour o individuals wi dyspraxia wha hae auditory owersensitivity, whiles anly bein comfortable in unuisually wairm or cauld environments is teepical o a dyspraxic person wi temperatur owersensitivity. Unnersensitivity tae stimuli mey cause problems an aa, as individuals dae nae receive the sensory inpit thay need tae unnerstaund whaur thair bouks are in space. This can mak it even mair challengin tae complete tasks. Dyspraxic fowk wha are unnersensitive tae pain mey injur thaimsels wioot realisin it. Some dyspraxic fowk mey be owersensitive tae some stimuli an unnersensitive tae ithers. ==== Developmental leid ail ==== Developmental leid ail (DLA) resairch haes foond that students wi developmental coordination ail an normal leid skeels aye experience learnin difficulties maugre o relative strenths in leid. This means that, fur students wi developmental coordination ail, thair wirkin memory abeelities determine thair learnin difficulties. Ony strenth in leid that thay hae is nae able tae sufficiently support thair learnin. Students wi developmental coordination ail struggle maist in veesual-spatial memory. Whan compared tae thair peers wioot motor difficulties, students wi developmental coordination ail are seiven times mair likely nor teepically developin students tae achieve vera peer scores in veesual-spatial memory. As a result o this wirkin memory impairment, students wi developmental coordination ail hae learnin deficits as weel. '''Pheesical consequences''' Dyspraxic individuals face a heicher prevalence o negative ootcomes, includin peer cardiovascular heal, challenges wi pheesical heal an sel-care. ==== Psychological an social consequences ==== '''Psychological domain:''' Bairn wi DCA mey struggle wi lower sel-efficacy an lower sel-perceived competence in peer an social relations. Some demonstrate muckler aggressiveness an hyperactivity. '''Social domain:''' Bairn mey be mair vulnerable tae social rejection an bullyin, possibly resultin in heicher levels o laneliness. '''Support domain:''' In the Unitit Kinrick, dyspraxic adults are less likely tae be awairdit disabeelity support fur heicher eddication nor thair dyslexic peers or thaim wi co-occurrin neurodivergence. Consequently, misinterpretations an inadequate support in thir settins are mair likely tae occur an are less likely tae be includit an supportit. ==In popular cultur== [[File:Daniel Radcliffe SDCC 2014.jpg|thumb|Daniel Radcliffe, actor, haes dyspraxia.]] === Feectional chairacters === * Helen Burns, a chairacter frae [[Charlotte Brontë]]'s ''[[Jane Eyre]]'', is allegit tae hae been based on the author's dyspraxic elder sister Maria Brontë. * [[Ryan Sinclair]], a chairacter in the [[BBC]] [[Science feection on televeesion|science feection telly]] programme ''[[Doctor Who]]''. ===Public feegurs=== Fowk wha hae publicly statit thay hae been diagnosed wi developmental coordination ail include: * [[David Bailey (photographer)|David Bailey]], photographer * [[TotalBiscuit|John "TotalBiscuit" Bain]], gemmes creetic * [[Cara Delevingne]], model * [[Ellis Genge]], Rugby Union pleyer * [[Gage Golightly]], actress * [[Olive Gray]], actor * [[Tom Hunt (poleetician)|Tom Hunt]], poleetician * [[Harriet Kemsley]], comedian * [[Emma Lewell-Buck]], poleetician * [[Mel B]], sangster * [[Will Poulter]], actor * [[Daniel Radcliffe]], actor * [[Holly Smale]], author * [[Florence Welch]], sangster * [[Toyah Willcox]], muisicker == See an aw == {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Agin muivement control]] * [[Apraxia]] * [[Autism]] * [[Deficits in attention, motor control an perception]] * [[Fetal alcohol spectrum ail]] * [[Global developmental delay]] * [[Hypermobility (jynts)|Hypermobility]] * [[KE faimily]] * [[Leets o leid ails]] * [[Motor control]] * [[Motor coordination]] * [[Multisensory integration]] * [[Nonverbal learnin ail]] * [[Sensory-motor couplin]] * [[Workin memory]] {{div col end}} == References == {{Reflist|4}} === Soorces === {{refbegin|2}} * <!-- To cite the DSM-5-TR ebook, use{{sfn|DSM-5-TR}} -->{{cite book |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) |pages=74–77 |location=Arlington, VA |publisher=American Psychiatric Association Publishing |lccn=2021051782 |isbn=978-0-89042-559-6 |orig-date=adopted in 2019<!-- This is when it was adopted by the World Health Assembly -->|doi=10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 |date=February 2022<!-- The most recent update as of the access date -->|ref={{harvid|DSM-5-TR}} |last1=American Psychiatric Association }} * <!-- To cite the ICD-11, use{{sfn|ICD-11}} -->{{cite encyclopedia |title=6A04 Developmental motor coordination disorder |date=February 2022<!-- The most recent update as of the access date --> |orig-date=adopted in 2019<!-- This is when it was adopted by the World Health Assembly --> |url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/148247104 |encyclopedia=International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision (ICD-11) |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=14 May 2022 |id={{ICD11|6A04|148247104}} |ref={{harvid|ICD-11}} }} <!-- A --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Alloway 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Alloway TP | title = Working memory, reading, and mathematical skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Journal of Experimental Child Psychology | volume = 96 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–36 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17010988 | doi = 10.1016/j.jecp.2006.07.002 | hdl = 1893/800 | url = https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1587343 |hdl-access=free | ref = {{harvid|Alloway 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Alloway 2008}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Alloway TP, Archibald L | title = Working memory and learning in children with developmental coordination disorder and specific language impairment | journal = Journal of Learning Disabilities | volume = 41 | issue = 3 | pages = 251–62 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18434291 | doi = 10.1177/0022219408315815 |ref={{harvid|Alloway 2008}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Alloway, Rajendran & Archibald 2009}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Alloway TP, Rajendran G, Archibald LM | title = Working memory in children with developmental disorders | journal = Journal of Learning Disabilities | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 372–82 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19380495 | doi = 10.1177/0022219409335214 | hdl = 1893/863 | url = https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/8128/6/strathprints008128.pdf | ref = {{harvid|Alloway, Rajendran & Archibald 2009}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Alloway, Temple 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Alloway TP, Temple K | title=A Comparison of Working Memory Profiles and Learning in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder and Moderate Learning Difficulties|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology| volume=21| issue=4| pages=473–487| year=2007 |doi=10.1002/acp.1284 |ref={{harvid|Alloway, Temple 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Anchor 2021a}} -->{{Cite web|title=Olive Gray {{!}} Dyspraxic Actor, Musician and Poet by The Dyspraxic Help 4U Podcast|url=https://anchor.fm/dyspraxichelp4u/episodes/Olive-Gray--Dyspraxic-Actor--Musician-and-Poet-eil2db|access-date=2021-10-23|website=Anchor|language=en|ref={{harvid|Anchor 2021a}}}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Anchor 2021b}} -->{{Cite web|title=Toyah Willcox Life Story {{!}} Punk Princess {{!}} Longevity & Success {{!}} Dyspraxic Star by The Dyspraxic Help 4U Podcast|url=https://anchor.fm/dyspraxichelp4u/episodes/Toyah-Willcox-Life-Story--Punk-Princess--Longevity--Success--Dyspraxic-Star-e18hcnj|access-date=2021-10-23|website=Anchor|language=en|ref={{harvid|Anchor 2021b}}}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Ayres 1972}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Ayres AJ | title = Types of sensory integrative dysfunction among disabled learners | journal = The American Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–8 | year = 1972 |id={{ERIC|EJ050431}} | pmid = 5008164 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-occupational-therapy_january-february-1972_26_1 |ref={{harvid|Ayres 1972}} }} <!-- B --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Bacon & Rappold 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Bacon C, Rappold GA | title = The distinct and overlapping phenotypic spectra of FOXP1 and FOXP2 in cognitive disorders | journal = Human Genetics | volume = 131 | issue = 11 | pages = 1687–98 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22736078 | pmc = 3470686 | doi = 10.1007/s00439-012-1193-z |ref={{harvid|Bacon & Rappold 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Bain 2020}} -->{{cite web |last1=Bain |first1=John |title=Sorry, diagnosed dyspraxic with a step-son who as you probably know has adhd and aspergers. This is a topic I care deeply about. |url=https://twitter.com/totalbiscuit/status/558618703890501634?lang=en |website=[[Twitter]] |access-date=22 May 2020 |ref={{harvid|Bain 2020}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Barkley 1990}} -->{{cite book | last = Barkley | first = Russell A. | name-list-style = vanc |title=Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a handbook for diagnosis and treatment |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-89862-443-4 |oclc=21335369 |ref={{harvid|Barkley 1990}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Barnhart et al. 2003}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Barnhart RC, Davenport MJ, Epps SB, Nordquist VM | title = Developmental coordination disorder | journal = Physical Therapy | volume = 83 | issue = 8 | pages = 722–31 | date = August 2003 | doi = 10.1093/ptj/83.8.722 | pmid = 12882613 | doi-access = free | ref = {{harvid|Barnhart et al. 2003}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Beater 2019}} -->{{cite news |last1=Beater |first1=Emily |title=Studying with dyspraxia: 'I never truly understood an academic text' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2019/mar/05/studying-with-dyspraxia-i-never-truly-understood-an-academic-text |work=The Guardian |date=5 March 2019 |ref={{harvid|Beater 2019}}}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Biggs 2005}} -->{{cite book | last1 = Biggs | first1 = Victoria | name-list-style = vanc | title = Caged in chaos: a dyspraxic guide to breaking free | chapter = 3 A Survival Guide to School | publisher = Jessica Kingsley Publishers | year = 2005 | location = London; Philadelphia |oclc=57316751 | isbn = 978-1-84310-347-9 |ref={{harvid|Biggs 2005}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Blank et al. 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Blank R, Smits-Engelsman B, Polatajko H, Wilson P | title = European Academy for Childhood Disability (EACD): recommendations on the definition, diagnosis and intervention of developmental coordination disorder (long version) | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 54 | issue = 1 | pages = 54–93 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22171930 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04171.x | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Blank et al. 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Blank et al. 2019}} -->{{cite journal|author6-link=Helene Polatajko | vauthors = Blank R, Barnett AL, Cairney J, Green D, Kirby A, Polatajko H, Rosenblum S, Smits-Engelsman B, Sugden D, Wilson P, Vincon S | display-authors = 6 | title = International clinical practice recommendations on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of developmental coordination disorder | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 242–285 | date = March 2019 | pmid = 30671947 | pmc = 6850610 | doi = 10.1111/dmcn.14132 |ref={{harvid|Blank et al. 2019}} }} <!