Wikipedia scowiki https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.8 first-letter Media Special Collogue Uiser Uiser collogue Wikipedia Wikipedia collogue File File collogue MediaWiki MediaWiki collogue Template Template collogue Help Help collogue Category Category collogue Portal Portal talk Define Define talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 1690 918727 917920 2026-06-24T23:26:27Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918727 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fix Scots|date=Januar 2021}} {{hatnote|For the landmass comprisin North an Sooth Americae, see [[America]]. For ither uisses, see [[America (disambiguation)]].}} {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Unitit States o Americae |common_name = Unitit States |native_name = {{lang-en|United States of America}}</br>{{lang-es|Estados Unidos de América|label=[[Spainish leid|Spainish]]}}</br>{{lang-chr|ᏌᏊᎢᏳᎾᎵᏍᏔᏅᏍᎦᏚᎩ ᎾᎿ ᎠᎺᏰᏟ}}</br>{{lang-nv|Wááshindoon Bikéyah Ałhidadiidzooígíí}} |image_flag = Flag of the United States.svg |image_coat = Great Seal of the United States (obverse).svg |symbol_type = Great Seal |national_motto = <div style="padding-bottom:0.2em;">"[[In God we trust]]" {{small|(offeecial)}}<ref>{{USC|36|302}} ''National motto''</ref><ref>[[#Simonson|Simonson, 2010]]</ref><ref>[[#God|Dept. of Treasury, 2011]]</ref></div> <div style="line-height:1.15em;">{{native phrase|la|"[[E pluribus unum]]"|italics=off}} {{small|(tradeetional)}} <br />{{small|"Oot o mony, ane"}} </div> |national_anthem = "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]"<br /><center>[[File:Star Spangled Banner instrumental.ogg]]</center> |image_map = USA orthographic.svg |alt_map = Projection o North Americae wi the Unitit States in green |map_width = 220px |capital = [[Washington, D.C.]] |coordinates = {{Coord|38|53|N|77|01|W|type:city}} |largest_city = [[New York Ceety]] |official_languages = {{nowrap|None at [[Federal govrenment o the Unitit States|federal level]]{{ref label|engoffbox|a|}}}} |languages_type = [[Naitional leid]] |languages = [[Inglis leid|Inglis]]{{ref label|engfactobox|b|}}<!---NOTE: Just English, don't add "American English"---> |official_religion = none |demonym = [[America]]n |government_type = [[Federalism|Federal]] [[Presidential seestem|presidential]] [[constitutional republic]] |leader_title1 = [[Preses o the Unitit States|Preses]] |leader_name1 = {{nowrap|[[Donald Trump]] ([[Republican Pairty (Unitit States)|R]])}} |leader_title2 = [[Vice Preses o the Unitit States|Vice Preses]] |leader_name2 = {{nowrap|[[J.D. Vance]] (R)}} |leader_title3 = {{nowrap|[[Speaker o the Unitit States Hoose o Representatives|Speaker o the Hoose]]}} |leader_name3 = {{nowrap|[[Mike Johnson]] (R)}} |leader_title4 = [[Chief Juistice o the Unitit States|Chief Juistice]] |leader_name4 = [[John Roberts]] |legislature = [[Unitit States Congress|Congress]] |upper_house = [[Senate (Unitit States)|Senate]] |lower_house = [[Hoose o Representatives (Unitit States)|Hoose o Representatives]] |sovereignty_type = [[American Revolution|Unthirldom]] |sovereignty_note = from [[Kinrick o Great Breetain|Great Breetain]] |established_event1 = [[Unitit States Declaration o Unthirldom|Declared]] |established_date1 = 4 Julie 1776 |established_event2 = [[Treaty o Paris (1783)|Recognized]] |established_date2 = 3 September 1783 |established_event3 = {{nowrap|[[Unitit States Constitution|Constitution]]}} |established_date3 = 21 Juin 1788 |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |area_sq_mi = 3794101 |area_km2 = 9826675 |area_rank = 3rd/4th |area_footnote = <ref name="WF">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html |title=United States |publisher=CIA |work=The World Factbook |date=September 30, 2009 |accessdate=January 5, 2010 (area given in square kilometers) |archive-date=2018-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225135647/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{ref label|areabox|c|}} |percent_water = 6.76 | population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 331,449,281<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/2020-census-apportionment-results.htmlpid=2020CENSUS&src=pt |url-status=dead |title=Census Bureau's 2020 Population Count |work=[[United States Census]] |access-date=April 26, 2021}} The 2020 census is as of April 1, 2020.</ref> | population_census_year = 2020 | population_census_rank = 3rd | population_density_sq_mi = 87<!-- Figure uses (population/land + water area) as of July 2019. --> | population_density_rank = 146t | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$22.940 trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEOUS"/> | GDP_PPP_year = 2021 | GDP_PPP_rank = 2nt | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $69,375<ref name="IMFWEOUS">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2021&ey=2021&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2021|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=October 13, 2021}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 8t | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$22.940 trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEOUS"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2021 | GDP_nominal_rank = 1st | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $69,375<ref name="IMFWEOUS"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 5t | Gini = 48.5<!-- Number only. --> | Gini_year = 2020 | Gini_change = increase | Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/09/26/income-inequality-america-highest-its-been-since-census-started-tracking-it-data-show/ |title=Income inequality in America is the highest it's been since Census Bureau started tracking it, data shows |work=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=July 27, 2020}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.926<!-- Number only. --> | HDI_year = 2019<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year. --> | HDI_change = increase<!-- Increase/decrease/steady. --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2020: The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=December 15, 2020|access-date=December 15, 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 17t |EF_year = 2007 |EF = {{decrease}} 8.0 gha<ref name="EF">{{cite web |url=http://www.footprintnetwork.org/images/uploads/Ecological_Footprint_Atlas_2010.pdf |title=Ecological Footprint Atlas 2010 |publisher=Global Footprint Network |accessdate=July 11, 2011 |archive-date=2011-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709224423/http://www.footprintnetwork.org/images/uploads/Ecological_Footprint_Atlas_2010.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> |EF_rank = 6t |currency = [[{{#property:p38}}]] ($) |currency_code = USD |country_code = USA |utc_offset = −5 to −10 |utc_offset_DST = −4 to −10{{ref label|UTCbox|e|}} |calling_code = [[North American Nummerin Plan|+1]] |iso3166code = US |drives_on = richt{{ref label|driving|g|}} |cctld = {{nowrap|[[.us]]{{nbsp|3}}[[.gov]]{{nbsp|3}}[[.mil]]{{nbsp|3}}[[.edu]]}} |footnote_a = {{note|engoffbox}} Inglish is the [[Offeecial leid o the Unitit States|offeecial leid]] o at least 28 states; some soorces gie heicher figurs, based on differin defineetions o "offeecial".{{big|<ref name=ILW>{{cite web |author=Feder, Jody |url= http://www.ilw.com/immigrationdaily/news/2007,0515-crs.pdf |title= English as the Official Language of the United States: Legal Background and Analysis of Legislation in the 110th Congress |date=January 25, 2007 |publisher= Ilw.com (Congressional Research Service) |accessdate= June 19, 2007}}</ref>}} Inglish an [[Hawaiian leid|Hawaiian]] are baith offeecial leids in the state o [[Hawaii]]. |footnote_b = {{note|engfactobox}} Inglis is the ''[[de facto]]'' leid o American govrenment an the sole leid spoken at home bi 80 percent o Americans aged five an aulder. [[Spainyie leid in the Unitit States|Spainyie is the seicont maist commonly spoken leid]]. |footnote_c = {{note|areabox}} Whether the Unitit States or [[Cheenae]] is lairger haes been [[Leet o kintras bi aurie|disputit]]. The figur gien is frae the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s ''[[The Warld Factbeuk]]''. Ither soorces gie smawer figurs. Aw authoritative calculations o the kintra's size include anly the 50 states an the Destrict o Columbia, nae the [[Territories o the Unitit States|territories]]. |footnote_d = {{note|popbox}} The population estimate is o fowk whose uisual residence is within the 50 states an the Destrict o Columbia, regardless o naitionality. It daes nae include those livin in the territories (ower 4&nbsp;million fowk, maistly in [[Puerto Rico]]). |footnote_e = {{note|UTCbox}} See [[Time in the Unitit States]] for details aboot laws govrenin time zones in the Unitit States. |footnote_f = {{note|ISO3166box}} Daes nae include [[insular aurie]]s an [[Unitit States Minor Ootlyin Islands]], which hae thair ain [[ISO 3166]] codes. |footnote_g = {{note|driving}} Except [[Unitit States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]]. }} [[File:ReliefUSA map.gif|thumb|right|280px|A pictur o the lawer 48 states Americae.]] The '''Unitit States o Americae''' ({{lang-en|United States of America|link=yes}}, '''USA'''), commonly referred tae as the '''Unitit States''' ({{lang-en|United States|link=no}}, '''US''', '''U.S.''') or '''Americae''' ({{lang-en|America|link=no}}), is a [[Constitution|constitutional]] [[federal republic]] componed o 50 [[state o the Unitit States|federatit states]], the federal destrict [[Washington, D.C.|Washington D.C.]], five main sel-govrening territories, an ither possessions.{{refn|group=fn|The five major territories are [[American Samoa]], [[Guam]], the [[Northren Mariana Islands]], [[Puerto Rico]], an the [[Unitit States Virgin Islands]]. Thare are eleven smawer island auries withoot permanent populations: [[Baker Island]], [[Howland Island]], [[Jarvis Island]], [[Johnston Atoll]], [[Kingman Reef]], [[Midway Atoll]], an [[Palmyra Atoll]]. U.S. sovereignty ower [[Bajo Nuevo Bank]], [[Navassa Island]], [[Serranilla Bank]], an [[Wake Island]] is disputit.<ref>U.S. State Department, [http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/179780.htm Common Core Document to U.N. Committee on Human Rights], December 30, 2011, Item 22, 27, 80.— an U.S. General Accounting Office Report, [http://www.gao.gov/archive/1998/og98005.pdf U.S. Insular Areas: application of the U.S. Constitution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229153648/https://www.gao.gov/archive/1998/og98005.pdf |date=2020-02-29 }}, November 1997, p. 1, 6, 39n. Both viewed April 6, 2016.</ref>}} Forty-aicht o the fifty states an the federal destrict border each ither an locatit in [[North Americae]] atween [[Canadae]] an [[Mexico]]. The [[Alaska|state o Alaska]] is in the northwast neuk o North Americae, bordered bi Canadae tae the east an athort the [[Bering Strait]] frae [[Roushie]] tae the wast. The [[Hawaii|state o Hawaii]] is an [[airchipelago]] in the mid-[[Pacific Ocean]]. The U.S. territories are scattered aboot the Paceefic Ocean an the [[Caribbean Sea]]. Nine time zones are covered. The geografie, climate an wildlife o the kintra are extremely diverse.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nwf.org/wildlife.aspx|title=Wildlife Library|publisher=National Wildlife Federation|accessdate= December 23, 2014}}</ref> At 3.8&nbsp;million squerr miles (9.8&nbsp;million km²)<ref name="State and other areas">"[https://www.census.gov/geo/reference/state-area.html State and other areas]", U.S. Census Bureau, [https://web.archive.org/web/20120620155719/http://www.govcomm.harris.com/solutions/products/census/maf-tiger.asp MAF/TIGER] database as of August 2010, excluding the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands. viewed October 22, 2014.</ref> an wi ower 324 million fowk, the Unitit States is the warld's [[Leet o sovereign states an dependencies bi aurie|fowert-lairgest kintra bi tot aurie]] (an fowerth-mucklest bi laund aurie){{refn|group=fn|The follaein twa primary soorces (non-mirrored) represent the range (min./max.) o tot aurie for Cheenae an the Unitit States. Baith soorces ''exclude'' Taiwan frae the aurie o Cheenae. {{ordered list |1= The Encyclopædia Britannica lets Cheenae as warld's third-lairgest kintra (efter Roushie an Canadae) wi a tot aurie o 9,572,900 sq km,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/111803/China-quick-facts|title=China|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|accessdate=January 31, 2010}}</ref> an the Unitit States as fowert-lairgest at 9,526,468 sq km. The figur for the Unitit States is less nor in the CIA Factbook acause it ''excludes'' coastal an territorial watters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/616563/United-States-quick-facts|title=United States|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|accessdate=January 31, 2010}}</ref> |2= The CIA World Factbook leets the Unitit States as the third-lairgest kintra (efter Roushie an Canadae) wi tot aurie o 9,833,517 sq km,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html|title=United States|publisher=CIA|accessdate=June 10, 2016|archive-date=2018-12-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225135647/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> an Cheenae as fowert-lairgest at 9,596,960 sq km.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html|title=China|publisher=CIA|accessdate=June 10, 2016|archive-date=2016-10-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013030611/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> This figur for the Unitit States is greater nor in the Encyclopædia Britannica acause it ''includes'' coastal an territorial watters.}}}} an the [[Leet o kintras an dependencies bi population|third-maist populous]]. It is ane o the warld's maist ethnically diverse an [[Multiculturalism|multicultural]] naitions, an is hame tae the warld's mucklest nummer o immigrant fowk.<ref name="DD">Adams, J.Q.; Strother-Adams, Pearlie (2001). ''Dealing with Diversity''. Chicago: Kendall/Hunt. ISBN 0-7872-8145-X.</ref> Urbanisation climbed tae oweer 80% in 2010 an leads tae growin megaregions. The kintra's caipital is [[Washington, D.C.]] an its mucklest ceety is [[New York Ceety]]; the ither major metropolitan auries, aw wi aroond five million or mair indwallers, are [[Los Angeles]], [[Chicago]], [[San Francisco]], [[Boston]], [[Dallas]], [[Philadelphia]], [[Houston]], [[Miami]], an [[Atlanta]]. Paleo-Indians migrated frae Asie tae the North American mainland at least 15,000 year ago.<ref name=earliest>{{cite news|title=Who was first? New info on North America's earliest residents|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2012/jul/12/science/la-sci-sn-paisley-caves-20120712|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|location=Los Angeles County, California|publisher=Los Angeles Times|date=July 12, 2012|first=Thomas H.|last=Maugh II|accessdate=February 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite web |url= http://anthropology.si.edu/HumanOrigins/faq/americas.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128083459/http://anthropology.si.edu/HumanOrigins/faq/americas.htm |archivedate=November 28, 2007 |ref=HumanOrigins |title=What is the earliest evidence of the peopling of North and South America? |publisher=Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History |date=June 2004 |accessdate=June 19, 2007}}<br />{{cite web |first=Nicolas |last=Kudeba |url=http://www.thehistoryofcanadapodcast.com/chapter-1-first-big-steppe/ |title=Chapter 1&nbsp;– The First Big Steppe&nbsp;– Aboriginal Canadian History |website=The History of Canada Podcast |date=February 28, 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301013552/http://www.thehistoryofcanadapodcast.com/chapter-1-first-big-steppe/ |archivedate=March 1, 2014 |deadurl=no}}<br />{{cite journal |author=Guy Gugliotta |title=When Did Humans Come to the Americas? |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/when-did-humans-come-to-the-americas-4209273/?all |journal=Smithsonian Magazine |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |date=February 2013 |access-date=June 25, 2015 }}</ref> [[European colonisation o the Americas|European colonisation]] began in the 16t century. The Unitit States emerged frae [[Thirteen Colonies|13 Breetish colonies]] alang the [[East Coast o the Unitit States|East Coast]]. Mony disputes atween [[Kinrick o Great Breetain|Great Breetain]] an the colonies in the eftermath o the [[Seiven Years' War]] led tae the [[American Revolution]], whilk began in 1775. On Julie 4, 1776, as the colonies war fichtin Great Breetain in the [[American Revolutionary War]], delegates frae the 13 colonies unanimously adoptit the [[Unitit States Declaration o Unthirldom|Declaration o Unthirldom]]. The war endit in 1783 wi [[Treaty o Paris (1783)|recogneetion o the unthirldom o the Unitit States]] bi [[Kinrick o Great Breetain|Great Breetain]], an wis the first successfu war o unthirldom against a European colonial empire.<ref>Greene, Jack P.; Pole, J.R., eds. (2008). ''A Companion to the American Revolution''. pp. 352–361.<br />{{cite book |author=Bender, Thomas |title=A Nation Among Nations: America's Place in World History |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wQHlrIz4gpYC&pg=PA61 |year=2006 |publisher=Hill & Wang |location=New York |page=61 |isbn=978-0-8090-7235-4}}<br />{{cite web |url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/era.cfm?eraid=4&smtid=1 |title=Overview of the Early National Period |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2014 |website=Digital History |publisher=University of Houston |access-date=February 25, 2015}}</ref> The [[Unitit States Constitution|current constitution]] wis adoptit in 1788, efter the [[Airticles o Confederation]], adoptit in 1781, war felt tae hae providit inadequate federal pouers. The first ten amendments, collectively named the [[Unitit States Bill o Richts|Bill o Richts]], war ratified in 1791 an designed tae guarantee mony fundamental ceevil liberties. The Unitit States gaed on a vigorous expansion athort North Americae throuoot the 19t century,<ref name="MD2007" /> displacin American Indian tribes, acquirin new territories, an gradually admittin new states till it spanned the continent in 1848.<ref name="MD2007">{{cite book |last=Carlisle |first=Rodney P. |first2=J. Geoffrey |last2=Golson |title=Manifest Destiny and the Expansion of America |series=Turning Points in History Series |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ka6LxulZaEwC&vq=annexation&dq=territorial+expansion+United+States+%22manifest+destiny%22 |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-833-0 |page=238}}</ref> During the seicont hauf o the 19t century, the [[American Ceevil War]] led tae the end o legal slavery in the kintra.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2967.html|title=The Civil War and emancipation 1861–1865 |work=Africans in America |publisher=WGBH Educational Foundation|location=Boston, Massachusetts|year=1999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/19991012054217/http://pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2967.html |archivedate=October 12, 1999 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Jeffrey H. |editor1-last=Wallenfeldt |author=Britannica Educational Publishing |series=America at War |title=The American Civil War and Reconstruction: People, Politics, and Power |url=https://books.google.com/?id=T_0TrXXiDbUC&dq=slavery+%22American+Civil+War%22 |year=2009 |publisher=Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-61530-045-7 |page=264}}</ref> Bi the end o that century, the Unitit States extendit intae the Pacific Ocean,<ref name="AmCentNYT">{{cite book |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/w/white-century.html |title=The American Century |author=White, Donald W. |year=1996 |isbn=0-300-05721-0 |publisher=Yale University Press |chapter=1: The Frontiers |accessdate=March 26, 2013}}</ref> an its economy, driven in muckle pairt bi the [[Industrial Revolution]], began tae growe a lot.<ref>{{cite web|title=Work in the Late 19th Century|url=http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/work/|website=Library of Congress|accessdate=January 16, 2015}}</ref> The [[Spaingie–American War]] an {{nowrap|[[Warld War I]]}} confirmed the kintra's status as a global militar pouer. The Unitit States emerged frae {{nowrap|[[Warld War II]]}} as a global [[superpouer]], the first kintra tae develop nuclear wappens, the anly kintra tae [[Atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki|uise them]] in warfare, an a permanent member o the [[Unitit Naitions Security Cooncil]]. It is a foondin member o the [[Organisation o American States]] (OAS) an various ither [[Pan-Americanism|Pan-American]] an internaitional organisations. The end o the [[Cauld War]] an the [[dissolution o the Soviet Union|end o the Soviet Union]] in 1991 left the Unitit States as the warld's sole superpouer.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Tony Judt|author2=Denis Lacorne|title=With Us Or Against Us: Studies in Global Anti-Americanism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nVDHAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|date=June 4, 2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4039-8085-4|page=61}}<br />{{cite book|author=Richard J. Samuels|title=Encyclopedia of United States National Security|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K751AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT666|date=December 21, 2005|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6535-3|page=666}}<br />{{cite book|author=Paul R. Pillar|title=Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_GYklwy6booC&pg=PA57|date=January 1, 2001|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=0-8157-0004-0|page=57}}<br />{{cite book|author=Gabe T. Wang|title=China and the Taiwan Issue: Impending War at Taiwan Strait|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CbPJ7KZ9FvIC&pg=PA179|date=January 1, 2006|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-7618-3434-2|page=179}}<br />{{cite book|title=Understanding the "Victory Disease," From the Little Bighorn to Mogadishu and Beyond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgdmiw4VUHsC&pg=PA1|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=978-1-4289-1052-2|page=1}}<br />{{cite book|author1=Akis Kalaitzidis|author2=Gregory W. Streich|title=U.S. Foreign Policy: A Documentary and Reference Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzwYzL9KcwEC&pg=PA313|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-38375-5|page=313}}</ref> The Unitit States is a heichly developed kintra, wi the warld's mucklest [[Leet o kintras bi GDP (nominal)|economy bi nominal GDP]]. It ranks heichly in several meisurs o socioeconomic performance, includin average wage,<ref>{{cite web|title=Average annual wages, 2013 USD PPPs and 2013 constant prices|url=http://stats.oecd.org//Index.aspx?QueryId=64115|website=OECD|accessdate=April 30, 2016}}</ref> [[Human Development Index|human development]], per capita GDP, an productivity per person.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-500395_162-3228735.html |title=U.S. Workers World's Most Productive |publisher=CBS News |date=February 11, 2009 |accessdate=April 23, 2013}}</ref> While the U.S. economy is considered post-industrial, chairacterised bi the dominance o [[Service (economics)|services]] an knawledge economy, the manufacturin sector remains the seicont-mucklest in the warld.<ref>{{cite web|title=Manufacturing, value added (current US$)|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.IND.MANF.CD|website=World Bank Open Data|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=11 February 2017}}</ref> Tho its population is anly 4.3% o the warld tot,<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. and World Population Clock|url=http://www.census.gov/popclock/|publisher=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=July 11, 2016}}</ref> the Unitit States accoonts for nearly a quarter o warld GDP<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=23&pr.y=9&sy=2014&ey=2014&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C668%2C914%2C672%2C612%2C946%2C614%2C137%2C311%2C962%2C213%2C674%2C911%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C558%2C918%2C138%2C748%2C196%2C618%2C278%2C624%2C692%2C522%2C694%2C622%2C142%2C156%2C449%2C626%2C564%2C628%2C565%2C228%2C283%2C924%2C853%2C233%2C288%2C632%2C293%2C636%2C566%2C634%2C964%2C238%2C182%2C662%2C453%2C960%2C968%2C423%2C922%2C935%2C714%2C128%2C862%2C611%2C135%2C321%2C716%2C243%2C456%2C248%2C722%2C469%2C942%2C253%2C718%2C642%2C724%2C643%2C576%2C939%2C936%2C644%2C961%2C819%2C813%2C172%2C199%2C132%2C733%2C646%2C184%2C648%2C524%2C915%2C361%2C134%2C362%2C652%2C364%2C174%2C732%2C328%2C366%2C258%2C734%2C656%2C144%2C654%2C146%2C336%2C463%2C263%2C528%2C268%2C923%2C532%2C738%2C944%2C578%2C176%2C537%2C534%2C742%2C536%2C866%2C429%2C369%2C433%2C744%2C178%2C186%2C436%2C925%2C136%2C869%2C343%2C746%2C158%2C926%2C439%2C466%2C916%2C112%2C664%2C111%2C826%2C298%2C542%2C927%2C967%2C846%2C443%2C299%2C917%2C582%2C544%2C474%2C941%2C754%2C446%2C698%2C666&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a=|title = World Economic Outlook Database, April 2015|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = }}</ref> an ower a third o global militar spendin,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_id=476 |title=Trends in world military expenditure, 2013 |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |date=April 2014 |accessdate=April 14, 2014 |archive-date=2015-01-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104033821/http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_id=476 |url-status=dead }}</ref> makkin it the warld's foremaist economic an [[Unitit States Airmed Forces|militar]] pouer. The Unitit States is a prominent poleetical an cultural force internaitionally, an a leader in scienteefic resairch an technological innovations.<ref>[[#Cohen|Cohen, 2004: History and the Hyperpower]]<br />[[#BBC18may|BBC, April 2008: Country Profile: United States of America]]<br />{{cite web|url=http://www.researchtrends.com/issue8-november-2008/geographical-trends-of-research-output/|title=Geographical trends of research output|publisher=Research Trends|accessdate=March 16, 2014|archive-date=2014-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317092424/http://www.researchtrends.com/issue8-november-2008/geographical-trends-of-research-output/|url-status=dead}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://www.openaccessweek.org/profiles/blogs/the-top-20-countries-for-scientific-output|title=The top 20 countries for scientific output|publisher=Open Access Week|accessdate=March 16, 2014|archive-date=2014-03-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317105014/http://www.openaccessweek.org/profiles/blogs/the-top-20-countries-for-scientific-output|url-status=dead}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://www.epo.org/about-us/annual-reports-statistics/annual-report/2012/statistics-trends/granted-patents.html|title=Granted patents|publisher=European Patent Office|accessdate=March 16, 2014|archive-date=2017-06-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621011611/http://www.epo.org/about-us/annual-reports-statistics/annual-report/2012/statistics-trends/granted-patents.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> == History == Follaein the European colonisation o the Americaes, aw thirteen o [[Kinrick o Great Breetain|Great Breetain]]'s American colonies spleet frae the mither kintra an formit the Unitit States, the warld's first [[constitution]]al an [[democracy|democratic]] [[federation|federal]] [[republic]], efter thair [[American Declaration o Unthirldom|declaration o unthirldom]] in [[1776]] an the [[American Weir o Unthirldom|Weir o Unthirldom]] ([[1775]]–[[1783]]). Great Breetain made peace wi the rebols an wi the [[Treaty o Pairis (1783)|Treaty o Pairis]] in 1783. For tae mak a stoot colonol govrenment, the [[Philadelphia Convention]] wis foondit in 1787 an raitifeet a [[Constitution o the Unitit States|constitution]] in 1788, an the farst Unitit States Senate, Hoose o Representatives, an preses tak office in 1789. [[George Washington]] wis the first preses. Differences o opinion an social order atween northren an soothern states in early Unitit States society, pairteecularly regairdin Black sclavery, ultimately led tae the American Ceevil War.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stuart Murray|title=Atlas of American Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_sy7mmmxQC&pg=PA76|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-3025-5|page=76|accessdate=October 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite book|author=Harold T. Lewis|title=Christian Social Witness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kr-xNru5vZkC&pg=PA53|date=January 1, 2001|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-56101-188-9|page=53}}</ref> Follaein the Union victory in 1865, three amendments war addit tae the U.S. Constitution: the [[Thirteent Amendment tae the Unitit States Constitution|Thirteent Amendment]] prohibitit sclavery, the [[Fowerteent Amendment tae the Unitit States Constitution|Fowerteent Amendment]] providit ceetizenship tae the nearly fower million [[African American]]s wha haed been sclaves,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1860a-02.pdf |title=1860 Census |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |accessdate=June 10, 2007}} Page 7 leets a tot sclave population o 3,953,760.</ref> an the [[Fifteent Amendment tae the Unitit States Constitution|Fifteent Amendment]] ensured that thay haed the richt tae vote. The Unitit States remained neutral frae the ootbreak o [[Warld War I]], in 1914, till 1917 whan it jyned the war as an "associatit pouer", alangside the formal [[Allies o Warld War I]], helpin tae turn the tide against the [[Central Pouers]]. In 1920, the weemen's richts muivement wan passage o a constitutional amendment grantin weemen's suffrage.<ref name="voris">{{cite book |last1=Voris |first1=Jacqueline Van |title=Carrie Chapman Catt: A Public Life |url=https://archive.org/details/carriechapmancat0000vanv |series=Women and Peace Series |year=1996 |publisher=Feminist Press at CUNY |location=New York City |isbn=1-55861-139-8 |page=vii|quote=Carrie Chapmann Catt led an army of voteless women in 1919 to pressure Congress to pass the constitutional amendment giving them the right to vote and convinced state legislatures to ratify it in 1920.&nbsp;... Catt was one of the best-known women in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century and was on all lists of famous American women.}}</ref> The 1920s an 1930s saw the rise o [[radio]] for mass communication an the invention o early [[televeesion]].<ref>Winchester pp. 410–411</ref> The prosperity o the Roaring Twenties endit wi the [[Wall Street Crash o 1929]] an the onset o the [[Great Depression]]. Efter his election as preses in 1932, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|Franklin D. Roosevelt]] respondit wi the [[New Deal]], whit included the establishment o the [[Social Security (Unitit States)|Social Security]] seestem.<ref>{{cite book |title=Social Welfare: A History of the American Response to Need |url=https://archive.org/details/socialwelfarehis0000axin_i6r5 |first1=June |last1=Axinn |first2=Mark J. |last2=Stern |isbn=978-0-205-52215-6 |edition=7th |publisher=Allyn & Bacon |location=Boston |year=2007}}</ref> At first effectively neutral during [[Warld War II]] while Germany conquered much o continental Europe, the Unitit States began supplyin material tae the [[Allies o Warld War II|Allies]] in Mairch 1941 throu the Lend-Lease programme. On December 7, 1941, the [[Empire o Japan]] launched a surprise [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], promptin the Unitit States tae jyn the Allies against the [[Axis pouers]].<ref name="Pearl Harbor">{{cite web|last1=Yamasaki|first1=Mitch|title=Pearl Harbor and America's Entry into World War II: A Documentary History|url=http://www.hawaiiinternment.org/static/ush_yamasaki_documentary_history.pdf|publisher=World War II Internment in Hawaii|accessdate=January 14, 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213122046/http://www.hawaiiinternment.org/static/ush_yamasaki_documentary_history.pdf|archivedate=December 13, 2014 }}</ref> The Unitit States developed the [[Manhattan Project|first nuclear wappens]] an uised them on Japan [[Atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki|in the ceeties o Hiroshima an Nagasaki]]; causin the Japanese tae surrender on September 2, endin Warld War II.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2016/08/06/commentary/japan-surrender-world-war-ii/|title=Why did Japan surrender in World War II? {{!}} The Japan Times|newspaper=The Japan Times|access-date=2017-02-08|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>Pacific War Research Society (2006). ''Japan's Longest Day''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 4-7700-2887-3.</ref> Efter Warld War II the Unitit States an the [[Soviet Union]] jockeyed for pouer during whit acame kent as the [[Cauld War]], driven bi an ideological divide atween [[caipitalism]] an [[communism]]<ref name="WaggAndrews2012">{{cite book|last1=Wagg|first1=Stephen|last2=Andrews|first2=David|title=East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmjLR5YyUhEC&pg=PR11|date=September 10, 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-24167-5|page=11}}</ref> an, accordin tae the schuil o [[geopolitics]], a divide atween the maritime Atlantic an the continental Eurasian camps. American truips focht communist [[Fowk's Liberation Airmy|Cheenese]] an [[North Korea]]n forces in the [[Korean War]] o 1950–53.<ref name="Proxy" /> The Soviet Union's 1957 launch o the [[Sputnik 1|first airtifeecial satellite]] an its 1961 launch o the [[Vostok 1|first manned spaceflicht]] ineetiatit a "[[Space Race]]" in whit the Unitit States acame the first naition tae [[Apollo 11|laund a man on the muin]] in 1969.<ref name="Proxy">{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Collins (astronaut) |title=Liftoff: The Story of America's Adventure in Space |url=https://archive.org/details/liftoff00coll |location=New York |publisher=Grove Press |year=1988}}</ref> A proxy war in Sootheast Asie eventually evolved intae full American pairteecipation, as the [[Vietnam War]]. At hame in the 1960s, the growin [[African-American Ceevil Richts Muivement (1954–68)|Ceevil Richts Muivement]] uised nonviolence tae confront segregation an discrimination, wi [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] acomin a prominent leader an figurheid. The late 1980s, unner the presidency o [[Ronald Reagan]], brocht a "thowe" in relations wi the USSR, an [[Dissolution o the Soviet Union|its collapse]] in 1991 finally endit the Cauld War.<ref>{{cite book |last=Howell |first=Buddy Wayne |title=The Rhetoric of Presidential Summit Diplomacy: Ronald Reagan and the U.S.-Soviet Summits, 1985–1988 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Rhetoric_of_Presidential_Summit_Dipl.html?id=LctvjhxJ-bsC |year=2006 |publisher=Texas A&M University |isbn=978-0-549-41658-6 |page=352 |accessdate=October 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kissinger |first=Henry |authorlink=Henry Kissinger |title=Diplomacy |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0IZboamhb5EC&lpg=PA731 |year=2011 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-4391-2631-8 |pages=781–784 |accessdate=October 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite book |last=Mann |first=James |title=The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of the End of the Cold War |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BgZyXNIrvB4C&pg=PT12|year=2009 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1-4406-8639-9 |page=432}}<br /></ref><ref>[[#Hayes|Hayes, 2009]]</ref><ref>[[#ushistory13|US History.org, 2013]]</ref> On [[September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001]], [[Al-Qaeda]] terrorists struck the [[Warld Trade Center (1973–2001)|Warld Trade Center]] in New York Ceety an [[the Pentagon]] near Washington, D.C., killin nearly 3,000 fowk.<ref>{{cite AV media |date=September 9, 2011 |title=Flashback 9/11: As It Happened |url=http://video.foxnews.com/v/1151859712001/flashback-911-as-it-happened/ |accessdate=March 6, 2013 |publisher=Fox News}}<br />{{cite news |title=America remembers Sept. 11 attacks 11 years later |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57510234/america-remembers-sept-11-attacks-11-years-later/ |publisher=CBS News |date=September 11, 2012 |accessdate=March 6, 2013 |archive-date=2013-10-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017215138/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57510234/america-remembers-sept-11-attacks-11-years-later/ |url-status=dead }}<br />{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/multimedia.day.html |title=Day of Terror Video Archive |year=2005 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=March 6, 2013 }}</ref> In response, the Unitit States launched the [[War on Terror]], whilk included [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]] an the 2003–11 [[Iraq War]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The 'War on Terror' Is Critical to President George W. Bush's Legacy |author=Walsh, Kenneth T. |url=http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/12/09/the-war-on-terror-is-critical-to-president-george-w-bushs-legacy |newspaper=U.S. News & World Report |date=December 9, 2008 |accessdate=March 6, 2013}}<br />{{cite book |last=Atkins |first=Stephen E. |title=The 9/11 Encyclopedia: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDDIgWRN_HQC&pg=PA210 |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-921-9 |page=872 |accessdate=October 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Overview: The Iraq War |last=Wong |first=Edward |url=https://www.nytimes.com/ref/timestopics/topics_iraq.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=February 15, 2008 |accessdate=March 7, 2013 }}<br />{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=James Turner |title=The War to Oust Saddam Hussein: Just War and the New Face of Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/?id=SF7U27JsLC4C&dq=iraq+invasion+removes+hussein |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-4956-2 |page=159 |accessdate=October 25, 2015 }}<br />{{cite news |title=Timeline: Key moments in the Iraq War |author=Durando, Jessica |author2=Green, Shannon Rae |agency=Associated Press |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/story/2011-12-21/iraq-war-timeline/52147680/1 |newspaper=USA Today |date=December 21, 2011 |accessdate=March 7, 2013 |archive-date=2020-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904084312/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/story/2011-12-21/iraq-war-timeline/52147680/1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Unner Preses [[Barack Obama]], American forces in Iraq war widrawn in muckle nummers in 2009 an 2010, an the war in the region wis declared formally ower in December 2011.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/16/world/middleeast/panetta-in-baghdad-for-iraq-military-handover-ceremony.html | work=The New York Times | first1=Thom | last1=Shanker | first2=Michael S. | last2=Schmidt | first3=Robert F. | last3=Worth | title=In Baghdad, Panetta Leads Uneasy Closure to Conflict | date=December 15, 2011}}</ref> The widrawal caused [[Iraqi insurgency (2011–13)|an escalation o sectarian insurgency]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/the-jrtn-movement-and-iraq%E2%80%99s-next-insurgency |title=The JRTN Movement and Iraq's Next Insurgency &#124; Combating Terrorism Center at West Point |publisher=[[United States Military Academy]] |accessdate=January 26, 2017 |archive-date=2011-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826043422/http://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/the-jrtn-movement-and-iraq%E2%80%99s-next-insurgency |url-status=dead }}</ref> leadin tae the rise o the [[Islamic State o Iraq an the Levant]], the successor o al-Qaeda in the region.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.state.gov/p/nea/rls/rm/221274.htm|title=Al-Qaeda's Resurgence in Iraq: A Threat to U.S. Interests|publisher=U.S Department of State|accessdate=November 26, 2010|date=January 26, 2017|archive-date=2018-06-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141714/https://www.state.gov/p/nea/rls/rm/221274.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Geografie, climate, an environs == The laund aurie o the [[contiguous Unitit States]] is {{convert|2959064|sqmi|km2|1}}. Alaska, separatit frae the contiguous Unitit States bi Canadae, is the mucklest state at {{convert|663268|sqmi|km2|1}}. [[Hawaii]], occupyin an airchipelago in the central [[Paceefic Ocean|Paceefic]], soothwast o North Americae, is {{convert|10931|sqmi|km2|0}} in aurie. The populatit territories o [[Puerto Rico]], [[American Samoa]], [[Guam]], [[Northren Mariana Islands]], an [[Unitit States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]] thegither civer {{convert|9185|sqmi|km2|0}}.<ref name="Land Area of US and states">{{cite web|title=2010 Census Area|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-1.pdf|website=census.gov|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|page=41|accessdate=January 18, 2015}}</ref> The Unitit States, wi its muckle size an geografic variety, includes maist climate teepes. Tae the east o the 100t meridian, the climate ranges frae humid continental in the north tae humid subtropical in the sooth.<ref>{{cite web|last=Boyden|first=Jennifer|title=Climate Regions of the United States|url=http://traveltips.usatoday.com/climate-regions-united-states-21570.html|website=Travel Tips|publisher=USA Today|accessdate=December 24, 2014|archive-date=2014-12-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225073246/http://traveltips.usatoday.com/climate-regions-united-states-21570.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Great Plains wast o the 100t meridian are semi-arid. Much o the Wastren moontains hae an alpine climate. The climate is arid in the Great Basin, desert in the Soothwast, [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] in coastal Californie, an [[oceanic climate|oceanic]] in coastal [[Oregon]] an [[Washington (state)|Washington]] an soothren Alaska. Maist o Alaska is subarctic or polar. Hawaii an the soothren tip o [[Florida]] are tropical, as are the populatit territories in the Caribbean an the Paceefic.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Map of Köppen−Geiger Climate Classification|url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/kottek_et_al_2006_A4.pdf|accessdate=August 19, 2015}}</ref> === Wildlife === The U.S. ecology is megadiverse: aboot 17,000 species o [[vascular plant]]s occur in the contiguous Unitit States an Alaska, an ower 1,800 species o flouering plants are foond in Hawaii, few o whit occur on the mainland.<ref>{{cite web |author=Morin, Nancy |url=http://www.fungaljungal.org/papers/National_Biological_Service.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724222726/http://www.fungaljungal.org/papers/National_Biological_Service.pdf |title=Vascular Plants of the United States |publisher=National Biological Service |work=Plants |accessdate=October 27, 2008 |archivedate=July 24, 2013 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724222726/http://www.fungaljungal.org/papers/National_Biological_Service.pdf |date=2013-07-24 }}</ref> The Unitit States is hame tae 428 mammal species, 784 bird species, 311 reptile species, an 295 amphibian species.<ref name="Current Results # of native species in the US">{{cite web|last1=Osborn|first1=Liz|title=Number of Native Species in United States|url=http://www.currentresults.com/Environment-Facts/Plants-Animals/number-of-native-species-in-united-states.php|publisher=Current Results Nexus|accessdate=January 15, 2015}}</ref> Aboot 91,000 insect species hae been describit.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/buginfo/bugnos.htm |title=Numbers of Insects (Species and Individuals) |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |accessdate=January 20, 2009}}</ref> The [[bauld eagle]] is baith the naitional bird an naitional ainimal o the Unitit States, an is an endurin seembol o the kintra itsel.<ref name=j23>{{cite journal |last1=Lawrence |first1=E.A. |year=1990 |title=Symbol of a Nation: The Bald Eagle in American Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-culture_spring-1990_13_1/page/63 |journal=The Journal of American Culture |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=63–69|doi=10.1111/j.1542-734X.1990.1301_63.x }}</ref> == Cultur == The Unitit States is hame tae [[Multiculturalism|mony culturs]] an a wide variety o ethnic groups, tradeetions, an values.<ref name="DD" /><ref name="Society in Focus">Thompson, William; Hickey, Joseph (2005). ''Society in Focus''. Boston: Pearson. ISBN 0-205-41365-X.</ref> Aside frae the [[Hamespun Americans in the Unitit States|Hamespun American]], [[Hamespun Hawaiians|Hamespun Hawaiian]], an [[Alaska Hamespuns|Hamespun Alaskan]] populations, nearly aw Americans or thair ancestors settled or emigratit within the past five centuries.<ref>Fiorina, Morris P.; Peterson, Paul E. (2000). ''The New American Democracy''. London: Longman, p. 97. ISBN 0-321-07058-5.</ref> Mainstream American cultur is a Wastren cultur mucklely derived frae the tradeetions o European emigrants wi influences frae mony ither soorces, sic as tradeetions brocht bi slaves frae Africae.<ref name="DD" /><ref>Holloway, Joseph E. (2005). ''Africanisms in American Culture'', 2d ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 18–38. ISBN 0-253-34479-4. Johnson, Fern L. (1999). ''Speaking Culturally: Language Diversity in the United States''. Thousand Oaks, Calif., London, and New Delhi: Sage, p. 116. ISBN 0-8039-5912-5.</ref> ===Cuisine=== Mainstream American cuisine is seemilar tae that in ither Wastren kintras. Chairactereestic dishes sic as aiple pie, fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, an het dogs derive frae the recipes o various emigrants. French fries, [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]] dishes sic as burritos an tacos, an pasta dishes freely adaptit frae Italian soorces are widely consumed.<ref name="IFT">{{cite web |url=http://www.newswise.com/articles/what-when-and-where-americans-eat-in-2003|author=Klapthor, James N. |title=What, When, and Where Americans Eat in 2003 |publisher=Newswise/Institute of Food Technologists |date=August 23, 2003|accessdate=June 19, 2007}}</ref> Americans drink three times as much coffee as tea.<ref name=coffeeandtea>{{cite news|last1=H|first1=D|title=The coffee insurgency|url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2013/12/daily-chart-17|website=The Economist|accessdate=January 15, 2015}}</ref> Mercatin bi U.S. industries is mucklely responsible for makkin orange juice an milk ubiquitous breakfast beverages.<ref>[[#Smith2004|Smith, 2004]], pp. 131–132</ref><ref>[[#Levenstein|Levenstein, 2003]], pp. 154–55</ref> ===Airts=== In leeturatur, [[Edgar Allen Poe]], [[Emily Dickenson]], [[Mark Twain]], [[William Faulkner]], [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]], [[Herman Melville]], an [[John Steinbeck]] are amang the maist weel kent Americans, while [[Jackson Pollock]], [[Georgia O'Keefe]], an [[Andy Warhol]] are some o the maist weel kent American painters. [[Hollywood]], a northren destrict o [[Los Angeles]], Californie, is ane o the leaders in motion pictur production.<ref>{{cite press release |url= http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=30707 |title=Nigeria surpasses Hollywood as world's second largest film producer |publisher=United Nations |date=May 5, 2009 |accessdate=February 17, 2013}}</ref> Syne the early 20t century, the U.S. film industry haes mucklely been based in an aroond Hollywood, awtho in the 21st century an increasin nummer o films are nae made thare, an film companies hae been subject tae the forces o globalisation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/john-landis-rails-studios-theyre-659222|title=John Landis Rails Against Studios: 'They're Not in the Movie Business Anymore'|publisher=''The Hollywood Reporter''|accessdate=January 24, 2015}}</ref> Muisic in Americae haes been influenced bi [[African-American]] cultur, wi [[Duke Ellington]] an [[Louis Armstrong]] pioneerin the [[Jazz]] genre. [[Elvis Presley]] an [[Buddy Holly]] war leadin airtists in pioneerin popular muisic in the 1950s. Syne then, the Unitit States haes produced mony popular airtists, includin [[Michael Jackson]], [[Whitney Houston]], [[Madonna]], [[Katy Perry]], [[Taylor Swift]], an [[Beyoncé]], amang mony ithers. ==Sport== [[American fitba]] is the maist popular sport in the Unitit States.<ref>{{cite web |author=Krane, David K. |title=Professional Football Widens Its Lead Over Baseball as Nation's Favorite Sport |url=http://www.harrisinteractive.com/Insights/HarrisVault8482.aspx?PID=337 |publisher=Harris Interactive |date=October 30, 2002 |accessdate=September 14, 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709111448/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/Insights/HarrisVault8482.aspx?PID=337 |archivedate=July 9, 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709111448/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/Insights/HarrisVault8482.aspx?PID=337 |date=2010-07-09 }} MacCambridge, Michael (2004). ''America's Game: The Epic Story of How Pro Football Captured a Nation''. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-50454-0.</ref> The [[National Football League]] (NFL) haes the heichest average attendance o ony sports league in the warld, an the [[Super Bowl]] is watched bi millions globally. [[Basebaw]] haes been regairdit as the U.S. [[naitional sport]] syne the late 19t century, wi [[Major League Baseball]] (MLB) bein the tap league. [[Basketbaw]] an [[ice hockey]] are the kintra's next twa [[Major professional sports leagues in the Unitit States an Canadae|leadin professional team sports]], wi the tap leagues bein the [[National Basketball Association]] (NBA) an the [[National Hockey League]] (NHL). Aight [[Olympic Gemmes]] hae taken place in the Unitit States. As o 2014, the Unitit States haes wan 2,400 medals at the [[Simmer Olympic Gemmes]], mair nor ony ither kintra, an 281 in the [[Winter Olympic Gemmes]], the seicont maist behind Norawa.<ref>{{cite news |title= The 10 most fascinating facts about the all-time Winter Olympics medal standings |first= Chris |last= Chase |date= February 7, 2014 |work= [[USA Today]] |url= http://ftw.usatoday.com/2014/02/winter-olympics-medal-count-sochi-all-time-facts/ |accessdate= February 28, 2014 |archive-date= 2019-12-15 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191215084716/https://ftw.usatoday.com/2014/02/winter-olympics-medal-count-sochi-all-time-facts |url-status= dead }} {{cite news |title= With Sochi Olympics approaching, a history of Winter Olympic medals |date= February 6, 2014 |first= Dan |last= Loumena |work= [[Los Angeles Times]] |url= http://articles.latimes.com/2014/feb/06/sports/la-sp-a-history-of-the-winter-olympic-medals-20140206 |accessdate= February 28, 2014 }}</ref> == States o the Unitit States == {{main|U.S. state}} {| border="0" |----- | valign="top" | * [[Alabama]] * [[Alaska]] * [[Arizona]] * [[Arkansas]] * [[Californie]] * [[Colorado]] * [[Connecticut]] * [[Delaware]] * [[Florida]] * [[Georgie (U.S. state)|Georgie]] | valign="top" | * [[Hawaii]] * [[Idaho]] * [[Illinois]] * [[Indiana]] * [[Iowa]] * [[Kansas]] * [[Kentucky]] * [[Louisiana]] * [[Maine]] * [[Maryland]] | valign="top" | * [[Massachusetts]] * [[Michigan]] * [[Minnesota]] * [[Mississippi]] * [[Missouri]] * [[Montana]] * [[Nebraska]] * [[Nevada]] * [[New Hampshire]] * [[New Jersey]] | valign="top" | * [[New Mexico]] * [[New York]] * [[North Carolina]] * [[North Dakota]] * [[Ohio]] * [[Oklahoma]] * [[Oregon]] * [[Pennsylvanie]] * [[Rhode Island]] * [[Sooth Carolina]] | valign="top" | * [[Sooth Dakota]] * [[Tennessee]] * [[Texas]] * [[Utah]] * [[Vermont]] * [[Wast Virginie]] * [[Virginie]] * [[Washington (state)|Washington]] * [[Wisconsin]] * [[Wyoming]] |} ==Notes== <references group="fn"/> ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ===Soorces=== {{Commonscat|United States}} * {{cite book |last=Simonson |first=Peter |title=Refiguring Mass Communication: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/refiguringmassco0000simo |ref=Simonson |year=2010 |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]|quote=He held high the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the nation's unofficial motto, ''e pluribus unum'', even as he was recoiling from the party system in which he had long participated. |location=Urbana |isbn=978-0-252-07705-0}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=N6lrAmPlbvIC&pg=PA79&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false Book] * {{cite web |url= http://www.treasury.gov/about/education/Pages/in-god-we-trust.aspx |title=History of "In God We Trust" |ref=God |publisher=U.S. Department of the Treasury |date=March 8, 2011 |accessdate=February 23, 2013}} * {{cite news |title=Looking back 20 years: Who deserves credit for ending the Cold War? |author=Nick Hayes |ref=Hayes |url=http://www.minnpost.com/politics-policy/2009/11/looking-back-20-years-who-deserves-credit-ending-cold-war |newspaper=MinnPost |date=November 6, 2009 |accessdate=March 11, 2013}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.ushistory.org/us/59e.asp |title=59e. The End of the Cold War |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=U.S. History.org |ref=ushistory13|publisher=Independence Hall Association |accessdate=March 10, 2013}} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first= Andrew F. |year=2004 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America'' |ref=Smith2004 |publisher=New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 131–32. ISBN 0-19-515437-1}} * {{cite book |last=Levenstein |first=Harvey |title=Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionattabl0000leve_d6o6 |ref=Levenstein |publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles |year=2003 |isbn=0-520-23439-1}} {{Unitit States topics}} [[Category:Unitit States| ]] [[Category:1776 establishments in the Unitit States]] [[Category:Umwhile Breetish colonies]] [[Category:Umwhile confederations]] [[Category:G8 naitions]] [[Category:G20 naitions]] [[Category:Leeberal democracies]] [[Category:Member states o NATO]] [[Category:Member states o the Unitit Naitions]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States an territories established in 1776]] 830hth5geml66tiqr3vmwynvnyfropy 0 1823 918748 908876 2026-06-24T23:40:43Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918748 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Hong Kong Budha.jpg|thumb|250px|Buddha statue in Lantau Island, [[Hong Kong]]]] '''Buddhism''' is a [[releegion]] an [[philosophy]] foondit on the teachins o the [[Buddha]], Siddhārtha Gautama, a speeritual leader that leeved fae aboot 563 tae 483 BCE in whit's noo Nor-east India an Nepal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Life of the Buddha|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/buda/hd_buda.htm#:~:text=According%20to%20tradition,%20the%20historical,much%20as%20a%20century%20later.|url-status=live|access-date=2023-01-28|website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref> (Modren scholars cannae be shair aboot the dates, but mony pit them aboot a century later.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Dates of the Buddha|url=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/culture/religious-studies/the-dates-the-buddha|access-date=2025-02-14|website=Open Learning|language=en}}</ref>) Wi aboot 500 million folliers, Buddhism is conseedert a major warld releegion, wi aboot 7% o the warld's population.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ferguson|first=Gaylon J.|title=Buddhism|date=2020|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-27953-0_5|work=Rituals and Practices in World Religions|volume=5|pages=59–71|editor-last=Yaden|editor-first=David Bryce|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-27953-0_5|isbn=978-3-030-27952-3|access-date=2023-01-28|editor2-last=Zhao|editor2-first=Yukun|editor3-last=Peng|editor3-first=Kaiping|editor4-last=Newberg|editor4-first=Andrew B.}}</ref> Onlike maist ither releegions, Buddhism isnae centered on a creator Goad.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harvey|first=Peter|title=Buddhism and monotheism|url=https://archive.org/details/buddhismmonothei0000harv|date=2019|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-73137-9|series=Cambridge elements|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhismmonothei0000harv/page/n8 1]}}</ref> Fae its origins in India, Buddhism spread tae maist o Asie an noo haes mony folliers in [[Europe]] an in [[North Americae|North]] and [[Sooth Americae]]. Buddhism haes twa main forms: Theravada, fund in Sri Lanka an Sootheast Asia; an [[Mahayana]], fund in East Asia (China, Korea, Japan an Vietnam), Tibet, Western China, Mongolia, Bhutan, pairts of India, Nepal an Russia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eckel|first=Malcolm David|title=Buddhism|url=https://archive.org/details/buddhismoriginsb0000ecke|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0195219074|pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhismoriginsb0000ecke/page/n12 10]}}</ref> == The Buddha == Accordin tae tradeetion, Gautama (Gotama in Pāli) lived fae aroond 563 BCE tae aboot 483 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Brown|first=Authors: Kathryn Selig|title=Life of the Buddha {{!}} Essay {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/buda/hd_buda.htm|access-date=2025-02-14|website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|language=en}}</ref> He waes born in the Sakyan Republic,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Keown|first=Damien|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/311761089|title=Buddhism|date=2009|publisher=Sterling|isbn=978-1-4027-6883-5|edition=Illustrated ed|series=A brief insight|location=New York, NY|pages=18|oclc=311761089}}</ref> auldest son tae Suddhodana, wha was like tae hae been the heid o the republic's governin cooncil.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schumann|first=Hans Wolfgang|title=The historical Buddha: the times, life, and teachings of the founder of Buddhism|url=https://archive.org/details/historicalbuddha0000hans|last2=Schumann|first2=Hans Wolfgang|date=2004|publisher=Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1817-0|edition=1. Indian ed|series=Buddhist tradition series|location=Delhi|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historicalbuddha0000hans/page/16 17]}}</ref> Tradeetion gies Gautama the forename "Siddhartha" (Sanskrit) or "Siddhattha" (Pāli). Hooaniver, the early screeptures niver caw him bi his first name, whilk daesna appear ontil several hunnert year eftir his deith.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Blomfield|first=Vishvapani|title=Gautama Buddha: The Life and Teachings of the Awakened One|publisher=Quercus|year=2011|isbn=9781849164092|location=London|pages=8}}</ref> As a loon, Gautama "gaed furth" fae hame, seyin fareweil tae his faither and step-mither,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sangharakshita|title=The Buddha's victory|date=1991|publisher=Windhorse Publ|isbn=978-0-904766-50-9|location=Glasgow|pages=18}}</ref> an leain his wife, Yaśodharā (Pali: Yasodharā)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Yasodhara|url=https://rubinmuseum.org/projecthimalayanart/glossary/yashodhara/|access-date=2025-02-15|website=Project Himalayan Art|language=en}}</ref> an bairn, Rāhula, in their care.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gindin|first=Matthew|date=2018-01-29|title=Did the Buddha Really Have a Wife and Son? - Tricycle: The Buddhist Review|url=https://tricycle.org/article/buddhas-family/|access-date=2025-02-15|website=Tricycle: The Buddhist Review - The independent voice of Buddhism in the West.|language=en}}</ref> His ettle waes tae finn an end tae the sufferin he cuidna chaip in life. He jined twa speeritual teachers — Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta — ain eftir the ither, maisterin the forms o meditation each taucht, but didna finn the escape fae sufferin he langed fir.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wynne|first=Alexander|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm71800589|title=The origin of Buddhist meditation|date=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-42387-8|series=Routledge critical studies in Buddhism|location=London ; New York|pages=8|oclc=ocm71800589}}</ref> He formed his ain community o ascetics, practicin sel-torture and fastin in order tae atteen complete maistery ower hissel. Aince mair, he didna finn an escape fae sufferin, an his ascetic practices brocht him near tae deith.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Blomfield|first=Vishvapani|title=Gautama Buddha: The Life and Teachings of the Awakened One|publisher=Quercus|year=2011|isbn=9781849164092|location=London|pages=68–71}}</ref> Takin food aince mair, he minded on a time whan, as a bairn, he'd haed a blissfu experience o meditation ablow a tree. Intuitively, he kent this path o meditation tae be the wey tae liberation.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Blomfield|first=Vishvapani|title=Gautama Buddha: The Life and Teachings of the Awakened One|publisher=Quercus|year=2011|isbn=9781849164092|location=London|pages=71}}</ref> Eftir oors o meditatin deeply, he kent hissel tae hae won tae ''nibbāna'', or the "smorin" o ignorance. He haed, aged 35 year, become "Buddha," meanin "Ane That's Awaukent."<ref>{{Cite web|date=2025-01-14|title=The Awakened One|url=https://penguinrandomhousehighereducation.com/book/?isbn=9781570625510|access-date=2025-02-15|website=Penguin Random House Higher Education|language=en}}</ref> Fae then oan, until his deith at the age o 80, he taucht his path tae awaukenin tae awbody at wid lissen. He gaithered aboot him a "fowerfauld assembly" (cattaro parisā) o monks (bhikkhus), nuns (bhikkhunīs), male hoosehauders (upāsakas), an female hoosehauders (upāsikās).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Harvey|first=Peter|title=An introduction to Buddhism: teachings, history, and practices|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontobu00harv_0|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|isbn=978-0-521-31333-9|edition=13. print|location=Cambridge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontobu00harv_0/page/218 217]}}</ref> == See forby == * [[Zen gairden]] == References == {{Reflist}} {{Commonscat}} [[Category:Buddhism| ]] {{Stub/Faith}} aanqpc798pvl14ui8sh89vkr7qp8ybb 0 1918 918755 913180 2026-06-24T23:45:34Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918755 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fix Scots|date=Januar 2021}} {{Infobox geopolitical organisation |name = {{collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;line-height:normal;font-size:84%; | title = {{resize|1.25em|European Union}} | {{Infobox |subbox=yes |bodystyle=font-size:77%;font-weight:normal; | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = [[Bulgarie leid|Bulgarie]]: | data1 = {{lang|bg|Европейски съюз}} | rowclass2 = mergedrow | label2 = [[Croatie leid|Croatie]]: | data2 = {{lang|hr|Europska unija}} | rowclass3 = mergedrow | label3 = [[Czech leid|Czech]]: | data3 = {{lang|cs|Evropská unie}} | rowclass4 = mergedrow | label4 = [[Dens leid|Dens]]: | data4 = {{lang|da|Den Europæiske Union}} | rowclass5 = mergedrow | label5 = [[Dutch leid|Dutch]]: | data5 = {{lang|nl|Europese Unie}} | rowclass6 = mergedrow | label6 = [[Estonie leid|Estonie]]: | data6 = {{lang|et|Euroopa Liit}} | rowclass7 = mergedrow | label7 = [[Finnish leid|Finnish]]: | data7 = {{lang|fi|Euroopan unioni}} | rowclass8 = mergedrow | label8 = [[French leid|French]]: | data8 = {{lang|fr|Union européenne}} | rowclass9 = mergedrow | label9 = [[German leid|German]]: | data9 = {{lang|de|Europäische Union}} | rowclass10 = mergedrow | label10 = [[Greek leid|Greek]]: | data10 = {{lang|el|Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση}} | rowclass11 = mergedrow | label11 = [[Hungarian leid|Hungarian]]: | data11 = {{lang|hu|Európai Unió}} | rowclass12 = mergedrow | label12 = [[Erse leid|Erse]]: | data12 = {{lang|ga|An tAontas Eorpach}} | rowclass13 = mergedrow | label13 = [[Italian leid|Italian]]: | data13 = {{lang|it|Unione europea}} | rowclass14 = mergedrow | label14 = [[Latvie leid|Latvie]]: | data14 = {{lang|lv|Eiropas Savienība}} | rowclass15 = mergedrow | label15 = [[Lithuanie leid|Lithuanie]]: | data15 = {{lang|lt|Europos Sąjunga}} | rowclass16 = mergedrow | label16 = [[Maltese leid|Maltese]]: | data16 = {{lang|mt|Unjoni Ewropea}} | rowclass17 = mergedrow | label17 = [[Pols leid|Pols]]: | data17 = {{lang|pl|Unia Europejska}} | rowclass18 = mergedrow | label18 = [[Portuguese leid|Portuguese]]: | data18 = {{lang|pt|União Europeia}} | rowclass19 = mergedrow | label19 = [[Romanie leid|Romanie]]: | data19 = {{lang|ro|Uniunea Europeană}} | rowclass20 = mergedrow | label20 = [[Slovak leid|Slovak]]: | data20 = {{lang|sk|Európska únia}} | rowclass21 = mergedrow | label21 = [[Slovene leid|Slovene]]: | data21 = {{lang|sl|Evropska unija}} | rowclass22 = mergedrow | label22 = [[Spaingie leid|Spaingie]]: | data22 = {{lang|es|Unión Europea}} | rowclass23 = mergedrow | label23 = [[Swadish leid|Swadish]]: | data23 = {{lang|sv|Europeiska unionen}} }} }} |common_name = the European Union |linking_name = the European Union |image_flag = Flag of Europe.svg |alt_flag = Circle o 12 gowd starns on a blue backgrund |motto = {{native phrase|la|"[[Motto o the European Union|In Varietate Concordia]]"|nbsp=omit|nolink=on|italics=off|parensize=90%}} |englishmotto = "United in Diversity" |anthem = "[[Anthem o Europe|Ode tae Joy]]" {{small|(orchestral)}} [[File:Anthem of Europe (US Navy instrumental short version).ogg|center]] |image_map = {{#ifexpr:{{#time: xNU }}>1553900400|Global European Union 2019.svg|Global European Union.svg}} |map_width = 220px |alt_map = Globe projection wi the European Union in green |map_caption = |image_map2= {{collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;line-height:normal;font-weight:normal;font-size:11px; | title = Location of the European Union,<br /> its [[Special member state territories an the European Union#Ootermaist regions|ootermaist regions]],<br /> an the [[Special member state territories an the European Union#Owerseas kintras an territories|owerseas kintras an territories]] | [[File:EU OCT and OMR map en.png|center|frameless|upright=1.15]] }} |capital = [[Ceety o Brussels|Brussels]] (''[[Brussels an the European Union|de facto]]'')<ref name=capital>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?ireld=qb6NAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA64|title=Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture|year=2013|first=Roman Adrian|last=Cybriwsky|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|quote=Brussels, the capital of Belgium, is considered to be the de facto capital of the EU|isbn=978-1-61069-248-9}}</ref> |coordinates = |largest_settlement = [[Paris]] |largest_settlement_type = ceety |official_languages = {{collapsible list |framestyle = text-align:left;border:0;padding:0;line-height:16px; |titlestyle = background:transparent;font-weight:normal; |title = [[Leids o the European Union|24 leids]]{{efn|The 24 leids are equally offeecial an acceptit as wirkin leids. Houiver, anerly three o them – Inglish, French an German – hae the heicher status o ''procedural leids'' an are uised in the day-tae-day wirkins o the European institutions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-13-825_en.htm|title=European Commission – Frequently asked questions on languages in Europe|website=europa.eu}}</ref>}} |hlist = true |[[Bulgarie leid|Bulgarie]] |[[Croatie leid|Croatie]] |[[Czech leid|Czech]] |[[Dens leid|Dens]] |[[Dutch leid|Dutch]] |[[Inglis leid|Inglis]] |[[Estonie leid|Estonie]] |[[Finnish leid|Finnish]] |[[French leid|French]] |[[German leid|German]] |[[Greek leid|Greek]] |[[Hungarian leid|Hungarian]] |[[Erse leid|Erse]] |[[Italian leid|Italian]] |[[Latvie leid|Latvie]] |[[Lithuanie leid|Lithuanie]] |[[Maltese leid|Maltese]] |[[Pols leid|Polish]] |[[Portuguese leid|Portuguese]] |[[Romanie leid|Romanie]] |[[Slovak leid|Slovak]] |[[Slovene leid|Slovene]] |[[Spaingie leid|Spaingie]] |[[Swadish leid|Swadish]] }} |languages_type = Offeecial scripts<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-07-330_en.pdf|title=Cyrillic, the third official alphabet of the EU, was created by a truly multilingual European|date=24 May 2007|website=europe.eu|author1=Leonard Orban|accessdate=3 August 2014}}</ref> |languages = {{hlist |[[Laitin alphabet|Latin]] |[[Greek alphabet|Greek]] |[[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]]}} |religion_year = |religion = {{unbulleted list |style=white-space:nowrap;line-height:16px; | 71.6% [[Christianity]] | {{unbulleted list |style=font-size:90%;margin-left:1em | 45.3% [[Catholicism in Europe|Roman Catholic]] | 11.1% [[Protestantism in Europe|Protestant]] | 9.6% [[Eastren Orthodox Kirk|Eastren Orthodox]] | 5.6% [[Christianity in Europe|ither Christian]] }} | 24% [[Releegion in Europe#Atheism an Agnosticism|Na releegion]] | 1.8% [[Islam in Europe|Muslim]] | 2.6% [[Releegion in the European Union|ither faiths]]<ref name="EB2015">{{citation |title=DISCRIMINATION IN THE EU IN 2015 |work=[[Eurobarometer|Special Eurobarometer]] |year=2015 |series=437 |url=http://zacat.gesis.org/webview/index.jsp?v=2&previousmode=table&stubs=V294&weights=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfVariable%2FZA6595_V499&V294subset=1+-+12&analysismode=table&study=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfStudy%2FZA6595&V294slice=1&gs=7&mode=table&top=yes |accessdate=15 October 2017 |publisher=[[European Commission]] |location=European Union |via=[[GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences|GESIS]] |archive-date=2019-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217123906/https://zacat.gesis.org/webview/index.jsp?v=2&previousmode=table&stubs=V294&weights=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfVariable%2FZA6595_V499&V294subset=1+-+12&analysismode=table&study=http%3A%2F%2F193.175.238.79%3A80%2Fobj%2FfStudy%2FZA6595&V294slice=1&gs=7&mode=table&top=yes |url-status=dead }}</ref> }} |demonym = [[Ceetizenship o the European Union|European]]<ref name="OED">''The [[New Oxford American Dictionary]]'', Second Edn., [[Erin McKean]] (editor), 2051 pages, 2005, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-517077-6}}.</ref> |org_type = [[Poleetical union|Poleetical]] an [[economic union]] |membership_type = Member states |membership = {{collapsible list |framestyle = text-align:left;border:0;padding:0;line-height:16px;white-space:nowrap; |titlestyle = background:transparent;font-weight:normal; |title = [[Member state o the European Union|27 states]] |{{flaglist|Austrick}} |{{flaglist|Belgium|state}} |{{flaglist|Bulgarie}} |{{flaglist|Croatie}} |{{flaglist|Cyprus}} |{{flaglist|Czech Republic}} |{{flaglist|Denmark}} |{{flaglist|Estonie}} |{{flaglist|Finland}} |{{flaglist|Fraunce}} |{{flaglist|Germany}} |{{flaglist|Greece}} |{{flaglist|Hungary}} |{{flaglist|Ireland}} |{{flaglist|Italy}} |{{flaglist|Latvie}} |{{flaglist|Lithuanie}} |{{flaglist|Luxembourg}} |{{flaglist|Maltae}} |{{flaglist|Netherlands}} |{{flaglist|Poland}} |{{flaglist|Portugal}} |{{flaglist|Romanie}} |{{flaglist|Slovakie}} |{{flaglist|Slovenie}} |{{flaglist|Spain}} |{{flaglist|Swaden}} }} |government_type = [[Supranaitional union|Supranaitional]] an [[intergovrenmentalism|intergovrenmental]] |leader_title1 = [[Preses o the European Cooncil|Preses o the Cooncil]] |leader_name1 = [[Charles Michel]] |leader_title2 = [[Preses o the European Pairlament|Preses o the Pairlament]] |leader_name2 = [[David Sassoli]] |leader_title3 = [[Preses o the European Commission|Preses o the Commission]] |leader_name3 = [[Ursula von der Leyen]] |legislature = {{ublist|[[Cooncil o the European Union|Cooncil o the EU]]|[[European Pairlament]]}} |sovereignty_type = [[History o the European Union|Formation]]<ref>Current Article 1 of the [[Treaty o Maastricht|Treaty on European Union]] reads: "The Union sall be foondit on the present Treaty an on the [[Treaty o Roum|Treaty on the Functionin o the European Union]]. Thae [[Treaties o the EU|twa Treaties]] sall hae the same legal vailyie. The Union sall replace an succeed the [[European Community]]".</ref> |established_event1 = [[Treaty o Roum]] |established_date1 = 1 Januar 1958 |established_event2 = <span style=white-space:nowrap;><!--NOTE: [[Template:Nowrap]] is ignored on mobile.-->[[Maastricht Treaty|Treaty o Maastricht]]</span> |established_date2 = 1 November 1993 |established_event3 = [[Treaty o Lisbon]] |established_date3 = 1 December 2009 |established_event4 = [[2013 enlairgement o the European Union|Last polity admittit]] |established_date4 = 1 Julie 2013 |area_km2 = 4,475,757<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_sq_mi = {{Convert|4,475,757|km2|sqmi|disp=number}}<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 3.08 |population_estimate ={{increase}} 512,596,403<ref name="population">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/9063738/3-10072018-BP-EN.pdf/ccdfc838-d909-4fd8-b3f9-db0d65ea457f|title=Eurostat {{ndash}} Population on 1 January 2018|publisher=[[European Commission]]|accessdate=13 July 2018}}</ref> |population_estimate_year = 2018 |population_estimate_rank = 3rd |population_density_km2 = 117.3<!--512,596,403 / 4,381,376km2 = 117.3 people/km2 (1 January 2018)--> |population_density_sq_mi = 306.5<!--512,596,403 / 1,669,807sq_mi = 306.5 people/sq_mi (1 January 2018)--> |population_density_rank = |GDP_PPP = $23.0 trillion<ref name="imf.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=42&pr.y=2&sy=2019&ey=2023&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=998&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=1&a=1 | title=IMF World Economic Outlook Database, October 2018 |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=22 December 2016}}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = 2nt<!--According to IMF World Economic Outlook Database, October 2017, China's 2017 PPP GDP is $23.07 trillion, while the United States' is $19.38 trillion, ranking the EU second to China.--> |GDP_PPP_year = 2019 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $44,854<ref name="imf.org"/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = <!--18th--> |GDP_nominal = $19.1 trillion<ref name="imf.org"/> |GDP_nominal_rank = 2nt<!--According to IMF World Economic Outlook Database, October 2017, China's 2017 nominal GDP is $12.36 trillion, while the United States' is $19.38 trillion, ranking the EU second to the United States.--> |GDP_nominal_year = 2019 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $37,360<ref name="imf">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=68&pr.y=11&sy=2015&ey=2015&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=998&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=1&a=1|title=IMF World Economic Outlook Database, April 2016 |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=17 April 2016}}</ref><!--Figure not published by IMF, calculated by dividing 19,150,000,000,000 (2019 GDP) by 512,596,403 (2018 population)--> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = <!--15th--> |Gini_year = 2016 |Gini_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady--> |Gini = 30.8<!--number only--> |Gini_ref =<ref name="eurogini">{{cite web |title=Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income (source: SILC) |url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=ilc_di12 |publisher=Eurostat Data Explorer |accessdate=12 February 2017 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045123/http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=ilc_di12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |Gini_rank = <!--16th--> |HDI_year = 2017 |HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> |HDI = 0.899 <!--number only--> |HDI_ref = {{efn|Calculatit uisin UNDP data for the member states wi wechtit population.<ref name="UN">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/HDI|title=Human Development Report 2018 Summary|publisher=The United Nations|accessdate=19 March 2018}}</ref>}} |HDI_rank = <!--13th / 27th--> |currency = [[Euro]] ([[ISO 4217|EUR]]; [[€]]; in [[eurozone]]) an {{collapsible list |framestyle = text-align:left;border:0;padding:0;line-height:16px; |titlestyle = background:transparent;font-weight:normal; |title = 10 ithers |[[Bulgarie lev|Lev]] (BGN; Bulgarie) |[[Czech koruna|Koruna]] (CZK; Czech Republic) |[[Dens krone|Krone]] (DKK; Denmark) |[[Poond sterling]] (GBP; Unitit Kinrick) |[[Gibraltar poond]] (GIP; Gibraltar) |[[Croatie kuna|Kuna]] (HRK; Croatie) |[[Hungarian forint|Forint]] (HUF; Hungary) |[[Pols złoty|Złoty]] (PLN; Poland) |[[Romanie leu|Leu]] (RON; Romanie) |[[Swadish krona|Krona]] (SEK; Swaden) }} |time_zone = [[Wastren European Time|WET]], [[Central European Time|CET]], [[Eastren European Time|EET]] |utc_offset = <!--NOTE:No offset-->&nbsp;to&nbsp;UTC+2 |time_zone_DST = [[Wastren European Simmer Time|WEST]], [[Central European Simmer Time|CEST]], [[Eastren European Simmer Time|EEST]] |utc_offset_DST = +1&nbsp;to&nbsp;UTC+3 |DST_note = ''(see an aw [[Simmer Time in Europe]])''<br />{{smaller|Note: wi the exception o the Canary Islands an Madeira, the [[Special member state territories an the European Union#Ootermaist regions|ootermaist regions]] observe different time zones nae shawn.}}{{efn|[[Martinique]], [[Guadeloupe]] (UTC−4); [[French Guiana]] (UTC−3); [[Azores]] (UTC−1 / UTC); [[Mayotte]] (UTC+3); an [[La Réunion]] (UTC+4); that, ither than the Azores, dae nae observe DST.}} |date_format = dd/mm/yyyy ([[Anno Domini|AD]]/[[Common Era|CE]])<br />{{smaller|''See an aw: [[Date an time notation in Europe]]''}} |cctld = [[.eu]]{{efn|.eu is representative o the hale o the EU; member states an aw hae thair awn TLDs.}} |official_website = {{URL|europa.eu}} |area_rank=7t}} The '''European Union''' ('''EU''') is a group o 27 [[Member state o the European Union|memmer states]] that are locatit [[Ootermaist regions|primarily]] in [[Europe]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic information on the European Union|url=http://europa.eu/about-eu/basic-information/index_en.htm|work=European Union|publisher=europa.eu|accessdate=4 October 2012|archive-date=2012-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929023300/http://europa.eu/about-eu/basic-information/index_en.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary |title=European |quote=5 b. spec. Designating a developing series of economic and political unions between certain countries of Europe from 1952 onwards, as '''''European Economic Community, European Community, European Union''''' |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/65099?redirectedFrom=European#eid |accessdate=3 October 2011}}</ref> The Union wis pitten thegither fir [[cultur]]al an [[economy|economic]] ettils. Monie kintras in the Union bruiks the same siller, the ''[[euro]]''. The EU traces its origins frae the [[European Coal an Steel Community]] (ECSC) an the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC), formed bi the [[Inner Sax]] kintras in 1951 and 1958, respectively. In the intervenin years the commonty an its successors hae grown in size bi [[enlairgement o the European Union|the accession o new member states]] an in pouer bi the addeetion o policy auries tae its remit. The [[Maastricht Treaty]] established the European Union unner its current name in 1993.<ref name="EU1993">{{cite book|last=Craig|first=Paul|coauthors=Grainne De Burca , P. P. Craig|title=EU Law: Text, Cases and Materials|url=https://archive.org/details/eulawtextcasesma0000crai_w8o5|edition=4th|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-927389-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/eulawtextcasesma0000crai_w8o5/page/15 15]}}; {{cite web|title=Treaty of Maastricht on European Union|url=http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/economic_and_monetary_affairs/institutional_and_economic_framework/treaties_maastricht_en.htm|work=Activities of the European Union|publisher=Europa web portal|accessdate=20 October 2007}}</ref> The latest major amendment tae the constitutional basis o the EU, the [[Treaty o Lisbon]], came intae force in 2009. The EU haes developed a [[single market]] throu a standardised seestem o laws that apply in aw member states. Within the [[Schengen Aurie]] (which includes 22 EU an 4 non-EU states) passport controls hae been abolished.<ref name="Internal borders">{{cite web |title=Schengen area|publisher=Europa web portal |url=http://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/policies/borders/borders_schengen_en.htm|accessdate=8 September 2010}}</ref> EU policies aim tae ensur the [[Internal market|free movement o fowk, guids, services, an caipital]],<ref name="Europa Internal Market">{{cite web|title=The EU Single Market: Fewer barriers, more opportunities|publisher=Europa web portal|author=European Commission|url=http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/index_en.htm|accessdate=27 September 2007}}<br/>{{cite web|title=Activities of the European Union: Internal Market|publisher=Europa web portal|url=http://europa.eu/pol/singl/index_en.htm|accessdate=29 June 2007}}</ref> enact legislation in juistice an home affairs, an maintain common policies on trade,<ref>{{cite web|title=Common commercial policy|url=http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/commercial_policy_en.htm|work=Europa Glossary|publisher=Europa web portal|accessdate=6 September 2008|archive-date=2009-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116092625/http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/commercial_policy_en.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Common Agricultural Policy|agricultur]],<ref>{{cite web|publisher=The Council of the European Union|title=Agriculture and Fisheries Council|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/policies/council-configurations/agriculture-and-fisheries|accessdate=3 June 2013|archive-date=2014-03-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311075105/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/policies/council-configurations/agriculture-and-fisheries|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Common Fisheries Policy|fisheries]], an [[Regional policy o the European Union|regional development]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Regional Policy Inforegio |url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/index_en.cfm|publisher=Europa web portal |accessdate=3 June 2013}}</ref> The [[eurozone|monetary union]] wis established in 1999 and came intae full force in 2002. Hit is currently componed o 18 member states that uise the euro as thair legal tender. Throu the [[Common Foreign an Security Policy]] the EU haes developed a role in [[Foreign relations o the European Union|freemit relations]] an [[Militar o the European Union|defence]]. The union maintains permanent [[Leet o diplomatic missions o the European Union|diplomatic missions]] throughout the warld an represents itself at the [[European Union and the Unitit Naitions|Unitit Naitions]], the [[Warld Tred Organisation|WTO]], the [[European Union an the G8|G8]], an the [[G-20 major economies|G-20]]. The EU is considered bi mony tae be a [[potential superpouer]]. Wi a combined population o ower 500&nbsp;million indwallers,<ref name="population"/> or 7.3% o the warld population,<ref>{{cite web|title=European Union reaches 500 Million through Combination of Accessions, Migration and Natural Growth|publisher=Vienna Institute of Demography|url=http://www.oeaw.ac.at/vid/datasheet/EU_reaches_500_Mill.shtml}}</ref> the EU in 2012 generatit a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) o 16.584 trillion US dollars, constitutin approximately 23% o global [[Leet o kintras bi GDP (nominal)|nominal GDP]] an 20% when measured in terms o [[purchasin pouer parity]], which is the lairgest nominal GDP an GDP PPP in the warld.<ref name="2011-IMG-GDP">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2013/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=39&pr.y=13&sy=2013&ey=2013&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=998&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=1&a=1 |date=October 2013 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2013 Edition |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> The EU wis the recipient o the [[2012 Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref>{{cite news |title=EU collects Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo |date=10 December 2012 |newspaper=British Broadcasting Corporation |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20664167 |accessdate=3 June 2013}}</ref> == Memmer states == [[File:EU Member states and Candidate countries map.svg|left|250px]] Memmers o the EU:<ref>{{cite web|title=European Countries|url=http://europa.eu/abc/european_countries/index_en.htm|publisher=Europa web portal|accessdate=18 September 2010}}</ref> {{columns |col1 = * [[Austrick]]⁵⁾ * [[Belgium]]¹⁾ * [[Bulgarie]]⁷⁾ * [[Croatie]]⁸⁾ * [[Cyprus]]⁶⁾ * [[Czechie]]⁶⁾ * [[Denmark]]²⁾ * [[Estonie]]⁶⁾ * [[Finland]]⁵⁾ |col2 = * [[Fraunce]]¹⁾ * [[Germany]]¹⁾ * [[Greece]]³⁾ * [[Hungary]]⁶⁾ * [[Irland]]²⁾ * [[Italy]]¹⁾ * [[Latvie]]⁶⁾ * [[Lithuanie]]⁶⁾ * [[Luxembourg]]¹⁾ |col3 = * [[Maltae]]⁶⁾ * [[Netherlands]]¹⁾ * [[Poland]]⁶⁾ * [[Portugal]]⁴⁾ * [[Romanie]]⁷⁾ * [[Slovakie]]⁶⁾ * [[Slovenie]]⁶⁾ * [[Spain]]⁴⁾ * [[Swaden]]⁵⁾ }} Yeir o ingang: ¹⁾1958 (founders), ²⁾1973, ³⁾1981, ⁴⁾1986, ⁵⁾1995, ⁶⁾2004, ⁷⁾2007, ⁸⁾2013. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Eftir the cumin thegither o Germany in 1990, the umwhyl territorie o the [[Aest Germany|GDR]] jyn'd the European Union. [[Croatie]] wul lyk jyn the EU in 2009, [[North Macedonie]] wis makkit a candidate kintra in 2006, an [[Turkey]] haes been a canidate kintra in 1999 altho thay didna corrieneuch till 2005. As o 31st o January 2020 the Uniteet Kinrik isnae longer pairt o the European Union. == Leids o the European Union == === Offeicial leids o the European Union === The syn in the ingang o the [[European Pairliament]] biggin in [[Brussels]] is written in the 20 [[offeecial leid]]s bruikit in the European Union as o Julie 2006. The offeicial leids o the European Union, as stipulatit in the amendit EEC Council: Regulation Nummer 1 determinin the leids ti be bruikit bi the European Economic Communitie o 1958-04-15,<ref>[http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31958R0001:EN:NOT Council Regulation (EC) No 1791/2006 of 20 November 2006], ''Official Journal L 363 of December 12, 2006''. Retrieved on 2t Februar, 2007.</ref> ar: [http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/index_en.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619124053/http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/index_en.html |date=2006-06-19 }} {{columns |col1 = * [[Bulgarie leid|Bulgarie]] * [[Croatie leid|Croatie]] * [[Czech leid|Czech]] * [[Dens leid|Dens]] * [[Dutch leid|Dutch]] * [[Inglis leid|Inglis]] * [[Estonie leid|Estonie]] * [[Finnish leid|Finnish]] |col2 = * [[French leid|French]] * [[German leid|German]] * [[Greek leid|Greek]] * [[Hungarian leid|Hungarian]] * [[Italian leid|Italian]] * [[Erse leid|Erse]] * [[Latvian leid|Latvian]] * [[Lithuanie leid|Lithuanie]] |col3 = * [[Maltese leid|Maltese]] * [[Polish leid|Polish]] * [[Portuguese leid|Portuguese]] * [[Romanie leid|Romanie]] * [[Slovak leid|Slovak]] * [[Slovenie leid|Slovenie]] * [[Spaingie leid|Spaingie]] * [[Swadish leid|Swadish]] }} No aw naitional offeicial leids haes bin grantit the status o offeicial leids o the EU. [[Luxembourgish leid|Luxembourgish]], an offeecial leid o [[Luxembourg]] syn 1984, haesna. Nor haes [[Turkis leid|Turkis]], an offeecial leid o [[Cyprus]]. === Regional an minoritie leids === Thar's monie mair leids that 's recognised bi the EU (in fak its the [http://www.coe.int/ Cooncil o Europe], a different organization) as "Regional an Minority Leids". Thir includes the [[Scots leid]] an the [[Scots Gaelic leid]] as regional leids. ==Siller== The creation o a [[European Currency Unit|European single siller]] acame an offeecial objective o the European Economic Community in 1969. Houiver, it wis anly wi the advent o the [[Maastricht Treaty]] in 1993 that member states wur legally boond tae stairt the [[Siller union|monetary union]] no later nor 1 Januar 1999. On this date the euro wis duly [[History o the euro|launched bi eleven]] o the then 15 member states o the EU. It remained an accoontin currency till 1 Januar 2002, when [[euro banknotes|euro notes]] an coins wur issued an naitional currencies began tae phase oot in the eurozone, which bi then consisted o 12 member states. The eurozone (constituted bi the EU member states which hae adoptit the euro) haes syne grown tae 18 kintras, the maist recent bein Latvie which jyned on 1 Januar 2014. Aw ither EU member states, except Denmark<!-- Nae langer a member: an the Unitit Kinrick --> are legally boond tae jyn the euro<ref>{{cite news |title=Almunia says 'undesirable' to act on Sweden's euro refusal |first1=Teresa |last1=Kuchler |publisher=EUobserver.com |date=25 October 2006 |url=http://euobserver.com/9/22733 |accessdate=26 December 2006 |archive-date=2009-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211132152/http://euobserver.com/9/22733 |url-status=dead }}</ref> when the [[Euro convergence criteria|convergence criteria]] are met, houiver anly a few kintras hae set target dates fir accession. Swaden haes circumventit the requirement tae jyn the euro bi nae meetin the membership criteria.<ref group="lower-alpha">In order tae meet the euro convergence criteria it is necessary first tae jyn the [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]], somethin Swaden haes declined tae dae: {{cite web |title=ERM II |publisher=Danish Finance Ministry |date=20 March 2009 |url=http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx |accessdate=26 December 2009 |archive-date=2011-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183816/http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Criticism (Euroscepticism)==<!-- "Euroscepticism" reguides tae this airtin; dinnae remuiv athoot consensus --> A bodie thit is critical o the European Union mey be callit a '''Eurosceptic'''. Sic fowk mey oppone membership ootricht (''hard Euroscepticism''), or juist be critical o wee aspects o the bloc (''soft Euroscepticism''). [[Euroscepticism in the Unitit Kinrick]] is maistlins ''hard'', an can be seen bi the rise o the [[UK Unthirldom Pairty|UK Independence Party]] (UKIP) an [[Brexit]].<ref>Leconte, Cécile. ''Understanding euroscepticism''. Macmillan international Higher Education, 2010.</ref> == See an aa == *[[Memmer o the European Pairlament]] (MEP) ==Notes== <references group="lower-alpha"/> == References == <references/> == Fremmit airtins == * [http://europa.eu/ European Union yett, in mony leids] * [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/ European Pairlament yett, in mony leids] {{Commonscat}} {{authority control}} [[Category:European Union| ]]<!--leave the empty space as standard--> [[Category:Federalism]] [[Category:G20 naitions]] [[Category:Internaitional organisations o Europe]] [[Category:Organisations awairdit Nobel Peace Prizes]] [[Category:Organisations established in 1993]] [[Category:Poleetical seestems]] [[Category:Unitit Naitions General Assembly observers]] [[Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates]] afyndrffjsvt8vbx2kpoj3angepuewm 0 4345 918767 895076 2026-06-25T01:38:52Z ~2026-36683-96 133396 918767 wikitext text/x-wiki The '''Glesga dialect''', aften caud the '''Glesga patter''' or '''Gleswegian''', is a form o Anglic at varies frae the local form o West [[Central Scots]] at ae end o a bipolar linguistic continuum, an [[Scots Inglis]] on the ither aen. The spaek o a lot o [[Glesga]] fowk is saed ti be on a continuum atween ful Scots an standart English. Forby, the Glesga dialect haes influens frae [[Hieland Inglis]] an Hiberno-Inglis<ref>{{Citation|last=Menzies|first=Janet|title=An Investigation of Attitudes to Scots|url=http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/STELLA/STARN/lang/MENZIES/menzie1.htm|work=Scottish Language|volume=10|pages=30–46|year=1991|access-date=2022-01-18|archive-date=2020-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111215204/https://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/STELLA/STARN/lang/MENZIES/menzie1.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> wi au the fowk frae the [[Scots Hielands|Hielands]] an Irladn at a lot o thaim flittit til Glesga in the 19th an airlie 20t centuries.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fraser|first=W. Hamish|title=Glasgow: Volume II: 1830-1912|last2=Thomas Martin Devine|last3=Gordon Jackson|last4=Irene Maver|publisher=[[Manchester University Press]]|year=1997|isbn=978-0-7190-3692-7|pages=149–150}}</ref> Autho cryed efter Glesga, fowk frae the hael Graeter Glesga eria aften spaeks the saem dialek & accent. Maist spaekers is wirkin cless fowk, an this can laed ti stigma frae fowk frae ither clesses or ootwi Glesga. Liyk ither forms o Anglic, it's been affekit bi dialek levelin whaur mair partiecularlie [[Modren Scots]] wirds is replaced wi Standart Inglis aens as weel as aens frae colloquial Inglis. Houaniver, Glesga fowk is cuman up wi new euphemisms an tae-naems for weel-kent local figurs an biggins yet. == Lieteratur == Glesga spaek haes lang been estaiblisht in [[Scots leeteratur]]. A lot o fowk wriytan in Glesga uises baith tradietional an ee-dialek spellins. Whiyls the spaek is written in a wey at's meint ti mak it seem gey unintellijibel ti fowk frae ither pairts.<ref name="auto">Macafee C.I. (1983) ‘Glasgow’ in Varieties of English around the World. Amsterdam: Benjamins p.40</ref> [[John Joy Bell|J. J. Bell]] wrat a series beuks in the airlie 1900s set in Glesga caud ''[[Wee Macgreegor|Wee MacGreegor]]'' at follaes the liyfs o the Robison faimilie. Michael Munro wrat a giyd ti Glesga spaek caud ''The Patter'', first pitten oot in 1985. Wi drauins bi David Neilson, an siyn the [[Paisley]]-born airtist an play-wriyter John Byrne, the beuk cam ti be weel-liykit in Glesga. It wis follaed bi ''The Patter - Another Blast'' in 1988, wi ''The Complete Patter'', a updaetit collektion o the first an seicont beuks, bean pit oot in 1996. A lot o James Kelman's 1994 novel ''How Late It Was, How Late'' is written in Glegsa spaek frae the puynt o view o Sammy Samuels, a 38-yier-auld ex-convik at waukens up blind efter drinkan a lot an fechtan wi the polis. The novel wan the 1994 Booker Prize. Jamie Stuart, a [[The Kirk|Kirk o Scotland]] elder frae the Hiech Carntyne Kirk, maed "A Glasgow Bible" in 1997, an it haes sum biblical taels in Glesga spaek. In 2014 ''[[Alice's Adventirs in Wunnerlaun|Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' wis translaetit inti Glesga Scots bi Thomas Clark as ''Alice's Adventirs in Wunnerlaun''. A 2020 Graeme Armstrong novel, ''The Young Team'', narraetit bi a gang memmer in the Glesga dialek, focuses on the '[[Ned|ned culture]]' o the eria in the airlie 21st centurie (autho it's set in [[Airdrie, North Lanrikshire]] a pukkel miyls ti the eist o Glesga an no in the toun itsel). == Phonolojie == Jane Stuart-Smith contriebuetit a chaipter ti the 1999 beuk ''Urban Voices'' cryed "Glasgow: accent and voice quality". She defiynt twa varieties for descriptiv etlins: * Glesgs Standart Inglis (GSE), the Glesga form o [[Scots Inglis]], spoken bi maist middel-cless spaekers * Glesga vernacular (GV), the dialek o a lot o wirkin-cless spaekers, at's historicalie baesed on Wast-Central [[Scots]] an shaus strang influenses frae Irish Inglis, its ain distinctiv [[slang]] an mair chiynjes in the airt o GSE Differs atween the twa siestems is maistlie lexical. A lot o wirkin-cless spaekers uises the SSE siestem whan readan lood oot, tho thay hae different qualities for the vowels. The taebel ablo shaus the vowels uised in baith variants, as gien in Taebel 11.1 o Stuart-Smith's wark. {| class="wikitable" !Lexical set !GSE !GV |- |KIT |ɪ |ɪ̈ ~ i |- |DRESS |ɛ |ɛ |- |HEAD |ɛ |i |- |NEVER |ɛ ~ ɛ̈ |ɪ̈ |- |TRAP |a̠ |a̠ |- |STAND |a̠ |ɔ |- |LOT |ɔ |o |- |STRUT |ʌ̈ |ʌ̈ |- |FOOT |ʉ |ɪ̈ ~ ɪ |- |BATH |a̠ |a̠ |- |AFTER |a̠ |ɛ |- |CLOTH |ɔ |o |- |OFF |ɔ |a̠ |- |NURSE |ʌ̈ |ʌ̈ ~ ɪ |- |FLEECE |ï ~ i̠ |i ~ i̠ |- |FACE |e |e |- |STAY |e |e ~ ʌi |- |PALM |a̠ |a̠ |- |THOUGHT |ɔ |o |- |GOAT |o |o |- |MORE |o |e |- |GOOSE |ʉ |ʉ |- |DO |ʉ |e |- |PRICE |ʌi |ʌi |- |PRIZE |ae |ae |- |CHOICE |ɔe |ɔe |- |MOUTH |ʌʉ |ʉ |- |NEAR |i |i |- |SQUARE |e |ɛ ~ e |- |START |a̠ |e |- |BIRTH |ɪ |ɪ̈ ~ ʌ̈ |- |BERTH |ɛ |ɛ ~ ɪ |- |NORTH |ɔ |o |- |FORCE |o |o |- |CURE |jʉ |jʉ |- |happY |e |e ~ ɪ̈ |- |lettER |ɪ̈ ~ ʌ̈ |ʌ̈ |- |horsES |ɪ |ɪ̈ ~ ʌ̈ |- |commA |ʌ̈ |ʌ̈ |} Stuart-Smith gied the follaean summarie o hou consonants in Glesga spaek is different frae ither dialeks an au. * T-glottalization is "gey stigmatiyzed yet gey common". P an K gets glottaliyzed tui, tho no sae aften as T dis. * {{IPA|d}} an {{IPA|t}} can be pronunsed wi [[Dentalisation|dentalisaetion]]. {{IPA|d}} is whiyls drappit at the end o a wird in the clusters LD & ND (e.g. ''auld'', ''staund''). * Sum yunger spaekers haes TH-frontin. * {{IPA|x}} is uised in wirds lik ''loch'', autho this is deean oot amang yunger spaekers. * {{IPA|ʍ}} is uised in wirds beginnan wi "wh" (e.g. ''whine''), autho this is deean oot amang yunger spaekers. * Thaer's nae H-drappan excep in unstresst caeses o ''him'' an ''her''. * Yod-drappan juist happens efter {{IPA|l}} or {{IPA|s}}. * Maist Glesga spaek is rhotic, but non-rhoticitie can be fund amang sum yunger wirkin-cless spaekers. The realisaetion o /r/ can be {{IPA|ɹ}}, {{IPA|ɻ}} or {{IPA|r}}. * {{IPA|l}} is a [[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants#Velarized alveolar lateral approximant|daurk ''l'']] in gey near au posietions. == References == <references />   == Fremmit airtins == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150514183957/http://www.glesga.ndo.co.uk/glesgaglossary.htm Glesca Glossary: self-published glossary (o variable quality an pertinence)] * [http://www.scots-online.org/grammar/glasgow.htm Glesga byleid] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227110346/http://www.scots-online.org/grammar/glasgow.htm |date=2021-02-27 }} * [http://www.scotslanguage.com/books/view/55/1402/The%20Invisible%20Language A series o airticles on Gleswegian on the Scots Language Centre wabsteid] * [http://www.lexiconplanet.com/wklyscreenpatter_eng.html Lexicon Planet, featurin excerpts fae ''The Patter''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131084741/http://www.lexiconplanet.com/wklyscreenpatter_eng.html |date=2020-01-31 }} [[Category:Scots dialects]] [[Category:Scots Inglis]] [[Category:Cultur in Glesga]] [[Category:Leid airticles wi speaker nummer undatit]] 23jutx3nyckapvbbokjwkmbhobyhqlu 0 4567 918738 903913 2026-06-24T23:33:41Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918738 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Coord|25|S|133|E|type:country_region:AU_scale:20000000|display=title}} {{Infobox country |conventional_long_name = Commonwalth o Austrailie |common_name = Australie |image_flag = Flag of Australia (converted).svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Australia.svg |alt_coat = <!