-- C --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|CanChild 2016}} -->{{cite web |url=http://dcd.canchild.ca/en/dcdresources/consensusstatements.asp |title=Consensus Statements |work=CanChild |access-date=15 August 2022 |date=2016 |ref={{harvid|CanChild 2016}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Cools et al. 2009}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Cools W, Martelaer KD, Samaey C, Andries C | title = Movement skill assessment of typically developing preschool children: a review of seven movement skill assessment tools | journal = Journal of Sports Science & Medicine | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 154–68 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 24149522 | pmc = 3761481 |ref={{harvid|Cools et al. 2009}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Cravedi et al. 2017}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Cravedi E, Deniau E, Giannitelli M, Xavier J, Hartmann A, Cohen D | title = Tourette syndrome and other neurodevelopmental disorders: a comprehensive review | journal = Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health | volume = 11 | article-number = 59 | date = 2017-12-04 | pmid = 29225671 | pmc = 5715991 | doi = 10.1186/s13034-017-0196-x |ref={{harvid|Cravedi et al. 2017}} | doi-access = free }} <!-- D --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Dyspraxia Foundation 2022}} -->{{cite web |title=What is Dyspraxia |url=https://dyspraxiafoundation.org.uk/what_is_dyspraxia/dyspraxia-at-a-glance/ |website=Dyspraxia Foundation |access-date=15 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521211453/https://www.dyspraxiafoundation.org.uk/what_is_dyspraxia/dyspraxia-at-a-glance/ |archive-date=21 May 2023 |ref={{harvid|Dyspraxia Foundation 2022}} }} * <!--{{sfn|Dyspraxia Ireland 2022}} -->{{cite web |title=Dyspraxia/DCD Ireland - Adults with Dyspraxia/DCD |url=https://www.dyspraxia.ie/Adults-with-Dyspraxia-DCD |website=www.dyspraxia.ie |language=en |access-date=9 September 2022 |ref={{harvid|Dyspraxia Ireland 2022}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Dziuk et al. 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Dziuk MA, Gidley Larson JC, Apostu A, Mahone EM, Denckla MB, Mostofsky SH | title = Dyspraxia in autism: association with motor, social, and communicative deficits | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 49 | issue = 10 | pages = 734–9 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17880641 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00734.x | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Dziuk et al. 2007}} }} <!-- E --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Elbasan, Kayihan & Duzgun 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Elbasan B, Kayıhan H, Duzgun I | title = Sensory integration and activities of daily living in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Italian Journal of Pediatrics | volume = 38 | issue = 1 | page = 14 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22546072 | pmc = 3395584 | doi = 10.1186/1824-7288-38-14 |ref={{harvid|Elbasan, Kayihan & Duzgun 2012}} | doi-access = free }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Ellinoudis et al. 2011}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Ellinoudis T, Evaggelinou C, Kourtessis T, Konstantinidou Z, Venetsanou F, Kambas A | title = Reliability and validity of age band 1 of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children--second edition | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 1046–51 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21333488 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.035 |ref={{harvid|Ellinoudis et al. 2011}} }} <!-- F --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Fitts 2019}} -->{{Cite web|url=https://thesensorytoolbox.com/explaining-motor-dyspraxia-children-ways-address/|title=Explaining Motor Dyspraxia in Children and Ways to Address It|last=Fitts|first=Diana|date=2019-03-25|website=The Sensory Toolbox|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-02|ref={{harvid|Fitts 2019}}|archive-date=15 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115155932/https://thesensorytoolbox.com/explaining-motor-dyspraxia-children-ways-address/}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Fliers, Franke & Buitelaar 2011}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Fliers EA, Franke B, Buitelaar JK | title = Motorische problemen bij kinderen met ADHD: Onderbelicht in de klinische praktijk |trans-title=Motor problems in children with ADHD receive too little attention in clinical practice | language = nl | journal = Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde | volume = 155 | issue = 50 | pages = A3559 | year = 2011 | pmid = 22186361 |url=https://www.ntvg.nl/artikelen/motorische-problemen-bij-kinderen-met-adhd |ref={{harvid|Fliers, Franke & Buitelaar 2011}} }} <!-- G --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Gaines et al. 2008}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Gaines R, Missiuna C, Egan M, McLean J | title = Educational outreach and collaborative care enhances physician's perceived knowledge about Developmental Coordination Disorder | journal = BMC Health Services Research | volume = 8 | article-number = 21 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18218082 | pmc = 2254381 | doi = 10.1186/1472-6963-8-21 |ref={{harvid|Gaines et al. 2008}} | doi-access = free }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Gerken 2018}} -->{{cite news |last1=Gerken |first1=Tom |title=Doctor Who: How the dyspraxic assistant became my hero |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-45784822 |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC |access-date=16 October 2018 |date=2018-10-08 |ref={{harvid|Gerken 2018}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Geuze 2005}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Geuze RH | title = Postural control in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Neural Plasticity | volume = 12 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 183–96; discussion 263–72 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16097486 | pmc = 2565450 | doi = 10.1155/NP.2005.183 | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Geuze 2005}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Gibbs, Appleton & Appleton 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Gibbs J, Appleton J, Appleton R | title = Dyspraxia or developmental coordination disorder? Unravelling the enigma | journal = Archives of Disease in Childhood | volume = 92 | issue = 6 | pages = 534–9 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17515623 | pmc = 2066137 | doi = 10.1136/adc.2005.088054 |ref={{harvid|Gibbs, Appleton & Appleton 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Gillberg & Kadesjö 2003}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Gillberg C, Kadesjö B | title = Why bother about clumsiness? The implications of having developmental coordination disorder (DCD) | journal = Neural Plasticity | volume = 10 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 59–68 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14640308 | pmc = 2565425 | doi = 10.1155/NP.2003.59 | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Gillberg & Kadesjö 2003}} }} * {{cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/BFYtiY-Rn_a/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/BFYtiY-Rn_a |archive-date=December 24, 2021 |url-access=registration|title=May 14th is Apraxia Awareness Day.|date=May 14, 2016|last=Golightly|first=Gage|access-date=May 8, 2018|publisher=[[Instagram]]}}{{cbignore}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Goulardins et al. 2015}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Goulardins |first1=Juliana B. |last2=Rigoli |first2=Daniela |last3=Licari |first3=Melissa |last4=Piek |first4=Jan P. |last5=Hasue |first5=Renata H. |last6=Oosterlaan |first6=Jaap |last7=Oliveira |first7=Jorge A. |title=Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and developmental coordination disorder: Two separate disorders or do they share a common etiology. |journal=Behavioural Brain Research |date=October 2015 |volume=292 |pages=484–492 |doi=10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.009 |pmid=26168770 |ref={{harvid|Goulardins et al. 2015}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Grant 2009}} -->{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9780470742259.ch3 |chapter=The Psychological Assessment of Neurodiversity |title=Neurodiversity in Higher Education |date=2009 |last1=Grant |first1=David |pages=33–62 |isbn=978-0-470-74159-7 |ref={{harvid|Grant 2009}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Green & Payne 2018}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=D. |last2=Payne |first2=S.|title=Understanding Organisational Ability and Self-Regulation in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder.|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports |volume=5 |doi=10.1007/s40474-018-0129-2|date=2018|issue=1 | pages=34–42|pmid=29497596 |pmc=5818572 |ref={{harvid|Green & Payne 2018}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Gubbay 1978}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Gubbay SS | title = The management of developmental apraxia | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 643–6 | date = October 1978 | pmid = 729912 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1978.tb15283.x |ref={{harvid|Gubbay 1978}} }} <!-- H --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Haskell 2015}} -->{{cite news |last1=Haskell |first1=Rob |title=Cara Delevingne Opens Up About Her Childhood, Love Life, and Why Modeling Just Isn't Enough |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/cara-delevingne-actress-july-2015-cover |work=Vogue |date=19 June 2015 |ref={{harvid|Haskell 2015}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Hay, Hawes & Faught 2004}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Hay JA, Hawes R, Faught BE | title = Evaluation of a screening instrument for developmental coordination disorder | journal = The Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 308–13 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15041000 | doi = 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.07.004 |ref={{harvid|Hay, Hawes & Faught 2004}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Henderson & Henderson 2003}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Henderson SE, Henderson L | title = Toward an understanding of developmental coordination disorder: terminological and diagnostic issues | journal = Neural Plasticity | volume = 10 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 1–13 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14640303 | pmc = 2565424 | doi = 10.1155/NP.2003.1 | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Henderson & Henderson 2003}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Hennessy 2018}} -->{{cite web|url=http://rugbylad.ie/ellis-genge-talk-tv-last-night-incredible-interview/|title=Ellis Genge Was The Talk Of Television Last Night Following This Incredible Interview|first=Jason|last=Hennessy|date=6 September 2018|ref={{harvid|Hennessy 2018}}}} * {{Cite Hansard|house=House of Commons |title=Education and Local Government - Volume 669 |url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2020-01-14/debates/10029540-3911-4F21-9FC8-E32E31F06F90/details |date=14 January 2020 |column_start=950 |column_end=950 |speaker=Tom Hunt|ref={{harvid|Hansard|2020}}}} <!-- I --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Irvine 2008}} -->{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2573230/Harry-Potters-Daniel-Radcliffe-has-dyspraxia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821035608/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2573230/Harry-Potters-Daniel-Radcliffe-has-dyspraxia.html |archive-date=2008-08-21 |title=Harry Potter's Daniel Radcliffe has dyspraxia |access-date=2010-05-16 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |first=Chris |last=Irvine |name-list-style=vanc |date=2008-08-17 |ref={{harvid|Irvine 2008}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Irvine 2013}} -->{{cite news |url=https://12ft.io/proxy?q=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fwomen%2Fwomens-life%2F10341479%2FId-love-to-wear-eyeliner-but-that-requires-a-steady-hand.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/10341479/Id-love-to-wear-eyeliner-but-that-requires-a-steady-hand.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-status=live |title="I'd love to wear eyeliner, but that requires a steady hand" Labour MP Emma Lewell-Buck struggled with clumsiness, until a diagnosis of dyspraxia helped her become a politician |access-date=2013-09-28 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |first=Chris |last=Irvine |name-list-style=vanc |date=2013-09-28 |ref={{harvid|Irvine 2013}} }} <!-- J --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Jeste 2011}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeste SS | title = The neurology of autism spectrum disorders | journal = Current Opinion in Neurology | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 132–9 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21293268 | pmc = 3160764 | doi = 10.1097/WCO.0b013e3283446450 |ref={{harvid|Jeste 2011}} }} <!-- K --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Kambas et al. 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Kambas A, Venetsanou F, Giannakidou D, Fatouros IG, Avloniti A, Chatzinikolaou A, Draganidis D, Zimmer R | display-authors = 6 | title = The Motor-Proficiency-Test for children between 4 and 6 years of age (MOT 4-6): an investigation of its suitability in Greece | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 33 | issue = 5 | pages = 1626–32 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22543059 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2012.04.002 |ref={{harvid|Kambas et al. 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Kemsley 2018}} -->{{cite web|first=Harriet|last=Kemsley|url=http://www.dyspraxialifemagazine.co.uk/2018/10/01/standing-up-for-dyspraxia/|title=The Big Interview with Harriet Kemsley|publisher=Dyspraxia Life Magazine|access-date=24 August 2022|date=2018|ref={{harvid|Kemsley 2018}}}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Kirby & Sugden 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirby A, Sugden DA | title = Children with developmental coordination disorders | journal = Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 100 | issue = 4 | pages = 182–6 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17404341 | pmc = 1847727 | doi = 10.1177/014107680710011414 |ref={{harvid|Kirby & Sugden 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Kirby et al. 2010}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirby A, Edwards L, Sugden D, Rosenblum S | title = The development and standardization of the Adult Developmental Co-ordination Disorders/Dyspraxia Checklist (ADC) | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 131–9 | year = 2010 | pmid = 19819107 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2009.08.010 |ref={{harvid|Kirby et al. 2010}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Kirby, Davies & Bryant 2005}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Kirby |first1=Amanda |last2=Davies |first2=Rhys |last3=Bryant |first3=Amy |title=Do teachers know more about specific learning difficulties than general practitioners? |journal=British Journal of Special Education |date=31 August 2005 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=122–126 |doi=10.1111/j.0952-3383.2005.00384.x |ref={{harvid|Kirby, Davies & Bryant 2005}} }} <!-- L --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Lacquaniti 1989}} -->{{cite journal |author-link1=Francesco Lacquaniti | vauthors = Lacquaniti F | title = Central representations of human limb movement as revealed by studies of drawing and handwriting | journal = Trends in Neurosciences | volume = 12 | issue = 8 | pages = 287–91 | date = August 1989 | pmid = 2475946 | doi = 10.1016/0166-2236(89)90008-8 |ref={{harvid|Lacquaniti 1989}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Lucas et al. 2013}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Lucas BR, Latimer J, Doney R, Ferreira ML, Adams R, Hawkes G, Fitzpatrick JP, Hand M, Oscar J, Carter M, Elliott EJ | display-authors = 6 | title = The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Short Form is reliable in children living in remote Australian Aboriginal communities | journal = BMC Pediatrics | volume = 13 | article-number = 135 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24010634 | pmc = 3844452 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2431-13-135 |ref={{harvid|Lucas et al. 2013}} | doi-access = free }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Lucas et al. 2016}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=Barbara R |last2=Doney |first2=Robyn |last3=Latimer |first3=Jane |last4=Watkins |first4=Rochelle E |last5=Tsang |first5=Tracey W |last6=Hawkes |first6=Genevieve |last7=Fitzpatrick |first7=James P |last8=Oscar |first8=June |last9=Carter |first9=Maureen |last10=Elliott |first10=Elizabeth J |title=Impairment of motor skills in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in remote Australia: The Lililwan Project |journal=Drug and Alcohol Review |year=2016 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=719–727 |publisher=Australasian Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs |doi=10.1111/dar.12375 |pmid=26879822 |ref={{harvid|Lucas et al. 2016}} }} <!-- M --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Magalhães, Missiuna & Wong 2006}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Magalhães |first1=Lívia C |last2=Missiuna |first2=Cheryl |last3=Wong |first3=Shirley |title=Terminology used in research reports of developmental coordination disorder |journal=Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology |volume=48 |issue=11 |date=November 2006 |pages=937–941 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8749.2006.02040a.x |id={{ProQuest|195593851}} |pmid=17044965 |ref={{harvid|Magalhães, Missiuna & Wong 2006}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Martini, St-Pierre & Wilson 2011}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Martini R, St-Pierre MF, Wilson BN | title = French Canadian cross-cultural adaptation of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire '07: DCDQ-FC | journal = Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 78 | issue = 5 | pages = 318–27 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 22338299 | doi = 10.2182/cjot.2011.78.5.7 |ref={{harvid|Martini, St-Pierre & Wilson 2011}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Meachon, Semp & Alpers 2022}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Meachon EJ, Zemp M, Alpers GW | title = Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): Relevance for Clinical Psychologists in Europe | journal = Clinical Psychology in Europe | volume = 4 | issue = 2 |date = June 2022 | article-number = e4165 | doi = 10.32872/cpe.4165| pmid = 36397944 | pmc = 9667416 |ref={{harvid|Meachon, Semp & Alpers 2022}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Miller et al. 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Miller LJ, Anzalone ME, Lane SJ, Cermak SA, Osten ET | title = Concept evolution in sensory integration: a proposed nosology for diagnosis | journal = The American Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 61 | issue = 2 | pages = 135–40 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17436834 | doi = 10.5014/ajot.61.2.135 | ref = {{harvid|Miller et al. 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Missiuna et al. 2006}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Missiuna C, Gaines R, Soucie H, McLean J | title = Parental questions about developmental coordination disorder: A synopsis of current evidence | journal = Paediatrics & Child Health | volume = 11 | issue = 8 | pages = 507–12 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 19030319 | pmc = 2528644 | doi = 10.1093/pch/11.8.507 |ref={{harvid|Missiuna et al. 2006}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Miyahara 2013}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Miyahara M | title = Meta review of systematic and meta analytic reviews on movement differences, effect of movement based interventions, and the underlying neural mechanisms in autism spectrum disorder | journal = Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience | volume = 7 | page = 16 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23532374 | pmc = 3607787 | doi = 10.3389/fnint.2013.00016 | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Miyahara 2013}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Miyahara et al. 2017}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Miyahara |first1=Motohide |last2=Hillier |first2=Susan L |last3=Pridham |first3=Liz |last4=Nakagawa |first4=Shinichi |title=Task-oriented interventions for children with developmental co-ordination disorder |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=31 July 2017 |volume=2017 |issue=8 |article-number=CD010914 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010914.pub2 |pmc=6483344 |pmid=28758189 |ref={{harvid|Miyahara et al. 2017}} }} <!-- N --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|NHS 2019}} -->{{cite web |title=Dyspraxia in adults |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/developmental-coordination-disorder-dyspraxia-adults/ |website=[[National Health Service]] |date=18 October 2017 | ref={{harvid|NHS 2019}} }} <!-- P --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Pearsall-Jones, Piek & Levy 2003}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Pearsall-Jones JG, Piek JP, Levy F | title = Developmental Coordination Disorder and cerebral palsy: categories or a continuum? | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 29 | issue = 5 | pages = 787–98 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20594606 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2010.04.006 |ref={{harvid|Pearsall-Jones, Piek & Levy 2003}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Pickering 2012}} -->{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9780203013403 |title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-135-42135-9 |editor-last1=Alloway |editor-last2=Gathercole |editor-first1=Tracy Packiam |editor-first2=Susan E. |last1=Pickering |first1=Susan J |chapter=Working Memory in Dyslexia |pages=7–40 | ref = {{harvid|Pickering 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Pieters et al. 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Pieters S, Desoete A, Van Waelvelde H, Vanderswalmen R, Roeyers H | title = Mathematical problems in children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 33 | issue = 4 | pages = 1128–35 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22502838 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2012.02.007 |ref={{harvid|Pieters et al. 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Polatajko & Cantin 2005}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Polatajko HJ, Cantin N | title = Developmental coordination disorder (dyspraxia): an overview of the state of the art | journal = Seminars in Pediatric Neurology | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 250–8 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16780296 | doi = 10.1016/j.spen.2005.12.007 |ref={{harvid|Polatajko & Cantin 2005}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Poletti 2011}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Poletti |first1=Michele |title=Disturbo di Sviluppo della Coordinazione Motoria e Sindrome Non Verbale: esistono aree di sovrapposizione clinica? |trans-title=Developmental Coordination Disorder and Nonverbal Learning Disability: do areas of clinical overlapping exist? |language=it |journal=Psicologia Clinica Dello Sviluppo |date=2011 |issue=3 |pages=525–550 |doi=10.1449/35886 |ref={{harvid|Poletti 2011}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Psynso 2022}} -->{{cite web |title=Developmental Dyspraxia |url=https://psynso.com/developmental-dyspraxia/ |website=Psynso |access-date=19 August 2022 |ref={{harvid|Psynso 2022}} }} <!