--alt text for coat of arms--> |national_anthem = "[[Advance Australia Fair]]"{{lower|0.2em|{{refn|Australie's [[ryal anthem]] is "[[God_Save_the_Queen|God Save the King]]", played in the presence o a member o the [[Hoose o Windsor|Ryal faimily]] whan thay are in Australie. In ither contexts, the [[naitional anthem]] o Australie, "[[Advance Australia Fair]]", is played.<ref>[http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/symbols/anthem.cfm It's an Honour – Symbols – Australian National Anthem] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109134834/http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/symbols/anthem.cfm |date=2007-11-09 }} and [http://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/corporate/protocol-guidelines/Pages/16-other-matters.aspx#163 DFAT – "Australian National Anthem"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923173124/http://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/corporate/protocol-guidelines/Pages/16-other-matters.aspx |date=23 September 2015 }}; {{cite book |title=Parliamentary Handbook of the Commonwealth of Australia |edition=29th |origyear=2002 |year=2005 |chapter=National Symbols |chapterurl=http://www.aph.gov.au/library/handbook/40thparl/national+symbols.pdf |accessdate=7 June 2007 |archive-date=2007-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611101901/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/handbook/40thparl/national+symbols.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>|name="anthem explanation"|group="N"}}<!--end lower:-->}}<br /><br /><center>[[File:U.S. Navy Band, Advance Australia Fair (instrumental).ogg]]</center> |image_map = Australia_with_AAT_(orthographic_projection).svg |map_width = 220px |alt_map = <!--alt text for map--> |capital = [[Canberra]] |coordinates = {{Coord|35|18|29|S|149|07|28|E|type:city_region:AU}} |largest_city = [[Sydney]] |languages_type = [[Naitional leid]] |languages = [[Inglis leid|Inglis]]{{refn|Inglis daes nae hae ''[[de jure]]'' status.<ref name=language>{{cite web |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm |title=Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies? |work=1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings, Sydney |publisher=[[Department of Immigration and Citizenship]] |accessdate=11 January 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220020910/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm |archivedate=2008-12-20 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy |url-status=dead }} "English has no de jure status but it is so entrenched as the common language that it is de facto the official language as well as the national language."</ref> |name="languages"|group="N"}} |demonym = {{hlist|[[Australiens|Australien]] <br />Australian <br />[[Aussie]] (colloquial)<ref>See entry in the [[Macquarie Dictionary]].</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=[[Collins English Dictionary]] |year=2009 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |location=Bishopbriggs, Glasgow |isbn=978-0-00-786171-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/collinsenglishdi0000unkn/page/n27 18] }}</ref><!--end hlist:-->}} |government_type = [[Federalism|Federal]] [[pairlamentary seestem|pairlamentary]]<br> [[constitutional monarchy]] |leader_title1 = [[Monarchy o Australie|Monarch]] |leader_name1 = [[Charles III]] |leader_title2 = {{nowrap|[[Govrenor-General o Australie|Govrenor-General]]}} |leader_name2 = [[Sam Mostyn]] |leader_title3 = [[Prime Meenister o Australie|Prime Meenister]] |leader_name3 = [[Anthony Albanese]] |leader_title4 = [[Chief Juistice o Australie|Chief Juistice]] |leader_name4 = [[Stephen Gageler]] |legislature = [[Pairlament o Australie|Pairlament]] |upper_house = [[Australien Senate|Senate]] |lower_house = [[Australien Hoose o Representatives|Hoose o Representatives]] |sovereignty_type = Unthirldom |sovereignty_note = frae the [[Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain an Ireland|Unitit Kinrick]] |established_event1 = [[Federation o Australie|Federation]], [[Constitution o Australie|Constitution]] |established_date1 = 1 Januar 1901 |established_event2 = [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|Statute of Westminster Adoption Act]] |established_date2 = {{nowrap|9 October 1942 {{small|(wi effect<br />frae 3 September 1939)}}}} |established_event3 = [[Austrailie Act 1986|Austrailie Act]] |established_date3 = 3 Mairch 1986 |area_km2 = 7692024 |area_rank = 6t |percent_water = 0.76 |population_estimate = {{data Australia|poptoday|formatnum}}<ref name="popclock">{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1647509ef7e25faaca2568a900154b63?OpenDocument|title=Population clock|work=Australian Bureau of Statistics website|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|accessdate=1 July 2017}} The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.</ref> |population_estimate_rank = 51st |population_estimate_year = {{CURRENTYEAR}} |population_census = 23,401,892<ref>{{Census 2016 AUS|id=036|name=Australia|accessdate=27 June 2017|quick=on}}</ref> |population_census_year = 2016 |population_density_km2 = {{#expr:{{Data Australia|poptoday}} / 7692024 round 1}} |population_density_rank = 236t |GDP_PPP = {{nowrap|$1.189 trillion<ref name=IMF>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=46&pr.y=10&sy=2016&ey=2020&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=193&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=Australia |publisher=International Monetary Fund |date=October 2016 |accessdate=1 October 2016}}</ref>}} |GDP_PPP_year = 2016 |GDP_PPP_rank = 19t |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $48,806<ref name=IMF/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 17t |GDP_nominal = {{nowrap|$1.257 trillion<ref name=IMF/>}} |GDP_nominal_year = 2016 |GDP_nominal_rank = 13t |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $51,593<ref name=IMF/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 9t |Gini = 33.6<!--number only--> |Gini_year = 2012 |Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> |Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|title=OECD Economic Surveys: Norway 2012|url=http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/economics/oecd-economic-surveys-norway-2012/gini-coefficients-before-and-after-taxes-and-transfers_eco_surveys-nor-2012-graph1-en#page1|access-date=2019-06-21|archive-date=2014-08-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812150611/http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/economics/oecd-economic-surveys-norway-2012/gini-coefficients-before-and-after-taxes-and-transfers_eco_surveys-nor-2012-graph1-en#page1|url-status=dead}}</ref> |Gini_rank = 19t |HDI = 0.939<!--number only--> |HDI_year = 2015<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> |HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> |HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_development_report.pdf |title=2016 Human Development Report |year=2016 |accessdate=23 March 2017 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> |HDI_rank = 2nt |currency = [[Austrailien dollar]] |currency_code = AUD |time_zone = [[Time in Austrailie|various]]<ref name="time" group="N">Thare are minor variations frae three basic time zones; see [[Time in Austrailie]].</ref> |utc_offset = +8 to +10.5 |utc_offset_DST = +8 to +11.5 |time_zone_DST = [[Time in Austrailie|various]]<ref name="time" group="N" /> |date_format = dd/mm/yyyy |drives_on = [[Richt- an caur-fist traffeck|caur]] |calling_code = [[+61]] |cctld = [[.au]] |area_magnitude = 1 E12 }} [[File:Australia (+overseas +Antarctica), administrative divisions - de - colored (zoom).svg|thumb|Territorial Organization]] [[File:SydneyOperaHouse.jpg|thumb|Sydney Opera]] '''Australie''' or '''Austrailie''',<ref>https://www.scots-online.org/mobile/dictionary/english_scots.php</ref> offeecially the '''Commonwalth o Australie''' ({{lang-en|Commonwealth of Australia|link=no}}, {{IPA-endia|əˈstɹæɪliːə|pronooncit}}, {{IPA-endia|əˈstɹæɪjə|}}, {{IPA-endia|əˈstɹɛliːə|}}), is a kintra situatit in the [[Soothren Hemisphere]] conseestin o the mainland o the [[Austrailie (continent)|Australien continent]] (the weest in the warld), the island o [[Tasmanie]] an puckle [[list o islands o Australie|wee islands]] in the [[Indien Ocean|Indien]] an [[Paceefic Ocean]]s. Neebourin kintras include [[Indonesie]], [[East Timor]] an [[Papua New Guinea]] til the north, the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]] an [[New Caledon]] til the northeast an [[New Zealand]] til the sootheast. Fer at least 40,000 years afore European dounset in the late 18t century, Australie wis wonet bi [[Indigenous Australiens]]. Australie's eastren hauf wis claimit bi [[Unitit Kinrick|Breetain]] in 1770 an ti stairt wi settelt throu [[penal transportation]] til the colony o [[New Sooth Wales]], foondit on 26 Januar 1788. The indwallers nummer grew conseestently in thae follaein years; the continent wis explorit an an eik o five, maistly self-govrenin [[Breetish owerseas territories|Croun Colonies]] war estaiblishit in the 19t century. On 1 Januar 1901, the sax colonies [[Federation o Australie|becam a federation]] an the Commonweel o Australie wis creatit. Syne Federation, Australie haes keepit a siccar [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] poleetical seestem an is a [[Commonweel kinrick]]. The nummer o indwellers is 26 million, wi aboot 60% in an aroond the mainland state caipitals o [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Perth, Austrailie|Perth]] an [[Adelaide]]. The naition's caipital ceety is [[Canberra]], locatit in the [[Australien Caipital Territory]]. == Etymology == Namit {{IPA|[[Australian English phonology|[əˈstɹæɪljə, -liə]]]}} in [[Australien Inglis]], comes frae the [[Laitin]] ''australis'', meanin "soothren". The kintra hae been cried ''Oz'' syne the early 20t century. ''[[Aussie]]'' is a name times uised ti refer ti the "Australien" fowk. Leegends o an "unbekent land o the sooth" (''[[Terra Australis|terra australis incognita]]'') hae been aroond syne the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times an wis aft seen in medieval cairts, but thae warnae o ony bekent continent. The wird ''Australie'' wis first uissit in Inglis in 1625, in "A note o Australia del Espíritu Santo, scrieved bi Master Hakluyt" an published bi [[Samuel Purchas]] in ''Hakluytus Posthumus''. The Duits adjecteeval form ''Australische'' wis ussit bi [[Dutch East Indie Company]] offeecials in [[Jakarta|Batavia]] ti refer ti the newlins discovered land til the sooth in 1638. ''Australie'' wis uised in a 1693 translation o ''Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe'', a 1676 French beuk bi [[Gabriel de Foigny]], unner the eik-name Jacques Sadeur. [[Alexander Dalrymple]] uissit hit in ''An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean'' (1771), whan refferin til the hail Sooth Paceefic region. In 1793, [[George Shaw]] an [[James Edward Smith|Sir James Smith]] scrieved ''Zoology and Botany of New Holland'', an spake o "the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or [[New Holland (Australie)|New Holland]]". The name ''Australie'' wis popularised bi [[Matthew Flinders]], wham pushit for the name ti be formally uissit as early as 1804. Whan reddin his manuscript an chairts for his 1814 ''[[A Voyage to Terra Australis]]'', he wis persuaded bi his patron, [[Joseph Banks|Sir Joseph Banks]], ti uiss the name ''Terra Australis'' as hit wis the name maist kent til the fowk. Flinders did sae, but forbye includit the fuitnote: {{quote|"Had I permitted myself any innovation on the original term, it would have been to convert it to Australia; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth."}} Hit wis the ae time in the beuk; but in Appendix III, [[Robert Brown (botanist)|Robert Brown]]'s ''[[General remarks, geographical and systematical, on the botany of Terra Australis]]'', Brown maks uiss o the adjectival form ''Australien'' throu the hail airticle, en is the first kent uiss o hit. [[Lachlan Macquarie]], a [[Govrenor o New Sooth Wales]], uissit the wird in his dispatches til Ingland, an on 12 December 1817 recommendit til the Colonial Office tha it be formally adoptit. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent shoud be kent offeecially as ''Australie''. == History == {{Main|History o Australie}} [[File:Endeavour replica in Cooktown harbour.jpg|left|thumb|alt=A three-mastit sailin ship wi its sails furled, sittin motionless on a body o watter. A beach an forestit hills are in the backgrund.|A replica o Lieutenant Cook's ship [[HMS Endeavour|HM Bark ''Endeavour'']] in [[Cooktown, Queensland|Cooktown]] Harbour]] Indwellen o Australie is estimatit ti hae stairt atween 42,000 an 48,000 year aby, mibbe wi the migration o fowk bi [[land brig]]s an short sea-crossins frae whit is nou [[Sootheast Asie]]. Thae fowk mey hae been sib til modren Indigenous Australiens. At the time of European dounset in the late 18t century, maist Indigenous Australiens war [[hunter-gaithrer]]s, wi a complex [[oral tradeetion|oral cultur]] an spiritual values basit on unnersaundin o the land an a belief in the [[Dreamtime]]. The [[Torres Kyle Islanders]], sib til the [[Melanesie]]n fowk, war oreeginally horticulturalists an hunter-gaithrers. The first screived European sichtin o the Australien continent an the first screived European landin on the Australien continent war bi the Dutchman [[Willem Janszoon]], wham sichtit the coast o [[Cape York Hauf-Island]] on an unkent day in early 1606; he landit on 26 Februar at the [[Pennefather River]] on the wastren shore o Cape York, near the modren toun o [[Weipa, Queensland|Weipa]]. The Dutch chairtit the hail o the wastren an northren coasts o "New Holland" in the 17t century. [[William Dampier]], an Inglish explorer/privateer landit on the northwast coast o Australie in 1688 an oweragain in 1699. In 1770, [[James Cook]] sailed alang an chairtit the east coast o Australie, an cried hit New Sooth Wales an claimit hit for [[Unitit Kinrick|Great Breetain]]. Hit wis Cook's wark tha prepared the wey for establishment o a new [[penal colony]]. The Breetish [[Breetish owerseas territories|Croun Colony]] o New Sooth Wales wis foondit on 26 Januar 1788, whan Captain [[Arthur Phillip]] led the [[First Fleet]] til [[Port Jackson]].> This date wis ti becam Australie's naitional day, [[Australie Day]]. [[Van Diemen's Land]], kent nou as Tasmanie, wis settlt in 1803 an becam a separate colony in 1825. The Unitit Kinrick formally claimit the wastren pairt o Australie in 1828. Ither colonies war pairtit frae New Sooth Wales: [[Sooth Australie]] in 1836, [[Victoria (Australie)|Victoria]] in 1851, an Queensland in 1859. The [[Northren Territory]] wis foondit in 1911 whan hit wis takken frae Sooth Australie. Sooth Australie wis foondit as a "free province"—it wis neer uissit as a penal colony. Victoria an Wastren Australie war an aa foondit "free", but later alloud [[convicts in Australie|convicts]]. A campaign bi the indwellers o New Sooth Wales led ti the end o convict transportation til tha colony; the last convict ship wis in 1848. [[File:Port Arthur Seeseite.jpg|thumb|240px|alt=A calm body o watter is in the foregrund. The shoreline is aboot 200 metres away. Tae the left, close tae the shore, are three taw [[gum tree]]s; ahint them on an incline are ruins, includin walls an watchtouers of licht-coloured stone an brick, what appear tae be the foondations o walls, an grassed auries. Tae the richt lie the ooter walls o a lairge rectangular fower-storey biggin dottit wi regularly spaced windaes. Forestit land rises gently tae a peak several kilometres back frae the shore.|[[Port Arthur, Tasmanie]] wis Australie's lairgest jyle for transportit convicts.]] The Indigenous Australien fowk, estimatit ti be 350,000 at the time o European dounset, dwyned steeply for 150 year thare efter, maistly ti infectious illness. The "[[Stealt Generations]]" (the takin o Aboriginal bairns frae thair kin) cud hae contributit ti the decline in the Indigenous fowk an aa. Sic interpretations o Aboriginal history arnae supportit bi conservative commentators an sic lik. The Federal govrenment gained the pouer ti mak laws for Aborigines ahint the [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|1967 referendum]]. Tradeetional awnership o land—[[native title]]—wisna recognised till 1992, whan the [[Hie Court o Australie|Hie Court]] case ''[[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)]]'' owerturned the conceit o Australie as ''[[terra nullius]]'' ("land belongin til naebody") afore European occupation. [[File:Anzac2.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A balding man wearing a suit and playin a bugle, while staundin in front o a croud o ither fowk an a stane monument.|The [[Last Post]] is playit at an [[ANZAC Day]] ceremony in [[Port Melbourne, Victoria]]. Seemilar ceremonies tak place in maist suburbs an touns.]] 1 Januar 1901, [[Federation o Australie|federation o the colonies]] wis achieved efter ten year o plannin, consultation, an votin. The Commonweel o Australie wis foondit an hit becam a [[Breetish Dominions|dominion]] o the [[Breetish Empire]] in 1907. The Federal Caipital Territory (later renamed the Australian Caipital Territory) wis foondit in 1911 as the location for the future caipital o Canberra an aa. Melbourne wis the temporary seat o govrenment frae 1901 tae 1927 while Canberra wis biggit. The Northren Territory wis transferred frae the control o the Sooth Australien govrenment til the federal pairliament in 1911. In 1914, Australie jynt Breetain in fechtin Warld War I, wi help frae baith the ootgoin Leeberal Pairty an the incomin Labor Pairty. Australians teuk pairt in mony o the muckler battles focht on the [[Wastren Front (Warld War I)|Wastren Front]]. Mony Australiens see the defeat o the [[Australien an New Zealand Airmy Corps]] (ANZACs) at [[Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli]] as the birth o the Australie naition—bein the first muckle military action. The [[Kokoda Track campaign]] is seen bi mony as a seemilar naition-definin event in [[Warld War II]]. Breetain's [[Statute o Westminster 1931]] endit maist o the constitutional links atween Australie an the UK. Australie [[Statute o Westminster Adoption Act 1942|adoptit hit]] in 1942. The shock o the UK's defeat in Asie in 1942 an the [[Military history o Australie during World War II#Defence of Australie|threit o Japanees invasion]] gart Australie ti turn til the Unitit States as a new fere an protector. Syne 1951, Australie haes been a formal military fere o the US, unner the [[ANZUS]] treaty. Ahint Warld War II, Australie increasit immigration frae Europe. Syne the 1970s an efter the abolition o the [[White Australie Policy]], immigration frae Asie an ither kintras wis promotit an aa. The eftercast o this wis tha Australie's demography, cultur, an sel-perception wis changit. The final constitutional ties atween Australie an the UK wis sned wi the passin o the [[Australie Act 1986]], endin ony Breetish role in the govrenment o Australie, an closin the chaunce o appealin til the [[Privy council|Privy Council]] in Lunnon. In a [[Australian republic referendum, 1999|referendum]], 55% o Australian voters an afeck in ivery Australien state didnae want a [[republic]] wi a preses appointit bi a twa-thrids vote in baith Hooses o the Australien Pairliament. Syne the election o the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam Govrenment]] in 1972, foreign policy hae stairtit ti mak stranger ties wi ilke [[Paceefic Rim]] naitions, while keepin close ties wi Australie's tradeetional feres an tradin pairtners. == States an Territories == The kintra o Australie is pairtit atween sax states an twa territories, leetit ablo: * [[Australien Caipital Territory]] * [[New Sooth Wales]] * [[Northren Territory]] * [[Queensland]] * [[Sooth Australie]] * [[Tasmanie]] * [[Victoria (Australie)|Victoria]] * [[Wastren Australie]] == Caipital ceeties == * [[Adelaide]] * [[Brisbane]] * [[Canberra]] * [[Darwin, Northren Territory|Darwin]] * [[Hobart]] * [[Perth, Wastren Australie|Perth]] * [[Melbourne]] * [[Sydney]] ==Notes== {{reflist|group=N}} ==References== {{Reflist}} {{Commonscat|Australia}} [[Category:Australie| ]] [[Category:Constitutional monarchies]] [[Category:Inglis-speakin kintras an territories]] [[Category:Federal kintras]] [[Category:Umwhile Breetish colonies]] [[Category:G20 naitions]] [[Category:Leeberal democracies]] [[Category:Members o the Commonweel o Naitions]] [[Category:Kintras in Oceanie]] [[Category:States an territories established in 1901]] q82yyydp5wv5p4g0pqhqy0jvbih8u12 0 4796 918756 914396 2026-06-24T23:47:46Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918756 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Marxism''' is an economic an sociopoleetical warldview an method o socioeconomic inquiry that centers upon a [[Historical materialism|materialist interpretation o history]], a [[dialectic]]al view o social chynge, an an analysis an critique o the development o [[caipitalism]]. Marxism wis pioneered in the early tae mid 19th century bi twa [[German philosophy|German philosophers]], [[Karl Marx]] an [[Friedrich Engels]]. Marxism encompasses [[Marxian economics|Marxian economic theory]], a [[Marxist sociology|sociological theory]] an a [[Revolutionary socialism|revolutionary]] view o social chynge that haes influenced [[socialist]] poleetical muivements aroond the warld. ==References== ===Footnotes=== {{reflist|colwidth=35em}} {{commonscat|Marxism}} == Leeteratur == * {{cite book |title=Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro|url=https://archive.org/details/fidelbiographyof0000bour|last=Bourne |authorformat=scap|first=Peter G.|date=1986|publisher=Dodd, Mead & Company|location=New York|ref=Bou86}} * {{cite book |title=The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx|url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionaryide0000call_i2b6|last=Callinicos |authorformat=scap|first=Alex|authorlink=Alex Callinicos|date=2010|origyear=1983|publisher=Bookmarks|location=Bloomsbury, London|isbn=978-1-905192-68-7|ref=Cal10}} * {{cite book |title=My Life: A Spoken Autobiography|url=https://archive.org/details/fidelcastromylif0000cast|last1=Castro |authorformat=scap|first1=Fidel|last2=Ramonet|first2=Ignacio (interviewer)|date=2009|publisher=Scribner|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4165-6233-7|ref=Cas09}} * {{cite book |title=The Real Fidel Castro|url=https://archive.org/details/realfidelcastro00colt_0|last=Coltman |authorformat=scap|first=Leycester|date=2003|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven and London|isbn=978-0-300-10760-9|ref=Col03}} * {{cite book |title=Prehistorian: A Biography of V. Gordon Childe|last=Green |authorformat=scap|first=Sally|date=1981|publisher=Moonraker Press|location=Bradford-on-Avon, Wiltshire|isbn=0-239-00206-7|ref=Gre81}} * {{cite book |title=Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism|last=Lenin |authorformat=scap|first=Vladimir|authorlink=Vladimir Lenin|date=1967|origyear=1913|publisher=Foreign Languages Press|location=Peking|isbn=|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm|accessdate=2014-06-17|nopp=|ref=Len67}} * {{cite book |title=Wage Labour and Capital|last=Marx |authorformat=scap|first=Karl|authorlink=Karl Marx|date=1849|publisher=Neue Rheinische Zeitung|location=Germany|isbn=|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/wage-labour/index.htm|accessdate=2014-06-17|nopp=|ref=Mar49}} * {{cite book |title=A History of Archaeological Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarchaeo0000trig|edition=2nd|last=Trigger |authorformat=scap|first=Bruce G.|authorlink=Bruce Trigger|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-521-60049-1|nopp=|ref=Tri07}} {{Refend}} * {{cite book |author=Avineri, Shlomo|date=1968|title=The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx|url=https://archive.org/details/socialpoliticalt0000avin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|authorlink=Shlomo Avineri}} * {{cite book |author=Dahrendorf, Ralf|title=Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society|url=https://archive.org/details/classclassconfli00dahr|date=1959|authorlink=Ralf Dahrendorf|location=Stanford, CA|publisher=Stanford University Press}} * [[Jon Elster]], ''An Introduction to Karl Marx''. Cambridge, England, 1986. * Michael Evans, ''Karl Marx''. London, 1975. * Stefan Gandler, [http://www.brill.com/products/book/critical-marxism-mexico ''Critical Marxism in Mexico: Adolfo Sánchez Vázquez and Bolívar Echeverría''], Leiden/Boston, Brill Academic Press, 2015. 467 pages. ISBN 978-90-04-22428-5. * {{cite book |author=Kołakowski, Leszek|title=Main Currents of Marxism|date=1976|publisher=Oxford University Press|authorlink=Leszek Kołakowski}} * {{cite book |author=Parkes, Henry Bamford|title=Marxism: An Autopsy|url=https://archive.org/details/marxismautopsy00park|date=1939|location=Boston|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|authorlink=Henry Bamford Parkes}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Prychitko |first1=David L. |authorlink1= David Prychitko |last2= |first2= |authorlink2= |editor= [[David R. Henderson]] (.) |encyclopedia=[[Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]] |title=Marxism |url=http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Marxism.html |date=2008 |edition= 2nd |publisher=[[Library of Economics and Liberty]]}} * [[Cedric Robinson|Robinson, Cedric J.]]: ''Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition'', 1983, Reissue: Univ North Carolina Press, 2000 * [[R. J. Rummel|Rummel, R.J.]] (1977) ''[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE12.HTM Conflict In Perspective]'' Chap. 5 ''[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/CIP.CHAP5.HTM Marxism, Class Conflict, and the Conflict Helix]'' * {{cite book |last=Screpanti|first=E|author2=S. Zamagna|date=1993|title=An Outline of the History of Economic Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/outlineofhistory0000scre}} * Shenfield, S.D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081112101246/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/2008-204.cfm ''Vladislav Bugera: Portrait of a Post-Marxist Thinker''] * {{cite book |author=McLellan, David|title=Marxism After Marx|date=2007|location=Basingstoke|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|authorlink=David McLellan (academic)}} [[Category:Economic ideologies]] [[Category:Marxism| ]] [[Category:Creeticism o releegion]] [[Category:Filosofical muivements]] [[Category:Philosophical traditions]] [[Category:Theories o history]] [[Category:Karl Marx]] [[Category:Sociological paradigms]] [[Category:Communism]] [[Category:Socialism]] [[Category:Social theories]] [[Category:Materialism]] 1jjvyljgsvkww2qhu0tv3srx1bob2k1 0 7624 918758 839209 2026-06-24T23:48:46Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918758 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:IPA in IPA.svg|thumb|right|Pronunciation o "IPA" written in the IPA]] The '''Internaitional Phonetic ABC''' ('''IPA'''){{ref label|IPA|I|}} is a seestem o [[Phonetic transume|phonetic notation]] foondit on the [[Laitin alphabet]], cleckit by the [[Internaitional Phonetic Association]] as a staundartised representation o the soonds o spoken langage.<ref name="IPA 1999">International Phonetic Association (IPA), ''Handbook''.</ref> The IPA is uised by [[lingueestics|lingueests]], [[speech an langage pathology|speech pathologists an therapists]], [[fermmit langage]] teachers an collegianers, [[sangster]]s, [[actor]]s, [[lexicography|lexicographers]], an [[Owersetin|translators]].<ref name="world">{{cite book|last=MacMahon|first=Michael K. C.|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor=P. T. Daniels and W. Bright (eds.)|title=The World's Writing Systems|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821 821]–846|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|location=New York|id=ISBN 0-19-507993-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Joan |last=Wall |title=International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction |publisher=Pst |date=1989 |isbn=1877761508 |url=http://www.amazon.com/International-Phonetic-Alphabet-Singers-Language/dp/1877761508}}</ref> {{reflist}} [[Category:Internaitional Phonetic Alphabet| ]] [[Category:Phonetic guides]] [[Category:Unicode]] 1leoqdd2broxmduaddzefhxiwmnhf0m 0 9020 918750 882158 2026-06-24T23:42:06Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918750 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox former country | conventional_long_name = Roman Empire | common_name = Roman Empire | native_name = {{unbulleted list |item3_style=font-size:80%;padding-top:0.15em;line-height:1.15em | {{native phrase|la|Imperium Romanum}} | '''''{{lang|la|Senatus Populusque Romanus}}''''' ([[SPQR]])<br />{{smaller|{{nobold|Roman [[Senate o the Roman Republic|Senate]] an Fowk}}<ref group="n">Ither weys o referrin tae the "Roman Empire" amang the Romans an Greeks themselves includit ''{{lang|la|Res publica Romana}}'' or ''{{lang|la|Imperium Romanorum}}'' (an aa in Greek: {{lang|grc|Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων}} – {{grc-tr|Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων}} – ["Dominion (Leeterally 'kinrick' but an aa interpretit as 'empire') o the Romans"]) an ''Romania''. ''{{lang|la|Res publica}}'' means Roman "commonweel" <!--?: Usually,--> an can refer to baith the Republican an the Imperial eras. ''{{lang|la|Imperium Romanum}}'' (or ''{{lang|la|Romanorum}}'') refers tae the territorial extent o Roman authority. ''{{lang|la|Populus Romanus}}'' ("the Roman fowk") wis/is eften uised [[Metonym|tae indicate the Roman state]] in matters involvin ither naitions. The term ''Romania'', ineetially a colloquial term for the empire's territory as well as a [[Collective noon|collective name]] for its indwallers, appears in Greek an Laitin soorces frae the 4t century onwart an wis eventually carried ower tae the [[Eastren Roman Empire]] (see R. L. Wolff, "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople" in ''Speculum'' 23 (1948), pp. 1–34 an especially pp. 2–3).</ref>}} | {{native phrase|grc|Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων|italics=off}}<br />{{smaller|{{transl|grc|''Basileía Rhōmaíōn''}}}} }} | continent=Eurasie |region=[[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] |status=Empire | life_span = {{line-height|1.3em|{{nowrap|27  BC  – 395  AD}}<br />{{nowrap|395 – 480 {{small|{{nobold|([[Wastren Roman Empire|Wastren]])}}}}}}<br />{{nowrap|395}} – 1453 {{small|{{nobold|([[Eastren Roman Empire|Eastren]])}}}}}} | p1=Roman Republic |image_p1=[[File:Consul et lictores.png|30px|link=Roman Republic]] | s1=Wastren Roman Empire |image_s1=[[File:Julius Nepos Tremissis.jpg|30px|link=Wastren Roman Empire]] | s2=Eastren Roman Empire |image_s2=[[File:Constantine multiple CdM Beistegui 233.jpg|30px|link=Byzantine Empire]] | image_coat=Augustus Aureus infobox version.png | symbol_type = ''[[Aureus]]'' o [[Augustus]] | image_flag = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg | flag_border = no | flag_size = 100px | flag_type = [[Vexilloid]] | image_map = Roman Empire Trajan 117AD.png | image_map_caption = The Roman Empire in 117 AD, at its greatest extent at the time o [[Trajan]]'s daith (its [[vassal]]s in pink).<ref>{{cite book|author=Bennett, Julian |title=Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qk_tofvS8EsC|year=1997|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-16524-2}}. Fig. 1. Regions east o the [[Euphrates]] river war held anerly in the years 116–117.</ref> | capital = [[Roum]] (27 BC – AD 410)<br> [[Mediolanum]] (286–402, [[Wastren Roman Empire|Wastren]])<br> [[Augusta Treverorum]] <br> [[Sirmium]] <br> [[Ravenna]] (402–476, Wastren)<br> [[Nicomedia]] (286–330, [[Eastren Roman Empire|Eastren]])<br> [[Constantinople]] (330–1453, Eastren)<br> [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] (663–669, Eastren) | common_languages = {{plainlist}} * [[Laitin]] <small>(offeecial till 610)</small> * [[Greek leid|Greek]] <small>(offeecial efter 610)</small> * [[Leids o the Roman Empire|Regional{{\}}local leids]] | religion = {{unbulleted list | {{longitem|{{small|Afore AD 380''':'''}} [[Imperial cult (auncient Roum)|Imperial cult]]-driven [[Releegion in auncient Rome|polytheism]]}} | {{small|Frae AD 380''':'''}} [[State kirk o the Roman Empire|Christianity]] }} | government_type = [[Mixed govrenment|Mixed]], functionally [[absolute monarchy]] | title_leader = [[Roman emperor#Titles an poseetions|Emperor]] | year_leader1 = {{nowrap|27  BC  – AD 14}} |leader1 = [[Augustus]] {{smaller|(first)}} | year_leader2 = 98–117 |leader2 = [[Trajan]] | year_leader3 = 284–305 |leader3 = [[Diocletian]] | year_leader4 = 306–337 |leader4 = [[Constantine I]] | year_leader5 = 379–395 |leader5 = [[Theodosius I]]<ref group="n">The final emperor tae rule ower aw o the Roman Empire's territories afore its conversion tae a diarchy.</ref> | year_leader6 = 474–480 |leader6 = [[Julius Nepos]]<ref group="n">Offeecially the final emperor o the Wastren empire.</ref> | year_leader7 = 527–565 |leader7 = [[Justinian I]] | year_leader8 = 976–1025 |leader8 = [[Basil II]] | year_leader9 = 1449–1453 |leader9 = [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]]<ref group="n">Last emperor o the Eastren (Byzantine) empire.</ref> | legislature = [[Senate o the Roman Empire|Senate]] | era = [[Clessical era]] tae [[Late Middle Ages]] | date_pre = 32–30 BC |event_pre = [[Final War o the Roman Republic|Final War o the<br />Roman Republic]] | year_start = 30–2 BC |event_start = [[Constitutional reforms o Augustus|Empire established]] | date_event1 = 330 |event1 = [[Constantinople#306–337|Constantinople]]<br />becomes capital | date_event2 = 395 |event2 = {{nowrap|[[Wastren Roman Empire#Final diveesion|Final]] [[Greek East an Laitin Wast|East Wast]] divide}} | date_event3 = 476 |event3 = [[Faw o the Wastren Roman Empire]] | date_event4 = 1202–1204 |event4 = [[Fowert Crusade]] |date_event5 = 1261 |event5 = Reconquest o Constantinople | year_end = 1453 |date_end=29 May |event_end=[[Faw o Constantinople]] | stat_year1 = 25 BC<ref name="size">{{cite journal |journal=Social Science History |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D |first=Rein |last=Taagepera |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |year=1979 |page=125|doi=10.2307/1170959|jstor=1170959|publisher=Duke University Press |authorlink=Rein Taagepera}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.2307/1971891 | jstor=1971891 | title=Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_population-and-development-review_1977-09_3_3/page/253 | journal=Population and Development Review | volume=3 | issue=3 | pages=253 | year=1977 | last1=Durand | first1=John D. }}</ref> |stat_area1 = 2750000 |stat_pop1 = 56800000 | stat_year2 = AD 117<ref name="size"/><ref name="cliodynamics.info">{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|journal=Journal of world-systems research|date=2006|volume=12|issue=2|page=222|url=http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf|accessdate=6 February 2016|issn=1076-156X|archive-date=2016-05-17|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517210851/http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>|stat_area2 = 5000000 |stat_pop2 = | stat_year3 = AD 390<ref name="size"/> |stat_area3 = 4400000 |stat_pop3 = | currency = [[Sestertius]],<ref group="n">Abbreviatit "HS". Prices an values are uisually expressed in sesterces.</ref> [[Aureus]], [[Solidus (cunyie)|Solidus]], [[Solidus (cunyie)|Nomisma]] }} The '''Roman Empire''' (or '''Impire''') wis a gey muckle [[empire]] wi its caipital in [[Roum]], ringed ower bi an [[emperor]]. The first [[emperor]] o Rome wis [[Augustus|Octavian]], efter cried Augustus, frae the year [[27 BC]]. Afore that, Rome haed been a [[republic]] ringed ower bi a cooncil cried the "[[Roman Senate|Senate]]". The Roman Empire wis maist muckle whan ringed ower bi [[Trajan]] ben the year 117. Efter him, [[Hadrian]] shapit it less muckle, an shapit [[Hadrian's waw]] ben the nor o Ingland. Mony modren kintras are on land that wis aince pairt o the Roman Empire, includin [[Ingland]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[Fraunce]], [[Italy]], [[Greece]], [[Turkey]], [[Germany]], [[Egyp]], an the north coast o [[Africae]]. The leid o the Roman Empire wis [[Laitin]]. The wastren pairt o the Roman Empire conteena'd for nearhaund 1000 year, an the eastren pairt, includin [[Greece]] an [[Turkey]], conteena'd for aboot a thoosand year mair. The eastren pairt wis cried the [[Byzantine Empire]] - fer the auld name o the kintra - wi a caipital at [[Constantinople]]. ==History== [[File:Statue-Augustus.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Augustus o Prima Porta]]''<br />(early 1st century AD)]] Roum haed began expandin shortly efter the foondin o the republic in the 6t century BC, tho it did nae expand ootside the [[Italian Peninsula]] till the 3rd century BC. Then, it wis an "empire" lang afore it haed an emperor.<ref>[[#Kelly|Kelly]], pp. 4ff.</ref><ref name=n1>[[#Nicolet|Nicolet]], pp. 1, 15</ref><ref>Brennan, T. Corey (2000) ''The Praetorship in the Roman Republic''. Oxford University Press. p. 605.</ref><ref>[[#Peachin|Peachin]], pp. 39–40.</ref> The Roman Republic wis nae a naition-state in the modren sense, but a network o touns left tae rule themsels (tho wi varyin degrees o unthirldom frae the [[Roman Senate]]) an provinces admeenistert bi militar commanders. It wis ruled, nae bi emperors, but bi annually electit [[Roman magistrate|magistrates]] ([[Roman Consul]]s abuin aw) in conjunction wi the senate.<ref name="Ando p. 179">[[#Potter2009|Potter (2009)]], p. 179.</ref> For various raisons, the 1st century BC wis a time o poleetical an militar upheaval, that ultimately led tae rule bi emperors.<ref name=n1/><ref name=Hekster>Hekster, Olivier and Kaizer, Ted (2011). Preface to ''Frontiers in the Roman World. Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Durhan, 16–19 April 2009)''. Brill. p. viii.</ref><ref>[[Andrew Lintott|Lintott, Andrew]] (1999) ''The Constitution of the Roman Republic''. Oxford University Press. p. 114</ref><ref>Eder, W. (1993) "The Augustan Principate as Binding Link," in ''Between Republic and Empire''. University of California Press. p. 98. {{ISBN|0520084470}}.</ref> The consuls' militar pouer restit in the Roman legal concept o ''[[imperium]]'', that leeterally means "command" (tho teepically in a militar sense).<ref>Richardson, John (2011) "''Fines provinciae''", in ''Frontiers in the Roman World''. Brill. p. 10.</ref> Occasionally, successfu consuls wad gien the honourar teetle ''[[imperator]]'' (commander), an this is the oreegin o the wird ''emperor'' (an ''empire'') syne this teetle (amang ithers) wis ayeweys bestowed tae the early emperors upon thair accession.<ref>Richardson, John (2011) "''Fines provinciae''", in ''Frontiers in the Roman World''. Brill. pp. 1–2.</ref> Rome suffered a lang series o internal conflicts, conspeeracies an [[Roman ceevil wars|ceevil wars]] frae the late seicont century BC onwart, while greatly extendin its pouer ayont Italy. This wus the period o the [[Creesis o the Roman Republic]]. Taewart the end o this era, in 44 BC, [[Julius Caesar]] wis briefly perpetual [[Roman dictator|dictator]] afore bein [[Assassination o Julius Caesar|assassinatit]]. The faction o his assassins wis driven frae Roum an defeatit at the [[Battle o Philippi]] in 42 BC bi an airmy led bi [[Mark Antony]] an Caesar's adoptit son [[Augustus|Octavian]]. Antony an Octavian's diveesion o the Roman warld atween themsels did nae last an Octavian's forces defeatit thae o Antony an [[Cleopatra]] at the [[Battle o Actium]] in 31 BC. In 27 BC the [[Senate an Fowk o Roum]] made Octavian ''[[princeps]]'' ("first ceetizen") wi [[proconsul]]ar ''[[imperium]]'', sicweys beginnin the [[Principate]] (the first epoch o Roman imperial history, uisually datit frae 27 BC tae AD 284), an gae him the name "[[Augustus (honoureefic)|Augustus]]" ("the veneratit"). Tho the auld constitutional machinery remeened in place, Augustus cam tae predominate it. Awtho the republic stuid in name, contemporaries o Augustus knew it wis juist a veil an that Augustus haed aw meaninfu authority in Roum.<ref>Syme, Ronald (1939) ''The Roman Revolution''. Oford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–4.</ref> Syne his rule endit a century o ceevil wars an begoud an unprecedentit period o peace an prosperity, he wis sae luved that he cam tae hauld the pouer o a monarch ''[[de facto]]'' if nae ''[[de jure]]''. In the years o his rule, a new constitutional order emerged (in pairt organically an in pairt bi design), sae that, upon his daith, this new constitutional order operatit as afore whan [[Tiberius]] wis acceptit as the new emperor. The 200 year that begoud wi Augustus's rule is tradeetionally regairdit as the ''[[Pax Romana]]'' ("Roman Peace"). In this period, the cohesion o the empire wis fordered bi a degree o social stability an economic prosperity that Roum haed niver afore experienced. Uprisins in the provinces war infrequent, but pit doun "mercilessly an swiftly" whan thay occurred.<ref>Boatwright, Mary T. (2000) ''Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire''. Princeton University Press. p. 4.</ref> The saxty years o [[Jewish–Roman wars]] in the seicont hauf o the 1st century an the first hauf o the 2nt century war exceptional in thair duration an veeolence.<ref>[[#Potter2009|Potter (2009)]], p. 571.</ref> The success o Augustus in establishin principles o dynastic succession wis leemitit bi his ootleevin a nummer o talentit potential heirs. The [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] lastit for fower mair emperors—[[Tiberius]], [[Caligula]], [[Claudius]] an [[Nero]]—afore it yieldit in 69 AD tae the strife-torn [[Year o Fower Emperors]], frae which [[Vespasian]] emerged as veector. Vespasian becam the foonder o the brief [[Flavian dynasty]], tae be follaed bi the [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty]] that produced the "[[Five Good Emperors]]": [[Nerva]], [[Trajan]], [[Hadrian]], [[Antoninus Pius]] an the filosofically-inclined [[Marcus Aurelius]]. In the view o the Greek historian [[Dio Cassius]], a contemporary observer, the accession o the emperor [[Commodus]] in 180 AD merkit the strynd "frae a kinrick o gowd tae ane o roust an airn".<ref>Dio Cassius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72*.html#36 72.36.4], Loeb edeetion translatit E. Cary</ref> In 212, in the ring o [[Caracalla]], [[Roman ceetizenship]] wis grantit tae aw freeborn indwallers o the empire. But despite this gestur o universality, the [[Severan dynasty]] wis camsteirie—an emperor's ring wis endit routinely bi his murther or execution—an, follaein its collapse, the Roman Empire wis engulfed bi the [[Creesis o the Third Century]], a period o invasions, ceevil strife, economic disorder, an plague.<ref>Brown, P., The World of Late Antiquity, London 1971, p. 22.</ref> In definin [[periodisation|historical epochs]], this creesis is whiles viewed as merkin the transeetion frae [[Clessical Antiquity]] tae [[Late Antiquity]]. [[Aurelian]] (reigned 270–275) brocht the empire back frae the brink an stabilised it. [[Diocletian]] completit the wirk o fully restorin the empire, but declined the role o ''princeps'' an becam the first emperor tae be addressed regularly as ''domine'', "master" or "laird".<ref>Adrian Goldsworth, ''How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower'' (Yale University Press, 2009), pp. 405–415.</ref> This merked the end o the [[Principate]], an the beginnin o the [[Dominate]]. Diocletian dividit the empire intae fower regions, ilk ruled bi a separate emperor, the [[Tetrarchy]].<ref>Potter, David. The Roman Empire at Bay. 296–98.</ref> Confident that he fixed the disorders that war plaguin Roum, he abdicatit alang wi his co-emperor, an the Tetrarchy suin collapsed. Order wis eventually restored bi [[Constantine the Great]], that becam the first emperor tae convert tae [[Christianity]], an that established [[Constantinople]] as the new caipital o the eastren empire. In the decades o the [[Constantinian dynasty|Constantinian]] an [[Valentinian dynasty|Valentinian dynasties]], the empire wis dividit alang an east–wast axis, wi dual pouer centres in Constantinople an Roum. The ring o [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], that attemptit tae restore [[Releegion in auncient Roum|Clessical Roman]] an [[Hellenistic releegion]], anly briefly interruptit the succession o Christian emperors. [[Theodosius I]], the last emperor tae rule ower baith East an Wast, dee'd in 395 AD efter makkin Christianity the [[State kirk o the Roman Empire|offeecial releegion]] o the empire.<ref>Starr, Chester G. (1974) ''A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition.'' Oxford University Press. pp. 670–678.</ref> The [[Wastren Roman Empire]] begoud tae [[Faw o the Wastren Roman Empire|disintegrate]] in the early 5t century. The empire in the East—eften kent as the [[Byzantine Empire]], but referred tae in its time as the Roman Empire or bi various ither names—haed a different fate. It survived for awmaist a millennium efter the faw o its [[Wastren Roman Empire|Wastren coonterpairt]] an becam the maist stable Christian [[realm]] in the Middle Ages. ==Society== The Roman Empire wis remerkably multicultural, wi "a rather astonishing cohesive capacity" tae creaut a sense o shared identity while encompassin diverse fowks within its poleetical seestem ower a lang span o time.<ref>[[#Peachin|Peachin]], p. 12.</ref> The Roman attention tae creautin public monuments an communal spaces appen tae aw—sic as [[Forum (Roman)|forums]], [[Leet o Roman amphitheatres|amphitheatres]], [[circus (biggin)|racetracks]] an [[thermae|baths]]—helped foster a sense o "Romanness".<ref>[[#Peachin|Peachin]], p. 16.</ref> Roman society haed multiple, owerlappin social hierarchies that modren concepts o "cless" mey nae represent accurately.<ref>[[#Peachin|Peachin]], p. 9.</ref> The twz decades o ceevil war frae that Augustus rose tae sole pouer left tradeetional society in Roum in a state o confuision an upheaval,<ref name=Garnsey>Garnsey, Peter and Saller, Richard (1987) ''The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture''. University of California Press. pp. 107–111.</ref> but did nae effect an immediate [[redistribution o walth]] an social pouer. Frae the perspective o the lawer clesses, a peak wis merely addit tae the social pyramid.<ref>Noreña, Carlos F. (2011) ''Imperial Ideals in the Roman West: Representation, Circulation, Power''. Cambridge University Press. p. 7.</ref> Personal relationships—[[Patronage in auncient Roum|patronage]], friendship ''(amicitia)'', faimily, [[Mairiage in auncient Roum|mairiage]]—conteena'd tae influence the wirkins o politics an govrenment, as thay haed in the Republic.<ref>[[#Peachin|Peachin]], pp. 4–5.</ref> Bi the time o [[Nero]], houiver, it wis nae unusual tae find a umwhile sclave that wis richer nor a freeborn ceetizen, or an [[equestrian order|equestrian]] that exercised greater pouer nor a senator.<ref>[[#Winterling|Winterling]], pp. 11, 21.</ref> The blurrin or diffuision o the Republic's mair rigid hierarchies led tae increased [[social mobility]] unner the Empire,<ref>Saller, Richard P. (1982, 2002) ''Personal Patronage under the Early Empire''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123, 176, 183</ref><ref>Duncan, Anne (2006) ''Performance and Identity in the Classical World''. Cambridge University Press. p. 164.</ref> baith upwart an dounwart, tae an extent that exceedit that o aw ither weel-documentit auncient societies.<ref>Reinhold, Meyer (2002) ''Studies in Classical History and Society''. Oxford University Press. pp. 25ff. and 42.</ref> Weemen, freedmen, an sclaves haed opportunities tae profit an exercise influence in weys previously less available tae them.<ref>[[#Boardman|Boardman]], p. 18.</ref> Social life in the Empire, pairteecularly for thae that's personal resoorces war leemitit, wis forder fostered bi a proleeferation o [[associations in Auncient Roum|voluntar associations]] an [[confraternity|confraternities]] (''[[collegium|collegia]]'' an ''[[Sodales|sodalitates]]'') formed for various purposes: perfessional an tred guilds, veterans' groups, releegious sodalities, drinkin an dinin clubs,<ref>[[#Peachin|Peachin]], pp. 17, 20.</ref> performing airts troupes,<ref>[[#Millar|Millar]], pp. 81–82</ref> an [[buirial society|buirial societies]].<ref>Carroll, Maureen (2006) ''Spirits of the Dead: Roman Funerary Commemoration in Western Europe''. Oxford University Press. pp. 45–46.</ref> ==Govrenment an militar== ===Central govrenment=== {{See also|Roman emperor}} The dominance o the emperor wis based on the consolidation o certaint pouers frae several republican offices, includin the inviolability o the [[Plebeian Tribune|tribunes o the fowk]] an the authority o the [[Roman Censors|censors]] tae manipulate the hierarchy o Roman society.<ref name="Abbott, 354">[[#Abbott|Abbott]], p. 354</ref> The emperor an aw made himsel the central releegious authority as [[Pontifex Maximus]], an centralised the richt tae declare war, ratifee treaties, an negotiate wi furrin leaders.<ref name="Abbott, 345">[[#Abbott|Abbott]], p. 345</ref> While thir functions war clearly defined in the [[Principate]], the emperor's pouers ower time becam less constitutional an mair monarchical, culminatin in the [[Dominate]].<ref name="Abbott, 341">[[#Abbott|Abbott]], p. 341</ref> ===Militar=== [[File:Roman Empire 125.png|thumb|upright=1.35|The Roman empire unner [[Hadrian]] (ruled 117–138) shawin the location o the Roman legions deployed in AD 125]] The sodgers o the Imperial Roman airmy war perfaisionals that volunteered for 20 year o active duty an five as reserves. The transeetion tae a perfaisional militar haed began in the late Republic, an wis ane o the mony profoond shifts awey frae republicanism, unner that an airmy o [[conscripts]] haed exercised thair responsibilities as ceetizens in defendin the hameland in a campaign against a specific threit. For Imperial Rome, the militar wis a full-time career in itsel.<ref>[[#Edmondson|Edmondson]], pp. 111–112.</ref> The primar mission o the Roman militar o the early empire wis tae preserve the [[Pax Romana]].<ref>Hekster, Olivier J. (2007) "Fighting for Rome: The Emperor as a Military Leader," in ''Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC–AD 476)''. Brill. p. 96.</ref> The three major divisions o the military war: * the gairison at Roum, that includes baith the [[Praetorian Gaird|Praetorians]] an the ''[[vigiles]]'' that functioned as polis an firefechters; * the provincial airmy, comprisin the [[Roman legions]] an the auxiliaries providit bi the provinces ''([[auxilia]]''); * the [[Roman navy|navy]]. ==Daily life== In the ceety o Rome, maist fowk leeved in multistory flats ''([[insulae]])'' that war eften dirty an nae sauf. Public facilities—sic as baths ''([[thermae]])'', toilets that war flushed wi rinnin watter ''(latrinae)'', conveniently locatit basins or elaborate foontains ''([[nymphaeum|nymphea]])'' deliveringfresh watter,<ref name=brenda>Longfellow, Brenda (2011) ''Roman Imperialism and Civic Patronage: Form, Meaning and Ideology in Monumental Fountain Complexes''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. {{ISBN|0521194938}}</ref> an lairge-scale enterteenments siv as [[chariot races]] an [[gladiator|gladiator combat]]—war aimed primarily at the common fowk that leeved in the ''insulae''.<ref>Jones, Mark Wilson (2000) ''Principles of Roman Architecture.'' New Haven: Yale University Press.</ref> Seemilar facilities war constructit in ceeties ootthrou the Empire, an some o the best-preserved Roman structurs are in Spain, soothren Fraunce, an northren Africae. ===Fuid=== Maist flats in Roum lackit kitchens, tho a charcoal [[brazier]] coud be uised for rudimentary cuikery.<ref>[[#Stambaugh|Stambaugh]], pp. 144, 178</ref><ref>Hinds, Kathryn (2010) ''Everyday Life in the Roman Empire''. Marshall Cavendish. p. 90.</ref> Prepared fuid wis sauld at pubs an bars, inns, an fuid staws ''([[taberna]]e, cauponae, [[popina]]e, [[thermopolium|thermopolia]])''.<ref>[[#Holleran|Holleran]], p. 136ff.</ref> [[Cairyoot]] an restaurant dinin war for the lawer clesses; [[fine dinin]] coud be socht anly at preevat dinner pairties in a few hooses wi a [[chef]] ''(archimagirus)'' an trained kitchen staff,<ref>[[#Gagarin|Gagarin]], p. 299.</ref> or at banquets hostit bi social clubs ''([[collegium (auncient Roum)|collegia]])''.<ref>Faas, Patrick (1994, 2005) ''Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome''. University of Chicago Press. p. 29.</ref> Maist fowk wad hae consumed at least 70% o thair daily [[calorie]]s in the form o cereals an [[legumes]].<ref name="Garnsey p. 681">[[#Boardman|Boardman]], p. 681.</ref> ''Puls'' ([[pottage]]) wis conseedert the aboreeginal fuid o the Romans.<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''Natural History'' 19.83–84; Emily Gowers, ''The Loaded Table: Representation of Food in Roman Literature'' (Oxford University Press, 1993, 2003), p. 17</ref><ref>[[#Gagarin|Gagarin]], p. 198.</ref> The basic grain pottage coud be elaboratit wi chappit vegetables, bits o meat, cheese, or yerbs tae produce dishes seemilar tae [[polenta]] or [[risotto]].<ref>[[#Stambaugh|Stambaugh]], p. 144.</ref> ==Notes== {{reflist|group=n}} ==References== {{reflist}} ===Soorces=== {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book |ref=Abbott|author = Abbott, Frank Frost |year=1901 |title=A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions |publisher=Elibron Classics |isbn=0-543-92749-0 |authorlink=Frank Frost Abbott}} * {{cite book|ref=Boardman|editor=Boardman, John |title=The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2pPxAAAAMAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=Vol. 11|isbn=0521263352}} * {{cite book|ref=Edmondson|author=Edmondson, J.C. |chapter=Dynamic Arenas: Gladiatorial Presentations in the City of Rome and the Construction of Roman Society during the Early Empire|title=Roman Theater and Society|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year= 1996}} * {{cite book|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fj69DAEACAAJ|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517072-6|editor=Gagarin, Michael|ref=Gagarin}} * {{cite book|ref=Holleran|author=Holleran, Claire |title=Shopping in Ancient Rome: The Retail Trade in the Late Republic and the Principate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oO7NwmbyxwAC|date=2012|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-969821-9}} * {{cite book|last=Huzar|first=Eleanor Goltz|title=Mark Antony: a Biography|translator=|editor=|year=1978|orig-year=|location=Minneapolis|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|ISBN=0-8166-0863-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pos8_zvVYDUC|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|ref=Kelly|author=Kelly, Christopher |title=The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_2900192803916|publisher=Oxford University Press|year= 2007|isbn=0192803913}} * {{cite journal|ref=Millar| doi=10.2307/300073 | jstor=300073 | title=Empire and City, Augustus to Julian: Obligations, Excuses and Status | journal=Journal of Roman Studies | volume=73 | pages=76 | year=2012 | last1=Millar | first1=Fergus }} * {{cite book|last=Mommsen|first=Theodore|title=The provinces of the Roman empire from Caesar to Diocletian|translator=William P. Dickson|editor=William P. Dickson|year=2005|orig-year=1909|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|publisher=University of Michigan Library|ISBN=|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/g/genpub/abq2762.0001.001/332?page=root;size=100;view=image|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|ref=Nicolet|author=Nicolet, Claude |title=Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7IQpCaCpQ1MC|year=1991|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-10096-3}} * {{cite book|ref=Peachin|editor=Peachin, Michael |title=The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDSI1V12ueIC|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518800-4}} * {{cite book|ref=Potter2009|editor=Potter, David S. |title=A Companion to the Roman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4ZmqsyC5kEC|date=2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-9918-6}} * {{cite book|ref=Stambaugh|author=Stambaugh, John E. |title=The Ancient Roman City|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k0mZufizhH0C|date=1988|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-3692-3}} * {{cite book|last=Sullivan|first=Richard, D.|title=Near Eastern Royalty and Rome, 100-30 BC|translator=|editor=|year=1990|orig-year=|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|ISBN=0-8020-2682-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IDU5DwAAQBAJ|postscript=.}} * {{cite book|ref=Winterling|author=Winterling, Aloys |title=Politics and Society in Imperial Rome|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_35eZH6_vT8C|date=2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-7969-0}} {{refend}} {{Commonscat|Roman Empire}} [[Category:Roman Empire|Roman Empire]] [[Category:Auncient Italian history]] [[Category:Umwhile kintras on the Italian Peninsula]] [[Category:Umwhile kintras in Asie]] [[Category:States o Auncient Africae]] [[Category:Superpouers]] [[Category:20s BC establishments in the Roman Empire|*]] [[Category:27 BC establishments]] [[Category:1st-century BC establishments in Italy]] [[Category:States an territories established in the 1st century BC]] [[Category:States an territories disestablished in the 5t century]] [[Category:476 disestablishments in the Roman Empire|*]] [[Category:470s disestablishments in Europe]] [[Category:5t-century disestablishments in Italy]] [[Category:1453 disestablishments in Europe]] jnicmcj9purceeff4mlmvlwtmvonzfm 0 10500 918747 917148 2026-06-24T23:39:49Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918747 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fixscots}}{{Automatic taxobox | name =Beastie | fossil_range = {{fossilrange|396|0}}<small>Early [[Devonian]]<ref name="EngelGrim">{{cite journal |last=Engel | first=Michael S. |author2=David A. Grimaldi | year=2004 | title=New light shed on the oldest insect | journal=Nature |volume=427 | pages=627–630 | doi=10.1038/nature02291 | pmid=14961119 | issue=6975|bibcode = 2004Natur.427..627E}}</ref>–[[Holocene|Present]]</small> | image = Insect collage.png | image_caption = Clockwise frae tap left: dance flee (''[[Empis livida]]''), lang-nebbed weevil (''[[Rhinotia hemistictus]]''), mole cheeper (''[[Gryllotalpa brachyptera]]''), [[German wasp]] (''Vespula germanica''), emperor guim moch (''[[Opodiphthera eucalypti]]''), assassin bug ([[Harpactorinae]]) | image2 = A Magicicada chorus containing M. septendecim, M. cassini, and M. septendecula - pone.0000892.s004.oga | image2_caption = A chorus of several ''[[Magicicada]]'' species | display_parents = 2 | taxon = Insecta | authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10t edeetion o Systema Naturae|1758]] | subdivision_ranks = Subgroups | subdivision = [[#Taxonomy|See text]]. }} '''Beasties''' is a [[Cless (biology)|cless]] ('''Insecta''') o [[Hexapoda|hexapod]] [[invertebrate]]s within the [[arthropod]] [[phylum]] that haes a [[chitin]]ous [[exoskeleton]], a three-pairt bouk ([[heid]], [[Thorax (insect anatomy)|thorax]] an [[abdomen (insect anatomy)|abdomen]]), three pairs o jyntit [[Arthropod leg|legs]], [[compoond ee]]n an ae pair o [[antenna (biology)|antennae]]. Thay are the maist diverse group o beasts on the planet, includin mair nor a million descrived [[species]] an representin mair nor hauf o aw kent leevin [[organism]]s.<ref name="Chapman">{{cite book |author1=Chapman, A. D. |year=2006 |title=Numbers of living species in Australia and the World |publisher=Canberra: [[Australian Biological Resources Study]] |isbn=978-0-642-56850-2 |url=http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/publications/other/species-numbers/index.html |access-date=2017-05-03 |archive-date=2009-06-09 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090609110928/http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/publications/other/species-numbers/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/biodiversity/biodiversity.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220154543/http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/biodiversity/biodiversity.html |archivedate=20 February 2015 |title=Threats to Global Diversity|last=Wilson|first=E.O. |accessdate=17 May 2009}}</ref> The nummer o [[Extant taxon|leevin]] species is thocht tae be atween sax an ten million,<ref name="Chapman" /><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Novotny, Vojtech |author2=Basset, Yves |author3=Miller, Scott E. |author4=Weiblen, George D. |author5=Bremer, Birgitta |author6=Cizek, Lukas |author7=Drozd, Pavel |year=2002 |title=Low host specificity of herbivorous insects in a tropical forest |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2002-04-25_416_6883/page/840 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |pmid=11976681 |volume=416 |issue=6883 |pages=841–844 |doi=10.1038/416841a|bibcode = 2002Natur.416..841N}}</ref><ref name="number">{{cite book|author=Erwin, Terry L. |year=1997 |title=Biodiversity at its utmost: Tropical Forest Beetles |pages=27–40}} In: {{cite book |editor1=Reaka-Kudla, M. L. |editor2=Wilson, D. E. |editor3=Wilson, E. O. |title=Biodiversity II |year=1997 |url=https://archive.org/details/biodiversityiiun00reak |publisher=Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C.}}</ref> an potentially maks up ower 90% o the differin ainimal life forms on Yird.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erwin|first=Terry L.|year=1982|title=Tropical forests: their richness in Coleoptera and other arthropod species|journal=Coleopt. Bull.|volume=36|pages=74–75}}</ref> Beasties can be fund in nearhaund aw [[Naitural environment|environs]], awtho anerly a smaw nummer o species bides in the oceans, a habitat dominatit bi anither arthropod group, [[crustacean]]s. The life cycles o beasties varies but maist o thaim hatches frae [[egg]]s. Beastie growthe is hauden in bi the inelastic [[exoskeleton]] an development involves a series o [[Moutin|mouts]]. The immatur stages can differ frae the adults in structur, haibit an habitat, an can include a passive [[pupa]]l stage in thae groups that unnergaes 4-stage metamorphosis (see [[holometabolism]]). Beasties that unnergaes [[hemimetabolism|3-stage metamorphosis]] is wantin a pupal stage an adults develops throu a series o [[Nymph (biology)|nymphal]] stages.<ref name="mcgraw-hill">"insect physiology" McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, Ch. 9, p. 233, 2007</ref> The heicher level relationship o the [[Hexapoda]] is unclear. Muckle fossilised beasties haes been fund frae the [[Paleozoic]] Era, includin [[Meganisoptera|giant draigonflees]] wi weengspans o 55 tae 70&nbsp;cm (22–28&nbsp;in). The maist diverse beastie groups appears tae hae [[coevolution|coevolved]] wi [[flouerin plants]]. Adult beasties for ordinar muves aboot bi walkin, fleein or whiles soummin {{xref|(see {{section link||Locomotion}} ablo)}}. As it allous for quick yet stable muvement, a wheen o beasties adopts a tripedal gait whaur thay walk wi thair legs titchin the grund in alternatin triangles. Beasties is the anely invertebrates tae hae evolved flicht. A lot o beasties spends at least pairt o thair lifes unner watter, wi [[larval]] adaptations that include s[[gill]]s, an some adult beasties is aquatic an haes adaptations for soummin. Some species, siclike as [[Gerridae|watter striders]], can walk on the surface o watter. Beasties is maistly solitar, but some beasties, siclike as some [[bee]]s, [[eemock]]s an [[termite]]s, is social an bides in muckle, weel-organised colonies. Some Beasties, siclike as [[earwig]]s, shaws maternal care, gairdin thair eggs an weans. Beasties can communicate wi ither in a wheen o weys. Male [[moch]]s can sense the [[pheromone]]s o female mochs ower great distances. Ither species communicates wi soonds: [[cheeper]]s [[Stridulation|stridulate]], or wi rubbin thair weengs thegither, tae attract a mate an repel ither males. [[Fireflee|Lampyridae]] in the [[Clocker|clock order]] communicates wi licht. Humans thinks on some beasties as [[Pest (organism)|pests]], an ettles at controllin thaim uisin [[insecticide]]s an a wheen o ither techniques. Some beasties skaithes craps bi feedin on sap, leafs or fruits. A twa-three [[parasitic]] species is [[pathogenic]]. Some beasties dis complex ecological roles; [[blaw-flees]], for ensaumple, helps consume [[carrion]] but spreids diseases and aa. Beastie [[Pollination|pollinators]] is necessar tae the life cycle o a lot o flouerin plant species that maist leevin beins, includin humans, is at least pairtly dependent on; withoot thaim, the terrestrial portion o the biosphere (includin humans) wad be devastatit.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/289001/insect |author=Vincent Brian Wigglesworth |title=Insect |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] online |accessdate=19 April 2012}}</ref> A wheen ither beasties is thocht tae be ecologically benefeecial as predators an a twa-three ither anes provides direct economic benefit. [[Soiewirm]]s an bees haes been uised a lot bi humans for the production o [[soie]] an [[hinnie]], respectively. In some culturs, fowk eats the larvae or adults o parteecular beasties. == Etymology == The wird "beastie" is a diminutive form o beast<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dsl.ac.uk/entry/snd/beastie|title=Beastie|last=|first=|date=|website=Dictionar o the Scots Leid|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926023206/https://dsl.ac.uk/entry/snd/beastie|archive-date=2021-09-26|access-date=30 August 2020}}</ref>. ==Taxonomy== Tradeetional morphology-based or appearance-based [[systematics]] haes for uisual gien the [[Hexapoda]] the rank o [[supercless (biology)|supercless]],<ref name="Gullan and Cranston" />{{Rp|180}} an identifee'd fower groups within it: beasties (Ectognatha), springtails ([[Springtail|Collembola]]), [[Protura]], an [[Diplura]], the latter three bein grouped thegither as the [[Entognatha]] on the basis o inner mooth pairts. Supraordinal relationships haes unnergane numerous chynges wi the advent o methods based on evolutionary history an genetic data. == Morphology an pheesiology == [[File:Insect anatomy diagram.svg|right|300px|thumb|Beastie morphology<br /> '''A'''- Heid '''B'''- Thorax '''C'''- Abdomen <br /> <div style="{{column-count|2}}"> 1. [[Antenna (biology)|antenna]]<br /> 2. [[Ocellus|ocelli]] (lawer)<br /> 3. ocelli (upper)<br /> 4. [[compound ee]]<br /> 5. harn (cerebral [[Ganglion|ganglia]])<br /> 6. [[prothorax]]<br /> 7. dorsal bluid vessel<br /> 8. [[invertebrate trachea|tracheal]] tubes (trunk wi [[spiracle]])<br /> 9. [[mesothorax]]<br /> 10. [[metathorax]]<br /> 11. [[insect wing|forewing]]<br /> 12. [[insect wing|hindwing]]<br /> 13. mid-gut (painch)<br /> 14. dorsal tube (Hert)<br /> 15. ovary<br /> 16. [[hind-gut]] (thairm, rectum & anus)<br /> 17. anus<br /> 18. oviduct<br /> 19. nerve chord (abdominal ganglia)<br /> 20. [[Malpighian tubule system|Malpighian tubes]]<br /> 21. pulvilli (feet)<br /> 22. cleuks<br /> 23. [[Arthropod leg|tarsus]]<br /> 24. [[Arthropod leg|tibia]] (shank)<br /> 25. [[Arthropod leg|femur]] (hunker)<br /> 26. [[Arthropod leg|trochanter]]<br /> 27. fore-gut (crap, gizzern)<br /> 28. thoracic ganglion<br /> 29. [[Arthropod leg|coxa]] (hurdy)<br /> 30. salivar gland<br /> 31. [[subesophageal ganglion]]<br /> 32. [[insect mouthpairts|mouthpairts]]</div>]] ===Freemit=== Beastie bouks is sindert intae three main pairts, the [[heid]], [[thorax]], an [[abdomen]]. The [[heid]] is enclosed in a haurd, gey sclerotised, unsegmentit, exoskeletal heid capsule, or [[epicranium]], that haes the feck o the sensin organs, includin the antennae, ocellus or een, an the moothpairts. The [[thorax]] is a tagma componed o three sections, the [[prothorax]], [[mesothorax]] an the [[metathorax]]. The anterior segment, nearest tae the heid, is the prothorax, wi the major featurs bein the first pair o legs an the pronotum. The middle segment is the mesothorax, wi the major featurs bein the seicont pair o legs an the anterior weengs. The third an maist posterior segment, abuttin the abdomen, is the metathorax, that featurs the third pair o legs an the posterior wings. The [[abdomen]] is the lairgest tagma o the beastie, an that for ordinar haes 11–12 segments an isna sae strangly sclerotised as the heid or thorax. Ilka segment o the abdomen is representit bi a sclerotised tergum an sternum. The beastie ooter skelet, the cuticle, is made up o twa layers: the [[epicuticle]], that is a thin an wauxy watter reseestant ooter layer an haes nae [[chitin]], an a lawer layer cried the [[procuticle]]. The procuticle is chitinous an faur thicker nor the epicuticle an haes twa layers: an ooter layer kent as the exocuticle an an inner layer kent as the endocuticle. The teuch an flexible endocuticle is biggit frae numerous layers o feebrous chitin an proteins, criss-crossin ither, while the exocuticle is rigid an [[sclerotization|haurdened]].<ref name="Gullan and Cranston">{{cite book |last=Gullan |first=P.J. |author2=Cranston, P.S. |title=The Insects: An Outline of Entomology |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781405111133 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Oxford |year=2005 |edition=3 |isbn=1-4051-1113-5}}</ref>{{Rp|22–24}} ===Internal=== The [[nervous system]] o an beastie can be sindert intae a [[harn]] an a [[ventral nerve cord]]. The heid capsule is made up o sax fused segments, ilka ane wi aither a pair o [[ganglion|ganglia]], or a cluster o nerve cells ootby the harn. At least a twa-three beasties haes [[nociceptor]]s, cells that detects an sends signals responsible for the sensation o [[Pyne in ainimals|pyne]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=Do insects feel pain? — A biological view | journal=Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences | doi=10.1007/BF01963580 | year=1984 | volume=40 | issue=2 | pages=1420–1423| last1=Eisemann | first1=C. H. | last2=Jorgensen | first2=W. K. | last3=Merritt | first3=D. J. | last4=Rice | first4=M. J. | last5=Cribb | first5=B. W. | last6=Webb | first6=P. D. | last7=Zalucki | first7=M. P.}}</ref> Forby, beasties can learn things.<ref>Annual Review of Entomology, [http://www.annualreviews.org/eprint/5PHddkgYYKaduPp4CcN5/full/10.1146/annurev.ento.53.103106.093343 Evolutionary Biology of Insect Learning], Vol. 53: 145-160</ref> A beastie uises thair digeestive seestem tae extract nutrients an ither substances oot the meat it eats.<ref name="genent">{{cite web | title=General Entomology – Digestive and Excritory system | url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/library/tutorials/internal_anatomy/digestive.html | publisher=NC state University | accessdate=3 May 2009}}</ref> Maist o this meat is ingeestit in the form o [[macromolecule]]s an ither complex substances lik [[protein]]s, [[polysaccharide]]s, [[fat]]s an [[nucleic acid]]s. The main structur o an beastie's digeestive seestem is a lang enclosed tube cried the [[alimentary canal]] that rins langwyse throu the bouk. The alimentary canaul airts meat unidirectionally frae the [[mooth]] tae the [[anus]]. The reproductive seestem o female beasties haes a pair o [[ovaries]], accessory glands, ane or mair [[spermatheca]]e, an ducts connectin thir pairts. The ovaries is made up o a nummer o egg tubes, cried [[ovarioles]] that varies in size an nummer bi species. The nummer o eggs that the beastie can mak varies bi the nummer o ovarioles wi the rate that eggs can develop bein influenced bi ovariole design and aa. For males, the reproductive seestem is the [[testis]], hingin in the bouk cavity bi [[Invertebrate trachea|tracheae]] an the fat bouk. [[Respiratory seestem|Beastie respiration]] is duin withoot [[buff]]s. Insteid, the [[Respiratory seestem o insects|beastie respiratory seestem]] uises a seestem o internal tubes an sacs that gases aither diffuises or is pumped throu active-like, deliverin oxygen directly tae tishies that needs it by wey o thair [[invertebrate trachea|trachea]] (element 8 in nummered diagram). Syne oxygen is deleevered directly, the circulatory seestem is nae uised tae cairy oxygen, an is tharefore greatly reduced. The beastie circulatory seestem haes nae [[vein]]s or [[artery|arteries]], an insteid haes a bittie mair nor the ae, perforatit dorsal tube that pulses [[peristalsis|peristaltically]]. Taewart the thorax, the dorsal tube (element 14) sinders intae chaumers an acts lik the beastie's hert. The ither end o the dorsal tube is lik the aorta o the beastie circulatin the [[hemolymph]], arthropods' fluid analog o [[bluid]], in the bouk cavity.<ref name="Gullan and Cranston" />{{Rp|61–65}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/tutorial/circulatory.html|title=Circulatory System|last=Meyer|first=John R.|date=17 February 2006|publisher=Department of Entomology, NC State University|page=1|accessdate=11 October 2009|location=NC State University|archive-date=2009-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927000720/http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/tutorial/circulatory.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Air is taen in throu openins on the sides o the abdomen cried [[spiracle]]s. == Senses an communication == A wheen beasties haes gey an sensitive an, or specialised organs o [[sense|perception]]. Some beasties siclike as [[bees]] can perceive [[ultraviolet]] wavelenths, or detect [[polarised licht]], while the [[antenna (biology)|antennae]] o male mochs can detect the [[pheromone]]s o female mochs ower distances o mony kilometres.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://crazydaz.com/insects.pdf |title=Insects|publisher=Alien Life Forms|page=4|accessdate=17 May 2009}}</ref> Some beasties displays a rudimentar [[numeracy|sense o nummers]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Möller|first=R.|title=A Biorobotics Approach to the Study of Insect Visual Homing Strategies|year=2002|page=11|url=http://www.ti.uni-bielefeld.de/downloads/publications/habil.pdf|language=German|access-date=2017-05-03|archive-date=2017-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129095634/http://www.ti.uni-bielefeld.de/downloads/publications/habil.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> siclike as the solitar wasps that prays upon a single species. The mither wasp lays her eggs in individual cells an gies ilka egg a nummer o live caterpillars that the young can eat whan hatched. A twa-three beasties, siclike as memmers o the faimilies Poduridae an Onychiuridae (Collembola), [[Mycetophilidae]] (Diptera) an the clock faimilies [[Lampyridae]], [[Phengodidae]], [[Elateridae]] an [[Staphylinidae]] is [[bioluminescent]]. The maist faimiliar group is the [[fireflees]], clocks o the faimily Lampyridae. Some species can control this licht generation tae produce flashes. The function varies wi some species uisin them tae attract mates, while ither anes uises thaim tae lure prey. Maist beasties, ither nor a twa-three species o [[Rhaphidophoridae|cove cheepers]], can perceive licht an daurk. Beasties wis the earliest organisms tae mak an sense soonds. Beasties maks soonds maistly bi mechanical action o appendages. In [[gresslowper]]s an cheepers, this is gotten at bi [[stridulation]]. [[Cicada]]s maks the loodest soonds amang the beasties bi makkin an amplifeein soonds wi special modifications tae thair bouk an musculature. The African [[cicada]] ''[[Brevisana brevis]]'' haes been meisurt at 106.7&nbsp;[[decibel]]s at a distance o {{convert|50|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="walker">Walker, T.J., ed. (2001). [http://entnemdept.ifas.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/index.shtml University of Florida Book of Insect Records] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208115924/http://entnemdept.ifas.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/index.shtml |date=2012-12-08 }}.</ref> Twa-three beasties, siclike as the ''[[Helicoverpa zea]]'' mochs, [[hawk moch]]s an [[Hedylidae|Hedylid]] butterflees, can hear [[ultrasoond]] an tak evasive action whan thay sense that thay hae been detectit bi baukies.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kay, Robert E. |title=Acoustic signalling and its possible relationship to assembling and navigation in the moth, ''Heliothis zea''|journal= Journal of Insect Physiology |volume=15|issue=6 |year=1969|pages= 989–1001 |doi=10.1016/0022-1910(69)90139-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Spangler, Hayward G. |title=Moth hearing, defense, and communication|journal= Annual Review of Entomology |volume=33|issue=1 |year=1988|pages= 59–81 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.33.1.59}}</ref> == Social behaviour == [[Social insect|Social beastie]]s, siclike as [[termite]]s, [[eemock]]s an a wheen o [[bee]]s an [[wasp]]s, is the maist familiar species o [[Eusociality|eusocial]] ainimal.<ref>{{cite web|title= Social insects|last=Brewer|first=Gary|url=http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/entomology/topics/societies.htm|publisher=North Dakota State University|accessdate=6 May 2009 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080321171246/http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/entomology/topics/societies.htm |archivedate = 21 March 2008}}</ref> Thay bide thegither in big weel-organised colonies that can be that strang integratit an genetically alike that the colonies o some species is whiles conseedert [[superorganism]]s. It is whiles argied that the various species o [[hinnie bee]] is the anely invertebrates (an indeed ane o the few non-human groups) tae hae evolved a seestem o abstract seembolic communication whaur a behaviour is uised tae ''represent'' an convey parteecular information aboot something in the environment. == Locomotion == Beasties is the anely group o [[invertebrate]]s tae hae developed flicht. Beastie flicht haes been a topic o great interest in [[aerodynamics]] pairtly cause o the inabeelity o steady-state theories tae expone the lift generatit bi the tottie weengs o beasties. But beastie weengs is in motion, wi flappin an vibrations, resultin in churnin an [[vortex|eddies]], an the misconception that pheesics says [[Bumbee|"bumbees canna flee"]] held forrit ootthrou maist o the twintiet century. Unlik [[bird]]s, a wheen smaa beasties is swept alang bi the [[prevailin winds]]<ref>Yates, Diana (2008). [http://news.illinois.edu/news/08/0707birds.html Birds migrate together at night in dispersed flocks, new study indicates.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022162435/http://news.illinois.edu/news/08/0707birds.html |date=2008-10-22 }} [[University of Illinois]] at Urbana – Champaign. Retrieved on 26 April 2009.</ref> awtho a lot o the bigger beasties is kent tae mak [[insect migration|migrations]]. A wheen adult beasties uises sax legs for walkin an haes adoptit a [[tripedal]] [[gait]]. The tripedal gait allous for fest walkin while ayeweys haein a stable stance an haes been studied extensively in [[cockroach]]es. A wheen o beasties leeves aither pairt or aa o thair lifes unnerwatter. In a lot o the mair primitive orders o beastie, the immatur stages is spent in a aquatic environment. Some groups o beasties, lik certain [[watter clock]]s, haes aquatic adults as weel.<ref name="aquins">{{cite book |author1=Richard W. Merritt |author2=Kenneth W. Cummins |author3=Martin B. Berg (editors) |year=2007 | title=An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoaq0000merr | publisher=Kendall Hunt Publishers | isbn=978-0-7575-5049-2 | edition=4th}}</ref> == References == {{Reflist|30em}} {{Commonscat|Insects}} [[Category:Insects| ]] s92n78dwg22c3x19pgjpxxhrxv0nmm5 0 14535 918730 866853 2026-06-24T23:27:20Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918730 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-2007-1022-506, Italien, deutsche Frontkämpfer in Rom crop.jpg|thumb|250px]] [[File:Mussolini e Petacci a Piazzale Loreto, 1945.jpg|thumb|250px]] '''Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini''' <!--[[Sovereign Military Order of Malta|KSMOM]] [[Order of the Tower and Sword|GCTE]] (see [[WP:INITIAL]])-->({{IPA-it|beˈniːto musːoˈliːni}}; [[29 Julie]] 1883 {{ndash}} [[28 Aprile]] 1945) wis an [[Italian fowk|Italian]] [[politeecian]] who led the [[Naitional Fascist Pairty]] an is creditit wi bein ane o the key figures in the creation o [[Fascism]]. Mussolini became the [[Leet o Prime Meenisters o Italy|40t]] [[Prime Meenister o Italy]] in 1922 an began uisin the title ''[[Duce|Il Duce]]'' bi 1925. Efter 1936, his offeecial title wis "''His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Heid o Government, Duce o Fascism, an Foonder o the Empire''".<ref>[[commons:Image:Mussoliniposter.jpg|Image Description: Propaganda poster of Benito Mussolini, with caption "His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Leader of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire...".]]</ref> Mussolini an aa creatit an held the supreme military rank o [[First Marshal o the Empire]] alang wi King [[Victor Emmanuel III o Italy]], which gae him an the King jynt supreme control ower the military o Italy. Mussolini remained in pouer till he wis replaced in 1943; for a short period efter this till his daith, he wis the leader o the [[Italian Social Republic]]. Mussolini wis amang the foonders o [[Italian Fascism]], which includit elements o [[naitionalism]], [[corporatism]], [[naitional syndicalism]], [[expansionism]], [[social progress]] an [[anti-communism]] in combination wi [[censorship]] o [[subversives]] an state [[propaganda]]. In the years follaein his creation o the Fascist ideology, Mussolini influenced, or achieved admiration frae, a wide variety o poleetical figures.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hakim|first=Joy|authorlink=|coauthors=|title=A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1995|location=New York|pages=|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofusbook50000haki|doi=|id=|isbn=0-19-509514-6}}</ref> Amang the domestic achievements o Mussolini frae the years 1924–1939 wur: his [[public wirks]] programmes sic as the tamin o the [[Pontine Mairshes]], the improvement o job opportunities, an [[public transport]]. Mussolini an aa solved the [[Roman Question]] bi concludin the [[Lateran Treaty]] atween the [[Kinrick o Italy (1861–1946)|Kinrick o Italy]] an the [[Holy See]]. He is an aa creditit wi securin economic success in [[Italian Empire|Italy's colonies an commercial dependencies]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Warwick Palmer|first=Alan|title =Who's Who in World Politics: From 1860 to the Present Day| publisher=Routledge|url=http://books.google.com/?id=YdMWTvXhVlUC&pg=PA259&lpg=PA259&dq=mussolini's+achievements|isbn=0415131618|year=1996}}</ref> On 10 Juin 1940, Mussolini led Italy intae [[World War II]] on the side o the Axis despite [[Franco–Italian Agreement|initially sidin wi]] Fraunce against Germany in the early 1930s. Believin the war wad be short-lived, he declared war on [[Fraunce]] an [[Great Breetain]] in order tae gain territories in the peace treaty that wad suin follae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Humphrys|first=Julian|title =BBC History magazine| publisher=Bristol Magazines Ltd|issn=14698552|month=June|year=2010}}</ref> Three year later, Mussolini wis deposed at the [[Grand Cooncil o Fascism]], promptit bi the [[Allied invasion o Italy]]. Suin efter his incarceration began, Mussolini wis rescued frae prison in the darin [[Gran Sasso raid]] bi [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[special forces]]. Follaein his rescue, Mussolini heidit the [[Italian Social Republic]] in pairts o Italy that wur no occupied bi Allied forces. In late Aprile 1945, wi tot defeat loomin, Mussolini attemptit tae escape tae Swisserland, ae tae be quickly captured an [[Summary execution|summarily executit]] near [[Lake Como]] bi [[Italian partisans]]. His body wis then taken tae [[Milan]] whaur it wis hung upside doun at a petrol station for public viewin an tae provide confirmation o his demise. == References == {{reflist}} {{Commonscat}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mussolini, Benito}} [[Category:1883 births]] [[Category:1945 daiths]] [[Category:Annulled Honorary Knichts Grand Cross o the Order o the Bath]] [[Category:Fowk executit bi Italy bi firin squad]] [[Category:Italian fowk executit bi firin squad]] [[Category:Executit prime meenisters]] [[Category:Fascist rulers]] [[Category:Italian anti-communists]] [[Category:Italian atheists]] [[Category:Italian fascists]] [[Category:Italian militar personnel o Warld War I]] [[Category:Foreign meenisters o Italy]] [[Category:Italian Meenisters o the Interior]] [[Category:Italian newspaper foonders]] [[Category:Italian fowk o Warld War II]] [[Category:Italian Socialist Pairty politeecians]] [[Category:Knichts o Maltae]] [[Category:Leaders oosted bi a coup]] [[Category:Leaders that teuk pouer bi coup]] [[Category:Ousted heids o state]] [[Category:Fowk deportit frae Swisserland]] [[Category:Fowk frae the Province o Forlì-Cesena]] [[Category:Poleetical pairty foonders]] [[Category:Prime Meenisters o Italy]] [[Category:Recipients o the Order o Lāčplēsis, 1st class]] [[Category:Warld War II poleetical leaders]] [[Category:Shuitin survivors]] [[Category:Fowk o the Italian Social Republic]] {{Stub/Italy}} gy40nftqjpsr2wlhcp1gvmb3iu1473g 0 15420 918740 890319 2026-06-24T23:34:39Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918740 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fixscots}} [[File:Map of USA with state names sco.svg|thumb|upright=2.2|Cairt o the Unitit States]] A '''U.S. state''' (abbreviation o '''Unitit States state''') is ony o the 50 [[federatit state]]s o the [[Unitit States|Unitit States o Americae]] that share [[sovereignty]] wi the [[federal govrenment o the Unitit States|federal govrenment]]. Acause o this shared sovereignty, an American is a citizen baith o the federal entity an o his or her state o [[Domicile (law)|domicile]].<ref>See the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].</ref> Fower states uise the offeecial title o ''[[Commonweel (U.S. state)|commonweel]]'' rather than ''state''. [[State citizenship|State ceetizenship]] is flexible an no govrenment approval is required tae muive atween states (wi the exception o convicts on [[parole]]). The [[Unitit States Constitution]] allocates pouer atween thon twa levels o govrenment. Bi ratifyin the Constitution, the fowk transferred certain [[Limited govrenment|limited]] [[sovereign]] pouers tae the federal govrenment frae thair states. Unner the [[Tent Amendment tae the Unitit States Constitution|Tenth Amendment]], aw pouers no delegatit tae the U.S. govrenment nor prohibitit tae the states are retained bi the states or the [[Fowk o the Unitit States|fowk]]. Historically, the tasks o [[public safety]] (in the sense o controllin creeme), public eddication, public heal, transportation, an [[infrastructur]] hae generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, awtho aw o thir nou hae significant federal fundin an regulation as well (based lairgely upon the [[Commerce Clause]], the [[Taxin an Spendin Clause]], an the [[Necessary an Proper Clause]] o the Constitution). Ower time, the Constitution haes been amendit, an the interpretation an application o its provisions haes chynged. The general tendency haes been toward centralization an [[Incorporation (Bill o Richts)|incorporation]], wi the federal govrenment playin a muckler role nor it ance did. Thare is a continuin debate ower [[states' richts]], that concerns the extent an naitur o the states' pouers an sovereignty in relation tae the federal govrenment as weel as the richts o individual bodys. Congress micht admit new states on an equal fittin wi existin anes; housomeivver, it haesnae duin sae syne 1959. The Constitution is silent on the quaisten o gin states hae the pouer tae unilaterally lea, or secede frae, the Union, but the Supreme Court haes ruled<ref name="books.google.com">Aleksandar Pavković, Peter Radan, [http://books.google.com/books?id=-IjHbPvp1W0C Creating New States: Theory and Practice of Secession], p. 222, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007.</ref><ref name="Texas v. White">[http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0074_0700_ZO.html ''Texas v. White''], 74 U.S. 700 (1868) at [[Cornell University Law School]] Supreme Court collection.</ref> secession tae be unconstitutional, a poseetion driven in pairt bi the ootcome o the [[American Ceevil War]]. ==States== {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align: center;" |+ States o the Unitit States o Americae |- !scope="col" colspan=2 rowspan=2|Name &<br>[[Leet o U.S. state abbreviations|postal abbreviation]]<ref name=USPSabbreviations>{{cite web| url=https://pe.usps.com/text/pub28/28apb.htm| title=Appendix B: Two–Letter State and possession Abbreviations| work=Postal Addressing Standards| publisher=United States Postal Service| location=Washington, D.C.| date=May 2015| accessdate=March 3, 2018}}</ref> !scope="col" colspan=2|Ceeties !scope="col" rowspan=2|Established{{efn-ua|The oreeginal 13 states becam [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] in Julie 1776 upon greein tae the [[Unitit States Declaration o Unthirldom]], an ilk jynt the first Union o states atween 1777 an 1781, upon ratifeein the [[Airticles o Confederation]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781| url = https://archive.org/details/articlesofconfed0000jens| year = 1959| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press| isbn = 978-0-299-00204-6| pages = xi, 184 }}</ref> Thir states are presentit in the order in that each ratifee'd the 1787 Constitution, sicweys jynin the present federal Union o states. Subsequent states are leetit in the order o thair admission tae the Union, an the date gien is the offeecial establishment date set bi [[Act o Congress]]. ''For forder details, see [[Leet o U.S. states bi date o admission tae the Union]]''}} !scope="col" rowspan=2|Population<br>{{efn-ua|2017 estimate}}<ref name=Censusestimates>{{cite web| title=Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2017| url=https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=PEP_2017_PEPANNRES&src=pt| publisher=U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division| location=Washington, D.C.| date=December 2017| accessdate=March 3, 2018| archive-date=2018-04-09| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180409173603/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=PEP_2017_PEPANNRES&src=pt| url-status=dead}}</ref> !scope="col" colspan=2|Total area<ref name=areameasurements>{{cite web| title=State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates| url=https://www.census.gov/geo/reference/state-area.html| publisher=U.S. Census Bureau| location=Washington, D.C.| quote=... provides land, water and total area measurements for the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and the Island Areas. The area measurements were derived from the Census Bureau's Master Address File/Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (MAF/TIGER®) database. The land and water areas, ... reflect base feature updates made in the MAF/TIGER® database through August, 2010.| accessdate=March 3, 2018}}</ref> !scope="col" colspan=2|Laund area<ref name=areameasurements/> !scope="col" colspan=2|Watter area<ref name=areameasurements/> !scope="col" rowspan=2|[[Leet o United States congressional destricts|#<br>Reps.]] |- !scope="col"|Caipital !scope="col"|Lairgest<ref name="State and Local Government Finances and Employment">{{cite web| url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0448.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017142616/http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0448.pdf| dead-url=yes| archive-date=October 17, 2011| title=State and Local Government Finances and Employment| year=2012| publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]| page=284| accessdate=July 8, 2013}}</ref> !scope="col" class="unsortable"|mi² !scope="col"|km² !scope="col" class="unsortable"|mi² !scope="col"|km² !scope="col" class="unsortable"|mi² !scope="col"|km² |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Alabama}} |AL |[[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |[[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] |{{dts|Dec 14, 1819}} |{{right|4,874,747}} |{{cvt|52420.07|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|50645.33|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1774.74|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|7}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Alaska}} |AK |[[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]] |[[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] |{{dts|Jan 3, 1959}} |{{right|739,795}} |{{cvt|665384.04|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|570640.95|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|94743.1|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|1}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Arizona}} |AZ |colspan=2|[[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] |{{dts|Feb 14, 1912}} |{{right|7,016,270}} |{{cvt|113990.3|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|113594.08|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|396.22|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|9}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Arkansas}} |AR |colspan=2|[[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] |{{dts|Jun 15, 1836}} |{{right|3,004,279}} |{{cvt|53178.55|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|52035.48|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1143.07|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|4}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Californie}} |CA |[[Sacramento, Californie|Sacramento]] |[[Los Angeles]] |{{dts|Sep 9, 1850}} |{{right|39,536,653}} |{{cvt|163694.74|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|155779.22|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|7915.52|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|53}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Colorado}} |CO |colspan=2|[[Denver]] |{{dts|Aug 1, 1876}} |{{right|5,607,154}} |{{cvt|104093.67|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|103641.89|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|451.78|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|7}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Connecticut}} |CT |[[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] |[[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]] |{{dts|Jan 9, 1788}} |{{right|3,588,184}} |{{cvt|5543.41|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|4842.36|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|701.06|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|5}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Delaware}} |DE |[[Dover, Delaware|Dover]] |[[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]] |{{dts|Dec 7, 1787}} |{{right|961,939}} |{{cvt|2488.72|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1948.54|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|540.18|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|1}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Florida}} |FL |[[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]] |[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]] |{{dts|Mar 3, 1845}} |{{right|20,984,400}} |{{cvt|65757.7|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|53624.76|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|12132.94|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|27}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Georgie (U.S. state)|name=Georgie}} |GA |colspan=2|[[Atlanta]] |{{dts|Jan 2, 1788}} |{{right|10,429,379}} |{{cvt|59425.15|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|57513.49|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1911.67|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|14}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Hawaii}} |HI |colspan=2|[[Honolulu]] |{{dts|Aug 21, 1959}} |{{right|1,427,538}} |{{cvt|10931.72|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|6422.63|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|4509.09|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|2}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Idaho}} |ID |colspan=2|[[Boise, Idaho|Boise]] |{{dts|Jul 3, 1890}} |{{right|1,716,943}} |{{cvt|83568.95|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|82643.12|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|925.83|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|2}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Illinois}} |IL |[[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] |[[Chicago]] |{{dts|Dec 3, 1818}} |{{right|12,802,023}} |{{cvt|57913.55|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|55518.93|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|2394.62|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|18}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Indiana}} |IN |colspan=2|[[Indianapolis]] |{{dts|Dec 11, 1816}} |{{right|6,666,818}} |{{cvt|36419.55|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|35826.11|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|593.44|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|9}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Iowa}} |IA |colspan=2|[[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]] |{{dts|Dec 28, 1846}} |{{right|3,145,711}} |{{cvt|56272.81|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|55857.13|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|415.68|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|4}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Kansas}} |KS |[[Topeka, Kansas|Topeka]] |[[Wichita, Kansas|Wichita]] |{{dts|Jan 29, 1861}} |{{right|2,913,123}} |{{cvt|82278.36|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|81758.72|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|519.64|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|4}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Kentucky}}{{efn-ua|name=statenomenclature|Uses the [[nomenclatur|term]] "[[Commonwealth (U.S. state)|commonwealth]]" raither nor "state" in its full offeecial name.