-- R --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Ray-Kaeser et al. 2019}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Ray-Kaeser S, Thommen E, Martini R, Jover M, Gurtner B, Bertrand AM | title = Psychometric assessment of the French European Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ-FE) | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | article-number = e0217280 | date = 2019-05-23 | pmid = 31120966 | pmc = 6532915 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0217280 | editor-first = Chung-Ying | editor-last = Lin | bibcode = 2019PLoSO..1417280R | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Ray-Kaeser et al. 2019}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Rosenblum 2013}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Rosenblum S | title = Handwriting measures as reflectors of executive functions among adults with Developmental Coordination Disorders (DCD) | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 4 | page = 357 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23805113 | pmc = 3693067 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00357 | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Rosenblum 2013}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Hussey 2008}} -->{{cite web |last=Hussey |first=Patrick |name-list-style=vanc |url=http://www.run-riot.com/articles/blogs/interview-florence-machine |title=Interview: Florence & The Machine |publisher=Run Riot |date=15 May 2008 |access-date=7 March 2010 |ref={{harvid|Hussey 2008}} }} <!-- S --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Saban & Kirby 2018}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Saban MT, Kirby A | title = Adulthood in Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): a Review of Current Literature Based on ICF Perspective | journal = Current Developmental Disorders Reports | issue = 5 | pages = 9–17 | date = March 2018 | volume = 5 | doi = 10.1007/s40474-018-0126-5 |ref={{harvid|Saban & Kirby 2018}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Scharff & Petri 2011}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Scharff C, Petri J | title = Evo-devo, deep homology and FoxP2: implications for the evolution of speech and language | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 366 | issue = 1574 | pages = 2124–40 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21690130 | pmc = 3130369 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2011.0001 |ref={{harvid|Scharff & Petri 2011}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Schoemaker et al. 2001}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoemaker MM, van der Wees M, Flapper B, Verheij-Jansen N, Scholten-Jaegers S, Geuze RH | title = Perceptual skills of children with developmental coordination disorder | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 20 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 111–33 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11471393 | doi = 10.1016/s0167-9457(01)00031-8 | ref = {{harvid|Schoemaker et al. 2001}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Schoemaker et al. 2006}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoemaker MM, Flapper B, Verheij NP, Wilson BN, Reinders-Messelink HA, de Kloet A | title = Evaluation of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire as a screening instrument | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 48 | issue = 8 | pages = 668–73 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16836779 | doi = 10.1017/S001216220600140X |ref={{harvid|Schoemaker et al. 2006}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Schoemaker et al. 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoemaker MM, Niemeijer AS, Flapper BC, Smits-Engelsman BC | title = Validity and reliability of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 Checklist for children with and without motor impairments | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 368–75 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22320829 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04226.x | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Schoemaker et al. 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Smale 2021}} -->{{cite tweet |last=Smale |first=Holly |user=HolSmale |number=1409923031615643648 |date=June 29, 2021 |title=Just got my results through! I'm officially dyspraxic. Which comes as no surprise to anyone who has ever met me, but may stop me beating myself up for... beating myself up. ❤ |language=en |access-date=June 6, 2021 |ref={{harvid|Smale 2021}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Smits-Engelsman et al. 2015}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Smits-Engelsman |first1=Bouwien C. M. |last2=Jelsma |first2=Lemke Dorothee |last3=Ferguson |first3=Gillian D. |last4=Geuze |first4=Reint H. |title=Motor Learning: An Analysis of 100 Trials of a Ski Slalom Game in Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder |journal=PLOS ONE |date=14 October 2015 |volume=10 |issue=10 |article-number=e0140470 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0140470 |pmid=26466324 |pmc=4605617 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1040470S |doi-access=free |ref={{harvid|Smits-Engelsman et al. 2015}} }} <!-- T --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Thompson 2019}} -->{{cite news |last1=Thompson |first1=Alexandra |title=Mel B opens up about her ADHD, ADD and dyspraxia - but what are they? |url=https://uk.style.yahoo.com/adhd-add-dyspraxia-mel-b-110123731.html |work=Yahoo!Life |date=29 October 2019 |ref={{harvid|Thompson 2019}}}} <!-- V --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Van Waelvelde et al. 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Van Waelvelde H, Hellinckx T, Peersman W, Smits-Engelsman BC | title = SOS: a screening instrument to identify children with handwriting impairments | journal = Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 306–19 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22515913 | doi = 10.3109/01942638.2012.678971 | hdl = 1854/LU-2103056 | url = https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/2103056 | ref = {{harvid|Van Waelvelde et al. 2012}} | hdl-access = free }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Vargha-Khadem et al. 2005}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Vargha-Khadem F, Gadian DG, Copp A, Mishkin M | title = FOXP2 and the neuroanatomy of speech and language | journal = Nature Reviews. Neuroscience | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 131–8 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15685218 | doi = 10.1038/nrn1605 | ref = {{harvid|Vargha-Khadem et al. 2005}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Venetsanou et al. 2007}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Venetsanou F, Kambas A, Aggeloussis N, Serbezis V, Taxildaris K | title = Use of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency for identifying children with motor impairment | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 49 | issue = 11 | pages = 846–8 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 17979863 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00846.x | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Venetsanou et al. 2007}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Venetsanou et al. 2009}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Venetsanou F, Kambas A, Aggeloussis N, Fatouros I, Taxildaris K | title = Motor assessment of preschool aged children: A preliminary investigation of the validity of the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency - short form | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 543–50 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19443065 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2009.03.002 | url = https://hal.science/hal-00557316/file/PEER_stage2_10.1016%252Fj.humov.2009.03.002.pdf | ref = {{harvid|Venetsanou et al. 2009}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Venetsanou et al. 2011}} -->{{cite journal |last1=Venetsanou |first1=Fotini |last2=Kambas |first2=Antonis |last3=Ellinoudis |first3=Theodoros |last4=Fatouros |first4=Ioannis |last5=Giannakidou |first5=Dimitra |last6=Kourtessis |first6=Thomas |title=Can the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Test be the 'gold standard' for the motor assessment of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder? |journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities |date=January 2011 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2010.09.006 |pmid=20940096 |ref={{harvid|Venetsanou et al. 2011}} }} <!-- W --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Walsh 2016}} -->{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=John |title=David Bailey was a scowling, socially mobile rude boy |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/david-bailey-introduced-us-to-the-concept-of-the-portrait-photographer-as-style-arbiter-and-sex-god-a6788881.html |work=The Independent |date=2 January 2016 |ref={{harvid|Walsh 2016}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Williams 2013}} -->{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Holly |title=The big picture: How Will Poulter shook off the tough tearaway tag to become Hollywood's latest loveable dork |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/films/features/the-big-picture-how-will-poulter-shook-off-the-tough-tearaway-tag-to-become-hollywood-s-latest-loveable-dork-8779097.html |work=The Independent |date=24 August 2013 |ref={{harvid|Williams 2013}}}} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Willoughby & Polatajko 1995}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Willoughby C, Polatajko HJ | title = Motor problems in children with developmental coordination disorder: review of the literature | journal = The American Journal of Occupational Therapy | volume = 49 | issue = 8 | pages = 787–94 | date = September 1995 | pmid = 8526224 | doi = 10.5014/ajot.49.8.787 |ref={{harvid|Willoughby & Polatajko 1995}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Wilson & McKenzie 1998}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilson PH, McKenzie BE | title = Information processing deficits associated with developmental coordination disorder: a meta-analysis of research findings | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 39 | issue = 6 | pages = 829–40 | date = September 1998 | pmid = 9758192 | doi = 10.1111/1469-7610.00384 |ref={{harvid|Wilson & McKenzie 1998}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Wright & Sugden 1996}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Wright HC, Sugden DA | title = A two-step procedure for the identification of children with developmental co-ordination disorder in Singapore | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 38 | issue = 12 | pages = 1099–105 | date = December 1996 | pmid = 8973295 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1996.tb15073.x |ref={{harvid|Wright & Sugden 1996}} }} <!-- Z --> * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Zwicker 2012}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Zwicker JG, Missiuna C, Harris SR, Boyd LA | title = Developmental coordination disorder: a review and update | journal = European Journal of Paediatric Neurology | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 573–81 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22705270 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejpn.2012.05.005 |ref={{harvid|Zwicker 2012}} }} * <!-- to cite use{{sfn|Zwicker, Harris & Klassen 2013}} -->{{cite journal | vauthors = Zwicker JG, Harris SR, Klassen AF | title = Quality of life domains affected in children with developmental coordination disorder: a systematic review | journal = Child: Care, Health and Development | volume = 39 | pages = 562–580 | date = 2012-04-20 | issue = 4 | pmid = 22515477 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2214.2012.01379.x | doi-access = free |ref={{harvid|Zwicker, Harris & Klassen 2013}} }} {{refend}} === Further readin === * {{cite journal|author1-link=Helene Polatajko | vauthors = Polatajko H, Fox M, Missiuna C | title=An International Consensus on Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder|journal=Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy|volume=62| issue=1|year=1995|pages=3–6 |doi=10.1177/000841749506200101}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Mandich A, Polatajko HJ | title = Developmental coordination disorder: mechanisms, measurement and management | journal = Human Movement Science | volume = 22 | issue = 4–5 | pages = 407–11 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14624825 | doi = 10.1016/j.humov.2003.09.001 }} * {{cite book | vauthors = Talukdar, A | title = Dyspraxia/DCD pocketbook | series = Teachers' Pocketbooks | publisher = Management Pocketbooks | year = 2012 | location = Hampshire; UK | isbn = 978-1-906610-38-8 |oclc = 1162296987 | url=http://www.teacherspocketbooks.co.uk/media_tp/preview/9781906610388(Preview).pdf }} * {{cite book |chapter=6A04 Developmental motor coordination disorder |pages=139–142 |title=Clinical descriptions and diagnostic requirements for ICD-11 mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders |date=2024 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-007726-3 |hdl=10665/375767 |hdl-access=free }} * {{cite web |last1=Sutton Hamilton |first1=S |title=Developmental coordination disorder: Management and outcome |url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/developmental-coordination-disorder-management-and-outcome |work=UpToDate }} ==Fremmit airtins== {{sister project links|d=Q1269351|q=no|c=category:Dyspraxia|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Motor control]] [[Category:Neurological ails]] [[Category:Speceefic developmental ails]] p8j57lc2kf41a7o3v63dvxhtovy54oy Developmental motor coordination ail 0 233477 916921 2026-05-18T00:26:14Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 Reguidin tae [[Developmental coordination ail]] 916921 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Developmental coordination ail]] 7sqi8suwf84pe45di0fs8ye4j8jq175 Developmental dyspraxia 0 233478 916922 2026-05-18T00:26:46Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 Reguidin tae [[Developmental coordination ail]] 916922 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Developmental coordination ail]] 7sqi8suwf84pe45di0fs8ye4j8jq175 Dyspraxia 0 233479 916923 2026-05-18T00:27:16Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 Reguidin tae [[Developmental coordination ail]] 916923 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Developmental coordination ail]] 7sqi8suwf84pe45di0fs8ye4j8jq175 Survive (Lewis Capaldi sang) 0 233480 916925 2026-05-18T00:41:24Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 NOTE: This airtin haes been owersettit frae the existin Inglis Wikipaedia airtin at [[:en:Survive (Lewis Capaldi song)]]; see its history fur attreibution 916925 wikitext text/x-wiki "'''Survive'''" is a sang bi Scots sangster-sangwriter Lewis Capaldi, lowsed on 27 Juin 2025 throu Vertigo an Universal. Follaein Capaldi's performance at Glastonbury 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the UK Singles Chairt. Ootside the Unitit Kinrick, "Survive" peakit athin the tap ten o the chairts in Ireland. "Survive" is the lead single frae Capaldi's thrid extendit pley o the same name. == Backgrund an release == "Survive" wis written bi Capaldi an Rømans, wha forby co-wrate Capaldi's smash hit, "Someone You Loved". The sang marks Capaldi's furst single in twa years, in that he teuk a hiatus frae tourin an performin, stairtin in Juin 2023, statin that he needit tae focus on his mental an pheesical heal as weel as the impact o his Tourette's syndrome. Earlier that month, Capaldi performed at the 2023 Glastonbury Fest, but his set wis cut short bi an episode o his Tourette's an vocal issues, thou the croud continued singin tae help him finish the performance. Two years later, rumours speculatit that Capaldi wad be performin a surprise set at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest an lowsin a new single on 27 Juin 2025. That day, he lowsed his comeback single, "Survive", that happened tae occur on the same day as his predictit surprise performance at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest, his furst heich-profile performance in twa years. On stage at Glastonbury, Capaldi said, "The last twa years havnae been the best fur me. It's been difficult at times. A wantit tae write a sang that wis aboot owercomin that stuff an gettin ower the ither side o it. It haes been ma goal tae get back [on stage], an "Survive" is a sang aboot that." 9j9ppm6vhidpzah23pdq3ct64vl4296 916926 916925 2026-05-18T00:52:26Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916926 wikitext text/x-wiki "'''Survive'''" is a sang bi Scots sangster-sangwriter Lewis Capaldi, lowsed on 27 Juin 2025 throu Vertigo an Universal. Follaein Capaldi's performance at Glastonbury 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the UK Singles Chairt. Ootside the Unitit Kinrick, "Survive" peakit athin the tap ten o the chairts in Ireland. "Survive" is the lead single frae Capaldi's thrid extendit pley o the same name. == Backgrund an release == "Survive" wis written bi Capaldi an Rømans, wha forby co-wrate Capaldi's smash hit, "Someone You Loved". The sang marks Capaldi's furst single in twa years, in that he teuk a hiatus frae tourin an performin, stairtin in Juin 2023, statin that he needit tae focus on his mental an pheesical heal as weel as the impact o his Tourette's syndrome. Earlier that month, Capaldi performed at the 2023 Glastonbury Fest, but his set wis cut short bi an episode o his Tourette's an vocal issues, thou the croud continued singin tae help him finish the performance. Two years later, rumours speculatit that Capaldi wad be performin a surprise set at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest an lowsin a new single on 27 Juin 2025. That day, he lowsed his comeback single, "Survive", that happened tae occur on the same day as his predictit surprise performance at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest, his furst heich-profile performance in twa years. On stage at Glastonbury, Capaldi said, "The last twa years havnae been the best fur me. It's been difficult at times. A wantit tae write a sang that wis aboot owercomin that stuff an gettin ower the ither side o it. It haes been ma goal tae get back [on stage], an "Survive" is a sang aboot that." == Muisic video == The muisic video wis directit bi Hector Docktrill, wha forby directit the muisic video fur Capaldi's 2022 single, "Pointless". It features Capaldi sittin on a chair in the middle o a ruim, strummin his guitar an singin. Throuoot the muisic video, clips o documental moments o Capaldi's life pop up, rangin frae his bairnheid tae the few months afore his heal-relatit hiatus, whaur he wis strugglin wi his Tourette's an anxiety. == Creetical reception == Isabella Wandermurem o ''Euphoria'' says Capaldi "isna juist lowsin new muisic — he's offerin a piece o himsel, markit bi scars but bi stubborn hope an aa. It's nae juist a sang fur thaim wha hae struggled; it's a sang bi someane wha haes, an wha aye is. An that maks aw the difference." C. Sharmishtha o ''The Indiependent'' says the sang "is yit anither compellin addeetion tae Lewis Capaldi's discography. It's a testament tae his endurin appeal – a sang that is baith a cathartic lowse an a comfortin embrace fur onyane navigatin thair awn struggles." Britt Mae o ''Melodic Magazine'' says, "Efter watherin a severe emotional storm, Capaldi begins a new era wi a renewed sense o purpose. "Survive" pruives that even in the derkest moments, thare's aye strenth in shawin up." == Commercial performance == In the mid-week singles chairts update in the Unitit Kinrick (on 30 Juin 2025), "Survive" debuted at nummer ane on the chairts update. On 4 Julie 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the UK Singles Chairt, dethronin "Manchild" bi Sabrina Carpenter frae the summit o the chairt. jm8n047qq7ghb5byfab1tmk9e14bxh8 916927 916926 2026-05-18T01:02:01Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916927 wikitext text/x-wiki "'''Survive'''" is a sang bi Scots sangster-sangwriter Lewis Capaldi, lowsed on 27 Juin 2025 throu Vertigo an Universal. Follaein Capaldi's performance at Glastonbury 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the UK Singles Chairt. Ootside the Unitit Kinrick, "Survive" peakit athin the tap ten o the chairts in Ireland. "Survive" is the lead single frae Capaldi's thrid extendit pley o the same name. == Backgrund an release == "Survive" wis written bi Capaldi an Rømans, wha forby co-wrate Capaldi's smash hit, "Someone You Loved". The sang marks Capaldi's furst single in twa years, in that he teuk a hiatus frae tourin an performin, stairtin in Juin 2023, statin that he needit tae focus on his mental an pheesical heal as weel as the impact o his Tourette's syndrome. Earlier that month, Capaldi performed at the 2023 Glastonbury Fest, but his set wis cut short bi an episode o his Tourette's an vocal issues, thou the croud continued singin tae help him finish the performance. Two years later, rumours speculatit that Capaldi wad be performin a surprise set at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest an lowsin a new single on 27 Juin 2025. That day, he lowsed his comeback single, "Survive", that happened tae occur on the same day as his predictit surprise performance at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest, his furst heich-profile performance in twa years. On stage at Glastonbury, Capaldi said, "The last twa years havnae been the best fur me. It's been difficult at times. A wantit tae write a sang that wis aboot owercomin that stuff an gettin ower the ither side o it. It haes been ma goal tae get back [on stage], an "Survive" is a sang aboot that." == Muisic video == The muisic video wis directit bi Hector Docktrill, wha forby directit the muisic video fur Capaldi's 2022 single, "Pointless". It features Capaldi sittin on a chair in the middle o a ruim, strummin his guitar an singin. Throuoot the muisic video, clips o documental moments o Capaldi's life pop up, rangin frae his bairnheid tae the few months afore his heal-relatit hiatus, whaur he wis strugglin wi his Tourette's an anxiety. == Creetical reception == Isabella Wandermurem o ''Euphoria'' says Capaldi "isna juist lowsin new muisic — he's offerin a piece o himsel, markit bi scars but bi stubborn hope an aa. It's nae juist a sang fur thaim wha hae struggled; it's a sang bi someane wha haes, an wha aye is. An that maks aw the difference." C. Sharmishtha o ''The Indiependent'' says the sang "is yit anither compellin addeetion tae Lewis Capaldi's discography. It's a testament tae his endurin appeal – a sang that is baith a cathartic lowse an a comfortin embrace fur onyane navigatin thair awn struggles." Britt Mae o ''Melodic Magazine'' says, "Efter watherin a severe emotional storm, Capaldi begins a new era wi a renewed sense o purpose. "Survive" pruives that even in the derkest moments, thare's aye strenth in shawin up." == Commercial performance == In the mid-week singles chairts update in the Unitit Kinrick (on 30 Juin 2025), "Survive" debuted at nummer ane on the chairts update. On 4 Julie 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the UK Singles Chairt, dethronin "Manchild" bi Sabrina Carpenter frae the summit o the chairt. ==Certifications== {{Certification Table Top|caption=Certifications fur "Survive"}} {{Certification Table Entry|region=Unitit Kinrick|artist=Lewis Capaldi|title=Survive|award=Gowd|type=single|relyear=2025|certyear=2025|id=21326-4876-1}} {{Certification Table Bottom|streaming=true|nosales=true|noshipments=true}} == Release history == {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" |+Lowse