}} |KY |[[Frankfort, Kentucky|Frankfort]] |[[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]] |{{dts|Jun 1, 1792}} |{{right|4,454,189}} |{{cvt|40407.8|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|39486.34|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|921.46|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|6}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Louisiana}} |LA |[[Baton Rouge, Louisiana|Baton Rouge]] |[[New Orleans]] |{{dts|Apr 30, 1812}} |{{right|4,684,333}} |{{cvt|52378.13|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|43203.9|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|9174.23|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|6}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Maine}} |ME |[[Augusta, Maine|Augusta]] |[[Portland, Maine|Portland]] |{{dts|Mar 15, 1820}} |{{right|1,335,907}} |{{cvt|35379.74|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|30842.92|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|4536.82|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|2}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Maryland}} |MD |[[Annapolis, Maryland|Annapolis]] |[[Baltimore]] |{{dts|Apr 28, 1788}} |{{right|6,052,177}} |{{cvt|12405.93|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|9707.24|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|2698.69|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|8}} |- !scope="row"|{{nowrap|{{flag|Massachusetts}}{{efn-ua|name=statenomenclature}}}} |MA |colspan=2|[[Boston]] |{{dts|Feb 6, 1788}} |{{right|6,859,819}} |{{cvt|10554.39|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|7800.06|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|2754.33|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|9}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Michigan}} |MI |[[Lansing, Michigan|Lansing]] |[[Detroit]] |{{dts|Jan 26, 1837}} |{{right|9,962,311}} |{{cvt|96713.51|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|56538.9|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|40174.61|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|14}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Minnesota}} |MN |[[Saint Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] |[[Minneapolis]] |{{dts|Mey 11, 1858}} |{{right|5,576,606}} |{{cvt|86935.83|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|79626.74|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|7309.09|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|8}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Mississippi}} |MS |colspan=2|[[Jackson, Mississippi|Jackson]] |{{dts|Dec 10, 1817}} |{{right|2,984,100}} |{{cvt|48431.78|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|46923.27|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1508.5|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|4}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Missouri}} |MO |[[Jefferson City, Missouri|Jefferson City]] |[[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] |{{dts|Aug 10, 1821}} |{{right|6,113,532}} |{{cvt|69706.99|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|68741.52|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|965.47|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|8}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Montana}} |MT |[[Helena, Montana|Helena]] |[[Billings, Montana|Billings]] |{{dts|Nov 8, 1889}} |{{right|1,050,493}} |{{cvt|147039.71|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|145545.8|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1493.91|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|1}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Nebraska}} |NE |[[Lincoln, Nebraska|Lincoln]] |[[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]] |{{dts|Mar 1, 1867}} |{{right|1,920,076}} |{{cvt|77347.81|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|76824.17|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|523.64|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|3}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Nevada}} |NV |[[Carson City, Nevada|Carson City]] |[[Las Vegas]] |{{dts|Oct 31, 1864}} |{{right|2,998,039}} |{{cvt|110571.82|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|109781.18|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|790.65|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|4}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|New Hampshire}} |NH |[[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]] |[[Manchester, New Hampshire|Manchester]] |{{dts|Jun 21, 1788}} |{{right|1,342,795}} |{{cvt|9349.16|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|8952.65|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|396.51|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|2}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|New Jersey}} |NJ |[[Trenton, New Jersey|Trenton]] |[[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]] |{{dts|Dec 18, 1787}} |{{right|9,005,644}} |{{cvt|8722.58|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|7354.22|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1368.36|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|12}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|New Mexico}} |NM |[[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] |[[Albuquerque, New Mexico|Albuquerque]] |{{dts|Jan 6, 1912}} |{{right|2,088,070}} |{{cvt|121590.3|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|121298.15|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|292.15|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|3}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|New York}} |NY |[[Albany, New York|Albany]] |[[New York City]] |{{dts|Jul 26, 1788}} |{{right|19,849,399}} |{{cvt|54554.98|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|47126.4|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|7428.58|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|27}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|North Carolina}} |NC |[[Raleigh, North Carolina|Raleigh]] |[[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]] |{{dts|Nov 21, 1789}} |{{right|10,273,419}} |{{cvt|53819.16|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|48617.91|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|5201.25|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|13}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|North Dakota}} |ND |[[Bismarck, North Dakota|Bismarck]] |[[Fargo, North Dakota|Fargo]] |{{dts|Nov 2, 1889}} |{{right|755,393}} |{{cvt|70698.32|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|69000.8|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1697.52|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|1}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Ohio}} |OH |colspan=2|[[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]] |{{dts|Mar 1, 1803}} |{{right|11,658,609}} |{{cvt|44825.58|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|40860.69|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|3964.89|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|16}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Oklahoma}} |OK |colspan=2|[[Oklahoma Ceety]] |{{dts|Nov 16, 1907}} |{{right|3,930,864}} |{{cvt|69898.87|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|68594.92|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1303.95|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|5}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Oregon}} |OR |[[Salem, Oregon|Salem]] |[[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] |{{dts|Feb 14, 1859}} |{{right|4,142,776}} |{{cvt|98378.54|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|95988.01|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|2390.53|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|5}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Pennsylvanie}}{{efn-ua|name=statenomenclature}} |PA |[[Harrisburg, Pennsylvanie|Harrisburg]] |[[Philadelphia]] |{{dts|Dec 12, 1787}} |{{right|12,805,537}} |{{cvt|46054.34|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|44742.7|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1311.64|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|18}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Rhode Island}} |RI |colspan=2|[[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]] |{{dts|Mey 29, 1790}} |{{right|1,059,639}} |{{cvt|1544.89|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1033.81|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|511.07|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|2}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Sooth Carolina}} |SC |[[Columbia, Sooth Carolina|Columbia]] |[[Charleston, Sooth Carolina|Charleston]] |{{dts|Mey 23, 1788}} |{{right|5,024,369}} |{{cvt|32020.49|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|30060.7|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1959.79|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|7}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Sooth Dakota}} |SD |[[Pierre, Sooth Dakota|Pierre]] |[[Sioux Falls, Sooth Dakota|Sioux Falls]] |{{dts|Nov 2, 1889}} |{{right|869,666}} |{{cvt|77115.68|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|75811|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|1304.68|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|1}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Tennessee}} |TN |colspan=2|[[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] |{{dts|Jun 1, 1796}} |{{right|6,715,984}} |{{cvt|42144.25|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|41234.9|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|909.36|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|9}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Texas}} |TX |[[Austin, Texas|Austin]] |[[Houston]] |{{dts|Dec 29, 1845}} |{{right|28,304,596}} |{{cvt|268596.46|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|261231.71|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|7364.75|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|36}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Utah}} |UT |colspan=2|[[Salt Lake City]] |{{dts|Jan 4, 1896}} |{{right|3,101,833}} |{{cvt|84896.88|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|82169.62|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|2727.26|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|4}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Vermont}} |VT |[[Montpelier, Vermont|Montpelier]] |[[Burlington, Vermont|Burlington]] |{{dts|Mar 4, 1791}} |{{right|623,657}} |{{cvt|9616.36|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|9216.66|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|399.71|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|1}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Virginie}}{{efn-ua|name=statenomenclature}} |VA |[[Richmond, Virginie|Richmond]] |[[Virginia Beach, Virginie|Virginia Beach]] |{{dts|Jun 25, 1788}} |{{right|8,470,020}} |{{cvt|42774.93|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|39490.09|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|3284.84|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|11}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Washington}} |WA |[[Olympia, Washington|Olympia]] |[[Seattle]] |{{dts|Nov 11, 1889}} |{{right|7,405,743}} |{{cvt|71297.95|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|66455.52|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|4842.43|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|10}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Wast Virginie}} |WV |colspan=2|[[Charleston, Wast Virginie|Charleston]] |{{dts|Jun 20, 1863}} |{{right|1,815,857}} |{{cvt|24230.04|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|24038.21|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|191.83|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|3}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Wisconsin}} |WI |[[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]] |[[Milwaukee]] |{{dts|Mey 29, 1848}} |{{right|5,795,483}} |{{cvt|65496.38|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|54157.8|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|11338.57|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|8}} |- !scope="row"|{{flag|Wyoming}} |WY |colspan=2|[[Cheyenne, Wyoming|Cheyenne]] |{{dts|Jul 10, 1890}} |{{right|579,315}} |{{cvt|97813.01|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|97093.14|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{cvt|719.87|mi2|km2|0|adj=ri0|abbr=values|sortable=on|disp=table}} |{{right|1}} |} ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=upper-alpha}} == References == {{Reflist|2}} == Further readin == * Stein, Mark, ''How the States Got Their Shapes'', New York : Smithsonian Beuks/Collins, 2008. ISBN 978-0-06-143138-8 == Freemit airtins == * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/st/allstate.htm Information aboot Aw States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724193858/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/st/allstate.htm |date=2009-07-24 }} frae ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/ State Resource Guides, frae the Library o Congress] * [http://factfinder.census.gov/bf/_lang=en_vt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_US9S_geo_id=01000US.html Tables wi auries, populations, densities an mair (in order o population)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031018090414/http://factfinder.census.gov/bf/_lang=en_vt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1R_US9S_geo_id=01000US.html |date=2003-10-18 }} * [http://factfinder.census.gov/bf/_lang=en_vt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1_US9_geo_id=01000US.html Tables with areas, populations, densities and more (alphabetical)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030831164720/http://factfinder.census.gov/bf/_lang=en_vt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1_US9_geo_id=01000US.html |date=2003-08-31 }} * [http://www.usa.gov/Agencies/State_and_Territories.shtml State an Territorial Govrenments on USA.gov] * [http://www.statemaster.com/index.php StateMaster&nbsp;– statistical database for US States.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616005932/http://www.statemaster.com/index.php |date=2012-06-16 }} * [http://www.top50states.com/ U.S. States: Comparisons, rankins, demographics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023035315/http://www.top50states.com/ |date=2015-10-23 }} {{USPoleeticalDiveesions}} {{Unitit States topics}} {{Airticles on first-level admeenistrative diveesions o North American kintras}} {{Commonscat|Subdivisions of the United States}} {{DEFAULTSORT:U.S. State}} [[Category:States o the Unitit States| ]] [[Category:Subdiveesions o the Unitit States|State]] [[Category:Leets o kintra subdiveesions|Unitit States, States]] [[Category:Kintra subdiveesions o the Americas|Unitit States 1]] [[Category:First-level admeenistrative kintra subdiveesions|States, Unitit States]] [[bar:Listn vo de Bundesstootn]] [[sv:Lista över USA:s delstater och territorier]] hsrpmqrnxxpqmo500kyv2qaxxsbhqtb 0 17066 918772 859096 2026-06-25T07:02:54Z CiphriusKane 74958 918772 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement <!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions --> | name = Port Louis<!-- at least one of the first two fields must be filled in --> | official_name = | native_name = <!-- if different from the English name --> | native_name_lang = "fr"<!-- ISO 639-2 code e.g. "fr" for French. If more than one, use {{lang}} instead --> | other_name = | settlement_type = Ceety<!-- such as Town, Village, City, Borough etc. --> <!-- transliteration(s) --------> | translit_lang1 = | translit_lang1_type = | translit_lang1_info = | translit_lang1_type1 = | translit_lang1_info1 = | translit_lang1_type2 = | translit_lang1_info2 = <!-- etc., up to translit_lang1_type6 / translit_lang1_info6 --> | translit_lang2 = | translit_lang2_type = | translit_lang2_info = | translit_lang2_type1 = | translit_lang2_info1 = | translit_lang2_type2 = | translit_lang2_info2 = | translit_lang2_info2 = <!-- etc., up to translit_lang2_type6 / translit_lang2_info6 --> <!-- images, nickname, motto ---> | image_skyline = Evening Port Louis.jpg | imagesize = | image_alt = | image_caption = Aerial view o Port Louis | image = <!-- other image (specify File: or Image: namespace) --> | image_flag = Flag of Port Louis, Mauritius.svg | flag_size = | flag_alt = | flag_link = | image_seal = Coat of arms of Port Louis, Mauritius.svg | seal_size = | seal_alt = | seal_link = | image_shield = | shield_size = | shield_alt = | shield_link = | image_blank_emblem = | blank_emblem_type = <!-- defaults to Logo --> | blank_emblem_size = | blank_emblem_alt = | blank_emblem_link = | nickname = | motto = "Concordia et Progressio" <br />([[Laitin leid|Laitin]] for "Harmony an Progress") | anthem = <!-- maps and coordinates ------> | image_map = | mapsize = | map_alt = | map_caption = | image_map1 = | mapsize1 = | map_alt1 = | map_caption1 = | image_dot_map = | dot_mapsize = | dot_map_base_alt = | dot_map_alt = | dot_map_caption = | dot_x = |dot_y = | pushpin_map = Mauritius <!-- name of a location map as per Template:Location_map --> | pushpin_label_position = right <!-- position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> | pushpin_label = Port Louis <!-- only necessary if "name" or "official_name" are too long --> | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_mapsize = | pushpin_map_caption = Municipal Cooncil location | pushpin_map1 = | pushpin_label_position1 = | pushpin_label1 = <!-- only necessary if "name" or "official_name" are too long --> | pushpin_map_alt1 = | pushpin_mapsize1 = | pushpin_map_caption1 = | coordinates = {{coord|20|9|51.7896|S|57|30|14.7738|E|region:MU|format=dms|display=inline,title}} | coor_pinpoint = <!-- to specify exact location of coordinates (was coor_type) --> | coordinates_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> <!-- location ------------------> | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flagicon|MRI}} [[Mauritius]]<!-- the name of the country --> | subdivision_type1 = [[Destricts o Mauritius|Destricts]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Port Louis Destrict]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = <!-- etc., subdivision_type6 / subdivision_name6 --> <!-- established ---------------> | established_title = <!-- Settled --> | established_date = |established_title2 = Toun |established_date2 = 25 August 1966 |established_title3 = Ceety |established_date3 = 12 December 2011 | extinct_title = | extinct_date = | founder = | named_for = <!-- seat, smaller parts -------> | seat_type = <!-- defaults to: Seat --> | seat = | parts_type = <!-- defaults to: Boroughs --> | parts_style = <!-- list, coll (collapsed list), para (paragraph format) --> | parts = <!-- parts text, or header for parts list --> | p1 = | p2 = <!-- etc., up to p50: for separate parts to be listed--> <!-- government type, leaders --> | government_footnotes = <ref name="mem">{{cite journal|url=http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/mlge/menuitem.f9c1c444c628df3cb3347524e2b521ca/|publisher=Government of Mauritius|title=Municipal & District Councils in Mauritius|accessdate=24 July 2012|journal=|archive-date=2010-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729235532/http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/mlge/menuitem.f9c1c444c628df3cb3347524e2b521ca/#br|url-status=dead}}</ref> <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | government_type = [[Municipal Ceety Cooncil o Port Louis|Municipality]] | governing_body = | leader_party = | leader_title = Lord Mayor | leader_name = Aslam Adam Hossenally | leader_title1 = Deputy Lord Mayor | leader_name1 = Mrs Marie Christiane Dorine CHUKOWRY | leader_title2 = | leader_name2 = {{Collapsible list |title = Members' List |frame_style = border:none; padding: 0; |title_style = <!-- (optional) --> |list_style = text-align:left;display:none; |1 = • |2 = • }} <!-- display settings ---------> | total_type = <!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --> | unit_pref = <!-- enter: Imperial, to display imperial before metric --> <!-- area ----------------------> | area_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | area_magnitude = <!-- use only to set a special wikilink --> | area_total_km2 = 46.7<!-- Calculated as per official figure of population and density --> | area_total_sq_mi = <!-- see table @ Template:Infobox settlement for details --> | area_total_dunam = <!-- used in Middle East articles only --> | area_land_km2 = | area_land_sq_mi = | area_water_km2 = | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent = | area_urban_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | area_urban_km2 = | area_urban_sq_mi = | area_rural_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | area_rural_km2 = | area_rural_sq_mi = | area_metro_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | area_metro_km2 = | area_metro_sq_mi = | area_rank = | area_blank1_title = | area_blank1_km2 = | area_blank1_sq_mi = | area_blank2_title = | area_blank2_km2 = | area_blank2_sq_mi = | area_note = <!-- elevation -----------------> | elevation_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | elevation_m = | elevation_ft = | elevation_max_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | elevation_max_m = | elevation_max_ft = | elevation_min_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | elevation_min_m = | elevation_min_ft = <!-- population ----------------> | population_footnotes = <ref name="stats2012">{{cite journal|url=http://statsmauritius.gov.mu/English/Publications/Documents/Regular%20Reports/annual%20digest/annualdig12.pdf|publisher=Government of Mauritius|title=ANNUAL DIGEST OF STATISTICS 2012|page=22|author=Ministry of Finance & Economic Development|version=31 December|year=2012|accessdate=20 October 2013|journal=|archive-date=2016-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305070337/http://statsmauritius.gov.mu/English/Publications/Documents/Regular%20Reports/annual%20digest/annualdig12.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> | population_total = 148,001 | population_as_of = 2012 | population_rank = 1st in Mauritius | population_density_km2 = auto<!-- for automatic calculation of any density field, use: auto --> | population_density_sq_mi= | population_est = | pop_est_as_of = | population_urban = | population_density_urban_km2 = | population_density_urban_sq_mi = | population_rural = | population_density_rural_km2 = | population_density_rural_sq_mi = | population_metro = | population_density_metro_km2 = | population_density_metro_sq_mi = | population_density = | population_density_rank = | population_blank1_title = | population_blank1 = | population_density_blank1_km2 = | population_density_blank1_sq_mi= | population_blank2_title = | population_blank2 = | population_density_blank2_km2 = | population_density_blank2_sq_mi= | population_demonym = <!-- demonym, ie. Liverpudlian for someone from Liverpool --> | population_note = <!-- demographics (section 1) --> | demographics_type1 = | demographics1_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | demographics1_title1 = | demographics1_info1 = <!-- etc., up to demographics1_title5 / demographics1_info5 --> <!-- demographics (section 2) --> | demographics_type2 = | demographics2_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | demographics2_title1 = | demographics2_info1 = <!-- etc., up to demographics2_title5 / demographics2_info5 --> <!-- time zone(s) --------------> | timezone1 = [[Mauritius Time|MUT]] | utc_offset1 = +4 | timezone1_DST = | utc_offset1_DST = | timezone2 = | utc_offset2 = | timezone2_DST = | utc_offset2_DST = <!-- postal codes, area code ---> | postal_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> | postal_code = | postal2_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> | postal2_code = | area_code_type = <!-- defaults to: Area code(s) --> | area_code = | geocode = | iso_code = | registration_plate = <!-- twin cities ---------------> | twin1 = | twin1_country = | twin2 = | twin2_country = <!-- etc., up to twin9 / twin9_country --> <!-- blank fields (section 1) --> | blank_name_sec1 = | blank_info_sec1 = | blank1_name_sec1 = | blank1_info_sec1 = | blank2_name_sec1 = | blank2_info_sec1 = <!-- etc., up to blank7_name_sec1 / blank7_info_sec1 --> <!-- blank fields (section 2) --> | blank_name_sec2 = | blank_info_sec2 = | blank1_name_sec2 = | blank1_info_sec2 = | blank2_name_sec2 = | blank2_info_sec2 = <!-- etc., up to blank7_name_sec2 / blank7_info_sec2 --> <!-- website, footnotes --------> | website = {{URL|http://mpl.intnet.mu/home.htm|Municipal Council}} | footnotes = }} '''Port Louis''' ({{IPA-fr|pɔʁlwi}}) is the [[Caipital ceety|caipital]] o [[Mauritius]]. It is the maistmuckel o the kintra an main haven, that mairches wi the Indian Ocean. It is locatit in the [[Port Louis Destrict]]. The population is 147,688 (2003 census). [[File:PortLouisCentrePhotobySaschaGrabow.jpg|thumb|310px|Port Louis Centre]] == History == Port Louis wis awready in uiss as a haven in 1638. In 1735, unner [[Fraunce|French]] govrenment, it becam the administrative centre o Mauritius an a major reproveesionin halt for French ships traivellin aroond the [[Cape o Guid Howp]]. The Port is named in honour o King [[Louis XV o Fraunce|Louis XV]]. The first Govrenor wis Coont [[Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais]]. == Sister ceeties == {|class="wikitable" |- valign="top" | * {{Flagicon|Réunion}} [[Le Port, Réunion|Le Port]] [[Réunion]]<ref name="Ville-Porte">[http://www.ville-port.re/portail/index.php?id=48 Le Port est jumelé à quatre villes portuaires] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908095756/http://www.ville-port.re/portail/index.php?id=48 |date=2015-09-08 }} {{fr}}</ref> * [[File:Flag of France.svg|20px|Fraunce]] [[La Possession]], syne 1979.<ref>[http://ville-lapossession.mobius.re/la-possession-ville-des-jumelages.html Ville de la Possession - Jumelages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517100919/http://ville-lapossession.mobius.re/la-possession-ville-des-jumelages.html |date=2012-05-17 }}</ref> * [[File:Flag of India.svg|20px|Fraunce]] [[Ahmedabad]], [[Indie]] * [[File:Flag of France.svg|20px|Fraunce]] [[Saint-Malo]], [[Fraunce]] syne 1999 * [[File:Flag of Canada.svg|20px|Fraunce]] [[Quebec Ceety]], [[Canadae]] || * [[File:Flag of Qatar.svg|20px|Fraunce]] [[Doha]], [[Qatar]] * [[File:Flag of China.svg|20px|Fraunce]] [[Foshan]], [[Cheenae]] * [[File:Flag of Gabon.svg|20px|Fraunce]] [[Franceville]], [[Gabon]] * [[File:Flag of India.svg|20px|Fraunce]] [[Jaipur]], [[Indie]] * [[File:Flag of India.svg|20px|Fraunce]] [[Surat]], [[Indie]] |} == References == <div class="references-small"> <references /> * Malcolm de Chazal, Petrusmok, The Standard Printing Est., 1951, La Table Ovale, 1979 * Marie-Thérèse Humbert, ''La montagne des signaux'', Paris: Stock, 1994 * Khal Torabully, ''Kot sa parol la - Rôde parole, poésie en créole et français'', Mauritius: éditions Le Printemps, 1996 </div> == Fremmit airtins == * [http://www.sunsort.com/guide/mauritius/port-louis/ Port Louis Travel Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606220357/http://www.sunsort.com/guide/mauritius/port-louis |date=2009-06-06 }} * [http://mpl.intnet.mu/home.htm Municipal wabsteid] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061103212413/http://mpl.intnet.mu/home.htm |date=2006-11-03 }} {{Commonscat}} [[Category:Port Louis]] [[Category:Port Louis Destrict]] [[Category:Populatit places in Mauritius]] [[Category:Caipitals in Africae]] [[Category:Port ceeties in Africae]] [[Category:Ports an herbours o the Indie Ocean]] [[Category:Populatit coastal places in Mauritius]] [[Category:Populatit places established in the 1630s]] {{Stub/Africae}} 4155bee7phahpnsxp37wywbtnhr4j37 0 19804 918719 894641 2026-06-24T23:21:15Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 918719 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement |native_name = <big> أبوظبي</big> |name = Abu Dhabi |official_name = Emirate o Abu Dhabi |seat = '''[[Abu Dhabi]]''' |leader_title = [[Emir]] |leader_name = [[Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan]] |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |area_km2 = 67,340 |area_sq_mi = 26,000 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_estimate = 1,975,000 |population_estimate_year = 2008 |time_zone = GMT+2 |utc_offset = +4 |utc_offset_DST = +4 |settlement_type = [[Emirate]] |subdivision_type = Kintra |subdivision_name = [[Unitit Arab Emirates|Unitit Arab Emirates (UAE)]] |image_skyline = |image_caption = |common_name = Abu Dhabi |image_map = Map of Abu Dhabi blank.svg |map_caption = Abu Dhabi athin the UAE |image_flag = Flag of Abu Dhabi.svg |coordinates = {{coord|23.5|N|54.5|E|region:AE-AZ_type:adm1st|display=inline}} |government_type = [[Constitutional monarchy]] |parts_type = Subdiveesions |parts = Touns an veelages |parts_type = Subdiveesions |p1=[[Abu Dhabi]] |p2=[[Al Ain]] |p3=Al Hadhi |p4=Al Atir |p5=Al Jahr |p6=Al Khaznah |p7=[[Liwa Oasis|Al Liwa]] |p8=Al Mariyah al Gharbiyah |p9=Al Selimat |p10=Al Watba |p11=Al Idd |p12=[[Dalma (island)|Dalma]] |p13=Duwaihir |p14=Kayya |p15=Khannur |p16=Mahdar Bin Usayyan |p17=[[Marawah]]|p18=Mawsil |p19=Mazyad |p20=Milqatah |p21=Mujib |p22=Mundafinah |p23=Musaffah |p24=Nafir |p25=Naqrah |p26=Nuqayrah |p27=Qurmidah |p28=[[Ruwais]] |p29=Sabkha |p30=Shah |p31=Shib al Ghaf |p32=[[Sila (city)|Sila]]|p33=Taraq |p34=Tarif |p35=Tharwaniyah |p36=Umm al Qurayn |p37=Wadhil |p38=Wafd |p39=Yafur |p40=Zafir |p41=Zuwayhir |p42=[[Abu al Abyad]] |p43=[[Habshan]] |p44=[[Sir Bani Yas]] |p45=[[Yas Island]] }} '''Abu Dhabi''', offeecially the ''Emirate o Abu Dhabi'', ({{lang-ar|إمارة أبو ظبي}} {{transl|ar|''Imārat Abū Ẓabī''}}, literally "faither o [[gazelle]]"), is ane o seiven [[Emirates o the Unitit Arab Emirates|emirates]] that constitute the [[Unitit Arab Emirates]] (UAE). It is the lairgest emirate bi aurie (67,340&nbsp;km^²), an seicont-lairgest bi population (efter [[Dubai]]),<ref name="worldgaz">{{cite web|url=http://world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=gamelan&geo=-265&srt=npan&col=abcdefghinoq&msz=1500|title=Abu Dhabi – profile of geographical entity including name variants|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121208171611/http://world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=gamelan&geo=-265&srt=npan&col=abcdefghinoq&msz=1500|archivedate=2012-12-08|access-date=2011-10-28|url-status=dead}} {{Cite web |url=http://world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=gamelan&geo=-265&srt=npan&col=abcdefghinoq&msz=1500 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-10-28 |archive-date=2012-12-08 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121208171611/http://world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=gamelan&geo=-265&srt=npan&col=abcdefghinoq&msz=1500 |url-status=dead }}. World Gazetteer. Retrieved April 8, 2008.</ref> accoontin for approximately 86% o the tot land aurie o the UAE. The seat o the [[Preses o the Unitit Arab Emirates]] is locatit in [[Abu Dhabi]] ceety, which an aw hosts mony ile companies, foreign [[Embassy|embassies]] an the federal cabinet. The emirate's main revenues are frae industry, construction an [[financial services]]<ref name=ecosector>{{cite web |url=http://archive.gulfnews.com/business/Economy/10332993.html |title=gulfnews : Abu Dhabi's GDP hits Dh688.3b on industrial sector performance |publisher=Archive.gulfnews.com |date=July 19, 2009 |accessdate=September 17, 2011 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> which mak up Abu Dhabi's US$187&nbsp;billion economy (2008).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://business.maktoob.com/20090000008092/Abu_Dhabi_GDP_$187_bln_in_08/Article.htm |title=Abu Dhabi GDP $187 bln in '08, UAE Economy – Maktoob News |publisher=Business.maktoob.com |accessdate=September 17, 2011 |archive-date=2011-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930171957/http://business.maktoob.com/20090000008092/Abu_Dhabi_GDP_$187_bln_in_08/Article.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Revenues frae the [[industrial sector|industry]] contributit 65.5% tae the economy in 2008. Construction activities represent 11.5% o the economy in 2008, an commercial an financial activities mak up the remainin 23.6%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ameinfo.com/204143.html |title=The Statistics Center-Abu Dhabi announces today results of economic surveys &#124; SCAD |publisher=AMEinfo.com |accessdate=September 17, 2011 |archive-date=2012-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929075314/http://www.ameinfo.com/204143.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==History== Pairts o Abu Dhabi wur settled as far back as the [[3rd millennium BC]] an its early history fits the nomadic herdin an fishin pattern teepical o the broader region. Modren Abu Dhabi traces its oreegins tae the rise o an important tribal confederation, the [[Bani Yas]], in the late 18t century, which an aw assumit control o [[Dubai]]. In the 19t century the Dubai an Abu Dhabi branches pairtit weys. Intae the mid-20t century, the economy o Abu Dhabi continued tae be sustained mainly bi [[camel]] herdin, production o [[Date Palm|date]]s an vegetables at the inland [[oasis|oases]] o Al Ain an [[Liwa]], an fishin an [[pairl]] divin aff the coast o Abu Dhabi ceety, which wis occupeed mainly durin the simmer months. Maist dwellins in Abu Dhabi ceety wur, at this time, constructit o [[Arecaceae|palm]] fronds (''barasti''), wi the walthier families occupyin [[Mudbrick|mud huts]]. The growth o the cultured pairl industry in the first hauf o the twintiet century creatit haurdship for residents o Abu Dhabi as pairls representit the lairgest export an main soorce o cash earnins. In 1939, [[Sheikh]] [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]] grantit petroleum concessions, an ile wis first foond in 1958. At first, ile money haed a marginal impact. A few lawrise concrete buildings war erected, an the first pavit road wis completit in 1961, but Sheikh Shakbut, uncertain whether the new ile ryalties wad last, teuk a cautious approach, preferrin tae save the revenue rather than investin it in development. His brither, Sheikh [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan]], saw that ile walth haed the potential tae transform Abu Dhabi. The rulin Al Nahyan faimily decidit that Sheikh Zayed shoud replace his brither as ruler an carry oot his veesion o developin the kintra. On 6 August 1966, wi the assistance o the Breetish, Sheikh Zayed became the new ruler.<ref>See Al-Fahim, M, ''From Rags to Riches: A Story of Abu Dhabi'', Chapter Six (London Centre of Arab Studies, 1995), ISBN 1-900404-00-1.</ref> Wi the annooncement bi the UK in 1968 that it wad athdraw frae the Persie Gulf aurie bi 1971, Sheikh Zayed became the main drivin force ahint the formation o the Unitit Arab Emirates. Efter the Emirates gained unthirldom in 1971, ile wealth continued tae flow tae the aurie an traditional mud-brick huts wur rapidly replacit wi banks, boutiques an modren heichrises. At present, Abu Dhabi boasts the warld's heichest absolute an per-caipita level o sovereign walth funds, calculated at USD 1,000,000.00 per inhabitant. ==Geography== [[File:AbuDhabi09.JPG|thumb|Growin construction at Abu Dhabi as wirk cranes are eften seen in the downtown auries.]] [[File:AbuDhabi06.JPG|thumb|Waterfront pairk in Abu Dhabi.]] The emirate o Abu Dhabi is locatit in the ile-rich an strategic Persie Gulf region. It adjoins the Kinrick o [[Saudi Arabia]] an the Sultanate o [[Oman]]. The emirate [[border]]s the emirate o [[Dubai]] an [[Sharjah (emirate)|Sharjah]] tae its north. ==Touns an ceeties== [[Abu Dhabi]] ceety is a modren ceety wi broad boulevards, taw office an apairtment biggins, an busy shops. Ither urban centers in the Abu Dhabi emirate are [[Al 'Ain]], Baniyas an [[Ruwais]]. Al Ain is an agglomeration o several veelages scattered aroond a valuable desert oasis; the day it is the steid o the naitional varsity, UAEU. Al Ain is billed as the Garden Ceety o the UAE. Ither wirk includes the 1st prize internaitional competeetion o the Abu Dhabi Library an Cultural Center wan bi the Airchitects Collaborative, designed bi [[Hisham N. Ashkouri]] o Boston, Massachusetts an New York, NY. ===Main ceeties an touns=== *[[Abu Dhabi]] *[[Abu al Abyad]] *[[Al Ain]] *[[Al-Aryam Island]] *[[Al Mushrif]] *[[Bahrani Island]] *[[Dalma (island)|Dalma]] *[[Habshan]] *[[Khalifa Ceety]] *[[Liwa Oasis]] *[[Marawah, Unitit Arab Emirates|Marawah]] *[[Mussafah]] *[[Port Zayed]] *[[Ruwais]] *[[Sila, Unitit Arab Emarites|Sila]] *[[Sir Bani]] *[[Tarif]] *[[Yas Island]] ==Postage stamps== {{Main|Postage stamps o Abu Dhabi}} ==Climate== Sunny/blue skies can be expectit throughoot the year. The months Juin throu September are generally het an humid wi temperaturs averagin abuin 43&nbsp;°C (110&nbsp;°F). Durin this time, sandstorms an aw occur intermittently, in some cases reducin visibility doun tae a few meters. The wather is uisually pleasant frae October tae Mey. Januar tae Februar is ceuler an mey require the uise o a licht jacket. This period an aw sees dense fog on some days. The oasis ceety o [[Al Ain]], aboot 150&nbsp;km away, borderin Oman, regularly records the heichest simmer temperaturs in the kintra, housomeivver the dry desert air an ceuler forenichts mak it a traditional retreat frae the intense simmer heat an year roond humidity o the caipital ceety.<ref>[[BBC]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060213042224/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/city_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002910 Average weather] for [[Sharjah (ceety)|Sharjah]], which is 170 kilometres away frae Abu Dhabi.</ref> ==Transport== [[Abu Dhabi Internaitional Airport]] (AUH) an [[Al Ain Internaitional Airport]] (AAN) serves the emirate. The local time is [[GMT]] + 4 oors. Private vehicles an taxis are the primary means o transportation in the ceety, awtho public buses, run bi the Abu Dhabi Municipality, are available, but maistly uised bi the lawer-income population. Thare are bus routes tae nearbi touns such as Baniyas, Habashan an the gairden ceety o UAE Al Ain, amang ithers. Thare is a newer service stairtit in 2005 atween Abu Dhabi an the commercial ceety o [[Dubai]] (aboot 160&nbsp;km away). ==Schuils an universities== Schuils an varsities in Abu Dhabi: * [[Zayed University]] * [[Masdar Institute of Science and Technology]] (research oriented graduate-level varsity) * [[The Petroleum Institute]] * [[Abu Dhabi Men's College]] (a campus of The [[Higher Colleges of Technology]]) * [[Abu Dhabi Women's College]] (a campus of The [[Higher Colleges of Technology]]) * [[Abu Dhabi University]] * [[INSEAD]] Centre in Abu Dhabi * Strathclyde Business School (MSc/MBA) * [[AAESS]] * [[Abu Dhabi Indian School]] * Indian Islahi Islamic School * Al-Noor Indian Islamic School * [[American International School - Abu Dhabi|The American International School in Abu Dhabi]] * [[Emirates College for Advanced Education]] ('''ECAE''') The first college for education in Abu Dhabi * [[New York Institute of Technology]] * [[International School of Choueifat, Abu Dhabi]] * [[Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Bangladesh Islamia School and College , Abu Dhabi]] * Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Arab Pakistani School (Kindergarten throu 12t grade FSC) * [[Islamia English School]] (Kindergarten throu 12t grade FSC, IGCSE : O Levels an A Levels an aa offered) * Al Nahda Naitional Schools (Boys' and Girls' schuil O Levels, A Levels, American High schuil seestem) * The Cambridge High School * The British School – Al Khubairat * Abu Dhabi Grammar School (Canadae) * Abu Dhabi International School * First Steps School Nursery * [[Tweety Nursery]] * International Community School * Our Ain English High School * [[American Community School of Abu Dhabi|The American Community School of Abu Dhabi]] * [[The British School - Al Khubairat|The British School]] * Raha International School * [[NYU]] Abu Dhabi * The Glenelg School of Abu Dhabi * The Elite Private School * [[Khalifa University of Science, Technology and Research]] (KUSTAR) == See an aw == * [[Qasr al-Hosn]], the palace-fort, seat o govrenment an palace o the rulers o Abu Dhabi ca. 1760/1790 tae 1966. * [[Mina' Zayid]], the port o Abu Dhabi. * [[Postal Authorities]] * [[Transportation in the Unitit Arab Emirates]] * [[Emirates Palace]], the maist expensive hotel iver biggit * [[Abu Dhabi Grand Prix]], a [[Formula Ane]] motor race held in the ceety == References == {{Reflist}} ==Freemit airtins== {{Commonscat|Abu Dhabi}} * {{wikivoyage|Abu Dhabi}} * [http://www.adpolice.gov.ae Abu Dhabi Polis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106120905/http://adpolice.gov.ae/ |date=2009-01-06 }} * [http://www.adcci-uae.com/ Abu Dhabi Chamber o Commerce an Industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106080711/http://www.adcci-uae.com/ |date=2007-01-06 }} ===UAE-based newspapers=== * [http://www.gulf-news.com/ Gulf News] * [http://www.khaleejtimes.com/ Khaleej Times] * [http://www.emiratestodayonline.com/ Emirates Today] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070907033449/http://www.emiratestodayonline.com/ |date=2007-09-07 }} * [http://www.7days.ae/ 7 Days] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927000456/http://www.7days.ae/ |date=2007-09-27 }} * [http://www.eveningpost.ae/ Emirates Evening Post] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107193216/http://www.eveningpost.ae/ |date=2007-01-07 }} * [http://www.thenational.ae/ The National] {{Emirates of the United Arab Emirates}} {{Abu Dhabi}} [[Category:Abu Dhabi (emirate)| ]] [[Category:Emirates o the Unitit Arab Emirates]] 0e01uo5khbwtzqr93tejq7y16lq1l6r 0 33742 918712 883325 2026-06-24T23:16:26Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918712 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox muisic genre |name=Rock muisic |color=white |bgcolor=crimson |stylistic_origins=[[Rock an roll]], [[electric blues]], [[jazz]], [[fowk muisic]], [[kintra muusic|kintra]], [[blues]], [[rhythm an blues]], [[soul muisic]] |cultural_origins=1950s an 1960s, [[Unitit Kinrick]] an [[Unitit States]] |instruments=[[Vocals]], [[electric guitar]], [[bass guitar]], [[acoustic guitar]], [[Drum kit|drums]], [[synthesizer]], [[Keybuird instrument|keyboards]] |popularity= Extremely heich warldwide, syne 1960s |derivatives=[[New Age muisic]]&nbsp;– [[Synthpop]] |subgenrelist=Leet o rock genres |subgenres= [[Alternative rock]]&nbsp;– [[Art rock]]&nbsp;– [[Baroque pop]]&nbsp;– [[Beat muisic]]&nbsp;– [[Britpop]]&nbsp;– [[Emo]]&nbsp;– [[Experimental rock]]&nbsp;– [[Garage rock]]&nbsp;– [[Glam rock]]&nbsp;– [[Grindcore]]&nbsp;– [[Group Sounds]]&nbsp;– [[Grunge]]&nbsp;– [[Hard rock]]&nbsp;– [[Heartland rock]]&nbsp;– [[Hivy metal]]&nbsp;– [[Instrumental rock]]&nbsp;– [[Indie rock]]&nbsp;– [[Jangle pop]]&nbsp;– [[Krautrock]]&nbsp;– [[Madchester]]&nbsp;– [[Post-Britpop]]&nbsp;– [[Pouer pop]]&nbsp;– [[Progressive rock]]&nbsp;– [[Protopunk]]&nbsp;– [[Psychedelic rock|Psychedelia]]&nbsp;– [[Punk rock]]&nbsp;– [[Rock noir]]&nbsp;– [[Soft rock]]&nbsp;– [[Southern rock]]&nbsp;– [[Surf muisic|Surf]]&nbsp;– [[Symphonic rock]] |fusiongenres= [[Aboriginal rock]]&nbsp;– [[Afro-rock]]&nbsp;– [[Anatolie rock]]&nbsp;– [[Bhangra (muisic)|Bhangra rock]]&nbsp;– [[Blues rock]]&nbsp;– [[Kintra rock]]&nbsp;– [[Flamenco-rock]]&nbsp;– [[Fowk rock]]&nbsp;– [[Funk rock]]&nbsp;– [[Glam punk]]&nbsp;– [[Indo-rock]]&nbsp;– [[Industrial rock]]&nbsp;– [[Jazz fusion]]&nbsp;– [[Pop rock]]&nbsp;– [[Punta rock]]&nbsp;– [[Raga rock]]&nbsp;– [[Raï rock]]&nbsp;– [[Rap rock]]&nbsp;– [[Rockabilly]]&nbsp;– [[Rockoson]]&nbsp;– [[Samba-rock]]&nbsp;– [[Space rock]]&nbsp;– [[Stoner rock]]&nbsp;– [[Sufi rock]] |regional_scenes= [[Argentine rock|Argentinae]]&nbsp;– [[Armenie rock|Armenie]]&nbsp;– [[Aussie rock|Australie]]&nbsp;– [[Belaroushie rock|Belaroushie]]&nbsp;– [[Belgian rock|Belgium]]&nbsp;– [[Bosnie rock|Bosnie an Herzegovina]]&nbsp;– [[Brazilian rock|Brazil]]&nbsp;– [[Canadian rock|Canadae]]&nbsp;– [[Chilean rock|Chile]]&nbsp;– [[Cheenese rock|Cheenae]]&nbsp;– [[Colombie rock|Colombie]]&nbsp;– [[Cuban rock|Cuba]]&nbsp;– [[Croatie rock|Croatie]]&nbsp;– [[Dens rock|Denmark]]&nbsp;– [[Dominican rock|Dominican Republic]]&nbsp;– [[Ecuadorian rock|Ecuador]]&nbsp;– [[Estonie rock|Estonie]]&nbsp;– [[Finnish rock|Finland]]&nbsp;– [[French rock|France]]&nbsp;– [[Greek rock|Greece]]&nbsp;– [[German rock|Germany]]&nbsp;– [[Hungarian rock|Hungary]]&nbsp;– [[Icelandic rock|Iceland]]&nbsp;– [[Indie rock|Indie]]&nbsp;– [[Indonesian rock|Indonesia]]&nbsp;– [[Irish rock|Ireland]]&nbsp;– [[Israeli rock|Israel]]&nbsp;– [[Italian rock|Italy]]&nbsp;– [[:en:Music of Japan#Rock|Japan]]&nbsp;– [[Rock en español|Spainyie-speakin warld]]&nbsp;– [[Latvie rock|Latvie]]&nbsp;– [[Lithuanie rock|Lithuanie]]&nbsp;– [[Malaysie rock|Malaysie]]&nbsp;– [[Mexican rock|Mexico]]&nbsp;– [[Nepali rock|Nepal]]&nbsp;– [[Kiwi rock|New Zealand]]&nbsp;– [[Norse rock|Norawa]]&nbsp;– [[Pakistani rock|Pakistan]]&nbsp;– [[Peruvian rock|Peru]]&nbsp;– [[Pinoy rock|Philippines]]&nbsp;– [[Pols rock|Poland]]&nbsp;– [[Portuguese rock|Portugal]]&nbsp;– [[Roushie rock|Roushie]]&nbsp;– [[Serbie rock|Serbie]]&nbsp;– [[Slovenie rock|Slovenie]]&nbsp;– [[Spinyie rock|Spain]]&nbsp;– [[Swadish rock|Swaden]]&nbsp;– [[Swiss rock|Swisserland]]&nbsp;– [[Tatar rock|Tatar]]&nbsp;– [[Thai rock|Thailand]]&nbsp;– [[Turkis rock|Turkey]]&nbsp;– [[Ukrainian rock|Ukraine]]&nbsp;– [[Breetish rock|Unitit Kinrick]]&nbsp;– [[American rock|Unitit States]]&nbsp;– [[Uruguayan rock|Uruguay]]&nbsp;– [[SFR Yugoslav Pop an Rock scene|SFR Yugoslavie]]&nbsp;– [[Zam-rock|Zambie]] |other_topics=[[Backbeat (muisic)|Backbeat]]&nbsp;– [[Rock opera]]&nbsp;– [[Rock band]]&nbsp;– [[:en:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]]&nbsp;– [[:en:Social impact of rock and roll|Social impact]]&nbsp;– [[:en:List of jazz and popular musical terms|Leet o rock muisic terms]]}} '''Rock muisic''' is a genre o popular [[muisic]] that developit durin an efter the 1960s, pairticularly in the Unitit Kinrick an the Unitit States. It haes its ruits in 1940s an 1950s rock an roll, itsel hivily influencit bi rhythm an blues an kintra muisic.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hebdige|first=Dick|title=Subculture: the meaning of style|url=https://archive.org/details/liang.subculturemeanin0001hebd|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-03949-9|series=New accents|location=London New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/liang.subculturemeanin0001hebd/page/49 49]}}</ref> Rock muisic drew strangly on a nummer o ither genres sic as [[blues]] an fowk, an incorporatit influences frae [[jazz]], [[classical muisic|classical]] an ither muisical soorces an aw.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hebdige|first=Dick|title=Subculture: the meaning of style|url=https://archive.org/details/liang.subculturemeanin0001hebd|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-03949-9|series=New accents|location=London New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/liang.subculturemeanin0001hebd/page/46 46]-61}}</ref> Muisically, rock haes centred aroond the electric [[guitar]], uisually as pairt o a rock group wi [[bass guitar]] an drums. teepically, rock is sang-based muisic uisually wi a 4/4 time signatur utilizin a verse-chorus form, but the genre haes acome extremely diverse an common muisical characteristics are difficult tae define.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge companion to pop and rock|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-55660-6|editor-last=Frith|editor-first=Simon|edition=Repr|series=Cambridge companions to music|location=Cambridge|pages=109-142|chapter=Reconsidering Rock, Keir Keightley}}</ref> Lik [[pop muisic]], leerics aften stress romantic luve but address a wide variety o ither themes that are frequently social or poleetical in emphasis an aw. The dominance o rock bi white, male muisickers haes been seen as ane o the key factors shapin the themes splorit in rock muisic. Rock places a heicher degree o emphasis on musicianship, live performance, an an ideology o authenticity than pop muisic. == References == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} {{Commonscat|Rock music|Rock muisic}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rock Muisic}} [[Category:Rock muisic| ]] [[Category:Rock muisic genres| ]] [[Category:African-American muisic]] [[Category:American styles o muisic]] [[Category:20t-century muisic genres]] [[Category:21st-century muisic genres]] 0y0fqxwc3nvgdrcvurqkqm2kts1yign 0 34077 918753 851246 2026-06-24T23:43:33Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918753 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement <!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions --> | name = Hiroshima | official_name = 広島市 · Hiroshima Ceety | native_name = 広島 | native_name_lang = ja | settlement_type = [[Ceety designatit bi govrenment ordinance|Designatit ceety]] <!-- images, nickname, motto ---> |image_skyline = Hiroshima montage2.jpg |imagesize = |image_alt = |image_caption = Frae tap left: Hiroshima Castle, basebaw gemme o Hiroshima Toyo Carp in Hiroshima Municipal Basebaw Stadium, Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome), nicht view o Ebisu-cho, Shukkei-en (Asano Pairk) | image_flag = Flag of Hiroshima City.svg | flag_alt = | image_seal = Emblem of Hiroshima, Hiroshima.svg | seal_alt = | image_shield = | shield_alt = | image_blank_emblem = | nickname = | motto = <!-- maps and coordinates ------> | image_map = Hiroshima in Hiroshima Prefecture Ja.svg | map_alt = | map_caption = <small>Location o Hiroshima in [[Hiroshima Prefectur]]</small> | image_dot_map = | dot_mapsize = | dot_map_base_alt = | dot_map_alt = | dot_map_caption = | dot_x = |dot_y = | pushpin_map = Japan | pushpin_label_position = <!-- position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = &nbsp; | coordinates = {{coord|34|23|7|N|132|27|19|E|region:JP|display=inline,title}} | coor_pinpoint = <!-- to specify exact location of coordinates (was coor_type) --> | coordinates_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> <!-- location ------------------> | subdivision_type = [[Leet o kintras|Kintra]] | subdivision_name = Japan | subdivision_type1 = [[Leet o regions o Japan|Region]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Chūgoku]], [[San'yō region|Sanyō]] | subdivision_type2 = [[Prefecturs o Japan|Prefectur]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Hiroshima Prefectur|Hiroshima]] | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = <!-- established ---------------> | established_title = <!-- Settled --> | established_date = | founder = | named_for = <!-- seat, smaller parts -------> | seat_type = <!-- defaults to: Seat --> | seat = <!-- government type, leaders --> | government_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | leader_party = | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = [[Kazumi Matsui]] | leader_title1 = | leader_name1 = <!-- etc., up to leader_title4 / leader_name4 --> <!-- display settings ---------> | total_type = <!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --> | unit_pref = <!-- enter: Imperial, to display imperial before metric --> <!-- area ----------------------> | area_magnitude = <!-- use only to set a special wikilink --> | area_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | area_total_km2 = 905.01 | area_total_sq_mi = <!-- see table @ Template:Infobox settlement for details --> | area_land_km2 = | area_land_sq_mi = | area_water_km2 = | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent = | area_note = <!-- elevation -----------------> | elevation_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | elevation_m = | elevation_ft = <!-- population ----------------> | population_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | population_total = 1.196.274 | population_as_of = 2016 | population_density_km2 = 1297.2 | population_density_sq_mi= | population_est = | pop_est_as_of = | population_demonym = <!-- demonym, ie. Liverpudlian for someone from Liverpool --> | population_note = <!-- time zone(s) --------------> | timezone1 = [[Japan Staundart Time]] | utc_offset1 = +9 | timezone1_DST = | utc_offset1_DST = <!-- postal codes, area code ---> | postal_code_type = | postal_code = | area_code_type = <!-- defaults to: Area code(s) --> | area_code = <!-- blank fields (section 1) --> | blank_name_sec1 = Ceety Seembols | blank1_name_sec1 = - Tree | blank1_info_sec1 = [[Cinnamomum camphora|Camphor Laurel]] | blank2_name_sec1 = - Flower | blank2_info_sec1 = [[Oleander]] | blank3_name_sec1 = | blank3_info_sec1 = | blank4_name_sec1 = | blank4_info_sec1 = | blank5_name_sec1 = | blank5_info_sec1 = | blank6_name_sec1 = | blank6_info_sec1 = | blank7_name_sec1 = | blank7_info_sec1 = <!-- blank fields (section 2) --> | blank_name_sec2 = Phone&nbsp;number | blank_info_sec2 = 082-245-2111 | blank1_name_sec2 = Address | blank1_info_sec2 = 1-6-34 Kokutaiji,<br />Naka-ku, Hiroshima-shi 730-8586 <!-- website, footnotes --------> | website = [http://www.city.hiroshima.lg.jp/www/toppage/0000000000000/APM03000.html Hiroshima Ceety] | footnotes = }} {{Nihongo|'''Hiroshima'''|広島市|''Hiroshima-shi''}} ({{Audio|ja-Hiroshima.ogg|listen}}) is the caipital o [[Hiroshima Prefectur]], an the lairgest ceety in the [[Chūgoku]] region o wastren [[Honshu]], the lairgest island o Japan. It is best kent as the first ceety in history tae be destroyed bi a [[nuclear wappen]] when the [[Unitit States Airmy Air Forces]] (USAAF) [[Atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki|droppit an atomic bomb]] on it at 8:15 A.M. on 6 August 1945, near the end o [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Hakim | first = Joy | title = A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofusbook50000haki | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1995 | location = New York | pages = | isbn = 0-19-509514-6 }}</ref> Its name 広島 means "Wide Island". Hiroshima gained ceety status on 1 Aprile 1889. On 1 Aprile 1980, Hiroshima became a [[Ceety designatit bi govrenment ordinance|designatit ceety]]. == Internaitional relations == {{See an aa|Leet o twin touns an sister ceeties in Japan}} === Twin touns an sister ceeties === Hiroshima haes sax owerseas [[twin touns an sister ceeties|sister ceeties]]:<ref name="Hiroshima" >{{cite web |url=http://www.city.hiroshima.lg.jp/shimin/kokusai/shimai/top-e.html |title=Introduction to our Sister and Friendship Cities |publisher=City.hiroshima.jp |accessdate=2010-05-10 |archive-date=2011-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828102724/http://www.city.hiroshima.lg.jp/shimin/kokusai/shimai/top-e.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> *{{Flagicon|United States}} [[Honolulu]], Unitit States (1959) *{{Flagicon|Russia}} [[Volgograd]], Roushie (1972)<ref name = "Volgograd">{{cite web|url=http://www.volgadmin.ru/EN2/Municipality/FriendlyRelationship.aspx |title=Friendly relationship at Official website of Volgograd |publisher=Volgadmin.ru |date=1994-12-01 |accessdate=2011-06-13}}</ref> *{{Flagicon|Germany}} [[Hanover]], Germany (1983)<ref name="Hanover">{{cite web|url=http://www.hannover.de/de/buerger/entwicklung/partnerschaften/staedte_regionspartnerschaften/index.html|title=Hanover - Twin Towns|publisher=[[copyright|©]] 2007-2009 [http://www.hanover.de/ Hanover.de] - Offizielles Portal der Landeshauptstadt und der Region Hannover in Zusammenarbeit mit hier.de|language=German|accessdate=2009-07-17|archive-date=2011-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724012346/http://www.hannover.de/de/buerger/entwicklung/partnerschaften/staedte_regionspartnerschaften/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> *{{Flagicon|China}} [[Chongqing]], Fowkrepublic o Cheenae (1986) *{{Flagicon|South Korea}} [[Daegu]], Sooth Korea (1997) *{{Flagicon|Canada}} [[Montreal]], Canadae (1998) Athin Japan, Hiroshima haes a seemilar relationship wi [[Nagasaki]]. == Notes == {{Reflist|30em}} {{Metropolitan ceeties o Japan}} [[Category:Hiroshima| ]] [[Category:Ceeties in Hiroshima Prefectur]] [[Category:Atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki]] [[Category:Populatit places established in 1589]] [[Category:Port dounsets in Japan]] [[Category:Populatit coastal places in Japan]] [[Category:Warld War II steids in Japan]] {{Stub/Japan}} {{Stub/Ceety}} clr2gj0q54kp4e5zupcgrmfwnwxuhwk 0 35112 918724 901091 2026-06-24T23:24:35Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918724 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox ethnic group |group = Americans |flag = [[File:Flag of the United States.svg|border|100px]] <!-- Resize to 100px if photos are added to image field --> |flag_caption = [[Banner o the Unitit States]] |image = |caption= |langs=Primarily [[American Inglis|Inglis]], but [[Spaingie in the Unitit States|Spaingie]] an [[Leids o the Unitit States|ithers]] an aw |rels = [[File:P christianity.svg|18px]] [[Christianity in the Unitit States|Christian]] ([[Protestantism in the Unitit States|Protestantism]], [[Catholic Kirk in the Unitit States|Catholicism]] an [[Mormonism]])<ref name="PFRPL2008" /> <br>[[Unaffiliatit]] ([[Agnosticism]] an [[Atheism]])<ref name="PFRPL2008" /> <br> Various nan-christian releegions ([[American Jews|Judaism]], an [[Releegion in the Unitit States#Ithers|ithers]])<ref name="PFRPL2008">{{cite web |url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf |title=U.S. Religious Landscape Survey |author=Luis Lug |author2=Sandra Stencel|author3= John Green|author4= Gregory Smith|author5= Dan Cox|author6= Allison Pond|author7= Tracy Miller|author8= Elixabeth Podrebarac|author9= Michelle Ralston |date=February 2008 |work=The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |accessdate=February 12, 2012}}</ref> }} '''Americans''', or '''American fowk''', are the ceetizens o the [[Unitit States|Unitit States o Americae]]. The kintra is hame tae fowk o different naitional oreegins. As a result, Americans dae no equate thair nationality wi ethnicity, but wi citizenship. Aside frae the Native American population, nearly aw Americans or thair ancestors immigratit athin the past five centuries.<ref>Fiorina, Morris P., and Paul E. Peterson (2000). ''The New American Democracy''. London: Longman, p. 97. ISBN 0-321-07058-5.</ref> Despite its multi-ethnic composition,<ref name="DD">Adams, J.Q., and Pearlie Strother-Adams (2001). ''Dealing with Diversity''. Chicago: Kendall/Hunt. ISBN 0-7872-8145-X.</ref><ref name="Society in Focus">Thompson, William, and Joseph Hickey (2005). ''Society in Focus''. Boston: Pearson. ISBN 0-205-41365-X.</ref> the cultur held in common bi maist Americans is referred tae as [[mainstream]] [[American cultur]], a [[Wastren cultur]] mucklely derivit frae the tradeetions o Wastren European immigrants.<ref name="DD"/> It includes influences o [[African American cultur]] an aw.<ref>Holloway, Joseph E. (2005). ''Africanisms in American Culture'', 2d ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 18–38. ISBN 0-253-34479-4. Johnson, Fern L. (1999). ''Speaking Culturally: Language Diversity in the United States''. Thousand Oaks, California, London, and New Delhi: Sage, p. 116. ISBN 0-8039-5912-5.</ref> Wastward expansion integratit the [[Louisiana Creole fowke|Creoles]] an [[Cajun]]s o Louisiana an the [[Hispanos]] o the Soothwast an brocht close contact wi the [[cultur o Mexico]]. Lairge-scale immigration in the late nineteent an early twintiet centuries frae Soothren an Eastren Europe introducit a variety o elements. Immigration frae Asie, Africae, an Laitin Americae haes haed impact an aw. A cultural [[meltin pot]], or pluralistic [[Salad bowl (cultural idea)|salad bowl]], describes the wey in which generations o Americans hae celebratit an exchyngit distinctive cultural characteristics.<ref name="DD"/> In addition tae the Unitit States, Americans an fowk o American strynd can be foond internaitionally. As mony as 4 million Americans are estimatit tae be livin abroad.<ref name="abroad">{{cite web| url=http://www.shelteroffshore.com/index.php/living/more/americans_living_abroad/| title=Record Numbers of Americans Living Abroad| publisher=Shelter Offshore| accessdate=September 30, 2008| archive-date=2008-10-11| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011090040/http://www.shelteroffshore.com/index.php/living/more/americans_living_abroad| url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Naitional personification== A [[naitional personification]] is an [[anthropomorphization]] o a naition or its fowk; it can appear in baith [[editorial cartoon]]s an propaganda. [[Uncle Sam]] is a naitional personification o the Unitit States an whiles mair specifically o the [[American govrenment]], wi the first uisage o the term datin frae the [[War o 1812]]. He is depictit as a stern elderly white man wi white hair an a [[goatee]] beard, an dressed in clothin that recaws the design elements o [[banner o the Unitit States]] – for example, teepically a [[top hat]] wi reid an white stripes an white starns on a blue baund, an reid an white stripit trousers. [[:en:Historical Columbia|Columbie]] is a poetic name for the Americas an the feminine personification o the Unitit States o Americae, made famous bi African-American poet [[Phillis Wheatley]] durin the [[American Revolutionary War]] in 1776. It haes inspired the names o mony bodiess, places, objects, institutions, an companies in the [[Wastren Hemisphere]] an ayont. ==Leid== {{main 2|Leids o the Unitit States|Inglis leid|American Inglis|Inglis-anerlie muivement}} {|class="infobox" style="font-size: 90%; border: 1px solid #999; float: right; margin-left: 1em; width: 200px;" |- style="background:#f5f5f5;" !colspan="2"|Leids (2007)<ref name="USCB Lang">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2010/tables/10s0053.pdf|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|work=Statistical Abstract of the United States 2010|title=Table 53—Languages Spoken at Home by Language: 2007|accessdate=September 21, 2009}}</ref> |- |[[American Inglis|Inglis]] (''anerlie'')||style="text-align: center;"|225.5&nbsp;million |- |[[Spaingie leid in the Unitit States|Spaingie]], incl. [[Spaingie-based creole leids|Creole]]||style="text-align: center;"|34.5&nbsp;million |- |[[Cheenese leid|Cheenese]]||style="text-align: center;"|2.5&nbsp;million |- |[[French leid in the Unitit States|French]], incl. [[French-based creole leids|Creole]]||style="text-align: center;"|2.0&nbsp;million |- |[[Tagalog leid|Tagalog]]||style="text-align: center;"|1.5&nbsp;million |- |[[Vietnamese leid|Vietnamese]]||style="text-align: center;"|1.2&nbsp;million |- |[[German in the Unitit States|German]]||style="text-align: center;"|1.1&nbsp;million |- |[[Korean leid|Korean]]||style="text-align: center;"|1.1&nbsp;million |} [[American Inglis|Inglis]] is the de facto [[naitional leid]]. Awtho thare is nae [[offeecial leid]] at the federal level, some laws—sic as [[Unitit States naitionality law#Naturalization|U.S. naturalization requirements]]—staundartise Inglis. In 2007, aboot 226 million, or 80% o the population agit five years an aulder, spoke anerlie Inglis at hame. [[Spaingie in the Unitit States|Spaingie]], spoken bi 12% o the population at hame, is the seicont maist common leid an the maist widely taucht seicont leid.<ref name="USCB Lang"/><ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.adfl.org/resources/enrollments.pdf| title= Foreign Language Enrollments in United States Institutions of Higher Learning| date=Fall 2002| publisher= MLA| accessdate= October 16, 2006| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20061005184348/http://www.adfl.org/resources/enrollments.pdf| archivedate= 2006-10-05| url-status= dead}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803020358/http://www.adfl.org/resources/enrollments.pdf |date=2008-08-03 }}</ref> Some Americans advocate makkin Inglis the kintra's offeecial leid, as it is in at least twinty-aicht states.<ref name=ILW>{{cite web|author=Feder, Jody| url = http://www.ilw.com/immigrationdaily/news/2007,0515-crs.pdf| title = English as the Official Language of the United States—Legal Background and Analysis of Legislation in the 110th Congress|date=January 25, 2007| publisher=Ilw.com (Congressional Research Service)| accessdate =June 19, 2007}}</ref> Baith [[Hawaiian leid|Hawaiian]] an Inglis are offeecial leids in Hawaii bi state law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hawaii.gov/lrb/con/conart15.html|title=The Constitution of the State of Hawaii, Article XV, Section 4|publisher=Hawaii Legislative Reference Bureau|date=November 7, 1978|accessdate=June 19, 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705235552/http://www.hawaii.gov/lrb/con/conart15.html|archivedate=2007-07-05|url-status=dead}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724231656/http://www.hawaii.gov/lrb/con/conart15.html |date=2013-07-24 }}</ref> While neither haes an offeecial leid, [[New Mexico]] haes laws providin for the uise o baith Inglis an Spaingie, as [[Louisiana]] daes for Inglis an French.<ref>{{cite book| author=Dicker, Susan J. | title = Languages in America: A Pluralist View | url=https://archive.org/details/languagesinameri00dick |year=2003|pages=[https://archive.org/details/languagesinameri00dick/page/216 216], 220–25 | location =Clevedon, UK| publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=1-85359-651-5}}</ref> Ither states, sic as Californie, mandate the publication o Spainyie versions o certaint govrenment documents includin court forms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=ccp&group=00001-01000&file=412.10-412.30|title=California Code of Civil Procedure, Section 412.20(6)|publisher=Legislative Counsel, State of California|accessdate=December 17, 2007|archive-date=2010-07-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100722010302/http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=ccp&group=00001-01000&file=412.10-412.30|url-status=dead}} {{cite web|url=http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/forms/allforms.htm|title=California Judicial Council Forms|publisher=Judicial Council, State of California|accessdate=December 17, 2007}}</ref> Several insular territories grant offeecial recognition tae thair native leids, alang wi Inglis: [[Samoan leid|Samoan]] an [[Chamorro leid|Chamorro]] are recognisit bi [[American Samoa]] an [[Guam]], respectively; [[Carolinian leid|Carolinian]] an Chamorro are recognisit bi the Northren Mariana Islands; Spaingie is an offeecial leid o Puerto Rico. ==Releegion== {{Main|Releegion in the Unitit States}} {{bar box |title=Releegion in the Unitit States |titlebar=#ddd |left1='''Releegion''' |right1='''Percent''' |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Protestant|lightgreen|51.3}} {{bar percent|Roman Catholic|darkgreen|23.9}} {{bar percent|ither Christian|red|3.3}} {{bar percent|Jewish|blue|1.7}} {{bar percent|ither nan-Christian releegions|yellow|2.9}} {{bar percent|Nae releegion|maroon|16.1}} {{bar percent|Agnostic|brown|2.4}} {{bar percent|Atheist|green|1.6}} |caption=[[Pew Research Center]], 2008<ref name="PFRPL2008" /> }} Releegion in the Unitit States haes a heich adherence level, compared tae ither developit kintras, an diversity in beliefs. The [[:en:First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] tae the kintra's [[Unitit States Constitution|Constitution]] prevents the Federal govrenment frae makkin ony "law respectin an establishment o releegion, or prohibitin the free exercise thareo." The [[Supreme Court o the Unitit States|U.S. Supreme Court]] haes interpretit this as preventin the govrenment frae haein ony authority in releegion. A majority o Americans report that releegion plays a "vera important" role in thair lives, a proportion unuisual amang [[developit naition]]s, awtho seemilar tae the ither naitions o the Americas.<ref>{{cite web| title= U.S. Stands Alone in its Embrace of Religion| work= Pew Global Attitudes Project| url= http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=167| accessdate= January 1, 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070208155508/http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=167| archivedate= 2007-02-08| url-status= live}}</ref> Mony faiths hae flourished in the Unitit States, includin baith later imports spannin the kintra's multicultural immigrant heritage, as well as those foondit athin the kintra; thir hae led the Unitit States tae acome the maist releegiously diverse kintra in the warld.<ref>{{cite book |title= A New Religious America : the World's Most Religiously Diverse Nation|url= https://archive.org/details/newreligiousamer00dian|last=Eck |first=Diana |year= 2002|publisher=HarperOne|isbn= 978-0-06-062159-9 |page=432}}</ref> The majority o Americans (76%) identify thairsels as Christians, maistly athin [[Protestantism|Protestant]] an Catholic denominations, accoontin for 51% an 25% o the population respectively.<ref name=ARIS2008>{{cite web |url=http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |format=PDF |title=AMERICAN RELIGIOUS IDENTIFICATION SURVEY (ARIS) 2008 |author=Barry A. Kosmin and Ariela Keysar |year=2009 |publisher=Trinity College |location=Hartford, Connecticut, USA |accessdate=April 1, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407053149/http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |archivedate=2009-04-07 |url-status=dead }}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407053149/http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |date=2009-04-07 }}</ref> Nan-Christian releegions (includin [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], Islam, an Judaism), collectively mak up aboot 4% tae 5% o the adult population.<ref name=ARIS2008/><ref name=ciafact>{{cite web| title= CIA Fact Book| url= https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html| publisher= CIA World Fact Book| year= 2002| accessdate= December 30, 2007| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080109013304/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html| archivedate= 2008-01-09| url-status= live}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226055200/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html |date=2018-12-26 }}</ref><ref name="Pew">{{cite web|url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/affiliations-all-traditions.pdf|title=Religious Composition of the U.S.|publisher=Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life|work=U.S. Religious Landscape Survey|year=2007|accessdate=May 9, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506212506/http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/affiliations-all-traditions.pdf|archivedate=2009-05-06|url-status=live}}</ref> Anither 15% o the adult population identifees as haein nae releegious belief or nae releegious affiliation.<ref name=ARIS2008 /> Accordin tae the American Religious Identification Survey, releegious belief varies considerably athort the kintra: 59% o Americans livin in Wastren states (the "[[Unchurched Belt]]") report a belief in God, yet in the Sooth (the "[[Bible Belt]]") the figur is as heich as 86%.<ref name=ARIS2008 /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/109108/Belief-God-Far-Lower-Western-US.aspx|title=Belief in God Far Lower in Western U.S.|author=Newport, Frank|publisher=[[The Gallup Organization]]|date=July 28, 2008|accessdate=September 4, 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828073931/http://www.gallup.com/poll/109108/belief-god-far-lower-western-us.aspx|archivedate=2010-08-28|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Cultur== {{Main|Cultur o the Unitit States}} The development o the cultur o the Unitit States o Americae haes been markit bi a tension atween twa strang soorces o inspiration: European ideals, especially [[Breetish American|Breetish]]; an domestic oreeginality, sic as [[Jeffersonian democracy]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Distant mirrors: America as a foreign culture |last=DeVita |first=Philip R. |last2=Armstrong |first2=James D. |year=2002 |publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning |isbn=9780534556488 |pages=197 |accessdate=17 September 2012 |url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Distant_mirrors.html?id=CxEWAQAAIAAJ }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Constructing the Nation: A Race and Nationalism Reader |series=SUNY Series, Philosophy and Race |last=Ortega |first=Mariana |editor1-first=Linda |editor1-last=Alcoff |year=2009 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=9781438428475 |page=35 |accessdate=17 September 2012 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JlNljLmbPZMC&lpg=PA35&ots=WUT1U_kvGA&dq=American%20culture%20european%20influence&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q=American%20culture%20european%20influence&f=false }}</ref> [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s ''Notes on the State of Virginia'' wis aiblins the first influential domestic cultural critique bi an American. American cultur encompasses tradeetions, ideals, customs, beliefs, values, airts, fowklore an innovations developit baith domestically an importit via colonisation an immigration frae the [[Breetish Isles]]. Prevalent ideas an ideals which evolvit domestically sic as important naitional holidays, uniquely American sports, proud militar tradeetion, an innovations in the airts an entertainment gie a strang sense o naitional pride amang the population as a whole. ==See an aw== * [[American diaspora]] * [[American Australies]] * [[American Brazilians]] * [[American Canadians]] * [[American Mexicans]] * [[American New Zealanders]] * [[Americo-Liberie]] * [[Emigration frae the Unitit States]] * [[Hyphenatit American]] * [[Immigration tae the Unitit States]] * [[North Americans in Chile]] ==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Americans}} [[Category:Ethnic groups in the Unitit States]] [[Category:American fowk| ]] [[Category:Immigration tae the Unitit States]] 2d8sf53an7p23y5gsucyt0wa2sknoo8 0 37975 918760 914604 2026-06-24T23:49:33Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918760 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Coord|41.7|N|71.5|W|region:US-RI_type:adm1st_scale:1000000|display=title}} {{Infobox U.S. state | name = Rhode Island | official_name = State of Rhode Island | image_flag = Flag of Rhode Island.svg | flag_link = Flag of Rhode Island | image_seal = Seal of Rhode Island (pre 2022).svg | image_map = Rhode Island in United States (zoom).svg | nickname = The Ocean State<br />Little Rhody<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ri.gov/facts/history.php |title=Rhode Island Government: Government|publisher=RI.gov|accessdate=July 31, 2010}}</ref> | motto = Hope | anthem = "[[Rhode Island's It for Me]]" | Former = [[Colony o Rhode Island an Providence Plantations]] | population_demonym = Rhode Islander | seat = [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]] | LargestCity = caipital | LargestMetro = [[Providence metropolitan aurie|Greater Providence]] | Governor = {{nowrap|[[Gina Raimondo]] ([[Democratic Pairty (Unitit States)|D]])}} | Lieutenant Governor = {{nowrap|[[Daniel McKee]] (D)}} | Legislature = [[Rhode Island General Assemmly]] | Upperhouse = [[Rhode Island Senate|Senate]] | Lowerhouse = [[Rhode Island Hoose o Representatives|Hoose o Representatives]] | Judiciary = [[Rhode Island Supreme Coort]] | Senators = {{nowrap|[[Jack Reed (Rhode Island politeecian)|Jack Reed]] (D)}}<br />{{nowrap|[[Sheldon Whitehouse]] (D)}} | Representative = {{nowrap|1: [[David Cicilline]] (D)}}<br/>{{nowrap|2: [[James Langevin]] (D)}} | postal_code = RI | TradAbbreviation = R.I. | BorderingStates = Connecticut, Massachusetts | OfficialLang = '''De jure''': Nane<br />'''De facto''': Inglis | area_rank = 50t | area_total_sq_mi = 1,214{{efn|{{nowrap|approximately 776,957 acres}}}}<ref name=area>[http://sos.ri.gov/library/history/facts/ Office of the Secretary of State: A. Ralph Mollis: State Library]. Sos.ri.gov. Retrieved on July 12, 2013.</ref> | area_total_km2 = {{convert|1214|sqmi|km2|0|disp=output number only}} | area_land_sq_mi = 1,045 | area_land_km2 = {{convert|1045|sqmi|km2|0|disp=output number only}} | area_water_sq_mi = 169 | area_water_km2 = {{convert|169|sqmi|km2|0|disp=output number only}} | Shoreline = {{convert|400|sqmi|km2|0|disp=output number only}} | area_water_percent = {{#expr:169/1214*100 round 1}} | population_as_of = 2019 | population_rank = 44t | 2010Pop = 1,059,361 | population_density_rank = 2nt | 2000DensityUS = 1006 | 2000Density = 388 | State Symbol = | MedianHouseholdIncome = $63,870<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kff.org/other/state-indicator/median-annual-income/?currentTimeframe=0|website=The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation|title=Median Annual Household Income|accessdate=December 9, 2016}}</ref> | IncomeRank = 16t | AdmittanceOrder = 13t | AdmittanceDate = 29 Mey 1790 | timezone1 = Eastren | utc_offset1 = -05:00 | timezone1_DST = EDT | utc_offset1_DST = -04:00 | Longitude = 71° 07′ W tae 71° 53′ W | Latitude = 41° 09′ N tae 42° 01′ N | width_mi = 37 | width_km = 60 | length_mi = 48 | length_km = 77 | elevation_max_point = [[Jerimoth Hill]]<ref name=USGS>{{cite web|url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |title=Elevations and Distances in the United States|publisher=United States Geological Survey|year=2001|accessdate=October 24, 2011|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015012701/http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |archivedate=October 15, 2011}}</ref><ref name=NAVD88>Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988</ref> | elevation_max_ft = 812 | elevation_max_m = 247 | elevation_ft = 200 | elevation_m = 60 | elevation_min_point = Atlantic Ocean<ref name=USGS/> | elevation_min_ft = 0 | elevation_min_m = 0 | iso_code = US-RI | website = www.ri.gov | footnotes = {{notelist}} | Capital = | Representatives = }} '''Rhode Island''' is a state in the [[New Ingland]] region o the Unitit States. It is the smawest state in aurie, the seivent least populous, an is the seicont maist densely populatit. It haes the langest offeecial name o ony state. Rhode Island is mairchit bi [[Connecticut]] tae the west, [[Massachusetts]] tae the north an east, an the Atlantic Ocean tae the sooth via [[Rhode Island Soond]] an [[Block Island Soond]]. It an aw shares a smaw maritime border wi [[New York (state)|New York]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sos.ri.gov/archon/index.php?p=collections/controlcard&id=867|title=Office of the Secretary of State: Nellie M. Gorbea:|publisher=}}</ref> [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]] is the state caipital an maist populous ceety in Rhode Island. On 4 Mey 1776, the [[Colony o Rhode Island an Providence Plantations|Colony o Rhode Island]] wis the first o the [[Thirteen Colonies]] tae renoonce its allegiance tae the Breetish Croun,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://sos.ri.gov/library/history/renunciation/ | title=The May 4, 1776, Act of Renunciation | publisher=State of Rhode Island | accessdate=May 3, 2014}}</ref> an it wis the fowert amang the newly independent states tae ratifee the [[Airticles o Confederation]] on 9 Februar 1778.<ref>{{cite book| last = Jensen| first = Merrill| title = The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781| url = https://archive.org/details/articlesofconfed0000jens| year = 1959| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press| isbn = 978-0-299-00204-6| pages = xi, 184 }}</ref> The state boycottit the [[Constitutional Convention (Unitit States)|1787 convention]] that drew up the [[Unitit States Constitution]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Letter from Certain Citizens of Rhode Island to the Federal Convention|url=http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/letter-from-certain-citizens-of-rhode-island-to-the-federal-convention/|publisher=TeachingAmericanHistory.org|accessdate=October 21, 2015|location=Ashland, Ohio}}</ref> an ineetially refuised tae ratifee it;<ref>{{cite book |last =Flexner |first =James Thomas |title =Washington, ''The Indispensable Man'' |publisher=Signet |year =1984 |location =New York |pages =[https://archive.org/details/washingtonindisp00flex/page/208 208] |url =https://archive.org/details/washingtonindisp00flex|id = |isbn =978-0-451-12890-4 }}</ref> it wis the last o the states tae dae sae on Mey 29, 1790.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vile|first1=John R.|title=The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding (Volume 1: A-M)|date=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-669-5|page=658|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyFpDS8p33sC&q=Rhode+Island#v=snippet&q=Rhode%20Island&f=false|accessdate=October 21, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usconstitution.net/rat_ri.html|title=US constitution Ratification: RI|publisher=Usconstitution.net|date=January 8, 2010|accessdate=January 26, 2013|archive-date=2018-09-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906161642/https://www.usconstitution.net/rat_ri.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Rhode Island's offeecial nickname is "The Ocean State", a reference tae the lairge bays an inlets that amoont tae aboot 14 percent o its tot aurie.<ref name=area /> == References == {{reflist|30em}} == Freemit airtins == ;State govrenment * [http://www.ri.gov/ {{PAGENAME}} state govrenment wabsteid] == Relatit information == <gallery perrow="5"> Image:West Greenwich Baptist Church in West Greenwich RI Rhode Island USA.jpg Image:Chateau-sur-Mer.jpg Image:Misquamicut Beach, RI 2009-08-03.JPG </gallery> {{Navboxes |title= [[File:Nuvola apps kpdf2.png|25px]] Topics relatit tae {{PAGENAME}} |state=off |list1=</span> {{{{PAGENAME}}|expanded}} {{Unitit States poleetical diveesions}} {{Unitit States topics}} }} {{Stub/USA}} [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}| ]] [[Category:States o the Unitit States]] [[Category:States an territories established in 1663]] l98od09zetw1v7qchyteg9nvurxpzlv 0 38099 918732 917774 2026-06-24T23:29:49Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918732 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots}} {{WW2InfoBox}} '''Warld War II''', or the '''Seicont Warld War''' (aften abbreviatit as '''WWII''' or WW2), wis a global war that stertit in 1939 an endit in 1945. It inrowed [[Warld War II bi country|the wappin forces o the warld's naitions]]—includin aw o the [[great pouer]]s—at the hinner en formin twa opponin [[military alliance]]s: the [[Feres o Warld War II|Feres]] an the [[Axis pouers|Axis]]. It wis the braidest [[war]] in history, an directly inrowed mair nor 100 million fowk frae ower 30 kintras. In a state o "[[tot war]]", the major participants funged thair hail economic, industrial, an scienteefic cawpabilities ahint the [[war brash]], erasin the distinction atween [[ceevilian]] an [[militar]] resoorces. Merkit bi mass daiths o ceevilians, includin the [[Holocaust]] (in whilk thareaboot 11 million fowk wis killt)<ref>{{Harvnb|Fitzgerald|2011|p=4}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Hedgepeth|Saidel|2010|p=16}}</ref> an the [[strategic bombin during Warld War II|strategic bombin o industrial an population centres]] (in whilk thareaboot ane million fowk wis killt, includin the [[Atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki|uise o twa nuclear wappens in combat]]),<ref>{{cite book |title=War, Violence, and Population: Making the Body Count |url=https://archive.org/details/warviolencepopul00tyne |author=James A. Tyner |page=[https://archive.org/details/warviolencepopul00tyne/page/n63 49] |date=March 3, 2009 |publisher=The Guilford Press; 1 edition |isbn=1-6062-3038-7}}</ref> it resultit in an estimate [[Warld War II casualties|50 million tae 85 million fatalities]]. Thir made Warld War&nbsp;II the [[Leet o wars an disasters by death toll|deidliest pingle]] in [[History o the warld|human history]].<ref name="Sommerville 2008 5">{{Harvnb|Sommerville|2011|p=5}}.</ref> The [[Empire o Japan]] ettilt tae dominate [[Asie]] an the [[Paceefic]] an wis awready [[Seicont Sino-Japanese War|at war]] wi the [[Republic o Cheenae (1912–1949)|Republic o Cheenae]] in 1937,<ref name="Bar&Shyu 2001 6">{{Harvnb|Barrett|Shyu|2001|p=6}}.</ref> but the warld war is generally said tae hae began on 1 September 1939<ref>Axelrod, Alan (2007) ''Encyclopedia of World War II, Volume 1''. Infobase Publishing. pp. 659.</ref> wi the [[invasion o Poland|invasion]] o [[Seicont Pols Republic|Poland]] bi [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] an subsequent declarations o war on Germany bi [[French Third Republic|Fraunce]] an the [[Unitit Kinrick]]. Frae late 1939 tae early 1941, in a series o campaigns an [[Tripartite Pact|treaties]], Germany vinkisht or maunt the feck o continental Europe, an formed the Axis alliance wi [[Kinrick o Italy|Italy]] an [[Empire o Japan|Japan]]. Follaein the [[Treaty o Non-Aggression atween Germany an the Soviet Union|Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], Germany an the Soviet Union pairteetioned an annexed territories o thair European neighbours, [[Soviet invasion o Poland|Poland]], [[Winter War|Finland]], [[Soviet occupation o Bessarabia an Northren Bukovina|Romanie]] an the [[Occupation o the Baltic states|Baltic states]]. The Unitit Kinrick an the [[Commonweel o Naitions|Breetish Commonweel]] wis the anerly Allied forces continuin the fecht agin the European Axis pouers, wi campaigns in [[Wastren Desert Campaign|North Africae]] an the [[East African Campaign (Warld War II)|Horn o Africae]] as weel as the lang-rinnin [[Battle o the Atlantic]]. In Juin 1941, the European Axis pouers lencht [[Operation Barbarossa|an invasion o the Soviet Union]], appenin the [[Eastren Front (Warld War II)|lairgest laund war theatre in history]], whilk trappit the feck o the Axis' militar forces intae a [[Attrition warfare|attrition war]]. In December 1941, Japan [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attackit the Unitit States]] an [[Japanese invasion o Malaya|European territories]] in the Paceefic Ocean, an swith vinkisht a fait feck o the Wastren Paceefic. The Axis forderin hautit in 1942 whan Japan lost the creetical [[Battle o Midway]], near [[Hawaii]], an Germany wis defait in the [[Seicont Battle o El Alamein|North Africae]] an syne, decisively, at [[Battle o Stalingrad|Stalingrad]] in the Soviet Union. In 1943, wi a series o German defaits on the [[Eastren Front (Warld War II)|Eastren Front]], the [[Allied invasion o Sicily|Allied invasion]] o Italy whilk rase Italian renooncement, an Allied owerhauns in the Paceefic, the Axis lost the initiative an taen legbail on haun on aw fronts. In 1944, the Wastren Allies [[Normandy landings|invadit German-occupied Fraunce]], while the Soviet Union won back aw o its territorial losses an invadit Germany an its feres. Durin 1944 an 1945 the Japanese dreed major reverses in mainland Asie in [[Second Guangxi Campaign|Sooth]] [[Battle o Wast Hunan|Central Cheenae]] an [[Burma Campaign|Burma]], while the Allies lamed the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese Navy]] an fangt key Wastren Paceefic islands. The war in Europe endit wi an [[Wastren Allied invasion o Germany|invasion o Germany]] bi the Wastren Allies an the Soviet Union culminatin in the [[Battle o Berlin|tak o Berlin]] bi Soviet an Pols truips an the subsequent [[German Instrument o Surrender|German uncondeetional surrender]] on [[Victory in Europe Day|8 Mey 1945]]. Follaein the [[Potsdam Declaration]] bi the Allies on the 26t Julie 1945 an Japan's refuise o tae renoonce unner its terms, the Unitit States [[Atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki|drappit atomic bombs]] on the Japanese ceeties o [[Hiroshima]] an [[Nagasaki]] on the 6t August an the 9t August respectively. Wi an [[Operation Downfall|invasion o the Japanese airchipelago]] imminent, the possibility o addeetional atomic bombins, an the [[Soviet-Japanese War (1945)|Soviet Union's declaration o war on Japan]] an [[Soviet invasion o Manchuria|invasion o Manchuria]], [[Surrender o Japan|Japan renoonced]] on the 15t August 1945. Sicweys endit the war in Asie, souderin the Allies' tot victory. Warld War&nbsp;II chynged the warld's poleetical alignment an social structur. The [[Unitit Naitions]] (UN) wis estaiblisht fur tae forder internaitional comploutherin an fur tae prevene futur conflicks. The gree-bearin [[great pouer]]s—the Unitit States, the Soviet Union, Cheenae, the Unitit Kinrick, an Fraunce—became the [[Permanent members o the Unitit Naitions Security Council|permanent memmers]] o the [[Unitit Naotions Security Cooncil]].<ref name="The UN Security Council">{{Citation|title=The UN Security Council|url=http://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html|accessdate=15 May 2012|archive-date=2012-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620101548/http://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Soviet Union an the Unitit States ootcam as rival [[superpouer]]s, settin the stage fur the [[Cauld War]], whilk lastit fur the neist 46 year. Atween haun, the European great pouers' hank waned, while the [[decolonisation o Asie]] an [[decolonisation o Africae|Africae]] began. Maist kintras whase industries haed been damaged muived taewart [[post-Warld War II economic expansion|economic betterness]]. Poleetical integration, inspecially [[European integration|in Europe]], wis a war ootcome, as pairt o a ettle at endin afore-war laith an creautin a common identity.<ref>{{cite web|title=From War to Peace: A European Tale|url=http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2012/eu-lecture_en.html|publisher=Nobel Lecture by the European Union|accessdate=4 January 2014|author=Herman Van Rompuy, President of the European Council|author2=José Manuel Durão Barroso, President of the European Commission|date=10 December 2012}}</ref> ==Backgrund== === Europe === [[Warld War I]] haed radically altert the [[Geopolitics|poleetical]] European map, wi the defeat o the [[Central Powers]]—includin [[Austrick-Hungary]], [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Kinrick o Bulgarie|Bulgarie]] an the [[Ottoman Empire]]—an the 1917 [[October Revolution|Bolshevik seizur o pouer]] in [[Roushie Republic|Roushie]], that hinderly led tae the foondin o the [[Soviet Union]]. Atween haun, the veectorious [[Allies o Warld War I]], sic as Fraunce, Belgium, Italy, Romanie an Greece, gained territory, an new [[naition-states]] wis creatit oot o the collapse o Austrick-Hungary an the Ottoman an [[Roushie Empire]]s. Fur tae prevene a futur warld war, the [[League o Naitions]] wis creatit in the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|1919 Paris Peace Conference]]. Maugre strang [[pacifism|pacifist]] sentiment [[eftermath o Warld War I|efter Warld War I]],{{sfn|Ingram|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bREQibN9i-sC&pg=PA76 76–8]}} its eftermath still caused [[irredentist]] an [[revanchist]] [[naitionalism]] in several European states. Thir sentiments wis especially merkit in Germany acause o the signeeficant territorial, colonial, an financial losses incurred bi the [[Treaty o Versailles]]. Unner the treaty, Germany lost aroond 13 percent o its hame territory an aw o [[German colonial empire|its owerseas possessions]], while German annexation o ither states wis prohibitit, [[Warld War I reparations|reparations]] war imposed, an leemits wis placed on the size an capability o the kintra's [[Reichswehr|airmed forces]].{{sfn|Kantowicz|1999|p=149}} The German Empire wis dissolved in the [[German Revolution o 1918–1919]], an a democratic govrenment, later kent as the [[Weimar Republic]], wis creautit. The interwar period saw strife atween supporters o the new republic an hardline opponents on baith the [[richt-weeng politics|richt]] an [[left-weeng politics|left]]. Italy, as an Entente ally, haed made some post-war territorial gains; houiver, Italian naitionalists wis angert that the [[Treaty o Lunnon (1915)|promises made]] bi Breetain an Fraunce tae siccar Italian entrance intae the war wisnae fulfilt in the peace dounset. Frae 1922 tae 1925, the [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] muivement led bi [[Benito Mussolini]] seized pouer in Italy wi a naitionalist, [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]], an [[cless collaboration]]ist agenda that abolisht representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-weeng an leeberal forces, an pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at makkin Italy a [[warld pouer]], promisin the creaution o a "[[New Roman Empire]]".{{sfn|Shaw|2000|p=35}} [[File:Nürnberg Reichsparteitag Hitler retouched.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] at a German [[Naitional Socialist]] poleetical rally in [[Nürnberg]], August 1933]] [[Adolf Hitler]], efter an [[Beer Hall Putsch|unsuccessfu attempt tae owerthraw the German govrenment]] in 1923, eventually acame the [[Adolf Hitler's rise tae pouer|Chancellor o Germany in 1933]]. He abolisht democracy, espoosin a [[New Order (Nazism)|radical, racially motivatit revision o the warld order]], an suin begoud a massive [[German re-airmament|reairmament campaign]].{{sfn|Brody|1999|p=4}} Meanwhile, Fraunce, tae siccar its alliance, [[Franco-Italian Greement|alloued Italy a free haund in Ethiopie]], that Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation wis aggravatit in early 1935 whan the [[Saar (League o Naitions)|Territory o the Saar Basin]] wis legally reunitit wi Germany an Hitler repudiatit the Treaty o Versailles, acceleratit his reairmament programme, an introduced [[conscription]].{{sfn|Zalampas|1989|p=62}} Hitler defee'd the Versailles an [[Locarno treaties]] bi [[Remilitarisation o the Rhineland|remilitarisin]] the [[Rhineland]] in Mairch 1936, [[Appeasement|encoonterin little opposeetion]].{{sfn|Adamthwaite|1992|p=52}} In October 1936, Germany an Italy formed the [[Roum–Berlin Axis]]. A month later, Germany an Japan signed the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]], that Italy wad jyne in the follaein year. === Asie === The [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) pairty in Cheenae launched a [[Northren Expedition|unification campaign]] against [[Warlaird Era|regional warlairds]] an nominally unifee'd Cheenae in the mid-1920s, but wis suin embrulyie'd in a [[Cheenese Ceevil War|ceevil war]] against its umwhile [[Cheenese Communist Pairty]] allies{{sfn|Preston|1998|p=104}} an [[Central Plains War|new regional warlairds]]. In 1931, an [[Statism in Shōwa Japan|increasinly militareestic]] [[Empire o Japan]], that haed lang soct influence in Cheenae{{sfn|Myers|Peattie|1987|p=458}} as the first step o whit its govrenment saw as the kintra's [[Hakko ichiu|richt tae rule Asie]], uised the [[Mukden Incident]] as a pretext tae [[Japanese invasion o Manchurie|launch an invasion o Manchurie]] an establish the [[puppet state]] o [[Manchukuo]].{{sfn|Smith|Steadman|2004|p=28}} Ower waik tae resist Japan, Cheenae appealt tae the [[League o Naitions]] fur help. Japan widrew frae the League o Naitions efter bein [[Lytton Report|condemned]] fur its incursion intae Manchurie. The twa naitions syne focht several battles, in [[28 Januar Incident|Shanghai]], [[Battle o Rehe|Rehe]] an [[Defence o the Great Waw|Hebei]], till the [[Tanggu Truce]] wis signed in 1933. Thareefter, Cheenese volunteer forces conteena'd the reseestance tae Japanese aggression in [[Pacification o Manchukuo|Manchurie]], an [[Actions in Inner Mongolie (1933–1936)|Chahar an Suiyuan]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Coogan|1993}}: "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies."</ref> Efter the 1936 [[Xi'an Incident]], the Kuomintang an communist forces greed on a ceasefire tae present a [[Seicont Unitit Front|unitit front]] fur tae oppone Japan.{{sfn|Busky|2002|p=10}} == Pre-war events == === Spaingie Ceevil War (1936–39) === {{Main|Spaingie Ceevil War}} Whan ceevil war ootbrak in Spain, Hitler an Mussolini lent militar uphaudin tae the [[Naitionalist faction (Spaingie Ceevil War)|Naitionalist rebels]], led bi General [[Francisco Franco]]. The Soviet Union uphaudit the existin govrenment, the [[Seicont Spaingie Republic|Spaingie Republic]]. Ower 30,000 foreign volunteers, kent as the [[Internaitional Brigades]], forby focht agin the Naitionalists. Baith Germany an the USSR uised this [[proxy war]] as an opportunity fur tae test in combat thair maist advanced wappens an tactics. The Naitionalists wan the ceevil war in Apryle 1939; Franco, nou dictator, remeened offeecially neutral in World War II but generally favoured the Axis.{{sfn|Payne|2008|page=271}} His greatest collaboration wi Germany wis the sendin o [[Blue Diveesion|volunteers]] tae fecht on the [[Eastren Front (Warld War II)|Eastren Front]].{{sfn|Payne|2008|page=146}} === Japanese invasion o Cheenae (1937) === {{Main|Seicont Sino-Japanese War}} In Julie 1937, Japan capturt the umwhile Cheenese imperial caipital o [[Peking]] efter instigatin the [[Marco Polo Brig Incident]], that culminatit in the Japanese campaign tae invade aw o Cheenae.{{sfn|Eastman|1986|pp=547–51}} The Soviets quickly signed a [[Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact|non-aggression pact wi Cheenae]] tae lend [[materiel]] uphaudin, effectively endin Cheenae's prior [[Sino-German comploutherin 1926–1941|comploutherin wi Germany]]. Frae September tae November, the Japanese attackit [[Battle o Taiyuan|Taiyuan]],<ref name="Guo 1971 221">{{Harvnb|Guo|2005}}</ref><ref name="Hsu & Chang 1971 221">{{Harvnb|Hsu|Chang|1971|pp=195–200}}.</ref> as weel as engagin the [[Naitional Revolutionary Airmy|Kuomintang Airmy]] [[Battle o Xinkou|aroond Xinkou]]<ref name="Guo 1971 221"/><ref name="Hsu & Chang 1971 221"/> an [[Communist Pairty o Cheenae|Communist forces]] [[battle o Pingxingguan|in Pingxingguan]].<ref name=Tucker2009>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA1873|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|first=Spencer C.|last=Tucker|date=23 December 2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|accessdate=27 August 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name=yang>Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan"</ref> [[Generalissimo]] [[Chiang Kai-shek]] deployed his [[German-trained diveesions in the Naitional Revolutionary Airmy|best airmy]] tae [[Battle o Shanghai|defend Shanghai]], but, efter three month o fechtin, Shanghai fell. The Japanese conteena'd tae push the Cheenese forces back, [[Battle o Nanking|capturin the caipital Nanking]] in December 1937. Efter the faw o Nanking, tens o thoosands, gif no hunders o thoosands, o Cheenese ceevilians an disairmed combatants wis [[Nanking Massacre|murthert bi the Japanese]].<ref>Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. ''The Massacre in History''. 1999, page 223-4</ref><ref name=tot>Totten, Samuel. ''Dictionary of Genocide''. 2008, 298–9.</ref> In Mairch 1938, Naitionalist Cheenese forces wan thair [[Battle o Taierzhuang|first major veectory at Taierzhuang]] but then the ceety o [[Xuzhou]] [[Battle o Xuzhou|wis taken bi Japanese]] in Mey.{{sfn|Hsu|Chang|1971|pp=221–230}} In Juin 1938, Cheenese forces stawed the Japanese advance bi [[1938 Yellae River fluid|fluidin the Yellae River]]; this manoeuvre bocht time fur the Cheenese tae prepare thair defences at [[Wuhan]], but the [[Battle o Wuhan|ceety wis takken]] bi October.{{sfn|Eastman|1986|p=566}} Japanese militar veectories didnae bring aboot the collapse o Cheenese resistance that Japan haed howpit tae achieve; insteid the Cheenese govrenment relocatit inland tae [[Chongqing]] an conteena'd the war.{{sfn|Taylor|2009|pp=150–2}}{{sfn|Sella|1983|pp=651–87}} === European occupations an agreements === [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H27337, Moskau, Stalin und Ribbentrop im Kreml.jpg|right|thumb|upright|German Foreign Meenister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] (richt) an the Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]], efter signin the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], 23 August 1939]] In Europe, Germany an Italy wis becomin aggressiver. In Mairch 1938, Germany [[Anschluss|annexed Austrick]], again provokin [[Appeasement o Hitler|a bittock response]] frae ither European pouers.{{sfn|Collier|Pedley|2000|p=144}} Encouraged, Hitler begoud pressin German claims on the [[Sudetenland]], an aurie o [[Czechoslovakie]] wi a predominantly [[ethnic German]] population; an suin Breetain an Fraunce follaed the coonsel o Breetish Prime Meenister [[Neville Chamberlain]] an concedit this territory tae Germany in the [[Munich Greement]], that wis made agin the wishes o the Czechoslovak govrenment, in exchynge fur a promise o nae mair territorial demands.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|pp=121–2}} Suin efterwart, Germany an Italy forced Czechoslovakie tae [[First Vienna Awaird|cede addeetional territory]] tae [[Hungary]] an Poland annexed Czechoslovakie's [[Zaolzie]] region.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|p=157}} Awtho aw o Germany's statit demands haed been satisfee'd bi the greement, preevatly Hitler wis furious that Breetish interference haed preventit him frae seizin aw o Czechoslovakie in ane operation. In subsequent speeches, Hitler attackit Breetish an Jewish "war-mongers" an in Januar 1939 [[Plan Z|saicretly ordered a major big-up o the German navy]] tae challenge Breetish naval supremacy. In Mairch 1939, [[German occupation o Czechoslovakie|Germany invadit the remeender o Czechoslovakie]] an subsequently split it intae the German [[Pertectorate o Bohemie an Moravie]] an a pro-German [[client state]], the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]].{{sfn|Davies|2006|loc=pp. 143–4 (2008 ed.)}} Hitler forby deleevered the 20 Mairch 1939 [[1939 German ultimatum tae Lithuanie|ultimatum tae Lithuanie]], forcin the concession o the [[Klaipėda Region]]. Greatly alairmed an wi Hitler makkin forder demands on the [[Free Ceety o Danzig]], Breetain an Fraunce [[Anglo-Pols militar alliance#Breetish Guarantee tae Poland|guaranteed thair uphaudin o Pols unthirldom]]; whan [[Italian invasion o Albanie|Italy conquered Albanie]] in Apryle 1939, the same guarantee wis extendit tae Romanie an [[Greece]].{{sfn|Lowe|Marzari|2002|p=330}} Shortly efter the [[Franco-Pols Militar Alliance|Franco]]-Breetish pledge tae Poland, Germany an Italy formalised thair awn alliance wi the [[Pact o Steel]].{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=234}} Hitler accuised Breetain an Poland o tryin tae "encircle" Germany an renoonced the [[Anglo-German Naval Greement]] an the [[German–Pols Non-Aggression Pact]]. The situation reakit a general creesis in late August as German truips conteena'd tae mobilise agin the Pols mairch. In August 23, whan tripartite negotiations aboot a militar alliance atween Fraunce, Breetain an USSR stawed<ref>Derek Watson, Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939, ''Europe-Asia Studies'', Vol. 52, No. 4 (Jun., 2000), pp. 695-722 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/153322]</ref>, Soviet Union signed [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|a non-aggression pact]] wi Germany.{{sfn|Shore|2003|p=108}} This pact haed a saicret protocol that defined German an Soviet "spheres o influence" (wastren [[Seicont Pols Republic|Poland]] an [[Lithuanie]] for Germany; [[Territories o Poland annexed bi the Soviet Union|eastren Poland]], Finland, [[Estonie]], Latvie an [[Bessarabie]] fur the USSR), an raised the quaisten o conteenuin Pols unthirldom.{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=608}} The pact neutralised the possibility o Soviet opposeetion tae a campaign against Poland an assured that Germany wad nae hae tae face the prospect o a twa-front war, as it haed in Warld War I. Immediately efter that, Hitler ordert the attack tae proceed on 26 August, but upon hearin that Breetain haed concludit a formal mutual assistance pact wi Poland, an that Italy wad mainteen neutrality, he decidit tae delay it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/DAP-Poland/Campaign-II.html#chapter5|title=The German Campaign In Poland (1939)|publisher=|accessdate=29 October 2014}}</ref> In response tae Breetish requests fur direct negotiations fur tae evit war, Germany made demands on Poland, that anerly served as a pretext tae worsen relations.<ref name=ww2db_com>{{cite web |url=http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162 |title=The Danzig Crisis |website=ww2db.com}}</ref> On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Pols [[plenipotentiary]] immediately traivel fur tae Berlin tae negotiate the haundower o [[Danzig]], an tae allou a [[plebiscite]] in the [[Pols Corridor]] in that the German minority wad vote on secession.<ref name=ww2db_com/> The Poles refuised tae complee wi the German demands, an on the nicht o 30–31 August in a veeolent meetin wi the Breetish ambassador [[Neville Henderson]], Ribbentrop declared that Germany conseedert its claims rejectit.<ref name=ibiblio1939>{{cite web |title=Major international events of 1939, with explanation |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1939.html |publisher=Ibiblio.org}}</ref> == Coorse o the war == === War braks oot in Europe (1939–40) === [[File:Schleswig Holstein firing Gdynia 13.09.1939.jpg|left|thumb|German battleship [[SMS Schleswig-Holstein|Schleswig-Holstein]] firin first salvos o WWII in the attack o [[battle o Westerplatte|Westerplatte]]. Gdańsk, 1 September 1939]] On 1 September 1939, upon [[Operation Himmler|haein staged]] several [[Gleiwitz incident|mairch incidents]], Germany [[Invasion o Poland|invadit Poland]]. {{sfn|Evans|2008|pp=1–2}} The [[Battle o Westerplatte]] is aften descrived as the first European battle o Warld War II. Breetain respondit wi an ultimatum tae Germany tae cease militar operations, an on 3 September, efter the ultimatum wis ignored, Fraunce, Breetain, [[Australie]], an [[New Zealand]] declared a war on Germany. This alliance wis jynt bi [[Union o Sooth Africae|Sooth Africae]] (6 September) an [[Canadae]] (10 September). The alliance providit [[Phoney War|na direct militar support]] tae Poland, ootside o a [[Saar Offensive|cautious French probe intae the Saarland]].<ref name="Keegan 1997 35">{{Harvnb|Keegan|1997|p=35}}.<br />{{Harvnb|Cienciala|2010|p=128}}, observes that, while it is true that Poland wis faur awey, makkin it difficult for the French an Breetish tae provide support, "[f]ew Western historians of World War II&nbsp;... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshafen. The French, who committed to attack Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so."</ref> The [[Allies o Warld War II|Wastren Allies]] forby begoud a [[Blockade o Germany (1939–45)|naval blockade o Germany]], that aimed tae damage the kintra's economy an war effort.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|p=32}}; {{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=248–9}}; {{Harvnb|Roskill|1954|p=64}}.</ref> Germany respondit bi orderin [[Submarine warfare#Warld War II|U-boat warfare]] agin Allied merchand an warships, that wad later escalate intae the [[Battle o the Atlantic]]. On 8 September, German truips reached suburbs o [[Warsaw]]. The Pols wastlin [[Battle o Bzura|coonter offensive]] hautit the German advance fur several day, but it wis ootflankit an encircled bi the ''[[Wehrmacht]]''. Remnants o the Pols airmy brak throu tae [[Battle o Warsaw (1939)|besieged Warsaw]]. On 17 September 1939, efter signin a [[Battles o Khalkhin Gol|cease-fire wi Japan]], the [[Soviet invasion o Poland|Soviets invadit Eastren Poland]].{{sfn|Zaloga|2002|pp=80, 83}} On 27 September, Warsaw gairison signed a cease-fire an surrendered tae the Germans, an [[Samodzielna Grupa Operacyjna Polesie|the last lairge operational unit o the Pols Airmy]] [[Battle o Kock (1939)|surrendered on 6 October]]. Maugre a militar defeat, the Pols govrenment niver surrendered; the Pols resistance established an [[Pols Unnergrund State|Unnergrund State]] an a pairtisan [[Hame Airmy]].{{sfn|Hempel|2005|p=24}}. Germany [[Pols auries annexed bi Nazi Germany|annexed]] the wastren an [[General Govrenment|occupied]] the central pairt o Poland, an the USSR [[Pols auries annexed bi Nazi Germany|annexed]] its eastren pairt; smaw shares o Pols territory war transferred tae [[Territorial chynges o Poland#Warld War II|Lithuanie]] an [[Slovak invasion o Poland|Slovakie]]. On the 6t October, Hitler made a public peace owertur tae Breetain an Fraunce, but said that the futur o Poland wis tae be determined exclusively bi Germany an the Soviet Union. The proposal wis rejectit<ref name=ibiblio1939/>, an Hitler ordered an immediate offensive agin Fraunce,<ref>Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive frae Hitler in October 1939 whilk concludes: "The attack [on France] is tae be launcht this Autumn if conditions is possible ava."</ref> that wad be postponed till the ware o 1940 due tae bad wather. {{sfn|Liddell Hart|1977|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Bullock|1990|loc=pp. 563–4, 566, 568–9, 574–5 (1983 ed.)}}<ref>Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk, L Deighton, Jonathan Cape, 1993, p186-7. Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place."</ref> The Soviet Union forced the [[Baltic states|Baltic kintras]]—Estonie, Latvie an Lithuanie, the states that war in a Soviet [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact|sphere o influence]]"—tae sign [[Backgrund o the occupation o the Baltic states#Soviet ultimatums an occupation|"mutual assistance pacts"]] that stipulatit stationin Soviet truips in thir kintras. Suin efter that, signeeficant Soviet militar contingent wis muived thare.{{sfn|Smith|Pabriks|Purs|Lane|2002|p=24}}{{sfn|Bilinsky|1999|p=9}}{{sfn|Murray|Millett|2001|pp=55–6}}. Finland refuised tae sign a seemilar pact an rejectit tae cede pairt o its territory tae the USSR, thar promptit a Soviet invasion in November 1939{{sfn|Spring|1986|p=207-226}}, an the USSR wis expelt frae the League o Naitions<ref>Carl van Dyke. The Soviet Invasion of Finland. Frank Cass Publishers, Lindon, Portland, OR. {{ISBN|0-7146-4753-5}}, p. 71.</ref>. Despite owerwhelmin numerical superiority, Soviet militar sonse wis modest, an the [[Winter War|Finno-Soviet war]] endit in Mairch 1940 wi [[Moscow Peace Treaty|meenimal Finnish concessions]].{{sfn|Hanhimäki|1997|p=12}} In Juin 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed [[Soviet occupation o the Baltic states (1940)|Estonie, Latvie an Lithuanie]],{{sfn|Bilinsky|1999|p=9}} an the disputit Romanie regions o [[Soviet occupation o Bessarabie an Northren Bukovina|Bessarabie, Northren Bukovina an Hertza]]. Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet poleetical rapprochement an economic co-operation{{sfn|Ferguson|2006|pp=367, 376, 379, 417}}{{sfn|Snyder|2010|p=118ff}} gradually stawed,{{sfn|Koch|1983}}{{sfn|Roberts|2006|p=56}} an baith states begoud preparations for war.{{sfn|Roberts|2006|p=59}} === Wastren Europe (1940–41) === {{main|Wastren Front (Warld War II)}} [[File:Maginot Line ln-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Map o the French [[Maginot Line]]]] In Apryle 1940, [[Operation Weserübung|Germany invadit Denmark an Norawa]] tae pertect shipments o [[Swwadish airn-ure minin in World War II|airn ore frae Swaden]], that the Allies war [[Operation Wilfred|attemptin tae cut aff]] bi unilaterally minin neutral Norse watters.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murray|Millett|2001|pp=57–63}}.</ref> [[Denmark]] capitulatit efter a few oors, an [[Norse Campaign|mauggre Allied support]], in that the important herbour o [[Narvik]] temporarily wis recapturt frae the Germans, [[Norawa]] wis conquert within twa month.{{sfn|Commager|2004|p=9}} [[Norawa Debate|Breetish discontent ower the Norse campaign]] led tae the replacement o the Breetish Prime Meenister, [[Neville Chamberlain]], wi [[Winston Churchill]] on 10 Mey 1940.{{sfn|Reynolds|2006|p=76}} Germany [[Battle o Fraunce|launcht an offensive agin Fraunce]] an, adherin tae the [[Manstein Plan]] forby attackit the neutral naitions o [[Battle o Belgium|Belgium]], [[Battle o the Netherlands|the Netherlands]], an [[German invasion o Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] on 10 Mey 1940.{{sfn|Evans|2008|pp=122–3}} That same day, Breetish forces laundit in [[Invasion o Iceland|Iceland]] an the [[Breetish occupation o the Faroe Islands|Faroes]] tae preempt a possible German invasion o the islands.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=436}}. The Americans later relieved the Breetish, wi marines arrivin in Reykjavik on 7 Julie 1941 ({{Harvnb|Schofield|1981|p=122}}).</ref> The US, in close co-operation wi [[Henrik Kauffmann|the Dens envoy tae Washington D.C.]], greed tae pertect [[Greenland in Warld War II|Greenland]], layin the poleetical framewark for the formal establishment o bases in Apryle 1941. The [[Netherlands in Warld War II|Netherlands]] an [[Belgium in Warld War II|Belgium]] wis owerrun uisin [[blitzkrieg]] tactics in a few days an weeks, respectively.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|pp=721–3}} The French-fortifee'd [[Maginot Line]] an the main bouk o the Allied forces that haed muived intae Belgium wae circumventit bi a flankin muivement throu the thickly widdit [[Ardennes]] region,{{sfn|Keegan|1997|pp=59–60}} mistakenly perceived bi Allied planners as an impenetrable naitural barrier against airmoured vehicles.{{sfn|Regan|2004|p=152}}{{sfn|Liddell Hart|1977|p=48}} As a result, the bouk o the Allied airmies foond themsels trappit in an encirclement an war beaten. The majority war takken prisoner, whilst ower 300,000, maistly Breetish an French, war [[Dunkirk evacuation|evacuated frae the continent at Dunkirk]] bi early Juin, awtho abandonin awmaist aw o thair equipment.{{sfn|Keegan|1997|pp=66–7}} On the 10t Juin, [[Italian invasion o Fraunce|Italy invadit Fraunce]], declarin war on baith Fraunce an the Unitit Kinrick.{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|p=207}} Paris fell tae the Germans on the 14t Juin an aicht days later [[Airmistice o 22 Juin 1940|Fraunce signed an airmistice wi Germany]] an wis suin dividit intae [[German militar admeenistration in occupied Fraunce in Warld War II|German]] an [[Italian occupation o Fraunce|Italian occupation zones]],{{sfn|Umbreit|1991|p=311}} an a wanoccupied [[rump state]] unner the [[Vichy Regime]], that, tho offeecially neutral, wis generally aligned wi Germany. Fraunce kept its fleet but the Breetish feared the Germans wad seize it, sae on 3 Julie, the Breetish [[Attack on Mers-el-Kébir|attacked it]].{{sfn|Brown|2004|p=xxx}} The [[Battle o Breetain]]{{sfn|Keegan|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TF8kcx9hTssC&pg=PA72 72]}} begoud in early Julie wi [[Kanalkampf|Luftwaffe attacks on shippin an herbours]].<ref name=Murray_BoB>{{harvnb|Murray|1983|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/AAF-Luftwaffe/AAF-Luftwaffe-2.html#cn70 The Battle of Britain].}}</ref> On 19 Julie, Hitler again publicly offert tae end the war, sayin he wisna wantin tae destroy the [[Breetish Empire]]. The Unitit Kinrick rejectit this ultimatum.<ref name=ibiblio_1940>{{cite web |title=Major international events of 1940, with explanation |url= http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1940.html |publisher=Ibiblio.org |accessdate=}}</ref> The main [[Adlertag|German air superiority campaign]] stairtit in August but failed tae defeat [[RAF Fechter Command]], an a [[Operation Sea Lion|proponed invasion]] wis postponed indefinitely on 17 September. The German [[strategic bombin]] offensive intensifee'd as nicht attacks on Lunnon an ither ceeties in [[the Blitz]], but lairgely failed tae disrupt the Breetish war effort.{{r|Murray_BoB}} Uisin newly capturt French ports, the German Navy [[Battle o the Atlantic#'Happy Time' (Juin 1940&nbsp;– Februar 1941)|enjoyed success]] against an ower-extendit [[Ryal Navy]], uisin [[U-boat]]s agin Breetish shippin in the [[Battle o the Atlantic|Atlantic]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Goldstein|2004|p=35}}. Aircraft played a heichly important role in defeatin the German U-boats ({{Harvnb|Schofield|1981|p=122}}).</ref> <!-- REFERENCES NEEDED FOR THIS --> The Breetish scored a signeeficant veectory on 27 Mey 1941 bi [[Last battle o the battleship Bismarck|sinkin the German battleship ''Bismarck'']].<ref>{{Harvnb|Steury|1987|p=209}}; {{Harvnb|Zetterling|Tamelander|2009|p=282}}.</ref> Aiblins maist importantly, in the Battle o Breetain the [[Ryal Air Force]] haed successfully reseestit the Luftwaffe's assault, an the German bombin campaign lairgely endit in Mey 1941.{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=108–9}} Ootthrou this period, the neutral Unitit States teuk meisurs tae assist Cheenae an the Wastren Allies. In November 1939, the American [[Neutrality Acts o 1930s|Neutrality Act]] wis amendit tae allou [[Cash an cairy (World War II)|"cash an cairy"]] purchases bi the Allies.{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|pp=328–30}} In 1940, follaein the German captur o Paris, the size o the [[Unitit States Navy]] wis [[Two-Ocean Navy Act|signeeficantly increased]]. In September, the Unitit States forder greed tae a [[Destroyers for Bases Agreement|tred o American destroyers for Breetish bases]].{{sfn|Maingot|1994|p=52}} Still, a lairge majority o the American public conteena'd tae oppone ony direct militar intervention intae the conflict weel inte 1941.{{sfn|Cantril|1940|p=390}} Awtho Roosevelt haed promised tae keep the Unitit States oot o the war, he nivertheless teuk concrete steps tae prepare for war. At the end o September 1940, the [[Tripartite Pact]] unitit Japan, Italy an Germany tae formalise the [[Axis Pouers]]. The Tripartite Pact stipulatit that ony kintra, wi the exception o the Soviet Union, no in the war that attacked ony Axis Power wad be forced tae gae tae war agin aw three.{{Sfn|Bilhartz|Elliott|2007|p=179}} The Axis expandit in November 1940 whan Hungary, Slovakie an [[Kinrick o Romanie|Romanie]] jynt the Tripartite Pact.{{Sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=877}} Romanie wad mak a [[Romanie in Warld War II|major contreibution]] (as [[Hungary in Warld War II|did Hungary]]) tae the Axis war agin the USSR, pairtially tae recaptur [[Soviet occupation o Bessarabie an Northren Bukovina|territory cedit tae the USSR]], pairtially tae pursue its leader [[Ion Antonescu]]'s desire tae combat communism.{{Sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=745–6}} === Mediterranean (1940–41) === [[File:9 Div Tobruk(AWM 020779).jpg|thumb|right|Sodgers o the [[Breetish Empire in Warld War II|Breetish Commonweel forces]] frae the Australie Airmy's [[9t Diveesion (Australie)|9t Diveesion]] in the [[Siege o Tobruk]]; [[North African Campaign]], August 1941]] Italy begoud operations in the Mediterranean, ineetiatin a [[Siege o Maltae (Warld War II)|siege o Maltae]] in Juin, [[Italian conquest o Breetish Somaliland|conquerin Breetish Somaliland]] in August, an [[Italian invasion o Egyp|makkin an incursion intae Breetish-held Egyp]] in September 1940. In October 1940, Italy stairtit the [[Greco-Italian War]] acause o Mussolini's jealousy o Hitler's success but within days wis repulsed wi few territorial gains an a stalemate suin occurred.{{sfn|Clogg|2002|p=118}} The Unitit Kinrick respondit tae Greek requests for assistance bi sendin truips tae Crete an providin air support tae Greece. Hitler decidit that whan the wather impruived he wad tak action against Greece tae assist the Italians an prevent the Breetish frae gaining a fithauld in the Balkans, tae strike against the Breetish naval dominance o the Mediterranean, an tae siccar his hauld on Romanie ile.<ref>{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|pp=146, 152}}; {{Harvnb|US Army|1986|pp=[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/20_260_1.htm 4–6]}}</ref> Bi late Mairch 1941, follaein [[Bulgarie]]'s signin o the [[Tripartite Pact]], the Germans war in poseetion tae intervene in Greece. Plans chynged, houiver, acause o developments in neighbourin [[Yugoslavie]]. The Yugoslav govrenment haed signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 Mairch, anerly tae be owerthrawn twa day efter bi a [[Yugoslav coup d'état|Breetish-encouraged coup]]. Hitler viewed the new regime as hostile an immediately decidit tae eliminate it. On 6 Apryle Germany simultaneously invadit baith [[Invasion o Yugoslavie|Yugoslavie]] an [[Battle o Greece|Greece]], makkin rapid progress an forcin baith naitions tae surrender within the month. The Breetish war driven frae the Balkans efter Germany [[Battle o Crete|conquered the Greek island o Crete]] bi the end o Mey.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=229}} <!-- REFERENCE SEEMS VERY NARROW FOR RANGE OF EVENTS COVERED --> Awtho the Axis veectory wis swift, bitter pairtisan warfare subsequently brak oot agin the [[Axis occupation o Yugoslavie]], whilk conteena'd till the end o the war. === Axis attack on the USSR (1941) === Wi the situation in Europe an Asie relatively stable, Germany, Japan, an the Soviet Union made preparations. Wi the Soviets waurie o moontin tensions wi Germany an the Japanese plannin tae tak advantage o the European War bi seizin resoorce-rich European possessions in [[Sootheast Asie]], the twa pouers signed the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] in Apryle 1941.{{sfn|Garver|1988|p=114}} Bi contrast, the Germans war steadily makkin preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massin forces on the Soviet mairch.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=195}} Hitler believed that Breetain's refuisal tae end the war wis based on the howp that the Unitit States an the Soviet Union wad enter the war agin Germany suiner or later.{{sfn|Murray|1983|p=[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/AAF-Luftwaffe/AAF-Luftwaffe-3.html 69]}} He tharefore decidit tae try tae strenthen Germany's relations wi the Soviets, or failin that, tae attack an eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, [[German–Soviet Axis talks|negotiations teuk place]] tae determine if the Soviet Union wad jyne the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets shawed some interest, but asked for concessions frae Finland, Bulgarie, Turkey, an Japan that Germany conseedert unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive tae prepare for an invasion o the Soviet Union. On 22 Juin 1941, Germany, supportit bi Italy an Romanie, invadit the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]], wi Germany accusin the Soviets o plottin agin them. Thay war jynt shortly bi Finland an Hungary.<ref name=Events1941>{{citation |last1=Klooz |first1=Marle |last2=Wiley |first2=Evelyn |others=Director: Humphrey, Richard A. |year=1944 |title=Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History |series=78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541 |location=Washington |publisher=US Government Printing Office |at=pp. 267–312 ([http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1941.html 1941]) |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/}}.</ref> The primar targets o this surprise offensive{{sfn|Sella|1978}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} war the [[Baltic region]], Moscow an [[Ukraine]], wi the [[Strategic goal (militar)|ultimate goal]] o endin the 1941 campaign near the [[A-A line|Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line]], frae the [[Caspian sea|Caspian]] tae the [[White Sea]]s. Hitler's objectives war tae eliminate the Soviet Union as a militar pouer, exterminate Communism, generate ''[[Lebensraum]]'' ("leevin space"){{sfn|Kershaw|2007|pp=66–9}} bi [[Generalplan Ost|dispossessin the native population]]{{sfn|Steinberg|1995}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} an guarantee access tae the strategic resoorces needit tae defeat Germany's remeenin rivals.{{sfn|Hauner|1978}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} [[File:German troops in Russia, 1941 - NARA - 540155.jpg|thumb|left|German sodgers in the invasion o the Soviet Union bi the [[Axis pouers]], 1941]] Awtho the [[Reid Airmy]] wis preparin for strategic [[coonter-offensive]]s afore the war,{{sfn|Roberts|1995}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} ''Barbarossa'' forced the [[Stavka|Soviet supreme command]] tae adopt a [[strategic defence]]. In the simmer, the Axis made signeeficant gains intae Soviet territory, inflictin immense losses in baith personnel an materiel. By the middle o August, houiver, the German [[Oberkommando des Heeres|Airmy Heich Command]] decidit tae [[Battle o Smolensk (1941)|suspend the offensive]] o a conseederably depletit [[Airmy Group Centre]], an tae divert the [[2nt Panzer Group]] tae reinforce truips advancin taewart central Ukraine an Leningrad.{{sfn|Wilt|1981}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} The [[Battle o Kiev (1941)|Kiev offensive]] wis owerwhalminly successfu, resultin in encirclement an elimination o fower Soviet airmies, an made possible further [[Crimean Campaign|advance intae Crimea]] an industrially developit Eastren Ukraine (the [[First Battle o Kharkov]]).{{sfn|Erickson|2003|pp=114–37}} The diversion o three quarter o the Axis truips an the majority o thair air forces frae Fraunce an the central Mediterranean tae the [[Eastren Front (Warld War II)|Eastren Front]]{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=9}} promptit Breetain tae reconseeder its [[grand strategy]].{{sfn|Farrell|1993}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} In Julie, the UK an the Soviet Union formed a [[Anglo-Soviet Greement|militar alliance against Germany]]{{sfn|Keeble|1990|p=29}} The Breetish an Soviets [[Anglo-Soviet invasion o Iran|invadit neutral Iran]] tae siccar the [[Persian Corridor]] an Iran's [[ile field]]s.{{sfn|Bueno de Mesquita|Smith|Siverson|Morrow|2003|p=425}} In August, the Unitit Kinrick an the Unitit States jyntly issued the [[Atlantic Chairter]].{{sfn|Beevor|2012|p=220}} Bi October Axis [[operational objective]]s in Ukraine an the Baltic region war achieved, wi anerly the sieges o [[siege o Leningrad|Leningrad]]{{sfn|Kleinfeld|1983}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} an [[Siege o Sevastopol (1941–42)|Sevastopol]] conteenain.{{sfn|Jukes|2001|p=113}} A major [[battle o Moscow|offensive against Moscow]] wis renewed; efter twa month o fierce battles in increasinly hersh wather the German airmy awmaist reached the ooter suburbs o Moscow, whaur the exhaustit truips<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|2001|p=26}}: "By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its ½-million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions."</ref> war forced tae suspend thair offensive.{{sfn|Reinhardt|1992|p=227}} Lairge territorial gains war made bi Axis forces, but thair campaign haed failed tae achieve its main objectives: twa key ceeties remeened in Soviet haunds, the Soviet [[Militar capability|capability tae resist]] wis nae brak, an the Soviet Union reteened a conseederable pairt o its militar potential. The ''blitzkrieg'' [[Phase (combat)|phase]] o the war in Europe haed endit.{{sfn|Milward|1964}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} Bi early December, freshly mobilised [[Militar reserve force|reserves]]{{sfn|Rotundo|1986}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} alloued the Soviets tae achieve numerical parity wi Axis truips.{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=26}} This, as weel as [[Richard Sorge#Wartime intelligence supplee'd bi the Sorge Ring|intelligence data]] that established that a meenimal nummer o Soviet truips in the East wad be sufficient tae deter ony attack bi the Japanese [[Kwantung Airmy]],{{sfn|Garthoff|1969}}{{page needed|date=July 2016}} alloued the Soviets tae begin a [[Soviet Offensive (1941–1942)|massive coonter-offensive]] that stairtit on 5 December aw alang the front an pushed German truips {{convert|100|-|250|km|mi}} wast.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|1998|pp=41–2}}; {{Harvnb|Evans|2008|pp=213–4}}, notes that "Zhukov had pushed the Germans back where they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before.&nbsp;... Only Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of concentrating his forces in an all-out assault against the retreating German Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse."</ref> === War braks out in the Paceefic (1941) === {{main|Paceefic War}} In 1939, the Unitit States haed renoonced its tred treaty wi Japan; an, beginnin wi an [[aviation petrol]] ban in Julie 1940, Japan becam subject tae increasin economic pressur.{{r|ibiblio_1940}} In this time, Japan launched its [[Battle o Changsha (1939)|first attack against Changsha]], a strategically important Cheenese ceety, but wis repulsed bi late September.{{sfn|Jowett|Andrew|2002|p=14}} Despite [[1939–40 Winter Offensive|several offensives]] bi baith sides, the war atween Cheenae an Japan wis stalematit bi 1940. Tae increase pressur on Cheenae bi blockin supply routes, an tae better poseetion Japanese forces in the event o a war wi the Wastren powers, Japan invadit an [[Japanese invasion o French Indocheenae|occupied northren Indocheenae]].{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|p=289}} Efterwart, the Unitit States [[embargo]]ed airn, steel an mechanical pairts against Japan.{{sfn|Morison|2002|p=60}} Ither sanctions suin follaed. [[File:The USS Arizona (BB-39) burnin efter the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor - NARA 195617 - Edit.jpg|thumb|right|{{USS|Arizona|BB-39|6}} in the Japanese surprise air attack on the [[Unitit States Paceefic Fleet|American paceefic fleet]], 7 December 1941]] Syne early 1941 the Unitit States an Japan haed been engaged in negotiations in an attempt tae impruive thair streened relations an end the war in Cheenae. In thir negotiations Japan advanced a nummer o proponements that war dismissed bi the Americans as inadequate.<ref name=USAWWIIcp5>{{cite web |title=The decision for War |website=US Army in WWII – Strategy and Command: The First Two Years |pp=113–27 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html}}</ref> At the same time the US, Breetain, an the Netherlands engaged in saicret discussions for the jynt defence o thair territories, in the event o a Japanese attack against ony o them.<ref name=USAWWIIcp4>{{cite web |title=The Showdown With Japan Aug–Dec 1941 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pp=63–96 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-4.html}}</ref> Roosevelt reinforced [[Commonweel o the Philippines|the Philippines (an American pertectorate scheduled for unthirldom in 1946)]] an wairned Japan that the US wad react tae Japanese attacks against ony "neebourin kintra".{{r|USAWWIIcp4}} Japan prepared for war efter failed negotiations. On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asie time zones), Japan attacked Breetish an American hauldins wi near-simultaneous [[Japanese expansion (1941–1942)|offensives against Sootheast Asie an the Central Paceefic]].{{sfn|Wohlstetter|1962|pp=341–3}} Thir includit an [[attack on Pearl Harbor|attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor]], [[Philippines Campaign (1941–42)|the Philippines]], [[Malayan Campaign|landings in Thailand an Malaya]]{{sfn|Wohlstetter|1962|pp=341–3}} an the [[battle o Hong Kong]]. Thir attacks led the [[Unitit States declaration o war on Japan|Unitit States]], [[Unitit Kinrick declaration o war on Japan|Unitit Kinrick]], Cheenae, Australie an several ither states tae formally declare war on Japan, whauras the Soviet Union, bein hivily involved in lairge-scale hostilities wi European Axis kintras, mainteened its neutrality agreement wi Japan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dunn|1998|p=157}}. According to {{Harvnb|May|1955|p=155}}, Churchill stated: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front."</ref> Germany, follaed bi the ither Axis states, declared war on the Unitit States<ref>[[s:Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States|Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States]] in Wikisource.</ref> in solidarity wi Japan, citin as juistification the American attacks on German war veshels that haed been ordered bi Roosevelt.{{r|Events1941}}<ref>{{citation |last1=Klooz |first1=Marle |last2=Wiley |first2=Evelyn |others=Director: Humphrey, Richard A. |year=1944 |title=Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History |series=78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541 |location=Washington |publisher=US Government Printing Office |at=p. 310 ([http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1941.html 1941]) |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/}}.</ref> === Axis advance staws (1942–43) === In 1942, Allied offeecials debatit on the appropriate [[grand strategy]] tae pursue. Aw agreed that [[Europe first|defeatin Germany]] wis the primar objective. The Americans favourt a straichtforrit, [[Operation Sledgehammer|lairge-scale attack]] on Germany throu Fraunce. The Soviets wis forby demandin a seicont front. The Breetish, on the ither haund, argied that militar operations shoud target peripheral auries tae weir oot German strenth, leadin tae increasin demoralisation, an bolster resistance forces. Germany itsel wad be subject tae a hivy bombin campaign. An offensive agin Germany wad then be launched primarily bi Allied airmour withoot uisin lairge-scale airmies.<ref>{{cite web |title=The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment. Dec 1941 – Jan 1942 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pp=97–119 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-5.html}}</ref> Eventually, the Breetish persuadit the Americans that a laundingin Fraunce wis infeasible in 1942 an thay shoud insteid focus on drivin the Axis oot o North Africae.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Elimination of the Alternatives. Jul–Aug 1942 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pp=266–92 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-12.html}}</ref> ==== Paceefic (1942–43) ==== Bi the end o Apryle 1942, Japan an its ally Thailand haed awmaist fully conquered [[Japanese conquest o Burma|Burma]], [[Battle o Malaya|Malaya]], [[Dutch East Indies campaign|the Dutch East Indies]], [[Battle o Singapore|Singapore]], an [[Rabaul]], inflictin severe losses on Allied truips an takkin a lairge nummer o preesoners.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=247–267, 345}} Despite stubborn [[Philippines Campaign (1941–42)|resistance]] bi Filipino an US forces, the [[Philippine Commonweel]] wis eventually capturt in Mey 1942, forcin its govrenment intae exile.{{sfn|Lewis|1953|loc=p. 529 (Table 11)}} In airly Mey 1942, Japan ineetiatit operations tae [[Operation Mo|captur Port Moresby]] bi [[amphibious assault]] an sicweys sever communications an supply lines atween the Unitit States an Australie. The plant invasion wis thortert whan an Allied task force, centred on twa American fleet cairiers, focht Japanese naval forces tae a draw in the [[Battle o the Coral Sea]].{{sfn|Maddox|1992|pp=111–2}} Japan's next plan, motivatit bi the earlier [[Doolittle Raid]], wis tae seize [[Midway Atoll]] an wyse American cairiers intae battle tae be eliminatit; as a diversion, Japan wad forby send forces tae [[Aleutian Islands Campaign|occupy the Aleutian Islands]] in Alaska.{{sfn|Salecker|2001|p=186}} In mid-Mey, Japan stairtit the [[Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign]] in Cheenae, wi the goal o inflictin retribution on the Cheenese that aidit the survivin American airmen in the Doolittle Raid bi destroyin air bases an fechtin against the Cheenese 23rd an 32nd Airmy Groups.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schoppa|2011|p=28}}.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=lILltXBTo8oC&pg=PA19 Chevrier & Chomiczewski & Garrigue 2004], p.19.</ref> In early Juin, Japan put its operations intae action but the Americans, haein brak [[Japanese naval codes]] in late Mey, war fully awaur o plans an order o battle, an uised this knawledge tae achieve a decisive [[Battle o Midway|veectory at Midway]] ower the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ropp|2000|p=368}}.</ref> ==== Eastren Front (1942–43) ==== [[File:RIAN archive 44732 Soviet soldiers attack house.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Reid Airmy]] sodgers on the coonterattack, in the [[Battle o Stalingrad]], Februar 1943]] Maugre conseederable losses, in airly 1942 Germany an its allies stappit a major Soviet offensive in central an soothren Roushie, keepin maist territorial gains thay haed achieved in the umwhile year.{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=31}} Bi mid-November, the Germans haed [[Battle o Stalingrad|nearly takken Stalingrad]] in bitter [[urban warfare|street fechtin]] whan the Soviets begoud thair seicont winter coonter-offensive, stairtin wi an [[Operation Uranus|encirclement o German forces at Stalingrad]]{{sfn|Beevor|1998|pp=239–65}} an an assault on the [[Operation Mars|Rzhev salient near Moscow]], tho the latter failed disastrously.{{sfn|Black|2003|p=119}} Bi early Februar 1943, the German Airmy haed taen tremendous losses; German truips at Stalingrad haed been forced tae surrender,{{sfn|Beevor|1998|pp=383–91}} an the front-line haed been pushed back ayont its poseetion afore the simmer offensive. In mid-Februar, efter the Soviet push haed tapered aff, the Germans launcht anither [[Third Battle o Kharkov|attack on Kharkov]], creautin a [[Salients, re-entrants an pockets|salient]] in thair front line aroond the Soviet ceety o [[Kursk]].{{sfn|Erickson|2001|p=142}} ==== Wastren Europe/Atlantic an Mediterranean (1942–43) ==== Exploitin puir American naval command deceesions, [[Seicont Happy Time|the German navy ravaged Allied shippin aff the American Atlantic coast]].{{sfn|Milner|1990|p=52}} Bi November 1941, Commonweel forces haed launched a coonter-offensive, [[Operation Crusader]], in North Africae, an reclaimed aw the gains the Germans an Italians haed made.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=224–8}} In Juin 1943 the Breetish an Americans begoud [[Combined Bomber Offensive|a strategic bombin campaign]] against Germany wi a goal tae disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, an "[[de-hoosin|de-hoose]]" the ceevilian population.<ref>[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/USSBS/ETO-Summary.html#tc "The Civilians"] United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War)</ref> The [[Bombin o Hamburg in Warld War II|firebombin o Hamburg]] wis amang the first attacks in this campaign, it lead tae signeeficant causalities an inflictit conseederable losses on infrastructur o this important industrial centre.{{sfn|Overy|1995|pp=119–120}} === Allies gain momentum (1943–44) === On 3 September 1943, the Wastren Allies [[Allied invasion o Italy|invadit the Italian mainland]], follaein [[Airmistice o Cassibile|Italy's airmistice wi the Allies]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Kolko|1990|p=45}}</ref> Germany wi the help o fascists respondit bi disairmin Italian forces that wis in mony places withoot superior orders, seizin militar control o Italian auries,{{sfn|Mazower|2008|p=362}} an creautin a series o defensive lines.{{sfn|Hart|Hart|Hughes|2000|p=151}} German special forces then [[Gran Sasso raid|rescued Mussolini]], that then suin established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the [[Italian Social Republic]],{{sfn|Blinkhorn|2006|p=52}} causin an [[Italian Ceevil War|Italian ceevil war]]. The Wastren Allies focht throu several lines till reachin the [[Winter Line|main German defensive line]] in mid-November.{{sfn|Read|Fisher|2002|p=129}} In November 1943, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] an Winston Churchill met wi [[Chiang Kai-shek]] [[Cairo Conference|in Cairo]] an then wi Joseph Stalin [[Tehran Conference|in Tehran]].<ref name="Kolko 1990 211,235,267_268">{{Harvnb|Kolko|1990|pp=211, 235, 267–8}}.</ref> The umwhile conference determined the post-war return o Japanese territory<ref name="Iriye 1981 154">{{Harvnb|Iriye|1981|p=154}}.</ref> an the militar plannin fur the [[Burma Campaign]],{{sfn|Mitter|2014|p=286}} while the latter includit greement that the Wastren Allies wad invade Europe in 1944 an that the Soviet Union wad declare war on Japan within three month o Germany's defeat.<ref name="polley148">{{Harvnb|Polley|2000|p=148}}.</ref> Bi the end o Januar 1944, a major [[Leningrad Front|Soviet]] [[Siege o Leningrad#Soviet relief o the siege|offensive herried oot German forces]] frae the [[Leningrad Oblast|Leningrad region]],<ref name="Glantz 2002 327_366">{{Harvnb|Glantz|2002|pp=327–66}}.</ref> endin the langest an [[Leet o battles bi casualties#Sieges an urban combat|maist lethal siege in history]]. Bi late Mey, the Soviets haed [[Crimean Offensive|leeberatit Crimea]], lairgely expelled Axis forces frae Ukraine, an made [[First Jassy–Kishinev Offensive|incursions intae Romanie]], that war repulsed bi the Axis truips.<ref name="Chubarov 2001 122">{{Harvnb|Chubarov|2001|p=122}}.</ref> The Allied offensives in Italy haed succeedit an, at the expense o allouin several German diveesions tae retreat, on 4 Juin, Roum wis capturt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holland|2008|pp=169–84}}; {{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=568–73}}.<br />The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy ({{Harvnb|Mazower|2008|pp=500–2}}). The period featurt massacres wi victims in the hundrers at [[Civitella in Val di Chiana|Civitella]] ({{Harvnb|de Grazia|Paggi|1991}}; {{Harvnb|Belco|2010}}), [[Ardeatine massacre|Fosse Ardeatine]] ({{Harvnb|Portelli|2003}}), an [[Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre|Sant'Anna di Stazzema]] ({{Harvnb|Gordon|2012|pp=10–1}}), an is kaipit wi the [[Marzabotto massacre]].</ref> === Allies close in (1944) === [[File:Approaching Omaha.jpg|thumb|American truips approachin [[Omaha Beach]], in the [[invasion o Normandy]] on [[Normandy laundins|D-Day]], 6 Juin 1944]] On 6 Juin 1944 (kent as [[Normandy laundins|D-Day]]), efter three year o Soviet pressur,<ref name=rees406>{{Harvnb|Rees|2008|pp=406–7}}: "Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war."</ref> the Wastren Allies [[Invasion o Normandy|invadit northren Fraunce]]. Efter reassignin several Allied divisions frae Italy, thay forby [[Operation Dragoon|attacked soothren Fraunce]].<ref name="Weinberg 2005 695">{{Harvnb|Weinberg|2005|p=695}}.</ref> Thir laundins war successfu, an led tae the defeat o the [[Falaise Pocket|German Airmy units]] in Fraunce. Paris wis [[Leeberation o Paris|leeberatit]] bi the [[French Reseestance|local reseestance]] assistit bi the [[Free French Forces]], baith led bi General [[Charles de Gaulle]], on 25 August<ref>{{Harvnb|Badsey|1990|p=91}}.</ref> an the Wastren Allies conteena'd tae [[Allied advance frae Paris tae the Rhine|push back German forces]] in wastren Europe in the latter pairt o the year. An attempt tae advance intae northren Germany speirheidit bi [[Operation Market Garden|a major airborne operation]] in the Netherlands failed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=562}}.</ref> Thareefter, the Wastren Allies slawly pushed intae Germany, but [[Operation Queen|failed tae cross the Ruhr river]] in a lairge offensive. In Italy, Allied advance forby slawed due tae the [[Gothic Line|last major German defensive line]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Forrest|Evans|Gibbons|2012|p=191}}</ref> On 22 Juin, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belaroushie ("[[Operation Bagration]]") that destroyed the German [[Airmy Group Centre]] awmaist completely.<ref name="Zaloga 1996 7">{{Harvnb|Zaloga|1996|p=7}}: "It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II."</ref> Suin efter that [[Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive|anither Soviet strategic offensive]] forced German truips frae Wastren Ukraine an Eastren Poland. The Soviet advance promptit [[Armia Krajowa|reseestance forces in Poland]] tae [[Operation Tempest|ineetiate several uprisins]] agin the German occupation. Houiver, the lairgest o thir [[Warsaw Uprisin|in Warsaw]], whaur German sodgers massacred 200,000 ceevilians, an a [[Slovak Naitional Uprisin|naitional uprisin]] in [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovakie]], did nae receive Soviet support an war subsequently suppressed bi the Germans.<ref>{{Harvnb|Berend|1996|p=8}}.</ref> The Reid Airmy's [[Jassy–Kishinev Offensive|strategic offensive in eastren Romanie]] cut aff an destroyed the [[Airmy Group Sooth Ukraine|conseederable German truips thare]] an triggered [[Keeng Michael's Coup|a successfu coup d'état in Romanie]] an [[Bulgarie coup d'état o 1944|in Bulgarie]], follaed bi thae kintras' shift tae the Allied side.<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/romania/23.htm|title=Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation|publisher=US Library of Congress|accessdate=14 November 2009|quote=The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his personal courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war agin the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists jist played a uphaudin role in the coup; efter-war Romanian historians, housomeir, ascribe tae the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow}}</ref> In September 1944, Soviet truips advanced intae [[Democratic Federal Yugoslavie|Yugoslavie]] an forced the rapid widrawal o German Airmy Groups [[Airmy Group E|E]] an [[Airmy Group F|F]] in [[Axis occupation o Greece|Greece]], [[Albanie Kinrick (1943–44)|Albanie]] an Yugoslavie tae rescue them frae bein cut aff.<ref name="Evans 2008 653">{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|p=653}}.</ref> Bi this pynt, the Communist-led [[Yugoslav Pairtisans|Pairtisans]] unner Marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]], that haed led an [[Warld War II in Yugoslavia|increasinly successfu guerrilla campaign]] against the occupation syne 1941, controlled muckle o the territory o Yugoslavie an engaged in delayin efforts against German forces forder sooth. In northren [[Serbie (1941–1944)|Serbie]], the [[Reid Airmy]], wi leemitit support frae Bulgarie forces, assisted the Pairtisans in a jynt [[Belgrade Offensive|leeberation o the caipital ceety o Belgrade]] on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a [[Budapest Offensive|massive assault]] against [[Operation Panzerfaust|German-occupied]] Hungary that lastit till [[Battle o Budapest|the faw o Budapest]] in Februar 1945.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wiest|Barbier|2002|pp=65–6}}.</ref> Unlik impressive Soviet veectories in the Balkans, [[Continuation War|bitter Finnish reseestance]] tae the [[Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive|Soviet offensive]] in the [[Karelie Isthmus]] denee'd the Soviets occupation o Finland an led tae a [[Moscow Airmistice|Soviet-Finnish airmistice]] on relatively mild condeetions,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wiktor|first=Christian L|title=Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995|url=https://archive.org/details/multilateraltrea0000wikt|publisher=Kluwer Law International|year=1998|isbn=90-411-0584-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/multilateraltrea0000wikt/page/426 426]}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Newton|2004}}.</ref> awtho Finland wis forced tae [[Lapland War|fecht thair umwhile allies]]. In the Paceefic, US forces conteena'd tae press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-Juin 1944, thay begoud thair [[Mariana an Palau Islands campaign|offensive agin the Mariana an Palau islands]], an decisively defeatit Japanese forces in the [[Battle o the Philippine Sea]]. Thir defeats led tae the resignation o the Japanese Prime Meenister, [[Hideki Tojo]], an providit the Unitit States wi air bases tae launch intensive hivy bomber attacks on the Japanese hame islands. In late October, American forces [[Battle o Leyte|invadit the Filipino island o Leyte]]; suin efter, Allied naval forces scored anither lairge veectory in the [[Battle o Leyte Gulf]], ane o the lairgest naval battles in history.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cook|Bewes|1997|p=305}}.</ref> === Axis collapse, Allied veectory (1944–45) === [[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg|thumb|[[Yalta Conference]] held in Februar 1945, wi [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] an [[Joseph Stalin]]]] On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Wastren Front bi uisin maist o its remeenin reserves tae launch [[Battle o the Bulge|a massive coonter-offensive in the Ardennes]] an [[Operation Nordwind|alang the French–German mairch]] tae split the Wastren Allies, encircle lairge portions o Wastren Allied truips an captur thair primar supply port at [[Antwerp]] tae prompt a poleetical dounset.<ref name="parkerxiii">{{Harvnb|Parker|2004|pp=xiii–xiv, 6–8, 68–70, 329–330}}</ref> Bi Januar, the offensive haed been repulsed wi na strategic objectives fulfilled.<ref name="parkerxiii"/> In Italy, the Wastren Allies remeened stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-Januar 1945, the Soviets an Poles attacked in Poland, [[Vistula–Oder Offensive|pushin frae the Vistula tae the Oder]] river in Germany, an [[East Proushie Offensive|overran East Proushie]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|2001|p=85}}.</ref> On 4 Februar, Soviet, Breetish an US leaders met for the [[Yalta Conference]]. Thay greed on the occupation o post-war Germany, an on whan the Soviet Union wad jyne the war against Japan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=709–22}}.</ref> In Februar, the Soviets [[Silesie Offensives|entered Silesie]] an [[East Pomeranie Offensive|Pomeranie]], while [[Wastren Allied invasion o Germany|Wastren Allies entered wastren Germany]] an closed tae the [[Rhine]] river. Bi Mairch, the Wastren Allies crossed the Rhine [[Operation Plunder|north]] an [[Remagen|sooth]] o the [[Rhine-Ruhr|Ruhr]], [[Ruhr Pocket|encirclin the German Airmy Group B]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Buchanan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> while the Soviets advanced tae [[Vienna offensive|Vienna]]. In early Apryle, the Wastren Allies feenally [[Ware 1945 offensive in Italy|pushed forrit in Italy]] an soopit athort wastren Germany capturin [[Battle o Hamburg (1945)|Hamburg]] an [[Battle o Nuremberg (1945)|Nuremberg]], while Soviet an Polshforces [[Battle o Berlin|stormed Berlin]] in late Apryle. [[Elbe Day|American an Soviet forces met at the Elbe river]] on 25 Apryle. On 30 Apryle 1945, the [[Reichstag biggin|Reichstag]] wis capturt, seegnallin the militar defeat o Nazi Germany.<ref name="Shepardson 1998">{{Harvnb|Shepardson|1998}}.</ref> Several chynges in leadership occurred in this period. On 12 Apryle, Preses Roosevelt dee'd an wis succeedit bi [[Harry S. Truman]]. Benito Mussolini [[Daith o Benito Mussolini|wis killt]] bi [[Italian reseestance muivement|Italian pairtisans]] on 28 Apryle.<ref name="O'Reilly 2001 244">{{Harvnb|O'Reilly|2001||p=244}}.</ref> Twa days later, [[Daith o Adolf Hitler|Hitler committit suicide]], an wis succeedit bi [[Grand Admiral]] [[Karl Dönitz]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Kershaw|2001|p=823}}.</ref> German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 Apryle. [[German Instrument o Surrender|Tot an uncondeetional surrender]] wis signed [[Veectory in Europe Day|on 7 Mey]], tae be effective bi the end o [[Veectory Day (Eastren Front)|8 Mey]].<ref name="Evans 2008 737">{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|p=737}}.</ref> German Airmy Group Centre [[Prague Offensive|reseestit in Prague]] till 11 Mey.<ref name="Glantz 1998 34">{{Harvnb|Glantz|1998|p=24}}.</ref> In the Paceefic theatre, American forces accompanied bi the forces o the [[Philippine Commonweel]] advanced [[Philippines Campaign (1944–1945)|in the Philippines]], [[Battle o Leyte|clearin Leyte]] bi the end o Apryle 1945. Thay [[Battle o Luzon|laundit on Luzon]] in Januar 1945 an [[Battle o Manila (1945)|recapturt Manila]] in Mairch follaein a battle that reduced the ceety tae ruins. Fechtin conteena'd on Luzon, [[Battle o Mindanao|Mindanao]], an ither islands o the Philippines till the [[End o Warld War II in Asie|end o the war]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chant|first=Christopher|year=1986|title=The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofco0000chan|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofco0000chan/page/118 118]|isbn=0-7102-0718-2}}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[Unitit States Airmy Air Forces]] (USAAF) war destroyin strategic an populatit ceeties an touns in Japan in an effort tae destroy Japanese war industrie an ceevilian morale. On the nicht o 9–10 Mairch, USAAF [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress|B-29]] [[bomber]]s [[Bombin o Tokyo|struck Tokyo]] wi thoosands o [[Incendiary device|incendiary bombs]], that killt 100,000 ceevilians an destroyed {{convert|16|sqmi}} within a few oors. Ower the next five month, the USAAF [[Air raids on Japan|firebombed a tot o 67 Japanese ceeties]], killin 393,000 ceevilians an destroyin 65% o biggit-up auries.<ref>{{cite journal|author=John Dower|title=Lessons from Iwo Jima|journal=Perspectives|year=2007|volume= 45|issue=6|pages=54–56|url=http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/2007/0709/index.cfm}}</ref> On 11 Julie, Allied leaders [[Potsdam Conference|met in Potsdam, Germany]]. Thay [[Potsdam Greement|confirmed earlier greements]] aboot Germany,<ref name="Williams 2006 90">{{Harvnb|Williams|2006|p=90}}.</ref> an reiteratit the demand for uncondeetional surrender o aw Japanese forces bi Japan, speceefically statin that "the alternative for Japan is prompt an utter destruction".<ref name="Miscamble 2007 201">{{Harvnb|Miscamble|2007|p=201}}.</ref> In this conference, the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1945|Unitit Kinrick held its general election]], an [[Clement Attlee]] replaced Churchill as Prime Meenister.<ref name="Miscamble 2007 203_204">{{Harvnb|Miscamble|2007|pp=203–4}}.</ref> [[File:Shigemitsu-signs-surrender.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese foreign affairs meenister [[Mamoru Shigemitsu]] signs the [[Japanese Instrument o Surrender]] on buird {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}}, 2 September 1945]] The Allies cried for uncondeetional Japanese surrender in the [[Potsdam Declaration]] o 27 Julie, but the Japanese govrenment rejectit the cry. In early August, the USAAF [[Atomic bombings o Hiroshima an Nagasaki|drappit atomic bombs]] on the Japanese ceeties o [[Hiroshima]] an [[Nagasaki]]. Atween the twa bombins, the Soviets, pursuant tae the Yalta greement, [[Soviet invasion o Manchurie|invadit Japanese-held Manchurie]], an quickly defeatit the [[Kwantung Airmy]], that wis the lairgest Japanese fechtin force.<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|2005}}.</ref><ref name="Pape 1993">{{Harvnb|Pape|1993}}.</ref> The Reid Airmy an aw capturt [[Sakhalin]] Island an the [[Kuril Islands]]. On 15 August 1945, [[Surrender o Japan|Japan surrendered]], wi the [[Japanese Instrument o Surrender|surrender documents]] feenally signed at [[Tokyo Bay]] on the deck o the American battleship [[USS Missouri (BB-63)|USS ''Missouri'']] on 2 September 1945, endin the war.<ref name="Beevor 2012 776">{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|p=776}}.</ref> == Eftermath == The Allies established occupation admeenistrations in [[Allied-occupied Austrick|Austrick]] an [[Allied-occupied Germany|Germany]]. The umwhile becam a neutral state, non-aligned wi ony poleetical bloc. The latter wis dividit intae wastren an eastren occupation zones controlled bi the Wastren Allies an the USSR, accordinly. A [[denazification]] programme in Germany led tae the [[Nuremberg trials|prosecution o Nazi war criminals]] an the remuival o ex-Nazis frae power, awtho this policy muived taewart amnesty an re-integration o ex-Nazis intae Wast German society.<ref name="Frei 2002 41_66">{{Harvnb|Frei|2002|pp=41–66}}.</ref> In an effort tae mainteen [[warld peace]],<ref name="Yoder 1997 39">{{Harvnb|Yoder|1997|p=39}}.</ref> the Allies formed the [[Unitit Naitions]], that offeecially cam intae exeestence on 24 October 1945,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm |title=History of the UN |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=25 January 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218221016/http://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm |archivedate=18 February 2010 }}</ref> an adoptit the [[Universal Declaration o Human Richts]] in 1948, as a common staundart for aw [[Member states o the Unitit Naitions|member naitions]].<ref name="Waltz 2002">{{Harvnb|Waltz|2002}}.<br /> The UDHR is viewable here [https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/].</ref> Post-war diveesion o the warld wis formalised bi twa internaitional militar alliances, the Unitit States-led [[NATO]] an the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]];<ref name="Borstelmann 2005 318">{{Harvnb|Borstelmann|2005|p=318}}.</ref> the lang period o poleetical tensions an militar competeetion atween them, the [[Cauld War]], wad be accompanied bi an unprecedentit [[airms race]] an [[proxy war]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leffler|Westad|2010}}.</ref> [[Korea]], umwhile [[Korea unner Japanese rule|unner Japanese rule]], wis [[Diveesion o Korea|dividit an occupied]] bi the Soviet Union in the [[North Korea|North]] an the US in the [[Sooth Korea|Sooth]] atween 1945 an 1948. Separate republics emerged on baith sides o the 38t parallel in 1948, ilk claimin tae be the legitimate govrenment for aw o Korea, that led ultimately tae the [[Korean War]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Stueck|2010}}.</ref> In Cheenae, naitionalist an communist forces resumed [[Cheenese Ceevil War|the ceevil war]] in Juin 1946. Communist forces war veectorious an established the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae on the mainland, while naitionalist forces retreatit tae [[Taiwan]] in 1949.<ref name="Lynch 2010 12_13">{{Harvnb|Lynch|2010|pp=12–3}}.</ref> == Impact == === Casualties an war crimes === Estimates fur the tot nummer o casualties in the war varies, acause mony diaths went wanrecordit. Maist suggests that some 60 million fowk dee'd in the war, includin aboot [[Battle casualties o Warld War II|20 million militar personnel]] an 40 million ceevilians.<ref name="WWII: C&C">{{cite web |last=O'Brien |first=Prof. Joseph V |title=World War II: Combatants and Casualties (1937–1945) |url=http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225004221/http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html |archivedate=25 December 2010 |work=Obee's History Page |publisher=John Jay College of Criminal Justice |accessdate=28 December 2013|df=dmy-all }} {{Cite web |url=http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-06-02 |archive-date=2010-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225004221/http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Matthew|last=White|title=Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm|url=http://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm#Second|work=Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century|publisher=Matthew White's Homepage|accessdate=20 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World War II Fatalities|url=http://secondworldwar.co.uk/index.php/fatalities|publisher=secondworldwar.co.uk|accessdate=20 April 2007|archive-date=2008-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922185149/http://secondworldwar.co.uk/index.php/fatalities|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mony o the ceevilians dee'd acause o deliberate [[genocide]], [[Leet o massacres|massacres]], [[Strategic bombin in Warld War II|mass-bombins]], [[Infectious disease|disease]], an [[stairvation]]. [[File:Chinese civilians to be buried alive.jpg|thumb|Cheenese civilians bein buiried alive bi sodgers o the [[Imperial Japanese Airmy]], in the [[Nanking Massacre]], December 1937]] In Asie an the Paceefic, atween 3 million an mair nor 10 million ceevilians, maistly Cheenese (estimatit at 7.5 million<ref>{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=290}}.</ref>), wis killt bi the Japanese occupation forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM|title=Statistics|last=Rummell|first=R. J|work=Freedom, Democide, War|publisher=The University of Hawaii System|accessdate=25 January 2010}}</ref> The best-kent Japanese atrocity wis the [[Nanking Massacre]], in that fifty tae three hunder thoosand Cheenese ceevilians war raped an murthert.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chang|1997|p=102}}.</ref> Mitsuyoshi Himeta reportit that 2.7 million casualties occurred in the ''[[Three Alls Policy|Sankō Sakusen]]''. General [[Yasuji Okamura]] implementit the policy in Heipei an [[Shantung]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bix|2000|p=?}}.</ref> The Soviet Union wis responsible for the [[Katyn massacre]] o 22,000 Pols officers,<ref>Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata (30 November 2004). "Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre". Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. Retrieved 4 August 2011.</ref> an the impreesonment or execution o thoosands o poleetical preesoners bi the [[NKVD]],<ref>Robert Gellately. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, 2007 {{ISBN|1-4000-4005-1}} p. 391</ref> === Genocide an concentration camps === The German govrenment led bi [[Adolf Hitler]] an the [[Nazi Pairty]] wis responsible for [[the Holocaust]] (killin o thareaboot 6 million Jews), as weel as fur killin o 2.7 million ethnic [[Nazi crimes agin the Pols nation|Poles]],<ref>Institute of National Remembrance, Polska 1939–1945 Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Materski an Szarota. page 9 ''"Total Polish population losses under German occupation are currently calculated at about 2 770 000"''.</ref> an 4 million ithers that war deemed "[[life unworthy o life|unworthy o life]]" (includin the [[Disabeelity|disabled]] an [[Mental disorder|mentally ill]], [[German mistreatment o Soviet preesoners o war|Soviet preesoners o war]], [[homosexuals]], [[Freemasons]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], an [[Romani fowk|Romani]]) as pairt o a programme o deliberate extermination. [[German mistreatment o Soviet preesoners o war|Soviet POWs]] wis kept in especially unbeirable condeetion, an, awtho thair extermination wisnae an offeecial goal, 3.6 million o Soviet POWs oot o 5.7 dee'd in Nazi camps in the war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Herbert|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7Y9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA222 222]}}</ref><ref name="Overy 2004 568_569">{{Harvnb|Overy|2004|pp=568–9}}.</ref> In addeetion tae [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camps]], [[Extermination camp|daith camps]] wis creatit in Nazi Germany fur tae exterminate fowk at an industrial scale. ==Notes== <references group="lower-alpha"/> ==Citations== {{Reflist}} == References == {{Reflist|group=nb}} {{Refbegin|indent=yes|30em}} :{{Cite book|last=Adamthwaite|first=Anthony P.<!--was small caps-->|year=1992|title=The Making of the Second World War|isbn=0-415-90716-0|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|ref=harv}} :{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Irvine H., Jr.<!--was small caps-->|year=1975|title=The 1941 De Facto Embargo on Oil to Japan: A Bureaucratic Reflex|journal=The Pacific Historical Review|volume=44|issue=2|jstor=3638003|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Applebaum|first=Anne<!--was small caps-->|authorlink=Anne Applebaum|year=2003|title=[[Gulag: A History|Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps]]|location=London|publisher=[[Penguin Books|Allen Lane]]|isbn=978-0-7139-9322-6|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|author=———|year=2012|title=Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe 1944–56|location=London|publisher=[[Penguin Books|Allen Lane]]|isbn=978-0-7139-9868-9|ref=CITEREFApplebaum2012}} :{{Cite journal|last=Bacon|first=Edwin<!--was small caps-->|year=1992|title=Glasnost' and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II|journal=[[Soviet Studies]]|volume=44|issue=6|pages=1069–1086|jstor=152330|doi=10.1080/09668139208412066|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Badsey|first=Stephen<!--was small caps-->|year=1990|title=Normandy 1944: Allied Landings and Breakout|url=https://archive.org/details/normandy1944alli0000bads_o8g0|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-0-85045-921-0|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Balabkins|first=Nicholas<!--was small caps-->|year=1964|title=Germany Under Direct Controls: Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948|url=https://archive.org/details/germanyunderdire0000bala|location=New Brunswick, NJ|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8135-0449-0|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last1=Barber|first1=John<!--was small caps-->|last2=Harrison|first2=Mark|year=2006|chapter=Patriotic War, 1941–1945|title=''In Ronald Grigor Suny, ed.,''' The Cambridge History of Russia, Volume III: The Twentieth Century ''(pp.&nbsp;217–242)''|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-81144-6|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Barker|first=A. 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Watson|year=2003|title=Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World|url=https://archive.org/details/tricolorcrescent0000wats|location=Westport,&nbsp;CT|publisher=[[Praeger Publishers|Praeger]]|isbn=0-275-97470-7|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Weinberg|first=Gerhard L.| authorlink=Gerhard Weinberg<!--was small caps-->|year=2005|title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-85316-3|ref=harv}}; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy :{{Cite book|last=Wettig|first=Gerhard<!--was small caps-->|year=2008|title=Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953|location=Lanham,&nbsp;MD|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|isbn=978-0-7425-5542-6|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last1=Wiest|first1=Andrew<!--was small caps-->|last2=Barbier|first2=M. K.|year=2002|title=Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare|location=St Paul, MN|publisher=[[MBI Publishing Company]]|isbn=978-0-7603-1401-2|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Andrew<!--was small caps-->|year=2006|title=Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished|url=https://archive.org/details/liberalismwarvic0000will|location=Abingdon & New York,&nbsp;NY|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-35980-1|ref=harv}} :{{Cite journal|last=Wilt|first=Alan F.<!--was small caps-->|authorlink=Alan F. Wilt|year=1981|title=Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941|journal=Military Affairs|volume=45|issue=4|pages=187–91|jstor=1987464|doi=10.2307/1987464|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Wohlstetter|first=Roberta<!--was small caps-->|authorlink=Roberta Wohlstetter|year=1962|title=Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision|url=https://archive.org/details/pearlharborwarni0000wohl|location=Palo Alto,&nbsp;CA|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8047-0597-4|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Wolf|first=Holger C.<!--was small caps-->|year=1993|chapter=The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951|title=''In [[Rudi Dornbusch|Rudiger Dornbusch]], Wilhelm Nölling and [[Richard Layard, Baron Layard|Richard Layard]], eds.,'' Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today ''(pp.&nbsp;29–56)''|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|isbn=978-0-262-04136-2|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Wood|first=James&nbsp;B.<!--was small caps-->|year=2007|title=Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable?|url=https://archive.org/details/japanesemilitary0000wood|location=Lanham, MD|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|isbn=978-0-7425-5339-2|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Yoder|first=Amos<!--was small caps-->|year=1997|title=The Evolution of the United Nations System|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofunite0000yode|edition=3rd|location=London & Washington,&nbsp;DC|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=1-56032-546-1|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Zalampas|first=Michael<!--was small caps-->|year=1989|title=Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939|url=https://archive.org/details/adolfhitlerthird0000zala|publisher=Bowling Green University Popular Press|isbn=0-87972-462-5|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last=Zaloga|first=Steven&nbsp;J.<!--was small caps-->|authorlink=Steven Zaloga|year=1996|title=Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-85532-478-7|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|author=———|year=2002|title=Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg|url=https://archive.org/details/poland1939birtho0000zalo|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-84176-408-5|ref=CITEREFZaloga2002}} : Zeiler, Thomas W. and Daniel M. DuBois, eds. ''A Companion to World War II'' (2 vol 2013), 1030pp; comprehensive overview by scholars :{{Cite book|last=Zeiler|first=Thomas W.<!--was small caps-->|year=2004|title=Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II|url=https://archive.org/details/unconditionaldef0000zeil|location=Wilmington, DE|publisher=Scholarly Resources|isbn=978-0-8420-2991-9|ref=harv}} :{{Cite book|last1=Zetterling|first1=Niklas<!--was small caps-->|last2=Tamelander|first2=Michael|year=2009|title=''Bismarck'': The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship|url=https://archive.org/details/bismarckfinalday0000zett|location=Drexel Hill,&nbsp;PA|publisher=[[Casemate Publishers|Casemate]]|isbn=978-1-935149-04-0|ref=harv}} {{Refend}} [[Category:Conflicts in 1939]] [[Category:Conflicts in 1940]] [[Category:Conflicts in 1941]] [[Category:Conflicts in 1942]] [[Category:Conflicts in 1943]] [[Category:Conflicts in 1944]] [[Category:Conflicts in 1945]] [[Category:Global conflicts]] [[Category:History o Montenegro]] [[Category:History o the Soviet Union an Soviet Roushie]] [[Category:History o the Unitit States (1918–45)]] [[Category:Modren Europe]] [[Category:Modren history]] [[Category:Nuclear warfare]] [[Category:Wars involvin Albanie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Australie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Austrick]] [[Category:Wars involvin Belgium]] [[Category:Wars involvin Bolivie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Brazil]] [[Category:Wars involvin Breetish Indie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Bulgarie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Burma]] [[Category:Wars involvin Cambodie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Canadae]] [[Category:Wars involvin Chile]] [[Category:Wars involvin Colombie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Costa Rica]] [[Category:Wars involvin Croatie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Cuba]] [[Category:Wars involvin Czechoslovakie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Denmark]] [[Category:Wars involvin Ecuador]] [[Category:Wars involvin Egyp]] [[Category:Wars involvin El Salvador]] [[Category:Wars involvin Estonie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Ethiopie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Finland]] [[Category:Wars involvin Fraunce]] [[Category:Wars involvin Germany]] [[Category:Wars involvin Greece]] [[Category:Wars involvin Guatemala]] [[Category:Wars involvin Haiti]] [[Category:Wars involvin Honduras]] [[Category:Wars involvin Hungary]] [[Category:Wars involvin Iceland]] [[Category:Wars involvin Indonesie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Italy]] [[Category:Wars involvin Iran]] [[Category:Wars involvin Iraq]] [[Category:Wars involvin Japan]] [[Category:Wars involvin Laos]] [[Category:Wars involvin Latvie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Lebanon]] [[Category:Wars involvin Liberie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Lithuanie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Luxembourg]] [[Category:Wars involvin Mexico]] [[Category:Wars involvin Mongolie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Montenegro]] [[Category:Wars involvin Nepal]] [[Category:Wars involvin Norawa]] [[Category:Wars involvin Nicaragua]] [[Category:Wars involvin Panama]] [[Category:Wars involvin Paraguay]] [[Category:Wars involvin Peru]] [[Category:Wars involvin Poland]] [[Category:Wars involvin Romanie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Saudi Arabie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Serbie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Slovakie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Slovenie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Sooth Africae]] [[Category:Wars involvin Sri Lanka]] [[Category:Wars involvin Sirie]] [[Category:Wars involvin Thailand]] [[Category:Wars involvin Turkey]] [[Category:Wars involvin the Dominican Republic]] [[Category:Wars involvin the Netherlands]] [[Category:Wars involvin the Philippines]] [[Category:Wars involvin the Republic o Cheenae]] [[Category:Wars involvin the Republic o Macedonie]] [[Category:Wars involvin the Soviet Union]] [[Category:Wars involvin the Unitit Kinrick]] [[Category:Wars involvin the Unitit States]] [[Category:Wars involvin Uruguay]] [[Category:Wars involvin Venezuela]] [[Category:Wars involvin Vietnam]] [[Category:Warld War II|*]] 68uu3a5fyswuud2z5svd9mvy9hv9mvy 0 38233 918763 905952 2026-06-24T23:50:42Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918763 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox bodie |image=Katie Leung 2020.jpg |nationality=Scottish | children=1 |occupation=Actress |years active=2004-present |known for=Cho Chang in Harry Potter film series |birthname=Katie Liu Leung |birth_date=8 August 1987 |birth_place=Mitherwall, Scotland |image caption=Katie Leung in 2020 at the German Comic Con Hame Edeetion}} '''Katie Liu Leung''' (born 8 August 1987) is an actress fae Scotland<ref>{{cite news|title=Katie Leung|work=AskMen|url=http://www.askmen.com/celebs/women/celeb_profiles_actress_60/94_katie_leung.html|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321225215/http://www.askmen.com/celebs/women/celeb_profiles_actress_60/94_katie_leung.html|archivedate=21 March 2016}}</ref>. She's weel-kent fir playin Cho Chang, Harry Potter's first luve-interest in the [[Harry Potter (film series)|''Harry Potter'' pictur series]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=BBC - Movies - interview - Katie Leung|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/films/2007/07/09/katie_leung_harry_potter_5_2007_interview.shtml|access-date=2025-03-27|website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> In 2012 she haed her stage debut as Jung Chang in the play ''[[Wild Swans]]''. She's intae pentin an photographie, an did Airt an Design at the [[University o the Airts London]]. == Early years == Leung wis born in [[Motherwal|Mitherwall]], [[North Lanrikshire|Nor Lanrickshire]]. She wis at [[Hamilton College]] high schuil in [[Sooth Lanrikshire|Sooth Lanrickshire]]. Her fowks are fae [[Hong Kong]] but got divorced wen she wis 3. Her da stertit a business in [[Glesga]] an her maw wis a banker. == Career == === 2005-2007: ''Harry Potter'' === Leung's da seen an advert fir a ''[[Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire]]'' casting caw, an telt her she should gie it a go. She thoucht she hud nae chance, but waitit 4 oor onywey. The audition wis anly 5 meenit lang. She wis cawed back fir a wirkshop 2 week efter, an they gied her the role o Cho Chang. 3000 ither lassies had tried oot fir the pert anaw. In a ''Daily Record'' interview later she telt thaim she thoucht she'd hud an advantage ower the ither lassies, coz the castin director hud asked "is onywan here fae Scotland?" (pit ower fae Inglis) an she wis the ainly wan tae pit up her haund.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-06-10|title=KISS ME KATIE - The Daily Record|url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/tm_headline%3Dkiss-me-katie--%26method%3Dfull%26objectid%3D19331234%26siteid%3D66633-name_page.html|access-date=2025-03-27|website=web.archive.org|archive-date=2011-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610112133/http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/tm_headline%3Dkiss-me-katie--%26method%3Dfull%26objectid%3D19331234%26siteid%3D66633-name_page.html|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> She said in 2011 that o the hale Harry Potter experience, her favrit pairt wis the furst audition, sin her fowks cam alang the gither despite bein separatit: "It wis a real braw maument sin ma fowks hudnae seen wan anither fir a lang, lang while" (pit ower fae Inglis).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-04-03|title=Lights, camera ... magic|url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/life_style/arts_ents/13027934.lights-camera-magic/|access-date=2025-03-27|website=The Herald|language=en}}</ref> [[Warner Bros.|Warner Bros]] sent her ower tae [[Fowkrepublic o Cheenae|China]] tae heeze up ''Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pride|first=William M.|title=Business|url=https://archive.org/details/business0000prid_d5z7|last2=Hughes|first2=Robert J.|last3=Kapoor|first3=Jack R.|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=2008|isbn=978-0-618-75314-7|pages=540}}</ref> She wis in ''[[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix]]'' an aw, an hud an onscreen kiss wi Daniel Radcliffe (Harry) that got a fair amoont ae press.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-08-19|title=katie leung fan ~ press and video archive ... part of katieleungfan.com|url=http://katieleungfan.com/archives/article_089.php|access-date=2025-03-27|website=web.archive.org|archive-date=2011-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819075256/http://katieleungfan.com/archives/article_089.php|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> <ref name=":0" /> She wis playin Harrys furst luve-interest. Maist fans were fine wi this, but some stertit an "A hate Katie" wabsteid an some fowk postit racist messages oan fan wabsteids that fair upset her at the time.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-02-13|title=Katie Leung on life after Harry Potter and battling racist stereotypes|url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/life_style/arts_ents/14273569.katie-leung-life-harry-potter-battling-racist-stereotypes/|access-date=2025-03-27|website=The Herald|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Racists slam &#039;Harry Potter&#039; actress - UPI.com|url=https://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2005/04/11/Racists-slam-Harry-Potter-actress/UPI-63361113238399/|access-date=2025-03-27|website=UPI|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Moreau|first=Jordan|date=2021-03-11|title=‘Harry Potter’ Actor Katie Leung Says She Was Told to Deny Receiving Racist Attacks From Fans|url=https://variety.com/2021/film/news/harry-potter-actor-racist-attacks-katie-leung-1234928176/|access-date=2025-03-27|website=Variety|language=en-US}}</ref> Leung's vyce wis uised in the ''Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix'' an the ''[[Harry Potter and the Half-blood Prince]]'' gemmes. === 2007-present === In Julie 2007, Leung wis cast by Gold Label Records, a dochter firm o [[EMI Group Limited|EMI]] fae Hong Kong, tae be the lead wummin in Leo Ku's ''"My Home, My Love"'' ({{zh|c= ''愛回家''|j="Oi3 Wui4 Gaa1"}}); literally "Luve, Retour Hame") muisic video. It wis filmed in [[Lunnon|London]] while Leung wis heezin up the new Harry Potter film. Ku said her actin wis "professional" an "mature". Leung wis Hsui Tai in an episode o ITV1's ''[[Agatha Christie]]'s Poirot'' cried "Cat Among the Pigeons," that hud its telly debut on [[ITV]] on 21 September 2008. Leung wis gied the title o Scotlands maist stylie lassie, an the title o the brawist Scotswummin in 2007 fae ''[[Scotland on Sunday]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2007-11-21|title=Scotland on Sunday - Entertainment - Harry Potter actress flies from Hogwarts to top of eligibles list|url=http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/entertainment.cfm?id=1819232007|access-date=2025-03-27|website=web.archive.org|archive-date=2007-11-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121010748/http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/entertainment.cfm?id=1819232007|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> She's been writ aboot in ''Teen Vogue'' an ''Evening Standard'' an aw. Efter the Harry Potter films, Leung wisnae shair gin she wantit tae stey in the actin business, but did a coorse in drama at the [[Royal Conservatoire of Scotland|Royal Conservatoire o Scotland]] onywey an wis inspirt.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-12-06|title=Leung nearly quit acting after Potter|url=https://www.express.co.uk/celebrity-news/288274/Leung-nearly-quit-acting-after-Potter|access-date=2025-03-27|website=Express.co.uk|language=en}}</ref> In December 2011 she wis gien the role o [[Jung Chang]] in Jung Chang's autobiographical play ''Wild Swans''.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2011-12-07|title=Harry Potter actress Katie Leung lands debut stage role|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-16074219|access-date=2025-03-27}}</ref> It hud its warld premiere in Cambridge, Massachusetts in Februar 2012. Whan compairin pictur an live performances, she said: "The obvious challenge is o coorse daen it richt first go, an that wis unco excitin fir me" (pit ower fae Inglis). It wis confirmt in Juin 2012 that Leung wis tae be in the Channel 4 fower-pairt drama series cried ''Run'' as main chairacter Ying. Ying wis an illegal ingang fae China that selt pirated DVDs an nicked mobiles in Brixton, London, in order tae gie hersel a life in England. Houiver, she hud tae pey back her dets tae the Snakehead gang that hud smuggled her intae the kintra.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-06-25|title=Run cast announcement - Channel 4 - Info - Press|url=http://www.channel4.com/info/press/news/run-cast-announcement|access-date=2025-03-27|website=web.archive.org|archive-date=2012-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625063746/http://www.channel4.com/info/press/news/run-cast-announcement|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> In 2013, Leung wis in ''The World of Extreme Happiness'' in The Shed at the National Theatre. Her chairacter wis cried Sunny, an she played alangside Vera Chok wha wis the chairacter Xiao Li, a migrant wirker. The show wis aboot the warld o migrant wirkers thats formin in modren China.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Avila|first=Stephanie Chang|date=2013-10-04|title=The World Of Extreme Happiness: A Story Of China's Urban Migrants|url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-world-of-extreme-happiness-a-story-of-china-s-urban-migrants|access-date=2025-03-27|website=Culture Trip|language=en|archive-date=2025-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250527212752/https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-world-of-extreme-happiness-a-story-of-china-s-urban-migrants|url-status=dead}}</ref> Leung wis in the [[BBC]]'s ''Father Brown'' crime drama series. In Apryle 2014 it wis annunced that Leung wid be Mei, a Chinese wean wha wis adoptit by an American mither an a British faither, in the TV miniseries ''One Child''. In it, her chairacter gets cawed back tae Guangzhou, whaur Mei wis born, whan her birth mither needs help tae save her son. The series wis co-produced by BBC Drama an Sundance TV fir BBC Two. Production stertit in Mey 2014 in London an Hong Kong, and the show cam oot in Februar 2016. Catherine Gee fae ''The Daily Telegraph'' said her performance wis "beautifully understated."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tatlow|first=Didi Kirsten|date=2014-11-30|title=Opaque Justice in China|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/01/arts/television/katie-leung-stars-in-one-child-by-guy-hibbert.html?_r=0|access-date=2025-03-27|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Gee|first=Catherine|date=2016-02-17|title=Gripping drama One Child exposes how fragile China is - review|language=en-GB|work=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/tv/2016/02/17/one-child-episode-one-review-fragile-china-exposed-in-this-gripp/|access-date=2025-03-27|issn=0307-1235}}</ref> At the end o 2016, Leung wis in the [[Tony Kushner]] play ''The Intelligent Homosexual's Guide to Capitalism and Socialism with a Key to the Scriptures'' (iHo) that wis at the Hampstead Theatre, London.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Theatre 1|first=London|date=2016-08-19|title=Tamsin Greig stars in The Intelligent Homosexual’s Guide to Capitalism and Socialism with a Key to the Scriptures|url=https://www.londontheatre1.com/theatre-news/tamsin-greig-the-intelligent-homosexuals-guide-to-capitalism-and-socialism-with-a-key-to-the-scriptures/|access-date=2025-03-27|website=LondonTheatre1|language=en-GB}}</ref> In 2017 Leung co-starred wi [[Jackie Chan]] an [[Pierce Brosnan]] in ''[[The Foreigner]]'' as Fan, Chan's chairacter's dochter. == Personal life == Leung pit off goin tae airt college an university tae film ''Harry Potter an the Order o the Phoenix''. She later said she hudnae been shuir aboot steyin in actin efter Harry Potter, and wantit tae study airt an design.<ref name=":0" /> In 2007 she gaed a haund tae the The Prince's Trust chairitie o Scotland tae raise £100,000 by lenchin a bairn's airt competeetion, an donatit wan o her ain pentins that selt fir £960.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-12-05|title=Potter star Katie helps raise £100,000 - Scotsman.com News|url=http://news.scotsman.com/jkrowlingharrypotter/Potter-star-Katie-helps-raise.3586991.jp|access-date=2025-03-27|website=web.archive.org|archive-date=2008-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205031714/http://news.scotsman.com/jkrowlingharrypotter/Potter-star-Katie-helps-raise.3586991.jp|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> Leung is intae photographie, an in 2009 she wis wan o twa celebrities wha gaed a photae tae Sightsavers International's I:Click 2009 competeetion. Sightsavers International is a chairitie that ettles tae help blind fowk in puir kintras.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2009-12-03|title=Snapper Emily celebrates contest success|url=https://www.bucksfreepress.co.uk/news/4775535.Snapper_Emily_celebrates_contest_success/|access-date=2025-03-27|website=Bucks Free Press|language=en}}</ref> Leung wis ettlin tae dae her photographie degree whan she wis in ''Wild Swans''. Efter the play endit, she said she wid gang tae the Royal Conservatoire o Scotland, Glesga. Leung haes fluent [[Cantonese]] an some [[Mandarin Cheenese|Mandarin]] an aw. She went tae the waddin o Afshan Azad, a Harry Potter castmate, in August 2018. In 2022, she gied birth tae a boy cried Wolf.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hibbs |first1=James |title=Annika's Katie Leung on how real-life pregnancy was written into season 2 {{!}} Radio Times |url=https://www.radiotimes.com/tv/drama/annika-katie-leung-real-pregnancy-newsupdate/ |access-date=11 May 2025 |work=www.radiotimes.com}}</ref> == Filmographie == === Film === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Year !Title !Role !Notes |- |2005 |''[[Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire]]'' |[[Cho Chang]] |Film |- |2007 |''[[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix]]'' |Cho Chang |Film an video gemm |- |2009 |''[[Harry Potter and the Half-blood Prince]]'' |Cho Chang |Film an video gemm |- |2011 |''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2]]'' |Cho Chang |Film |- |2017 |[[T2 Trainspotting]] |Nurse |Film |- |2017 |[[The Foreigner]] |Fan |Film |} === Telly === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Year !Title !Role !Notes |- |2008 |''[[Agatha Christie's Poirot]]'' |Hsui Tai |Series 11, Episode 2: "Cat Among the Pigeons." |- |2013 |''[[Run (miniseries)|Run]]'' |Ying |TV miniseries (4 Episodes) |- |2014 |''[[Father Brown]]'' |Jia-Li Gerard |TV production (Series 2, Episode 8: "The Prize of Colonel Gerard") |- |2014 |''[[One Child]]'' |Mei Ashley |TV miniseries (3 Episodes) |- |2018 |''[[Strangers]]'' |Lau Chen |TV series |- |2019 |''[[Chimerica]]'' |Liuli |TV miniseries (4 Episodes) |- |2019 |''[[Moominvalley]]'' |Too-Ticky |Animated series; Vyce |- |2020 |''[[The Nest (miniseries)|The Nest]]'' |Eleanor |TV miniseries (5 Episodes) |- |2020 |''[[Roadkill]]'' |Margaret Moore |TV miniseries (3 Episodes) |} === Stage === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Year !Title !Role !Notes |- |2012 |''Wild Swans'' |Jung Chang | |- |2013 |''The World of Extreme Happiness'' |Sunny |[[National Theatre]], London |- |2015 |''You For Me For You'' |Junhee |[[Royal Court Theatre]]: Jerwood Theatre Upstairs |- |2016 |''[[The Intelligent Homosexual's Guide to Capitalism and Socialism with a Key to the Scriptures]] (iHo)'' |Sooze |[[Hampstead Theatre]], London |- |2017 |''Snow in Midsummer'' |Dou Ti |[[Swan Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon|Swan Theatre]], Stratford-Upon-Avon |- |2019 |''White Pearl'' |Sunny |[[Royal Court Theatre]], London |} == Awards == ==== 2006 ==== * Outstandin Newcomer Award, Asian Excellence Awards (Top 4) * Nominee fir Young Scots Award ==== 2007 ==== * Scotland's Maist Stylie Lassie * No. 80 in Cosmogirl's Hot 100 List ==== 2008 ==== * Nominee (alang wi [[Daniel Radcliffe]]) fir Best Kiss 2008 at the MTV Movie Awards US ==== 2014 ==== * BAFTA Breakthrough Brits 2014 == References == <references /> [[Category:Scots fowk o Cheenese strynd]] [[Category:Scots actresses]] [[Category:Film actresses]] [[Category:Televeesion actresses]] [[Category:Stage actresses]] 5ar0kjtk096jkq4vyxqvlkpdh0lh4h6 0 40098 918714 881106 2026-06-24T23:18:19Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918714 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox monarch | name = Augustus | title = [[Leet o Roman emperors|1st]] [[Roman emperor|Emperor]] o the [[Roman Empire]] | image= Statue-Augustus.jpg | caption = The statue kent as the [[Augustus o Prima Porta]], 1st century | reign = 16 Januar 27 BC&nbsp;– 19 August AD 14 | predecessor = None ([[Roman Empire|Empire]] foondit) | successor = [[Tiberius]], stepson bi 3rd wife | spouse = [[Clodia Pulchra]] (42–40 BC)<br />[[Scribonia]] (40–38 BC)<br />[[Livia|Livia Drusilla]] (37 BC – 14 AD) | issue = [[Julia the Elder]]<br />[[Gaius Caesar]] (adoptive)<br />[[Lucius Caesar]] (adoptive)<br />[[Agrippa Postumus]] (adoptive)<br />[[Tiberius]] (adoptive) | house = [[Julio-Claudian dynasty|Julio-Claudian Dynasty]] | full name = Imperator Gaius Julius Divi Filius Caesar Octavianus Augustus | father = [[Gaius Octavius]] | mother = [[Atia Balba Caesonia]] | birth_date = 23 September 63 BC | birth_place = [[Roum]], [[Roman Republic]] | death_date = 19 August AD 14 (aged 75) | death_place = [[Nola]], [[Italia (Roman Empire)|Italia]], [[Roman Empire]] | date of burial = | place of burial = [[Mausoleum o Augustus]], [[Roum]] }} '''Augustus''' ({{lang-la|Imperator Caesar Divi F. Augustus}},<ref group="note">In [[Laitin leid|Clessical Laitin]]: {{smallcaps all|IMPERATOR CAESAR DIVI F AVGVSTVS}}.</ref> [[23 September]] 63 BC – [[19 August]] 14 AD) wis the foonder o the [[Roman Empire]] an its first [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]], rulin frae 27 BC til his daith in 14 AD.<ref group="note">The dates o his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus bided unner twa calendars, the [[Roman Republican calendar|Roman Republican]] until [[45 BC|45&nbsp;BC]], an the [[Julian calendar|Julian]] efter 45&nbsp;BC. Due tae departures frae Julius Caesar's intentions, Augustus restorit the Julian calendar in 8&nbsp;BC, an the correspondence atween the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] an the actual calendar observit in [[Roum]] is uncertain afore 8&nbsp;BC.(Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003: 670–1)</ref> He wis born '''Gaius Octavius''' intae an auld an walthy [[equites|equestrian branch]] o the [[plebs|plebeian]] [[Octavia (gens)|''gens'' Octavia]]. His maternal great-uncle [[Julius Caesar]] wis [[assassination o Julius Caesar|assassinatit]] in 44 BC, an Octavius wis named in Caesar's will as his [[Adoption in auncient Roum|adoptit]] son an heir, then kent as '''Octavianus''' ([[Anglicisation|Anglicised]] as '''Octavian'''). He, [[Mark Antony]], an [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Lepidus]] formed the [[Seicont Triumvirate]] tae defeat the assassins o Caesar. Follaein thair victory at the [[Battle o Philippi]], the Triumvirate dividit the [[Roman Republic]] amang themsels an ruled as [[militar dictatorship|militar dictators]].<ref group="note">As part o the Triumvirate, Octavian ruled the Wastren provinces, Antony ruled the Eastren provinces, an Lepidus ruled Africae.</ref> The Triumvate wis eventually torn apairt bi the competin ambeetions o its members. Lepidus wis driven intae exile an stripped o his poseetion, an Antony committit suicide follaein his defeat at the [[Battle o Actium]] bi Octavian in 31 BC. Efter the demise o the Seicont Triumvirate, Augustus restored the ootward façade o the free Republic, wi govrenmental pouer vestit in the [[Roman Senate]], the [[Roman magistrate|executive magistrates]], an the [[Roman assemblies|legislative assemblies]]. In reality, houever, he reteened his autocratic pouer ower the Republic as a militar dictator. Bi law, Augustus held a collection o pouers grantit tae him for life bi the Senate, includin [[commander-in-chief|supreme militar command]], an thae o [[tribune]] an [[Roman censor|censor]]. It teuk several years for Augustus tae develop the framewirk within which a formally republican state coud be led unner his sole rule. He rejectit monarchical teetles, an instead cried himsel ''[[Princeps]] Civitatis'' ("First Ceetizen o the State"). The resultin [[Constitution o the Roman Empire|constitutional framewark]] acame kent as the [[Principate]], the first phase o the Roman Empire. The ring o Augustus ineetiatit an era o relative peace kent as the ''[[Pax Romana]]'' (''The Roman Peace''). The Roman warld wis lairgely free frae lairge-scale conflict for mair nor twa centuries, despite continuous wars o imperial expansion on the Empire's frontiers an the year-lang ceevil war kent as the "[[Year o the Fower Emperors]]" ower the imperial succession. Augustus dramatically enlairged the Empire, annexin [[Egyp (Roman province)|Egyp]], [[Dalmatie (Roman province)|Dalmatie]], [[Pannonie]], [[Noricum]], an [[Raetie]]; expandin possessions in [[Africae (Roman province)|Africae]]; expandin intae [[Germanie]]; an completin the conquest o [[Hispanie]]. Yont the frontiers, he secured the Empire wi a buffer region o [[client state]]s an made peace wi the [[Parthian Empire]] throu diplomacy. He reformed the Roman seestem o taxation, developed [[Roman roads|networks o roads]] wi an offeecial [[courier]] seestem, established a staundin airmy, established the [[Praetorian Guard]], creatit offeecial [[cohortes urbanae|polis]] an [[vigiles|fire-fechtin services]] for Roum, an rebiggit much o the ceety during his reign. Augustus dee'd in AD 14 at the age o 75. He probably dee'd frae naitural causes, awtho thare war unconfirmed rumors that his wife [[Livia]] pushioned him. He wis succeedit as Emperor bi his adoptit son (an aa stepson an umwhile son-in-law) [[Tiberius]]. == Name == Augustus ({{IPA-la|awˈɡʊstʊs|classical}}) wis kent bi mony names outthrou his life:<ref group="note" name="pronunciation">Clessical Laitin spellin an [[Laitin spellin an pronunciation|reconstructit Clessical Laitin pronunciation]] o the names o Augustus: # {{sqc|GAIVS OCTAVIVS}}<br />{{IPA-la|ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ɔkˈtaː.wi.