history fur "Survive" ! scope="col" |Region ! scope="col" |Date ! scope="col" |Format(s) ! scope="col" |Label(s) |- ! scope="row" |Various |27 Juin 2025 |{{hlist|[[Muisic dounload|Deegital dounload]]|[[Streamin media|streamin]]}} |{{hlist|[[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]]|[[Universal Music Group|Universal]]}} |- ! scope="row" |Unitit States |15 Julie 2025 |[[Contemporary hit radio]] |[[Capitol Records|Capitol]] |} ==References== {{reflist}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:2025 sangs]] [[Category:2020s ballads]] [[Category:Lewis Capaldi sangs]] [[Category:Nummer-ane singles in Swisserland]] [[Category:Sangs written bi Lewis Capaldi]] [[Category:UK singles chairt nummer-ane singles]] [[Category:Vertigo Records singles]] [[Category:Fowk ballads]] [[Category:Pop ballads]] [[Category:Soul ballads]] 28crg8eh0wnneazvtw2e1oc9dhg69w3 916928 916927 2026-05-18T01:03:14Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916928 wikitext text/x-wiki "'''Survive'''" is a sang bi Scots sangster-sangwriter Lewis Capaldi, lowsed on 27 Juin 2025 throu Vertigo an Universal. Follaein Capaldi's performance at Glastonbury 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the UK Singles Chairt. Ootside the Unitit Kinrick, "Survive" peakit athin the tap ten o the chairts in Ireland. "Survive" is the lead single frae Capaldi's thrid extendit pley o the same name. == Backgrund an release == "Survive" wis written bi Capaldi an Rømans, wha forby co-wrate Capaldi's smash hit, "Someone You Loved". The sang marks Capaldi's furst single in twa years, in that he teuk a hiatus frae tourin an performin, stairtin in Juin 2023, statin that he needit tae focus on his mental an pheesical heal as weel as the impact o his Tourette's syndrome. Earlier that month, Capaldi performed at the 2023 Glastonbury Fest, but his set wis cut short bi an episode o his Tourette's an vocal issues, thou the croud continued singin tae help him finish the performance. Two years later, rumours speculatit that Capaldi wad be performin a surprise set at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest an lowsin a new single on 27 Juin 2025. That day, he lowsed his comeback single, "Survive", that happened tae occur on the same day as his predictit surprise performance at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest, his furst heich-profile performance in twa years. On stage at Glastonbury, Capaldi said, "The last twa years havnae been the best fur me. It's been difficult at times. A wantit tae write a sang that wis aboot owercomin that stuff an gettin ower the ither side o it. It haes been ma goal tae get back [on stage], an "Survive" is a sang aboot that." == Muisic video == The muisic video wis directit bi Hector Docktrill, wha forby directit the muisic video fur Capaldi's 2022 single, "Pointless". It features Capaldi sittin on a chair in the middle o a ruim, strummin his guitar an singin. Throuoot the muisic video, clips o documental moments o Capaldi's life pop up, rangin frae his bairnheid tae the few months afore his heal-relatit hiatus, whaur he wis strugglin wi his Tourette's an anxiety. == Creetical reception == Isabella Wandermurem o ''Euphoria'' says Capaldi "isna juist lowsin new muisic — he's offerin a piece o himsel, markit bi scars but bi stubborn hope an aa. It's nae juist a sang fur thaim wha hae struggled; it's a sang bi someane wha haes, an wha aye is. An that maks aw the difference." C. Sharmishtha o ''The Indiependent'' says the sang "is yit anither compellin addeetion tae Lewis Capaldi's discography. It's a testament tae his endurin appeal – a sang that is baith a cathartic lowse an a comfortin embrace fur onyane navigatin thair awn struggles." Britt Mae o ''Melodic Magazine'' says, "Efter watherin a severe emotional storm, Capaldi begins a new era wi a renewed sense o purpose. "Survive" pruives that even in the derkest moments, thare's aye strenth in shawin up." == Commercial performance == In the mid-week singles chairts update in the Unitit Kinrick (on 30 Juin 2025), "Survive" debuted at nummer ane on the chairts update. On 4 Julie 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the UK Singles Chairt, dethronin "Manchild" bi Sabrina Carpenter frae the summit o the chairt. ==Certifications== {{Certification Table Top|caption=Certifications fur "Survive"}} {{Certification Table Entry|region=United Kingdom|artist=Lewis Capaldi|title=Survive|award=Gowd|type=single|relyear=2025|certyear=2025|id=21326-4876-1}} {{Certification Table Bottom|streaming=true|nosales=true|noshipments=true}} == Release history == {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" |+Lowse history fur "Survive" ! scope="col" |Region ! scope="col" |Date ! scope="col" |Format(s) ! scope="col" |Label(s) |- ! scope="row" |Various |27 Juin 2025 |{{hlist|[[Muisic dounload|Deegital dounload]]|[[Streamin media|streamin]]}} |{{hlist|[[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]]|[[Universal Music Group|Universal]]}} |- ! scope="row" |Unitit States |15 Julie 2025 |[[Contemporary hit radio]] |[[Capitol Records|Capitol]] |} ==References== {{reflist}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:2025 sangs]] [[Category:2020s ballads]] [[Category:Lewis Capaldi sangs]] [[Category:Nummer-ane singles in Swisserland]] [[Category:Sangs written bi Lewis Capaldi]] [[Category:UK singles chairt nummer-ane singles]] [[Category:Vertigo Records singles]] [[Category:Fowk ballads]] [[Category:Pop ballads]] [[Category:Soul ballads]] 4dxrpkwdoloytpxzj0xwzotfmot5hee 916929 916928 2026-05-18T01:08:21Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916929 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox single | name = Survive | cover = | alt = Survive - Lewis Capaldi | type = single | artist = [[Lewis Capaldi]] | EP = [[Survive (Lewis Capaldi EP)|Survive]] | released = 27 Juin 2025 | recorded = Afore 27 Juin 2025 | genre = *[[Pop muisic|Pop]] | length = 3:44 | label = * [[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]] * [[Universal Music Group|Universal]] | writer = * Lewis Capaldi * [[Romans (muisicker)|Rømans]] | producer = * Peter Fenn * Rømans * Andrew Wells * Connor McDonough * Riley McDonough | prev_title = [[Love the Hell Out of You]] | prev_year = 2024 | next_title = [[Something in the Heavens]] | next_year = 2025 | misc = {{External music video|{{YouTube|6fJI7xydShM|"Survive"}}}} }} "'''Survive'''" is a sang bi Scots sangster-sangwriter Lewis Capaldi, lowsed on 27 Juin 2025 throu Vertigo an Universal. Follaein Capaldi's performance at Glastonbury 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the UK Singles Chairt. Ootside the Unitit Kinrick, "Survive" peakit athin the tap ten o the chairts in Ireland. "Survive" is the lead single frae Capaldi's thrid extendit pley o the same name. == Backgrund an release == "Survive" wis written bi Capaldi an Rømans, wha forby co-wrate Capaldi's smash hit, "Someone You Loved". The sang marks Capaldi's furst single in twa years, in that he teuk a hiatus frae tourin an performin, stairtin in Juin 2023, statin that he needit tae focus on his mental an pheesical heal as weel as the impact o his Tourette's syndrome. Earlier that month, Capaldi performed at the 2023 Glastonbury Fest, but his set wis cut short bi an episode o his Tourette's an vocal issues, thou the croud continued singin tae help him finish the performance. Two years later, rumours speculatit that Capaldi wad be performin a surprise set at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest an lowsin a new single on 27 Juin 2025. That day, he lowsed his comeback single, "Survive", that happened tae occur on the same day as his predictit surprise performance at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest, his furst heich-profile performance in twa years. On stage at Glastonbury, Capaldi said, "The last twa years havnae been the best fur me. It's been difficult at times. A wantit tae write a sang that wis aboot owercomin that stuff an gettin ower the ither side o it. It haes been ma goal tae get back [on stage], an "Survive" is a sang aboot that." == Muisic video == The muisic video wis directit bi Hector Docktrill, wha forby directit the muisic video fur Capaldi's 2022 single, "Pointless". It features Capaldi sittin on a chair in the middle o a ruim, strummin his guitar an singin. Throuoot the muisic video, clips o documental moments o Capaldi's life pop up, rangin frae his bairnheid tae the few months afore his heal-relatit hiatus, whaur he wis strugglin wi his Tourette's an anxiety. == Creetical reception == Isabella Wandermurem o ''Euphoria'' says Capaldi "isna juist lowsin new muisic — he's offerin a piece o himsel, markit bi scars but bi stubborn hope an aa. It's nae juist a sang fur thaim wha hae struggled; it's a sang bi someane wha haes, an wha aye is. An that maks aw the difference." C. Sharmishtha o ''The Indiependent'' says the sang "is yit anither compellin addeetion tae Lewis Capaldi's discography. It's a testament tae his endurin appeal – a sang that is baith a cathartic lowse an a comfortin embrace fur onyane navigatin thair awn struggles." Britt Mae o ''Melodic Magazine'' says, "Efter watherin a severe emotional storm, Capaldi begins a new era wi a renewed sense o purpose. "Survive" pruives that even in the derkest moments, thare's aye strenth in shawin up." == Commercial performance == In the mid-week singles chairts update in the Unitit Kinrick (on 30 Juin 2025), "Survive" debuted at nummer ane on the chairts update. On 4 Julie 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the UK Singles Chairt, dethronin "Manchild" bi Sabrina Carpenter frae the summit o the chairt. ==Certifications== {{Certification Table Top|caption=Certifications fur "Survive"}} {{Certification Table Entry|region=United Kingdom|artist=Lewis Capaldi|title=Survive|award=Gowd|type=single|relyear=2025|certyear=2025|id=21326-4876-1}} {{Certification Table Bottom|streaming=true|nosales=true|noshipments=true}} == Release history == {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" |+Lowse history fur "Survive" ! scope="col" |Region ! scope="col" |Date ! scope="col" |Format(s) ! scope="col" |Label(s) |- ! scope="row" |Various |27 Juin 2025 |{{hlist|[[Muisic dounload|Deegital dounload]]|[[Streamin media|streamin]]}} |{{hlist|[[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]]|[[Universal Music Group|Universal]]}} |- ! scope="row" |Unitit States |15 Julie 2025 |[[Contemporary hit radio]] |[[Capitol Records|Capitol]] |} ==References== {{reflist}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:2025 sangs]] [[Category:2020s ballads]] [[Category:Lewis Capaldi sangs]] [[Category:Nummer-ane singles in Swisserland]] [[Category:Sangs written bi Lewis Capaldi]] [[Category:UK singles chairt nummer-ane singles]] [[Category:Vertigo Records singles]] [[Category:Fowk ballads]] [[Category:Pop ballads]] [[Category:Soul ballads]] 6rwl7hn8djekoicm5x9knkkd11la4sk 916930 916929 2026-05-18T01:14:08Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916930 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox single | name = Survive | cover = | alt = Survive - Lewis Capaldi | type = single | artist = [[Lewis Capaldi]] | EP = [[Survive (Lewis Capaldi EP)|Survive]] | released = 27 Juin 2025 | recorded = Afore 27 Juin 2025 | genre = *[[Pop muisic|Pop]] | length = 3:44 | label = * [[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]] * [[Universal Music Group|Universal]] | writer = * Lewis Capaldi * [[Romans (muisicker)|Rømans]] | producer = * Peter Fenn * Rømans * Andrew Wells * Connor McDonough * Riley McDonough | prev_title = [[Love the Hell Out of You]] | prev_year = 2024 | next_title = [[Something in the Heavens]] | next_year = 2025 | misc = {{External music video|{{YouTube|6fJI7xydShM|"Survive"}}}} }} "'''Survive'''" is a sang bi Scots sangster-sangwriter [[Lewis Capaldi]], lowsed on 27 Juin 2025 throu [[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]] an [[Universal Music Group|Universal]]. Follaein Capaldi's performance at [[Glastonbury Fest 2025|Glastonbury 2025]], "Survive" entered at the tap o the [[UK singles chairt|UK Singles Chairt]]. Ootside the Unitit Kinrick, "Survive" peakit athin the tap ten o the chairts in Ireland. "Survive" is the lead single frae Capaldi's [[Survive (Lewis Capaldi EP)|thrid extendit pley o the same name]]. == Backgrund an release == "Survive" wis written bi Capaldi an [[Romans (muisicker)|Rømans]], wha forby co-wrate Capaldi's smash hit, "[[Someone You Loved]]". The sang marks Capaldi's furst single in twa years, in that he teuk a hiatus frae tourin an performin, stairtin in Juin 2023, statin that he needit tae focus on his mental an pheesical heal as weel as the impact o his [[Tourette syndrome|Tourette's syndrome]]. Earlier that month, Capaldi performed at the [[Glastonbury Fest 2023|2023 Glastonbury Fest]], but his set wis cut short bi an episode o his Tourette's an vocal issues, thou the croud continued singin tae help him finish the performance. Two years later, rumours speculatit that Capaldi wad be performin a surprise set at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest an lowsin a new single on 27 Juin 2025. That day, he lowsed his comeback single, "Survive", that happened tae occur on the same day as his predictit surprise performance at the [[Glastonbury Fest 2025|2025 Glastonbury Fest]], his furst heich-profile performance in twa years. On stage at Glastonbury, Capaldi said, "The last twa years havnae been the best fur me. It's been difficult at times. A wantit tae write a sang that wis aboot owercomin that stuff an gettin ower the ither side o it. It haes been ma goal tae get back [on stage], an "Survive" is a sang aboot that." == Muisic video == The muisic video wis directit bi Hector Docktrill, wha forby directit the muisic video fur Capaldi's 2022 single, "[[Pointless (sang)|Pointless]]". It features Capaldi sittin on a chair in the middle o a ruim, strummin his guitar an singin. Throuoot the muisic video, clips o documental moments o Capaldi's life pop up, rangin frae his bairnheid tae the few months afore his heal-relatit hiatus, whaur he wis strugglin wi his Tourette's an anxiety. == Creetical reception == Isabella Wandermurem o ''Euphoria'' says Capaldi "isna juist lowsin new muisic — he's offerin a piece o himsel, markit bi scars but bi stubborn hope an aa. It's nae juist a sang fur thaim wha hae struggled; it's a sang bi someane wha haes, an wha aye is. An that maks aw the difference." C. Sharmishtha o ''The Indiependent'' says the sang "is yit anither compellin addeetion tae Lewis Capaldi's discography. It's a testament tae his endurin appeal – a sang that is baith a cathartic lowse an a comfortin embrace fur onyane navigatin thair awn struggles." Britt Mae o ''Melodic Magazine'' says, "Efter watherin a severe emotional storm, Capaldi begins a new era wi a renewed sense o purpose. "Survive" pruives that even in the derkest moments, thare's aye strenth in shawin up." == Commercial performance == In the mid-week singles chairts update in the Unitit Kinrick (on 30 Juin 2025), "Survive" debuted at nummer ane on the chairts update. On 4 Julie 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the [[UK singles chairt|UK Singles Chairt]], dethronin "[[Manchild (Sabrina Carpenter sang)|Manchild]]" bi [[Sabrina Carpenter]] frae the summit o the chairt. ==Certifications== {{Certification Table Top|caption=Certifications fur "Survive"}} {{Certification Table Entry|region=United Kingdom|artist=Lewis Capaldi|title=Survive|award=Gowd|type=single|relyear=2025|certyear=2025|id=21326-4876-1}} {{Certification Table Bottom|streaming=true|nosales=true|noshipments=true}} == Release history == {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" |+Lowse history fur "Survive" ! scope="col" |Region ! scope="col" |Date ! scope="col" |Format(s) ! scope="col" |Label(s) |- ! scope="row" |Various |27 Juin 2025 |{{hlist|[[Muisic dounload|Deegital dounload]]|[[Streamin media|streamin]]}} |{{hlist|[[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]]|[[Universal Music Group|Universal]]}} |- ! scope="row" |Unitit States |15 Julie 2025 |[[Contemporary hit radio]] |[[Capitol Records|Capitol]] |} ==References== {{reflist}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:2025 sangs]] [[Category:2020s ballads]] [[Category:Lewis Capaldi sangs]] [[Category:Nummer-ane singles in Swisserland]] [[Category:Sangs written bi Lewis Capaldi]] [[Category:UK singles chairt nummer-ane singles]] [[Category:Vertigo Records singles]] [[Category:Fowk ballads]] [[Category:Pop ballads]] [[Category:Soul ballads]] kczvlyo04poe6jcukd5a044ydxi5r50 916931 916930 2026-05-18T01:15:51Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916931 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox single | name = Survive | cover = | alt = Survive - Lewis Capaldi | type = single | artist = [[Lewis Capaldi]] | EP = [[Survive (Lewis Capaldi EP)|Survive]] | released = 27 Juin 2025 | recorded = Afore 27 Juin 2025 | genre = *[[Pop muisic|Pop]] | length = 3:44 | label = * [[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]] * [[Universal Music Group|Universal]] | writer = * Lewis Capaldi * [[Romans (muisicker)|Rømans]] | producer = * Peter Fenn * Rømans * Andrew Wells * Connor McDonough * Riley McDonough | prev_title = [[Love the Hell Out of You]] | prev_year = 2024 | next_title = [[Something in the Heavens]] | next_year = 2025 | misc = {{External music video|{{YouTube|6fJI7xydShM|"Survive"}}}} }} "'''Survive'''" is a sang bi Scots sangster-sangwriter [[Lewis Capaldi]], lowsed on 27 Juin 2025 throu [[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]] an [[Universal Music Group|Universal]]. Follaein Capaldi's performance at [[Glastonbury Fest 2025|Glastonbury 2025]], "Survive" entered at the tap o the [[UK singles chairt|UK Singles Chairt]]. Ootside the Unitit Kinrick, "Survive" peakit athin the tap ten o the chairts in Ireland. "Survive" is the lead single frae Capaldi's [[Survive (Lewis Capaldi EP)|thrid extendit pley o the same name]]. == Backgrund an release == "Survive" wis written bi Capaldi an [[Romans (muisicker)|Rømans]], wha forby co-wrate Capaldi's smash hit, "[[Someone You Loved]]". The sang marks Capaldi's furst single in twa years, in that he teuk a hiatus frae tourin an performin, stairtin in Juin 2023, statin that he needit tae focus on his mental an pheesical heal as weel as the impact o his [[Tourette syndrome|Tourette's syndrome]]. Earlier that month, Capaldi performed at the [[Glastonbury Fest 2023|2023 Glastonbury Fest]], but his set wis cut short bi an episode o his Tourette's an vocal issues, thou the croud continued singin tae help him finish the performance. Two years later, rumours speculatit that Capaldi wad be performin a surprise set at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest an lowsin a new single on 27 Juin 2025. That day, he lowsed his comeback single, "Survive", that happened tae occur on the same day as his predictit surprise performance at the [[Glastonbury Fest 2025|2025 Glastonbury Fest]], his furst heich-profile performance in twa years. On stage at Glastonbury, Capaldi said, "The last twa years havnae been the best fur me. It's been difficult at times. A wantit tae write a sang that wis aboot owercomin that stuff an gettin ower the ither side o it. It haes been ma goal tae get back [on stage], an "Survive" is a sang aboot that." == Muisic video == The muisic video wis directit bi Hector Docktrill, wha forby directit the muisic video fur Capaldi's 2022 single, "[[Pointless (sang)|Pointless]]". It features Capaldi sittin on a chair in the middle o a ruim, strummin his guitar an singin. Throuoot the muisic video, clips o documental moments o Capaldi's life pop up, rangin frae his bairnheid tae the few months afore his heal-relatit hiatus, whaur he wis strugglin wi his Tourette's an anxiety. == Creetical reception == Isabella Wandermurem o ''Euphoria'' says Capaldi "isna juist lowsin new muisic — he's offerin a piece o himsel, markit bi scars but bi stubborn hope an aa. It's nae juist a sang fur thaim wha hae struggled; it's a sang bi someane wha haes, an wha aye is. An that maks aw the difference." C. Sharmishtha o ''The Indiependent'' says the sang "is yit anither compellin addeetion tae Lewis Capaldi's discography. It's a testament tae his endurin appeal – a sang that is baith a cathartic lowse an a comfortin embrace fur onyane navigatin thair awn struggles." Britt Mae o ''Melodic Magazine'' says, "Efter watherin a severe emotional storm, Capaldi begins a new era wi a renewed sense o purpose. "Survive" pruives that even in the derkest moments, thare's aye strenth in shawin up." == Commercial performance == In the mid-week singles chairts update in the Unitit Kinrick (on 30 Juin 2025), "Survive" debuted at nummer ane on the chairts update. On 4 Julie 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the [[UK singles chairt|UK Singles Chairt]], dethronin "[[Manchild (Sabrina Carpenter sang)|Manchild]]" bi [[Sabrina Carpenter]] frae the summit o the chairt. ==Certifications== {{Certification Table Top|caption=Certifications fur "Survive"}} {{Certification Table Entry|region=United Kingdom|artist=Lewis Capaldi|title=Survive|award=Gowd|type=single|relyear=2025|certyear=2025|id=21326-4876-1}} {{Certification Table Bottom|streaming=true|nosales=true|noshipments=true}} == Release history == {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" |+Lowse history fur "Survive" ! scope="col" |Region ! scope="col" |Date ! scope="col" |Format(s) ! scope="col" |Label(s) |- ! scope="row" |Various |27 Juin 2025 |{{hlist|[[Muisic dounload|Deegital dounload]]|[[Streamin media|streamin]]}} |{{hlist|[[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]]|[[Universal Music Group|Universal]]}} |- ! scope="row" |Unitit States |15 Julie 2025 |[[Contemporary hit radio]] |[[Capitol Records|Capitol]] |} ==References== {{reflist}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q135228911|q=no|c=no|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:2025 sangs]] [[Category:2020s ballads]] [[Category:Lewis Capaldi sangs]] [[Category:Nummer-ane singles in Swisserland]] [[Category:Sangs written bi Lewis Capaldi]] [[Category:UK singles chairt nummer-ane singles]] [[Category:Vertigo Records singles]] [[Category:Fowk ballads]] [[Category:Pop ballads]] [[Category:Soul ballads]] tsjcrpy3nxsc0a88t4jqpxh7ch5k0r5 916933 916931 2026-05-18T01:23:49Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916933 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox single | name = Survive | cover = | alt = Survive - Lewis Capaldi | type = single | artist = [[Lewis Capaldi]] | EP = [[Survive (Lewis Capaldi EP)|Survive]] | released = 27 Juin 2025 | recorded = Afore 27 Juin 2025 | genre = *[[Pop muisic|Pop]] | length = 3:44 | label = * [[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]] * [[Universal Music Group|Universal]] | writer = * Lewis Capaldi * [[Romans (muisicker)|Rømans]] | producer = * Peter Fenn * Rømans * Andrew Wells * Connor McDonough * Riley McDonough | prev_title = [[Love the Hell Out of You]] | prev_year = 2024 | next_title = [[Something in the Heavens]] | next_year = 2025 | misc = {{External music video|{{YouTube|6fJI7xydShM|"Survive"}}}} }} "'''Survive'''" is a sang bi Scots sangster-sangwriter [[Lewis Capaldi]], lowsed on 27 Juin 2025 throu [[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]] an [[Universal Music Group|Universal]]. Follaein Capaldi's performance at [[Glastonbury Fest 2025|Glastonbury 2025]], "Survive" entered at the tap o the [[UK singles chairt|UK Singles Chairt]]. Ootside the Unitit Kinrick, "Survive" peakit athin the tap ten o the chairts in Ireland. "Survive" is the lead single frae Capaldi's [[Survive (Lewis Capaldi EP)|thrid extendit pley o the same name]]. == Backgrund an release == "Survive" wis written bi Capaldi an [[Romans (muisicker)|Rømans]], wha forby co-wrate Capaldi's smash hit, "[[Someone You Loved]]". The sang marks Capaldi's furst single in twa years, in that he teuk a hiatus frae tourin an performin, stairtin in Juin 2023, statin that he needit tae focus on his mental an pheesical heal as weel as the impact o his [[Tourette syndrome|Tourette's syndrome]]. Earlier