ʊs|IPA}} # {{sqc|GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR OCTAVIANVS}}<br />{{IPA-la|ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuː.li.ʊs ˈkae̯.sar ɔk.taː.wiˈaː.nʊs|IPA}} # {{sqc|IMPERATOR CAESAR DIVI F(ILIVS) AVGVSTVS}}<br />{{IPA-la|ɪm.pɛˈraː.tɔr ˈkae̯.sar ˈdiː.wiː ˈfiː.li.ʊs au̯ˈgʊs.tʊs|IPA}} The spelling {{sqc|AGVSTVS}}, indicating the pronunciation {{IPA-la|aˈgʊs.tʊs|}}, occurs in inscriptions ({{Harvnb|Allen|1965|p=61}}).</ref> * At birth, he wis named '''Gaius Octavius''' efter his [[Gaius Octavius (praetor 61 BC)|biological faither]]. Historians teepically refer tae him simply as '''Octavius''' (or Octavian) atween his birth in 63 till his adoption bi Julius Caesar in 44 BC (efter Julius Caesar's daith). * Upon his adoption, he teuk Caesar's name an becam '''Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus''' in accordance wi [[Adoption in Roum|Roman adoption]] [[Roman namin conventions|namin staundarts]]. He quickly droppit "Octavianus" frae his name, an his contemporaries teepically referred tae him as "Caesar" in this period; historians, houiver, refer tae him as '''Octavian''' atween 44 BC an 27 BC.<ref>Jo-Ann Shelton, ''As the Romans Did'' (Oxford University Press, 1998), 58.</ref> * In 42 BC, Octavian begoud the ''[[Temple o Caesar|Temple o Divus Iulius]]'' or Temple o the [[Caesar's Comet|Comet Starn]]<ref name="ReferenceA">Pliny the Elder, ''Naturalis Historia'', 2.93–94</ref> an addit '''Divi Filius''' (''Son o the Divine'') tae his name in order tae strenthen his poleetical ties tae Caesar's umwhile sodgers bi follaein the [[Imperial cult (auncient Rome)|deification]] o Caesar, acomin '''Gaius Julius Caesar Divi Filius'''. * In 38 BC, Octavian replaced his ''[[praenomen]]'' "Gaius" an ''[[Roman namin conventions|nomen]]'' "Julius" wi '''Imperator''', the [[Imperator|teetle bi that truips hailed thair leader efter militar success]], offeecially acomin '''Imperator Caesar Divi Filius'''. * In 27 BC, follaein his defeat o Mark Antony an [[Cleopatra]], the Roman Senate votit new teetles for him, offeecially acomin '''Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus'''.<ref group="note" name="meaning">''{{lang|la|Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus|}}'' means "Commander Caesar, Son o the God [Julius Caesar], the Venerable".</ref> It is the events o 27 BC frae that he obtained his tradeetional name o '''Augustus''', that historians uise in reference tae him frae 27 BC till his daith in AD 14. == Early life == While his paternal faimily wis frae the toun o [[Velletri]], approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} frae Roum, Augustus wis born in the ceety o Roum on 23 September 63&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{harv|Suetonius|2013|loc = §5, footnote a}} [[Roman calendar]].</ref> He wis born at Ox Heid, a smaw property on the [[Palatine Hill]], verra close tae the [[Roman Forum]]. He wis gien the name '''Gaius Octavius Thurinus''', his [[cognomen]] possibly commemoratin his faither's veectory at [[Thurii]] ower a rebellious baund o [[Sclavery in auncient Rome|sclaves]].<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#7 7]</ref><ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#5 5–6 on-line text].</ref> Due tae the croudit naitur o Roum at the time, Octavius wis takken tae his faither's hame veelage at Velletri tae be raised. Octavius anerly mentions his faither's [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] faimily briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfaither [[Gaius Octavius (tribune 216 BC)|Gaius Octavius]] wis a militar tribune in [[Sicily]] in the [[Seicont Punic War]]. His grandfaither haed served in several local poleetical offices. His faither, an aa named [[Gaius Octavius (proconsul)|Gaius Octavius]], haed been [[Roman govrenor|govrenor]] o [[Macedonie (Roman province)|Macedonie]].<ref group="note">Suetonius, ''Augustus'' The "Marcus Octavius" [[veto]]in the [[agrarian law]] suggestit bi [[Tiberius Gracchus]] in 133&nbsp;BC mey hae been his auncestor. [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#1 1–4].</ref><ref name="rowell 14">Rowell (1962), 14.</ref> His mither, [[Atia Balba Caesonia|Atia]], wis the niece o Julius Caesar. [[File:RSC 0022 - transparent background.png|thumb|left|A denarius frae 44 BC, shawin Julius Caesar on the obverse an the goddess [[Venus (meethologie)|Venus]] on the reverse o the cunyie]] In 59&nbsp;BC, whan he wis fower year auld, his faither dee'd.<ref name="chisholm 23">Chisholm (1981), 23.</ref> His mither mairied a umwhile govrenor o Sirie, [[Lucius Marcius Philippus (consul 56 BC)|Lucius Marcius Philippus]].<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#4 4–8]; [[Nicolaus o Damascus|Nicolaus of Damascus]], ''[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html Augustus]'' 3. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714144802/http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html |date=2007-07-14 }}</ref> Philippus claimed strynd frae [[Alexander the Great]], an wis electit [[Roman consul|consul]] in 56&nbsp;BC. Philippus niver haed muckle o an interest in young Octavius. Acause o this, Octavius wis raised bi his grandmither, [[Julia Minor (sister o Caesar)|Julia]], the sister o Julius Caesar. Julia dee'd in 52 or 51&nbsp;BC, an Octavius delivered the funeral oration for his grandmither.<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#8 8.1]; [[Quintilian]], [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#6 12.6.1].</ref> Frae this pynt, his mither an stepfaither teuk a mair active role in raisin him. He donned the ''[[toga virilis]]'' fower years later,<ref name=Suet8.1>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#8 8.1]</ref> an wis electit tae the [[College o Pontiffs]] in 47&nbsp;BC.<ref>Nicolaus of Damascus, [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html ''Augustus'']4. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714144802/http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html |date=2007-07-14 }}</ref><ref name="rowell 16">Rowell (1962), 16.</ref> The follaein year he wis put in chairge o the [[Auncient Olympic Gemmes|Greek gemmes]] that war staged in honour o the [[Temple o Venus Genetrix]], biggit bi Julius Caesar.<ref name="rowell 16" /> Accordin tae [[Nicolaus o Damascus]], Octavius wished tae jyne Caesar's staff for his campaign in [[Africae (province)|Africae]], but gae wey whan his mither protestit.<ref>Nicolaus of Damascus, ''[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html Augustus]'' 6. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714144802/http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html |date=2007-07-14 }}</ref> In 46&nbsp;BC, she consentit for him tae jyne Caesar in Hispania, whaur he planned tae fecht the forces o [[Pompey]], Caesar's late enemy, but Octavius fell ill an wis unable tae traivel. Whan he haed recovered, he sailed tae the front, but wis shipwrecked; efter comin ashore wi a haundfu o companions, he crossed hostile territory tae Caesar's camp, that impressed his great-uncle conseederably.<ref name=Suet8.1 /> [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus|Velleius Paterculus]] reports that efter that time, Caesar alloued the young man tae share his cairiage.<ref>Velleius Paterculus [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2C*.html#59.3 2.59.3].</ref> Whan back in Roum, Caesar depositit a new will wi the [[Vestal Virgins]], namin Octavius as the prime beneficiary.<ref name=Suetonius_Julius>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#83 83].</ref> == Rise tae pouer == === Heir tae Caesar === [[File:Jean-Léon Gérôme - The Death of Caesar - Walters 37884.jpg|thumb|300px|''The Death of Caesar'', bi [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] (1867). On 15 Mairch 44&nbsp;BC, Octavius's adoptive faither Julius Caesar wis assassinatit bi a conspiracy led bi [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] an [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]]. [[Walters Art Museum]], [[Baltimore]].]] Octavius wis studyin an unnergaein militar trainin in [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]], [[Illyria]], whan Julius [[Assassination o Julius Caesar|Caesar wis killed]] on the [[Ides o Mairch]] (15 Mairch) 44&nbsp;BC. He rejectit the advice o some airmy officers tae tak haud wi the truips in Macedonie an sailed tae [[Italia (Roman province)|Italy]] tae ascertain whather he haed ony potential poleetical fortunes or siccarity.<ref name="eck 9">Eck (2003), 9.</ref> Caesar haed na leevin legitimate childer unner Roman law,{{refn|group="note"|His dauchter [[Julia (dauchter o Julius Caesar)|Julia]] haed dee'd in 54&nbsp;BC.; his son [[Caesarion]] bi Cleopatra wis nae recognised bi Roman law an wis nae mentioned in his will.<ref name=Suetonius_Julius />}} an sae haed [[adoption in Roum|adoptit]] Octavius, his grand-neffae, makkin him his primar heir.<ref name="rowell 15">Rowell (1962), 15.</ref> Mark Antony later chairged that Octavian haed earned his adoption bi Caesar throu sexual favours, tho [[Suetonius]] descrives Antony's accusation as poleetical slander.<ref>[[The Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]], ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#68 68], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#71 71].</ref> Efter laundin at Lupiae near [[Brundisium]], Octavius learned the contents o Caesar's will, an anerly then did he decide tae acome Caesar's poleetical heir as well as heir tae twa-thirds o his estate.<ref name="rowell 16" /><ref name="eck 9" /><ref>[[Appian]], ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/3*.html#9 3.9–11].</ref> Upon his adoption, Octavius assumed his great-uncle's name '''Gaius Julius Caesar'''. Roman ceetizens adoptit intae a new faimily uisually retained thair auld [[Roman namin conventions|nomen]] in cognomen form (e.g., ''Octavianus'' for ane that haed been an Octavius, ''Aemilianus'' for ane wha haed been an Aemilius, etc.). Houiver, tho some o his contemporars did,<ref>E.g., {{cite book|last1=Cicero|title=Letters to Atticus|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|pages=16:14|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi057.perseus-lat1:16.14|accessdate=8 December 2015}}</ref> thare is na evidence that Octavius iver himsel offeecially uised the name ''Octavianus'', as it wad hae made his modest oreegins too obvious.<ref>Mackay (2004), 160.</ref><ref name="eck 10">Eck (2003), 10.</ref><ref>Southern, ''Augustus'' pp. 20–21</ref> Historians uisually refer tae the new Caesar as ''Octavian'' in the time atween his adoption an his assumption o the name Augustus in 27&nbsp;BC in order tae avoid confusin the deid dictator wi his heir.<ref>Southern, ''Augustus'' pp. 21</ref> === Growin tensions === [[File:Augustus Statue.JPG|thumb|upright|A reconstructit statue o Augustus as a younger Octavian, datit ca. 30 BC]] Arrivin in Roum on 6 Mey 44&nbsp;BC,<ref name="eck 10" /> Octavian foond consul Mark Antony, Caesar's umwhile colleague, in an uneasy truce wi the dictator's assassins. Thay haed been grantit a general amnesty on 17 Mairch, yet Antony succeedit in drivin maist o them oot o Roum.<ref name="eck 10" /> This wis due tae his "inflammatory" eulogy gien at Caesar's funeral, moontin public opeenion against the assassins.<ref name="eck 10" /> Mark Antony wis amassin poleetical support, but Octavian still haed opportunity tae rival him as the leadin member o the faction supportin Caesar. Mark Antony haed lost the support o mony Romans an supporters o Caesar whan he ineetially opponed the motion tae elevate Caesar tae divine status.<ref name="eck 11">Eck (2003), 11.</ref> Octavian failed tae persuade Antony tae relinquish Caesar's siller tae him. In the simmer, he managed tae win support frae Caesarian sympathizers, houiver, wha saw the younger heir as the lesser ill an haipit tae manipulate him, or tae beir wi him in thair efforts tae get rid o Antony.<ref>Syme (1939), 114–120.</ref> Octavian begoud tae mak common cause wi the [[Optimates]], the umwhile enemies o Caesar. In September, the leadin Optimate orator [[Cicero|Marcus Tullius Cicero]] begoud tae attack Antony in a [[Philippicae|series o speeches]] portrayin him as a threat tae the Republican order.<ref name="chisholm 26">Chisholm (1981), 26.</ref><ref name="rowell 30">Rowell (1962), 30.</ref> Wi opeenion in Roum turnin against him an his year o consular pouer nearin its end, Antony attemptit tae pass laws that wad lend him control ower [[Cisalpine Gaul]], that haed been assigned as pairt o his province, frae [[Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus]], ane o Caesar's assassins.<ref name="eck 11 12">Eck (2003), 11–12.</ref><ref name="rowell 21">Rowell (1962), 21.</ref> Octavian meanwhile biggit up a preevat airmy in Italy bi recruitin Caesarian veterans an, on 28 November, he wan ower twa o Antony's legions wi the enticin offer o monetar gain.<ref>Syme (1939), 123–126.</ref><ref name="eck 12">Eck (2003), 12.</ref><ref name="rowell 23">Rowell (1962), 23.</ref> In the face o Octavian's lairge an capable force, Antony saw the danger o stayin in Roum an, tae the relief o the [[Roman senate|Senate]], he fled tae Cisalpine Gaul, that wis tae be haundit tae him on 1 Januar.<ref name="rowell 23" /> === First conflict wi Antony === [[File:Bust of augustus.jpg|thumb|upright|Bust o Augustus in [[Musei Capitolini]], Rome]] At the urgin o Cicero, the Senate inductit Octavian as senator on 1 Januar 43&nbsp;BC, yet he an aa wis gien the pouer tae vote alongside the umwhile consuls.<ref name="eck 12" /><ref name="rowell 23" /> In addeetion, Octavian wis grantit ''[[propraetor]]'' ''[[imperium]]'' (commandin pouer) that legalised his command o truips, sendin him tae relieve the siege alang wi [[Aulus Hirtius|Hirtius]] an [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus|Pansa]] (the consuls for 43&nbsp;BC).<ref name="eck 12" /><ref>Syme (1939), 167.</ref> In Apryle 43&nbsp;BC, Antony's forces war defeatit at the battles o [[Battle o Forum Gallorum|Forum Gallorum]] an [[Battle o Mutina|Mutina]], forcin Antony tae retreat tae [[Transalpine Gaul]]. Baith consuls war killed, houiver, leavin Octavian in sole command o thair airmies.<ref>Syme (1939), 173–174</ref><ref>Scullard (1982), 157.</ref> The senate heaped mony mair rewairds on Decimus Brutus nor on Octavian for defeatin Antony, then attemptit tae gie command o the consular legions tae Decimus Brutus—yet Octavian decidit nae tae cooperate.<ref name="rowell 26 27">Rowell (1962), 26–27.</ref> Insteid, Octavian stayed in the [[Po Valley]] an refused tae aid ony further offensive against Antony.<ref name="rowell 27">Rowell (1962), 27.</ref> In Julie, an embassy o [[centurion]]s sent bi Octavian entered Roum an demandit that he receive the consulship left vacant bi Hirtius an Pansa.<ref name="chisholm 32 33">Chisholm (1981), 32–33.</ref> Octavian an aa demandit that the decree shoud be rescindit that declared Antony a public enemy.<ref name="rowell 27" /> Whan this wis refused, he mairched on the ceety wi aicht legions.<ref name="rowell 27" /> He encountered na militar opposeetion in Roum, an on 19 August 43&nbsp;BC wis electit consul wi his relative [[Quintus Pedius]] as co-consul.<ref name="eck 14">Eck (2003), 14.</ref><ref name="rowell 28">Rowell (1962), 28.</ref> Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance wi [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], anither leadin Caesarian.<ref>Syme (1939), 176–186.</ref> === Seicont Triumvirate === ==== Proscriptions ==== [[File:Antony with Octavian aureus.jpg|thumb|An [[aureus]] o 41 BC wi portraits o [[Mark Antony]] (l) an Octavian (r), celebratin Octavian, Antony an [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Lepidus]]'s establishin the [[Seicont Triumvirate]] in 43 BC. Baith sides are inscribit "III VIR R P C", meanin "Ane o Three Men for the Regulation o the Republic".<ref>{{cite web|last = Sear | first = David R | title = Common Legend Abbreviations On Roman Coins | url = http://www.davidrsear.com/academy/roman_legends.html | accessdate = 24 August 2007 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070730185143/http://www.davidrsear.com/academy/roman_legends.html| archivedate= 30 July 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref>]] In a meetin near [[Bologna]] in October 43&nbsp;BC, Octavian, Antony, an Lepidus formed a [[Militar dictatorship|junta]] cried the [[Seicont Triumvirate]].<ref name="eck 15" /> This expleecit arrogation o special pouers lastin five years wis then supportit bi law passed bi the [[plebs]], unlik the unoffeecial [[First Triumvirate]] formed bi [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus|Pompey]], Julius Caesar, an [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]].<ref name="eck 15">Eck (2003), 15.</ref><ref name="Scullard 1982 163">Scullard (1982), 163.</ref> The triumvirs then set in motion [[proscription]]s in that 300 senators an 2,000 ''[[Equestrian (Roman)|equites]]'' allegedly war buistit as [[ootlaw]]s an deprived o thair property an, for thae wha failed tae escape, thair lives.<ref name = "eck 16" /> The estimation that 300 senators war proscribed wis presentit bi [[Appian]], awtho his earlier contemporar [[Livy]] assertit that anerly 130 senators haed been proscrived.<ref>Southern (1998), 52–53.</ref> This decree issued bi the triumvirate wis motivatit in pairt bi a need tae raise siller tae pey the salaries o thair truips for the upcomin conflict against Caesar's assassins, [[Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger]] an [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]].<ref name="Scullard 1982 164">Scullard (1982), 164.</ref> Rewairds for thair arrest gae incentive for Romans tae captur thae proscrived, while the assets an properties o thae arrestit war seized bi the triumvirs.<ref name="eck 16">Eck (2003), 16.</ref> Contemporar Roman historians provide conflictin reports as tae which triumvir wis maist responsible for the proscriptions an killin. Houiver, the soorces agree that enactin the proscriptions wis a means bi aw three factions tae eliminate poleetical enemies.<ref name="scott 1933 19 20">Scott (1933), 19–20.</ref> [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus]] assertit that Octavian tried tae avoid proscribin officials whauras Lepidus an Antony war tae wyte for ineetiatin them.<ref name="scott 1933 19" /> [[Cassius Dio]] defendit Octavian as tryin tae spare as mony as possible, whauras Antony an Lepidus, bein aulder an involved in politics langer, haed mony mair enemies tae deal wi.<ref name="scott 1933 19" /> This claim wis rejectit bi Appian, wha maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest wi Lepidus an Antony in eradicatin his enemies.<ref name="scott 1933 20">Scott (1933), 20.</ref> Suetonius said that Octavian wis reluctant tae proscrive officials, but did pursue his enemies wi mair rigor nor the ither triumvirs.<ref name="scott 1933 19 20" /> [[Plutarch]] descrived the proscriptions as a fell swappin o friends an faimily amang Antony, Lepidus, an Octavian. For ensaumple, Octavian alloued the proscription o his ally Cicero, Antony the proscription o his maternal uncle [[Lucius Julius Caesar (consul 64 BC)|Lucius Julius Caesar]] (the consul o 64 BC), an Lepidus his brither [[Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus|Paullus]].<ref name="scott 1933 19">Scott (1933), 19.</ref> [[File:S0484.4.jpg|thumb|A [[denarius]] mintit c. 18&nbsp;BC. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: DIVVS IVLIV[S] (DIVINE JULIUS)]] ==== Battle o Philippi an diveesion o territory ==== On 1 Januar 42&nbsp;BC, the Senate posthumously recognised Julius Caesar as a divinity o the Roman state, ''[[Divus Iulius]]''. Octavian wis able tae forder his cause bi emphasisin the fact that he wis ''[[Divi filius]]'', "Son o God".<ref>Syme (1939), 202.</ref> Antony an Octavian then sent 28 [[Roman legions|legions]] bi sea tae face the airmies o Brutus an Cassius, wha haed biggit thair base o pouer in Greece.<ref name="eck 17">Eck (2003), 17.</ref> Efter twa [[Battle o Philippi|battles at Philippi]] in Macedonie in October 42, the Caesarian airmy wis victorious an [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]] an [[Gaius Cassius Longinus|Cassius]] committit [[suicide]]. Mark Antony later uised the ensaumples o thir battles as a means tae belittle Octavian, as baith battles war decisively wan wi the uise o Antony's forces.<ref name="eck 17 18">Eck (2003), 17–18.</ref> In addeetion tae claimin responsibility for baith veectories, Antony an aa brandit Octavian as a couart for haundin ower his direct militar control tae [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] insteid.<ref name="eck 17 18" /> Efter Philippi, a new territorial arrangement wis made amang the members o the Seicont Triumvirate. [[Gaul]] an the provinces o Hispanie an Italia war placed in the haunds o Octavian. Antony traiveled east tae Egyp whaur he allied himsel wi Queen [[Cleopatra VII o Egyp|Cleopatra VII]], the umwhile luver o Julius Caesar an mither o Caesar's infant son [[Caesarion]]. Lepidus wis left wi the [[Africae Province|province o Africae]], stymied bi Antony, wha concedit Hispanie tae Octavian insteid.<ref name="eck 18">Eck (2003), 18.</ref> Octavian wis left tae decide whaur in Italy tae settle the tens o thoosands o veterans o the Macedonian campaign, that the triumvirs haed promised tae discharge. The tens o thoosands that haed focht on the republican side wi Brutus an Cassius coud easily ally wi a poleetical opponent o Octavian if nae appeased, an thay an aa required laund.<ref name="eck 18" /> Thare wis na mair govrenment-controlled laund tae lot as settlements for thair sodgers, sae Octavian haed tae chuise ane o twa options: alienatin mony Roman ceetizens bi confiscatin thair laund, or alienatin mony Roman sodgers wha coud moont a conseederable opposeetion against him in the Roman hertland. Octavian chuised the umwhile.<ref name="eck 18 19">Eck (2003), 18–19.</ref> Thare war as mony as aichteen Roman touns affectit bi the new settlements, wi entire populations driven opt or at least gien pairtial evictions.<ref name="eck 19">Eck (2003), 19.</ref> ==== Rebellion an mairiage alliances ==== Thare wis widespreid dissatisfaction wi Octavian ower thir settlements o his sodgers, an this encouraged mony tae rally at the side o [[Lucius Antonius (brither o Mark Antony)|Lucius Antonius]], wha wis brither o Mark Antony an supportit bi a majority in the Senate.<ref name="eck 19" /> Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce frae [[Claudia Pulchra (wife o Augustus)|Clodia Pulchra]], the dauchter o [[Fulvia]] (Mark Antony's wife) an her first man [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]]. He returned Clodia tae her mither, claimin that thair mairiage haed niver been consummated. Fulvia decidit tae tak action. Thegither wi Lucius Antonius, she raised an airmy in Italy tae fecht for Antony's richts against Octavian. Lucius an Fulvia teuk a poleetical an mairtial gemble in opponin Octavian, houiver, syne the Roman airmy still dependit on the triumvirs for thair sellaries.<ref name="eck 19" /> Lucius an his allies endit up in a defensive siege at [[Perusia]] (modren [[Perugia]]), whaurOctavian forced them intae surrender in early 40&nbsp;BC.<ref name="eck 19" /> Lucius an his airmy war spared, due tae his kinship wi Antony, the strangman o the East, while Fulvia wis exiled tae [[Sicyon]].<ref name="rowell 32">Rowell (1962), 32.</ref> Octavian shawed na mercy, houiver, for the mass o allies leal tae Lucius; on 15 Maich, the anniversary o Julius Caesar's assassination, he haed 300 Roman senators an equestrians executit for allyin wi Lucius.<ref name="eck 20">Eck (2003), 20.</ref> Perusia an aa wis pillaged an birned as a wairnin for ithers.<ref name="rowell 32" /> This bluidy event sullied Octavian's reputation an wis creeticised bi mony, sic as Augustan poet [[Sextus Propertius]].<ref name="eck 20" /> [[File:Domus-augusti-2.jpg|left|thumb|350px|Fresco pentins inside the [[Hoose o Augustus]], his residence in his ring as emperor]] [[Sextus Pompeius]] wis the son o First Triumvir Pompey an still a renegade general follaein Julius Caesar's veectory ower his faither. He wis established in [[Sicily]] an [[Sardinie]] as pairt o an agreement reached wi the Seicont Triumvirate in 39&nbsp;BC.<ref>Scullard (1982), 162</ref> Baith Antony an Octavian war vyin for an alliance wi Pompeius, wha wis a member o the republican pairty, ironically, nae the Caesarian faction.<ref name="eck 20" /> Octavian succeedit in a temporar alliance in 40&nbsp;BC whan he mairied [[Scribonia]], a dauchter o [[Lucius Scribonius Libo]] that wis a follaer o Sextus Pompeius as well as his faither-in-law.<!---whose father in law? Sextus', Octavian's? And who was a follower of whom? Very unclear syntax---><ref name="eck 20" /> Scribonia gae birth tae Octavian's anerly naitural bairn, [[Julia the Elder|Julia]], wha wis born the same day that he divorced her tae mairy [[Livia|Livia Drusilla]], little mair nor a year efter thair mairiage.<ref name="eck 20" /> While in Egyp, Antony haed been engaged in an affair wi [[Cleopatra VII|Cleopatra]] an haed faithered three childer wi her.<ref>[[Alexander Helios]], [[Cleopatra Selene II]], an [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]]</ref> Awaur o his deterioratin relationship wi Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed tae Italy in 40&nbsp;BC wi a lairge force tae oppone Octavian, layin siege tae Brundisium. This new conflict proved untenable for baith Octavian an Antony, houever. Thair centurions, that haed acome important feegurs poleetically, refused tae fecht due tae thair Caesarian cause, while the legions unner thair command follaed suit.<ref name="eck 21">Eck (2003) 21.</ref><ref name="ccaa 19">Eder (2005), 19.</ref> Meanwhile, in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia dee'd o a suddent illness while Antony wis en route tae meet her. Fulvia's daith an the mutiny o thair centurions alloued the twa remeenin triumvirs tae effect a reconciliation.<ref name="eck 21" /><ref name="ccaa 19" /> In the hairst o 40, Octavian an Antony appruived the Treaty o Brundisium, bi that Lepidus wad remeen in Africae, Antony in the East, Octavian in the Wast. The Italian peninsula wis left appen tae aw for the recruitment o sodgers, but in reality, this provision wis uiseless for Antony in the East.<ref name="eck 21" /> Tae forder cement relations o alliance wi Mark Antony, Octavian gae his sister, [[Octavia Minor]], in mairiage tae Antony in late 40&nbsp;BC.<ref name="eck 21" /> In thair mairiage, Octavia gae birth tae twa dauchters (kent as [[Antonia the Elder]] an [[Antonia Minor]]). ==== War wi Pompeius ==== {{Further information|Sicilian revolt}} [[File:Denarius Sextus Pompeius-Scilla.jpg|thumb|A [[denarius]] o [[Sextus Pompeius]], mintit for his veectory ower Octavian's fleet, on the obverse the Pharus o [[Messina]], wha defeatit Octavian, on the reverse, the monster [[Scylla]]]] Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy bi denyin shipments o grain throu the Mediterranean tae the peninsula. Pompeius' awn son wis put in chairge as naval commander in the effort tae cause widespread faimin in Italy.<ref name="ccaa 19" /> Pompeius' control ower the sea promptit him tae tak on the name ''Neptuni filius'', "son o [[Neptune (meethologie)|Neptune]]".<ref name="eck 22">Eck (2003), 22.</ref> A temporar peace greement wis reached in 39&nbsp;BC wi the [[treaty o Misenum]]; the blockade on Italy wis liftit ance Octavian grantit Pompeius Sardinie, [[Corsicae]], Sicily, an the [[Peloponnese]], an ensured him a futur poseetion as consul for 35&nbsp;BC.<ref name="ccaa 19" /><ref name="eck 22" /> The territorial greement atween the triumvirate an Sextus Pompeius began tae crummle ance Octavian divorced Scribonia an mairied Livia on 17 Januar 38&nbsp;BC.<ref name="eck 23">Eck (2003), 23.</ref> Ane o Pompeius' naval commanders betrayed him an haundit ower Corsicae an Sardinie tae Octavian. Octavian lacked the resoorces tae confront Pompeius alane, houiver, sae a greement wis reached wi the Seicont Triumvirate's extension for anither five-year period beginnin in 37&nbsp;BC.<ref name="Scullard 1982 163"/><ref name="eck 24">Eck (2003), 24.</ref> In supportin Octavian, Antony expectit tae gain support for his awn campaign against Parthie, desirin tae avenge Roum's [[Battle o Carrhae|defeat at Carrhae]] in 53&nbsp;BC.<ref name="eck 24" /> In an agreement reached at [[Taranto|Tarentum]], Antony providit 120 ships for Octavian tae uise against Pompeius, while Octavian wis tae send 20,000 [[legionar]]s tae Antony for uise against Parthia.<ref name="eck 25">Eck (2003), 25.</ref> Octavian sent anerly a tent o thae promised, houiver, that Antony viewed as an intentional provocation.<ref name="eck 25" /> Octavian an Lepidus launched a jynt operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36&nbsp;BC.<ref name="eck 25 26">Eck (2003), 25–26.</ref> Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet o Sextus Pompeius wis awmaist entirely destroyed on 3 September bi general Agrippa at the naval [[Battle o Naulochus]].<ref name="eck 26" /> Sextus fled tae the east wi his remeenin forces, whaur he wis capturt an executit in [[Miletus]] bi ane o Antony's generals the follaein year.<ref name="eck 26">Eck (2003), 26.</ref> As Lepidus an Octavian acceptit the surrender o Pompeius' truips, Lepidus attemptit tae claim Sicily for himsel, orderin Octavian tae leave.<ref name="eck 26" /> Lepidus' truips deserted him, houiver, an defectit tae Octavian syne thay war weary o fechtin an war enticed bi Octavian's promises o siller.<ref name="eck 26" /> Lepidus surrendered tae Octavian an wis permittit tae retain the office o ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]'' (heid o the college o priests), but wis ejectit frae the Triumvirate, his public career at an end, an effectively wis exiled tae a [[villa]] at Cape Circei in Italy.<ref name="Scullard 1982 164"/><ref name="eck 26" /> The Roman domeenions war nou dividit atween Octavian in the Wast an Antony in the East. Octavian ensured Roum's ceetizens o thair richts tae property in order tae maintain peace an stability in his portion o the Empire. This time, he settled his dischairged sodgers ootside o Italy, while an aa returnin 30,000 sclaves tae thair umwhile Roman awners—sclaves wha haed fled tae jyne Pompeius' airmy an navy.<ref name="eck 26 27">Eck (2003), 26–27.</ref> Octavian haed the Senate grant him, his wife, an his sister [[tribune o the plebs|tribunal]] [[Sovereign immunity|immunity]], or ''[[sacrosanct]]itas'', in order tae ensure his awn sauftie an that o Livia an Octavia ance he returned tae Roum.<ref name="eck 27 28">Eck (2003), 27–28.</ref> ==== War wi Antony ==== {{Main article|Feenal War o the Roman Republic}} [[File:Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema - The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra.jpg|thumb|''Anthony and Cleopatra'', bi [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]]] Meanwhile, Antony's campaign turned disastrous against Parthia, tairnishin his eemage as a leader, an the mere 2,000 legionars sent bi Octavian tae Antony war hardly eneuch tae replenish his forces.<ref name="eck 29">Eck (2003), 29.</ref> On the ither haund, Cleopatra coud restore his airmy tae full strenth; he awreidy wis engaged in a romantic affair wi her, sae he decidit tae send Octavia back tae Roum.<ref name="eck 29 30">Eck (2003), 29–30.</ref> Octavian uised this tae spreid [[propaganda]] implyin that Antony wis acomin less nor Roman acause he rejectit a legitimate Roman spoose for an "Oriental [[Intimate relationship|paramour]]".<ref name="eck 30">Eck (2003), 30.</ref> In 36&nbsp;BC, Octavian uised a poleetical ploy tae mak himsel leuk less autocratic an Antony mair the villain bi proclaimin that the ceevil wars war comin tae an end, an that he wad step doun as triumvir—if anerly Antony wad dae the same. Antony refuised.<ref name="ccaa 20">Eder (2005), 20.</ref> Roman truips capturt the [[Kinrick o Armenie (antiquity)|Kinrick o Armenie]] in 34&nbsp;BC, an Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler o Armenie. He an aa awairdit the teetle "Queen o Keengs" tae Cleopatra, acts that Octavian uised tae convince the Roman Senate that Antony haed ambeetions tae diminish the preeminence o Roum.<ref name="eck 30" /> Octavian becam consul ance again on 1 Januar 33&nbsp;BC, an he opened the follaein session in the Senate wi a vehement attack on Antony's grants o teetles an territories tae his relatives an tae his queen.<ref name="eck 31">Eck (2003), 31.</ref> The breach atween Antony an Octavian promptit a lairge portion o the Senators, as well as baith o that year's consuls, tae leave Roum an defect tae Antony. Houiver, Octavian received twa key deserters frae Antony in the hairst o 32&nbsp;BC: Munatius Plancus an Marcus Titius.<ref name="eck 32 34">Eck (2003), 32–34.</ref> Thir defectors gae Octavian the information that he needit tae confirm wi the Senate aw the accusations that he made against Antony.<ref name="eck 34">Eck (2003), 34.</ref> Octavian forcibly entered the [[Temple o Vesta|temple o the Vestal Virgins]] an seized Antony's secret will, that he promptly publicised. The will wad hae gien awey Roman-conquered territories as kinricks for his sons tae rule, an designatit [[Alexandria]] as the steid for a tomb for him an his queen.<ref name="eck 34 35">Eck (2003), 34–35</ref><ref name="ccaa 21 22">Eder (2005), 21–22.</ref> In late 32&nbsp;BC, the Senate offeecially revoked Antony's pouers as consul an declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egyp.<ref name="eck 35">Eck (2003), 35.</ref><ref name="ccaa 22">Eder (2005), 22.</ref> [[File:Castro Battle of Actium.jpg|thumb|''The [[Battle o Actium]]'', bi [[Laureys a Castro]], pentit 1672, Naitional Maritime Museum, Lunnon]] In early 31&nbsp;BC, Antony an Cleopatra war temporarily stationed in Greece whan Octavian gained a preliminar veectory: the navy successfully ferried truips athort the [[Adriatic Sea]] unner the command o Agrippa.<ref name="eck 37">Eck (2003), 37.</ref> Agrippa cut off Antony an Cleopatra's main force frae thair supply routes at sea, while Octavian laundit on the mainland opposite the island o Corcyra (modren [[Corfu]]) an mairched sooth.<ref name="eck 37" /> Trapped on land an sea, deserters o Antony's airmy fled tae Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces war comfortable eneuch tae mak preparations.<ref name="eck 37" /> Antony's fleet sailed throu the bay o [[Actium]] on the wastren coast o Greece in a desperate attempt tae brak free o the [[Blockade|naval blockade]]. It wis thare that Antony's fleet faced the muckle lairger fleet o smawer, mair maneuverable ships unner commanders Agrippa an [[Gaius Sosius]] in the battle o Actium on 2 September 31&nbsp;BC.<ref name="eck 38">Eck (2003), 38.</ref> Antony an his remeenin forces war spared anerly due tae a last-ditch effort bi Cleopatra's fleet that haed been waitin nearbi.<ref name="eck 38 39">Eck (2003), 38–39.</ref> Octavian pursued them an defeatit thair forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30&nbsp;BC—efter that Antony an Cleopatra committit suicide. Antony fell on his awn swuird an wis taken bi his sodgers back tae Alexandria whaur he dee'd in Cleopatra's airms. Cleopatra dee'd suin efter, reputitly bi the venomous bite o an [[asp (reptile)|asp]] or bi pushion.<ref name="eck 39">Eck (2003), 39.</ref> Octavian haed exploitit his poseetion as Caesar's heir tae further his awn poleetical career, an he wis well awaur o the dangers in allouin anither person tae dae sae the same. He, tharefore, follaed the advice o [[Arius Didymus]] that "twa Caesars are ane ower mony", orderin Caesarion tae be killed (Julius Caesar's son bi Cleopatra), while sparin Cleopatra's childer bi Antony, wi the exception o Antony's [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus|aulder son]].<ref>Green (1990), 697.</ref><ref>Scullard (1982), 171.</ref> Octavian haed previously shawn little mercy tae surrendered enemies an actit in weys that haed pruiven unpopular wi the Roman fowk, yet he wis gien credit for pairdonin mony o his opponents efter the Battle o Actium.<ref name = "eck 49" /> == Cheenge tae Augustus == [[File:Octavian aureus circa 30 BCE.jpg|thumb|[[Aureus]] o Octavian, circa 30&nbsp;BC, [[Breetish Museum]]]] Efter Actium an the defeat o Antony an Cleopatra, Octavian wis in a poseetion tae rule the entire Republic unner an unoffeecial [[principate]]<ref name="ccaa 34 35">Gruen (2005), 34–35.</ref>—but he haed tae achieve this throu incremental pouer gains. He did sae bi coortin the Senate an the fowk while uphaudin the republican tradeetions o Roum, appearin that he wis nae aspirin tae dictatorship or monarchy.<ref name="ccaa 24 25" /><ref name="ccaa 38 39" /> Mairchin intae Rome, Octavian an [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Marcus Agrippa]] war electit as dual [[Roman consul|consuls]] bi the Senate.<ref name = "eck 45" /> Years o ceevil war haed left Roum in a state o near lawlessness, but the Republic wis nae prepared tae accept the control o Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian coud nae semply gie up his authority withoot riskin forder ceevil wars amang the Roman generals an, even if he desired na poseetion o authority whitsaeiver, his poseetion demandit that he leuk tae the well-bein o the ceety o Roum an the [[Roman province]]s. Octavian's aims frae this pynt forwart war tae return Roum tae a state o stability, tradeetional legality, an ceevility bi liftin the overt poleetical pressur imposed on the coorts o law an ensurin free elections—in name at least.<ref name="eck 44 45">Eck (2003), 44–45.</ref> === First settlement === [[File:Caesar augustus.jpg|thumb|upright|Augustus as a magistrate. The statue's marble heid wis made c. 30–20&nbsp;BC, the bouk sculptit in the 2nt century AD ([[Musée du Louvre|Louvre]], [[Paris]]).]] In 27 BC, Octavian made a shaw o returnin full pouer tae the Roman Senate an relinquishin his control o the Roman provinces an thair armies.<ref name="eck 45" /> Unner his consulship, houiver, the Senate haed little pouer in ineetiatin legislation bi introducin [[Bill (proponed law)|bills]] for senatorial debate.<ref name="eck 45">Eck (2003), 45.</ref> Octavian wis na langer in direct control o the provinces an thair airmies, but he retained the lealty o active duty sodgers an veterans alik.<ref name="eck 45" /> The careers o mony clients an adherents dependit on his patronage, as his financial pouer wis unrivaled in the Roman Republic.<ref name="eck 45" /> The Senate proponed tae Octavian, the veector o Roum's ceevil wars, that he ance again assume command o the provinces. The Senate's proponal wis a ratification o Octavian's extra-constitutional pouer. Throu the Senate, Octavian wis able tae conteena the appearance o a still-functional [[constitution o the Roman Republic|constitution]]. Feingin reluctance, he acceptit a ten-year responsibility o owerseein provinces that war conseedert chaotic.<ref name="eck 46">Eck (2003), 46.</ref><ref>Scullard (1982), 210.</ref> The provinces cedit tae him for that ten-year period comprised muckle o the conquered Roman warld, includin aw o Hispanie an Gaul, [[Sirie (Roman province)|Sirie]], [[Cilicia]], [[Cyprus]], an [[Ægyptus|Egyp]].<ref name="eck 46" /><ref name="ccaa 34">Gruen (2005), 34.</ref> Mairower, command o thir provinces providit Octavian wi control oeer the majority o Roum's legions.<ref name="ccaa 34" /><ref name="eck 47">Eck (2003), 47.</ref> The Senate still controlled North Africae, an important regional [[Roman agricultur|producer o grain]], as well as [[Illyrie]] an Macedonie, twa maortially strategic regions wi several legions.<ref name="ccaa 24">Eder (2005), 24.</ref> Houiver, the Senate haed control o anerly five or sax legions distributit amang three senatorial proconsuls, compared tae the twinty legions unner the control o Augustus, an thair control o thir regions did nae amount tae ony poleetical or militar challenge tae Octavian.<ref name="ccaa 24 25">CCAA, 24–25.</ref><ref name = "Scullard_p211">Scullard (1982), 211.</ref> On 16 Januar 27&nbsp;BC the Senate gae Octavian the new teetles o ''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]'' an ''[[Princeps]]''.<ref name="eck 50">Eck (2003), 50.</ref> ''Augustus'' is frae the Laitin wird ''Augere'' (meanin tae increase) an can be translatit as "the illustrious ane".<ref name="eck 49">Eck (2003), 49.</ref> It wis a teetle o releegious authority raither nor poleetical authority.<ref name="eck 49" /> Accordin tae Roman releegious beliefs, the teetle symbolised a stamp o authority ower humanity—an in fact naitur—that went ayont ony constitutional defineetion o his status. efter the hersh methods employed in consolidatin his control, the cheenge in name served tae demarcate his benign ring as Augustus frae his ring o terror as Octavian. His new teetle o Augustus wis an aa mair favourable than ''Romulus'', the previous ane that he styled for himsel in reference tae the story o [[Romulus|the legendary foonder o Roum]], that seembolised a seucont foonding o Roum.<ref name="eck 49" /> The teetle o ''Romulus'' wis associatit too strangly wi notions o monarchy an keengship, an eemage that Octavian tried tae avoid.<ref name="eck 149">Eck (2003), 149</ref> ''Princeps'' comes frae the Laitin phrase ''primum caput'', "the first heid", oreeginally meanin the auldest or maist distinguished senator whase name wad appear first on the senatorial [[Schedule (warkplace)|roster]]. In the case o Augustus, houiver, it becam an awmaist regnal teetle for a leader wha wis first in chairge.<ref>Eck (2003), 3, 149.</ref> ''Princeps'' haed an aa been a teetle unner the Republic for thae wha haed served the state well; for ensaumple, Pompey haed held the teetle. === Seicont settlement === [[File:Roman - Portrait of Emperor Augustus - Walters 2321.jpg|thumb|right|Portraits o Augustus shaw the emperor wi idealised featurs]] Bi 23&nbsp;BC, some o the un-Republican implications war acomin apparent concernin the dounset o 27&nbsp;BC. Augustus' retention o an annual consulate drew attention tae his ''de facto'' dominance ower the Roman poleetical seestem, an cut in hauf the opportunities for ithers tae achieve whit wis still nominally the preeminent poseetion in the Roman state.<ref>Wells, p. 51</ref> Forder, he wis causin poleetical problems bi desirin tae hae his neffae [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcus Claudius Marcellus]] follae in his fitsteps an eventually assume the Principate in his turn,<ref group="note">If the testimony o [[Marcus Primus]] can be believed, whaur in his trial for illegally launchin a war in Thrace, he assertit that he actit on the orders o Marcellus an Augustus&nbsp;– see Southern, p. 108 an Eck (2003), p. 55</ref> alienatin his three greatest supporters&nbsp;– Agrippa, [[Maecenas]], an Livia.<ref>Holland, p. 294</ref> Feelin pressur frae his core group o adherents, Augustus turned tae the Senate for help. He appyntit notit Republican [[Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso (consul 23 BC)|Calpurnius Piso]] as co-consul in 23&nbsp;BC, efter his chyce [[Aulus Terentius Varro Murena]] (wha haed focht against Julius Caesar an supportit Cassius an Brutus<ref name="Davies, p. 259">Davies, p. 259</ref>) wis executit in consequence o his involvement in the Marcus Primus affair,<ref>Ando, p. 140; Raaflaub, p. 426; Wells, p. 53</ref> wi an ee tae bolsterin his support amang the Republicans. In the late ware Augustus suffered a severe illness, an on his supposed daithbed made arrangements that wad ensur the conteenuation o the Principate in some form,<ref>Southern, p. 108; Holland, p. 295</ref> while allayin senators' suspicions o his anti-republicanism.<ref name="ccaa 25">Eder (2005), 25.</ref><ref name="eck 56">Eck (2003), 56.</ref> Augustus prepared tae haund doun his [[Seal (device)#Signet raings|signet raing]] tae his favoured general Agrippa.<ref name="ccaa 25" /><ref name="eck 56" /> Houever, Augustus haunit ower tae his co-consul Piso aw o his offeecial documents, an accoont o public finances, an authority ower leetit truips in the provinces while Augustus' supposedly favoured neffae Marcellus cam awey emptie-haundit.<ref name="ccaa 25" /><ref name="eck 56" /> This wis a surpreese tae mony wha believed Augustus wad hae named an heir tae his poseetion as an unoffeecial emperor.<ref name="ccaa 38">Gruen (2005), 38.</ref> Augustus bestowed anerly properties an possessions tae his designatit heirs, as an obvious seestem o institutionalised imperial heirship wad hae provoked resistance an hostility amang the republican-myndit Romans fearfu o monarchy.<ref name="ccaa 38 39">Gruen (2005), 38–39.</ref> Wi regairds tae the Principate, it wis obvious tae Augustus that Marcellus wis nae ready tae tak on his poseetion;<ref name="Stern, Gaius p. 23">Stern, Gaius, ''Women, children, and senators on the Ara Pacis Augustae: A study of Augustus' vision of a new world order in 13 BC'', p. 23</ref> nonetheless, bi giein his signet raing tae Agrippa, Augustus intendit tae seegnal tae the legions that Agrippa wis tae be his successor, an that constitutional procedure naewistaundin, thay shoud conteena tae obey Agrippa.<ref>Holland, pp. 294–95; Southern, p. 108</ref> [[File:Cameo August BM Gem3577.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Blacas Cameo]] shawin Augustus weirin a ''[[gorgoneion]]'' on a three layered [[sardonyx]] cameo, AD 20–50]] Suin efter his bout o illness subsidit, Augustus gae up his consulship.<ref name="eck 56" /> The anerly ither times Augustus wad serve as consul wad be in the years 5 an 2&nbsp;BC,<ref name="eck 56" /><ref name="ccaa 26">Eder (2005), 26.</ref> baith times tae introduce his grandsons intae public life.<ref name="Davies, p. 259" /> This wis a clever ploy bi Augustus; ceasin tae serve as ane o twa annually electit consuls alloued aspirin senators a better chance tae attain the consular poseetion, while allouin Augustus tae exercise wider patronage within the senatorial cless.<ref name="ccaa 36">Gruen (2005), 36.</ref> Awtho Augustus haed resigned as consul, he desired tae retain his consular ''[[imperium]]'' nae juist in his provinces but ootthrou the empire. This desire, as well as the Marcus Primus Affair, led tae a seicont compromise atween him an the Senate kent as the Seicont Settlement.<ref name="eck 57">Eck (2003), 57.</ref> == War an expansion == Bi the end o his ring, the airmies o Augustus haed conquered northren Hispanie (modren Spain an Portugal)<ref name="eck 94">Eck (2003), 94.</ref> an the [[Alps|Alpine]] regions o [[Raetia]] an [[Noricum]] (modren Swisserland, Bavarie, Austrick, Slovenie),<ref name="eck 94" /> [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] an [[Pannonia]] (modren Albanie, Croatie, Hungary, Serbie, etc.),<ref name="eck 94" /> an haed extendit the mairches o the [[Africae Province]] tae the east an sooth.<ref name="eck 94" /> Conquerin the fowks o the Alps in 16&nbsp;BC wis anither important veectory for Roum, syne it providit a lairge territorial buffer atween the Roman ceetizens o Italy an Roum's enemies in Germania tae the north.<ref name="eck 98">Eck (2003), 98.</ref> ==Daith an succession== Augustus' heal haed been in decline in the months immediately afore his daith, an he haed made signeeficant preparations for a smuith transeetion in pouer, haein at last reluctantly settled on Tiberius as his chyce o heir.<ref name="eck 123">Eck (2003), 123.</ref> On 19 August AD 14, Augustus dee'd while veesitin [[Nola]] whaur his faither haed dee'd. Baith Tacitus an Cassius Dio wrote that Livia wis rumoured tae hae brocht aboot Augustus' daith bi pushionin fresh figs.<ref>Tacitus ''Annals'' 1.5</ref><ref>Cassius Dio 55.22.2; 56.30</ref> Sicweys, Tiberius teuk the teetle o Roman Emperor. ==Fitmerks== <references group="note"/> ==References== {{reflist|30em}} === Bibliografie === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite book | last=Allen | first=William Sidney | year=1978 | origyear=1965 | title=Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin | url=https://archive.org/details/voxlatinaguideto0000alle_g6w2 | edition=2nd | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-37936-9 | ref={{harvid|Allen|1965}}}} * [[Clifford Ando|Ando, Clifford]], ''Imperial ideology and provincial loyalty in the Roman Empire'', Varsity of Californie Press, 2000. * Bivar, A. D. H. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids", in ''The Cambridge History of Iran'' (Vol 3:1), 21–99. Edited bi Ehsan Yarshater. Lunnon, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, an Sydney: Cambridge Varsity Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-20092-9}}. * Blackburn, Bonnie an Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (1999). ''The Oxford Companion to the Year''. Oxford Varsity Press. Reprinted wi corrections 2003. * Bourne, Ella. "Augustus as a Letter-Writer", ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'' (Volume 49, 1918): 53–66. * {{cite book |last=Bowersock |first=G. W. |editor=Kurt A. Raaflaub and Mark Toher (eds.) |title=Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his Principate |year=1990 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-08447-6 |pages=380–94 |chapter=The Pontificate of Augustus }} * Brosius, Maria. (2006). ''The Persians: An Introduction''. Lunnon & New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-32089-4}} (hbk). * Bunson, Matthew. (1994). ''[[Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire]]''. New York: Facts on File Inc. {{ISBN|978-0-8160-3182-5}} * Chisholm, Kitty an John Ferguson. (1981). ''Rome: The Augustan Age; A Source Book''. Oxford: Oxford Varsity Press, in association wi the Open Varsity Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-872108-6}} * [[Cassius Dio|Dio, Cassius]]. (1987) ''The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus''. Translated bi Ian Scott-Kilvert. Lunnon: Penguin Beuks. {{ISBN|978-0-14-044448-3}}. * Davies, Mark; Swain, Hilary; Davies, Mark Everson, ''Aspects of Roman history, 82 BC-AD 14: a source-based approach'', Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010. * [[Werner Eck|Eck, Werner]]; translated bi Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material bi Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) ''The Age of Augustus''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (hardcover, {{ISBN|978-0-631-22957-5}}; paperback, {{ISBN|978-0-631-22958-2}}). * Eder, Walter. (2005). "Augustus and the Power of Tradition", in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World)'', ed. Karl Galinsky, 13–32. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge Varsity Press (hardcover, {{ISBN|978-0-521-80796-8}}; paperback, {{ISBN|978-0-521-00393-3}}). * Everitt, Anthony (2006) ''Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor''. Random House Beuks. {{ISBN|1-4000-6128-8}}. * {{cite book |last=Green |first=Peter |title=Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree |series=Hellenistic Culture and Society |year=1990 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA; Los Angeles; London |isbn=0-520-05611-6}} * Gruen, Erich S. (2005). "Augustus and the Making of the Principate", in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World)'', ed. Karl Galinsky, 33–51. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge Varsity Press (hardcover, {{ISBN|978-0-521-80796-8}}; paperback, {{ISBN|978-0-521-00393-3}}). * Holland, Richard, ''Augustus, Godfather of Europe'', Sutton Publishing, 2005. * Kelsall, Malcolm. "Augustus and Pope", ''The Huntington Library Quarterly'' (Volume 39, Number 2, 1976): 117–131. * {{cite book|title=Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientromemilit0000mack|last=Mackay|first=Christopher S.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-521-80918-4}} * Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Toher, Mark, ''Between republic and empire: interpretations of Augustus and his principate'', Varsity of Californie Press, 1993. * Rowell, Henry Thompson. (1962). ''The Centers of Civilization Series: Volume 5; Rome in the Augustan Age''. Norman: Varsity of Oklahoma Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8061-0956-5}} * Scott, Kenneth. "The Political Propaganda of 44–30 B.C." ''Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome'', Vol. 11, (1933), pp.&nbsp;7–49. * {{cite book |last=Scullard |first=H. H. |title=From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133&nbsp;B.C. to A.D. 68 |url=https://archive.org/details/fromgracchitoner00scul |edition=5th |origyear=1959 |year=1982 |publisher=Routledge |location=London; New York|isbn=978-0-415-02527-0}} * {{cite book|last=Suetonius|first=Gaius Tranquillus|authorlink=Suetonius|editor-last = Thayer| editor-first = Bill|others = J. C. Rolfe, trans.|title=The Lives of the Twelve Caesars |date=2013 |origyear=1913 |publisher = University of Chicago| url = http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html| ref=harv}} Original publisher Loeb Classical Library. * {{cite book|last=Suetonius|first=Gaius Tranquillus|authorlink=Suetonius|title=[[The Twelve Caesars|Lives of the Twelve Caesars]]|year=1931|publisher=Modern Library|location=New York}} * Shaw-Smith, R. "A Letter from Augustus to Tiberius", ''Greece & Rome'' (Volume 18, Number 2, 1971): 213–214. * Shotter, D. C. A. "Tiberius and the Spirit of Augustus", ''Greece & Rome'' (Volume 13, Number 2, 1966): 207–212. * Smith, R. R. R., "The Public Image of Licinius I: Portrait Sculpture and Imperial Ideology in the Early Fourth Century", ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 87, (1997), pp.&nbsp;170–202, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/301374 JSTOR] * Southern, Pat. (1998). ''Augustus''. Lunnon: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-16631-7}}. * Starr, Chester G., Jr. "The Perfect Democracy of the Roman Empire", ''The American Historical Review'' (Volume 58, Number 1, 1952): 1–16. * {{cite book |last=Syme |first=Ronald |authorlink=Ronald Syme |title=The Roman Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.73667 |year=1939 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-280320-4 }} * Walker, Susan, an Burnett, Andrew, ''The Image of Augustus'', 1981, Breetish Museum Publications, {{ISBN|0-7141-1270-4}} * Wells, Colin Michael, ''The Roman Empire'', Harvard Varsity Press, 2004. {{refend}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Augustus| ]] [[Category:Chairacters in Beuk VI o the Aeneid]] [[Category:Deified Roman emperors]] [[Category:Foondin monarchs]] [[Category:Imperial Roman consuls]] [[Category:Julii|Caesar Octavianus, Gaius]] [[Category:Julio-Claudian dynasty]] [[Category:Octavii]] [[Category:Fowk in the canonical gospels]] [[Category:Fowk frae Roum]] [[Category:Pontifices Maximi o the Roman Empire]] [[Category:63 BC births]] [[Category:14 daiths]] [[Category:1st-century BC Romans]] [[Category:1st-century BC clergy]] [[Category:1st-century clergy]] [[Category:1st-century Roman emperors]] [[Category:Buirials at the Mausoleum o Augustus]] hwd22ghdld0xtfm5meqf4v45arr4vgr 0 40628 918743 918158 2026-06-24T23:36:29Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 918743 wikitext text/x-wiki '''`Afrin''' ({{lang-ar|عفرين}} / [[ALA-LC]]: ''‘Afrīn'') is a [[Sirie]] [[destrict]] ([[mantiqah]]) admeenistratively belangin tae [[Aleppo Governorate]]. At the 2004 census, it haed a population o 172,095. Its [[caipital ceety|admeenistrative centre]] is the ceety o [[Afrin, Sirie|`Afrin]]. ==Diveesions== The destrict o `Afrin is dividit intae seiven sub-destricts or [[Nahiya|Nāḥiyas]] (population accordin tae 2004 offeecial census): *[[Afrin, Sirie|`Afrin]] nahiyah (ناحية عفرين): population 66,188.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-15-2004.htm |title=Afrin nahiyah population |access-date=2012-10-26 |archive-date=2017-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012113837/https://archive.is/20120730224244/http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-15-2004.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> *[[Bulbul, Sirie|Bulbul]] nahiyah (ناحية بلبل): population 12,573.<ref>[http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-16-2004.htm Bulbul nahiyah population]{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> *[[Jindires]] nahiyah (ناحية جنديرس): population 32,947.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-17-2004.htm |title=Jindires nahiyah population |access-date=2012-10-26 |archive-date=2020-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805130442/http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-17-2004.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> *[[Rajo, Sirie|Rajo]] nahiyah (ناحية راجو): population 21,955.<ref>[http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-18-2004.htm Rajo nahiyah population]{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> *[[Sharran]] nahiyah nahiyah (ناحية شرّان): population 13,632.<ref>[http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-19-2004.htm Sharran nahiyah population] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130112145026/http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-19-2004.htm |date=2013-01-12 }}</ref> *[[Shaykh al-Hadid]] nahiyah (ناحية شيخ الحديد): population 13,871.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-20-2004.htm |title=Sheikh al-Hadid nahiyah population |access-date=2012-10-26 |archive-date=2020-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805132504/http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-20-2004.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> *[[Maabatli]] nahiyah (ناحية معبطلي): population 11,741.<ref>[http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB02-21-2004.htm Ma'batli nahiyah population]{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {{Aleppo Govrenorate|afrin}} [[Category:Afrin Destrict]] s0mjcqtbwfkw99vjsa441syb3sagrqr 0 41941 918716 917731 2026-06-24T23:19:44Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918716 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots}} {{short descreeption|Big cat o the family Felidae}} {{Speciesbox | name = Lion | fossil_range = {{fossil range|Pleistocene|Present}} | image = Lion waiting in Namibia.jpg <!-----Please do not replace these featured images without a consensus----> | image_caption = Male lion in [[Okonjima]], [[Namibie]] | image2 = Okonjima Lioness.jpg | image2_caption = Female (lioness) in Okonjima | status = VU | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn |journal=[[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] |publisher=[[IUCN]] |author=Bauer, H. |author2=Packer, C. |author3=Funston, P. F. |author4=Henschel, P. |author5=Nowell, K. |year=2016 |volume=2016 |title=''Panthera leo'' |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T15951A107265605.en |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15951/115130419}}</ref> | taxon = Panthera leo<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Carnivora |id=14000228 |page=546 |heading=''Panthera leo''}}</ref> | authority=([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10t edeetion o Systema Naturae|1758]])<ref name="Linn1758" /> | subdivision_ranks = [[Subspeshies]] | subdivision = :''[[Panthera leo leo|P. l. leo]]'' :''[[Panthera leo melanochaita|P. l. melanochaita]]'' :{{dagger}}''[[Sri Lanka lion|P. l. sinhaleyus]]'' | range_map = Lion distribution.png | range_map_caption = Historical an present distribution o ''Panthera leo'' in [[Africae]], [[Asie]] an [[Europe]] }} [[File:Lion Cubs Phinda 2011.ogv|thumb|right]] The '''lion''' (''Panthera leo'') is ane o the five big cat species in the [[genus]] ''[[Panthera]]'' an a memmer o the faimily [[Felidae]]. Wi some males ootdingin {{convert|250|kg|abbr=on}} in wicht,<ref name="nowak">{{Cite book|last=Nowak |first= Ronald M. |year=1999 |title=Walker's Mammals of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0001nowa |location=Baltimore |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=0-8018-5789-9}}</ref> it is the second mucklest livin cat efter the [[tiger]]. Thir days, thare wild lions in [[sub-Saharan Africae]] an in [[Asie]], wi an [[endangered]] remnant population in [[Gir Wid Naitional Pairk]] in [[Indie]], haein disappeart frae [[North Africae]] an [[Soothwast Asie]] in heestoric times. Till the late [[Pleistocene]], aboot 10,000&nbsp;year syne, the lion wis the maist widespreid muckle laund mammal efter humans. Thay wur foond in maist o Africae, athort Eurasie frae wastren Europe tae Indie, an in the Americas frae the [[Yukon]] tae [[Peru]].<ref name="Harington69">{{cite journal|last=Harington |first=C. R. (Dick) |year=1969 |title=Pleistocene remains of the lion-like cat (''Panthera atrox'') from the Yukon Territory and northern Alaska |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-earth-sciences_1969-10_6_5/page/1277 |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=1277–88|doi=10.1139/e69-127}}</ref> The lion is a [[vulnerable species]], haein seen a major population decline o 30–50% ower the past seicont hauf o the 20t century.<ref name="IUCN" /> Lion populàtions is untenable ootwi designate reserves an naitional pairks. Awbesit the decline's cause isnae fou unnerstuid, habitat loss an conflicts wi humans is the greatest causes o concern thir days. Athin Africae, the [[Wast African lion]] populàtion is pairtìcular endangert. Lions lives fur 10–14 year in the wild, awbesit in captivity thay can be livin mair nor 20 year. In the wild, males seendle lives langer than 10 years, as injuries sustained frae continual fechtin wi rival males greatly reduce thair longevity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smuts |first=G. L. |year=1982 |title=Lion|publisher=Macmillan South Africa |location=Johannesburg |page=231|isbn= 0-86954-122-6}}</ref> Thay teepically inhabit [[savanna]] an [[grassland]], awbesit thay mey tak tae [[Shrub|bush]] an [[wid]]. Lions is unuisually [[social animal|social]] compared wi ither cats. A lion pride consists o sib females an affspring an a smaw nummer o adult males. Groups o female lions teepically hunt thegither, preying maistly on lairge [[ungulate]]s. Lions is [[apex predator|apex]] an [[keystone species#Predators|keystone predators]], awbesit thay are forby expert [[scavengers]] obteenin ower 50 percent o thair fuid bi scavengin as opportunity allows. While lions dae nae teepically hunt humans, some hae been kent tae dae sae. Sleeping mainly during the day, lions are primarily [[nocturnality|nocturnal]], awbesit bordering on [[crepuscular]] in naitur.<ref name="earthtouch">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120420172909/http://www.earth-touch.com/result.php?i=Lions-nocturnal-chorus Lions' nocturnal chorus]. Earth-touch.com. Retrieved on 31 July 2013.</ref><ref name="phxzoo">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120415054339/http://www.phoenixzoo.org/learn/animals/animal_detail.aspx?FACT_SHEET_ID=100001 African Lion ''Panthera leo'']. Phoenix Zoo Fact Sheet.</ref> Heichly distinctive, the male lion is easy recognised bi its mane, an its face is ane o the widest recognised ainimal seembols in human [[cultur]]. Depictions hae existit frae the [[Upper Paleolithic]] period, wi carvins an pentins frae the [[Lascaux]] an [[Chauvet Cave]]s, throu virtually aw auncient an medieval culturs whaur thay ance occurred. It haes been extensively depicted in sculpturs, in pentins, on naitional banners, an in contemporary films an leeteratur. Lions hae been kept in [[menagerie]]s syne the time o the [[Roman Empire]], an hae been a key species socht fur exhibeetion in [[zoo]]s ower the warld syne the late aichteent century. Zoos is cooperatin warldwide in breedin programs fur the endangered [[Asiatic lion|Asiatic subspecies]]. ==Etymology== The lion's name, seemilar in mony [[Romance leids]], is derived frae the [[Laitin]] ''{{lang|la|leo}}'',<ref>{{Cite book | last=Simpson |first=D. P. | title=Cassell's Latin Dictionary | publisher=Cassell Ltd. | year=1979 | edition=5th | location=London | page=342 | isbn=0-304-52257-0}}</ref> an the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|λέων}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|leon}}'').<ref name="Liddell 1980">{{Cite book | authorlink=Henry George Liddell |last=Liddell |first=Henry George |authorlink2=Robert Scott (philologist) |last2=Scott |first2=Robert | year=1980 | title=[[A Greek-English Lexicon]] (Abridged Edition)|page=[https://archive.org/details/lexicon00lidd/page/411 411] | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | location=United Kingdom | isbn=0-19-910207-4}}</ref> The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] wird {{lang|he|לָבִיא}} ({{lang|he-Latn|''lavi''}}) mey be sib an aw.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | title=Lion|encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary|editor=Simpson, John; Weiner, Edmund| year=1989 |edition= 2nd| location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press| isbn=0-19-861186-2}}</ref> It wis ane o the species oreeginally describit bi [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], wha gae it the name ''Felis leo'', in his aichteent-century wirk, ''[[Systema Naturae]]''.<ref name="Linn1758">{{Cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carolus |authorlink=Carl Linnaeus |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. |publisher=Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii) |year=1758 |page=41 |url=http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726936 |accessdate=8 September 2008 |language=Latin |volume=1 |edition=10th}}</ref> ==Characteristics== [[File:Lion and eland.jpg|thumb|right|A skeletal moont o an African Lion attackin a [[Common Eland]] on display at [[The Museum o Osteology]], [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma]]]] Ahind anerly the trrger, the lion is the seicont mucklemaist livin felid in lenth an wecht. Its harnpan is verra seemilar tae that o the teeger, awbesit the frontal region is uisually mair depressed an flattened, wi a slichtly shorter postorbital region. The lion's skull haes braider nasal appenins than the tiger, housamiver, due tae the amoont o skull variation in the twa species, uisually, anly the lawer jaw structur can be uised as a moleskin indicator o species.<ref name="USSR">{{Cite book | last = Heptner |first=V. G. |last2=Sludskii |first2=A. A.| title = Mammals of the Soviet Union, Volume II, Part 2 | year = 1992| isbn = 90-04-08876-8 | publisher = Brill | location = Leiden u.a.}}</ref> Lion colouration varies frae licht buff tae yellowish, reiddish, or dark ochraceous broun. The unnerpairts are generally lichter an the tail tuft is black. Lion cubs is born wi broun [[Rosette (zoology)|rosettes]] (spots) on thair body, rather lik thaim o a leopard. awbesit thir spots fade as lions reak adultheid, faint spots eften mey still be seen on the shanks an unnerpairts, parteecularly on lionesses. Lions is the anerly memmers o the cat faimily tae be displayin obvious [[sexual dimorphism]] – that is, males an females leuk distinctly different. Thay forby hae specialised roles that ilka gender plays in the pride. Fur instance, the lioness, the hunter, lacks the male's thick mane. The colour o the male's mane varies frae blond tae black, generally becomin darker as the lion grows aulder. The maist distinctive characteristic skared bi baith females an males is that the tail ends in a hairy tuft. In some lions, the tuft conceals a haurd "spine" or "spur", thareaboot 5&nbsp;mm lang, formed o the feenal sections o tail bane fused thegither. The lion is the anly felid tae hae a tufted tail – the function o the tuft an spine are unkent. Absent at birth, the tuft develops aroond 5½&nbsp;months o age an is readily identifiable at 7&nbsp;months.<ref name="Schaller28">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 28.</ref> Adult lion size varies athort thair range wi thaim frae the soothren African populations in Zimbabwe, the Kalahari an Kruger Pairk averagin aroond {{convert|189.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}} an {{convert|126.9|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in males an females respectively compared tae {{convert|174.9|kg|lb|abbr=on}} an {{convert|119.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} o male an female lions frae [[East Africae]].<ref name=Smuts_etal_1980>{{Cite journal |last=Smuts|first=G. L.|author2=Robinson, G.A.|author3=Whyte, I.J.|title=Comparative growth of wild male and female lions (Panthera leo)|journal=Journal of Zoology|year=1980|volume=190|issue=3|pages=365–373|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1980.tb01433.x/abstract|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1980.tb01433.x}}</ref> Reportit body measurements in males are heid-body lenths rangin frae {{convert|170|to|250|cm|ftin|abbr=on}}, tail lenths o {{convert|90|–|105|cm|ftin|abbr=on}}. In females reportit heid-body lenths range frae {{convert|140|to|175|cm|ftin|abbr=on}}, tail lenths o {{convert|70|–|100|cm|ftin|abbr=on}},<ref name="nowak"/> houiver, the aften citit maximum heid an body lenth o {{convert|250|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} fits rather tae extinct Pleistocene forms, lik the [[American lion]], wi even lairge modren lions meisurin several centimetres less in lenth.<ref>[[Vratislav Mazák|Mazák, Vratislav]] (April 2004) ''Der Tiger'', Westarp Wissenschaften, 5th ed., pp. 178 ff., ISBN 3-89432-759-6.</ref> Record measurements frae huntin records are supposedly a tot lenth o naur {{convert|3.6|m|ft|abbr=on}} for a male shot naur Mucsso, soothren [[Angolae]] in October 1973 an a wecht o {{convert|313|kg|lb|abbr=on}} for a male shot ootside [[Hectorspruit]] in eastren [[Transvaal Province|Transvaal]], [[Sooth Africae]] in 1936.<ref>Wood, The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Sterling Pub Co Inc (1983), ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9</ref> Anither notably outsized male lion, that wis shot naur [[Moont Kenyae]], wiched in at {{convert|272|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name=CAP>{{Cite book |last=Nowell |first=Kristin |last2=Jackson |first2=Peter |title= Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan|url=http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf |format=PDF |year=1996 |publisher=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group |location= Gland, Switzerland |isbn=2-8317-0045-0 |pages= 17–21, 37–41|chapter= Panthera Leo}}</ref> ===Mane=== [[File:HansomeLion 002.jpg|thumb|right|During agonistic confrontations wi ither lions, the mane maks the lion appear lairger.]] The adult male lion's mane, unique amang cats, is ane o the maist distinctive characteristics o the species. It mey provide an excellent intimidation display; aidin the lion durin confrontations wi ither lions.<ref> {{cite web | last=Trivedi | first=Bijal P. | title=Are Maneless Tsavo Lions Prone to Male Pattern Baldness? | publisher=National Geographic | year=2005 | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/04/0412_020412_TVtsavolions.html | accessdate=7 July 2007}}</ref> The presence, absence, colour, an size o the mane is associatit wi genetic precondeetion, sexual maturity, climate, an [[testosterone]] production; the rule o thumb is the darker an fouer the mane, the healthier the lion. Sexual selection o mates bi lionesses favors males wi the densest, darkest mane.<ref name="Trivedi02">{{cite web | last=Trivedi | first =Bijal P. | title=Female Lions Prefer Dark-Maned Males, Study Finds | work=National Geographic News | publisher=National Geographic | date=22 August 2002 | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0822_020822_TVlion.html| accessdate=1 September 2007}}</ref> Research in [[Tanzanie]] an aa suggests mane lenth signals fechtin success in male–male relationships. Darker-maned individuals mey hae langer reproductive lives an higher affspring survival, awbesit thay suffer in the hettest months o the year.<ref name=West>{{Cite journal |last=West |first=Peyton M. |author2=Packer, Craig |date=August 2002 |title=Sexual Selection, Temperature, and the Lion's Mane |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2002-08-23_297_5585/page/1338 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=297 |issue=5585 |pages= 1339–43 |doi=10.1126/science.1073257 |pmid=12193785}}</ref> [[File:Maneless lion from Tsavo East National Park.png|thumb|A maneless lion.]] Scientists ance believed that the distinct status o some subspecies coud be juistified bi [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]], includin the mane size. Morphology wis uised tae identifee subspecies lik the [[Barbary lion]] an [[Cape lion]]. Research haes suggestit, houiver, that environmental factors influences the colour an size o a lion's mane, lik the [[Ruim temperatur|ambient temperatur]].<ref name=West/> The cuiler ambient temperatur in European an North American [[zoo]]s, fur ensaumple, mey result in a hivier mane. Sicweys, the mane isnae an appropriate merker for identifyin subspecies.<ref name="CG">{{cite journal |last=Barnett |first=Ross |author2=Yamaguchi, Nobuyuki |author3=Barnes, Ian|author4=Cooper, Alan |date=August 2006 |title=Lost populations and preserving genetic diversity in the lion ''Panthera leo'': Implications for its ''ex situ'' conservation |journal=Conservation Genetics |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=507–14 |doi=10.1007/s10592-005-9062-0}}</ref><ref name="yamaguchi-haddane">{{cite journal |last=Yamaguchi |first=Nobuyuki |author2=Haddane, B. |year=2002 |title=The North African Barbary Lion and the Atlas Lion Project |journal=International Zoo News |volume=49 |pages=465–81}}</ref> The males o the Asiatic subspecies, housomiver, is characterised bi sparser manes nor average African lions.<ref name="Menon">{{cite book |last=Menon |first=Vivek |year=2003 |title=A Field Guide to Indian Mammals |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetoindi0000meno |location=Delhi |publisher=Dorling Kindersley India |isbn=0-14-302998-3| pages=}}</ref> In the [[Pendjari Naitional Pairk]] area, awmaist aw males is maneless or hae verra waik manes.<ref>Schoe, Marjolein; Sogbohossou, Etotépé A.; Kaandorp, Jacques and de Iongh, Hans (2010) ''Progress Report – collaring operation Pendjari Lion Project, Benin.'' Funded by the Dutch Zoo Conservation Fund.</ref> Maneless male lions haes forby been reportit frae [[Senegal]], frae Sudan ([[Dinder Naitional Pairk]]), an frae [[Tsavo East Naitional Pairk]] in Kenyae, an the oreeginal male white lion frae Timbavati wis maneless an aa. The testosterone hormone haes been linked tae mane growthe, therefore [[castration|castratit]] lions eften hae minimal tae no mane, as the removal o the gonads inhibits testosterone production.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Linda | last = Munson| date = 3 March 2006 | title = Contraception in felids | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_theriogenology_2006-07-01_66_1/page/126 | journal = Theriogenology| pmid = 16626799 | volume = 66 | issue = 1 | pages = 126–34 | doi = 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2006.03.06 }}</ref> [[Cave pentin]]s o extinct European [[Panthera leo spelaea|cave lion]]s awmaist exclusively shaw ainimals wi no manes, suggestin that thay war aither athoot manes,<ref name="Koenigswald02">{{cite book |last=Koenigswald |first=Wighart von |year=2002 |title=Lebendige Eiszeit: Klima und Tierwelt im Wandel |location=Stuttgart |publisher=Theiss |isbn=3-8062-1734-3| pages=|language=de}}</ref> or that the pentins depict lionesses as seen huntin in a group. ===White lions=== [[File:White Lion.jpg|thumb|right|[[White lion]]s owe thair colourin tae a recessive allele; thay are rare forms o the subspecies ''Panthera leo krugeri'']] The [[white lion]] is nae a distinct subspecies, but a special [[Polymorphism (biology)|morph]] wi a genetic condeetion, [[leucism]],<ref name = "zoos_encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Grisham | first= Jack | editor-first = Catherine E | editor-last = Bell |title=Lion |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the World's Zoos |volume=2: G–P |year=2001 | publisher = Fitzroy Dearborn |location=Chofago |isbn=1-57958-174-9 |pages=733–39}}</ref>> that causes paler colouration akin tae that o the [[white teeger]]; the condeetion is seemilar tae [[melanism]], that causes [[black panther]]s. Thay are nae albinos, haein normal pigmentation in the een an skin. White Transvaal lion (''Panthera leo krugeri'') individuals occasionally hae been encountered in an aroond [[Kruger Naitional Pairk]] an the adjacent [[Timbavati Private Game Reserve]] in eastren Sooth Africae, but are mair commonly foond in [[captivity (ainimal)|captivity]], whaur breeders deliberately select them. The unuisual cream colour o thair coats is due tae a [[recessive allele]].<ref>{{cite book |last=McBride |first=Chris |title=The White Lions of Timbavati |url=https://archive.org/details/whitelionsoftimb00mcbr |year=1977 |publisher=E. Stanton |location=Johannesburg |isbn= 0-949997-32-3 }}</ref> Reportedly, thay hae been bred in camps in South Africae fur uiss as trophies tae be killt during [[canned hunt]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tucker|first=Linda |title=Mystery of the White Lions—Children of the Sun God|year=2003 |publisher=Npenvu Press|location=Mapumulanga |isbn= 0-620-31409-5}}</ref> ==Behaviour== [[File:Panthera leo stretching (Etosha, 2012).jpg|thumbnail|left|Adult male lion stretching.]] Lions spends a feck o thair time restin an is inactive fur aboot 20&nbsp;oor per day.<ref name="Schaller122">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 122.</ref> awbesit lions can be active at ony time, thair activity generally peaks efter dusk wi a period o socialisin, gruimin, an defecatin. Intermittent bursts o activity follae throu the nicht oors till dawn, whan huntin maist eften taks place. Thay spend an average o twa oors a day walkin an 50&nbsp;minutes eatin.<ref name="Schaller120">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 120–21.</ref> ===Group organization=== [[File:pride leader.jpg|thumb|right|Twa lionesses an a matur male o a pride.]] [[File:Lions Family Portrait Masai Mara.jpg|thumb|right|Twa males an a female lion.]] Lions is the maist socially inclined o aw wild [[felid]]s, maist o thaim remainin quite solitar in naitur. The lion is a predatory [[carnivore]] wi twa teeps o social organisation. Some lions is ''indwallers,'' livin in groups centerin aroond relatit lionesses, cried ''prides''.<ref name="Schaller33">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 33.</ref> Females form the stable [[social unit]] in a pride an dinnae tolerate ootside females.<ref name="Schaller37">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 37.</ref> Membership anly chynges wi the births an daiths o lionesses,<ref name="Schaller39">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 39.</ref> awbesit some females dae leave an become nomadic.<ref name="Schaller44">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 44.</ref> awbesit extremely lairge prides, consistin o up tae 30 individuals, hae been observed, the average pride consists o five or sax females, thair cubs o baith sexes, an ane or twa males (kent as a ''coaleetion'' if mair nor ane) wha mate wi the adult females. The nummer o adult males in a coaleetion is uisually twa but mey increase tae as mony as fower afore decreasin again ower time.<ref name="Schaller44"/> The sole exception tae this pattern is the [[Tsavo lion]] pride that aye haes juist ane adult male.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Milius |first=Susan |date=April 2002 |title= Biology: Maneless lions live one guy per pride|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science-news-us_2002-04-20_161_16/page/253 |journal=Society for Science & the Public |volume=161 |issue=16 |pages=253 |doi=10.1002/scin.5591611614}}</ref> Male cubs are excluded frae thair maternal pride whan thay reach maturity at aroond 2–3 years o age.<ref name="Schaller44"/> The seicont organisational behaviour is labeled ''nomads'', wha range widely an muive aboot sporadically, aither singularly or in pairs.<ref name="Schaller33"/> Pairs is mair frequent amang sib males that haes been excludit frae thair birth pride. Note that a lion mey switch lifestyles; nomads mey become indwallers an vice versa. Males, as a rule, live at least some portion o thair lifes as nomads, an some can neir jyne anither pride. A female wha becomes a nomad haes a fair feck greater difficulty jynin a new pride, as the females in a pride is sib, an thay reject maist attempts bi an unrelated female tae jyne thair faimily group. The area a pride occupies is cried a ''pride area'', whauras that bi a nomad is a ''range''.<ref name="Schaller33"/> The males associated wi a pride tend tae stay on the fringes, patrollin thair [[Territory (ainimal)|territory]]. Why [[Social behaviour|sociality]] – the maist pronoonced in ony cat species – haes developed in lionesses is the subject o much debate. Increased huntin success appears an obvious reason, but this is less nor sure upon examination: coordinated huntin daes allou for mair successfu predation but an aa ensurs that non-huntin memmers reduce per capita calorific intake; housomiver, some tak a role raisin cubs, wha mey be left alane for extendit periods o time. Memmers o the pride regularly tend tae play the same role in hunts an hone thair skills. The heal o the hunters is the primary need for the survival o the pride, an thay are the first tae consume the prey at the site it is taen. Ither benefits include possible [[kin selection]] (better tae share fuid wi a relatit lion than wi a stranger), pertection o the young, maintenance o territory, an individual insurance against injury an hunger.<ref name=CAP/> [[File:Lion.ogv|thumb|right|Video o a wild lioness]] Lionesses dae maist o the huntin for thair pride. Thay are mair effective hunters, as thay are smawer, swither, an mair agile than the males an unencumbered bi the hivy an conspicuous mane, that causes owerheatin during exertion. Thay act as a coordinatit group wi members wha perform the same role consistently fur tae stalk an bring doun the prey sonsie-like. Smawer prey is eaten at the location o the hunt, tharebi bein shared amang the hunters; whan the kill is muckler it eften is dragged tae the pride area. Thare is mair sharin o muckler kills,<ref name="Schaller133">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 133.</ref> awbesit pride members aften behave aggressively toward ane anither as ilkane ettles at consumin sae muckle a hantle o fuid as possible. Naur the conclusion o the hunt, males hae a tendency tae dominate the kill ance the lionesses hae succeeded. Thay are mair lik tae share this wi the cubs as wi the lionesses, but males rarely share fuid thay hae killt bi thairsels. Baith males an females can defend the pride agin intruders, but the male lion is better-suitit for this purpose due tae its stockier, mair powerful big.<ref>[http://www.lionconservationfund.org/lion_adopt.html Join the Pride]. Lion Conservation Fund. Retrieved on 31 July 2013.</ref> Some individuals consistently lead the defence against intruders, while ithers lag behind.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heinsohn|first= R. |author2=C. Packer |year=1995 |title=Complex cooperative strategies in group-territorial African lions |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-09-01_269_5228/page/1260|journal=Science |volume=269 |issue=5228 |pages=1260–62 |doi=10.1126/science.7652573 |pmid=7652573}}</ref> Lions tend tae assume speceefic roles in the pride. Those laggin behind mey provide ither valuable services tae the group.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morell|first= V. |year=1995 |title=Cowardly lions confound cooperation theory |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-09-01_269_5228/page/1216|journal=Science |volume=269 |issue=5228 |pages=1216–17|doi=10.1126/science.7652566 |pmid=7652566}}</ref> An alternative hypothesis is that thare is some reward associated wi bein a leader wha fends aff intruders, an the rank o lionesses in the pride is reflectit in thir responses.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jahn|first= Gary C. |year=1996 |title=Lioness Leadership |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1996-03-01_271_5253/page/1214|journal=Science |volume=271 |issue=5253 |page=1215 |doi=10.1126/science.271.5253.1215a |pmid=17820922 }}</ref> The male or males associatit wi the pride must defend thair relationship tae the pride frae ootside males wha attempt tae tak ower thair relationship wi the pride. ===Huntin an diet=== [[File:Female Lion.JPG|thumb|Lion teeth are teepical o a carnivore.]] Lions prefer tae [[Scavenger|scavenge]] whan the opportunity presents itsel<ref name = "Schaller213" /> wi [[carrion]] providin mair nor 50% o thair diet.<ref name=AWF>{{cite web | title = Behavior and Diet | work = African Wildlife Foundation website | publisher = African Wildlife Foundation | year = 1996 | url =http://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/lion | accessdate =6 June 2014}}</ref> Thay scavenge ainimals aither deid frae [[naitural causes]] (disease) or killt bi ither predators, an keep a constant lookout for circlin vultures, bein keenly aware that thay indicate an ainimal dead or in distress.<ref name = "Schaller213">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 213.</ref> In fact, maist deid prey on whilk baith hyenas an lions feed upon are killt bi the hyenas insteid o the lions.<ref name="nowak" /> The lionesses daes maist o the huntin for the pride. The male lion associatit wi the pride uisually stays an watches ower young cubs till the lionesses return frae the hunt. Teepically, several wirk thegither an encircle the herd frae different pynts. Ance thay hae closed in on the herd, thay uisually target the ainimal closest tae them. The attack is short an pouerfu; thay attempt tae catch the victim wi a fast rush an feenal leap. The prey uisually is killt bi [[strangulation]],<ref>{{cite web | title = About lions—Ecology and behaviour | first = Gus | last = Mills | publisher = African Lion Working Group | url = http://www.african-lion.org/lions_e.htm | accessdate = 20 July 2007 | archive-date = 2014-03-31 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140331141011/http://www.african-lion.org/lions_e.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref> that can cause [[cerebral ischemia]] or [[asphyxia]] (that results in [[hypoxemia|hypoxemic]], or "general", [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]]). The prey an aa mey be killt bi the lion enclosin the ainimal's mooth an nostrils in its jaws (that wad result in asphyxia an aa).<ref name="nowak" /> Lions uisually hunts in coordinatit groups an stalk thair chosen prey. Housomiver, thay arnae parteecularly kent fur thair stamina – fur instance, a lioness' hert maks up anly 0.57% o her body wecht (a male's is aboot 0.45% o his body wecht), whauras a hyena's hert is close tae 1% o its body wecht.<ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 248.</ref> Sicweys, thay anly run fast in short bursts,<ref name="Schaller2478">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 247–48.</ref> an need tae be close tae thair prey afore stairtin the attack. Thay tak advantage o factors that reduce veesibility; mony kills tak place naur some form o civer or at nicht.<ref name="Schaller237">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 237.</ref> Thay sneak up tae the victim till thay reach a distance o approximately {{convert|30|m|ft|abbr=off}} or less. [[File:Serengeti Lion Running saturated.jpg|thumb|left|Lioness in a burst o speed while huntin.]] The [[Predation|prey]] consists mainly o medium-sized mammals, wi a preference fur [[wildebeest]], [[zebra]]s, [[African Buffalo|buffalo]], an [[warthog]]s in Africae an [[nilgai]], [[Boar|wild boar]], an several [[deer]] species in Indie. Mony ither species are huntit, based on availability, mainly [[ungulate]]s wichin atween {{convert|50|and|300|kg|lb|abbr=on}} lik [[kudu]], [[hartebeest]], [[gemsbok]], an [[Taurotragus|eland]].<ref name="nowak" /> Occasionally, thay tak relatively smaw species lik [[Thomson's gazelle]] or [[Springbok (antelope)|springbok]]. Lions huntin in groups is capable o takkin doun maist ainimals, even adults in guid heal, but in maist pairts o thair range thay rarely attack verra lairge prey lik fully grown male [[giraffe]]s due tae the danger o injury. Giraffes an buffaloes are awmaist invulnerable tae a solitary lion as well.<ref name="Schaller259">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 259.</ref> Extensive studies shaws that lionesses normally preys on mammals wi an average wecht o {{convert|126|kg|abbr=on}}, while kills made bi male lions average {{convert|399|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite journal | author1=Radloff, Frans G. T.|author2=Du Toit, Johan T. |year= 2004 |title= Large predators and their prey in a southern African savanna: a predator's size determines its prey size range | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-animal-ecology_2004-05_73_3/page/410|journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |volume=73 |pages=410–423 |doi=10.1111/j.0021-8790.2004.00817.x}}</ref> In Africae, wildebeest rank at the tap o preferred prey (makin nearly hauf o the lion prey in the [[Serengeti]]) follaed bi zebra.<ref>{{Cite book |isbn=88-8095-752-X| title = The Art of Being a Lion |url=https://archive.org/details/artofbeinglion0000deni| page = [https://archive.org/details/artofbeinglion0000deni/page/186 186] | first1 = Christine | last1 = Denis-Huot | first2 = Michel | last2 = Denis-Huot | publisher = Friedman/Fairfax | year = 2002}}</ref> Lions dinnae prey on fou grown adult [[elephant]]s; maist adult [[hippopotamus]]es, [[rhinoceros]]es, an smawer [[gazelle]]s, [[impala]], an ither agile antelopes are generally excludiy. Houiver, giraffes an buffaloes are eften taken in certaint regions. For instance, in Kruger Naitional Pairk, giraffes is regularly huntit.<ref name=Pienaar1969>{{Cite journal |last1=Pienaar|first1=U. de V.|title=Predator-prey relationships among the larger mammals of the Kruger National Park|journal=Koedoe|date=1969|volume=12|issue=1|doi=10.4102/koedoe.v12i1.753|url=http://www.koedoe.co.za/index.php/koedoe/article/view/753}}</ref> In Manyara Pairk, Cape buffaloes constitute as much as 62% o the lion's diet,<ref>{{Cite journal | title = Among the Elephants | url = https://archive.org/details/amongelephants00iain | first1 = Iain | last1 = Douglas-Hamilton | first2 = Oria | last2 = Douglas-Hamilton | year = 1975 }}</ref> due tae the heich nummer density o buffaloes. Occasionally hippopotamus is an aa taken, but adult rhinoceroses are generally avoidit. Warthogs are eften taken dependin on availability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 =Hayward|first1 = Matt W. | last2 = Kerley | first2 = Graham | year = 2005 | title= Prey preferences of the lion (''Panthera leo'') | journal= Journal of Zoology | volume = 267 | issue = 3 | pages = 309–22 |doi= 10.1017/S0952836905007508}}</ref> The lions o [[Chobe Naitional Pairk#Geografie an ecoseestems|Savuti]], Botswana, hae adaptit tae huntin young elephants during the dry saison, an a pride o 30 lions haes been recordit killin individuals atween the ages o fower an eleven years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Power |first=R. J. |last2=Shem Compion |first2=R. X.|year=2009|title=Lion predation on elephants in the Savuti, Chobe National Park, Botswana|journal=African Zoology|volume=44|issue=1|pages=36–44|doi=10.3377/004.044.0104}}</ref> In the [[Kalahari desert]] in [[Sooth Africae]], black-maned lions mey chase baboons up a tree, wait patiently, then attack them whan thay try tae escape: [[File:Lion and baboon 1.jpg|thumb|250px|Baboons trapped up a tree bi lions.]] Lions forby attack domestic livestock an in Indie cattle contribute signeeficantly tae thair diet.<ref name = "Menon" /> Lions is capable o killin ither predators lik [[leopard]]s, [[cheetah]]s, [[hyena]]s, an [[African Wild Dug|wild dugs]], awbesit (unlik maist felids) thay seldom devour the competitors efter killin them. A lion mey gorge itsel an eat up tae {{convert|30|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in ane sittin;<ref name="simba">{{Cite book | last= Guggisberg|first= Charles Albert Walter| title = Simba: the life of the lion. |year=1961 |publisher=Howard Timmins |location=Cape Town}}</ref> if it is unable tae consume aw the kill it will rest for a few oors afore consumin mair. On a het day, the pride mey retreat tae shade leavin a male or twa tae staund guard.<ref name="Schaller2706">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 270–76.</ref> An adult lioness requires an average o aboot {{convert|5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} o meat per day, a male aboot {{convert|7|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 276.</ref> [[File:Lions taking down cape buffalo.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Four lionesses catch a cape buffalo.]] Acause lionesses hunt in open spaces whaur thay are easy seen bi thair prey, cooperative huntin increases the likelihood o a sonsie hunt; this is especially true wi lairger species. Teamwork an aa enables them tae defend thair kills easier against ither lairge predators lik hyenas, that mey be attractit bi [[vulture]]s frae kilometres away in open savannas. Lionesses dae maist o the huntin; males attacht tae prides dae nae uisually pairteecipate in huntin, except in the case o lairger quarry lik giraffe an buffalo. In teepical hunts, ilka lioness haes a favored poseetion in the group, aither stalkin prey on the "weeng" then attackin, or muivin a smawer distance in the centre o the group an capturin prey in flicht frae ither lionesses.<ref name=hunt>{{Cite journal | last = Stander | first = PE | title= Cooperative hunting in lions: the role of the individual |url=http://lchc.ucsd.edu/MCA/Mail/xmcamail.2011_09.dir/pdfeL5GzNL2FL.pdf |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|volume=29|issue=6|pages=445–54|year=1992|doi = 10.1007/BF00170175}}</ref> Thare is evidence that male lions are juist as successfu at huntin as females; thay are solo hunters wha ambush prey in smaw bush.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Scott R. Loariea |author2=Craig J. Tamblingb |author3=Gregory P. Asnera|year=2013|title=Lion hunting behaviour and vegetation structure in an African savanna|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=85|issue=5|pages=899–906|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.01.018}}</ref> Young lions first display stalkin behaviour aboot three month o age, awbesit thay dae nae pairteecipate in huntin till thay are awmaist a year auld. Thay begin tae hunt effectively whan thay are naur twa yeir auld.<ref name="Schaller153">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 153.</ref> ====Predator competeetion==== [[File:Panthera leo & Crocuta crocuta.jpg|thumb|250px|Subadult male lion an [[spotted hyena]]]] Lions an [[spottit hyena]]s occupy the same [[ecological niche]], meanin thay compete for prey an carrion in the areas whaur thay coexist. A review o data across several studies indicates a dietary owerlap o 58.6%.<ref name="prey">{{Cite journal | url = http://www.zbs.bialowieza.pl/g2/pdf/1598.pdf | format = PDF | title = Prey preferences of the spotted hyaena (''Crocuta crocuta'') and degree of dietary overlap with the lion (''Panthera leo'') | last = Hayward | first = Matt W. | journal = Journal of Zoology | year = 2006 | volume = 270 | pages = 606–14 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00183 | access-date = 2015-06-02 | archive-date = 2018-12-25 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181225033155/http://www.zbs.bialowieza.pl/g2/pdf/1598.pdf%20 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Lions teepically ignore spottit hyenas unless the lions are on a kill or are bein harassed bi the hyenas, while the latter tend tae visibly react tae the presence o lions whether thare is fuid or nae. Lions seize the kills o spottit hyenas: in the [[Ngorongoro crater]], it is common for lions tae subsist largely on kills stolen frae hyenas, causin the hyenas tae increase thair kill rate.<ref name="Kruuk21">{{Cite book |chapter = Interactions between Hyenas and other Carnivorous Animals | first = Hans | last = Kruuk | title = The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behaviour |url = https://archive.org/details/spottedhyenastud0000kruu | publisher = The University of Chicago Press | place = Chicago | year = 1972|isbn=0-226-45508-4 }}</ref> On the ither haund, in Northren Botswana's Chobe Naitional Pairk, the situation is reversed: hyenas frequently challenge lions an steal thair kills: thay obtain fuid frae 63% o aw lion kills.<ref name="Conservation">{{Cite book | title = Carnivore Conservation |edition=1 |editor1-first=John L. |editor1-last=Gittleman |editor2-first=Stephan M. |editor2-last=Funk |editor3-first=David W. |editor3-last=Macdonald |editor4-first=Robert K. |editor4-last=Wayne| publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2001|isbn=978-0-521-66232-1|displayeditors=4}}</ref> whan confrontit on a kill bi lions, spottit hyenas mey aither leave or wait patiently at a distance o {{convert|30|–|100|m|ft|abbr=on}} till the lions hae finished,<ref name="schaller272">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 272.