that month, Capaldi performed at the [[Glastonbury Fest 2023|2023 Glastonbury Fest]], but his set wis cut short bi an episode o his Tourette's an vocal issues, thou the croud continued singin tae help him finish the performance. Twa years later, rumours speculatit that Capaldi wad be performin a surprise set at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest an lowsin a new single on 27 Juin 2025. That day, he lowsed his comeback single, "Survive", that happened tae occur on the same day as his predictit surprise performance at the [[Glastonbury Fest 2025|2025 Glastonbury Fest]], his furst heich-profile performance in twa years. On stage at Glastonbury, Capaldi said, "The last twa years havnae been the best fur me. It's been difficult at times. A wantit tae write a sang that wis aboot owercomin that stuff an gettin ower the ither side o it. It haes been ma goal tae get back [on stage], an "Survive" is a sang aboot that." == Muisic video == The muisic video wis directit bi Hector Docktrill, wha forby directit the muisic video fur Capaldi's 2022 single, "[[Pointless (sang)|Pointless]]". It features Capaldi sittin on a chair in the middle o a ruim, strummin his guitar an singin. Throuoot the muisic video, clips o documental moments o Capaldi's life pop up, rangin frae his bairnheid tae the few months afore his heal-relatit hiatus, whaur he wis strugglin wi his Tourette's an anxiety. == Creetical reception == Isabella Wandermurem o ''Euphoria'' says Capaldi "isna juist lowsin new muisic — he's offerin a piece o himsel, markit bi scars but bi stubborn hope an aa. It's nae juist a sang fur thaim wha hae struggled; it's a sang bi someane wha haes, an wha aye is. An that maks aw the difference." C. Sharmishtha o ''The Indiependent'' says the sang "is yit anither compellin addeetion tae Lewis Capaldi's discography. It's a testament tae his endurin appeal – a sang that is baith a cathartic lowse an a comfortin embrace fur onyane navigatin thair awn struggles." Britt Mae o ''Melodic Magazine'' says, "Efter watherin a severe emotional storm, Capaldi begins a new era wi a renewed sense o purpose. "Survive" pruives that even in the derkest moments, thare's aye strenth in shawin up." == Commercial performance == In the mid-week singles chairts update in the Unitit Kinrick (on 30 Juin 2025), "Survive" debuted at nummer ane on the chairts update. On 4 Julie 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the [[UK singles chairt|UK Singles Chairt]], dethronin "[[Manchild (Sabrina Carpenter sang)|Manchild]]" bi [[Sabrina Carpenter]] frae the summit o the chairt. ==Certifications== {{Certification Table Top|caption=Certifications fur "Survive"}} {{Certification Table Entry|region=United Kingdom|artist=Lewis Capaldi|title=Survive|award=Gowd|type=single|relyear=2025|certyear=2025|id=21326-4876-1}} {{Certification Table Bottom|streaming=true|nosales=true|noshipments=true}} == Release history == {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" |+Lowse history fur "Survive" ! scope="col" |Region ! scope="col" |Date ! scope="col" |Format(s) ! scope="col" |Label(s) |- ! scope="row" |Various |27 Juin 2025 |{{hlist|[[Muisic dounload|Deegital dounload]]|[[Streamin media|streamin]]}} |{{hlist|[[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]]|[[Universal Music Group|Universal]]}} |- ! scope="row" |Unitit States |15 Julie 2025 |[[Contemporary hit radio]] |[[Capitol Records|Capitol]] |} ==References== {{reflist}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q135228911|q=no|c=no|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:2025 sangs]] [[Category:2020s ballads]] [[Category:Lewis Capaldi sangs]] [[Category:Nummer-ane singles in Swisserland]] [[Category:Sangs written bi Lewis Capaldi]] [[Category:UK singles chairt nummer-ane singles]] [[Category:Vertigo Records singles]] [[Category:Fowk ballads]] [[Category:Pop ballads]] [[Category:Soul ballads]] ewt1wccb3o042vkqbkl55o5pdxw21qr 916949 916933 2026-05-18T11:25:19Z Mr.Murdoch78 119895 916949 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox single | name = Survive | cover = | alt = Survive - Lewis Capaldi | type = single | artist = [[Lewis Capaldi]] | EP = [[Survive (Lewis Capaldi EP)|Survive]] | released = 27 Juin 2025 | recorded = Afore 27 Juin 2025 | genre = *[[Pop muisic|Pop]] | length = 3:44 | label = * [[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]] * [[Universal Music Group|Universal]] | writer = * Lewis Capaldi * [[Romans (muisicker)|Rømans]] | producer = * Peter Fenn * Rømans * Andrew Wells * Connor McDonough * Riley McDonough | prev_title = [[Love the Hell Out of You]] | prev_year = 2024 | next_title = [[Something in the Heavens]] | next_year = 2025 | misc = {{External music video|{{YouTube|6fJI7xydShM|"Survive"}}}} }} "'''Survive'''" is a sang bi Scots sangster-sangwriter [[Lewis Capaldi]], lowsed on 27 Juin 2025 throu [[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]] an [[Universal Music Group|Universal]]. Follaein Capaldi's performance at [[Glastonbury Fest 2025|Glastonbury 2025]], "Survive" entered at the tap o the [[UK singles chairt|UK Singles Chairt]]. Ootside the Unitit Kinrick, "Survive" peakit athin the tap ten o the chairts in Ireland. "Survive" is the lead single frae Capaldi's [[Survive (Lewis Capaldi EP)|thrid extendit pley o the same name]]. == Backgrund an release == "Survive" wis written bi Capaldi an [[Romans (muisicker)|Rømans]], wha forby co-wrate Capaldi's smash hit, "[[Someone You Loved]]".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kelly|first=Tyler|date=2025-06-07|title=Lewis Capaldi returns with new track, "Survive"|url=https://www.thelineofbestfit.com/news/lewis-capaldi-returns-with-new-track-survive|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-18|website=The Line of Best Fit|language=en-US}}</ref> The sang marks Capaldi's furst single in twa years, in that he teuk a hiatus frae tourin an performin, stairtin in Juin 2023, statin that he needit tae focus on his mental an pheesical heal as weel as the impact o his [[Tourette syndrome|Tourette's syndrome]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Spanos|first=Brittany|date=2025-06-27|title=Lewis Capaldi Makes Triumphant Return With Emotional New Song 'Survive'|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/lewis-capaldi-new-song-survive-1235373385/|access-date=2026-05-18|website=Rolling Stone|language=en-US}}</ref> Earlier that month, Capaldi performed at the [[Glastonbury Fest 2023|2023 Glastonbury Fest]], but his set wis cut short bi an episode o his Tourette's an vocal issues, thou the croud continued singin tae help him finish the performance.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Frost|first=Caroline|date=2023-06-25|title=Watch: Lewis Capaldi Emotionally Thanks Glastonbury Crowd For Helping Him With Song As He Struggled With Tourette’s|url=https://deadline.com/2023/06/glastonbury-lewis-capaldi-thanks-crowd-helping-him-someone-you-loved-tourettes-syndrome-1235424051/|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-18|website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]|language=en-US}}</ref> Twa years later, rumours speculatit that Capaldi wad be performin a surprise set at the 2025 Glastonbury Fest an lowsin a new single on 27 Juin 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Simpson|first=Will|date=2025-06-27|title=Glastonbury 2025 secret act rumours: odds shorten on Lewis Capaldi and Robbie Williams enters the fray|url=https://www.musicradar.com/artists/shows-festivals/glastonbury-2025-secret-act-rumours-odds-shorten-on-lewis-capaldi-and-robbie-williams-enters-the-fray|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-18|website=MusicRadar|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bona|first=Emilia|last2=|first2=|last3=|first3=|date=2025-06-27|title=Lewis Capaldi Glasto rumours mount amid singer's surprise move|url=https://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/whats-on/whats-on-news/lewis-capaldi-glastonbury-rumours-mount-31946191|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-18|website=Liverpool Echo|language=en}}</ref> That day, he lowsed his comeback single, "Survive", that happened tae occur on the same day as his predictit surprise performance at the [[Glastonbury Fest 2025|2025 Glastonbury Fest]], his furst heich-profile performance in twa years.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-06-27|title=Lewis Capaldi in surprise Glastonbury return after releasing rousing comeback|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/czdv3y58459o|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-18|website=[[BBC News]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> On stage at Glastonbury, Capaldi said, "The last twa years havnae been the best fur me. It's been difficult at times. A wantit tae write a sang that wis aboot owercomin that stuff an gettin ower the ither side o it. It haes been ma goal tae get back [on stage], an "Survive" is a sang aboot that."<ref>{{Cite web|title="Survive" Lyrics - Lewis Capaldi|url=https://genius.com/Lewis-capaldi-survive-lyrics|url-status=live|access-date=2026-05-18|website=[[Genius (company)|Genius]]}}</ref> == Muisic video == The muisic video wis directit bi Hector Docktrill, wha forby directit the muisic video fur Capaldi's 2022 single, "[[Pointless (sang)|Pointless]]". It features Capaldi sittin on a chair in the middle o a ruim, strummin his guitar an singin. Throuoot the muisic video, clips o documental moments o Capaldi's life pop up, rangin frae his bairnheid tae the few months afore his heal-relatit hiatus, whaur he wis strugglin wi his Tourette's an anxiety. == Creetical reception == Isabella Wandermurem o ''Euphoria'' says Capaldi "isna juist lowsin new muisic — he's offerin a piece o himsel, markit bi scars but bi stubborn hope an aa. It's nae juist a sang fur thaim wha hae struggled; it's a sang bi someane wha haes, an wha aye is. An that maks aw the difference." C. Sharmishtha o ''The Indiependent'' says the sang "is yit anither compellin addeetion tae Lewis Capaldi's discography. It's a testament tae his endurin appeal – a sang that is baith a cathartic lowse an a comfortin embrace fur onyane navigatin thair awn struggles." Britt Mae o ''Melodic Magazine'' says, "Efter watherin a severe emotional storm, Capaldi begins a new era wi a renewed sense o purpose. "Survive" pruives that even in the derkest moments, thare's aye strenth in shawin up." == Commercial performance == In the mid-week singles chairts update in the Unitit Kinrick (on 30 Juin 2025), "Survive" debuted at nummer ane on the chairts update. On 4 Julie 2025, "Survive" entered at the tap o the [[UK singles chairt|UK Singles Chairt]], dethronin "[[Manchild (Sabrina Carpenter sang)|Manchild]]" bi [[Sabrina Carpenter]] frae the summit o the chairt. ==Certifications== {{Certification Table Top|caption=Certifications fur "Survive"}} {{Certification Table Entry|region=United Kingdom|artist=Lewis Capaldi|title=Survive|award=Gowd|type=single|relyear=2025|certyear=2025|id=21326-4876-1}} {{Certification Table Bottom|streaming=true|nosales=true|noshipments=true}} == Release history == {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" |+Lowse history fur "Survive" ! scope="col" |Region ! scope="col" |Date ! scope="col" |Format(s) ! scope="col" |Label(s) |- ! scope="row" |Various |27 Juin 2025 |{{hlist|[[Muisic dounload|Deegital dounload]]|[[Streamin media|streamin]]}} |{{hlist|[[Vertigo Records|Vertigo]]|[[Universal Music Group|Universal]]}} |- ! scope="row" |Unitit States |15 Julie 2025 |[[Contemporary hit radio]] |[[Capitol Records|Capitol]] |} ==References== {{reflist}} == Fremmit airtins == {{sister project links|d=Q135228911|q=no|c=no|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:2025 sangs]] [[Category:2020s ballads]] [[Category:Lewis Capaldi sangs]] [[Category:Nummer-ane singles in Swisserland]] [[Category:Sangs written bi Lewis Capaldi]] [[Category:UK singles chairt nummer-ane singles]] [[Category:Vertigo Records singles]] [[Category:Fowk ballads]] [[Category:Pop ballads]] [[Category:Soul ballads]] qd78sfwikgizxmokkscn8ha5k29asap