</ref> but thay are forby bauld eneuch tae feed alangside lions, an even force the lions aff a kill. The twa species mey attack ane anither even whan thare is nae fuid involved for nae apparent reason.<ref name="schaller273">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 273–274.</ref><ref name="enemies">{{cite video|people=Joubert, Dereck and Joubert, Beverley|title= Eternal Enemies: Lions and Hyenas |medium=[[DVD]] | publisher = [[National Geographic Channel|National Geographic]]|year= 1992}}</ref> Lion predation can accoont for up tae 71% o hyena daiths in [[Etosha]]. Spottit hyenas hae adaptit bi frequently mobbin lions that enter thair territories.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Competitive interactions between spotted hyenas and lions in the Etosha National Park, Namibia| last1 =Trinkel | first1 = Martina | last2 = Kastberger | first2 = Gerald |journal=African Journal of Ecology|volume=43|issue=3|year=2005|pages=220–24|doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00574.x}}</ref> Experiments on captive spottit hyenas revealed that specimens wi no prior experience wi lions act indifferently tae the sicht o them, but will react fearfully tae the scent.<ref name="Kruuk21" /> The size o male lions allows them occasionally tae confront hyenas in itherwise evenly matched brawls an sae tae tip the balance in favour o the lions. Lions tend tae dominate smawer felines lik [[cheetah]]s an [[leopard]]s whaur thay co-occur, stealin thair kills an killin thair cubs an even adults whan gien the chance. The cheetah haes a 50% chance o losin its kill tae lions or ither predators.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = O'Brien | first1 = Stephen J | last2 = Wildt | first2 = David E | last3 = Bush | first3 = Mitchell | year = 1986 | title = The Cheetah in Genetic Peril | format = PDF | journal = Scientific American | issue = 254 | pages = 68–76 | url = http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/05_library/5_3_publications/N_and_O/OBrien_et_al_1986_Cheetah_in_genetic_peril.pdf | access-date = 2015-06-02 | archive-date = 2018-09-30 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180930022126/http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/05_library/5_3_publications/N_and_O/OBrien_et_al_1986_Cheetah_in_genetic_peril.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref> Lions are major killers o cheetah cubs, up tae 90% o thaim are lost in thair first weeks o life due tae attacks bi ither predators. Cheetahs evit competeetion bi huntin at different times o the day an hide thair cubs in thick brush. Leopards forby uise siclike tactics, but hae the advantage that thay can tae subsist a fair bit better on smaw prey nor on aither lions or cheetahs. Wanlik cheetahs, leopards can clim trees an uise them tae haud thair cubs an kills awa frae lions; housomiver, lionesses will occasionally be sonsie in climmin tae retrieve leopard kills.<ref name = "Schaller293">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 293.</ref> Seemilarly, lions dominate [[African Wild Dug|African wild dugs]]; thay nae juist tak thair kills but preying on young an (rarely) adult dugs an aa. Population densities o wild dugs are laich in areas whaur lions are mair abundant.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Conserving the African wild dog ''Lycaon pictus''. I. Diagnosing and treating causes of decline | last1 =Woodroffe | first1 = Rosie | last2 = Ginsberg | first2 = Joshua R |year=1999| journal =Oryx | volume = 33| pages =132–42|doi= 10.1046/j.1365-3008.1999.00052.x |issue=2}}</ref><!-- cites twa previous refs --> Houiver, thare are a few reportit cases o auld an woondit lions fawin prey tae wild dugs.<ref name=Pienaar1969/><ref>[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 188.</ref> The [[Nile crocodile]] is the anly [[Sympatry|sympatric]] predator (aside humans) that can singly threaten the lion. Dependin on the size o the crocodile an the lion, aither can lose kills or carrion tae the ither. Lions haes been kent tae kill crocodiles venturin ontae laund,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2509crocs.html |title=Crocodiles! | publisher = PBS | work = Nova | type = transcript |date= 28 April 1998 |accessdate=21 November 2010}}</ref> while the reverse is true for lions enterin watterways, as evidenced bi the occasional lion claw foond in crocodile stomachs.<ref name="Guggisberg">{{Cite book | last = Guggisberg | first = Charles Albert Walter |url =http://books.google.com/?id=92NuQgAACAAJ| title = Crocodiles: Their Natural History, Folklore, and Conservation| year = 1972 | page = 195 | isbn = 0-7153-5272-5 | publisher = David & Charles | location = Newton Abbot}}</ref> ====Man-eatin==== {{Main|Man-eater}} While lions disnae uisually hunt fowk, some (uisually males) seem tae seek oot human prey; ane well-publicised case includes the [[Tsavo maneaters]], whaur 28 offeecially recordit railwey wirkers biggin the [[Uganda Railway|Kenyae-Uganda Railway]] war taken bi lions ower nine month during the construction o a brig ower the [[Tsavo River]] in [[Kenyae]] in 1898.<ref name=Patterson>{{cite book | last = Patterson |first=Bruce D. | year = 2004 | title = The Lions of Tsavo: Exploring the Legacy of Africa's Notorious Man-Eaters | url = https://archive.org/details/lionsoftsavoexpl0000patt | publisher = McGraw-Hill | isbn = 0-07-136333-5}}</ref> The hunter wha kill the lions wrote a beuk detailin the ainimals' predatory behaviour. The lions war lairger than normal, lacked manes, an ane seemed tae suffer frae tuith decay. The infirmity theory, includin tuith decay, is nae favored bi aw researchers; an analysis o teeth an jaws o man-eatin lions in museum collections suggests that while tuith decay mey expleen some incidents, prey depletion in human-dominatit areas is a mair likely cause o lion predation on humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Patterson |first=Bruce D. |author2=Neiburger, Ellis J.|author3=Kasiki, Samuel M. |date=February 2003 |title=Tooth Breakage and Dental Disease as Causes of Carnivore–Human Conflicts |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-mammalogy_2003-02_84_1/page/190 |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=190–96|doi=10.1644/1545-1542(2003)084<0190:TBADDA>2.0.CO;2}}</ref> In thair analysis o Tsavo an general man-eatin, Kerbis Peterhans an Gnoske acknowledge that sick or injurt ainimals mey be mair prone tae man-eatin, but that the behaviour is "nae unuisual, nor necessarily 'aberrant'" whaur the opportunity exists; if inducements lik access tae livestock or human corpse are present, lions will regularly prey upon human beins. The authors note that the relationship is well-attestit amang ither pantherines an primates in the paleontological record.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.man-eater.info/gpage6.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030031426/http://www.man-eater.info/gpage6.html |archivedate=2007-10-30 |accessdate=7 July 2007 |last=Peterhans |first=Julian C. Kerbis |author2=Thomas Patrick Gnoske |title=The Science of Man-eating |journal=Journal of East African Natural History |volume=90 |issue=1&2 |year=2001 |pages=1–40 |doi=10.2982/0012-8317(2001)90[1:TSOMAL]2.0.CO;2 |url-status=live }}</ref> The lion's proclivity fur man-eatin haes been seestematically examined. American an Tanzanian scientists report that man-eatin behaviour in rural areas o Tanzanie increased a fair bit frae 1990 tae 2005. At least 563 veelagers war attacked an mony eaten ower this period – a nummer far exceedin the mair famed "Tsavo" incidents o a century earlier. The incidents occurred naur aboots [[Selous Gemme Reserve|Selous Naitional Pairk]] in [[Rufiji River|Rufiji Destrict]] an in [[Lindi Region|Lindi Province]] near the [[Mozambique|Mozambican]] border. While the expansion o villagers intae bush kintra is ane concern, the authors argues that conservation policy maun mitigate the danger acause, in this case, conservation contreibutes directly tae human daiths. Cases in Lindi hae been documentit whaur lions seize humans frae the centre o substantial veelages.<ref name="Packer05">{{Cite journal |last=Packer |first=C. |author2=Ikanda, D. |author3=Kissui, B. |author4= Kushnir, H. |date=August 2005 |title=Conservation biology: lion attacks on humans in Tanzania |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-08-18_436_7053/page/926 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=436 |issue=7053 |pages=927–28 |doi=10.1038/436927a| pmid=16107828}}</ref> Anither study o 1,000 fowk attacked bi lions in soothren Tanzanie atween 1988 an 2009 foond that the weeks follaein the [[full muin]] (whan thare wis less muinlight) war a strang indicator o increased nicht attacks on fowk.<ref name="fullmoon">{{cite journal | title=Fear of Darkness, the Full Moon and the Nocturnal Ecology of African Lions | last=Packer |first=C | journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |date=July 2011 | volume=6 | issue=7 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0022285 |author2=Swanson A |author3=Ikanda D |author4=Kushnir H | editor1-last=Rands | editor1-first=Sean A. | pages=e22285}}</ref> [[File:Lionsoftsavo2008.jpg|thumb|The Tsavo Man-Eaters on display in the [[Field Museum o Naitural History]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] ]] Author Robert R. Frump wrote in ''The Man-eaters of Eden'' that Mozambican refugees regularly crossin Kruger Naitional Pairk at nicht in [[Sooth Africae]] is attacked an eaten bi the lions; pairk offeecials hae concedit that man-eatin is a problem thare. Frump believes thoosands mey hae been killt in the decades efter [[Sooth Africae unner apartheid|apartheid]] sealed the pairk an forced the refugees tae cross the pairk at nicht. Fur naur a century afore the mairch wis sealed, Mozambicans haed regularly walked athort the pairk in daytime wi little harm.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frump |first=RR |title=The Man-Eaters of Eden: Life and Death in Kruger National Park |url=https://archive.org/details/maneatersofedenl0000frum |year=2006 |publisher=The Lyons Press |isbn=1-59228-892-8}}</ref> Packer estimates mair nor 200 Tanzanians is killt ilka year bi lions, [[crocodile]]s, elephants, hippos, an [[snake]]s, an that the nummers coud be dooble that amount, wi lions thocht tae kill at least 70 o thaim. Packer haes documented that atween 1990 an 2004, lions attacked 815 fowk in Tanzanie, killin 563. Packer an Ikanda are amang the few [[conservation movement|conservationists]] wha believe wastren conservation efforts maun tak accoont o thir matters nae juist acause o ethical concerns aboot human life, but fur the lang term success o conservation efforts an lion preservation an aw.<ref name="Packer05"/> A man-eatin lion wis killt bi gemme scouts in Soothren Tanzanie in Aprile 2004. It is believed tae hae killt an eaten at least 35&nbsp;fowk in a series o incidents coverin several veelages in the Rufiji Delta coastal region.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Toothache 'made lion eat humans' |last=Dickinson |first=Daniel |date=19 October 2004 |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3756180.stm |accessdate=25 January 2011}}</ref> Dr Rolf D. Baldus, the GTZ wildlife programme coordinator, commentit that it wis likely that the lion preyed on humans acause it haed a lairge [[abscess]] unnerneath a [[molar (tuith)|molar]] that wis cracked in several places. He faur commentit that "This lion probably experienced a lot o pain, pairteecularly whan it wis chewin."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldus |first=R |date=March 2006 |title=A man-eating lion (''Panthera leo'') from Tanzania with a toothache |journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=52 |issue= 1 |pages= 59–62|doi=10.1007/s10344-005-0008-0}}</ref> GTZ is the German development cooperation agency an haes been wirkin wi the Tanzanian govrenment on wildlife conservation for nearly twa decades. As in ither cases this lion wis lairge, lacked a mane, an haed a tuith problem. The "Aw-Africae" record o man-eatin generally is conseidert no tae be Tsavo, but incidents in the early 1930s throu the late 1940s in whit wis then [[Tanganyika]] (nou Tanzanie). [[George Gilman Rushby|George Rushby]], gemme warden an professional hunter, eventually dispatched the pride, that ower three generations is thocht tae hae killt an eaten 1,500 tae 2,000 fowk in what is nou [[Njombe]] destrict.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rushby |first=George G. |title= No More the Tusker |year= 1965 |publisher=W. H. Allen |location=London}}</ref> ===Reproduction an life cycle=== {{commons category|Mating lions}} Maist lionesses will hae reproduced bi the time thay are fower years o age.<ref name="Schaller29">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 29.</ref> Lions dae nae [[matein|mate]] at ony speceific time o year, an the females are [[polyestrous]].<ref name="Schaller174">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 174.</ref> As wi ither [[Cat's penis|cats' penises]], the male lion's penis haes [[penile spines|spines that pyntin backward]]. During penis widrawal, the spines rake the waws o the female's [[vagina]], that mey cause ovulation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Asdell |first=Sydney A. |title=[http://books.google.com/books?id=yQzSe71g2AcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false Patterns of mammalian reproduction] |year=1993|origyear= 1964 |publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca |isbn=978-0-8014-1753-5}}</ref> A lioness mey mate wi mair nor ane male whan she is [[Estrous cycle|in heat]].<ref name="Schaller142">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 142.</ref> [[File:Panthera leo -Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania -mating-8.jpg|thumb|left|Matin lions.]] The average gestation period is aroond 110&nbsp;days,<ref name="Schaller174"/> the female giein birth tae a litter o ane tae fower cubs in a secluded den (that mey be a thicket, a reed-bed, a cave, or some ither sheltered area) uisually awa frae the rest o the pride. She will eften hunt bi hersel while the cubs is still helpless, stayin relatively close tae the thicket or den whaur the cubs are kept.<ref name="Scott45">[[#Scott|Scott]], p. 45.</ref> The cubs themsels is born blind – thair een dae nae open till roughly a week efter birth. Thay wecht {{convert|1.2|–|2.1|kg|lb|abbr=on}} at birth an is awmaist helpless, beginnin tae crawl a day or twa efter birth an walkin aroond three weeks o age.<ref name="Schaller143">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 143.</ref> The lioness muives her cubs tae a new den steid several times a month, carrying them ane bi ane bi the nape o the neck, tae prevent scent frae biggin up at a single den steid an sicweys avoidin the attention o predators that mey harm the cubs.<ref name="Scott45"/> Uisually, the mither daes nae integrate hersel an her cubs back intae the pride until the cubs are sax tae aicht weeks auld.<ref name="Scott45"/> Whiles this introduction tae pride life occurs earlier, houiver, parteecularly if ither lionesses hae gien birth at aboot the same time. For instance, lionesses in a pride eften synchronise thair reproductive cycles sae that thay cooperate in the raisin an souklin o the young (ance the cubs are past the initial stage o isolation wi thair mither), wha suckle indiscriminately frae ony or aw o the nouricin females in the pride. In addition tae greater pertection, the synchronization o births an aa haes an advantage in that the cubs end up bein roughly the same size, an sicweys hae an equal chance o survival. If ane lioness gies birth tae a litter o cubs a couple o months efter anither lioness, for instance, then the younger cubs, bein much smawer than thair aulder brethren, uisually are dominatit bi lairger cubs at mealtimes – consequently, daith bi starvation is mair common amang the younger cubs. [[File:PregnantLioness.jpg|thumb|A pregnant lioness (richt).]] In addition tae stairvation, cubs an aa face mony ither dangers, lik predation bi jackals, hyenas, leopards, mairtial eagles, an snakes. Even buffaloes, should thay catch the scent o lion cubs, eften stampede toward the thicket or den whaur thay are bein kept, daein thair best tae trample the cubs tae daith while wardin ff the lioness. Furthermair, whan ane or mair new males oust the previous male(s) associatit wi a pride, the conqueror(s) eften kill ony existin young cubs,<ref name="Packpus83">{{Cite journal |last=Packer |first=C. |last2=Pusey |first2=A. E. |date=May 1983 |title= Adaptations of female lions to infanticide by incoming males|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-naturalist_1983-05_121_5/page/716 |journal= American Naturalist |volume=121 |issue=5 |pages=716–28 |doi= 10.1086/284097}}</ref> aiblins acause females dinnae become fertile an receptive till thair cubs mature or dee. Aw in aw, as mony as 80% o the cubs will dee afore the age o twa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Macdonald |first=David |year=1984 |title=The Encyclopedia of Mammals|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0 |publisher=Facts on File|location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma00mals_0/page/31 31]|isbn= 0-87196-871-1}}</ref> <gallery> File:Black-maned lion and cub 1.jpg|1 o 4: A tolerant black-<br/>maned male File:Black-maned lion and cub 2.jpg|<centre>2 o 4</centre> File:Black-maned lion and cub 3.jpg|<centre>3 o 4</centre> File:Black-maned lion and cub 4.jpg|<centre>4 o 4</centre> </gallery> whan first introduced tae the rest o the pride, the cubs initially lack confidence whan confrontit wi adult lions ither than thair mither. Thay suin begin tae immerse thairsels in the pride life, houiver, playin amang thairsels or attemptin tae initiate play wi the adults. Lionesses wi cubs o thair ain are mair likely tae be tolerant o anither lioness's cubs than lionesses wioot cubs. The tolerance o the male lions toward the cubs varies – whiles, a male will patiently let the cubs play wi his tail or his mane, whauras anither mey snarl an bat the cubs away.<ref>[[#Scott|Scott]], p. 46.</ref> [[File:Male Lion and Cub Chitwa South Africa Luca Galuzzi 2004.JPG|thumb|Male lions are generally mair likely tae share fuid caught bi the pride wi cubs than wi lionesses, but rarely share thair ain catches wi ithers.]] Weanin occurs efter sax tae seeven month. Male lions reach maturity at aboot 3 years o age an, at 4–5 years o age, are capable o challengin an displacing the adult male(s) associatit wi anither pride. Thay begin tae age an waiken atween 10 an 15 years o age at the latest,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crandall |first=Lee S. |title=The management of wild animals in captivity |year=1964 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |oclc=557916}}</ref> if thay hae nae already been creetically injured while defendin the pride (ance ousted frae a pride bi rival males, male lions rarely manage a seicont tak-ower). This leaves a short windae for thair ain affspring tae be born an matur. If thay are able tae procreate as suin as thay tak ower a pride, potentially, thay mey hae mair affspring reachin maturity afore thay an aa are displaced. A lioness will eften attempt tae defend her cubs fiercely frae a usurpin male, but sic actions are rarely successfu. He uisually kills aw o the existin cubs wha are less nor twa year auld. A lioness is waiker an much lichter than a male; success is mair likely whan a group o three or fower mithers within a pride jyn forces agin ane male.<ref name="Packpus83"/> Contrary tae popular belief, it isnae anly males that is oostit frae thair pride tae become nomads, awbesit maist females certainly dae remain wi thair birth pride. Houiver, whan the pride becomes ower muckle, the next generation o female cubs mey be forced tae leave tae eke oot thair ain territory. Furthermair, whan a new male lion taks ower the pride, subadult lions, baith male an female, mey be evictit.<ref>[[#Scott|Scott]], p. 68.</ref> Life is harsh for a female nomad. Nomadic lionesses rarely manage tae raise thair cubs tae maturity, wioot the pertection o ither pride members. ===Heal=== Awbesit adult lions haes nae naitural predators, evidence suggests that the majority dee violently frae humans or ither lions.<ref name="Schaller183">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 183.</ref> Lions eften inflict serious injuries on ilka ither, aither members o different prides encoonterin ilka ither in territorial disputes, or members o the same pride fechtin at a kill.<ref name="Schaller1889">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 188–89.</ref> Crippled lions an lion cubs mey faw victim tae hyenas, leopards, or be trampled bi buffalo or elephants, an careless lions mey be maimed whan huntin prey.<ref name="Schaller1890">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 189–90.</ref> [[File:Lake-Nakuru-Lions-in-Tree.JPG|thumb|Lions seekin refuge frae flies bi climbin a tree.]] Various species o [[tick]] commonly infest the lugs, neck an groin regions o maist lions.<ref name="Schaller184">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 184.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Yeoman |first=Guy Henry|author2=Walker, Jane Brotherton |title=The ixodid ticks of Tanzania|year=1967 |publisher=Commonwealth Institute of Entomology |location=London |oclc=955970}}</ref> Adult forms o several species o the tapeworm genus ''[[Taenia (tapeworm)|Taenia]]'' hae been isolatit frae thairms, the lions haein ingestit larval forms frae antelope meat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sachs |first=R |year=1969|title=Untersuchungen zur Artbestimmung und Differenzierung der Muskelfinnen ostafrikanischer Wildtiere [Differentiation and species determination of muscle-cysticerci in East African game animals] |journal=Zeitschrift für tropenmedizin und Parasitologie |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=39–50 |pmid=5393325|language=de}}</ref> Lions in the [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area|Ngorongoro Crater]] war afflictit bi an ootbreak o stable flee (''[[stable flee|Stomoxys calcitrans]]'') in 1962; this resultit in lions becomin covered in bluidy bare patches an emaciatit. Lions soucht unsuccessfully tae evade the bitin flees bi climbin trees or crawlin intae hyena burrows; mony perished or emigratit as the population dropped frae 70 tae 15 individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fosbrooke |first=Henry |year=1963 |title=The stomoxys plague in Ngorongoro |journal=East African Wildlife Journal |volume=1 |issue=6|pages=124–26 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1963.tb00190.x}}</ref> A mair recent ootbreak in 2001 killt sax lions.<ref name="Nkwame06">{{Cite news | last=Nkwame | first=Valentine M | title=King of the jungle in jeopardy | publisher=The Arusha Times | date=9 September 2006 | url=http://www.arushatimes.co.tz/2006/36/features_10.htm | accessdate=4 September 2007 | archive-date=2018-12-25 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225033132/http://www.arushatimes.co.tz/2006/36/features_10.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> Lions, especially in captivity, are vulnerable tae the [[canine distemper]] virus (CDV), [[feline immunodeficiency virus]] (FIV), an [[feline infectious peritonitis]] (FIP).<ref name="zoos_encyclopedia"/> CDV is spread throu domestic dugs an ither [[carnivora|carnivores]]; a 1994 outbreak in [[Serengeti Naitional Pairk]] resultit in mony lions developin neurological seemptoms lik seizurs. During the ootbreak, several lions dee'd frae pneumonia an [[encephalitis]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roelke-Parker |first=M. E. |date=February 1996 |title=A canine distemper epidemic in Serengeti lions (''Panthera leo'') |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1996-02-01_379_6564/page/440 |journal= Nature|volume=379 |issue= 6564|pages=441–45 |doi=10.1038/379441a0|pmid=8559247|last2=Munson|first2=Linda|last3=Packer|first3=Craig|last4=Kock|first4=Richard|last5=Cleaveland|first5=Sarah|last6=Carpenter|first6=Margaret|last7=O'Brien|first7=Stephen J.|last8=Pospischil|first8=Andreas|last9=Hofmann-Lehmann|first9=Regina |displayauthors=9|first10=Hans|last10=Lutz|first11=George L. M.|last11=Mwanengele|first12=M. N.|last12=Mgasa|first13=G. A.|last13=Machange|first14=Brian A.|last14=Summers|first15=Max J. G.|last15=Appel}}</ref> FIV, that is seemilar tae [[HIV]] while nae kent tae adversely affect lions, is worrisome eneuch in its effect in domestic cats that the Species Survival Plan recommends systematic testin in captive lions. It occurs wi heich tae endemic frequency in several wild lion populations, but is maistly absent frae Asiatic an Namibian lions. ===Communication=== [[File:Lion cub with mother.jpg|thumb|right|Heid rubbin an lickin are common social behaviours athin a pride]] whan restin, lion socialization occurs throu a nummer o behaviours, an the ainimal's expressive movements are heichly developed. The maist common peacefu tactile gestures are heid rubbin an [[social lickin]],<ref name="Schaller85">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 85.</ref> that hae been compared wi gruimin in primates.<ref>{{Cite book |editor=Desmond Morris|last=Sparks |first=J |title=Primate Ethology |chapter=Allogrooming in primates:a review |year=1967 |publisher=Aldine |location=Chicago |isbn=0-297-74828-9}} (2007 edition: 0-202-30826-X)</ref> Heid rubbin – nuzzlin ane's foreheid, face an neck against anither lion – appears tae be a form o greetin,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leyhausen |first=Paul |title=Verhaltensstudien an Katzen|edition= 2nd |year=1960 |publisher=Paul Parey |location=Berlin |isbn=3-489-71836-4 |language=de}}</ref> as it is seen eften efter an ainimal haes been apart frae others, or efter a fecht or confrontation. Males tend tae rub ither males, while cubs an females rub females.<ref name="Schaller858">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 85–88.</ref> Social lickin eften occurs in tandem wi heid rubbin; it is generally mutual an the recipient appears tae express pleasure. The heid an neck are the maist common pairts o the body licked, that mey hae arisen oot o utility, as a lion canna lick thir airts individually.<ref name="Schaller8891">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 88–91.</ref> {{sound|filename=Lion raring-sound1TamilNadu178.ogg|title=Lion roar|description=A lion in captivity roaring}} Lions hae an array o facial expressions an body posturs that serve as veesual gesturs.<ref name="Schaller92102">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 92–102.</ref> Thair repertoire o vocalisations is an aa lairge; variations in intensity an pitch, rather than discrete signals, appear central tae communication. Lion soonds include snarlin, hissin, coughin, miaowin, woofin, an roarin. Lions tend tae [[roar (ainimal)|roar]] in a verra characteristic manner, stairtin wi a few deep, lang roars that trail off intae a series o shorter anes.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://roberteklund.info/pdf/Ananthakrishnan_et_al_2011_LionRoars.pdf |title=An acoustic analysis of lion roars. II: Vocal tract characteristics |last=Ananthakrishnan |first=G. |last2=Eklund |first2=Robert |last3=Peters |first3=Gustav |last4=Mabiza |first4=Evans |journal=Speech, Music and Hearing Quarterly Progress and Status Report TMH-QPSR |volume=51 |page=5 |year=2011 |access-date=2015-06-02 |archive-date=2018-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929060746/http://roberteklund.info/pdf/Ananthakrishnan_et_al_2011_LionRoars.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://roberteklund.info/pdf/Eklund_et_al_2011_LionRoars.pdf |title=An acoustic analysis of lion roars. I: Data collection and spectrogram and waveform analyses |last=Eklund |first=Robert |last2=Peters |first2=Gustav; |last3=Ananthakrishnan |first3=G |last4=Mabiza |first4=Evans |journal=Speech, Music and Hearing Quarterly Progress and Status Report TMH-QPSR |volume=51 |page=1 |year=2011 |access-date=2015-06-02 |archive-date=2018-09-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929060941/http://roberteklund.info/pdf/Eklund_et_al_2011_LionRoars.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Thay maist eften roar at nicht; the soond, that can be heard frae a distance o {{convert|8|km}}, is uised tae advertise the ainimal's presence.<ref name="Schaller10313">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], pp. 103–113.</ref> Lions hae the loudest roar o ony big cat. ==Distribution an habitat== [[File:India Animals.jpg|thumb|Twa male [[Asiatic lions]]. The wild population o the endangered Asiatic lions is restrictit tae the [[Gir Wid Naitional Pairk]] in wastren Indie.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Miller |first = Brian |title = Endangered animals: a reference guide to conflicting issues |url = https://archive.org/details/endangeredanimal0000unse_m4q9 |publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group|year= 2000 |isbn = 0-313-30816-0}}</ref>]] In Africae, lions can be foond in savanna grasslands wi scattert ''[[Acacia]]'' trees, that serve as shade;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rudnai|first= Judith A. |title=The social life of the lion |year=1973 |publisher=s.n. |location=Wallingford |isbn=0-85200-053-7 }}</ref> thair habitat in Indie is a mixtur o dry savanna wid an verra dry deciduous scrub wid.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Gir—Floristic | work=Asiatic Lion Information Centre | publisher=Wildlife Conservation Trust of India | year=2006 | url=http://www.asiaticlion.org/gir-floristic.htm | accessdate=14 September 2007 | archive-date=2011-08-24 | archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/61AzrEcoS?url=http://www.asiaticlion.org/gir-floristic.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> The habitat o lions oreeginally spanned the soothren pairts o [[Eurasie]], rangin frae [[Greece]] tae Indie, an maist o [[Africae]] except the central [[rainwid]]-zone an the [[Sahara]] desert. [[Herodotus]] reportit that lions haed been common in Greece in 480 BC; thay attacked the baggage camels o the Persie keeng [[Xerxes I o Persie|Xerxes]] on his march throu the kintra. [[Aristotle]] considered them rare bi 300 BC. Bi 100 AD thay war extirpated.<ref name="Schaller5">[[#Schaller|Schaller]], p. 5.</ref> A population o [[Asiatic lion]]s survived till the tent century in the [[Caucasus]], thair last European ootpost.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Heptner| first= V. G.|author2=A. A. Sludskii | year=1989| title=Mammals of the Soviet Union: Volume 1, Part 2: Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)|publisher=Amerind| location=New York| isbn=90-04-08876-8}}</ref> The species wis eradicatit frae [[Palestine]] bi the [[Middle Ages]] an frae maist o the rest o Asie efter the arrival o readily available firearms in the aichteent century. Atween the late nineteent an early twentiet century, thay became extinct in [[North Africae]] an [[Soothwast Asie]]. Bi the late nineteent century, the lion haed disappeart frae [[Turkey]] an maist o northren Indie,<ref name=zoos_encyclopedia /><ref>{{cite web |title=Past and present distribution of the lion in North Africa and Southwest Asia. |year=2001 |publisher=Asiatic Lion Information Centre |url=http://www.asiatic-lion.org/distrib.html |accessdate=1 June 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510060942/http://www.asiatic-lion.org/distrib.html |archivedate=2008-05-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> while the last sichtin o a live Asiatic lion in [[Iran]] wis in 1941 (atween [[Shiraz]] an Jahrom, [[Fars Province]]), awbesit the corpse o a lioness wis foond on the banks o the [[Karun]] river, [[Khūzestān Province]] in 1944. Thare are no subsequent reliable reports frae [[Iran]].<ref name="simba"/> The subspecies nou survives anly in an aroond the [[Gir Wid Naitional Pairk|Gir Wid]] o northwastren Indie.<ref name="Asiaticweb">{{cite web | title=Asiatic Lion—History | work=Asiatic Lion Information Centre | publisher=Wildlife Conservation Trust of India | year=2006 | url=http://www.asiaticlion.org/asiatic-lion-history.htm | accessdate=15 September 2007 | archive-date=2011-08-24 | archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/61AzLUsTo?url=http://www.asiaticlion.org/asiatic-lion-history.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> Approximately 500 lions live in the area o the {{convert|1,412|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} sanctuary in the state o [[Gujarat]], that covers maist o the wid. Thair nummers haes waxt frae 180 tae 523 ainimals mainly acause the naitural prey species haes rekivert.<ref name="Singh, Gibson">{{Cite journal |author1=Singh, H. S.|author2=Gibson, L.|title=A conservation success story in the itherwise dire megafauna extinction crisis: The Asiatic lion (''Panthera leo persica'') of Gir Wid|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-conservation_2011-05_144_5/page/1753|journal= Biological Conservation|volume=144|issue=5|pages=1753–1757|year=2011|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2011.02.009}} </ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Asiatic Lion—Population | work=Asiatic Lion Information Centre | publisher=Wildlife Conservation Trust of India | year=2006 | url=http://www.asiaticlion.org/population-gir-forests.htm | accessdate=15 September 2007 | archive-date=2011-08-24 | archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/61AzriYLb?url=http://www.asiaticlion.org/population-gir-forests.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Population an conservation status== {{Main|Lion huntin}} [[File:Lion Gir.jpg|thumb|The Asiatic lion, whase habitat ance ranged frae the Mediterranean tae north-wast Indian subcontinent, is thir days foond anly in the [[Gir Wid]] o [[Gujarat]], Indie. It wis estimatit that anly 523 Asiatic lions survives in the wild.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?220509 |title=The Mane Don't Fit |last=Desai |first=Darshan |work=Outlook India Magazine |publisher=Outlookindia.com |date=23 June 2003 |accessdate=21 November 2010}}</ref>]] Maist lions nou lives in eastren an soothren Africae, an thair nummers thare is swith decreasin, wi an estimatit 30–50% decline per 20 years in the late hauf o the 20t century.<ref name=IUCN/> Estimates o the African lion population range atween 16,500 an 47,000 livin in the wild in 2002–2004,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bauer |first=H. |last2=Van Der Merwe |first2=S. |year= 2002|title=The African lion database |journal=Cat news |volume=36 |pages=41–53}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chardonnet|first=P.|year=2002|title=Conservation of African lion|url=http://conservationforce.org/pdf/conservationoftheafricanlion.pdf|publisher=International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife|location=Paris, France|access-date=2015-06-02|archive-date=2013-11-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110184540/http://conservationforce.org/pdf/conservationoftheafricanlion.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> doun frae early 1990s estimates that ranged as heich as 100,000 an aiblins 400,000 in 1950. Primary causes o the decline include disease an human interference.<ref name=IUCN/> Habitat loss an conflicts wi humans are considered the maist signeeficant threats tae the species.<ref name="awf">{{cite web |title=AWF Wildlife: Lion|url=http://www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/lion|publisher=[[African Wildlife Foundation]]|accessdate=29 August 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NATURE. The Vanishing Lions |publisher=PBS |url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/the-vanishing-lions/introduction/545/ |accessdate=25 January 2011}}</ref> The remainin populations are aften geografically isolatit frae ane anither, that can lead tae [[inbreedin]], an consequently, reduced [[genetic diversity]]. Tharefore the lion is considered a [[vulnerable species]] bi the [[Internaitional Union for Conservation o Naitur]], while the Asiatic subspecies is [[endangered]].<ref>{{IUCN2010.4|assessors=Breitenmoser, U., Mallon, D.P., Ahmad Khan, J. & Driscoll, C.|year=2008|id=15952|title=Panthera leo ssp. persica|downloaded=13 December 2010}}</ref> The lion population in the region o Wast Africae is isolatit frae lion populations o Central Africae, wi nae or naur nae exchynge o breedin individuals. The nummer o matur individuals in Wast Africae is estimatit bi twa separate recent surveys at 850–1,160 (2002/2004). Thare is disagreement ower the size o the lairgest individual population in Wast Africae: the estimates range frae 100 tae 400 lions in [[Burkina Faso]]'s [[Arly-Singou]] ecoseestem.<ref name=IUCN/> Anither population in northwastren Africae is foond in [[Waza Naitional Pairk]], whaur approximately 14–21 ainimals persist.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tumenta |first=P. N. |last2=Kok |first2=J. S. |last3=van Rijssel |first3=J. C. |last4=Buij |first4=R. |last5=Croes |first5=B. M. |last6=Funston |first6=P. J. |last7=de Iongh |first7=H. H. |last8=de Haes |first8=H. A. Udo |year= 2009|title=Threat of rapid extermination of the lion (''Panthera leo leo'') in Waza National Park, Northern Cameroon |journal=African Journal of Ecology |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01181.x |pages=1–7|volume=48|issue=4}}</ref> [[File:The Big Game of Africa (1910) - Male lion Sotik Plains May 1909.png|left|thumb|Black maned male lion, shot in the Sotik Plains, Kenyae (Mey 1909)]] Conservation o baith African an Asian lions haes required the setup an maintenance o naitional parks an gemme reserves; amang the best kent are [[Etosha Naitional Pairk]] in [[Namibie]], [[Serengeti Naitional Pairk]] in Tanzanie, an [[Kruger Naitional Pairk]] in eastren [[Sooth Africae]]. The [[Ewaso Lions]] Project protects lions in the [[Samburu Naitional Reserve]], [[Buffalo Springs Naitional Reserve]] an [[Shaba Naitional Reserve]] o the [[Ewaso Ng'iro]] ecoseestem in Northren [[Kenyae]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/magazine/-/434746/657312/-/15kjo9jz/-/index.html |title = Winning with lions |publisher = The East African Magazine |access-date = 2015-06-02 |archive-date = 2018-12-25 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181225033317/https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/magazine/-/434746/657312/-/15kjo9jz/-/index.html%0A%20 |url-status = dead }}</ref> Ootside thir areas, the issues arising frae lions' interaction wi livestock an fowk uisually results in the elimination o the umwhile.<ref>{{cite web | last=Roach | first=John | title=Lions Vs. Farmers: Peace Possible? | work=National Geographic News | publisher=National Geographic | date=16 July 2003 | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/07/0716_030716_lions.html | accessdate=1 September 2007}}</ref> In Indie, the last refuge o the Asiatic lion is the {{convert|1,412|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} [[Gir Wid Naitional Pairk]] in wastren Indie, that haed thareaboot 180&nbsp;lions in 1974 an aboot 400 in 2010.<ref name="Singh, Gibson"/> As in Africae, numerous human habitations is naurhaun wi the eftercomin problems atween lions, livestock, locals an wildlife offeecials.<ref name="C4WDefault-10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08020501.x">{{cite journal |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08020501.x/abstract;jsessionid=FF3227E78A0339404CEBBA045818D361.f04t04 |title=Lion‐Human Conflict in the Gir Forest, India |date=1 June 1994 |publisher=Blackwell Science Inc |issn=1523-1739 |accessdate=1 May 2014 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08020501.x |issue=2 |volume=8 |pages=501–7 |journal=Conservation Biology |first1=Vasant K. |last1=Saberwal |first2=James P. |last2=Gibbs |first3=Ravi |last3=Chellam |first4=A. J. T. |last4=Johnsingh}}</ref> The [[Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project]] plans tae establish a seicont independent population o [[Asiatic lion]]s at the [[Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary]] in the Indian state o [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnsingh |first=A. J. T. |year=2004 |title=WII in the Field: Is Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary ready to play second home to Asiatic lions? |journal=Wildlife Institute of India Newsletter |volume=11 |issue=4 |url=http://www.wii.gov.in/publications/newsletter/winter04/wii%20in%20field.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927222341/http://www.wii.gov.in/publications/newsletter/winter04/wii+in+field.htm |archivedate=2007-09-27 |accessdate=6 November 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is important tae stairt a seicont population tae serve as a [[gene puil]] for the last survivin Asiatic lions an tae help develop an mainteen [[genetic diversity]] enablin the species tae survive. The umwhile popularity o the Barbary lion as a zoo ainimal haes meant that scattered lions in captivity is as lik tae be descendit frae Barbary lion stock. This includes lions at [[Port Lympne Zoo|Port Lympne Wild Ainimal Pairk]] in [[Kent]], Ingland that is descendit frae ainimals awned bi the [[Keeng o Morocco]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bigcatrescue.org/barbary_lion_news.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051217091555/http://www.bigcatrescue.org/barbary_lion_news.htm |archivedate=2005-12-17 |title=Barbary Lion News |accessdate=24 September 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Anither eleven ainimals believed tae be Barbary lions war foond in [[Addis Ababa]] zoo, descendants o ainimals ained bi [[Haile Selassie I o Ethiopie|Emperor Haile Selassie]]. WildLink Internaitional, in collaboration wi [[Oxford Varsity]], launched thair ambeetious Internaitional [[Barbary Lion#The Barbary Lion Project|Barbary Lion Project]] wi the aim o identifyin an breedin Barbary lions in captivity for eventual reintroduction intae a naitional pairk in the [[Atlas Moontains]] o [[Morocco]].<ref name="yamaguchi-haddane"/> Follaein the discovery o the decline o lion population in Africae, several coordinatit efforts involvin lion [[Wildlife conservation|conservation]] haes been organised in an attempt tae stem this decline. Lions is ane species included in the [[Species Survival Plan]], a coordinatit attempt bi the [[Association o Zoos an Aquariums]] tae increase its chances o survival. The plan wis oreeginally stairtit in 1982 fur the Asiatic lion, but wis suspendit whan it wis foond that maist Asiatic lions in North American zoos war nae [[genetic pollution|genetically pure]], haein been hybridised wi African lions. The African lion plan stairtit in 1993, focusin especially on the Sooth African subspecies, awbesit thare are difficulties in assessin the genetic diversity o captive lions, syne maist individuals is o unkent origin, makkin maintenance o genetic diversity a problem.<ref name="zoos_encyclopedia"/> ===In captivity=== Lions is pairt o a group o exotic ainimals that is the core o [[zoo]] exhibits syne the late aichteent century; memmers o this group is invariably lairge vertebrates an include elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, lairge primates, an ither big cats; zoos socht tae gather as mony o thir species as possible.<ref name="dc81">[[#Courcy|de Courcy]], p. 81</ref> awbesit mony modren zoos is mair selective aboot thair exhibits,<ref>[[#Courcy|de Courcy]], p. 82</ref> thare is mair nor 1,000 African an 100 Asiatic lions in zoos an wildlife pairks aroond the warld. Thay are considered an ambassador species an are kept for tourism, eddication an conservation purposes.<ref name="WAZA">{{cite web |last1= Dollinger |first1= P |last2= Geser |first2= S |title= Lion: In the Zoo (subpage) |work= Visit the Zoo |publisher= WAZA (World Association of Zoos and Aquariums) |url= http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/cats-1254385523/panthera-leo |accessdate= 5 April 2011 |archive-date= 2018-12-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181225033251/http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/cats-1254385523/panthera-leo |url-status= dead }}</ref> Lions can reach an age o ower 20 years in captivity; Apollo, a resident lion o [[Honolulu Zoo]] in [[Honolulu]], [[Hawaii]], dee'd at age 22 in August 2007. His twa sisters, born in 1986, war still alive in August 2007.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Aguiar|first=Eloise|date=August 2007|title=Honolulu zoo's old lion roars no more|newspaper=Honolulu Advertiser|url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Aug/08/ln/hawaii708080394.html|accessdate=4 September 2007|archive-date=2018-12-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225033236/http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Aug/08/ln/hawaii708080394.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Breedin programs need tae note origins tae avoid breedin different subspecies an sicweys reducing conservation value.<ref>{{Cite book | url= http://books.google.com/?id=vLZKnsCk89wC&pg=PA437|accessdate=12 September 2010| last1= Frankham |first1= Richard |last2= Ballou |first2= Jonathan |last3= Briscoe |first3= David |title= Introduction to Conservation Genetics |page=437|publisher=Cambridge University Press| year= 2009| isbn= 0-521-70271-2| location= Cambridge, England}}</ref> Houiver, several Asiatic-African lion crosses hae been bred.<ref name="AviseHamrick1996">{{Cite book |last1=Avise|first1=J. C.|last2=Hamrick|first2=J. L.|title=Conservation Genetics|url=https://archive.org/details/conservationgene0000unse|date=31 January 1996|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9780412055812|page=[https://archive.org/details/conservationgene0000unse/page/67 67]|quote=Furthermore, whan Asiatic lions were inadvertently bred to African lion subspecies in North America, the fecundity, reproductive success, and spermatozoal development improved dramatically (Box 3.3; O'Brien et al., 1987b).}}</ref> [[File:MP-panthera leo krugeri 8.jpg|thumb|Male African lion o the Transvaal subspecies (''P. l. krugeri'')]] At the ancient Egyptian ceeties o [[Taremu]] an [[Per-Bast]] war temples tae the lioness goddesses o Egyp, [[Sekhmet]] an [[Bast (goddess)|Bast]] an at Taremu thare wis a temple tae the son o the deity, [[Maahes]] the lion prince, whaur live lions war kept an allaed tae roam within his temple. The Greeks cried the ceety Leontopolis, the "Ceety o Lions" an documentit that practice. Lions war kept an bred bi [[Assirie]] keengs as early as 850 BC,<ref name="Schaller5"/> an [[Alexander the Great]] wis said tae hae been presentit wi tame lions bi the [[Malhi]] o northren Indie.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Smith |first=Vincent Arthur|title= The Early History of India|url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283154 |year=1924|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283154/page/n117 97]|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|isbn=}}</ref> Later in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times, lions war kept bi emperors tae tak pairt in the gladiator arenas or for executions (see [[bestiarii]], [[damnatio ad bestias]], an [[venatio]]). Roman notables, includin [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]], [[Pompey]], an [[Julius Caesar]], eften ordered the mass slaughter o hunders o lions at a time.<ref>{{Cite book | first= Thomas |last= Wiedemann | title= Emperors and Gladiators |publisher= Routledge |year= 1995 |page= 60 | isbn= 0-415-12164-7 }}</ref> In the East, lions wis tamed bi Indian princes, an [[Marco Polo]] reportit that [[Kublai Khan]] kept lions inside.<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], p. 17.</ref> The first European "zoos" spread amang noble an ryal faimilies in the thirteent century, an till the seiventeent century war cried [[seraglio]]s; at that time, thay came tae be cried [[menagerie]]s, an extension o the [[cabinet o curiosities]]. Thay spread frae Fraunce an Italy durin the [[Renaissance]] tae the rest o Europe.<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], pp. 19–21, 42.</ref> In England, awbesit the seraglio tradeetion wis less developed, Lions war [[Touer o Lunnon#Menagerie|kept at the Touer o Lunnon]] in a seraglio established bi [[John o Ingland|Keeng John]] in the thirteent century,<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], p. 20.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Owen|first=James|title=Medieval Lion Skulls Reveal Secrets of Tower of London "Zoo"|work=National Geographic Magazine|publisher=National Geographic|date=3 November 2005|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1103_051103_tower_lions.html| accessdate=5 September 2007}}</ref> probably stocked wi ainimals frae an earlier menagerie stairtit in 1125 bi [[Henry I o Ingland|Henry I]] at his huntin lodge in [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire|Woodstock]], near [[Oxford]]; whaur lions haed reportedly been stocked bi [[William o Malmesbury]].<ref name="Blunt15">[[#Blunt|Blunt]], p. 15.</ref> Seraglios served as expressions o the nobility's pouer an wealth. Ainimals lik big cats an [[elephant]]s, in parteecular, seembolised pouer, an wad be pittit in fechts against ilka ither or domesticatit ainimals. Bi extension, menageries an seraglios served as demonstrations o the dominance o humanity ower naitur. Consequently, the defeat o sic naitural "lairds" bi a cou in 1682 astonished the spectators, an the fecht o an elephant afore a rhinoceros drew jeers. Sic fechts wad slowly fade oot in the seiventeent century wi the spread o the menagerie an thair appropriation bi the commoners. The tradeetion o keepin big cats as pets wad last intae the nineteent century; at that time it wis seen as heich eccentric.<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], pp. 24–28.</ref> [[File:Albrecht Dürer - Two seated lions - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|[[Albrecht Dürer]], Lions sketch. (circa 1520)]] The presence o lions at the Touer o Lunnon wis intermittent, bein restocked whan a monarch or his consort, lik [[Margaret o Anjou]] the wife o [[Henry VI o Ingland|Henry VI]], aither soucht or war gien ainimals. Records indicate thay war kept in puir condeetions thare in the seiventeent century, in contrast tae mair open condeetions in [[Florence]] at the time.<ref name="Blunt16">[[#Blunt|Blunt]], p. 16.</ref> The menagerie wis appen tae the public bi the aichteent century; admission wis a sum o three hauf-pence or the supply o a cat or dug for feedin tae the lions.<ref name="Blunt17">[[#Blunt|Blunt]], p. 17.</ref> A rival menagerie at the [[Exeter Exchynge]] an aa exhibitit lions till the early nineteent century.<ref>[[#Courcy|de Courcy]], pp. 8–9.</ref> The Touer menagerie wis closed doun bi [[William IV o the Unitit Kinrick|William IV]],<ref name="Blunt17"/> an ainimals transferred tae the [[Lunnon Zoo]], that opened its gates tae the public on 27 Aprile 1828.<ref name="Blunt32">[[#Blunt|Blunt]], p. 32.</ref> The wild ainimals tred flourished alangside improved colonial tred o the nineteent century. Lions wis conseidered fair common an wanpricey. Awbesit thay wad barter heicher nor teegers, thay war less costly than lairger, or mair difficult tae transport ainimals lik the giraffe an hippopotamus, an much less nor [[giant panda]]s.<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], p. 122.</ref> Lik ither ainimals, lions war seen as little mair nor a naitural, boundless commodity that wis mercilessly exploited wi terrible losses in captur an transportation.<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], pp. 114, 117.</ref> The widely reproduced imagery o the heroic hunter chasin lions wad dominate a lairge pairt o the century.<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], p. 113.</ref> Splorers an hunters exploitit a popular [[Manichaeism|Manichean]] division o ainimals intae "guid" an "evil" tae add thrillin value tae thair adventurs, castin thairsels as heroic figurs. This resultit in big cats, ayeweys suspectit o bein man-eaters, representin "baith the fear o naitur an the satisfaction o havin owercome it."<ref>[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], pp. 173, 180–83.</ref> [[File:Lion - melbourne zoo.jpg|thumb|Lion at [[Melbourne Zoo]] enjoyin an elevatit gressy area wi some tree shelter]] Lions wis kept in cramped an squalid condeetions at Lunnon Zoo till a lairger lion hoose wi roomier cages wis biggit in the 1870s.<ref name="Blunt208">[[#Blunt|Blunt]], p. 208.</ref> Faur changes teuk place in the early twentiet century, whan [[Carl Hagenbeck]] designed enclosurs mair closely resemblin a naitural habitat, wi concrete 'rocks', mair appen space an a moat insteid o bars. He designed lion enclosurs for baith [[Melbourne Zoo]] an Sydney's [[Taronga Zoo]], amang ithers, in the early twentiet century. awbesit his designs war popular, the auld bars an cage enclosurs prevailed till the 1960s in mony zoos.<ref name="dc69">[[#Courcy|de Courcy]], p. 69.</ref> In the later decades o the twentiet century, lairger, mair naitural enclosurs an the uise o [[mesh|wire mesh]] or [[laminatit glass]] insteid o lawered dens allaed veesitors tae come closer nor ever tae the ainimals, wi some attractions even placin the den on grund heicher than visitors, lik the Cat Wid/Lion Owerleuk o [[Oklahoma City Zoo an Botanical Gairden|Oklahoma City Zoological Pairk]].<ref name="zoos_encyclopedia"/> Lions is nou placed in gey muckler naturalistic areas; modren recommendit guidelines mair closely approximate condeetions in the wild wi closer attention tae the lions' needs, heichlichtin the need fur dens in separate areas, elevatit poseetions in baith sun an shade whaur lions can sit an adequate grund civer an drainage as weel as sufficient space tae roam. Thare hae an aa been instances whaur a lion wis kept bi a private individual, lik the lioness [[Elsa the Lioness|Elsa]], wha wis raised bi [[George Adamson]] an his guidwife [[Joy Adamson]] an came tae develop a strang bond wi them, parteecularly the latter. The lioness later achieved fame, her life bein documentit in a series o beuks an films. ===Baitin an tamin=== {{Main|Lion-baitin|Lion tamin}} [[File:Lion tamer (LOC pga.03749).jpg|left|thumb|Nineteent century [[etchin]] o a lion tamer in a cage o lions]] Lion-baitin is a [[bluid sport]] involvin the [[ainimal-baitin|baitin]] o lions in combat wi ither ainimals, uisually dugs. Records o it exists in auncient times throu till the seiventeent century. It wis feenally banned in [[Vienna]] bi 1800 an Ingland in 1835.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hone |first=William |editor=Kyle Grimes |title=The Every-Day Book |origyear=1825–1826 |url=http://www.uab.edu/english/hone/etexts/edb/day-pages/207-july26.html |accessdate=25 January 2011 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Alabama at Birmingham |page=26 |chapter=July |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624080642/http://www.uab.edu/english/hone/etexts/edb/day-pages/207-july26.html |archivedate=2008-06-24 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blaisdell |first=Warren H. |date=November 1997 |title=How A Lion Fight Caused England To Stop The Breeding Of Both Ring And Pit Bulldogs |journal=American Bulldog Review |volume=3 |issue=4 |url=http://www.american-bulldog.com/how_a_lion.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424001716/http://www.american-bulldog.com/how_a_lion.htm |archivedate=2008-04-24 |accessdate=5 September 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lion tamin refers tae the practice o tamin lions fur enterteenment, aither as pairt o an established [[circus]] or as an indiveedual act, lik [[Siegfried & Roy]]. The term is forby eften uised fur the tamin an display o ither big cats lik teegers, leopards, an [[cougar]]s. The practice wis pioneered in the first hauf o the nineteent century bi Frenchman Henri Martin an American [[Isaac A. Van Amburgh|Isaac Van Amburgh]] wha baith toured widely, an whase techniques war copied bi a nummer o follaers.<ref name = "baratay187"/> Van Amburgh performed afore [[Queen Victoria]] in 1838 whan he toured Great Breetain. Martin componed a [[pantomime]] titled ''Les Lions de Mysore'' ("the lions o Mysore"), an idea that Amburgh quickly borraed. Thir acts eclipsed [[equestrianism]] acts as the central display o circus shaws, but truly entered public consciousness in the early twentiet century wi cinema. In demonstratin the superiority o human ower ainimal, lion tamin served a purpose seemilar tae ainimal fichts o previous centuries.<ref name="baratay187">[[#Baratay|Baratay & Hardouin-Fugier]], p. 187.</ref> The ultimate pruif o a tamer's dominance an control ower a lion is demonstratit bi placin his heid in the lion's gab. The nou iconic lion tamer's chair wis possibly first uised bi American [[Clyde Beatty]] (1903–1965).<ref>{{Cite book | first=David | last=Feldman | authorlink=David Feldman (author) | year=1993 | title=How Does Aspirin Find a Headache? | url=https://archive.org/details/howdoesaspirinfi00davi | publisher=HarperCollins | isbn= 0-06-016923-0 }}</ref> ==Notes==<!-- ContribZool76:87. --> {{reflist|30em}} ===Citit texts=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | last1 = Baratay |first1 = Eric | first2 = Elisabeth | last2 = Hardouin-Fugier |title= Zoo: a history of zoological gardens in the West | url = https://archive.org/details/zoohistoryofzool0000bara |year=2002 |publisher=Reaktion Books |location=London |isbn = 1-86189-111-3|ref=Baratay}} * {{cite book |last=Blunt |first= Wilfred |title= The Ark in the Park: The Zoo in the Nineteenth Century |year = 1975 | publisher =Hamish Hamilton |location=London |isbn=0-241-89331-3|ref=Blunt}} * {{cite book |last=de Courcy |first=Catherine |title= The Zoo Story |year= 1995 |publisher= Penguin Books | location = Ringwood, Victoria |isbn=0-14-023919-7|ref=Courcy}} * {{cite book | last= Schaller |first= George B. |authorlink= George Schaller|year= 1972 |title= The Serengeti lion: A study of predator-prey relations| url= https://archive.org/details/serengetilionstu0000scha |publisher= University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago |isbn = 0-226-73639-3 | ref =Schaller}} * {{cite book | last= Scott |first=Jonathon |last2=Scott |first2=Angela |year=2002 |title=Big Cat Diary: Lion | url= https://archive.org/details/lion0000scot_g1p0 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=0-00-714666-3 |ref=Scott}} {{refend}} [[Category:Lions| ]] [[Category:Ainimals descrived in 1758]] [[Category:Greek loanwirds]] [[Category:Mammals o Africae]] [[Category:Mammals o Indie]] [[Category:Megafauna o Africae]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Burundi]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Chad]] [[Category:Fauna o Wast Africae]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o the Republic o the Congo]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Kenyae]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Malawi]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Morocco]] [[Category:Fauna o East Africae]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Sierra Leone]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Singapore]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Sooth Africae]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Sri Lanka]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Swaziland]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Togo]] [[Category:Naitional seembols o Tunisie]] [[Category:Predators]] [[Category:Felids o Indie]] tf6ei8zc0sw3r9hs3mt4t9jx00963xh 0 45643 918751 915835 2026-06-24T23:42:36Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918751 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots}} {{Infobox deity | type = Greek | name = Zeus | image = Jupiter Smyrna Louvre Ma13.jpg | image_size = | alt = | caption = The ''Jupiter de Smyrne'', discovered in [[Smyrna]] in 1680<ref>The sculpture was presented to [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] as [[Aesculapius]] but restored as Zeus, ca. 1686, by [[Pierre Granier]], who added the upraised right arm brandishing the [[thunderbolt]]. Marble, middle 2nd century CE. Formerly in the 'Allée Royale', (Tapis Vert) in the [[Gardens of Versailles]], now conserved in the [[Louvre Museum]] ([http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=27483 official on-line catalog])</ref> | god_of = God o the sky, lichtnin, thunder, law, orner, juistice | abode = [[Moont Olympus]] | symbol = | consort = [[Hera]] an various [[Zeus#Consorts an childer|ithers]] | parents = [[Cronus]] an [[Rhea (meethologie)|Rhea]] | siblings = [[Hestia]], [[Hades]], [[Hera]],<br> [[Poseidon]], [[Demeter]] | children = [[Ares]], [[Athena]], [[Apollo]],<br> [[Artemis]], [[Aphrodite]],{{refn|name="aphrodite"|Thare are twa major conflictin stories for Aphrodite's oreegins: [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'' claims that she wis born frae the foam o the sea after Cronos castratit Uranus, makkin her Uranus's dauchter but [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' haes Aphrodite as the dauchter o Zeus an Dione.<ref>[[Homer]], ''[[Iliad|Il]].'', Beuk V.</ref> A speaker in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'' offers that thay war separate feegurs: [[Aphrodite#Aphrodite Ourania an Aphrodite Pandemos|Aphrodite Ourania an Aphrodite Pandemos]].<ref>[[Plato]], ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symp.]]'', 180e.</ref>}} [[Dionysus]],<br> [[Hebe (meethologie)|Hebe]], [[Hermes]], [[Heracles]],<br> [[Helen o Troy]], [[Hephaestus]], [[Perseus]],<br> [[Minos]], the [[Muse]]s, the [[Graces]] | mount = | Roman_equivalent = [[Jupiter (meethologie)|Jupiter]] }} In the [[Auncient Greece|auncient Greek]] [[Releegion in Ancient Greece|releegion]], '''Zeus''' ([[Auncient Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Ζεύς}}, ''Zeús''; [[Modren Greek]]: Δίας, ''Días'') is the "Faither o Gods an men" ({{lang|grc|πατὴρ ἀνδρῶν τε θεῶν τε}}, ''patḕr andrōn te theōn te'')<ref>[[Hesiod]], ''[[Theogony]]'' 542 and other sources.</ref> who rules the Olympians o [[Moont Olympus]] as a faither rules the faimily. He is the [[sky faither|god o sky]] an [[Leet o thunner gods|thunner]] in [[Greek meethologie]]. His [[Roman meethologie|Roman]] coonterpairt is [[Jupiter (meethologie)|Jupiter]], [[Hindu meethologie|Hindu]] coonterpairt is [[Indra]] an [[Etruscan meethologie|Etruscan]] coonterpairt is [[Tinia]]. ==Name== The god's name in the nominative is {{lang|grc|Ζεύς}} ''Zeús'' {{IPA|/zdeús/}}. It is inflected as follows: [[vocative]]: {{lang|grc|Ζεῦ}} / {{Lang|grc-Latn|Zeû}}; [[accusative]]: {{lang|grc|Δία}} / {{Lang|grc-Latn|Día}}; [[genitive]]: {{lang|grc|Διός}} / {{Lang|grc-Latn|Diós}}; [[dative]]: {{lang|grc|Διί}} / {{Lang|grc-Latn|Dií}}. The name ''Zeus'' is the Greek continuation o *[[Dyeus|{{PIE|Di̯ēus}}]], the [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Proto-Indo-European]] god o the daytime sky, cried *{{PIE|Dyeus ph₂tēr}} an aw ("Sky Father").<ref name="Zeus">{{cite web| url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/25/Z0012500.html| title=American Heritage Dictionary: Zeus| accessdate=2006-07-03| archive-date=2007-01-13| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070113013626/http://www.bartleby.com/61/25/Z0012500.html| url-status=dead}}</ref> The god is kent unner this name in the [[Rigvedic deities|Rigveda]] ([[Vedic Sanskrit]] ''[[Dyaus Pita|Dyaus/Dyaus Pita]]''), [[Laitin]] (compare ''[[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]]'', frae ''Iuppiter'', derivin frae the [[Proto-Indo-European]] vocative *{{PIE|dyeu-ph₂tēr}}<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Jupiter| title=Online Etymology Dictionary: Jupiter| accessdate=2006-07-03}}</ref>), comin' fae the [[PIE ruit|ruit]] *''dyeu''- ("tae shine", an in its mony derivatives, "sky, heiven, god").<ref name="Zeus"/> Zeus is the anly deity in the Olympic [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] whose name haes such a transparent Indo-European etymology.<ref>{{cite book|last=Burkert|title=Greek Religion|url=https://archive.org/details/greekreligion0000burk| year=1985| page= 321|isbn=0-674-36280-2}}</ref> The earliest attested forms o the name are the [[Mycenaean Greek]] ''di-we'' an ''di-wo'', written in [[Linear b]] syllabic script.<ref>[http://www.palaeolexicon.com/ Palaeolexicon], Word study tool of ancient languages</ref> [[Plato]], in his ''[[Cratylus]]'', gies a folk etymology o' Zeus meaning "cause o' life always to all things", because o' puns atween alternate titles of Zeus (''Zen'' and ''Dia'') wi tha Greek wirds fae life an' "because of". This etymology, wi Plato's entire method o' deriving etymologies, is'nay supported by modern scholarship. Diodorus Siculus wrote that Zeus wis called Zen an aw, because the humans believed that he wis the cause o' life (zen). While Lactantius wrote that he was called Zeus an' Zen, no because he wis the giver of life, but because he wis the first who lived o' the children of Cronus. == Mythology == === Birth === Cronus sired several children by Rhea: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, an Poseidon, but swallowed them aw as soon as they were born, since he had learnt fae Gaia an' Uranus that he wis destined tae be overthrown by his son as he had previously overthrown Uranus, his ain faither, an oracle that Rhea heard and wished tae avert. When Zeus wis about tae be born, Rhea sought Gaia tae devise a plan tae save him, so that Cronus would get his retribution for his acts against Uranus an' his ain wanes. Rhea gave birth tae Zeus in Crete, handing Cronus a rock wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly swallowed. === Infancy === Varying versions of the story exist: # According tae Hyginus (Fabulae, 139)) Zeus wis raised by a nymph named Amalthea. Since Saturn (Cronus) ruled aver the Earth, the heavens an' the sea, she hid him by dangling him on a rope fae a tree so he wis suspended atween earth, sea and sky and thus, invisible tae his faither. # According to Pseudo-Apollodorus (Bibliotheca, 1.1.5-7)) Zeus wis raised by a goat named Amalthea in a cave called Dictaeon Antron (Psychro Cave). A company of soldiers called Kouretes danced, shouted and clashed their spears against their shields so that Cronus would'nay hear the greeting wane. ==Zeus in meeth== ===Consorts an childer=== {{MultiCol}} ====Divine affspring==== {| border="1" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; width:350px; height:200px" |- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;" | <center>'''Mither''' || <center>'''Childer''' |- style="height:60px" |[[Aega (goddess)|Aega]] | [[Aegipan]]<ref>[[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], ''Fabulae'' 155</ref> |- | [[Ananke (meethologie)|Ananke]] or [[Themis]] | [[Moirai]]/Fates¹ # [[Atropos]] # [[Clotho]] # [[Lachesis (meethologie)|Lachesis]] |- | [[Demeter]] | # [[Persephone]] # [[Zagreus]] |- | [[Dione (meethologie)|Dione]] or [[Thalassa (meethologie)|Thalassa]] | [[Aphrodite]] |- | [[Eos]] | #[[Ersa]] # Carae |- | [[Eris (meethologie)|Eris]] | [[Limos (meethologie)|Limos]] |- | [[Eurynome (Oceanid)|Eurynome]]/[[Eurydome]]/<br>Eurymedusa/Euanthe | [[Charites]]/[[Graces]]² # [[Aglaea]] # [[Euphrosyne (meethologie)|Euphrosyne]] # [[Thalia (grace)|Thalia]] |- | [[Gaia (meethologie)|Gaia]] | # [[Orion (meethologie)|Orion]] # [[Manes (keeng)|Manes]] |- | [[Hera]] | # [[Ares]]³ # [[Eileithyia]] # [[Eris (meethologie)|Eris]] # [[Hebe (meethologie)|Hebe]]³ # [[Hephaestus]]³ # [[Angelos (Greek meethologit)|Angelos]] |- | [[Leto]] | # [[Apollo]] # [[Artemis]] |- | [[Maia (meethologie)|Maia]] | [[Hermes]] |- | [[Metis (meethologie)|Metis]] | [[Athena]]⁴ |- | [[Mnemosyne]] | # [[Muses]] (Oreeginal three) ## [[Aoide]] ## [[Melete]] ## [[Mneme]] # [[Muses]] (Later nine) ## [[Calliope]] ## [[Clio]] ## [[Erato]] ## [[Euterpe (meethologie)|Euterpe]] ## [[Melpomene]] ## [[Polyhymnia]] ## [[Terpsichore]] ## [[Thalia (muse)|Thalia]] ## [[Urania]] |- |[[Nemesis (meethologie)|Nemesis]] |[[Helen o Troy]] (possibly) |- | [[Persephone]] | # [[Zagreus]] # [[Melinoe]] |- | [[Selene]] | # [[Ersa]] # [[Nemean lion|Nemean Lion]] # [[Pandia]] |- | [[Thalia (nymph)|Thalia]] | [[Palici]] |- | [[Themis]] | # [[Astraea (meethologie)|Astraea]] # [[Nymphs o Eridanos]] # [[Nemesis (meethologie)|Nemesis]] # [[Horae]] ## First Generation ### [[Auxo]] ### [[Horae|Carpo]] ### [[Thallo]] ## Seicont Generation ### [[Dike (goddess)|Dike]] ### [[Eirene (Greek goddess)|Eirene]] ### [[Eunomia (goddess)|Eunomia]] ## Third generation ### [[Pherusa]] ### [[Euporie]] ### [[Horae|Orthosie]] |- | Unkent mither | [[Aletheia (mythology)|Aletheia]] |- | Unkent mither | [[Atë|Ate]] |- | Unkent mither | [[Caerus]] |- | Unkent mither | [[Litae]] |- | Unkent mither | [[Tyche]] |} {{ColBreak}} ====Semi-divine/mortal affspring==== {| border="1" style="margin:1em 1em 1em 0; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%; width:350px; height:200px;" |- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;" | <center>'''Mither''' || <center>'''Childer''' |- | [[Aegina (meethologie)|Aegina]] | # [[Aeacus]] # Damocrateia<ref>[[Scholia]] on [[Pindar]], Olympian Ode 9, 107</ref> |- | [[Alcmene]] | [[Heracles]] |- | [[Antiope (mither o Amphion)|Antiope]] | # [[Amphion]] # [[Zethus]] |- | Anaxithea | [[Olenus]] |- | Asterope, [[Leet o Oceanids|Oceanid]] | Acragas |- | [[Callisto the Greek meeth|Callisto]] | [[Arcas]] |- | [[Calyce (meethologie)|Calyce]] | [[Aethlius]] (possibly) |- | Callirhoe (dochter o [[Achelous]]) | nae kent affspring |- | [[Carme (meethologie)|Carme]] | [[Britomartis]] |- | [[Cassiopeia (meethologie)#Wife o Phoenix|Cassiopeia]] | [[Atymnius]] |- |Chaldene | # [[Solymus]] # Milye |- | [[Danaë]] | [[Perseus]] |- | [[Dia (meethologie)|Dia]] | [[Pirithous]] |- | [[Elara (meethologie)|Elara]] | # [[Tityos]] |- | [[Electra (Pleiad)|Electra]] | # [[Dardanus]] # [[Iasion]] # [[Harmonia (meethologie)|Harmonia]] |- | [[Europa (meethologie)|Europa]] | # [[Minos]] # [[Rhadamanthus]] # [[Sarpedon]] # [[Alagonia]] # [[Carnus]] # Dodon<ref>[[Stephanus o Byzantium]], s. v. ''Dōdōne'', wi a reference tae [[Acestodorus]]</ref> |- | [[Eurymedousa]] | [[Myrmidon (hero)|Myrmidon]] |- | Euryodeia | [[Arcesius]] |- | [[Himalia (meethologie)|Himalia]] | # Kronios # Spartaios # Kytos |- |Idaea, nymph |[[Cres (meethologie)|Cres]] |- | [[Iodame]] | [[Thebe (meethologie)|Thebe]] |- | [[Io (meethologie)|Io]] | # [[Epaphus]] # [[Keroessa]] |- | Isonoe | Orchomenus |- | [[Lamia (meethologie)|Lamia]] | #[[Akheilos]] #[[Sibyl|Herophile]] |- | [[Laodamia]] | [[Sarpedon]] |- | [[Leda (meethologie)|Leda]] | # [[Castor an Pollux|Pollux]] # [[Castor an Pollux|Castor]] # [[Helen o Troy]]⁵ |- | Maera | [[Locrus]] |- | [[Niobe]] | # [[Argus (keeng o Argos)|Argus]] # [[Pelasgus]] |- | [[Othreis]] | Meliteus |- |[[Pandora II|Pandora]] | #[[Graecus]] #[[Latinus]] |- | Phthia (dochter o [[Phoroneus]]) | [[Achaeus (son o Xuthus)|Achaeus]] (possibly) |- | [[Plouto]] | [[Tantalus]] |- | [[Podarge]] | # [[Balius]] # [[Balius an Xanthus|Xanthus]] |- | [[Protogeneia]] | #[[Aethlius]] (possibly) #[[Opus (meethologie)|Opus]] |- | [[Pyrrha]] | [[Hellen]] |- | [[Semele]] | [[Dionysus]] |- | [[Taygete]] | [[Lacedaemon]] |- | [[Thyia]] | #[[Magnes (meethologie)|Magnes]] #[[Makednos]] |- | Torrhebia | [[Carius]] |- | Nymph African | [[Iarbas]] |- | Nymph Samothracian | [[Saon (meethologie)|Saon]] (possibly) |- | Nymph Sithnid | [[Ancient Greek flood meeths#Deucalion|Megarus]] |- | Unkent mither | #Calabrus #Geraestus #[[Taenarus (meethologie)|Taenarus]] |- | Unkent mither | [[Corinthus]] |- | Unkent mither | [[Crinacus]] |} {{EndMultiCol}} ¹The Greeks variously claimit that the Moires/Fates wur the dochters o Zeus an the Titaness [[Themis]] or o primordial beins like [[Chaos (meethologie)|Chaos]], [[Nyx (meethologie)|Nyx]], or [[Ananke (meethologie)|Ananke]]. ²The Charites/Graces wur usually considered the dochters o Zeus an Eurynome but they wur said tae be dochters o Dionysus an Aphrodite or of Helios an the naiad Aegle an aw. ³Some accoonts say that Ares, Hebe an Hephaestus wur born parthenogenetically. ⁴Accordin tae ane version, Athena is said tae be born parthenogenetically. ⁵Helen wis either the dochter o Leda or Nemesis. ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Freemit airtins== {{commons|Zeus}} {{Greek meethologie (deities)}} {{Greek meeth (Olympian)}} [[Category:Zeus| ]] [[Category:Deities in the Iliad]] [[Category:Greek gods]] [[Category:Greek meethologie]] [[Category:Twal Olympians]] [[Category:Meethological keengs]] [[Category:Savior gods]] [[Category:Sky an wather gods]] [[Category:Thunner gods]] [[Category:Juistice gods]] [[Category:Oracular gods]] [[Category:Names o God]] 9x3dis8oq44m55aiv9dlewwtm0jjkv4 0 48844 918729 864708 2026-06-24T23:27:07Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918729 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots|date=Mairch 2021}} {{Taxobox | name=Gowk | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=IUCN2012>{{IUCN|id=106001205 |title=''Cuculus canorus'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2012.1 |year=2012 |accessdate=16 July 2012}}</ref> | image=Cuculus canorus vogelartinfo chris romeiks CHR0791 cropped.jpg | image_width=250px | image2= Cuculus canorus.ogg | regnum=[[Animal]]ia | phylum=[[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis=[[Bird|Aves]] | ordo=[[Cuculiformes]] | familia=[[Cuculidae]] | genus=''[[Cuculus]]'' | species='''''C. canorus''''' | binomial=''Cuculus canorus'' | binomial_authority=[[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10t edeetion o Systema Naturae|1758]] }} [[File:Cuculus canorus canorus MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.149.48.jpg|thumb| ''Cuculus canorus canorus'' + ''Acrocephalus arundinaceus'']] [[File:Cuculus canorus bangsi MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.149.13.jpg|thumb| ''Cuculus canorus bangsi'' + ''Phoenicurus moussieri'']] The gowk, (''Cuculus canorus'') is a memmer o the [[cuckoo]] order o [[bird]]s, ''Cuculiformes'', which includes the [[Geococcyx|roadrunner]]s, the [[ani (bird)|anis]] an the [[coucal]]s. This species is a widespread simmer [[bird migration|migrant]] tae [[Europe]] an [[Asie]], an winters in [[Africae]]. It is a [[brood parasite]], which means it lays eggs in the nests o ither bird species, particularly o [[Dunnock]]s, [[Meadow Pipit]]s, an [[Eurasian Reed Warbler]]s. ==Taxonomy== The gowk is a memmer o the [[cuckoo]] order o [[bird]]s, the ''Cuculiformes'', which also includes the [[Geococcyx|roadrunner]]s, the [[ani (bird)|anis]] an the [[coucal]]s.<ref name=IUCN2012/> The species' [[binomial name]] is derived frae the [[Latin leid|Latin]] ''cuculus'' (the cuckoo) an ''canorus'' (melodious; frae ''canere'', meaning tae sing).<ref name="bto"> {{cite web |last=Robinson |first=R. A. |year=2005 |title=Cuckoo ''Cuculus canorus'' |url=http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob7240.htm |work=BirdFacts: Profiles of Birds Occurring in Britain & Ireland |publisher=[[British Trust for Ornithology]] |id=BTO Research Report 407 |accessdate=12 August 2011 }}</ref> In Inglis an ither leids, the gowk faimily gets its common name "cuckoo" an [[Binomial nomenclature|genus name]] bi [[onomatopoeia]] for the cry o the male gowk.<ref name=BWP> {{cite book |last=Snow |first=D. W. |last2=Perrins |first2=C. |title=The Birds of the Western Palearctic |url=https://archive.org/details/birdsofwesternpa0001snow |edition=Abridged |year=1997 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-854099-X }}</ref> The [[Inglish leid|Inglis]]<nowiki/>wird "cuckoo" comes frae the [[Auld French]] ''cucu'' an it first appears aboot 1240<ref name=ODBBN> {{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of British Bird Names |last=Lockwood |first=W. B. |year=1993 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-866196-2 }}</ref> in the poem ''[[Sumer Is Icumen In]]'' - "Simmer haes come in / Loudly sing, Cuckoo!" in modren [[Inglish leid|Inglis.]] There are fower subspecies warldwide:<ref name="ibc">{{cite web |author= |title=Common Cuckoo (''Cuculus canorus'') |work=[[Internet Bird Collection]] |url=http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/common-cuckoo-cuculus-canorus |publisher=[[Lynx Edicions]] |accessdate=20 August 2011 |archive-date=2013-04-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130417011834/http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/common-cuckoo-cuculus-canorus |url-status=dead }}</ref> * ''C. c. canorus'', the nominate subspecies, wis first describit bi [[Linnaeus]] in 1758. It occurs frae the [[Breetish Isles]] through [[Scandinavia]], north [[Roushie]] an [[Siberie]] tae [[Japan]] in the east, an frae the [[Pyrenees]] through [[Turkey]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Mongolie]], northren [[Cheenae]] an [[Korea]]. It winters in Africae an sooth Asie. * ''C. c. bakeri'', first describit bi [[Ernst Hartert|Hartert]] in 1912, breeds in wastren Cheenae tae the [[Himalaya]]n fithills in northren [[Indie]], [[Nepal]], [[Myanmar]], north-wast [[Thailand]] an soothren Cheenae. Durin winter it is foond in [[Assam]], [[East Bengal]] an sooth-east Asie. * ''C. c. bangsi'' wis first describit bi [[Harry Church Oberholser|Oberholser]] in 1919 an breeds in [[Iberie]], the [[Balearic Islands]] an north Africae, spendin winter in Africae. * ''C. c. subtelephonus'', first describit bi [[Nikolai Zarudny|Zarudny]] in 1914, breeds in central Asie frae [[Turkestan]] tae soothren [[Mongolie]]. It migrates tae soothren Asie an Africae for winter. ==References== {{reflist|30em}} ==Freemit airtins== {{commons|Cuculus canorus}} *{{cite cd |year=2005 |title=The Rules of Life |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/rulesoflife.shtml |publisher=[[BBC]]/[[Open University]]}} *[http://www.ibercajalav.net/img/265_CuckooCcanorus.pdf Ageing and sexing (PDF; 2.4 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112113527/http://www.ibercajalav.net/img/265_CuckooCcanorus.pdf |date=2013-11-12 }} *[http://www.arkive.org/species/ARK/birds/Cuculus_canorus/ ARKive Still photos and videos.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915170047/http://www.arkive.org/species/ARK/birds/Cuculus_canorus/ |date=2008-09-15 }} *[http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/common-cuckoo-cuculus-canorus Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130417011834/http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/common-cuckoo-cuculus-canorus |date=2013-04-17 }} videos an photos at the Internet Bird Collection * (European Cuckoo = ) Common Cuckoo - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/374.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds]. [[Category:Cuculus]] {{stub/Bird}} hyr571rkvmecpw7hisv16uzfnae5vyg 0 49353 918773 885788 2026-06-25T07:10:22Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 918773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox sportsperson | name = Cătălina Ponor | image = Cătălina Ponor.PNG | imagesize = 225px | caption = | fullname = Cătălina Ponor | nickname = Cătă | birth_date = {{birth date and age|mf=yes|1987|08|20}} | birth_place = [[Constanţa]], [[Socialist Republic o Romanie|Romanie]] | sport = [[Gymnastics]] | country = {{ROU}} | height = 160 centimetres (5 ft 3 in) | weight = 51 kilograms (112 lb 7 oz) | club = [[CS Dinamo București]] | coach = [[Octavian Belu]] | medaltemplates = {{MedalCountry | {{ROU}} }} {{MedalCompetition|Olympic Gemmes}} {{MedalGold|[[2004 Simmer Olympics|2004 Athens]]|[[Gymnastics at the 2004 Simmer Olympics – Weemen's airtistic team aw-aroond|Team]]}} {{MedalGold|[[2004 Simmer Olympics|2004 Athens]]|[[Gymnastics at the 2004 Simmer Olympics – Weemen's balance beam|Balance beam]]}} {{MedalGold|[[2004 Simmer Olympics|2004 Athens]]|[[Gymnastics at the 2004 Simmer Olympics – Weemen's floor|Floor Exercise]]}} {{MedalSilver|[[2012 Simmer Olympics|2012 Lunnon]]|[[Gymnastics at the 2012 Simmer Olympics – Weemen's floor|Floor Exercise]]}} {{MedalBronze|[[2012 Simmer Olympics|2012 Lunnon]]|[[Gymnastics at the 2012 Simmer Olympics – Weemen's airtistic team aw-aroond|Team]]}} {{MedalCompetition|[[Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|Warld Championships]]}} {{MedalSilver|[[2003 Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2003 Anaheim]]|Team}} {{MedalSilver|[[2003 Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2003 Anaheim]]|Balance Beam}} {{MedalSilver|[[2003 Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2003 Anaheim]]|Floor Exercise}} {{MedalBronze|[[2005 Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2005 Melbourne]]|Balance Beam}} {{MedalBronze|[[2007 Warld Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2007 Stuttgart]]|Team}} {{MedalCompetition|[[Airtistic Gymnastics Warld Cup|Warld Cup Final]]}} {{MedalGold|2004 Birmingham|Balance Beam}} {{MedalSilver|2004 Birmingham|Floor Exercise}} {{MedalCompetition|[[European Weemen's Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|European Championships]]}} {{MedalGold|2004 Amsterdam|Team}} {{MedalGold|2004 Amsterdam|Balance Beam}} {{MedalGold|2004 Amsterdam|Floor Exercise}} {{MedalGold|2005 Debrecen|Balance Beam}} {{MedalGold|2006 Volos|Balance Beam}} {{MedalGold|[[2012 European Weemen's Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2012 Brussels]]|Team}} {{MedalGold|[[2012 European Weemen's Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2012 Brussels]]|Balance Beam}} {{MedalSilver|2006 Volos|Team}} {{MedalSilver|[[2012 European Weemen's Airtistic Gymnastics Championships|2012 Brussels]]|Floor Exercise}} {{MedalBronze|2006 Volos|Floor Exercise}} {{MedalCompetition|[[Airtistic Gymnastics Warld Cup|Warld Cup]]}} {{MedalGold|2003 Stuttgart|Balance Beam}} {{MedalGold|2004 Cottbus|Balance Beam}} {{MedalGold|2012 Doha|Balance Beam}} {{MedalGold|2012 Doha|Floor Exercise}} {{MedalGold|2012 Ghent|Balance Beam}} {{MedalSilver|2004 Cottbus|Floor Exercise}} {{MedalBronze|2003 Stuttgart|Floor Exercise}} }} '''Cătălina Ponor''' ({{IPA-ro|kətəˈlina poˈnor}}; born August 20, 1987) is a [[Romanie]] umwhile [[Airtistic gymnastics|airtistic gymnast]]. She wan three gowd medals at the [[2004 Simmer Olympics]], on balance beam, floor, an as pairt o the Romanian team. She an aa obtained a siller medal on floor an a bronze medal as pairt o the Romanian team at the [[2012 Simmer Olympics]], as well as multiple Warld Championship an European Championship medals. ==Freemit airtins== {{Portal|Gymnastics}} * {{Fig|id=418|name=Catalina Ponor}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120801094939/http://www.london2012.com/athlete/ponor-catalina-1048603/ Cătălina Ponor] at [[2012 Simmer Olympics]] {{commons category|Cătălina Ponor}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ponor, Catalina}} [[Category:1987 births]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:Fowk frae Constanţa]] [[Category:Romanie female airtistic gymnasts]] [[Category:Olympic gymnasts o Romanie]] [[Category:Olympic gowd medallists for Romanie]] [[Category:Gymnasts at the 2004 Simmer Olympics]] [[Category:Medallists at the Warld Airteestic Gymnastics Championships]] [[Category:European Champions in Gymnastics]] [[Category:Olympic medallists in gymnastics]] [[Category:Gymnasts at the 2012 Simmer Olympics]] [[Category:Olympic bronze medallists for Romanie]] [[Category:Gymnasts at the 2016 Simmer Olympics]] 2nb2m6v4oeg1vsm4q388znkg3fe13ze 0 51286 918768 900977 2026-06-25T03:18:39Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 918768 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement |official_name = Bir Lehlou |other_name = Bir Lahlou |native_name = بير لحلو |settlement_type = [[Municipalities o Wastren Sahara|Municipality]] |image_skyline = Bir Lehlu school.jpg |imagesize = |image_caption = Inauguration o the schuil "José Ramón Diego Aguirre" in Bir Lehlou, Mey 20, 2005 |image_flag = |image_seal = |image_map = |map_caption = |pushpin_map = Western Sahara |pushpin_label_position = bottom |pushpin_mapsize = 300 |pushpin_map_caption = Location in Wastren Sahara |subdivision_type = [[Kintras o the warld|Territory]] |subdivision_type1 = Claimed bi |subdivision_name = [[Wastren Sahara]] |subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon|Morocco}} [[Kinrick o Morocco]]<br/>{{SADR}} |subdivision_type2 = Controlled bi |subdivision_name2 = [[Sahrawi Republic]] |established_title = |established_date = |government_type = [[Municipality]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Allocating seats for the liberated territories in Parliament will be considered in the next election (Official)|url=http://www.spsrasd.info/en/content/allocating-seats-liberated-territories-parliament-will-be-considered-next-election-official|publisher=[[Sahara Press Service]]|date=20 February 2012|accessdate=2 July 2012|archive-date=2014-09-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912163454/http://www.spsrasd.info/en/content/allocating-seats-liberated-territories-parliament-will-be-considered-next-election-official|url-status=dead}}</ref> |leader_title = [[Mayor]] |leader_name = Abeid Moulud<ref>[http://www.noticiasdegipuzkoa.com/2011/01/08/vecinos/tolosaldea/tolosa-renueva-su-hermanamiento-con-el-municipio-saharaui-de-bir-lehlu Tolosa renueva su hermanamiento con el municipio saharaui de Bir Lehlu] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130419131958/http://www.noticiasdegipuzkoa.com/2011/01/08/vecinos/tolosaldea/tolosa-renueva-su-hermanamiento-con-el-municipio-saharaui-de-bir-lehlu |date=2013-04-19 }} [[:es:Noticias de Gipuzkoa|Noticias de Gipuzkoa]], 8 January 2011 {{es icon}}</ref> |area_magnitude = |area_total_sq_mi = |area_total_km2 = |area_land_sq_mi = |area_land_km2 = |area_urban_sq_mi = |area_urban_km2 = |area_metro_km2 = |area_metro_sq_mi = |population_as_of= |population_footnotes = |population_total = |population_urban = |population_metro = |population_density_sq_mi = |population_density_km2 = |timezone = |utc_offset = |timezone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |coordinates = {{coord|26|20|58|N|09|34|32|W|region:EH|display=inline}} |elevation_footnotes= |elevation_m = 475 |elevation_ft = |postal_code_type = |postal_code = |area_code = |website = |footnotes = }} '''Bir Lehlou''' (an aa [[transliteratit]] '''Bir Lahlou''', '''Bir Lehlu''', [[Arabic leid|Arabic]]: بير لحلو) is an [[oasis]] toun in north-eastren [[Wastren Sahara]], 236&nbsp;km. frae [[Smara]], near the Mauritanian border an east o the [[Border Wall (Wastren Sahara)|border wall]], in [[POLISARIO]]-held territory. It haes a [[dispensary]], a [[schuil]] an a [[mosque]]. It is the heid o the 5t militar region o the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]]. It is an aa the name o a [[Daïra]] o the [[Wilaya]] o [[Smara]], in the [[Refugee camps in Tindouf Province, Algerie|Sahrawi refugee camps]]. The name "Bir Lehlou" is transcribed frae [[Arabic leid|Arabic]], an means "the sweet watter well". The Arabic transcription wad be "bir lahlu" (بير لحلو). <!-- articles mismatched? --> ==History== The '''Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic''', an exiled govrenment seatit in [[Tindouf]], [[Algerie]], admeenisters it as the temporary caipital o the SADR, as lang as the [[Wastren Sahara|Sahrawi]] caipital o [[El Aaiún|El-Aaiun]] is unner [[Morocco|Moroccan]] control. For example, it haed been the scenario o reunions o SADR's Naitional Secretariat.<ref>{{cite news|title=The National Secretariat calls UN to compel Morocco to conform to the international legality|url=http://www.spsrasd.info/sps-e030505.html|publisher=SPS|date=3 Mey 2005|accessdate=22 September 2010|archive-date=2009-10-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091005101321/http://www.spsrasd.info/sps-e030505.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> This is an aa frae whaur the republic's existence wis proclaimed ower radio on the nicht o Februar 27, 1976, bi its first preses, [[El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed]]. Some soorces leet an aa Bir Lehlou as El-Ouali's birthplace.<ref>[http://www.bladi.net/sahara-le-retour-du-guerrier.html Sahara : le retour du guerrier]</ref> [[File:BirLehlu.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Gas station in Bir Lehlou. August 14, 2011.]] Syne late 1975, [[Radio Nacional de la R.A.S.D.|Radio Nacional de la Republica Árabe Saharaui Democrática]] (Naitional Radio o the SADR) haed broadcastit frae thare on baith medium an short wave, wabcastin the programmin in [[Hassaniya]] [[Arabic]], an an aa some oors in [[Spainyie leid|Spainyie]].<ref name = "radio">{{cite web | title = Radio Nacional de la R.A.S.D. | url = http://web.jet.es/rasd/radio.htm | accessdate = 9 September 2010 | archive-date = 2010-03-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100311061739/http://web.jet.es/rasd/radio.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref> On Mey 20, 2005, coincidin wi the 32nt anniversary o the beginnin o the airmed struggle o the Polisario Front, a primary schuil wis inauguratit in Bir Lehlou. The schuil wis named "[[José Ramón Diego Aguirre]]" (Spainyie colonel an historian, first foreigner tae be awairdit wi the Sahrawi honorific nationality) in his honour.<ref>{{cite news | title = Polisario Front celebrates its 32nd anniversary in the liberated territories | url = http://www.spsrasd.info/sps-e190505.html | publisher = [[Sahara Press Service|SPS]] | date = 19 Mey 2005 | accessdate = 9 September 2010 | archive-date = 2009-10-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091005101616/http://www.spsrasd.info/sps-e190505.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> On Februar 27, 2010, Bir Lehlou hostit the 34t anniversary o the proclamation o the SADR, wi the presence o several African an Sooth American ambassadors.<ref>{{cite news|title=Diplomatic and political delegations participate in 34th anniversary festivities of SADR|url=http://www.spsrasd.info/en/detail.php?id=10083|publisher=[[Sahara Press Service|SPS]]|date=27 Februar 2010|accessdate=22 September 2010}}{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> On October 12, 2011, durin the 36t Naitional Unity Day celebrations, commander o the Sahrawi 5t militar region Hama Salama inauguratit an ampliation o the toun's schuil, as well as a mosque.<ref>{{cite news | title=Inauguradas instalaciones en Bir Lehlo en el marco de las celebraciones del 36 Aniversario de la Unidad Nacional | url=http://www.spsrasd.info/es/content/inauguradas-instalaciones-en-bir-lehlo-en-el-marco-de-las-celebraciones-del-36-aniversario-d | publisher=SPS | date=17 October 2011 | accessdate=18 October 2011 | archive-date=2011-10-18 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018143259/http://spsrasd.info/es/content/inauguradas-instalaciones-en-bir-lehlo-en-el-marco-de-las-celebraciones-del-36-aniversario-d | url-status=dead }} {{es icon}}</ref> ==Internaitional relations== ===Twin touns an sister ceeties=== Bir Lehlou is [[toun twinnin|twinned]] wi: {{Col-start}} {{Col-3}} *{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Artziniega]], [[Álava]], [[Basque Kintra (autonomous community)|Basque Kintra]], [[Spain]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Aytº de Artziniega (Álava)|url=http://www.euskalfondoa.org/sahara/ayuntamiento.php?id=es&Nayunta=1119362013|publisher=[[:es:Euskal Fondoa|Euskal Fondoa]]|accessdate=14 Februar 2013|archive-date=2014-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019170007/http://www.euskalfondoa.org/sahara/ayuntamiento.php?id=es&Nayunta=1119362013|url-status=dead}}{{es icon}}</ref> *{{flagicon|Algeria}} [[Batna Ceety|Batna]], [[Batna Province]], [[Algerie]] (''syne Julie 8, 2009'') *{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Benalúa de las Villas]], [[Granada]], [[Andalucía]], Spain (''syne 2001'') *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Bientina]], [[Firenze]], [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]]<ref name="ToscanaGemellaggi">[http://www.consiglio.regione.toscana.it/aiccre/documenti/GEMELLAGGI_in_ordine_ALFABETICO.xls Gemellaggi e Patti di Amicizia]{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Regione Toscana - Consiglio Regionale, 27 March 2010 {{it icon}}</ref> *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Capraia e Limite]], Firenze, Tuscany, Italy<ref name="ToscanaGemellaggi" /> *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Campi Bisenzio]], Firenze, Tuscany, Italy (''since January 28, 1993'')<ref>[http://www.comune.campi-bisenzio.fi.it/flex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/4529 Gemellaggio con la Tendopoli Bir Lehlu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127210002/http://www.comune.campi-bisenzio.fi.it/flex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/4529 |date=2020-11-27 }} Comune.campi-bisenzio.fi.it {{it icon}}</ref> *{{flagicon|Algeria}} [[El Oued]], [[El Oued Province]], Algerie (''syne Mairch 27, 2013'')<ref>{{cite news|title=Signing twining agreement between Bir Lehlou and Algerian Municipality of El Ouadi|url=http://www.spsrasd.info/en/content/signing-twining-agreement-between-bir-lehlou-and-algerian-municipality-el-ouadi|publisher=SPS|date=31 March 2013|accessdate=3 April 2013|archive-date=2013-12-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203012403/http://www.spsrasd.info/en/content/signing-twining-agreement-between-bir-lehlou-and-algerian-municipality-el-ouadi|url-status=dead}}</ref> *{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Pozuelo de Alarcón]], [[Madrid]], Spain (''syne Aprile 23, 2008'') *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Prato]], [[Province of Prato|Prato]], Tuscany, Italy (''syne Mairch 19, 1999'')<ref>[http://www.comune.prato.it/prato/gemella/htm/birlehlu.htm Gemellaggi della città di Prato - Bir-Lehlu - Repubblica Araba Saharawi Democratica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227201421/http://www.comune.prato.it/prato/gemella/htm/birlehlu.htm |date=2012-12-27 }} Comune.prato.it {{it icon}}</ref> *{{flagicon|Spain}} [[La Rinconada]], [[Sevilla]], Andalucía, Spain {{Col-3}} *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Montemurlo]], Prato, Tuscany, Italy<ref name="ToscanaGemellaggi" /> *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Monteroni d'Arbia]], [[Siena]], Tuscany, Italy<ref name="ToscanaGemellaggi" /> *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Montevarchi]], [[Arezzo]], Tuscany, Italy<ref name="ToscanaGemellaggi" /> *{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Novelda]], [[Alicante]], [[Comunidad Valenciana]], Spain (''syne December 1998'')<ref>[http://elpais.com/diario/1998/12/09/cvalenciana/913234684_850215.html Solidaridad a pie de duna] [[El País]], 9 December 1998 {{es icon}}</ref> *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[San Piero a Sieve]], Firenze, Tuscany, Italy<ref name="ToscanaGemellaggi" /> *{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Sagunto]], [[Valencia province|Valencia]], Comunidad Valenciana, Spain (''syne November 29, 2003'') *{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Tolosa, Spain|Tolosa]], [[Gipuzkoa]], Basque Kintra, Spain (''syne 1996'')<ref>[http://www.noticiasdegipuzkoa.com/2011/05/08/vecinos/tolosaldea/tolosa-organiza-diversos-actos-por-del-15-aniversario-del-hermanamiento-con-bir-lehlu?pestana=Videos Tolosa organiza diversos actos por del 15º aniversario del hermanamiento con Bir-Lehlu] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130411122124/http://www.noticiasdegipuzkoa.com/2011/05/08/vecinos/tolosaldea/tolosa-organiza-diversos-actos-por-del-15-aniversario-del-hermanamiento-con-bir-lehlu?pestana=Videos |date=2013-04-11 }}, [[:es:Noticias de Gipuzkoa|Noticias de Gipuzkoa]], 8 May 2011 {{es icon}}</ref> *{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Tomelloso]], [[Province of Ciudad Real|Ciudad Real]], [[Castile-La Mancha]], Spain (''since March 10, 1994'')<ref>[http://www.tomelloso.es/portal/user/anon/group/anon/page/default.psml/tomelloso.cpxid/5.1;jsessionid=58EA6599E9C53703CD0381614EFA0FA4?SelectedProxy.target=documents_1_1_published_6700 Historia - Hermanamientos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030192846/http://www.tomelloso.es/portal/user/anon/group/anon/page/default.psml/tomelloso.cpxid/5.1%3Bjsessionid%3D58EA6599E9C53703CD0381614EFA0FA4?SelectedProxy.target=documents_1_1_published_6700 |date=2014-10-30 }}, Tomelloso.es {{es icon}}</ref> *{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Trapagaran]], [[Biscay]], Basque Country, Spain<ref>{{cite web|title=Aytº de Valle de Trápaga (Bizkaia)|url=http://www.euskalfondoa.org/sahara/ayuntamiento.php?id=es&Nayunta=1119361980|publisher=[[:es:Euskal Fondoa|Euskal Fondoa]]|accessdate=14 Februar 2013|archive-date=2014-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019170005/http://www.euskalfondoa.org/sahara/ayuntamiento.php?id=es&Nayunta=1119361980|url-status=dead}}{{es icon}}</ref> *{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Vecchiano]], [[Province o Pisa|Pisa]], Tuscany, Italy<ref name="ToscanaGemellaggi" /> {{Col-end}} == See also == {{Portal|Wastren Sahara}} * [[Politics o Wastren Sahara]] * [[History o Wastren Sahara]] {{-}} ==References== <references /> ==Freemit airtins== *[http://www.arso.org/photo27.htm Photo & full text of the proclamation of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic in Bir Lehlou, 27-02-1976] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412000855/https://www.arso.org/photo27.htm |date=2021-04-12 }} {{en icon}}{{es icon}}{{fr icon}} {{-}} {{Geographic Location |Centre = Bir Lehlou |North = [[Farsia]] |Northeast = [[Mahbes]] |East = [[Image:1959-2017 Flag of Mauritania.svg|20px]] [[Tiris Zemmour Region]], [[Mauritanie]] |Southeast = [[Image:1959-2017 Flag of Mauritania.svg|20px]] [[Tiris Zemmour Region]], [[Mauritanie]] |South = [[Image:1959-2017 Flag of Mauritania.svg|20px]] [[Ain Ben Tili]], [[Mauritanie]] |Southwest = [[Bir Tighissit]] |West = [[Tifariti]] |Northwest = [[Jdiriya]] }} {{Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}} [[Category:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]] [[Category:Populatit places in Wastren Sahara]] [[Category:Caupitals in Africae]] [[Category:Oases o Wastren Sahara]] qcq1peclvb0ib81of78e7clx9ffz6y0 0 51760 918746 886513 2026-06-24T23:39:14Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918746 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement <!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions --> | name = Nagasaki | official_name = 長崎市 · Nagasaki Ceety | native_name = 長崎 | native_name_lang = | settlement_type = [[Core ceety]] <!-- images, nickname, motto ---> | image_skyline = Nagasaki City view from Hamahira01s3.jpg | imagesize = 300px | image_alt = | image_caption = Nagasaki's waterfront aurie | image_flag = Flag of Nagasaki, Nagasaki.svg | flag_alt = | image_seal = | seal_alt = | image_shield = | shield_alt = | image_blank_emblem = | nickname = | motto = <!-- maps and coordinates ------> | image_map = Nagasaki in Nagasaki Prefecture Ja.svg | map_alt = | map_caption = <small>Location of Nagasaki in Nagasaki Prefecture</small> | image_dot_map = | dot_mapsize = | dot_map_base_alt = | dot_map_alt = | dot_map_caption = | dot_x = |dot_y = | pushpin_map = Japan | pushpin_label_position = <!-- position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_map_caption = &nbsp; | coordinates = {{coord|32|47|N|129|52|E|region:JP|display=inline,title}} | coor_pinpoint = <!-- to specify exact location of coordinates (was coor_type) --> | coordinates_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> <!-- location ------------------> | subdivision_type = [[Leet o sovereign states|Kintra]] | subdivision_name = Japan | subdivision_type1 = [[Leet o regions o Japan|Region]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Kyushu]] | subdivision_type2 = [[Prefecturs o Japan|Prefectur]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Nagasaki Prefectur]] | subdivision_type3 = [[Destricts o Japan|Destrict]] | subdivision_name3 = N/A <!-- established ---------------> | established_title = <!-- Settled --> | established_date = | founder = | named_for = <!-- seat, smaller parts -------> | seat_type = <!-- defaults to: Seat --> | seat = <!-- government type, leaders --> | government_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | leader_party = | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = [[Tomihisa Taue]] (2007-) | leader_title1 = | leader_name1 = <!-- etc., up to leader_title4 / leader_name4 --> <!-- display settings ---------> | total_type = <!-- to set a non-standard label for total area and population rows --> | unit_pref = <!-- enter: Imperial, to display imperial before metric --> <!-- area ----------------------> | area_magnitude = <!-- use only to set a special wikilink --> | area_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | area_total_km2 = 406.35 | area_total_sq_mi = <!-- see table @ Template:Infobox settlement for details --> | area_land_km2 = 241.20 | area_land_sq_mi = | area_water_km2 = 165.15 | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent = | area_note = <!-- elevation -----------------> | elevation_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | elevation_m = | elevation_ft = <!-- population ----------------> | population_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags --> | population_total = 446007 | population_as_of = Januar 1, 2009 | population_density_km2 = 1100 | population_density_sq_mi= | population_est = | pop_est_as_of = | population_demonym = <!-- demonym, ie. Liverpudlian for someone from Liverpool --> | population_note = <!-- time zone(s) --------------> | timezone1 = [[Japan Staundart Time]] | utc_offset1 = +9 | timezone1_DST = | utc_offset1_DST = <!-- postal codes, area code ---> | postal_code_type = | postal_code = | area_code_type = <!-- defaults to: Area code(s) --> | area_code = <!-- blank fields (section 1) --> | blank_name_sec1 = Ceety Seembols | blank1_name_sec1 = - Tree | blank1_info_sec1 = [[Cheenese tallow tree]] | blank2_name_sec1 = - Flouer | blank2_info_sec1 = [[Hydrangea]] | blank3_name_sec1 = | blank3_info_sec1 = | blank4_name_sec1 = | blank4_info_sec1 = | blank5_name_sec1 = | blank5_info_sec1 = | blank6_name_sec1 = | blank6_info_sec1 = | blank7_name_sec1 = | blank7_info_sec1 = <!-- blank fields (section 2) --> | blank_name_sec2 = Phone&nbsp;nummer | blank_info_sec2 = 095-825-5151 | blank1_name_sec2 = Address | blank1_info_sec2 = 2-22 Sakura-machi, Nagasaki-shi, Nagasaki-ken<br />850-8685 <!-- website, footnotes --------> | website = {{URL|www1.city.nagasaki.nagasaki.jp}} | footnotes = }} {{Nihongo|'''Nagasaki'''|長崎市|Nagasaki-shi}} ({{Audio|ja-Nagasaki.ogg|listen}}) is the [[Caipital (poleetical)|caipital]] an the lairgest [[Municipalities o Japan|ceety]] o [[Nagasaki Prefectur]] on the island o [[Kyushu]] in Japan. Nagasaki wis foondit bi the [[Portugese Empire|Portuguese]] in the seicont hauf o the 16t century on the steid o a smaa fishin veelage, formerly pairt o [[Nishisonogi Destrict, Nagasaki|Nishisonogi Destrict]]. It acame a [[Nanban trade|centre o Portuguese an ither European fowks' influence in the 16t]] throu 19t centuries, an the [[Kirks an Christian Steids in Nagasaki]] hae been proposed for inscription on the [[Warld Heritage Steids in Japan|UNESCO Warld Heritage Leet]]. Pairt o Nagasaki wis home tae a major [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] base durin the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] an [[Russo-Japanese War]]. Its name means "long cape". Durin [[Warld War II]], the [[atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki]] made Nagasaki the seicont an, tae date, last ceety in the warld tae experience a [[nuclear attack]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Hakim | first = Joy | title = A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofusbook50000haki | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1995 | location = New York | pages = | isbn = 0-19-509514-6 }}</ref> ==Geografie an climate== Nagasaki an [[Nishisonogi Peninsula]]s are locatit within the ceety leemits. The ceety is surroondit bi the ceeties o [[Isahaya, Nagasaki|Isahaya]] an [[Saikai, Nagasaki|Saikai]], an the touns o [[Togitsu, Nagasaki|Togitsu]] an [[Nagayo, Nagasaki|Nagayo]] in [[Nishisonogi Destrict, Nagasaki|Nishisonogi Destrict]]. Nagasaki lies at the heid o a lang bay which forms the best naitural harbor on the island o Kyūshū. The main commercial an residential aurie o the ceety lies on a smaa plain near the end o the bay. Twa rivers dividit bi a muntain spur fairm the twa main valleys in which the ceety lies. The hivily biggit-up aurie o the ceety is confined bi the terrain tae less nor {{convert|4|sqmi|km2}}. Nagasaki haes the teepical [[humid subtropical climate]] o Kyūshū an Honshū. Apairt frae [[Kanazawa, Ishikawa|Kanazawa]] an [[Shizuoka, Shizuoka|Shizuoka]] it is the wettest sizeable ceety in Japan an indeed aw o temperate Eurasie, an in the simmer the heat an humidity can be very unpleasant, wi [[wet-bulb temperatur]]s whiles reachin {{convert|26|C|F}}. In the winter, houiver, it is drier an sunnier than [[Gotō, Nagasaki|Gotō]] tae the wast, an temperaturs are slichtly milder than faur inland in Kyūshū. Syne records began in 1878 the wettest month haes been Julie 1982 wi {{convert|1178|mm|in|0}} includin {{convert|555|mm|in|1}} in a single day, whilst the driest month haes been September 1967 wi {{convert|1.8|mm|in|2}}. <div style="width:75%;"> {{Weather box |location = Nagasaki (1981～2010) |metric first = yes |single line = yes |Jan record high C = 21.3 |Feb record high C = 22.6 |Mar record high C = 24.4 |Apr record high C = 29.0 |May record high C = 34.6 |Jun record high C = 36.4 |Jul record high C = 37.7 |Aug record high C = 37.6 |Sep record high C = 36.1 |Oct record high C = 33.7 |Nov record high C = 27.4 |Dec record high C = 23.8 |year record high C = 37.7 |Jan high C = 10.4 |Feb high C = 11.7 |Mar high C = 14.8 |Apr high C = 19.7 |May high C = 23.5 |Jun high C = 26.4 |Jul high C = 30.1 |Aug high C = 31.7 |Sep high C = 28.6 |Oct high C = 23.8 |Nov high C = 18.3 |Dec high C = 13.1 |year high C = 21.0 |Jan low C = 3.8 |Feb low C = 4.4 |Mar low C = 7.3 |Apr low C = 11.6 |May low C = 15.8 |Jun low C = 20.0 |Jul low C = 24.3 |Aug low C = 25.1 |Sep low C = 21.8 |Oct low C = 16.1 |Nov low C = 10.8 |Dec low C = 5.9 |year low C = 13.9 |Jan record low C = &minus;5.2 |Feb record low C = &minus;4.8 |Mar record low C = &minus;3.6 |Apr record low C = 0.2 |May record low C = 5.3 |Jun record low C = 8.9 |Jul record low C = 15.0 |Aug record low C = 17.0 |Sep record low C = 11.1 |Oct record low C = 4.9 |Nov record low C = &minus;0.2 |Dec record low C = &minus;3.9 |year record low C = &minus;5.2 |precipitation colour = green |Jan precipitation mm = 64.0 |Feb precipitation mm = 85.7 |Mar precipitation mm = 132.0 |Apr precipitation mm = 151.3 |May precipitation mm = 179.3 |Jun precipitation mm = 314.6 |Jul precipitation mm = 314.4 |Aug precipitation mm = 195.4 |Sep precipitation mm = 188.8 |Oct precipitation mm = 85.8 |Nov precipitation mm = 85.6 |Dec precipitation mm = 60.8 |Jan snow cm = 2 |Feb snow cm = 1 |Mar snow cm = 0 |Apr snow cm = 0 |May snow cm = 0 |Jun snow cm = 0 |Jul snow cm = 0 |Aug snow cm = 0 |Sep snow cm = 0 |Oct snow cm = 0 |Nov snow cm = 0 |Dec snow cm = 1 |Jan humidity = 66 |Feb humidity = 64 |Mar humidity = 66 |Apr humidity = 68 |May humidity = 72 |Jun humidity = 79 |Jul humidity = 80 |Aug humidity = 75 |Sep humidity = 73 |Oct humidity = 67 |Nov humidity = 67 |Dec humidity = 66 |year humidity = 70 |Jan precipitation days = 11.1 |Feb precipitation days = 9.9 |Mar precipitation days = 12.5 |Apr precipitation days = 10.8 |May precipitation days = 10.6 |Jun precipitation days = 13.5 |Jul precipitation days = 11.6 |Aug precipitation days = 9.8 |Sep precipitation days = 9.7 |Oct precipitation days = 6.2 |Nov precipitation days = 9.0 |Dec precipitation days = 10.0 |unit precipitation days = 0.5 mm |Jan snow days = 1.2 |Feb snow days = 0.9 |Mar snow days = 0.2 |Apr snow days = 0.0 |May snow days = 0.0 |Jun snow days = 0.0 |Jul snow days = 0.0 |Aug snow days = 0.0 |Sep snow days = 0.0 |Oct snow days = 0.0 |Nov snow days = 0.0 |Dec snow days = 0.2 |Jan sun = 102.8 |Feb sun = 119.7 |Mar sun = 148.5 |Apr sun = 174.7 |May sun = 184.4 |Jun sun = 135.3 |Jul sun = 178.7 |Aug sun = 210.7 |Sep sun = 172.8 |Oct sun = 181.4 |Nov sun = 137.9 |Dec sun = 119.1 |source 1 = [[Japan Meteorological Agency]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/nml_sfc_ym.php?prec_no=19&prec_ch=%8B%FA%98H%8Ex%92%A1&block_no=47817&block_ch=%8B%FA%98H&year=&month=&day=&elm=normal&view= | title = 平年値（年・月ごとの値） | accessdate = 2011-12-02 | publisher = Japan Meteorological Agency }}</ref> |source 2 = [[Japan Meteorological Agency]] (records)<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/rank_s.php?prec_no=19&prec_ch=%8B%FA%98H%8Ex%92%A1&block_no=47817&block_ch=%8B%FA%98H&year=&month=&day=&elm=rank&view= | title = 観測史上1～10位の値（年間を通じての値）| accessdate = 2011-12-02 | publisher = Japan Meteorological Agency }}</ref> |date=December 2011 }} </div> ==Transportation== [[File:Nagasaki Trolley M5199.jpg|thumb|A busy street in Nagasaki]] The nearest airport is [[Nagasaki Airport]] in the nearby ceety o [[Ōmura, Nagasaki|Ōmura]]. The [[Kyushu Railway Company]] (JR Kyushu) provides rail transportation on the [[Nagasaki Main Line]], whose terminal is at [[Nagasaki Station (Nagasaki)|Nagasaki Station]]. In addeetion, the [[Nagasaki Electric Tramway]] operates five routes in the ceety. The [[Nagasaki Expressway]] serves vehicular traffeck wi interchynges at Nagasaki an Susukizuka. In addeetion, sax [[Naitional highways o Japan|naitional highways]] crisscross the ceety: [[Route 34 (Japan)|Routes 34]], [[Route 202 (Japan)|202]], [[Route 251 (Japan)|251]], [[Route 324 (Japan)|324]], an [[Route 499 (Japan)|499]]. ==Internaitional relations== {{See also|Leet o twin touns an sister ceeties in Japan}} ===Twin touns an sister ceeties=== The ceety o Nagasaki maintains [[toun twinnin|sister-ceety]] or friendship relations wi ither ceeties warldwide. === Within Japan === *[[Hiroshima]] === Ootside Japan === * {{Flagicon|USA}} [[Saunt Paul, Minnesota]], Unitit States - (1955) Auldest sister ceety in Japan * {{Flagicon|Brazil}} [[Santos (São Paulo)|Santos]], Brazil (1972) * {{Flagicon|Portugal}} [[Porto]], Portugal (1978)<ref name="Porto International">{{cite web|url=http://www.cm-porto.pt/document/449218/481584.pdf|title=International Relations of the City of Porto|publisher=Municipal Directorateofthe Presidency Services International Relations Office|accessdate=2009-07-10|archive-date=2012-01-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113054303/http://www.cm-porto.pt/document/449218/481584.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> * {{Flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Middelburg]], Netherlands (1978) * {{Flagicon|China}} [[Fuzhou]], Cheenae (1980) * {{Flagicon|France}} [[Vaux-sur-Aure]], Fraunce (2005), sister ceety o [[Sotome, Nagasaki|Sotome]] syne 1978 ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Freemit airtins== {{Commons category|Nagasaki}} *{{Official website|http://www1.city.nagasaki.nagasaki.jp/index_e.html}} *[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/pre-cold-war/hiroshima-nagasaki/index.htm Nuclear Files.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208201028/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/pre-cold-war/hiroshima-nagasaki/index.htm |date=2007-02-08 }} Comprehensive information on the history, an poleetical an social implications o the US atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki *[http://www.ngs-kenkanren.com/mlang/english/ Nagasaki Prefectural Tourism Federation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070117193919/http://www.ngs-kenkanren.com/mlang/english/ |date=2007-01-17 }} *[http://www.e-nagasaki.com/ Nagasaki Product Promotion Association] *[http://www.nia.or.jp/english/gaikoku/index.html Uisefu information for foreign residents] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080716034930/http://www.nia.or.jp/english/gaikoku/index.html |date=2008-07-16 }}, produced bi [http://www.nia.or.jp/english/nia/index.html Nagasaki Internaitional Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921183214/http://www.nia.or.jp/english/nia/index.html |date=2011-09-21 }} {{Panorama |image = File:Nagasaki panorama.jpg |fullwidth = 3599 |fullheight = 870 |caption = Panorama o Nagasaki. |height = 230 }} {{Nagasaki}} {{Metropolitan ceeties o Japan}} [[Category:Nagasaki|*]] [[Category:Ceeties in Nagasaki Prefectur]] [[Category:Atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki]] [[Category:Port dounsets in Japan]] [[Category:Populatit coastal places in Japan]] [[Category:Warld War II steids in Japan]] pff9d6afhka2bzpdcuk8cwoo63ao7qu 0 51966 918764 894059 2026-06-25T00:12:11Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 918764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox muisical airtist |name=Alejandro Fernandez |image = Alejandro Fernández 2.jpg |caption = |background = solo_singer |birth_name=Alejandro Fernández Abarca |AKA= El Potrillo, The Colt |birth_date = {{birth date and age|1971|4|24}} |birth_place = [[Mexico Ceety]], [[Mexico]] |death_date = |death_place = |origin = [[Guadalajara, Jalisco]] |genre = [[Bolero]], [[latin pop]], [[Mexican pop muisic|mexican pop]], [[mariachi]], [[ranchera]] |occupation= [[Sangster]] |years_active = 1991–present |label = [[Sony Music Latin]] (1992–2008) <br> [[Universal Music Latino]] (2009–present) |website = http://www.alejandrofernandez.com/ }} '''Alejandro Fernández Abarca''' ({{IPA-es|aleˈxandro ferˈnandes|pron}}) (born Apryle 24, 1971) is a Mexican sangster. Elknamit as "El Potrillo" (The Colt) bi the media an his fans, he haes sauld ower 30 million albums warldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alejandrofernandez.com/index.php?Itemid=4&id=185&option=com_content&task=view |title=Alejandro Fernandez – Dos Mundos |publisher=Alejandrofernandez.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-20 |archive-date=2015-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704111626/http://www.alejandrofernandez.com/index.php?Itemid=4&id=185&option=com_content&task=view |url-status=dead }}</ref> Alejandro is the son o the ranchera sangster [[Vicente Fernández]].<ref>{{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p38753}}</ref> He oreeginally specialisit in tradeetional, earthy forms o [[Muisic o Mexico|Mexican fowk]] muisic, such as [[mariachi]] an [[ranchera]]. He haes branched oot wi great success tae [[Latin pop|pop muisic]]. ==Career== ===Early years=== His first public appearance wis in 1977 in ane o his faither's shows. Alejandro wis meant tae perform the sang "Alejandra" but in the middle o the sang he forgot the leerics, stairtit creein an suffered a [[panic attack]], but his faither got on stage an helpit him singin alang the song. Fernández released his first album, [[Alejandro Fernandez (album)|''Alejandro Fernandez'']] unner [[Sony Music]]. The main hits wur "Necesito olvidarla", "Brumas" an "Equivocadamente".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=1992|title=Alejandro Fernández|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/alejandro-fernandez-mw0000252084|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> Wi this material, Alejandro began a tour in Mexico an some ceeties o the Unitit States. In 1993, he performit wi his faither in a concert at the [[Palacio de los Deportes]], continuin a saison at the famous [[Teatro Blanquita]] o Mexico Ceety; the same year Fernández released ''[[Piel De Niña]]'', directit bi [[Pedro Ramires]] an became a success. The sangs "Piel de niña", "A la vera del camino", an "Cascos ligeros" are some o the hits o the album.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=1993|title=Piel de Nina|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/piel-de-nina-mw0000102576|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> At the [[:en:Premio Lo Nuestro 1993|Lo Nuestro Awairds of 1993]] Fernández wis nominatit for Male Artist, New Artist an Regional Mexican Album o the Year for his debut album, winnin nane.<ref name="billboardmag"> {{cite magazine |last=Lannert |first=John |date=March 30, 1993 |title=Secada Lead Latin Noms Following Grammy Win |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |publisher=[[Nielsen Business Media, Inc.]] |volume=105 |issue=10 |page=10 |url=http://books.google.com.mx/books?id=0w8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA10&dq=no+se+tu+luis+miguel&hl=es-419&sa=X&ei=_PzlUJ3QOcKsjALfhYEQ&ved=0CFAQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=no%20se%20tu%20luis%20miguel&f=false |access-date=2013-01-03}}</ref> In 1994, he released the album ''[[Grandes Exitos A La Manera De Alejandro Fernandez]]'', singin pieces o legendar componers such as [[Armando Manzanero]], [[Luis Demetrio]] an [[Agustín Lara]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=May 31, 1994|title=Grandes Exitos a La Manera|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/grandes-exitos-a-la-manera-de-alejandro-fernandez-mw0000213741|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> ===1995–1998: "Como quien pierde una estrella", ''Me Estoy Enamorando''=== In 1995 he released the album ''[[Que Seas Muy Feliz]]''. The sang "Como quien pierde una estrella", became his first internaitional hit. "Como quien pierde una estrella" wis hivily promotit on radio an [[Telly programme|televeesion shows]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=May 2, 1995|title=Que Seas Muy Feliz|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/que-seas-muy-feliz-mw0000174513|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> In 1996, he released ''[[Muy Dentro de Mi Corazón]]'' an became an instant success.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=February 1997|title=Muy Dentro de Mi Corazon|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/muy-dentro-de-mi-corazon-mw0000090166|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> Sangs lik "Moño negro", "Nube viajera" an "Abrazame" became hits in Mexico an several kintras o Laitin Americae. That same year he recordit "Puedes llegar", theme sang for the [[1996 Simmer Olympics|1996 Atlanta Olympics]], wi sangsters lik [[Gloria Estefan]], [[Jon Secada]] an [[Ricky Martin]]. In 1997, he recordit the album ''[[Me Estoy Enamorando]]'', producit bi [[Emilio Estefan]] The muisic o the album is a fusion o [[bolero]], romantic ballad, orchestral arrangements an a touch o Mexican mariachi that became popular in the Laitin muisic. "Si tu supieras" became the maist ootstaundin hit o that production,<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=September 23, 1997|title=Me Estoy Enamorando|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/me-estoy-enamorando-mw0000029424|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> an became the theme o the hit soap opera o the time, ''"Maria Isabel"''. It conquered the U.S. mercat an aw bein seiven weeks at the tap o ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Hot Latin Tracks]]. He became the first Laitin sangster tae hauld first place wi three hits follaeed, "Si tu supieras", "[[En El Jardín]]" (wi Gloria Estefan) an "No se olvidar".<ref name="ReferenceB"/> ''Me Estoy Enamorando'' sauld 2.2 million copies warldwide. In December 1998, he recordit ''[[Christmas in Vienna (album)|Christmas in Vienna VI]]'', wi the tenor [[Plácido Domingo]] an [[Patricia Kaas]]. His performance wis praised bi the creetics but it did no achieve hintle popularity amang the audience. ===1999–2003: ''Mi Verdad'', ''Entre tus brazos'', ''Orígenes''=== Wi the album ''[[Mi Verdad]]'' of 1999, Fernández returned tae ranchera music genre.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=May 11, 1999|title=Mi Verdad|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/mi-verdad-mw0000239739|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> "Si he sabido amor" became a big hit an wis played as the central theme o the hit soap opera ''[[Infierno en el paraíso]]''. In 2000, released the album titled ''[[Entre tus brazos]]'', the aicht in his career an the seicont time wi Emilio Estefan, Jr. as the producer. "Quiéreme" wis the first single, a moved pop song that showed his muisical versatility. For the first time in his career a song wis frae his ain inspiration: "Entre tus brazos". The album contains maistly romantic balladas wi moved Latin rhythms.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=April 25, 2000|title=Entre Tus Brazos|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/entre-tus-brazos-mw0000607506|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> That same year, he recorded wi [[Julio Iglesias]], the song "Dos corazones, dos historias" that wis contained on Julio's album ''Noche de Cuatro Lunas''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Iglesias|first=Julio|date=June 20, 2000|title=Noche de Cuatro Lunas|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/noche-de-cuatro-lunas-mw0000067286|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> In 2001, he recorded ''[[Orígenes]]''.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=September 25, 2001|title=Origenes|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/origenes-mw0000015447|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> The single "Sin tantina pena" (a moved mariachi bolero) became an internaitional hit.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> In 2002, he launched his production ''[[Un Canto De México]]'', which contains twenty-twa classic ranchera sangs, it wis recorded live at the [[Palacio de Bellas Artes]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=2003|title=Bellas Artes En Vivo: Un Canto De Mexico|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/bellas-artes-en-vivo-un-canto-de-mexico-mw0000985820|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> In 2003, Alejandro began a Latin American tour wi his faither Vicente, an recorded the show cried ''"[[En Vivo: Juntos Por Ultima Vez]]"'', which wis witnessed bi thousands of fans, culminatin in [[Mexico City]] at the [[Foro Sol]], wi ower five oors of music in front of nearly 60,000 spectators. That same year he recorded his next album ''[[Niña amada mía]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=March 11, 2003|title=Niña Amada Mía|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/ni%C3%B1a-amada-m%C3%ADa-mw0000022842|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> that released the song wi the same name which became a hit an the theme o a popular soap opera of that name. That same year, Alejandro toured Latin Americae an United States. Later he participated in the Christmas special ''En mi país'' broadcasted bi [[Telemundo]], an recorded in [[Puerto Rico]]. Fernández did a duet wi [[Ednita Nazario]] on the song "Triste Navidad" ( "Sad Christmas"). ===2004–2006: ''A Corazón Abierto, México - Madrid''=== In 2004, he played the lead role in ''[[Zapata: El sueño de un héroe|Zapata: El sueño del héroe]]'', a movie aboot the Mexican revolutionar hero [[Emiliano Zapata]] bi filmmaker [[Alfonso Arau]]. That same year, ''[[A Corazón Abierto (album)|A Corazón Abierto]]'' reunites Alejandro wi Grammy-winnin producer an sangwriter [[Kike Santander]], who penned his greatest hits frae ''Me Estoy Enamorando''. But it fynds him singin the sangs o a new generation o sangwriters an aw, includin [[Gian Marco]], [[Leonel García]] (ane hauf o pop duo [[Sin Bandera]]), [[Reyli|Reyli Barba]] (umwhile member o pop baund Elefante) an Mexican group [[Tres De Copas]].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=September 7, 2004|title=A Corazon Abierto|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/a-corazon-abierto-mw0000395247|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> ''"Romanticism is something that will never die"'', declared Alejandro Fernández, explainin his choice o sangs on ''A Corazón Abierto'', his breakthrou recordin aboot lost luve, luve that is niver forgotten an the capacity tae ayes luve again. ''"I'm super, ultra passionate. We're releasin an album that's an x-ray o masel. That's why it's titled "A Corazón Abierto" ("In Open Hert"). It wis somethin vera honest. No nakit, but somethin deeper than that"''. The album released the singles: "¿Que voy a hacer con mi amor?", "Qué lastima", "Me dediqué a perderte" an the smashin hit "Canta corazón".<ref name="autogenerated1"/> In 2005, Alejandro launches ''[[México - Madrid: En Directo Y Sin Escalas]]'' (''Mexico - Madrid: Nonstop''). Featurin 13 tracks includin ane new sang. Producit bi Aureo Baquiero an filmed in front o a live audience at Spain's "Palacio de Congresos IFEMA", the production features Fernández performin some o his biggest hits accompaniet bi a 28-piece orchestra an some o Spain's maist important vycs on three o the sangs: [[Amaia Montero]] frae [[La Oreja de Van Gogh]] joins him on "Me dediqué a perderte"; [[Malú]] duets wi him on "Contigo aprendí", an wi [[flamenco]] starn [[Diego El Cigala]] perform a muivit version o "Como quien pierde una estrella", accompaniet on [[cajón]] bi famit flamenco guitarist [[Niño Josele]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=October 25, 2005|title=Mexico-Madrid: En Directo y Sin Escalas|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/mexico-madrid-en-directo-y-sin-escalas-mw0000646078|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> That same year, Alejandro wis chosen tae sing alang wi the [[tenors]] [[José Carreras]] an [[Plácido Domingo]] in a special [[concerto]] celebratin the openin o the "Forum Internacional de las Culturas" in [[Monterrey]]. At first his faither Vicente wis invitit, but turned doun. Alejandro showed his skilled vocals, an operatic tenor [[vocal range|range]], singin pieces o opera such as "Granada"; his performance wis praised bi the audience. He recordit a duet sang wi the tenor [[Mario Frangoulis]] an aw creid "Hay más" frae the album [[Follow Your Heart (Mario Frangoulis album)|Follow Your Heart]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pPvjPvwrPuY |title=Mario Frangoulis - Hay Más (duet Feat. Alejandro Fernández) |publisher=YouTube |date= |accessdate=2011-02-20}}</ref> Efter that, Alejandro went on tour wi twa Laitin American starns: [[Marc Anthony]] an [[Chayanne]], passin throu several o the maist important ceeties o the U.S. On 2 Dizember 2005, Los Angeles, gae him a starn on the legendar [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]], on [[Hollywood Boulevard]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hollywoodusa.co.uk/walkoffamestarlocations.htm |title=Hollywood - Walk of Fame |publisher=Hollywoodusa.co.uk |date=2005-11-27 |accessdate=2011-02-20 |archive-date=2012-05-26 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526080051/http://www.hollywoodusa.co.uk/walkoffamestarlocations.htm#F |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===2007–present: ''Viento a Favor'', "Mañana es para siempre", ''Dos Mundos''=== In 2007, launches [[Viento a Favor (Alejandro Fernández album)|Viento A Favor]] featurs tunes written bi Leonel García an Noel Schajris (better kent as emotive Latin-pop duo [[Sin Bandera]]) an Mexican sangster [[Reyli|Reyli Barba]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=June 26, 2007|title=Viento a Favor|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/viento-a-favor-mw0000473529|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> The first twa singles wur "[[Te Voy A Perder]]", an "[[Amor Gitano]]", a duet wi [[Beyoncé Knowles]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasnoticiasmexico.com/53161.html |title=Letra De La Cancion Amor Gitano De Telenovela El Zorro La Espada Y La Rosa Sinopsis |publisher=Lasnoticiasmexico.com |date=2007-10-07 |accessdate=2011-02-20 |archive-date=2010-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130234605/http://www.lasnoticiasmexico.com/53161.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Efter that "Cuando Estamos Juntos" an "[[No Se Me Hace Fácil]]" became hits; "[[:en:Eres (song)|Eres]]" wis the last single o the album. In 2008, Alejandro stairtit a tour on Spainyie laund coverin ceeties such as [[Madrid]], [[Valencia, Spain|Valencia]] an [[La Coruña]]. He released the album ''[[De Noche: Clásicos A Mi Manera]]'', that contains classic romantic ballads an boleros such as "[[El Reloj]]" an "[[Regálame esta noche]]", sangs that he recordit previously in his career but niver released.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fernández|first=Alejandro|date=December 2, 2008|title=De Noche: Clásicos a Mi Manera|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/de-noche-cl%C3%A1sicos-a-mi-manera-mw0000803560|url-status=live|access-date=2024-03-24|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> In 2009, his vyce is the theme o ''[[Mañana es para siempre]]'', the maist successfu Mexican soap opera o the year. The Grammy-winnin sangster, componer an producer [[Nelly Furtado]] invitit Alejandro tae sing a duet wi her for her new album ''[[Mi Plan]]''. The sang "Sueños" wis recordit in [[Miami]]. ''[[Dos Mundos (Alejandro Fernández album)|Dos Mundos]]'' (''Twa Warlds''), is a dooble production, releasin twa albums simultaneously: ''[[Dos Mundos: Evolución + Tradición]]''. Ane o thaim is pop, producit bi [[Aureo Baqueiro]], an the ither o ranchera an mariachi, producit bi [[Joan Sebastian]]. He is the first Laitin airtist tae dae something seemilar. On 11 November 2009 he released simultaneously the videos o the singles "[[Estuve]]" an "[[Se Me Va la Voz]]".<ref>{{cite web |author=Posted by mundoSIX |url=http://www.mundosix.com/2009/11/first-look-estuve-alejandro-fernandez.html |title=Alejandro Premieres New Video: "Estuve" |publisher=Mundosix.com |date=2009-11-11 |accessdate=2011-02-20 |archive-date=2011-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714133135/http://www.mundosix.com/2009/11/first-look-estuve-alejandro-fernandez.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> He recently released the videos o the singles "[[Me Hace Tanto Bien]]" an "[[Bandida]]". On 22 November 2010, Alejandro released the live album ''[[Dos Mundos: Revolución]]'' that includes live versions o sangs frae his album '' [[Dos Mundos (Alejandro Fernández album)|Dos mundos: Evolución / Dos mundos: Tradición]]'', twa unreleased tracks "Tu Sabes Quien", "Felicidades" an the sang "Vamos a darnos tiempo" oreeginally performit bi the iconic sangster [[José José]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.universalmusica.com/alejandrofernandez/News |title=Alejandro Fernández Sitio Oficial @ Universal Music Latino |publisher=Universalmusica.com |date=2011-02-14 |accessdate=2011-02-20 |archive-date=2011-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110122205054/http://www.universalmusica.com/alejandrofernandez/News |url-status=dead }}</ref> Atween Juin an August 2011, he went on his [[Dos Mundos: Revolucion Tour]]. On 1 August 2011, Alejandro released the sang "Bajo un mismo sol" theme o the [[2011 Pan American Gemmes]]. He toured Laitin Americae alang wi fellae [[Marc Anthony]] in a series o concerts namit ''Dos Mundos, un Concierto'' ''(Twa Warlds, ane Concert)''. On early 2013, he did a duet wi [[Christina Aguilera]] in the sang "Hoy tengo ganas de ti", theme o the [[telenovela]] "[[La tempestad]]". Efter anerly 17 days, the sang wis certifee'd Platinum in Mexico, for sales o 65,000 digital dounloads.<ref name="unimex">{{cite web|url=http://www.universalmusicmagazine.com/universal-music-otorga-el-disco-de-platino-a-alejandro-fernandez/|title=Alejandro Fernández logra Certificación de Platino|work=Universal Music Magazine (Mexico)|language=spanish|accessdate=July 2, 2013|archive-date=2013-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023061544/http://www.universalmusicmagazine.com/universal-music-otorga-el-disco-de-platino-a-alejandro-fernandez/|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 27 August 2013 he released the album "[[Confidencias (Alejandro Fernández album)|Confidencias]]", it includes the duet wi Christina Aguilera "Hoy Tengo Ganas de Ti", an duets wi [[Vicente Fernández]] an [[Rod Stewart]]. ===''Sony Music'' controversy=== The internaitional record label [[Sony Music]] wis sued bi Alejandro Fernández efter thay tree'd tae release an album wi some o his unreleased sangs efter his contract wi the label haed endit. [[Federal Polis (Mexico)|Federal Polis]] arrivit at the Sony heidquairters in [[Mexico Ceety]] an seisit aboot 6,000 copies o the album. The sang "[[Diferente]]", wis released on the internet as the first single o the album.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sitesmexico.com/notas/2009/septiembre/alejandro-fernandez-demanda-sony.htm |title=Alejandro Fernandez Demanda A Sony Music - Pgr Catea Sony |website=Sitesmexico.com |access-date=2011-02-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106024413/http://www.sitesmexico.com/notas/2009/septiembre/alejandro-fernandez-demanda-sony.htm |archive-date=2011-01-06 |url-status=live |language=es}}</ref> ==Airtistrie== Follaein the steps o his faither, Alejandro began his muisical career focused on ranchera muisic. Syne his 1997 album ''[[Me Estoy Enamorando]]'' he branched oot successfully tae pop muisic. In his live presentations, Alejandro begins the show wi his ranchera repertoire, then he remuives the [[charro]] ootfit tae sing pop. Alejandro haes a [[Tenore di grazia|licht tenor]] [[tessitura]], leanin mair tae the [[spinto|spinto tenor]]. His vocal virtuosity an versatility haes alloued him tae perform [[romantic ballad]]s, pop an ranchera muisic simultaneously. Alejandro Fernández haes performit wi airtists such as [[Plácido Domingo]], [[Marc Anthony]], [[José Carreras]], [[Chayanne]], [[Amaia Montero]], [[Joan Sebastian]], [[Gloria Estefan]], [[Malú]], [[Julio Iglesias]], [[Patricia Kaas]], [[Miguel Bosé]], [[Mario Frangoulis]], [[Ednita Nazario]], [[:en:Yuri (Mexican singer)|Yuri]], [[Franco De Vita]], [[Diego El Cigala]], [[Nelly Furtado]], [[Beyoncé]], an [[Christina Aguilera]]. ==Personal life== Alejandro Fernández wis born in [[Mexico Ceety]] an raised in [[Guadalajara, Jalisco|Guadalajara]]. He studiet tae acome an [[airchitect]], but turned tae singin in 1991, encouragit bi his faither.<ref name="imdb%25252Ecom">{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0273370/bio|title=Alejandro Fernández|publisher=IMDb.com|accessdate=2012-10-26}}</ref> He is the youngest son o his faimily. Haes twa aulder brithers, Vicente, Jr. an Gerardo, an a sister, Alejandra. Fernández an his brithers are kent in Mexico as "Los tres potrillos" (The three colts).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbase.com/ckaburick/image/39735134 |title=Rancho of Vicente Fernandez..."Los tres potrillos", named after his three sons. photo - Coral Kaburick photos at |publisher=Pbase.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-20}}</ref> In the late 1990s, his aulder brither Vicente, Jr. wis kidnapped bi a powerful baund o [[organisit creeme]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.eluniversal.com.mx/pls/impreso/noticia.html?id_nota=294741&tabla=notas |title=Deportes |publisher=El Universal |date= |accessdate=2012-10-14 |archive-date=2012-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227003141/http://www2.eluniversal.com.mx/pls/impreso/noticia.html?id_nota=294741&tabla=notas |url-status=dead }}</ref> The kidnappers cut aff ane o his fingers an sent it tae his faither as a warnin. Efter [[Vicente Fernández]] paid a huge sum o money, Vicente, Jr. wis released. The exact amoont wis niver annooncit.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=366451 |title=Caen plagiarios de Vicente Fernández Jr. - Univision Música |publisher=Univision.com |date=2002-09-30 |accessdate=2011-02-20 |archive-date=2007-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070127084045/http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=366451 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Fernández is co-awner o the shoppin centre in Guadalajara, cried "Unicenter", whaur thare are different teeps o businesses, creatin jobs for ower 170 fowk.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gentebien.com.mx/Aspx/eventodetalle.aspx?Id=491&IdSup=53 |title=Alejandro Fernández |publisher=Gentebien.com.mx |date=2005-09-09 |accessdate=2011-02-20 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> He pairticipatit wi his faimily in the construction o [[Arena VFG]], wi capacity for 11,000 fowk it is basically dedicatit tae muisic shows an eventually will be uised for massive charreria competitions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/noticia/166611.vicente-fernandez-inaugura-juguete-nuevo.html |title=Vicente Fernández inaugura "juguete nuevo" |publisher=Elsiglodetorreon.com.mx |date= |accessdate=2011-02-20 |archive-date=2011-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716100855/http://www.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/noticia/166611.vicente-fernandez-inaugura-juguete-nuevo.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esmas.com/laoreja/noticias/454363.html |title=Construyen hijos de Vicente Fernández lugar en su honor :: Noticias |publisher=esmas.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-20 |archive-date=2011-06-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234012/http://www.esmas.com/laoreja/noticias/454363.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> He is an expert in [[horse ridin]] an [[charreria]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oem.com.mx/esto/notas/n440617.htm |title=Ganaderos de Jalisco, séptimo clasificado a semifinales |publisher=Oem.com.mx |date= |accessdate=2011-02-20 |archive-date=2019-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814212134/https://www.oem.com.mx/oem/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Fernández supports the Mexican team [[Atlas de Guadalajara|Atlas]]. Alejandro haes five childer. Three (Alejandro, Jr. an the twin girls América an Camila) wi his ex-wife [[América Guinart]] an twa (Emiliano an Valentina) wi Colombie [[model (body)|model]] [[Ximena Díaz (model)|Ximena Díaz]].<ref name="imdb%25252Ecom"/> ==Discografie== ===Studio albums=== * 1992: '' [[Alejandro Fernandez (album)|Alejandro Fernandez]]'' * 1993: '' [[Piel De Niña]]'' * 1994 : ''[[Grandes Exitos A La Manera De Alejandro Fernandez]]'' * 1995 : '' [[Que Seas Muy Feliz]]'' * 1996 : '' [[Muy Dentro de Mi Corazon]]'' * 1997 : '' [[Me Estoy Enamorando]]'' * 1999 : '' [[Mi Verdad]]'' * 2000 : '' [[Entre tus brazos]]'' * 2001 : '' [[Orígenes]]'' * 2003 : '' [[Niña Amada Mía]] '' * 2004 : '' [[Zapata: El sueño del héroe (soundtrack)]]'' * 2004 : '' [[A Corazón Abierto (album)]]'' * 2007 : '' [[Viento a Favor (Alejandro Fernández album)|Viento A Favor]]'' * 2009 : '' [[Dos Mundos (Alejandro Fernández album)|Dos mundos: Evolución / Dos mundos: Tradición]]'' ===Live albums=== * 1999 : '' [[Christmas in Vienna VI]]'' * 2002 : '' [[Un Canto De México]]'' * 2003 : '' [[En Vivo: Juntos Por Ultima Vez]]'' * 2005 : '' [[México – Madrid: En Directo Y Sin Escalas]]'' * 2010 : '' [[Dos Mundos: Revolución]]'' ==References== {{Reflist|2}} ==Freemit airtins== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.alejandrofernandez.com Offeecial wabsteid] *[http://universalmusica.com/alejandrofernandez/ Universal Music Latin Entertainment | Alejandro Fernández] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904155556/http://universalmusica.com/alejandrofernandez/ |date=2012-09-04 }} *[http://www.univision.com/uv/music/1038753/Alejandro_Fernández/artista;jsessionid=DNL00GUJO5PLWCWIABTCFFAKZAABUIWC Alejandro Fernández at Univisión] {{DEFAULTSORT:Fernandez, Alejandro}} [[Category:1971 births]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:Mexican male sangsters]] [[Category:Mexican male film actors]] [[Category:Mexican pop sangsters]] [[Category:Latin Grammy Award winners]] [[Category:Male actors frae Mexico Ceety]] [[Category:Sangsters frae Mexico Ceety]] [[Category:Fowk frae Guadalajara, Jalisco]] [[Category:Latin pop sangsters]] [[Category:Ranchera sangsters]] aew5fxk3eg2rvwxef60nu7xpanba3nv 0 59549 918705 905015 2026-06-24T23:11:21Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918705 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer |name = Edgar Allan Poe |image = Edgar Allan Poe 1848.png |imagesize = 225px |caption = |pseudonym = |birth_name = Edgar Poe |birth_date = {{birth date|1809|01|19}} |birth_place = Boston, Massachusetts, Unitit States |death_date = {{death date and age|1849|10|07|1809|01|19}} |death_place = [[Baltimore]], Maryland, Unitit States |occupation = |nationality = American |genre = |movement = |spouse = [[Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe]] |signature = Edgar Allan Poe Signature.svg }} '''Edgar Allan Poe''' (born '''Edgar Poe'''; 19 Januar 1809&nbsp;– 7 October 1849) wis a American scriever, poet, editor, an leeterar creetic, considered pairt o the American [[Romanticism|Romantic Muivement]]. Best kent for his tales o [[Meestery (feection)|meestery]] an the [[macabre]], Poe wis ane o the first American practitioners o the short story, an is for ordinar regairdit as the inventor o the [[detective feection]] genre. Forby, he is creditit wi contributin tae the emergin genre o [[science feection]].<ref>{{harvnb|Stableford|2003|pp=18–19}}</ref> He wis the first weel-kent American scriever that ettled tae mak his leevin bi scrievin alane, whilk gied him mony a sair fash wi siller an wark.<ref name=Meyers138>{{harvnb|Meyers|1992|p=138}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ===Soorces=== * {{cite book |last=Stableford |first=Brian |year=2003 |authorlink=Brian Stableford |chapter=Science fiction before the genre |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00jame/page/n44 15]–31 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00jame |editor-last=James |editor-first=Edward |editor2-last=Mendlesohn |editor2-first=Farah |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-01657-5 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Meyers |first=Jeffrey |authorlink= |year=1992 |title=Edgar Allan Poe: His Life and Legacy |url=https://archive.org/details/edgarallanpoehis0000meye_u7k6 |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=New York |edition=Paperback |pages= |isbn=978-0-8154-1038-6 |ref=harv }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Poe, Edgar Allan}} [[Category:Edgar Allan Poe| ]] [[Category:1809 births]] [[Category:1849 daiths]] [[Category:American male writers]] [[Category:American horror writers]] [[Category:American meestery writers]] [[Category:American fowk o Inglis strynd]] [[Category:American poets]] [[Category:American science feection writers]] [[Category:American short story writers]] [[Category:Buirials at Westminster Hall an Buryin Grund]] [[Category:Fowk frae Baltimore]] [[Category:Fowk frae Charlottesville]] [[Category:Fowk frae Greenwich Village, New York]] [[Category:Fowk frae Richmond, Virginie]] [[Category:Fowk frae the Bronx]] [[Category:Recreational cryptographers]] [[Category:Romantic poets]] [[Category:Unitit States Airmy sodgers]] [[Category:Unitit States Militar Academy alumni]] [[Category:Varsity o Virginie alumni]] [[Category:Writers frae Boston]] [[Category:Writers frae Maryland]] [[Category:Writers frae New York]] [[Category:Writers frae Philadelphia]] [[Category:Writers frae Virginie]] [[Category:19t-century American novelists]] 787o42yls9jf2k9fanxgs20undz3458 0 63460 918754 890879 2026-06-24T23:44:52Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918754 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Otheruses}} {{redirect|Río Bravo}} {{Geobox|River | name = Rio Grande | other_name = Río Bravo del Norte | other_name1 = {{spell-nv|Tooh Baʼáadii}} {{Nv icon}} | other_name2 = Kótsoi {{language icon|apj}} | category = River | category_hide = 1 <!-- *** Image *** --> | image = Rio Grande RT Hill 1899b.jpg | image_size = | image_caption = The Rio Grande in Texas, c. 1899 <!-- *** Name *** --> | etymology = | nickname = <!-- *** Country etc. *** --> | country = [[Unitit States]] | country1 = [[Mexico]] | state = Colorado | state1 = New Mexico | state2 = Texas | state3 = [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] | state4 = Coahuila | state5 = Nuevo León | state6 = Tamaulipas | tributary_left = [[Red River (New Mexico)|Red River]] | tributary_left1 = [[Rio Hondo (Northern New Mexico)|Rio Hondo]] | tributary_left2 = [[Rio Pueblo de Taos]] | tributary_left3 = [[Embudo River]] <!-- template allows a max of 10 tributaries, so some are excluded here --> <!-- |tributary_left3.1 = [[Santa Cruz River (New Mexico)|Santa Cruz River]] --> <!-- |tributary_left3.2 = [[Pojoaque River]] --> <!-- |tributary_left3.3 = [[Cañada Ancha]] --> | tributary_left4 = [[Santa Fe River (New Mexico)|Santa Fe River]] | tributary_left5 = [[Galisteo Creek]] | tributary_left6 = [[Alamito Creek]] | tributary_left7 = [[Terlingua Creek]] | tributary_left8 = [[Pecos River]] | tributary_left9 = [[Devils River (Texas)|Devils River]] | tributary_right = [[Conejos River]] | tributary_right1 = [[Rio Chama (Rio Grande)|Rio Chama]] | tributary_right2 = [[Rio Conchos]] | tributary_right3 = [[Rio Salado (Mexico)|Rio Salado]] | tributary_right4 = [[Rio Alamo]] | tributary_right5 = [[San Juan River (Tamaulipas)|San Juan River]] <!-- *** Source *** --> | source = Canby Mountain, [[Continental Divide of the Americas|Continental Divide]] | source_location = [[San Juan Mountains]], [[Rio Grande National Forest]]<ref>{{Handbook of Texas|id=rnr05|name=Rio Grande}}</ref> | source_state = Colorado | source_country = Unitit States | source_elevation_imperial = 12000 | source_elevation_note = <ref name=tsha/> | source_coordinates = {{coord|37|47|52|N|107|32|18|W|display=inline}} | source_coordinates_note = <ref name=gnis>{{GNIS|1385432|Rio Grande}}</ref> <!-- *** Mouth *** --> | mouth = Gulf of Mexico | mouth_location = [[Cameron Coonty, Texas]]; [[Matamoros, Tamaulipas]] | mouth_elevation_imperial = 0 | capital_coordinates = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|25|57|22|N|97|8|43|W|display=inline,title}} | mouth_coordinates_note =<ref name=gnis/> <!-- *** Geography *** --> | length_imperial = 1896 | length_round = 0 | length_note = <ref name=tsha/> | watershed_imperial = 182200 | watershed_round = -2 | watershed_note = <ref name=nasqan/> | discharge_location = [[Eagle Pass, Texas]]/[[Piedras Negras, Coahuila]] | discharge_imperial = 2403 | discharge_note = <ref name=ibwcdis>{{cite web |url= http://www.ibwc.gov/Water_Data/water_bulletins.html |title= Water Bulletin Number 75: Flow of the Rio Grande and Related Data; From Elephant Butte Dam, New Mexico to the Gulf of Mexico |year= 2005 |publisher= [[International Boundary and Water Commission]] |accessdate= 17 July 2010 |archive-date= 2020-04-18 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200418093724/https://www.ibwc.gov/Water_Data/water_bulletins.html |url-status= dead }}</ref> | discharge_max_imperial = 964000 | discharge_min_imperial = 24 <!-- *** Map section *** --> | map = Riogranderivermap.png | map_size = | map_caption = Map o the Rio Grande drainage basin <!-- *** Websites *** --> | commons = }} The '''Rio Grande''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|iː|oʊ|_|ˈ|ɡ|r|æ|n|d}}; {{lang-es|'''Río Bravo del Norte'''}} or '''''Río Bravo''''', {{IPA-es|ˈri.o ˈβra.βo|}}) is a [[river]] that flows frae soothwastren [[Colorado]] in the [[Unitit States]] tae the [[Gulf o Mexico]]. Alang the wey it forms pairt o the [[Mexico-Unitit States border]]. Accordin tae the [[International Boundary and Water Commission]], its tot lenth wis {{convert|1896|mi|km|0}} in the late 1980s, tho course shifts occasionally result in lenth changes. Dependin on hou it is measured, the Rio Grande is the fowert or fift langest river seestem in North Americae.<ref name=tsha>{{cite web |url= http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rnr05 |last= Metz |first= Leon C. |title= Rio Grande |publisher= The Handbook of Texas Online |accessdate= 17 July 2010}}</ref> The river serves as a [[natural border]] atween the [[U.S. state]] o [[Texas]] an the [[Mexico|Mexican]] states o [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]], [[Coahuila]], [[Nuevo León]], an [[Tamaulipas]]. A vera short stretch o the river serves as the boondar atween the U.S. states o Texas an [[New Mexico]]. Syne the mid–20t century, hivy water consumption o ferms an ceeties alang the river haes left anerly 20% o its natural dischairge tae flow tae the Gulf. Near the river's mooth, the hivily irrigatit [[Rio Grande Valley]] is a important agricultural region. The Rio Grande is ane o 19 Great Waters recognisit bi the Americae's Great Waters Coalition.<ref>{{cite news|author= National Wildlife Federation|title= America's Great Waters Coalition|date= August 18, 2010|url= http://www.nwf.org/Wildlife/What-We-Do/Waters/Great-Waters-Restoration/Great-Waters-Coalition.aspx|accessdate= 2011-18-20|archive-date= 2011-08-15|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110815213851/http://www.nwf.org/Wildlife/What-We-Do/Waters/Great-Waters-Restoration/Great-Waters-Coalition.aspx|url-status= dead}}</ref> The Rio Grande's [[drainage basin|watershed]] covers {{convert|182200|sqmi|km2}}.<ref name=nasqan>{{cite web |url= http://water.usgs.gov/nasqan/docs/riogrndfact/riogrndfactsheet.html |title= Rio Grande NASQAN Program |publisher= [[United States Geological Survey]] |accessdate= 17 July 2010 |archive-date= 2011-07-04 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110704152332/http://water.usgs.gov/nasqan/docs/riogrndfact/riogrndfactsheet.html |url-status= dead }}</ref> Mony [[endorheic basin]]s are situatit athin, or adjacent tae, the Rio Grande's basin, an thir are whiles includit in the river basin's tot aurie, increasin its size tae aboot {{convert|336000|sqmi|km2}}.<ref name=benke>{{cite book |last= Benke |first= Arthur C. |coauthors= Colbert E. Cushing |title= Rivers of North America |publisher= Academic Press |year= 2005 |isbn= 978-0-12-088253-3 |url= http://books.google.com/?id=-bLMR552QBMC&pg=PA186 |pages= 186–192}}</ref> ==Geografie== [[File:Rio Grande-2.jpg|thumb|left|Island athin the Rio Grande frae the [[North Valley, New Mexico|North Valley]] in [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]].|205x205px]] The Rio Grande rises in the wastren pairt o the [[Rio Grande National Forest]] in the U.S. state o [[Colorado]]. The river is formit bi the joinin o several streams at the base o Canby Moontain, juist east o the [[Continental Divide of the Americas|Continental Divide]]. Frae thare, it flows throu the [[San Luis Valley]], then sooth intae [[New Mexico]], passin throu [[Española, New Mexico|Española]], [[Albuquerque, New Mexico|Albuquerque]], an [[Las Cruces, New Mexico|Las Cruces]] tae [[El Paso, Texas]] an [[Ciudad Juárez]], Chihuahua. Belaw El Paso it serves as pairt o the border atween the Unitit States an Mexico. The offeecial river border measurement ranges frae {{convert|889|mi|km}} tae {{convert|1248|mi|km}}, dependin on hou the river is measured.<ref name=tsha/> A major tributar, the [[Rio Conchos]], enters at [[Ojinaga Municipality|Ojinaga, Chihuahua]], belaw El Paso, an supplies maist o the watter in the border segment. Ither well-kent tributars include the [[Pecos River|Pecos]] an the smawer [[Devils River (Texas)|Devils]], which jyne the Rio Grande on the steid o [[Amistad Reservoir|Amistad Dam]]. Despite its name an lenth, the Rio Grande is no navigable bi ocean-goin ships, nor dae smawer passenger boats or cargo barges uise it as a route. It is barely navigable at aw, except bi smaw boats in a few places. The Rio Grande rises in heich muntains an flows for hintle o its lenth at heich elevation; El Paso is {{convert|3762|ft|m|0}} abuin [[sea level]]. In New Mexico, the river flows throu the [[Rio Grande rift]] frae ane [[sediment]]-filled basin tae anither, cuttin [[canyon]]s atween the basins an supportin a fragile ''[[bosque]]'' ecosystem on its [[flood plain]]. Frae El Paso eastwaird, the river flows throu [[desert]]. Anerly in the [[sub-tropical]] lawer [[Rio Grande Valley]] is thare extensive irrigatit agricultur. The river ends in a smaw [[saund]]y [[river delta|delta]] at the Gulf o Mexico. Durin portions o 2001 an 2002 the mooth o the Rio Grande wis blockit bi a saundbar. In the hairst o 2003 the saundbar wis cleared bi heich river flows o aboot {{convert|7063|cuft/s|m3/s|0}}.<ref name=ibwc>{{cite web |url= http://www.ibwc.state.gov/Files/2003_report.pdf |title= 2003 Annual Report |publisher= International Boundary and Water Commission, United States and Mexico |accessdate= 7 July 2010 |archive-date= 2013-02-17 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130217182927/http://www.ibwc.state.gov/Files/2003_report.pdf |url-status= dead }}</ref> Millions o years ago, durin the [[Miocene]], the Rio Grande endit at the soothren end o the Rio Grande rift in Loch Cabeza de Vaca. Aboot ane [[mya (unit)|million years ago]] (mya), the [[stream captur|stream wis "captured"]] an began tae flow east.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.whc.net/cdwr/INTRO/HISTORY/HISTORY.HTM |title=The Chihuahuan Desert Through Time |access-date=2013-12-07 |archive-date=2012-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415052039/http://www.whc.net/cdwr/INTRO/HISTORY/HISTORY.HTM |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Navigation== Navigation wis active durin hintle o the 19t century,<ref>[[Thomas C. Lea, III|Tom Lea]] (1957) ''The King Ranch'' writes that Richard King made his fortune as a riverman on the Rio Grande afore he proposed marriage tae Henrietta an stairtit his cattle ranch.</ref> wi ower 200 different [[steamboat]]s operatin atween the river's mooth close tae [[Brownsville, Texas|Brownsville]], an [[Rio Grande Ceety]], [[Texas]]. Mony steamboats frae the [[Ohio River|Ohio]] an [[Mississippi River|Mississippi rivers]] wur requisitioned bi the US Govrenment an muived tae the Rio Grande durin the [[Mexican–American War|Mexican War]] in 1846. Thay providit transport for the U.S. Airmy, unner General [[Zachary Taylor]] tae invade [[Monterrey]], [[Mexico]], via [[Camargo Municipality, Tamaulipas]]. [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|Airmy engineers]] recommendit that wi smaw impruivements the river coud easily be made navigable as far north as El Paso. Those recommendations wur niver actit upon. The [[Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge]] is a lairge [[swing brdg]] that dates back tae 1910 an is still in uise the day bi automobiles an railwey trains, connectin Brownsville, Texas wi [[Matamoros, Tamaulipas]]. It haes no been opened syne the early 1900s houiver, when the last o the big steamboats disappeared. The brig is nou operatit bi the Brownsville and Matamoros Bridge Company, a jynt ventur atween the Mexican govrenment an the [[Union Pacific Railroad]]. At the mooth o the Rio Grande, on the Mexican side, wis the lairge commercial port o [[Bagdad, Tamaulipas|Bagdad]]. Durin the [[American Ceevil War]], this wis the anerly legitimate port o the Confederacy. European warships anchored affshore tae maintain the port's neutrality, an managit tae dae sae successfully throuoot that conflict, despite occasional stare douns wi blockadin ships frae the [[Union blockade|US Navy]]. It wis a shallae draft river port, wi several smawer vessels that hauled cargo tae an frae the deeper draft cargo ships anchored aff shore. Thir deeper draft ships coud no cross the shallae [[Shoal|saundbar]] at the mooth o the river. The port's commerce wis European militar supplies, in exchynge for bales o cotton. ==History== [[File:Rio Grande Creede.jpg|thumb|left|The Upper Rio Grande near [[Creede, Colorado]].]] [[File:Railway Bridges and the Great customs smelter.jpg|thumb|right|Railway Brigs an the Great Customs Smelter (postcaird, circa 1916)]] In the 1800s, the river markit the disputit border atween Mexico an the nascent [[Republic o Texas]]; Mexico markit the border at the [[Nueces River]]. The disagreement providit pairt o the rationale for the [[Mexican–American War|US invasion o Mexico]] in 1846, efter Texas haed been admittit as a new state. Syne 1848, the Rio Grande haes markit the boondar atween Mexico an the Unitit States frae the twin ceeties o El Paso, Texas, an [[Ciudad Juárez|Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua]], tae the Gulf o Mexico. As sic, crossin the river wis the escape route uised bi some Texas [[sclavery|slaves]] tae seek freedom. Mexico haed leeberal colonization policies an haed abolished sclavery in 1828.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/21-4/21-4-13.pdf |title="The UGRR on the Rio Grande" |access-date=2013-12-07 |archive-date=2004-07-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040725224504/http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/21-4/21-4-13.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1944 the US an Mexico signed a treaty regardin the river,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law: Rio Grande |url=http://www.ppl.nl/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82 |publisher=Peace Palace Library |accessdate=2010-12-23}}</ref> an in 1997 the US designated the Rio Grande as ane o the [[American Heritage Rivers]]. Twa portions o the Rio Grande are designatit [[National Wild and Scenic Rivers System]], ane in northren New Mexico an the ither in Texas, at [[Big Bend National Park]]. In the simmer o 2001, a {{convert|328|ft|m|adj=on}} wide [[Shoal|saundbar]] formit at the mooth o the river, markin the first time in recordit history that the Rio Grande failed tae empty intae the Gulf o Mexico. The saundbar wis subsequently [[dredgin|dredgit]], but it re-formit amaist immediately. Spring rains the follaein year flushed the re-formed saundbar oot tae sea, but it returned in the simmer o 2002. As o the faw o 2003, the river ance again reaches the Gulf.<ref name=ibwc/> ==River modifications== [[File:Rio Grande White Rock Overlook Park View 2006 09 05.jpg|View o the Rio Grande frae Owerleuk Park, [[White Rock, New Mexico]].|thumb]] {{Further2|[[Rio Grande Project]]}} The Unitit States an Mexico share the watter o the river unner a series o greements admeenistered bi the International Boundary and Water Commission, US-Mexico. The maist notable o thir treaties wur signed in 1906 an 1944.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ibwc.state.gov/Treaties_Minutes/treaties.html |title=IBWC: Treaties Between the U.S. and Mexico |access-date=2013-12-07 |archive-date=2015-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601081248/http://www.ibwc.state.gov/Treaties_Minutes/treaties.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Thompson, Olivia N., [http://ecommons.txstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1315&context=arp "Binational Water Management: Perspectives of Local Texas Officials in the U.S.-Mexico Border Region"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318021400/http://ecommons.txstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1315&context=arp |date=2012-03-18 }} (2009). Applied Research Projects. Texas State University. Paper 313.{{Specify|page number - the drainage+endorheic area does not appear to be in the paper|date=December 2010}}</ref> The IBWC traces its institutional roots tae 1889, when the International Boundary Committee wis established tae maintain the border. The IBWC the day allocates river watters atween the twa naitions an aw, an provides for flood control an watter sanitation. Uise o that watter belangin tae the Unitit States is regulatit bi the [[Rio Grande Compact]], an interstate pact atween Colorado, New Mexico, an Texas. The watter o the Rio Grande is ower-appropriatit: that is, thare are mair uisers for the watter than thare is water in the river. Acause o baith drocht an oweruise, the section frae El Paso dounstream throu Ojinaga wis recently taggit "The Forgotten River" bi those wishin tae bring attention tae the river's deterioratit condeetion.<ref>[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0106/09/smn.08.html "Rio Grande Sucked Dry for Irrigation, Industry"], CNN Saturday Morning News, (Aired June 9, 2001)]</ref> [[File:Rio Grande EP Upper Valley.jpg|thumbnail|left|Rio Grande in [[west El Paso]] near [[New Mexico]]]] Thare are a nummer o dams on the Rio Grande, includin [[Rio Grande Dam]], [[Cochiti Dam]], [[Elephant Butte Dam]], [[Caballo Dam]], [[Amistad Dam]], [[Falcon Dam]], [[Anzalduas Dam]], an [[Retamal Dam]]. In soothren New Mexico an the upper portion o the Texas border segment, the river's [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] dwindles. Diversions, mainly for agricultural irrigation, hae increased the natural decrease in flow sic that bi the time the river reaches [[Presidio, Texas]], thare is little or nae watter. Ablow Presidio the [[Rio Conchos]] restores the flow o watter.<ref name=tsha/> Near Presidio the river's dischairge is frequently zero. Its average dischairge is {{convert|178|cuft/s|m3/s|0}}, doun frae {{convert|945|cuft/s|m3/s|0}} at Elephant Butte Dam. Supplementit bi ither tributars the Rio Grande's dischairge increases tae its maximum annual average o {{convert|3504|cuft/s|m3/s|0}} near Rio Grande City, Texas. Lairge diversions for irrigation belaw Rio Grande City reduce the river's average flow tae {{convert|889|cuft/s|m3/s|0}} at Brownsville an Matamoros.<ref name=ibwc/> ==Crossins== {{main|Leet o crossins o the Rio Grande}} The major international border crossins alang the river are at [[Ciudad Juárez]] an [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]]; [[Presidio, Texas]], an [[Ojinaga]], Chihuahua; [[Laredo, Texas]], an [[Nuevo Laredo]], [[Tamaulipas]]; [[McAllen, Texas]], an [[Reynosa, Tamaulipas]]; an [[Brownsville, Texas]], an [[Matamoros, Tamaulipas]]. ither notable border touns are the Texas/Coahuila pairins o [[Del Rio, Texas|Del Rio]]&ndash;[[Ciudad Acuña]] an [[Eagle Pass, Texas|Eagle Pass]]&ndash;[[Piedras Negras, Coahuila|Piedras Negras]]. ==Names an pronunciation== [[Image:Rio grande in 1718.jpg|thumb|right|The Rio Grande (''Rio del Norte'') as mappit in 1718 bi [[Guillaume de L'Isle]].]] ''{{lang|es|Río Grande}}'' is [[Spainyie leid|Spainyie]] for "Big River" an ''{{lang|es|Río Grande del Norte}}'' means "Great River o the North". In [[Inglis leid|Inglis]] an [[Scots leid|Scots]], Rio Grande is pronooncit aither {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|iː|oʊ|_|ˈ|ɡ|r|æ|n|d}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|iː|oʊ|_|ˈ|ɡ|r|ɑː|n|d|eɪ}}. Acause ''río'' means "river" in Spainyie, the phrase ''Rio Grande River'' is redundant. In Mexico it is kent as Río Bravo or ''{{lang|es|Río Bravo del Norte}}'', [[wikt:bravo#Spanish|''bravo'']] meanin (amang ither things) "furious" or "agitatit". Historically, the [[Pueblo]] an Navajo fowks haed names for the Rio Grande/Rio Bravo an aw: * ''mets'ichi chena'', [[Keresan leids|Keresan]], "Big River" * ''posoge'', [[Tewa leid|Tewa]], "Big River" * ''paslápaane'', [[Tiwa leids|Tiwa]], "Big River" * {{lang|tow|''hañapakwa''}}, [[Jemez leid|Towa]], "Great Watters" The fower Pueblo names likely predatit the [[:en:History of New Mexico#Spanish exploration and colonization|Spainyie entrada]] bi several centuries.<ref name=Riley>Source for historical names: Carroll L. Riley, 1995, ''Rio del Norte'', University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-496-5</ref> * {{lang|nv|''{{spell-nv|Tó Baʼáadi}}''}}, [[Navajo leid|Navajo]], "Female River" (the direction sooth is female in Navajo cosmology)<ref name="Y&M">For the spelling of Navajo terms: Young, Robert W & William Morgan, Sr. ''The Navajo Language. A Grammar and Colloquial Dictionary.'' University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque, NM: 1987.</ref> ''Rio del Norte'' wis maist commonly uised for the upper Rio Grande (roughly, athin the present-day borders o New Mexico) frae [[Spainyie colonization o the Americas|Spainyie colonial]] times tae the end o the Mexican period in the mid-19t century. This uise wis first documentit bi the Spainyie in 1582. Early American settlers in [[sooth Texas]] began tae uise the modren 'Inglis' name ''Rio Grande''. Bi the late 19t century, in the Unitit States, the name Rio Grande haed acome staundart in bein appleed tae the entire river, frae [[Colorado]] tae the sea.<ref name=Riley/> Bi 1602, ''Río Bravo'' haed acome the staundart Spainyie name for the lawer river, belaw its confluence wi the [[Rio Conchos]].<ref name=Riley/> ==Tributars== {{Main|Leet o tributars o the Rio Grande}} The lairgest tributar o the Rio Grande bi [[dischairge (hydrology)|discharge]] is the Rio Conchos, which contributes amaist twice as hintle watter as ony ither. In terms o [[drainage basin]] size the Pecos River is the lairgest. {| class="wikitable collapsible sortable state = uncollapsed" |- ![[Tributary]] !colspan=2|Average discharge !colspan=2|Drainage basin |- ! ![[cubic feet per seicont|cu&nbsp;ft/s]] ![[cubic meters per seicont|m³/s]] !sq&nbsp;mi !km² |- |[[San Juan River (Tamaulipas)|San Juan River]] |{{convert|368|cuft|m3|sigfig=2|disp=table}}<ref name=ibwc/> |{{convert|12950|sqmi|km2|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=ibwc/> |- |[[Rio Alamo]] |{{convert|130|cuft|m3|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=ibwc/> |{{convert|1675|sqmi|km2|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=ibwc/> |- |[[Rio Salado (Mexico)|Rio Salado]] |{{convert|354|cuft|m3|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=ibwc/> |{{convert|23323|sqmi|km2|sigfig=3|disp=table}} <ref name=ibwc/> |- |[[Rio San Rodrigo]] |{{convert|130|cuft|m3|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=ibwc/> |{{convert|1050|sqmi|km2|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=ibwc/> |- |[[Devils River (Texas)|Devils River]] |{{convert|362|cuft|m3|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=ibwc/> |{{convert|137|sqmi|km2|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref>{{cite web |title= Devils River Protection Campaign, Devils River Conservation Easements |publisher= [[The Nature Conservancy]] |url= http://www.nature.org/success/devilsriver.html |accessdate= 22 July 2010 |archive-date= 2009-01-09 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090109155225/http://www.nature.org/success/devilsriver.html |url-status= dead }}</ref> |- |[[Pecos River]] |{{convert|265|cuft|m3|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=ibwc/> |{{convert|44402|sqmi|km2|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=largest>[http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1987/ofr87-242/ Largest Rivers of the United States], USGS</ref> |- |[[Rio Conchos]] |{{convert|848|cuft|m3|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=ibwc/> |{{convert|26400|sqmi|km2|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.edf.org/article.cfm?contentID=2902 |accessdate= 20 July 2010 |title= The Rio Conchos: An Essential Ribbon of Life |publisher= Environmental Defense Fund |archive-date= 2010-07-24 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100724172532/http://www.edf.org/article.cfm?contentID=2902 |url-status= dead }}</ref> |- |[[Rio Puerco (Rio Grande)|Rio Puerco]] |{{convert|39.5|cuft|m3|sigfig=2|disp=table}}<ref name=wdr-puerco>{{cite web |title= Water resources data for the United States, Water Year 2009; gage 08353000 Rio Puerco near Barnardo, NM |publisher= [[USGS]] |url= http://wdr.water.usgs.gov/wy2009/pdfs/08353000.2009.pdf |accessdate= 21 July 2010}}</ref> |{{convert|7350|sqmi|km2|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=wdr-puerco/> |- |[[Jemez River]] |{{convert|59.5|cuft|m3|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=wdr-jemez>{{cite web |title= Water resources data for the United States, Water Year 2009; gage 08329000, Jemez River below Jemez Canyon Dam, NM |publisher= [[USGS]] |url= http://wdr.water.usgs.gov/wy2009/pdfs/08329000.2009.pdf |accessdate= 20 July 2010}}</ref> |{{convert|1038|sqmi|km2|sigfig=4|disp=table}}<ref name=wdr-jemez/> |- |[[Santa Fe River (New Mexico)|Santa Fe River]] |{{convert|10.9|cuft|m3|sigfig=2|disp=table}}<ref name=wdr-santafe>{{cite web |title= Water resources data for the United States, Water Year 2009; gage 08317200 Santa Fe River above Cochiti Lake, NM |publisher= [[USGS]] |url= http://wdr.water.usgs.gov/wy2009/pdfs/08317200.2009.pdf |accessdate= 21 July 2010}}</ref> |{{convert|231|sqmi|km2|sigfig=4|disp=table}}<ref name=wdr-santafe/> |- |[[Rio Chama (Rio Grande)|Rio Chama]] |{{convert|571|cuft|m3|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=wdr-chama>{{cite web |title= Water resources data for the United States, Water Year 2009; gage 08290000, Rio Chama near Chamita, NM |publisher= [[USGS]] |url= http://wdr.water.usgs.gov/wy2009/pdfs/08290000.2009.pdf |accessdate= 21 July 2010}}</ref> |{{convert|3144|sqmi|km2|sigfig=4|disp=table}}<ref name=wdr-chama/> |- |[[Conejos River]] |{{convert|176|cuft|m3|sigfig=3|disp=table}}<ref name=wdr-conejos>{{cite web |title= Water resources data for the United States, Water Year 2009; gage 08249000, Conejos River near Lasauses, CO |publisher= [[USGS]] |url= http://wdr.water.usgs.gov/wy2009/pdfs/08249000.2009.pdf |accessdate= 21 July 2010}}</ref> |{{convert|887|sqmi|km2|sigfig=4|disp=table}}<ref name=wdr-conejos/> |} {{clear}} ==See an aw== {{colbegin|3}} * [[Chihuahuan Desert]] * [[Leet o internaitional border rivers]] * [[Leet o longest rivers o Mexico]] * [[Leet o longest rivers o the Unitit States (bi main stem)]] * [[Leet o rivers o Colorado]] * [[Leet o rivers o New Mexico]] * [[Leet o rivers o Texas]] * [[Rio Bravo, Texas]] * [[Rio Grande border disputes]] * [[Rio Grande dams an diversions]] * [[Rio Grande Gorge]] * [[Rio Grande Trail]] * [[Rio Grande Wild an Scenic River]] * [[Trans-Pecos]] * [[Wast Texas]] {{colend}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|colwidth=35em}} ==References== * {{cite book |title=The News from Brownsville: Helen Chapman's Letters from the Texas Military Frontier, 1848-1852 |first=Caleb |last=Coker|location=Austin, Tex|publisher=Texas State Historical Association |year=1992 |isbn=0-87611-115-0}} * {{cite book |title= Great River: The Rio Grande in North American History|url= https://archive.org/details/greatriverriogra0000horg_m4d1|first=Paul|last=Horgan|authorlink= Paul Horgan|publisher= Wesleyan University Press|location= Hanover, NH|year= 1991|isbn=0-8195-6251-3|edition=4th}} * {{cite book |title=Boom and Bust: The Historical Cycles of Matamoros and Brownsville |url=https://archive.org/details/boombusthistoric0000kear |first=Milo |last=Kearney |coauthors=Anthony K. Knopp |year=1995 |location=Austin, Tex|publisher=Eakin Press |isbn=978-0-89015-815-9}} * {{cite book |title=River of Lost Dreams: Navigation on the Rio Grande |url=https://archive.org/details/riveroflostdream0000kell |first=Pat |last=Kelley |publisher=University of Nebraska Press|location=Lincoln|year=1986 |isbn=978-0-8032-2712-5}} * {{cite book |title=The King Ranch |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.139843 |authorlink=Thomas C. Lea, III|first1=Tom |last1=Lea|publisher=Little, Brown|location=Boston|year=1957|isbn=978-0-316-51745-4}} ==Freemit airtins== {{commons|Rio Grande (river)}} * [http://www.borderstories.org/index.php/ebanos-crossing.html Border Stories: the only hand pulled ferry on the Rio Grande (video)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124040841/http://www.borderstories.org/index.php/ebanos-crossing.html |date=2009-01-24 }} * [http://texashistory.unt.edu/data/UNT/Maps/meta-pth-2480.tkl 1854 map of Rio Grande entrance] (hosted bi the [http://texashistory.unt.edu/ Portal to Texas History]). * [http://www.chimneyparkresort.com/webcam.html Rio Grande Cam - in Mission Texas. Mexico is on the left and the US is on the right.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070123114012/http://www.chimneyparkresort.com/webcam.html |date=2007-01-23 }} {{AHR}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Grande, Rio}} [[Category:Rio Grande| ]] [[Category:American Heritage Rivers]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:Borders o New Mexico]] [[Category:Borders o Texas]] [[Category:Drainage basins o the Gulf o Mexico]] [[Category:Geografie o Conejos Coonty, Colorado]] [[Category:Geografie o El Paso Coonty, Texas]] [[Category:Geografie o Hidalgo Coonty, Texas]] [[Category:Geografie o Laredo, Texas]] [[Category:Geografie o Presidio Coonty, Texas]] [[Category:Internaitional rivers o North Americae]] [[Category:Landforms o Bernalillo Coonty, New Mexico]] [[Category:Landforms o Doña Ana Coonty, New Mexico]] [[Category:Landforms o Rio Arriba Coonty, New Mexico]] [[Category:Landforms o Saundoval Coonty, New Mexico]] [[Category:Landforms o Sierra Coonty, New Mexico]] [[Category:Landforms o Socorro Coonty, New Mexico]] [[Category:Landforms o Valencia Coonty, New Mexico]] [[Category:Mexican Plateau]] [[Category:Mexico–Unitit States border]] [[Category:Rivers o Colorado]] [[Category:Rivers o Mexico|Bravo del Norte]] [[Category:Rivers o New Mexico]] [[Category:Rivers o Texas]] [[Category:Soothwastren Unitit States]] [[Category:Wattersheds of the Unitit States]] 59lodmirvdu4w7z8feo8a4ovb7w61iw 0 64150 918708 834600 2026-06-24T23:13:59Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918708 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} [[File:Latium et Campania.png|thumb|400px|Early Latium an Campanie]] [[File:Abraham Oertel - Latium - 1595.PNG|thumb|400px|Abraham Ortel's 1595 map o auncient Latium]] '''Latium''' ({{lang-la|Lătĭŭm}} {{IPA-la|ˈlatiʊ̃|}}) is the region o central wastren Italy in which the ceety o [[Roum]] wis foondit an grew tae be the caipital ceety o the [[Roman Empire]]. Latium wis oreeginally a smaw triangle o growthie, volcanic soil on which residit the tribe o the [[Latins (Italic tribe)|Latins]]. It wis locatit on the left bank (east an sooth) o the Tiber river, extendin northwaird tae the Anio river (a left-bank tributar o the Tiber) an sootheastwaird tae the Pomptina Palus ([[Pontine Marshes]], nou the Pontine Fields) as far sooth as the [[Cape Circeo|Circeian promontory]].<ref name="Cary">{{cite book|last=Cary |first=M.|last2=Scullard |first2=H. H. |title=A History of Rome: Down to the Reign of Constantine|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofromedow0000mcar_3edi |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofromedow0000mcar_3edi/page/31 31] |edition=3rd |year=1975 |location=New York |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=0312383959}}</ref> The richt bank o the Tiber wis occupee'd bi the Etruscan ceety o [[Veii]], an the ither borders wur occupeed bi [[Auncient Italic fowk|Italic]] tribes. Subsequently Roum defeatit Veii an then its Italic neebours, expandin Latium tae the [[Apennine Muntains]] in the northeast an tae the opposite end o the mairsh in the sootheast. The modren stryndant, the [[Italy|Italian]] ''[[Regione]]'' o [[Lazio]], crie ''Latium'' in [[Laitin]] an aw, an occasionally in modren [[Inglis leid|Inglis]], is somewha lairger still, but no as hitnle as double the oreeginal Latium. The auncient leid o the Laitins, the tribesmen who occupeed Latium, wis tae become the immediate predecessor o the [[Auld Laitin]] leid, ancestor o [[Laitin]] an the [[Romance leids]]. Latium haes played a important role in history awin tae its status as the host o the caipital ceety o [[Roum]], at ane time the cultural an poleetical centre o the [[Roman Empire]]. Consequently, Latium is hame tae celebratit wirks o [[airt]] an [[airchitectur]]. ==Geografie== Earliest kent Latium wis the kintra o the [[Laitins (Italic tribe)|Latini]], a tribe whose recognizit centre wis a lairge, extinct volcano, [[Alban hills|Mons Albanus]] ("the Alban Munt", the day's [[Colli Albani]]), {{convert|20|km|mi}} tae the southeast of Rome, {{convert|64|km|mi}} in circumference. In its center is a crater loch, Lacus Albanus ([[Lago Albano]]), oval in shape, a few km long and wide. At the top o the seicont-heichest peak ([[Monte Cavo]]) was a temple to [[Jupiter]] Latiaris, where the Latini held state functions afore their subjection tae Roum, an the Romans subsequently held releegious an state ceremonies. The last pagan temple tae be built stuid until the Middle Ages when its stane an location wur reuised for various monasteries an feenally a hotel. Durin [[Warld War II]], the [[Wehrmacht]] turned it intae a radio station, which wis captured efter a infantry battle bi American troops in 1944, an it currently is a controversial telecommunications station surroondit bi antennae considered unsichtly bi the population athin view. The selection o Jupiter as a state god an the styrnd o the name Latini tae the name o the [[Laitin]] leid are sufficient tae identify the Laitins as a tribe o [[Indo-European]] strynd. [[Vergil]], a major poet o the early [[Roman Empire]], unner [[Augustus]], derivit Latium frae the wird for "hidden" (Inglis latent) acause in a meeth [[Saturn (mythologie)|Saturn]], ruler o the [[gowden age]] in Latium, hid (latuisset)<ref>''Aeneid'', VIII.323.</ref> frae Jupiter there.<ref>{{harvnb|Bevan|1875|pp=530–531}}</ref> ==History== The region that wad become Latium haed been hame tae settled agricultural populations syne the early [[Bronze Age]] an wis kent tae the [[Auncient Greeks]] andeven earlier tae the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean Greeks]].<ref>Emilio Peruzzi, ''Mycenaeans in early Latium'', (Incunabula Graeca 75), Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, Roma, 1980</ref> It wis populatit bi a mixtur o [[Indo-European]] an nan-Indo-European leid speakers. The name is maist likely derivit frae the Laitin wird "''latus''", meanin "wide", expressin the idea o "flat land" (in contrast tae the local [[Sabine]] heich kintra) but the name mey oreeginate frae a earlier, nan Indo-European ane. The [[Etruscans]], frae their hame region o [[Etrurie]] (modren day [[Tuscany]]) exertit a strang cultural an poleetical influence on Latium frae aboot the 8t century BC onwaird. Housomeivver, they wur unable tae assert poleetical hegemony ower the region, which wis controlled bi smaw, autonomous [[ceety-state]]s in a manner roughly analogous tae the state o affairs that prevailed in [[Auncient Greece]]. Indeed, the region's cultural an geographic proximity tae the ceeties o [[Magna Graecia]] haed a strang impact upon its early history. Ane o the earliest recordit nan-Etruscan dounsets in Latium is the quasi-meethical ceety o [[Alba Longa]] locatit somewha sootheast o the present-day ceety o [[Roum]]. Accordin tae Livy an ither auncient authorities, it wis here that the [[Laitin League]] wis foondit, a coalition o ceety-states intendit as a bulwark against Etruscan expansion. The ceety-state o Roum emerged as the dominant poleetical an militar pouer in the region, follaein Roum's destruction o [[Alba Longa]] in the middle o the 7t century BC. The emperor [[Augustus]] offeecially unitit amaist aw o present-day Italy intae a single geo-poleetical entity, [[Italia (Roman Empire)|Italia]], dividin it intae eleiven regions. Lazio – thegither wi the present region o [[Campanie]] immediately tae the sootheast o Lazio an the seat o [[Naples|Neapolis]] – became Region I. Efter the [[Gothic War (535-554)]] an the Byzantine conquest, this region regained its freedom, acause the "Roman Duchy" became the property o the Eastren Emperor. Housomeivver, the lang wars against the barbarian [[Longobards]] weakened the region, which wis seizit bi the Roman Bishop who awready haed several properties in those territories. The strenthenin o the releegious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led tae continuous pouer struggles atween lairds an the Roman bishop till the middle o the 16t century. [[Pape Innocent III]] treed tae strengthen his awn territorial pouer, wishin tae assert his authority in the provincial admeenistrations o Tuscia, Campagna an Marittima throu the Kirk's representatives, in order to reduce the power o the [[Colonna faimily]]. Ither papes treed tae dae the same. Durin the period when the papacy residit in [[Avignon Papacy|Avignon, Fraunce]] (1309–1377), the feudal lairds' pouer increased due tae the absence o the Pape frae Roum. Smaw communes, an Roum abuin aw, opposed the lairds' increasin pouer, an wi [[Cola di Rienzo]], they treed tae present thaislves as antagonists o the ecclesiastical pouer. Housomeivver, atween 1353 an 1367, the papacy regained control o Latium an the rest o the [[Papal States]]. Frae the middle o the 16t century, the papacy poleetically unifeed Lazio wi the [[Papal States]], so that these territories became provincial admeenistrations o St. Peter's estate; govrenors in [[Viterbo]], in Marittima an [[Campagna]], an in [[Frosinone]] admeenistered thaim for the papacy. Efter the short-livit [[Roman Republic (18t century)]], the region's annexation tae Fraunce bi [[Napoleon]] in Februar 1798, Latium became again pairt o the [[Papal States]] in October, 1799. On 20 September 1870 the [[capture o Roum]], durin the reign o [[Pape Pius IX]], an Fraunce's defeat at [[Battle o Sedan|Sedan]], completit [[Italian unification]], an Lazio wis incorporatit intae the [[Kinrick o Italy (1861–1946)|Kinrick o Italy]]. ==Modren region o Latium== {{main|Lazio|l1=Region of Latium}} Latium, aften referred tae by the Italian name ''Lazio'', is a govrenment region, i.e. ane o the first-level admeenistrative diveesions o the state. Thare are twinty regions in Italy. Oreeginally meant as admeenistrative destricts o the central state, the regions acquired a significant level o autonomy follaein a constitutional reform in 2001. The modren region o Latium conteens the naitional caipital Roum. ==See an aw== * [[Latium adiectum]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliografie== * {{cite book|title=The student's manual of ancient geography |url=https://archive.org/details/studentsmanuala00smitgoog |first=William Latham |last=Bevan |first2=William |last2=Smith |location=London |publisher=J. Murray |year=1875 |ref=CITEREFBevan1875}} *[[Strabo]] – [[Geographica (Strabo)]] book V chapter 3 – Rome 20 BC *[[Athanasius Kircher]] – ''Latium'' – 1669 – Amsterdam 1671 *G. R. Volpi – ''Vetus Latium Profanum et Sacrum'' – Rome 1742 *T. J. Cornell – ''The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars'' – London 1995 *C. H. Smith – ''Early Rome and Latium. Economy and Society, c. 1000 – 500 BC,'' "''Oxford Classical Monographs''" – Oxford 1996 ==Freemit airtins== * [http://xoomer.alice.it/asciatopo/latium.html Toponymy o Latium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080418064923/http://xoomer.alice.it/asciatopo/latium.html |date=2008-04-18 }} * {{cite web|title=Colli Albani or Alban Hills volcanic complex, Latium, Italy|first=Boros|last=Behncke|date=1996–2003|publisher=Italy's Volcanoes: The Cradle o Volcanology|url=http://boris.vulcanoetna.it/ALBANI.html|accessdate=28 January 2010|archive-date=2011-07-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719103738/http://boris.vulcanoetna.it/ALBANI.html|url-status=dead}} <br> {{Lazio}} [[Category:Geografie o Lazio]] [[Category:History o Lazio]] asooexwyrj0ac4eioztfxjgmpz5d2ep 0 65339 918737 780443 2026-06-24T23:33:03Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918737 wikitext text/x-wiki The '''Suebi''' or '''Suevi''' wur a lairge group o [[Germanic fowk]]s who wur first mentioned bi [[Julius Caesar]] in connection wi [[Ariovistus]]' campaign in [[Gaul]], c. 58 BC.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|first=Wolfgang|last=Menzel|authorlink=Wolfgang Menzel|others=Mrs. George Horrocks (Translator); Edgar Saltus (Supplementary Chapter)|title=Germany from the Earliest Period: Volume I|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W9-CRB-135|publisher=Peter Fenelon Collier|location=New York|date=MDCCCXCIX|page=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_W9-CRB-135/page/89 89]}}</ref> While Caesar treatit them as ane Germanic tribe, tho the lairgest an maist warlik, later authors such as Tacitus, Pliny an Strabo specified that the Suevi "dae nae, lik the [[Chatti]] or [[Tencteri]], constitute a single naition. Thay actually occupy mair nor hauf o Germany, an are dividit intae a nummer o distinct tribes unner distinct names, tho aw generally are cried Suebi".<ref>Tacitus ''Germania'' Section 8, translation by H. Mattingly.</ref> "At ane time, classical ethnography haed applied the name "Suebi" tae so mony Germanic tribes that it appeared as tho in the first centuries C.E. this native name would replace the foreign name "Germans"."<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.be/books?id=c788wWR_bLwC&pg=PA467|page=467|title=Late Antiquity|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1999|chapter=Germanic Tribes|isbn=9780674511736|postscript=.}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} {{commonscat}} [[Category:Suebi| ]] [[Category:Auncient Germanic fowks]] 1kcjegfnycd6fqd1h0dclxarndz3m9u 0 66748 918726 819602 2026-06-24T23:25:38Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918726 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots|date=Januar 2021}} '''Cisalpine Gaul''' (''Gallia Cisalpina''), cried ''Gallia Citerior'' or ''Gallia Togata'' an aw,<ref name=DCC>{{cite book|title=Geographie des Transalpinischen Galliens |first=Joseph |last=von Hefner |year=1837 |place=Munich}}</ref> wis the pairt o [[Northren Italy]] dominatit bi [[Celts]] ([[Gauls]]) during the 4t an 3rd centuries BC. Conquered bi the [[Roman Republic]] in the 220s BC, it wis a [[Roman province]] frae c. 81 BC till 42 BC, when it wis merged intae [[Italy (Roman Empire)|Roman Italy]].<ref name=DRR>{{cite book|title=Decline of the Roman republic: Volume 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/declineofromanre0002geor |first=George |last=Long |year=1866 |place=London}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Auncient Gaul]] [[Category:Provinces o Roman Gaul]] [[Category:Auncient Italian history]] {{stub}} 0hq2k2a463f4sz24w2tfhwnpc3y7zo1 0 66939 918739 834503 2026-06-24T23:34:00Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918739 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Standard Model of Elementary Particles.svg|thumb|300px|The [[Staundart Model]] o elementary pairticles, wi the gauge bosons in the fowerth column in reid]] In [[pairticle pheesics]], a '''gauge boson''' is a [[force carrier]], a [[boson]]ic pairticle that carries ony o the [[fundamental interaction]]s o naitur.<ref>{{cite book | author=Gribbin, John | title=Q is for Quantum – An Encyclopedia of Particle Physics | url=https://archive.org/details/qisforquantumenc0000grib | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=2000 | isbn=0-684-85578-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Clark, John, E.O. | title=The Essential Dictionary of Science | url=https://archive.org/details/essentialdiction0000unse | publisher=Barnes & Noble | year=2004 | isbn=0-7607-4616-8}}</ref> [[Elementary pairticle]]s, whose interactions are describit bi a [[gauge theory]], interact wi ilk ither bi the exchynge o gauge bosons—uisually as [[virtual pairticle]]s. ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Bosons]] [[Category:Gauge bosons| ]] [[Category:Pairticle physics]] g3vmxdtzbtn247vbgtiptfp4xhilk81 0 67242 918761 906679 2026-06-24T23:49:41Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918761 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots}} {{Infobox film | name = Oliver & Company | image = | caption = | director = [[George Scribner]] | screenplay = {{Plainlist| * Jim Cox * Tim Disney * [[James Mangold]] }} | story = {{Plainlist| * Vance Gerry * [[Mike Gabriel]] * [[Joe Ranft]] * Jim Mitchell * [[Chris Bailey (animator)|Chris Bailey]] * [[Kirk Wise]] * Dave Michener * [[Roger Allers]] * [[Gary Trousdale]] * [[Kevin Lima]] * Michael Cedeno * Pete Young * Leon Joosen }} | based on = {{based on|''[[Oliver Twist]]''|[[Charles Dickens]]}} | starring = {{Plainlist| * [[Joey Lawrence]] * [[Billy Joel]] * [[Natalie Gregory]] * [[Cheech Marin]] * [[Bette Midler]] * [[Robert Loggia]] * [[Richard Mulligan]] * [[Roscoe Lee Browne]] * [[Sheryl Lee Ralph]] }} | music = [[J.A.C. Redford]] | studio = {{Plainlist| * [[Walt Disney Pictures]] * [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney Feature Animation]] }} | distributor = [[Buena Vista Pictures Distribution]] | released = {{Film date|1988|11|18}} | runtime = 73 meenits | country = Unitit States | language = Inglis | budget = $31 million<ref>{{cite web|url=http://powergrid.thewrap.com/project/oliver-company|title=Oliver & Company (1988)|work=[[The Wrap]]|accessdate=Dizember 14, 2016|archive-date=2016-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220223925/http://powergrid.thewrap.com/project/oliver-company|url-status=dead}}</ref> | gross = $74.2 million<ref>{{cite web|title=Oliver & Company|publisher=[[Box Office Mojo]]|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=oliverandcompany.htm|accessdate=Januar 5, 2012}}</ref> }} '''''Oliver & Company''''' is a 1988 American animatit [[muisical film|muisical]] [[comedy-drama]] film produced bi [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney Featur Animation]] an lowsed on 18 November 1988 bi [[Walt Disney Pictures]]. The 27t [[Leet o Walt Disney Animation Studios films|Disney animatit featur film]], the film is inspired bi the classic [[Charles Dickens]] novelle ''[[Oliver Twist]]'', which haes been adaptit mony ither times for the screen. In the film, Oliver is a hameless kitten that jyns a gang o dugs tae survive in the streets. Amang ither chynges, the settin o the film wis relocatit frae 19t century [[Lunnon]] tae late 1980s [[New York Ceety]], Fagin's gang is made up o dugs (ane o that is Dodger), an Sykes is a loan shark. ''Oliver & Company'' began production aroond 1987 as ''Oliver and the Dodger''. The film wis re-lowsed in the Unitit States, Canadae, an the UK on 29 Mairch 1996. It wis then lowsed tae video later that same year, an again in 2002 an 2009 on DVD. The film wis pit oot on [[Blu-ray Disc]] in 2013, commemoratin its 25t Anniversary. ==Plot== <!-- Per WP:FILMPLOT, plot summaries should be between 400 and 700 words in length. Current count is 694 words. --> On [[Fifth Avenue]], an orphaned kitten named Oliver is left abandoned efter his fellae orphaned kittens are adoptit bi passersby. Wandering the streets bi himsel in sairch o someone tae adopt him, Oliver meets a laid-back dug named Dodger that assists the kitten in stealin fuid frae a [[het dug]] vendor named Louie. Dodger then flees the scene wioot sharin his bounty wi Oliver. Oliver follaes Dodger aw throughout the streets until he eventually arrives at the [[barge]] o his awner, a [[pickpocket]] named Fagin, alang wi his meal, tae gie tae his friends: Tito the [[Chihuahua (dog)|chihuahua]], Einstein the [[Great Dane]], Rita the [[Afghan Hound]], an Francis the [[bulldug]]. Oliver sneaks inside, locatit ablo the docks, an is discovered bi the dugs. Efter a moment o confusion, he is then received wi a warm welcome. Fagin comes in an explains that he is running oot o time tae repay the money he borraed frae Bill Sykes, a nefarious shipyard agent an [[loan shark]]. Sykes tells Fagin it maun be peyed in three day, or else. Sykes' [[doberman]]s, Roscoe an DeSoto, atteck Oliver but the cat is fendit bi Fagin's dugs. Immediately thereefter, a depresst Fagin returns tae the barge, lamenting that he anly haes three day tae find the money. Efter the dugs cheer him up, Fagin is introduced tae Oliver, an, considering that thay aw need help, accepts him intae the gang. The next day, Fagin an his pets, nou includin Oliver, hit the streets tae sell some shoddy goods an aiblins steal money. Oliver an Tito attempt tae sabotage a limousine but the plan backfires whan Oliver accidentally stairts the car, electrocuting Tito, an Oliver is caught an taken home bi the limousine's passenger, Jenny Foxworth. Her parents are awa on a trip an she adopts Oliver oot o loneliness. Georgette, the Foxworth faimily's pompous an pampered [[poodle]], is enraged an jealous o Oliver's presence an wants him remuived frae the hoosehauld. Dodger an the ithers manage tae steal Oliver frae the Foxworth faimily an bring him back tae the barge, but he explains that he wis treatit kindly an didnae want tae leave, maun tae the shock o Dodger that feels that Oliver is bein ungrateful, an allous him the opportunity tae leave. Houiver, Fagin arrives an concocts a plan tae ransom Oliver, then sends Jenny a ransom note. Jenny discovers the note an sets oot tae get him back. Meanwhile, Fagin tells Sykes o his plan, that says he is proud o him for "starting to think big". Later, Jenny meets up wi Fagin, that is shocked that the "very rich cat owner person" is anly a little girl. Fashed bi his conscience efter seein Jenny distraught ower losin Oliver, Fagin gies Oliver back freely. Juist then, Sykes comes oot o the shadows an kidnaps Jenny, intendin tae ransom her an declaring Fagin's debt peyed. Dodger rallies Oliver an the ither dugs tae rescue Jenny frae Sykes, but the ainimals are confrontit bi Sykes an his Dobermans efter thay free her. Fagin arrives an saves the group wi his scooter an a chase ensues throu the streets an intae the subway tunnels. Jenny is pushed ontae the huid o Sykes's car efter it bumped onto the scooter, whaur she hauds ontae the huid ornament, an Oliver an Dodger attempt a rescue. Roscoe an DeSoto faw aff the car in the struggle an land on the subway's [[third rail]], electrocuting them. Tito taks control o Fagin's scooter as Fagin manages tae retrieve Jenny, an Tito drives the scooter up the side o the [[Brooklyn Bridge]] as Sykes' car drives stracht intae the path o an oncomin train, killin him an throwing him an his car intae the [[East River]]. Dodger an Oliver manage tae jouk the collision an are reunited wi Jenny an the ithers. Later, Jenny celebrates her birthday wi the ainimals, Fagin, an Winston. That same day, Winston receives a phone caw frae Jenny's parents in [[Roum]] saying that thay will be back the morn. Oliver opts tae stay wi her but he promises tae remain in contact wi Dodger an the gang. ==Cast an chairacters== * [[Joey Lawrence]] as [[Oliver Twist (chairacter)|Oliver]], an orange orphaned kitten that is leukin for a home. He jyns Fagin's gang o dugs afore bein taken in bi Jenny. He saves her life frae the ruthless loan-shark, Sykes, anaa. * [[Billy Joel]] as [[Artful Dodger|Dodger]], a carefree, charismatic mongrel wi a mix o terrier in him. He claims tae hae considerable "street savoir-faire". He is the heid o Fagin's gang o dugs, an is Oliver's first acquaintance, as well as his eventual best friend an bodyguard. He is the object o Rita's affection. * [[Cheech Marin]] as Tito, a tiny yet passionate [[Chihuahua (dog)|Chihuahua]] in Fagin's gang. He haes a fiery temper for his size, an rapidly develops a crush on Georgette (awtho she is initially repulsed bi him). His full name is Ignacio Alonso Julio Federico de Tito. * [[Richard Mulligan]] as Einstein, a gray [[Great Dane]] an a member o Fagin's gang. He is named ironically as he is nae parteecularly bricht, representin the stereotype that Great Danes are friendly but dull-witted. * [[Roscoe Lee Browne]] as Francis, a [[bulldug]] wi a [[Breetish Inglis|Breetish]] accent in Fagin's gang. He appreciates airt an theatre, parteecularly [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. He an aa detests anyone abbreviating his name as "Frank" or "Frankie" (which Tito frequently daes). * [[Sheryl Lee Ralph]] ([[Ruth Pointer]], singin) as Rita, an [[Afghan Hound]]<ref>{{cite news|date=November 18, 1988|title=Oliver & Company - Washington Post|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/olivercompany.htm|newspaper=[[Washington Post]]|accessdate=Januar 31, 2016}}</ref> an the anly female dug in Fagin's gang. She is street-wise an takes Oliver unner her wing. * [[Dom DeLuise]] as [[Fagin]], a lowly thief who lifes on a barge wi his dugs. He desperately needs money tae repay his debt wi Sykes. Because o his economic situation, he is forced tae perform criminal acts sic as pick-pocketing an petty theft, but in truth he is good-natured an polite maist o the time. * [[Taurean Blacque]] an [[Carl Weintraub]] as Roscoe an DeSoto respectively, Sykes's vicious [[Doberman Pinscher]]s who hae a hostile history wi Dodger an his friends. Roscoe is the apparent leader, while his brither DeSoto seems tae be the mair savage o the twa. Baith o them are killed in the climax killed in the climax efter fallin onto the electric rail tracks while fechtin wi Dodger an Oliver. Roscoe wears a reid collar an DeSoto wears ane that is blue. * [[Robert Loggia]] as [[Bill Sikes|Sykes]], a cauld-hearted, immoral loan-shark an shipyard agent who lent a considerable sum o money to Fagin an expects it peyed back. He is ultimately defeatit at the film's climax when he indirectly drives his car intae a train an gets killed in the process. * [[Natalie Gregory]] (Myhanh Tran, singin) as Jennifer "Jenny" Foxworth, a kynd-hearted, rich girl who adopts Oliver. * William Glover as Winston, the Foxworth faimily's bumbling but loyal butler. * [[Bette Midler]] as Georgette, the Foxworth faimily's shaw-winnin poodle. Vain an spoilt, she becomes jealous o Oliver but eventually accepts him an Fagin's gang. Whan Tito displays his attraction tae her, she initially responds wi revulsion. At the end, houiver, she displays considerable attraction tae Tito, sae maun, in fact that she sends him runnin for his life whan she tries tae bathe, dress an gruim him. * [[Frank Welker]] as Old Louie, an aggressive, bad-tempered het dug vendor that appears early in the film whan Oliver an Dodger steal his hot dugs. He is descrieved bi Dodger as "a well-known enemy of the four-legged world", meanin that he hates baith cats an dugs. ==Production== Efter the release o ''[[The Black Cauldron (film)|The Black Cauldron]]'' in 1985, [[Michael Eisner]] and [[Jeffrey Katzenberg]] invited the animators to pitch potential ideas for upcoming animatit features, infamously cried the "Gong Show". Efter [[Ron Clements]] and [[John Musker]] suggestit ''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid]]'' and ''[[Treasure Planet|Treasure Island in Space]]'', animator Pete Young suggestit, "''Oliver Twist'' with dogs". Oreeginally intending to produce a live-action adaptation o the muisical ''[[Oliver!]]'' at [[Paramount Pictures]], Katzenberg approved the pitch.{{sfn|Stewart|2005|pp=93–94}} Unner the wirkin title o ''Oliver and the Dodger'',{{sfn|Beck|2005|pp=182-83}}<ref>{{cite news|first=Paul|last=Willistein|title=Disney Gearing Up For More Animation|url=http://articles.mcall.com/1987-11-22/entertainment/2601792_1_animation-disney-characters-disney-theme-parks|newspaper=[[The Morning Call]]|date=November 22, 1987|accessdate=July 10, 2015|archive-date=2015-07-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711223447/http://articles.mcall.com/1987-11-22/entertainment/2601792_1_animation-disney-characters-disney-theme-parks|url-status=dead}}</ref> the film wis oreeginally much darker and grittier wi the film openin wi Sykes's twa [[Doberman]]s murdering Oliver's parents, setting the story to focus on Oliver exacting his revenge as detailed in a draft dated on Mairch 30, 1987.{{sfn|Koeing|2001|p=192}} [[George Scribner]] and [[Richard Rich (director)|Richard Rich]] war annoonced as the directors o the project, while Pete Young wis appyntit as story supervisor,{{sfn|Hulett|2014|p=90}} tho Rich left aboot sax month intae production, leaving Scribner as the sole director.<ref>{{cite interview|subject=George Scribner|title=Once Upon A Time In New York City: Oliver & Company's Director George Scribner!|interviewer=Jérémie Noyer|url=http://animatedviews.com/2009/once-upon-a-time-in-new-york-city-oliver-companys-director-george-scribner/|publisher=Animated Views|date=February 3, 2009|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> In this adaptation, Scribner turned Oliver intae a naïve kitten, Dodger and the gang intae dugs, an Fagin intae a human, an encouraged the film tae be mair street smart.{{sfn|Koeing|2001|p=192}} Furthermore, Scribner borrowed a technique frae ''[[Lady and the Tramp]]'' bi [[Blocking (stage)|blocking oot]] the scenes on real streets, an then photographing them wi cameras mounted eighteen inches off the grund. In this wey, the animators wad uise the photos as templates to provide a real dug's-ee view o the action.<ref>{{cite news|title=`Oliver' gets a dog's eye view, in a Twist on the classic story|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-62628371.html|first=Jeff|last=Strickler|newspaper=[[Star Tribune]]|format=Fee required|via=HighBeam Research|date=April 21, 1996|accessdate=July 10, 2015|archive-date=2015-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924161541/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-62628371.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> As work continued on ''Oliver'', [[Roy E. Disney]] came up wi an idea that Fagin wad attempt to steal a rare panda frae the ceety zoo. Houiver, the writers wad hae problems wi the idea,{{sfn|Beck|2005|pp=182-83}} and the panda sub-plot wis eventually dropped when Scribner suggestit to hae Fagin haud Oliver for ransom acause he wis a valuable, rare [[Asian cat]].{{sfn|Koeing|2001|p=193}}{{sfn|Hulett|2014|p=96}} For the film, Disney invested $15 million intae a lang-term computer system cried [[Computer Animation Production System]], itherwise kent as CAPS. Unlik ''The Black Cauldron'' an ''[[The Great Mouse Detective]]'' that uised computer imagery for special sequences, eleeven minutes o ''Oliver & Company'' wis computer-generated sic as the skyscrapers, the taxi cabs, trains, Fagin's scooter-cart, an the climactic subway chase.<ref name="disneytwist">{{cite news|title='Oliver & Company' Gives Dickens A Disney Twist urban scene from an appropriate rooftop.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=940DE4D81F3CF930A25752C1A96E948260|first=John|last=Culhane|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=November 13, 1988|accessdate=July 8, 2015}}</ref> Meanwhile, the traditional animation wis handled bi the next generation o Disney animators, includin supervising animators [[Glen Keane]], [[Ruben A. Aquino]], [[Mike Gabriel]], Hendel Butoy, an [[Mark Henn]] as the "[[Disney's Nine Old Men|Nine Old Men]]" haed retired in the early 1980s.<ref name="disneytwist" /> Throughout twa and a hauf years o production, sax supervising animators and a team o ower 300 artists and technicians worked on the film.<ref>{{cite web|title=Disney Archives – Oliver and Company|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080727061012/http://disney.go.com/vault/archives/movies/oliver/oliver.html|archivedate=July 27, 2008 |url=http://disney.go.com/vault/archives/movies/oliver/oliver.html|publisher=[[Disney.com|Disney.go.com]]|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]] wis the database for the New York City skyline. ===Casting=== Acause personalities are considered the greatest strength o Disney animatit films, the filmmakers socht believable vyces tae match the movement o the animation.<ref name="disneytwist" /> For this film, the filmmakers cast fellae New York natives includin [[Bette Midler]] for Georgette, [[Sheryl Lee Ralph]] for Rita, an [[Roscoe Lee Browne]] for Francis.<ref name="disneytwist" /> Comedian [[Cheech Marin]] wis cast as the [[chihuahua (dog)|chihuahua]] Tito. Acause energy proved tae be the key tae Tito's personality, Marin claimed "I was encouraged to ad-lib, but I'd say I just gave about 75% of the lines as they were written. The natural energy of a Chihuahua played right into that feeling. George [Scribner] was very encouraging as a director: He kept the energy level high at the recording sessions."<ref>{{cite news|title=Cheech Marin as Animated Tito: Check It Out|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1988-12-27/entertainment/ca-979_1_cheech-marin|first=Charles|last=Solomon|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=December 27, 1988|accessdate=July 8, 2015}}</ref> Pop sangster [[Billy Joel]] wis recommended for the vyce o Dodger bi Scribner acause o his "New York street-smart, savoir-faire attitude", an auditioned for the role bi telephone efter bein gien dialogue. Additionally, Joel confirmed he did the role acause it wis a Disney movie, an admitted that "I had just had a little girl. It's a great way to do something that my little girl could see that she could relate to right away."<ref>{{cite news|title=A New York State Of Voice In Animated Film Billy Joel Speaks For Dodger The Dog|url=http://articles.mcall.com/1988-11-19/entertainment/2663219_1_walt-disney-records-joel-s-songs-oliver-twist|first=Paul|last=Willistein|newspaper=TheMorning Call|date=November 19, 1988|accessdate=July 8, 2015|archive-date=2015-07-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711205459/http://articles.mcall.com/1988-11-19/entertainment/2663219_1_walt-disney-records-joel-s-songs-oliver-twist|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Music== {{Infobox album | Name = Oliver & Company | Type = Soundtrack | Artist = Various artists | Cover = | Caption = | Released = 1988 | Recorded = | Genre = [[Pop rock]], [[blues rock]] | Length = | Label = [[Walt Disney Records|Walt Disney]] | Producer = }} The soundtrack o ''Oliver & Company'' contains an instrumental score bi [[J. A. C. Redford]] unner the supervision o Carole Childs, while [[Jeffrey Katzenberg]] haed the idea to bring in big-name sangster/songwriters, each o whom wad contribute a song intae the film includin [[Billy Joel]], [[Barry Manilow]], and [[Huey Lewis]]. At his suggestion o his friend [[David Geffen]], Katzenberg brocht in lyricist [[Howard Ashman]], who componed the song "Once Upon a Time in New York City".{{sfn|Stewart|2005|pp=182–83}} Muisical composer J.A.C. Redford wis brocht to compone the score who haed a wirkin relationship wi Disney muisic executive Chris Montan on the series ''[[St. Elsewhere]]''.<ref>{{cite interview|url=http://animatedviews.com/2009/oliver-co-composer-jac-redford/|subject=J.A.C Redford|title=Once Upon A Time In New York City: Oliver & Company’s Composer J.A.C. Redford!|interviewer=Jérémie Noyer|publisher=Animated Views|date=February 2, 2009|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> Ashman, who, wi [[Alan Menken]], wad write the sangs for the next three Disney films. Billy Joel, in addition to voicing Dodger, performed the character's song in the film. The track leet ablo represents the 1996 re-release o the ''Oliver & Company'' soundtrack. The oreeginal 1988 release featurt the same sangs, but wi the instrumental cues placed in atween the sangs in the order in which thay appeared in the film. Uisin the numbering system in the leet ablo, the order the tracks on the 1988 release wad be: 1, 2, 6, 7, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, an 11. The reprise o "Why Should I Worry?", performed bi the entire cast, remains unreleased on CD. ;Track listing # "Once Upon a Time in New York City" - [[Huey Lewis]]; written bi [[Barry Mann]] and [[Howard Ashman]] # "Why Should I Worry?" - [[Billy Joel]]; written bi [[Dan Hartman]] and [[Charlie Midnight]] # "Streets of Gold" - [[Ruth Pointer]] ; written bi [[Dean Pitchford]] and [[Tom Snow]] # "Perfect Isn't Easy" - [[Bette Midler]] ; written bi [[Barry Manilow]], Jack Feldman, an Bruce Sussman # "Good Company" - Myhanh Tran ; written bi Ron Rocha and [[Robert Minkoff]] # "Sykes" (score) # "Bedtime Story" (score) # "The Rescue" (score) # "Pursuit Through the Subway" (score) # "Buscando Guayaba" - [[Rubén Blades]] # "End Title" (instrumental) ==Release== ===Marketing=== ''Oliver & Company'' wis the first Disney animatit film to include real warld advertised products. Mair nor 30 company logos and brand names war shawn in the film, includin [[Kodak]], [[Dr. Scholls]], [[Sony]], [[Diet Coke]], [[Tab (soft drink)|Tab]], [[McDonald's]], [[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]], [[Ryder]], and ''[[USA Today]]''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Can You Imagine Mickey Mouse Turning 60?|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1988-11-18/entertainment/ca-751_1_mickey-mouse|first=Charles|last=Solomon|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=November 18, 1988|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> Houiver, the filmmakers commented on ABC's ''[[Walt Disney anthology series|The Wonderful World of Disney]]'' that this wis for realism, wis nae peyed product placement, an that it wad nae be New York City wioot advertising.<ref name=abc>{{Cite episode|title=The Making of ''Oliver & Company''|series=The Wonderful World of Disney|network=[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]}}</ref> Instead, Katzenberg urged the marketing campaign to focus on the classic Dickens novel and the pop score,{{sfn|Stewart|2005|pp=182–83}} and promotional tie-ins included [[Sears]], which produced and manufactured products wi themes inspired frae the film, an [[McDonald's]] which sauld [[Christmas]] muisical ornaments based on Oliver and Dodger, an smaw finger puppets based on the characters in a [[Happy Meal]].<ref name=abc/><ref>{{cite news|title=Advertising; Marketing Movies for Children|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/28/business/the-media-business-advertising-marketing-movies-for-children.html|first=Geraldine|last=Fabrikant|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 28, 1988|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> For its theatrical re-release in 1996, the film wis accompanied wi a promotional campaign bi [[Burger King]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Coca-Cola, Pepsico and Burger King sign on with Disney for a happy ending with 'Toy Story' tie-ins.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/22/business/media-business-advertising-coca-cola-pepsico-burger-king-sign-with-disney-for.html|first=Samuel|last=Elliot|date=November 22, 1995|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> In the United Kinrick, ''Oliver & Company'' wis nae distributed bi [[Buena Vista International]], but bi [[Warner Bros.]]<ref name=halliwell>{{cite book|editor=Gritten, David|title=[[Halliwell's Film Guide]] 2008|chapter=Oliver and Company (*)|page=[https://archive.org/details/halliwellsfilmdv0000unse/page/871 871]|isbn=0-00-726080-6|year=2007|accessdate=June 16, 2010|location=[[Hammersmith]], London|publisher=[[HarperCollins]] Publishers}}</ref> Buena Vista International did houiver release the film on home video. ===Home media=== Despite its financial success at the box office, ''Oliver & Company'' wis nae released on home video despite bein ane o the maist requested Disney films.<ref>{{cite news|title='Oliver' just as delightful 2nd time around|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=XPJLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=3-wDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6839,8345659&dq=little-indian-big-city&hl=en|first=Chris|last=Hicks|work=[[Deseret News]]|page=W4|date=March 29, 1996|accessdate=January 17, 2012}}</ref> Efter its theatrical re-release, ''Oliver & Company'' wis released on VHS on September 25, 1996 for a leemitit time.<ref>{{cite news|title=Arts and entertainment reports from The Times, national and international news services and the nation's press.|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1996-04-24/entertainment/ca-61893_1_los-angeles/2|first=Shauna|last=Snow|date=April 24, 1996|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> It wis later released on DVD on Mey 14, 2002. A 20t Anniversary Edition DVD wis released on Februar 3, 2009, an a 25t Anniversary Edition [[Blu-ray]] wis released on August 6, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=REVIEW: DISNEY'S "OLIVER AND COMPANY|url=http://www.cinemaretro.com/index.php?/archives/7636-REVIEW-DISNEYS-OLIVER-AND-COMPANY-25TH-ANNIVERSARY-EDITION-BLU-RAYDVD-COMBO.html|work=[[Cinema Retro]]|first=Todd|last=Garbarini}}</ref> ==Reception== ===Box office=== Openin on the same weekend as [[Don Bluth]]'s ''[[The Land Before Time]]'', which debuted at nummer-ane grossing $7.5 million, beatin oot ''Oliver & Company'' which opened at fowert, grossing $4 million.<ref>{{cite news|title=Kitten Takes On Baby Brontosaurus|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1988-11-22/entertainment/ca-200_1_baby-brontosaurus|first=Nina|last=Easton|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=November 22, 1988|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> Housomeiver, ''Oliver & Company'' oot-grossed ''The Land Before Time'' wi domestic gross estimates o $53 million compared to $46 million o the latter.<ref>{{cite news|title=The New Toon Boom|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1990-08-19/entertainment/ca-3048_1_animated-feature/|first=Charles|last=Solomon|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=August 19, 1990|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> Its success prompted Disney's senior vice-preses o animation, [[Peter Schneider (film executive)|Peter Schneider]], to annoonce the company's plans to release animatit features annually.{{sfn|Beck|2005|pp=182-83}} On Mairch 29, 1996, Disney re-released the film in direct competeetion wi ''[[All Dogs Go to Heaven 2]]'',<ref>{{cite news|title=Stalking the King of Animation|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1996-06-20/news/mn-16693_1_animated-movie|first1=James|last1=Bates|first2=Patrice|last2=Apodaca|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=June 20, 1996|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> grossing $4.5 million in its openin weekend.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Cash Registers Are Ringing|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1996-04-02/entertainment/ca-53987_1_walt-disney|first=Elaine|last=Dutka|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=April 2, 1996|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> In its tot box office lifetime, ''Oliver & Company'' made a tot domestic gross o $74 million at the U.S. box office.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=oliverandcompany.htm|title=Re-releases of Oliver & Company|publisher=[[Box Office Mojo]]|accessdate=October 25, 2008}}</ref> ===Critical reception=== Despite its success at the box office, ''Oliver & Company'' wis met wi mixed reviews frae critics. [[Rotten Tomatoes]] reportit that 44% o critics gae the film positive reviews based on 36 reviews wi an average rating o 5.4/10. Its consensus states that "''Oliver & Company'' is a decidedly lesser effort in the Disney canon, with lackluster songs, stiff animation, and a thoroughly predictable plot."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/oliver_and_company/|title=Oliver & Company - Rotten Tomatoes|publisher=''[[Flixster]]''|work=Rotten Tomatoes|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> On the telly program, ''[[At the Movies (U.S. TV series)|Siskel & Ebert]]'', [[Gene Siskel]] gae the film a thumbs doun. Siskel stated: "When you measure this film to the company's legacy of classics, it doesn't match up" as he complained "the story is too fragmented…because Oliver’s story gets too sidetracked from the story in the film that gets convoluted, too calculated for the Bette Midler, Billy Joel crowd as well as little kids." [[Roger Ebert]] gae the film a "marginal thumbs up" as he describit the film as "harmless, inoffensive".<ref>{{cite web|title=The Land Before Time, Oliver and Company, Child’s Play (1988)|url=http://siskelandebert.org/video/5GM9SX52M7UY/The-Land-Before-Time-Oliver-and-Company-Child8217s-Play-1988|publisher=siskelandebert.org|accessdate=July 10, 2015|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084958/http://siskelandebert.org/video/5GM9SX52M7UY/The-Land-Before-Time-Oliver-and-Company-Child8217s-Play-1988|url-status=dead}}</ref> Animation historian Charles Solomon wrote a favorable reviewing concluding that the film "offers virtually ideal family holiday fare. The cartoon action will delight young children, while older ones, who usually reject animation as "kid stuff," will enjoy the rock sangs and hip characters, especially the brash Tito."<ref>{{cite web|title=Dogs, Dinosaurs from Disney, Bluth : 'Oliver & Company'|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1988-11-18/entertainment/ca-693_1_oliver-twist|first=Charles|last=Solomon|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=November 18, 1988|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> Writing for ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'', [[Peter Travers]] opined in his review, "Too slight to rank with such Disney groundbreakers as ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'' and ''[[Fantasia (1940 film)|Fantasia]]'', the film is more on the good-fun level of ''[[Lady and the Tramp|The Lady and the Tramp]]'' and ''[[One Hundred and One Dalmatians|101 Dalmatians]]''. But why kick? With its captivating characters, sprightly songs and zap-happy animation, ''Oliver & Company'' adds up to a tip-top frolic."<ref>{{cite web|title=Picks and Pans Review: Oliver & Company|url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20100497,00.html|first=Peter|last=Travers|publisher=People|date=November 21, 1988|accessdate=July 10, 2015|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102620/http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20100497,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Desson Howe o ''[[The Washington Post]]'' noted that the film "retrieves some of the old Disney charm with tail-wagging energy and five catchy songs". Likwise, fellae ''Washington Post'' film critic Rita Kempley praised the sangs and animation, an cried it "happy adaptation of the Victorian classic."<ref>{{cite web|title=Oliver & Company|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/olivercompany.htm|first1=Desson|last1=Howe|first2=Rita|last2=Kempley|newspaper=The Washington Post''|date=November 18, 1988|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> Barry Walters, reviewing for ''[[The San Francisco Examiner]]'', panned the film "as a rather shabby transitional work, one that lacks the sophistication of today's 'toons and doesn't hold up to the Disney classics of yesteryear."<ref>{{cite web|title=Bones to pick with dog movies, old and new|url=http://www.sfgate.com/style/article/Bones-to-pick-with-dog-movies-old-and-new-3148287.php|first=Barry|last=Walters|work=San Francisco Examiner|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|date=March 30, 1996|accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> The staff o ''[[Halliwell's Film Guide]]'' cried ''Oliver & Company'' "episodic" and "short on charm". "Only now and then", thay added, "it provides glimpses of stylish animation".<ref name=halliwell/> ''[[The Ren & Stimpy Show]]'' creautor [[John Kricfalusi]] suggestit that the film wis derivative o [[Ralph Bakshi]]'s works, an jokingly suggestit its uise as a form o punishment.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Mike Judge Interview|url=http://www.inthe80s.com/july1995/animate/beavis.html|first=John|last=Kricfalusi|year=1994|journal=Wild Cartoon Kingdom|issue=3|accessdate=March 20, 2009}}</ref> Likwise, even some o the Disney animators viewed the film unfavorably considering it "another talking dog-and-cat movie".<ref>{{cite book|title=Disney's Art of Animation: From Mickey Mouse To Hercules|url=https://archive.org/details/disneysartofanim0000thom_c5f8|first=Bob|last=Thomas|page=[https://archive.org/details/disneysartofanim0000thom_c5f8/page/117 117]|publisher=Disney Editions|date=March 7, 1997|isbn=978-0786862412}}</ref> ===Accolades=== * [[Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song]] for "Why Should I Worry?" (Nominated) * [[Young Artist Award]] for Best Faimily Featur Film&nbsp;— Animation (Nominated) * [[Motion Picture Sound Editors|Golden Reel Awairds]] for Best Sound Editing (Won) ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Bibliography== {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite book|last=Beck|first=Jerry|title=The Animated Movie Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/animatedmoviegui0000beck|publisher=Chicago Reader Press|year=2005|isbn=1-55652-591-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Hulett|first=Steve|title=Mouse In Transition: An Insider's Look at Disney Feature Animation|url=https://archive.org/details/mouseintransitio0000stev|publisher=Theme Park Press|date=December 4, 2014|isbn=978-1941500248|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Koenig|first=David|title=Mouse Under Glass: Secrets of Disney Animation & Theme Parks|url=https://archive.org/details/mouseunderglasss0000koen|location=[[Irvine, California]]|publisher=Bonaventure Press|isbn=978-0964060517|date=January 28, 2001|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Stewart|first=James|title=[[DisneyWar]]|year=2005|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York|isbn=0-684-80993-1|authorlink=James B. Stewart|ref=harv}} {{refend}} ==Freemit airtins== {{wikiquote}} * {{Offeecial wabsteid|http://movies.disney.com/oliver-and-company}} * {{IMDb title|0095776}} * {{Bcdb title|46}} * {{AllRovi movie|119756}} * {{Mojo title|oliverandcompany}} * {{Rotten-tomatoes|oliver_and_company}} {{Walt Disney Animation Studios}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Oliver and Company}} [[Category:1988 animatit films]] [[Category:1988 films]] [[Category:1980s American animatit films]] [[Category:1980s muisical comedy films]] [[Category:American bairns' animatit films]] [[Category:American bairns' comedy films]] [[Category:American comedy-drama films]] [[Category:American films]] [[Category:American muisical comedy films]] [[Category:Animatit muisical films]] [[Category:Animatit films aboot cats]] [[Category:Animatit films aboot dugs]] [[Category:Animatit films aboot freendship]] [[Category:Animatit films aboot orphants]] [[Category:Animatit films based on novelles]] [[Category:Inglis-leid films]] [[Category:Films based on Oliver Twist]] [[Category:Films featurin anthropomorphic chairacters]] [[Category:Films set in the 1980s]] [[Category:Films set in New York Ceety]] [[Category:Screenplays bi Joe Ranft]] [[Category:Walt Disney Animation Studios films]] [[Category:Walt Disney Pictures films]] ovxer9imy6nyjpnhi96z1l6cax9dfi0 0 68125 918762 917164 2026-06-24T23:50:12Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918762 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox philosopher |region = Wastren philosofie |era = [[18t-century filosofie]] |image = Immanuel Kant portrait.jpg |caption = Immanuel Kant by Iraqi polymath Muntadher Saleh |name = Immanuel Kant |birth_date = {{Birth date|1724|4|22|df=yes}} |birth_place = [[Königsberg]], [[Kinrick o Proushie]]<br /><small>(nou [[Kaliningrad]], [[Roushie]])</small> |death_date = {{nowrap|{{death date and age|df=yes|1804|02|12|1724|04|22}}}} |death_place = [[Königsberg]], Kinrick o Proushie |residence = Kinrick o Proushie |nationality = [[Germans|German]] |school_tradition = [[Kantianism]]<br />[[Age o Enlichtenment|Enlichtenment filosofie]] |main_interests = {{nowrap|[[Epistemology]]{{·}}[[Metapheesics]]<br />[[Ethics]]}} |notable_ideas = {{nowrap|[[Categorical imperative]]<br />[[Transcendental idealism]]<br />[[Analytic-synthetic distinction|Synthetic ''a priori'']]<br />[[Noumenon]]{{·}}''[[Sapere aude]]''<br />[[Nebular hypothesis]]}} |influences = [[Christian Wolff (filosopher)|Wolff]], [[Alexander Baumgarten|Baumgarten]], [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Sextus Empiricus|Empiricus]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] |influenced = Virtually aw subsequent [[Wastren filosofie|Wastren filosofers]], includin: [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]], [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi|Jacobi]], [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|F. Schlegel]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel|A. Schlegel]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce]], [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Ernst Cassirer|Cassirer]], [[Jürgen Habermas|Habermas]], [[John Rawls|Rawls]], [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]], [[Jean Piaget|Piaget]], [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]], [[David Hilbert|Hilbert]], [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]], [[Max Weber|Weber]], [[P. F. Strawson|Strawson]], [[Leo Strauss|Strauss]], [[John McDowell|McDowell]], [[Georg Simmel|Simmel]], [[Paul Guyer|Guyer]], [[T. K. Seung|Seung]] |signature = Immanuel Kant signature.svg }} '''Immanuel Kant''' ({{IPA-de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}; 22 Aprile 1724 – 12 Februar 1804) wis a German filosopher that is widely conseedert tae be a central feegur o [[modren filosofie|modren philosophy]]. In his doctrine o [[transcendental idealism]], he argied that [[space]], [[time]], an [[Causality|causation]] are mere [[Sensibility|sensibilities]]; "[[Thing-in-itsel|things-in-themsels]]" exist, but thair naitur is unkenable.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Durant|first1=Will|last2=Durant|first2=Ariel|title=The Story of Civilization: Rousseau and Revolution|date=1967|publisher=MJF Books|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Rousseau_and_Revolution.html?id=Cq2ffQUf1GIC|isbn=978-1-56731-021-4|pages=571, 574}}</ref><ref name=Warburton>{{cite book|title=A little history of philosophy|author=Nigel Warburton|publisher=Yale University Press|chapter-url={{Google books|SGL4QPwDTVsC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|page=134|chapter=Chapter 19: Rose-tinted reality: Immanuel Kant|isbn=978-0-300-15208-1|year=2011}}</ref> In his view, the mind shapes an structures experience, wi aw human experience sharin certain structural featurs. He drew a parallel tae the [[Copernican Revolution#Immanuel Kant|Copernican revolution]] in his proposition that warldly objects can be intuitit ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' ('aforehaund'), an that [[intueetion]] is tharefore independent frae [[Objectivity (filosofie)|objective reality]].<ref>"We here propose to do just what [[Copernicus]] did in attempting to explain the celestial movements. When he found that he could make no progress by assuming that all the heavenly bodies revolved round the spectator, he reversed the process, and tried the experiment of assuming that the spectator revolved.... We may make the same experiment with regard to the intuition of objects. If the intuition must conform to the nature of the objects, I do not see how we can know anything of them ''a priori''. If, on the other hand, the object conforms to the nature of our faculty of intuition, I can then easily conceive the possibility of such an ''a priori'' knowledge." Kant, Immanuel. Translatit tae Inglis bi [[John Meiklejohn|J.M.D. Meiklejohn]], ''Critique of Pure Reason''.</ref> Kant believed that [[raison]] is the soorce o [[morality]], an that [[aesthetics]] arise frae a faculty o disinterestit juidgment. Kant's views conteena tae hae a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields o [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[poleetical theory]], an [[Aesthetics#Post-modren aesthetics an psychoanalysis|post-modren aesthetics]]. In ane o Kant's major warks, the ''[[Critique o Pure Raison]]'' (1781),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kant|first1=Immanuel|last2=Kitcher|first2=Patricia (intro.)|last3=Pluhar|first3=W. (trans.)|title=Critique of Pure Reason|url=https://archive.org/details/critiqueofpurere0000kant_k1v3|publisher=Hackett|year=1996|location=Indianapolis |page=xxviii |isbn= |nopp=true}}</ref> he attemptit tae explain the relationship atween raison an human experience an tae muive ayont the failyies o tradeetional philosophy an [[metapheesics]]. Kant wantit tae pit an end tae an era o futile an speculative theories o human experience, while resistin the [[Filosofical skepticism|skepticism]] o thinkers sic as [[David Hume]]. Kant regairdit himsel as shawin the way past the impasse atween [[raitionalists]] an [[empiricists]] that philosophy haed led tae,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vanzo|first1=Alberto|title=Kant on Empiricism and Rationalism|journal=History of Philosophy Quarterly|volume=30|issue=1|pages=53–74|url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/id/eprint/59913|date=January 2013}}</ref> an is widely held tae hae synthesized baith tradeetions in his thocht.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Immanuel Kant|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|accessdate=6 October 2015|date=20 May 2010}}</ref> Kant wis an exponent o the idea that [[perpetual peace]] coud be siccart throu universal [[democracy]] an [[internaitional cooperation]]. He believed that this wad be the eventual ootcome o [[universal history]], awtho it is nae raitionally planned.<ref>[[Idea for a Universal History wi a Cosmopolitan Purpose]].</ref> The naitur o Kant's releegious ideas conteenas tae be the subject o filosofical dispute, wi viewpynts rangin frae the impression that he wis an ineetial advocate o [[atheism]] that at some pynt developed an [[ontological argument]] for God, tae mair creetical treatments epitomised bi [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], that claimed that Kant haed "theologian bluid"<ref>Friedrich Nietzsche, [[The Antichrist (beuk)|''The Anti-Christ'']] (1895), [https://books.google.com/books?id=DcVl57jzP2gC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=%22theologian+blood%22+the+antichrist#v=onepage&q=%22theologian%20blood%22%20the%20antichrist para. 10].</ref> an wis merely a sophisticatit [[apologist]] for tradeetional [[Christianity|Christian]] faith.{{efn|Nietzsche wrote that "Kant wanted to prove, in a way that would dumbfound the common man, that the common man was right: that was the secret joke of this soul."<ref>Friedrich Nietzsche (trans. [[Walter Arnold Kaufmann]]), ''The Portable Nietzsche'', 1976, p. 96.</ref>}} Kant published ither important warks on ethics, releegion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, an history. Thir include the ''[[Universal Naitural History an Theory o the Heavens|Universal Natural History]]'' (1755), the ''[[Critique o Practical Raison]]'' (1788), the ''[[Metapheesics o Morals]]'' (1797), an the ''[[Critique o Juidgment]]'' (1790), that leuks at aesthetics an [[teleology]]. ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}} ==References== {{Reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Category:Immanuel Kant| ]] [[Category:1724 births]] [[Category:1804 daiths]] [[Category:18t-century German writers]] [[Category:18t-century philosophers]] [[Category:18t-century Proushie fowk]] [[Category:Continental philosophers]] [[Category:Utilitarianism ethics]] [[Category:Enlichtenment philosophers]] [[Category:Epistemologists]] [[Category:German idealism]] [[Category:German philosophers]] [[Category:German anthropologists]] [[Category:German logicians]] [[Category:German fowk o Scots strynd]] [[Category:Idealists]] [[Category:Kantianism|Kantianism]] [[Category:Kantian filosofers|Kantian filosofers]] [[Category:Members o the Proushie Academy o Sciences]] [[Category:Moral philosophers]] [[Category:Naitural filosofers]] [[Category:Ontologists]] [[Category:Fowk frae Königsberg]] [[Category:Fowk o Baltic German strynd]] [[Category:Filosofers o airt]] [[Category:Philosophers o law]] [[Category:Filosofers o science]] [[Category:Filosofie o sexuality]] [[Category:Poleetical leeberals (internaitional relations)]] [[Category:Poleetical theorists]] [[Category:Varsity o Königsberg faculty]] [[Category:Varsity o Königsberg alumni]] msre4uma09mufxrlc7sl76xautdxre6 918769 918762 2026-06-25T03:59:20Z CommonsDelinker 411 Removin' "Immanuel_Kant_portrait.jpg", it haes bin deletit frum Commons by [[commons:User:Krd|Krd]] coz: No ticket permission since 25 May 2026. 918769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox philosopher |region = Wastren philosofie |era = [[18t-century filosofie]] |image = |caption = Immanuel Kant by Iraqi polymath Muntadher Saleh |name = Immanuel Kant |birth_date = {{Birth date|1724|4|22|df=yes}} |birth_place = [[Königsberg]], [[Kinrick o Proushie]]<br /><small>(nou [[Kaliningrad]], [[Roushie]])</small> |death_date = {{nowrap|{{death date and age|df=yes|1804|02|12|1724|04|22}}}} |death_place = [[Königsberg]], Kinrick o Proushie |residence = Kinrick o Proushie |nationality = [[Germans|German]] |school_tradition = [[Kantianism]]<br />[[Age o Enlichtenment|Enlichtenment filosofie]] |main_interests = {{nowrap|[[Epistemology]]{{·}}[[Metapheesics]]<br />[[Ethics]]}} |notable_ideas = {{nowrap|[[Categorical imperative]]<br />[[Transcendental idealism]]<br />[[Analytic-synthetic distinction|Synthetic ''a priori'']]<br />[[Noumenon]]{{·}}''[[Sapere aude]]''<br />[[Nebular hypothesis]]}} |influences = [[Christian Wolff (filosopher)|Wolff]], [[Alexander Baumgarten|Baumgarten]], [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Sextus Empiricus|Empiricus]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] |influenced = Virtually aw subsequent [[Wastren filosofie|Wastren filosofers]], includin: [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]], [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi|Jacobi]], [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|F. Schlegel]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel|A. Schlegel]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Charles Sanders Peirce|Peirce]], [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Ernst Cassirer|Cassirer]], [[Jürgen Habermas|Habermas]], [[John Rawls|Rawls]], [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]], [[Jean Piaget|Piaget]], [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]], [[David Hilbert|Hilbert]], [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]], [[Max Weber|Weber]], [[P. F. Strawson|Strawson]], [[Leo Strauss|Strauss]], [[John McDowell|McDowell]], [[Georg Simmel|Simmel]], [[Paul Guyer|Guyer]], [[T. K. Seung|Seung]] |signature = Immanuel Kant signature.svg }} '''Immanuel Kant''' ({{IPA-de|ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant|lang}}; 22 Aprile 1724 – 12 Februar 1804) wis a German filosopher that is widely conseedert tae be a central feegur o [[modren filosofie|modren philosophy]]. In his doctrine o [[transcendental idealism]], he argied that [[space]], [[time]], an [[Causality|causation]] are mere [[Sensibility|sensibilities]]; "[[Thing-in-itsel|things-in-themsels]]" exist, but thair naitur is unkenable.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Durant|first1=Will|last2=Durant|first2=Ariel|title=The Story of Civilization: Rousseau and Revolution|date=1967|publisher=MJF Books|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Rousseau_and_Revolution.html?id=Cq2ffQUf1GIC|isbn=978-1-56731-021-4|pages=571, 574}}</ref><ref name=Warburton>{{cite book|title=A little history of philosophy|author=Nigel Warburton|publisher=Yale University Press|chapter-url={{Google books|SGL4QPwDTVsC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|page=134|chapter=Chapter 19: Rose-tinted reality: Immanuel Kant|isbn=978-0-300-15208-1|year=2011}}</ref> In his view, the mind shapes an structures experience, wi aw human experience sharin certain structural featurs. He drew a parallel tae the [[Copernican Revolution#Immanuel Kant|Copernican revolution]] in his proposition that warldly objects can be intuitit ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' ('aforehaund'), an that [[intueetion]] is tharefore independent frae [[Objectivity (filosofie)|objective reality]].<ref>"We here propose to do just what [[Copernicus]] did in attempting to explain the celestial movements. When he found that he could make no progress by assuming that all the heavenly bodies revolved round the spectator, he reversed the process, and tried the experiment of assuming that the spectator revolved.... We may make the same experiment with regard to the intuition of objects. If the intuition must conform to the nature of the objects, I do not see how we can know anything of them ''a priori''. If, on the other hand, the object conforms to the nature of our faculty of intuition, I can then easily conceive the possibility of such an ''a priori'' knowledge." Kant, Immanuel. Translatit tae Inglis bi [[John Meiklejohn|J.M.D. Meiklejohn]], ''Critique of Pure Reason''.</ref> Kant believed that [[raison]] is the soorce o [[morality]], an that [[aesthetics]] arise frae a faculty o disinterestit juidgment. Kant's views conteena tae hae a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields o [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[poleetical theory]], an [[Aesthetics#Post-modren aesthetics an psychoanalysis|post-modren aesthetics]]. In ane o Kant's major warks, the ''[[Critique o Pure Raison]]'' (1781),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kant|first1=Immanuel|last2=Kitcher|first2=Patricia (intro.)|last3=Pluhar|first3=W. (trans.)|title=Critique of Pure Reason|url=https://archive.org/details/critiqueofpurere0000kant_k1v3|publisher=Hackett|year=1996|location=Indianapolis |page=xxviii |isbn= |nopp=true}}</ref> he attemptit tae explain the relationship atween raison an human experience an tae muive ayont the failyies o tradeetional philosophy an [[metapheesics]]. Kant wantit tae pit an end tae an era o futile an speculative theories o human experience, while resistin the [[Filosofical skepticism|skepticism]] o thinkers sic as [[David Hume]]. Kant regairdit himsel as shawin the way past the impasse atween [[raitionalists]] an [[empiricists]] that philosophy haed led tae,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vanzo|first1=Alberto|title=Kant on Empiricism and Rationalism|journal=History of Philosophy Quarterly|volume=30|issue=1|pages=53–74|url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/id/eprint/59913|date=January 2013}}</ref> an is widely held tae hae synthesized baith tradeetions in his thocht.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Immanuel Kant|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|accessdate=6 October 2015|date=20 May 2010}}</ref> Kant wis an exponent o the idea that [[perpetual peace]] coud be siccart throu universal [[democracy]] an [[internaitional cooperation]]. He believed that this wad be the eventual ootcome o [[universal history]], awtho it is nae raitionally planned.<ref>[[Idea for a Universal History wi a Cosmopolitan Purpose]].</ref> The naitur o Kant's releegious ideas conteenas tae be the subject o filosofical dispute, wi viewpynts rangin frae the impression that he wis an ineetial advocate o [[atheism]] that at some pynt developed an [[ontological argument]] for God, tae mair creetical treatments epitomised bi [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], that claimed that Kant haed "theologian bluid"<ref>Friedrich Nietzsche, [[The Antichrist (beuk)|''The Anti-Christ'']] (1895), [https://books.google.com/books?id=DcVl57jzP2gC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=%22theologian+blood%22+the+antichrist#v=onepage&q=%22theologian%20blood%22%20the%20antichrist para. 10].</ref> an wis merely a sophisticatit [[apologist]] for tradeetional [[Christianity|Christian]] faith.{{efn|Nietzsche wrote that "Kant wanted to prove, in a way that would dumbfound the common man, that the common man was right: that was the secret joke of this soul."<ref>Friedrich Nietzsche (trans. [[Walter Arnold Kaufmann]]), ''The Portable Nietzsche'', 1976, p. 96.</ref>}} Kant published ither important warks on ethics, releegion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, an history. Thir include the ''[[Universal Naitural History an Theory o the Heavens|Universal Natural History]]'' (1755), the ''[[Critique o Practical Raison]]'' (1788), the ''[[Metapheesics o Morals]]'' (1797), an the ''[[Critique o Juidgment]]'' (1790), that leuks at aesthetics an [[teleology]]. ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}} ==References== {{Reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kant, Immanuel}} [[Category:Immanuel Kant| ]] [[Category:1724 births]] [[Category:1804 daiths]] [[Category:18t-century German writers]] [[Category:18t-century philosophers]] [[Category:18t-century Proushie fowk]] [[Category:Continental philosophers]] [[Category:Utilitarianism ethics]] [[Category:Enlichtenment philosophers]] [[Category:Epistemologists]] [[Category:German idealism]] [[Category:German philosophers]] [[Category:German anthropologists]] [[Category:German logicians]] [[Category:German fowk o Scots strynd]] [[Category:Idealists]] [[Category:Kantianism|Kantianism]] [[Category:Kantian filosofers|Kantian filosofers]] [[Category:Members o the Proushie Academy o Sciences]] [[Category:Moral philosophers]] [[Category:Naitural filosofers]] [[Category:Ontologists]] [[Category:Fowk frae Königsberg]] [[Category:Fowk o Baltic German strynd]] [[Category:Filosofers o airt]] [[Category:Philosophers o law]] [[Category:Filosofers o science]] [[Category:Filosofie o sexuality]] [[Category:Poleetical leeberals (internaitional relations)]] [[Category:Poleetical theorists]] [[Category:Varsity o Königsberg faculty]] [[Category:Varsity o Königsberg alumni]] ltcc3fnwots6q2cwahuy7jjw19ez98w 0 69546 918766 629387 2026-06-25T01:12:15Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 918766 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Arnoldo Foà | honorific_suffix = [[Order of Merit of the Italian Republic]] | image = Arnoldo Foa (cropped).jpg | caption = Arnoldo Foà (2008) | birth_date = {{Birth date|1916|01|24|df=yes}} | birth_place = [[Ferrara]], [[Italy]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|2014|1|11|1916|01|24|df=yes}} | death_place = [[Rome]], [[Italy]] | birth_name = Arnoldo Eugenio Foà | occupation = Actor, movie director, voice acting | years_active = 1935-2000 }} '''Arnoldo Foà''' ([[24 Januar]] [[1916]] &ndash; [[11 Januar]] [[2014]]) wis an [[Italians|Italian]] movie actor. He haes appearit in mair nor 130 movies syne 1938. He wis born in [[Ferrara]], Italy. Foà dit on 11 Januar 2014, 13 days afore his 98t birthday, frae respiratory failur in his home in [[Roum]], [[Italy]].<ref name="death">{{cite web|url=http://www.lastampa.it/2014/01/11/cultura/morto-a-roma-arnoldo-fo-5dn44AqxSnLsxZYcLXCZAK/pagina.html|title=È morto a Roma Arnoldo Foà|accessdate=11 January 2014|work=lastampa|archive-date=2015-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929125445/http://www.lastampa.it/2014/01/11/cultura/morto-a-roma-arnoldo-fo-5dn44AqxSnLsxZYcLXCZAK/pagina.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Foa, Arnoldo}} [[Category:1916 births]] [[Category:2014 daiths]] [[Category:Italian fowk o Jewish strynd]] [[Category:Italian male film actors]] [[Category:Jewish atheists]] [[Category:Fowk frae Ferrara]] [[Category:Fowk frae Florence]] [[Category:Nastro d'Argento winners]] [[Category:20t-century Italian male actors]] [[Category:Italian male stage actors]] [[Category:Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia alumni]] [[Category:Place o daith missin]] [[Category:Buirials in the Protestant Cemetery, Roum]] pshzvep973taqiaf1gh5bpxrumdtoue 0 69643 918711 917936 2026-06-24T23:15:51Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918711 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fixscots}} {{Infobox officeholder | honorific-prefix = [[The Right Honourable]] | name = Baroness Thatcher | honorific-suffix = [[Order of the Garter|LG]] [[Order of Merit|OM]] [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] | image = Margaret Thatcher stock portrait (cropped).jpg | caption = Thatcher {{circa}} 1995–96 | office1 = [[Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick]] | monarch1 = [[Elizabeth II]] | deputy1 = [[Geoffrey Howe]] (1989-90) | birth_date = {{birth date|1925|10|13|df=yes}} | birth_place = [[Grantham]], [[Lincolnshire]], [[Ingland]] | death_date = {{death date and age|2013|4|8|1925|10|13|df=yes}} | death_place = [[Lunnon]], Ingland | term_start1 = 4 Mey 1979 | term_end1 = 28 November 1990 | predecessor1 = [[James Callaghan]] | successor1 = [[John Major]] | party = [[Conservative Pairty (UK)|Conservative]] | nationality = [[Unitit Kinrick|Breetish]] | spouse = Sir [[Denis Thatcher]], Bt.<br>(m. 1951-2003, his daith) | children = [[Mark Thatcher]], [[Carol Thatcher]] | relations = [[Alfred Roberts]]<br>(faither) }} '''Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher''', {{post-nominals|country=GBR|commas=true|size=100%|LG|OM|PC|FRS|FRIC}} ({{nee|'''Roberts'''}}; 13 October 1925 &ndash; 8 Apryle 2013) wis a Breetish stateswumman, wha sert as [[Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick]] frae 1979 tae 1990 an as [[Leader o the Conservative Pairty (UK)|Leader]] o the [[Conservative Pairty (UK)|Conservative Pairty]] frae 1975 tae 1990. She wis the langest-serrin Breetish prime meenister o the 20t yearhunner, an the first wumman tae haud the office. A Soviet jurnalist cried her '''The Airn Leddy''', an eik-name that becam associatit wi her uncompromisin politics an leadership style. As Prime Meenister, she implementit policies that hae come tae be kent as [[Thatcherism]]. A resairch [[chemist]] afore becomin a [[barrister]], Thatcher wis [[Leet o MPs electit in the Unitit Kinrick general election, 1959|electit Memmer o Pairlament]] for [[Finchley (UK Pairlament constituency)|Finchley]] in [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1959|1959]]. [[Edward Heath]] appyntit her [[Secretar o State for Eddication|Secretar o State for Eddication an Science]] in his [[Heath meenistry|1970 govrenment]]. In 1975, Thatcher defeatit Heath in the [[Conservative Pairty (UK) leadership election, 1975|Conservative Pairty leadership election]] tae become [[Leader o the Opposeetion (Unitit Kinrick)|Leader o the Opposeetion]] an acame the first wumman tae lead a major poleetical pairty in the Unitit Kinrick. She acame Prime Meenister efter winnin the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1979|1979 general election]]. On muivin intae {{nowrap|[[10 Downing Street]]}}, Thatcher introduced mony poleetical an economic initiatives intendit tae reverse heich unemployment an Breetain's struissles in the wauk o the [[Winter o Discontent]] an an ongangin recession.{{refn|In her forewird tae the [[Leet o Conservative Pairty (UK) general election manifestos|Conservative manifesto]] o 1979, Thatcher wrate o "a feeling of helplessness, that we are a once great nation that has somehow fallen behind".<ref>{{cite web |title=1979 Conservative Party General Election Manifesto |url=http://www.conservativemanifesto.com/1979/1979-conservative-manifesto.shtml |website=conservativemanifesto.com |accessdate=28 July 2009}}</ref>|group=nb}} Her poleetical filosofie an economic policies emphasised [[deregulation]] (parteecularly o the financial sector), flexible labour mercats, the privatisation o [[state-awned enterprise|state-awned companies]], an reducin the pouer an influence o tred unions. Thatcher's popularity in her first years in office waned amid recession an heich unemployment, till veectory in the 1982 [[Falklands War]] an the recoverin economy brocht a resurgence o support, resultin in her decisive [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1983|re-election in 1983]]. She narraely escapit an [[Brighton hotel bombin|assassination attempt in 1984]]. Thatcher wis re-electit for a third term in [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1987|1987]]. In this period her support for a [[Community Charge]] (referred tae as the "poll tax") wis widely unpopular, an her views on the [[European Economic Commonty|European Commonty]] war nae shared bi ithers in her Caibinet. She resigned as Prime Meenister an pairty leader in November 1990, efter [[Michael Heseltine]] lencht a [[Conservative Pairty (UK) leadership election, 1990|challenge tae her leadership]]. Efter reteerin frae the [[Hoose o Commons o the Unitit Kinrick|Commons]] in 1992, she wis gien a [[life peer]]age as Baroness Thatcher (o [[Kesteven]] in the Coonty o [[Lincolnshire]]) whilk enteetlt her tae sit in the [[Hoose o Lairds]]. Efter a nummer o wee straiks in 2002, she wis advised tae reteer frae public speakin. Nanetheless, she managed tae pre-record a eulogy tae [[Ronald Reagan]] afore his daith, whilk wis braidcast at [[Daith an state funeral o Ronald Reagan|his funeral]] in 2004. In 2013, [[Daith an funeral o Margaret Thatcher|she dee'd o anither straik]] in Lunnon, at the age o 87. Ayeweys a controversial feegur, she haes been laudit as [[Historical rankins o Prime Meenisters o the Unitit Kinrick|ane o the greatest]] an maist influential politeecians in Breetish historie, even as arguments ower Thatcherism perseest. ==Early life an eddication== Thatcher wis born Margaret Hilda Roberts on 13 October 1925, in [[Grantham, Lincolnshire]]. Her faither wis [[Alfred Roberts]], oreeginally frae Northamptonshire, an her mither wis Beatrice Ethel (née Stephenson) frae Lincolnshire.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=1}} She spent her bairnheid in Grantham, whaur her faither awned twa grocery shaps. Margaret Roberts attendit Huntingtower Road Primary School an wan a bursary tae [[Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School]].{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=5}} Her schuil reports shawed haurd wark an continual impruivement; her extracurricular activities includit the piano, field hockey, poetry recitals, soummin an walkin.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=6}}{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|pp=21–22}} In her [[saxt form|upper saxt year]] she applee'd for a bursary tae study chemistry at [[Somerville College, Oxford]], a weemen's college at the time, but she wis ineetially rejectit an wis offered a place anerly efter anither candidate widrew.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=12}}{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|p=23}} Roberts arrived at Oxford in 1943 an graduatit in 1947 wi [[Breetish undergraduate degree classification|Seicont-Cless Honours]] in the fower-year Chemistry Bachelor o Science degree, specialisin in [[X-ray crystallography]] unner the superveesion o [[Dorothy Hodgkin]].{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|pp=25–27}}{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=16}} Roberts jyned the local Conservative Association an attendit the pairty conference at [[Llandudno]] in 1948, as a representative o the University Graduate Conservative Association.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=22}} Meanwhile she acame a heich-rankin member o the [[Vermin Club]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Moore |first=Charles |authorlink=Charles Moore (journalist) |title=Golly: now we know what's truly offensive |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/columnists/charlesmoore/4520977/Golly-now-we-know-whats-truly-offensive.html |date=5 February 2009 |accessdate=29 April 2017 |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author=J.C. |magazine=[[The Economist]] |title=Gaffe-ology: why Mitchell had to go |url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/blighty/2012/10/political-crises |date=21 October 2012 |accessdate=29 April 2017 |quote=In 1948 [[Aneurin Bevan]] called the Conservative Party "lower than vermin", a comment that lost Labour thousands of moderate votes at the following election. The Tories embraced the phrase; some formed the Vermin Club in response (Margaret Thatcher was a member).}}</ref> a group o gressruits Conservatives formed in response tae a derogatory remerk aboot the pairty. Ane o her Oxford friends wis an aa a friend o the Chair o the [[Dartford]] Conservative Association in [[Kent]], wha war leukin for candidates.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=22}} Offeecials o the association war sae impressed bi her that thay askit her tae applee, even tho she wis nae on the Conservative Pairty's approved leet: she wis selectit in Januar 1951, aged 25, an addit tae the appruived leet ''[[:wikt:post ante|post ante]]''.{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|p=36}} At a dinner follaein her formal adoption as Conservative candidate for Dartford in Februar 1951 she met [[Denis Thatcher]], a successfu an walthy divorced businessman, wha drave her tae her Essex train.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=22}}{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|p=36}} In preparation for the election Roberts muived tae Dartford, whaur she supportit hersel bi wirkin as a resairch chemist for [[J. Lyons and Co.]] in Hammersmith, pairt o a team developin [[emulsion|emulsifiers]] for [[ice cream]].{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=22}}<ref name="ns-rs">{{cite journal|title=Cream of the crop at Royal Society|url=https://books.google.com/?id=XRpdT3gc9KYC&pg=PA5&dq=Margaret+Thatcher+ice#v=onepage&q=Margaret+Thatcher+ice&f=false|journal=New Scientist|date=7 July 1983|page=5|accessdate=25 January 2011|volume=99|issue=1365|ref=harv|author1=Information|first1=Reed Business}}</ref> Shortly efter her mairiage, she an her husband begoud attendin [[Kirk o Ingland|Anglican]] services an wad later convert tae [[Anglicanism]].<ref name="Belz">{{Cite news |url=https://world.wng.org/2013/04/weather_maker |first=Mindy |last=Belz |title=Weather maker |agency=World Magazine |date=4 May 2013 |access-date=2017-06-07 |archive-date=2019-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203055950/https://world.wng.org/2013/04/weather_maker |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Filby">{{Cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/margaret-thatcher/9992424/Margaret-Thatcher-her-unswerving-faith-shaped-by-her-father.html |first=Eliza |last=Filby |title=Margaret Thatcher: her unswerving faith shaped by her father |agency=The Telegraph |date=14 April 2013}}</ref> ==Early political career== In the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1950|1950]] an [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1951|1951 general elections]], Roberts wis the Conservative candidate for the safe Labour seat o [[Dartford (UK Pairlament constituency)|Dartford]]. The local pairty selectit her as its candidate acause, tho nae a dynamic public speaker, Roberts wis well-prepared an fearless in her answers. She attractit media attention as the youngest an the anerly female candidate.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|pp=23–24}}{{sfnp|Blundell|2008|p=37}} She lost on baith occasions tae [[Norman Dodds]], but reduced the Labour majority bi 6,000, an then a further 1,000.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|pp=23–24}} During the campaigns, she wis supportit bi her parents an bi Denis Thatcher, wha she mairied in December 1951.{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|pp=23–24}}<ref name="Denis Thatcher">{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/1434154/Sir-Denis-Thatcher-Bt.html |accessdate=6 January 2012 |date=27 June 2003 |title=Sir Denis Thatcher, Bt |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> ===Member o Pairlament: 1959–1970=== In 1954, Thatcher wis defeatit whan she socht selection tae be the Conservative pairty candidate for the [[Orpington bi-election, 1955|Orpington bi-election]] o Januar 1955. She chuise nae tae staund as a candidate in the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1955|1955 general election]], in later years statin: "I really just felt the twins were&nbsp;... only two, I really felt that it was too soon. I couldn't do that."{{sfnp|Campbell|2000|p=100}} Efterwart, Thatcher begoud leukin for a Conservative [[sauf seat]] an wis selectit as the candidate for [[Finchley (UK Pairlament constituency)|Finchley]] in Apryle 1958 (narraely beatin [[Ian Fraser (Plymouth Sutton MP)|Ian Montagu Fraser]]). She wis electit as MP for the seat efter a haurd campaign in the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1959|1959 election]].{{sfnp|Beckett|2006|p=27}}<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=41842|page=6433|date=13 October 1959}}</ref> Benefitin frae her fortuinate result in a lottery for [[backbencher]]s tae propone new legislation,<ref name="runciman20130606">{{cite news|last=Runciman|first=David|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v35/n11/david-runciman/rat-a-tat-a-tat-a-tat-a-tat|title=Rat-a-tat-a-tat-a-tat-a-tat|work=London Review of Books|date=6 June 2013|accessdate=11 June 2013}}</ref> Thatcher's [[maiden speech]] wis in support o her [[private member's bill]] ([[Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act 1960]]), requirin local authorities tae hauld thair cooncil meetins in public.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/101055 |title =HC S 2R [Public Bodies (Admission of the Press to Meetings) Bill] (Maiden Speech) |publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation |date=5 February 1960}}</ref> Thatcher's talent an drive caused her tae be mentioned as a futur Prime Meenister in her early 20s{{r|runciman20130606}} awtho she hersel wis mair pessimistic, statin as late as 1970: "There will not be a woman prime minister in my lifetime{{snd}}the male population is too prejudiced."<ref name="sandbrook20130409">{{cite news|last=Sandbrook|first=Dominic|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22076886|title=Viewpoint: What if Margaret Thatcher had never been?|publisher=BBC|date=9 April 2013|accessdate=16 June 2013}}</ref> In October 1961 she wis promotit tae the [[frontbench]] as [[Pairlamentar Secretar tae the Meenister for Pensions|Pairlamentar Unnersecretar at the Meenistry o Pensions an Naitional Insurance]] bi [[Harold Macmillan]].{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=4}} Thatcher wis the youngest wumman in history tae receive sic a post, an amang the first [[Leet o MPs electit in the Unitit Kinrick general election, 1959|MPs electit in 1959]] tae be promotit.{{r|scottsmith2003}} Bi 1966, pairty leaders viewed Thatcher as a potential [[Offeecial Opposeetion Shaidae Cabinet (Unitit Kinrick)|Shaidae Cabinet member]]. [[James Prior]] suggestit her as a member efter the Conservatives' [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1966|1966 defeat]], but pairty leader [[Edward Heath]] an [[Chief Whip]] [[Willie Whitelaw]] insteid chuise tae promote [[Mervyn Pike]] as the [[First Shaidae Cabinet o Edward Heath|Shaidae Cabinet]]'s anerly wumman member.{{r|scottsmith2003}} At the Conservative Pairty conference o 1966 she criticised the heich-tax policies o the Labour govrenment as bein steps "not only towards Socialism, but towards Communism", arguin that lawer taxes served as an incentive tae haurd wark.{{sfnp|Wapshott|2007|p=64}} Thatcher wis ane o the few Conservative MPs tae support [[Leo Abse]]'s Bill tae decriminalise male homosexuality.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1966/jul/05/sexual-offences-no-2|title=Sexual Offences (No. 2)|date=5 July 1966|journal=Hansard|volume=731|page=267|access-date=2017-06-07|archive-date=2020-11-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104201938/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1966/jul/05/sexual-offences-no-2|url-status=dead}}</ref> She an aa votit in favour o [[David Steel]]'s bill tae legalise abortion,{{sfnp|Thatcher|1995|p=150}}<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1966/jul/22/medical-termination-of-pregnancy-bill|title=Medical Termination of Pregnancy Bill|date=22 July 1966|journal=Hansard|volume=732|page=1165|ref=harv|access-date=2017-06-07|archive-date=2020-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102150407/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1966/jul/22/medical-termination-of-pregnancy-bill|url-status=dead}}</ref> Efter Pike's reteerment, Heath appyntit Thatcher tae the Shaidae Cabinet<ref name=scottsmith2003>{{cite journal|last=Scott-Smith |first=Giles |title="Her Rather Ambitious Washington Program": Margaret Thatcher's International Visitor Program Visit to the United States in 1967 |url=http://mountainrunner.us/library/publicdiplomacy/Scott-Smith%20(2003)-%20%E2%80%98Her%20Rather%20Ambitious%20Washington%20Program%E2%80%99%20Margaret%20Thatcher%E2%80%99s%20International%20Visitor%20Program%20Visit%20to%20the%20US%20in%201967.pdf|date=Winter 2003|journal=Contemporary British History|volume=17|issue=4|pages=65–86|publisher=Routledge&nbsp;– Taylor and Francis|issn=1743-7997|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126115302/http://mountainrunner.us/library/publicdiplomacy/Scott-Smith%20%282003%29-%20%E2%80%98Her%20Rather%20Ambitious%20Washington%20Program%E2%80%99%20Margaret%20Thatcher%E2%80%99s%20International%20Visitor%20Program%20Visit%20to%20the%20US%20in%201967.pdf|archivedate=26 November 2010 |ref=harv|doi=10.1080/13619460308565458}}</ref> as Fuel an Pouer spokesman.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/margaret-thatchers-timeline-from-grantham-to-the-house-of-lords-via-arthur-scargill-and-the-8564555.html|title=Margaret Thatcher's timeline: From Grantham to the House of Lords, via Arthur Scargill and the Falklands War|date=8 April 2013|work=Independent|accessdate=2 November 2016}}</ref> Shortly afore the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1970|1970 election]], she wis promotit tae Shadow Transport spokesman an later tae Eddication.{{sfnp|Wapshott|2007|p=65}} ===Eddication Secretar: 1970–1974=== The Conservative Pairty unner [[Edward Heath]] wan the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1970|1970 general election]], an Thatcher wis subsequently appyntit tae the [[Cabinet o the Unitit Kinrick|Cabinet]] as [[Secretar o State for Eddication|Secretar o State for Eddication an Science]]. In her first months in office she attractit public attention as a result o the govrenment's attempts ae cut spendin. She gae priority tae academic needs in schuils.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=14}} She imponed public expenditur cuts on the state eddication seestem, resultin in the aboleetion o free milk for schuilchilder aged seiven tae eleiven.{{sfnp|Wapshott|2007|p=76}} She held that few childer wad thole if schuils war chairged for milk, but agreed tae provide younger childer wi a third o a pint daily, for nutreetional purposes.{{sfnp|Wapshott|2007|p=76}} Cabinet papers later revealed that she opponed the policy but haed been forced intae it bi the Thesaury.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/tories-move-swiftly-to-avoid-milksnatcher-tag-2047372.html|title=Tories move swiftly to avoid 'milk-snatcher' tag|last=Hickman|first=Martin|date=9 August 2010|newspaper=The Independent|accessdate=9 April 2013|archive-date=2015-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925172651/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/tories-move-swiftly-to-avoid-milksnatcher-tag-2047372.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Her deceesion provoked a storm o protest frae Labour an the press,{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=15}} leadin tae the moniker "Margaret Thatcher, Milk Snatcher".{{sfnp|Wapshott|2007|p=76}}<ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Rebecca|title=How Margaret Thatcher became known as 'Milk Snatcher'|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/7932963/How-Margaret-Thatcher-became-known-as-Milk-Snatcher.html|accessdate=9 April 2013|newspaper=The Sunday Telegraph|date=8 August 2010}}</ref> She reportitly conseedered leavin politics in the eftermath an later wrate in her autobiografie: "I learned a valuable lesson {{bracket|from the experience}}. I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit."{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=15}}{{sfnp|Thatcher|1995|p=182}} ===Leader o the Opposeetion: 1975–1979=== [[File:Thatcher-loc.jpg|left|thumb|170px|Thatcher as Tory leader]] The Heath govrenment continued tae experience difficulties wi [[1973 ile creesis|ile embargoes]] an union demands for wage increases in 1973 an lost the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, Februar 1974|Februar 1974 general election]].{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=15}} Labour formed a minority govrenment an went on tae win a narrae majority in the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, October 1974|October 1974 general election]]. Heath's leadership o the Conservative Pairty leukit increasinly in dout. Thatcher wis nae ineetially the obvious replacement, but she eventually acame the main challenger, promisin a fresh stairt.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=16}} Her main support came frae the Conservative [[1922 Committee]],{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=16}} but Thatcher's time in office gae her the reputation o a pragmatist instead o an ideologue.{{r|runciman20130606}} She [[Conservative Pairty (UK) leadership election, 1975|defeatit Heath]] on the first ballot an he resigned the leadership.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article545321.ece?token=null&offset=12&page=2|url-access=limited|title=Thatcher leads tributes to Sir Edward Heath|date=18 July 2005|accessdate=14 October 2008|work=The Times|first=Philippe|last=Naughton}}{{Dead link|date=October 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In the seicont ballot she defeatit Whitelaw, Heath's preferred successor. The vote polarised alang richt&ndash;left lines, wi the region, experience an eddication o the MP an aa haein thair effects. Thatcher's support wis stranger amang MPs on the richt, thae frae soothren Ingland, an thae wha haed nae attendit public schuils or [[Oxbridge]].<ref>Philip Cowley and Matthew Bailey, "Peasants' Uprising or Religious War? Re-Examining the 1975 Conservative Leadership Contest", ''British Journal of Political Science'' (2000) 30#4 pp.&nbsp;599–629</ref> Thatcher acame Conservative Pairty leader an [[Leader o the Opposeetion (Unitit Kinrick)|Leader o the Opposeetion]] on 11 Februar 1975;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=102452|title=Press Conference after winning Conservative leadership (Grand Committee Room)|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|accessdate=29 September 2007}}</ref> she appyntit Whitelaw as her [[Depute Leader o the Conservative Pairty (UK)|depute]]. Heath wis niver reconciled tae Thatcher's leadership.<ref>Moore, ''Thatcher'' 1:394–395, 430</ref> In addeetion tae opposeetion tae [[Keynesian ecenomics]], Thatcher wantit tae prevent the creaution o a Scots assembly. She tauld Conservative MPs tae vote against the Scotland and Wales Bill in December 1976, which wis defeatit, an then whan new Bills war proponed she supportit amendin the legislation tae allae the Inglis tae vote in the [[Scots devolution referendum, 1979|1979 referendum on devolution]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/top-stories/how-thatcher-tried-to-thwart-devolution-1-1165673|title=How Thatcher tried to thwart devolution|date=27 April 2008|accessdate=20 April 2013|newspaper=The Scotsman|archive-date=2015-10-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016012202/http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/top-stories/how-thatcher-tried-to-thwart-devolution-1-1165673|url-status=dead}}</ref> Breetain's economy during the 1970s wis sae waik that Foreign Meenister [[James Callaghan]] wairned his fellae Labour Cabinet members in 1974 o the possibility o "a breakdown of democracy", tellin them: "If I were a young man, I would emigrate."{{sfnp|Beckett|2010|loc=chapter 7}} In mid-1978, the economy begoud tae impruive an opeenion polls shawed Labour in the lead, wi a general election bein expectit later that year an a Labour win a sairious possibility. Nou Prime Meenister, Callaghan surpreesed mony bi annooncin on 7 September that thare wad be na general election that year an he wad wait till 1979 afore gangin tae the polls. Thatcher reactit tae this bi buistin the Labour govrenment "chickens", an [[Leeberal Pairty (UK)|Leeberal Pairty]] leader [[David Steel]] jyned in, criticisin Labour for "running scared".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/7/newsid_2502000/2502781.stm|title=7 September 1978: Callaghan accused of running scared|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|accessdate=13 January 2012|year=2008}}</ref> The Conservatives attacked the Labour govrenment's unemployment record, uisin advertisin wi the slogan "[[Labour Isn't Working]]". A [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1979|general election]] wis cried efter Callaghan's govrenment lost a [[1979 vote o na confidence in the govrenment o James Callaghan|motion o na confidence]] in early 1979. The Conservatives wan a 44-seat majority in the Hoose o Commons an Thatcher acame the first female Breetish prime meenister.<ref>David Butler and Dennis Kavanagh, ''The British general election of 1979'' (1980).</ref> ==Premiership o the Unitit Kinrick: 1979–1990== Thatcher acame Prime Meenister on 4 Mey 1979. Arrivin at Downing Street she said, paraphrasin the [[Prayer o Saunt Francis]]:{{poemquote| Where there is discord, may we bring harmony; Where there is error, may we bring truth; Where there is doubt, may we bring faith; And where there is despair, may we bring hope. |char=Margaret Thatcher |source=<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/104078 |title=Remarks on becoming Prime Minister (St Francis's prayer) |date=4 May 1979 |publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation |accessdate=21 March 2017}}</ref> |title=her remarks on becoming Prime Minister }} Thatcher remained in office ootthrou the next decade. For muckle o her premiership, she wis descrived as the maist pouerfu wumman in the warld.<ref>{{cite book |title=How to Work for a Woman Boss, Even If You'd Rather Not |url=https://archive.org/details/howtoworkforwoma00bern |last=Bern |first=Paula |publisher=[[Dodd Mead]] |edition=1st |isbn=978-0396088394 |date=February 1987 |page=[https://archive.org/details/howtoworkforwoma00bern/page/43 43]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Maggie: An Intimate Portrait of a Woman in Power |url=https://archive.org/details/maggieintimatepo00ogde |last=Ogden |first=Chris |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |edition=1st |isbn=978-0671667603 |year=1990 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/maggieintimatepo00ogde/page/9 9], 12}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Current Biography Yearbook |titlelink=Current Biography |publisher=[[H. W. Wilson Co.]] |edition=1989 |volume=50 |year=1990 |page=567}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Gail Sheehy on the most powerful woman in the world |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_vanity-fair_1989-07_52_7/page/102 |last=Sheehy |first=Gail |authorlink=Gail Sheehy |magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |volume=52 |year=1989 |page=102}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=The most powerful woman in the world |last=Eisner |first=Jane |authorlink=Jane Eisner |magazine=The Philadelphia Inquirer Magazine |asin=B006RKBPBK |date=7 June 1987 |page=1}}</ref> ===Domestic affairs=== Thatcher wis Leader o the Opposeetion an Prime Meenister at a time o increased racial tension in Breetain. Commentin on the [[Unitit Kinrick local elections, 1977|local elections o Mey 1977]], ''[[The Economist]]'' notit "The Tory tide swamped the smaller parties. That specifically includes the [[Naitional Front (UK)|National Front]], which suffered a clear decline from last year".<ref>{{cite news|work=The Economist|title=Votes go to Tories, and nobody else|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_economist_1977-05-14_263_6976/page/24|date=14 May 1977|volume=263|issue=6976|pages=24–28}}</ref><ref>[http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/93030FB632E147999D4BEB655587A134.pdf ''Conservative Party Campaign Guide Supplement 1978'']. Published by the Conservative and Unionist Central Office.</ref> Her staundin in the polls rose bi 11% efter a Januar 1978 interview for ''[[World in Action]]'' in which she said "the British character has done so much for democracy, for law and done so much throughout the world that if there is any fear that it might be swamped people are going to react and be rather hostile to those coming in", as well as "in many ways {{bracket|minorities}} add to the richness and variety of this country. The moment the minority threatens to become a big one, people get frightened".<ref>{{cite news|work=The Times|title=Mrs Thatcher fears people might become hostile if immigrant flow is not cut|date=31 January 1978}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=Time|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920566-3,00.html|title=Britain: Facing a Multiracial Future|date=27 August 1979|accessdate=20 January 2011|archive-date=2013-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724082825/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920566-3,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the 1979 general election, the Conservatives attracted voters frae the Naitional Front, whose support awmaist collapsed.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=26}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FtAiLTYSpA4C&pg=PA128&dq=thatcher+national+front#v=onepage&q=thatcher%20national%20front&f=false|title=Britishness since 1870|first=Paul|last=Ward|publisher=Routledge|accessdate=21 August 2011|isbn=978-0-415-22016-3|year=2004|page=128}}</ref> In a meetin in Julie 1979 wi [[Secretar o State for Foreign an Commonweel Affairs|Foreign Secretar]] [[Peter Carington, 6t Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]] an [[Hame Secretar]] [[Willie Whitelaw]] she objectit tae the nummer o Asie immigrants, in the context o leemitin the tot o [[Vietnamese boat fowk]] allaed tae settle in the UK tae less nor 10,000.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/margaret-thatcher/6906503/Margaret-Thatcher-complained-about-Asian-immigration-to-Britain.html|title=Margaret Thatcher complained about Asian immigration to Britain|date=30 December 2009|accessdate=20 January 2011|first=Jon|last=Swaine|archive-date=2011-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120061249/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/margaret-thatcher/6906503/Margaret-Thatcher-complained-about-Asian-immigration-to-Britain.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> As Prime Meenister, Thatcher met weekly wi [[Queen Elizabeth II]] tae discuss govrenment business, an thair relationship came unner close scrutiny.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=28}}{{sfnp|Seward|2001|p=154}} Biografer [[John Campbell (biografer)|John Campbell]] says thair relations war "punctiliously correct but there was little love lost on either side". The Queen's press secretar leaked anonymous rumours o a rift, which war offeecially denee'd bi the Palace. Campbell concludes that Thatcher haed "an almost mystical reverence for the institution of the monarchy" despite "trying to modernise the country and sweep away many of the values and practices which the monarchy perpetuated".<ref>Campbell, ''Margaret Thatcher: The Iron Lady 2:464</ref> Thatcher later wrate: "I always found the Queen's attitude towards the work of the Government absolutely correct&nbsp;... stories of clashes between 'two powerful women' were just too good not to make up."{{sfnp|Thatcher|1993|p=18}} ====Economy an taxation==== Thatcher's economic policy wis influenced bi [[monetarism|monetarist]] thinkin an economists sic as [[Milton Friedman]] an [[Alan Walters]].{{sfnp|Childs|2006|p=185}} Thegither wi [[Chancellor o the Exchequer]] [[Geoffrey Howe]], she lawered direct taxes on income an increased indirect taxes.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=30}} She increased interest rates tae slaw the growthe o the money supplee an tharebi lawer inflation,{{sfnp|Childs|2006|p=185}} introduced cash leemits on public spendin, an reduced expenditur on social services sic as eddication an hoosin.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=30}} Her cuts in heicher eddication spendin resultit in her bein the first Oxford-eddicatit post-war Prime Meenister nae tae be awairdit an honorar doctorate bae the Varsity o Oxford, efter a 738 tae 319 vote o the govrenin assembly an a student peteetion.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/29/newsid_2506000/2506019.stm |title=29 January 1985: Thatcher snubbed by Oxford dons |accessdate=9 April 2007 |work=On this day 1950–2005 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> Some Heathite Conservatives in the Cabinet, the sae-cried "[[wets an drees|wets]]", expressed dout ower Thatcher's policies.<ref name="nft"/> The [[1981 Ingland riots]] resultit in the Breetish media discussin the need for a policy U-turn. At the 1980 Conservative Pairty conference, Thatcher addressed the issue directly, wi a speech written bi the playwricht [[Ronald Millar]]{{sfnp|Jones|Kavanagh|Moran|2007|p=224}} that included the lines: "You turn if you want to. [[The lady's not for turning]]!"<ref name="nft">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/10/newsid_2541000/2541071.stm|title=10 October 1980: Thatcher 'not for turning'|accessdate=21 December 2008|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> Thatcher's job appruival ratin fell tae 23% bi December 1980, lawer nor recordit for ony previous Prime Meenister.{{sfnp|Thornton|2006|p=18}} As the [[Early 1980s recession|recession o the early 1980s]] deepened she increased taxes,{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=31}} despite concerns expressed in a statement signed bi 364&nbsp;leadin economists issued taewart the end o Mairch 1981.<ref>{{cite news|title=An avalanche of economists|date=31 March 1981|url=http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/infomark/263/101/138526786w16/purl=rc1_TTDA_0_CS285575295&dyn=75!xrn_1_0_CS285575295&hst_1?sw_aep=mclib|url-access=limited|newspaper=The Times|page=17|accessdate=12 January 2011}}</ref> Bi 1982, the UK begoud tae experience signs o economic recovery;{{sfnp|Floud|Johnson|2004|p=392}} inflation wis doun tae 8.6% frae a heich o 18%, but unemployment wis ower 3&nbsp;million for the first time syne the 1930s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/26/newsid_2506000/2506335.stm|title=26 January 1982: UK unemployment tops three million|accessdate=16 April 2010|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC News|year=2008}}</ref> Bi 1983 oweraw economic growthe wis stranger an inflation an mortgage rates war at thair lawest levels syne 1970, awtho manufacturin employment as a share o tot employment fell tae juist ower 30%,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rowthorn |first1=Robert |authorlink1=Robert Rowthorn |last2=Wells |first2=John R. |title=De-Industrialization and Foreign Trade |url=https://archive.org/details/deindustrializat0000rowt |date=12 November 1987 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/deindustrializat0000rowt/page/234 234] |isbn=978-0521263603}}</ref> wi tot unemployment remeenin heich, peakin at 3.3&nbsp;million in 1984.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/unemployment-among-young-workers-hits-15-per-cent-1645728.html|title=Unemployment among young workers hits 15 per cent|newspaper=The Independent|date=16 March 2009|accessdate=21 November 2010|first=Sean|last=O'Grady|archive-date=2017-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020085549/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/unemployment-among-young-workers-hits-15-per-cent-1645728.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Bi 1987, unemployment wis fawin, the economy wis stable an strang an inflation wis law. Opeenion polls shawed a comfortable Conservative lead, an [[Unitit Kinrick local elections, 1987|local cooncil election]] results haed an aa been successfu, promptin Thatcher tae cry a general election for 11 Juin that year, despite the deidline for an election still bein 12 month awey. The [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1987|election]] saw Thatcher re-electit for a third successive term.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/politics97/background/pastelec/ge87.shtml|title=BBC Politics 97|publisher=BBC|date=11 June 1987|accessdate=14 November 2011}}</ref> ====Industrial relations==== Thatcher wis committit tae reducin the pouer o the [[tred union]]s, whase leadership she accused o unnerminin pairlamentar democracy an economic performance throu strick action.{{sfnp|Thatcher|1993|pp=97–98, 339–340}} Several unions lenched stricks in response tae legislation introduced tae crib thair pouer, but reseestance eventually collapsed.<ref name="thatcher-cw">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/thatcher|title=Margaret Thatcher|accessdate=29 October 2008|publisher=CNN|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703072749/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/thatcher|archivedate=3 July 2008}}</ref> Anerly 39% o union members votit for Labour in the 1983 general election.<ref>{{cite news |last=Revzin|first=Philip|title=British Labor Unions Begin to Toe the Line, Realizing That the Times Have Changed|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=23 November 1984}}</ref> The [[UK miners' strick (1984–85)|miners' strick o 1984–85]] wis the biggest confrontation atween the unions an the Thatcher govrenment. ====Privatisation==== The policy o [[privatisation]] haes been cried "a crucial ingredient o Thatcherism".{{sfnp|Seldon|Collings|2000|p=27}} Efter the 1983 election the sale o state utilities acceleratit;{{sfnp|Feigenbaum|Henig|Hamnett|1998|p=71}} maur than £29&nbsp;billion wis raised frae the sale o naitionalised industries, an anither £18&nbsp;billion frae the sale o cooncil hooses.{{sfnp|Marr|2007|p=428}} The process o privatisation, especially the preparation o naitionalised industries for privatisation, wis associatit wi merked impruivements in performance, pairteecularly in terms o [[wirkforce productivity|labour productivity]].<ref name=ParkerMartin>{{cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=David|last2=Martin|first2=Stephen|title=The impact of UK privatisation on labour and total factor productivity|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_scottish-journal-of-political-economy_1995-05_42_2/page/216|journal=Scottish Journal of Political Economy|volume=42|issue=2|date=May 1995|pages=216–217|ref=harv|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9485.1995.tb01154.x}}</ref> ====Northren Ireland==== In 1980 an 1981, [[Proveesional Erse Republican Airmy]] (IRA) an [[Erse Naitional Leeberation Airmy]] (INLA) preesoners in Northren Ireland's [[HM Prison Maze|Maze Prison]] cairied oot [[1981 Erse hunger strick|hunger stricks]] in an effort tae regain the status o poleetical preesoners that haed been remuived in 1976 bi the precedin Labour govrenment.<ref name="strike"/> [[Bobby Sands]] begoud the 1981 strick, sayin that he wad fest till daith unless preeson inmates wan concessions ower thair leevin condeetions.<ref name="strike">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/3/newsid_2451000/2451503.stm|title=3 October 1981: IRA Maze hunger strikes at an end|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}</ref> Thatcher refuised tae coontenance a return tae poleetical status for the preesoners, declarin "Crime is crime is crime; it is not political",<ref name="strike"/> but nivertheless the UK govrenment privately contactit republican leaders in a bid tae bring the hunger stricks tae an end.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/ireland/article6036723.ece|url-access=limited|title=Was Gerry Adams complicit over hunger strikers?|accessdate=20 April 2009|date=5 April 2009|newspaper=The Sunday Times|last=Clarke|first=Liam|archive-date=2011-03-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301124629/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/ireland/article6036723.ece|url-status=dead}}</ref> Efter the daiths o Sands an nine ithers, the strick endit. Some richts war restored tae paramilitar preesoners, but nae offeecial recogneetion o poleetical status.<ref name="CAIN-hs"/> Violence in Northren Ireland escalatit signeeficantly during the hunger stricks; in 1982 [[Sinn Féin]] politeecian [[Danny Morrison (Erse republican)|Danny Morrison]] descrived Thatcher as "the biggest bastard we have ever known".{{sfnp|English|2005|pp=207–208}} Thatcher narraely escaped injury in an IRA [[Brighton hotel bombin|assassination attempt]] at a Brighton hotel early in the mornin on 12 October 1984.<ref name="bbc-bomb">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/12/newsid_2531000/2531583.stm|accessdate=29 October 2008|title=12 October 1984: Tory Cabinet in Brighton bomb blast|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}</ref> Five fowk war killed, includin the wife o Cabinet Meenister [[John Wakeham]]. Thatcher wis stayin at the hotel tae attend the Conservative Pairty conference, which she inseestit shoud open as scheduled the follaein day.<ref name="bbc-bomb"/> She delivered her speech as planned,{{sfnp|Thatcher|1993|pp=379–383}} awbeit rewritten frae her oreeginal draft,<ref>{{cite news |last=Travis |first=Alan |title=Thatcher was to call Labour and miners 'enemy within' in abandoned speech |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/oct/03/thatcher-labour-miners-enemy-within-brighton-bomb |newspaper=The Guardian |date=3 October 2014 |accessdate=25 May 2017}}</ref> in a muive that wis widely supportit athort the poleetical spectrum an enhanced her popularity wi the public.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lanoue|first1=David J.|last2=Headrick|first2=Barbara|title=Short-Term Political Events and British Government Popularity: Direct and Indirect Effects|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_polity_spring-1998_30_3/page/423|journal=Polity|volume=30|issue=3|date=Spring 1998|pages=423, 427, 431, 432|ref=harv|doi=10.2307/3235208}}</ref> On 6 November 1981, Thatcher an Erse [[Taoiseach]] [[Garret FitzGerald]] haed established the Anglo-Erse Inter-Govrenmental Cooncil, a forum for meetins atween the twa govrenments.<ref name="CAIN-hs">{{cite web|url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/hstrike/chronology.htm|title=The Hunger Strike of 1981&nbsp;– A Chronology of Main Events|publisher=[[CAIN]], University of Ulster|accessdate=27 January 2011|archive-date=2007-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070531003915/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/hstrike/chronology.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 15 November 1985, Thatcher an FitzGerald signed the Hillsborough [[Anglo-Irish Agreement]], the first time a Breetish govrenment haed gien the Republic o Ireland an adveesory role in the govrenance o Northren Ireland. In protest the [[Ulster Says No]] muivement attractit 100,000 tae a rally in Belfast,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/aia/chron.htm |title=Anglo Irish Agreement Chronology |publisher=[[CAIN]], University of Ulster |accessdate=27 January 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206111841/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/aia/chron.htm |archivedate=6 December 2010 |df= }}</ref> [[Ian Gow]] resigned as [[Meenister o State]] in the [[HM Thesaury]],<ref>{{cite news|title=15 November 1985: Anglo-Irish agreement signed|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/15/newsid_2539000/2539849.stm |accessdate=4 May 2010 |work=On this day 1950–2005 |publisher=BBC |year=2008}}</ref>{{sfnp|Moloney|2002|p=336}} an aw fifteen Unionist MPs resigned thair pairlamentar seats; anerly ane wis nae returned in the subsequent [[Leet o Unitit Kinrick bi-elections (1979–2010)#1983–1987 Pairlament|bi-elections]] on 23 Januar 1986.{{sfnp|Cochrane|2001|p=143}} ===Environment=== Thatcher supported an active climate pertection policy an wis instrumental in the creaution o the [[Environmental Protection Act 1990]] an in foundin the [[Intergovrenmental Panel on Climate Chynge]] an the Breetish [[Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research]] in Exeter.<ref name=gw>{{cite web |last=Bell |first=Alice |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2013/apr/09/margaret-thatcher-green-hero |title=Greenwashing Thatcher's history does an injustice both to her and to science and technology policy |newspaper=The Guardian |date=9 April 2013 |accessdate=25 August 2014}}</ref> She helped tae put climate chynge, [[acid rain]] an general pollution in the Breetish mainstream in the early 1980s,<ref name=gw/> an gained distinction as the first warld leader tae wairn o [[global wairmin]].<ref name="Booker">{{cite web |last=Booker |first=Christopher |authorlink=Christopher Booker |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/columnists/christopherbooker/7823477/Was-Margaret-Thatcher-the-first-climate-sceptic.html |title=Was Margaret Thatcher the first climate sceptic? |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |date=12 June 2010 |accessdate=3 June 2017}}</ref> Her speeches includit ane tae the [[Ryal Society]] on 27 September 1988<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/107346|title=Margaret Thatcher Speech to the Royal Society|date=27 September 1988|accessdate=27 April 2016|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation}}</ref> an tae the [[Unitit Naitions General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] in November 1989. Houever, upon her retirement as Prime Meenister in 1990, she missed the [[Earth Summit]] 1992 an acame sceptical aboot [[Politics o global wairmin|climate chynge policy]].<ref name=gw/><ref name="Booker" /> ===Foreign affairs=== Thatcher's first foreign policy creesis came wi the 1979 Soviet invasion o Afghanistan. She condemned the invasion, said it shawed the bankruptcy o a [[détente]] policy, an helped convince some Breetish athletes tae boycott the 1980 Moscow Olympics. She gae waik support tae US Preses [[Jimmy Carter]] wha tried tae punish the USSR wi economic sanctions. Breetain's economic situation wis precarious, an maist o NATO wis reluctant tae cut tred ties.<ref>Daniel James Lahey, "The Thatcher government's response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979–1980," ''Cold War History'' (2013) 13#1 pp&nbsp;21–42.</ref> Thatcher acame closely aligned wi the [[Cauld War]] policies o US Preses [[Ronald Reagan]], based on thair shared distrust o Communism.<ref name="thatcher-cw"/> A disgreement came in 1983 when Reagan did nae consult wi her on the [[invasion o Grenada]].<ref>Gary Williams, "'A Matter of Regret': Britain, the 1983 Grenada Crisis, and the Special Relationship." ''Twentieth Century British History'' 12#2 (2001): 208–230.</ref> During her first year as Prime Meenister she supportit [[NATO]]'s deceesion tae deploy US nuclear [[BGM-109G Ground Launched Cruise Missile|cruise]] an [[Pershing II]] missiles in Wastren Europe<ref name="thatcher-cw"/> an permittit the US tae station mair nor 160&nbsp;cruise missiles at [[RAF Greenham Common]], stairtin on 14 November 1983 an triggerin mass protests bi the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]].<ref name="thatcher-cw"/> She bocht the [[Trident nuclear programme|Trident]] nuclear missile submarine seestem frae the US tae replace Polaris, triplin the UK's nuclear forces<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922079,00.html|title=Trident is go|accessdate=16 January 2011|date=28 July 1980|magazine=Time|archive-date=2013-08-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826001043/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922079,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> at an eventual cost o mair nor £12&nbsp;billion (at 1996–97 prices).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/uk/slbm/vanguard.htm|title=Vanguard Class Ballistic Missile Submarine|accessdate=16 January 2011|date=5 November 1999|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|archive-date=2010-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123230232/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/uk/slbm/vanguard.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 2 Apryle 1982 the rulin [[Naitional Reorganisation Process|militar junta in Argentinae]] ordered the invasion o the Breetish-controlled [[Falkland Islands]] an [[Sooth Georgie an the Sooth Sandwich Islands|Sooth Georgie]], triggerin the [[Falklands War]].{{sfnp|Smith|1989|p=21}} At the suggestion o [[Harold Macmillan]] an [[Robert Armstrong, Baron Armstrong o Ilminster|Robert Armstrong]],{{sfnp|Jackling|2005|p=230}} she set up an chaired a smaw [[War cabinet#Falklands War|War Cabinet]] (formally cried ODSA, Owerseas an Defence committee, Sooth Atlantic) tae tak chairge o the conduct o the war,{{sfnp|Hastings|Jenkins|1983|pp=80–81}} which bi 5–6 Apryle haed authorised an dispatched a [[Breetish naval forces in the Falklands War|naval task force]] tae retak the islands.{{sfnp|Hastings|Jenkins|1983|p=95}} Argentinae [[Argentine surrender in the Falklands War|surrendered on 14 Juin]] an the operation wis hailed a success, naewistaundin the daiths o 255&nbsp;Breetish servicemen an 3&nbsp;Falkland Islanders. The "[[Falklands factor]]", an economic recovery beginnin early in 1982, an a bitterly dividit opposeetion aw contreibutit tae Thatcher's seicont election veectory in [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1983|1983]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sanders|first1=David|last2=Ward|first2=Hugh|last3=Marsh|first3=David|title=Government Popularity and the Falklands War: A Reassessment|journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=17|date=July 1987 |pages=281–313|issue=3|doi=10.1017/s0007123400004762 |ref=harv}}</ref> In September 1982 she veesitit Cheenae tae discuss wi [[Deng Xiaoping]] the [[Transfer o sovereignty ower Hong Kong|sovereignty o Hong Kong]] efter 1997. Cheenae wis the first communist state Thatcher haed veesitit an she wis the first Breetish prime meenister tae veesit Cheenae. Efter the ta-year negotiations, Thatcher concedit tae the PRC govrenment an signed the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]] in Beijing in 1984, greein tae haund ower Hong Kong's sovereignty in 1997.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=116}} Awtho sayin that she wis in favour o "peaceful negotiations" tae end [[apartheid]],<ref>See Hansard HC Debs (25 February 1988) [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1988/feb/25/engagements#S6CV0128P0_19880225_HOC_113 vol 128 col 437] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319104336/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1988/feb/25/engagements#S6CV0128P0_19880225_HOC_113 |date=2016-03-19 }} and Written Answers HC Deb (11 July 1988) [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1988/jul/11/south-africa#S6CV0137P0_19880711_CWA_21 vol 137 cols 3-4W] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630103039/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1988/jul/11/south-africa#S6CV0137P0_19880711_CWA_21 |date=2017-06-30 }}</ref> Thatcher stuid against the sanctions imponed on Sooth Africae bi the [[Commonweel o Naitions|Commonweel]] an the [[European Economic Commonty|EC]].{{sfnp|Campbell|2011|p=322}} Thatcher dismissed the [[African Naitional Congress]] (ANC) in October 1987 as "a typical terrorist organisation".<ref>See Mr Winnick, Hansard HC Deb (13 November 1987) vol 122 [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1987/nov/13/the-commonwealth-and-south-africa#S6CV0122P0_19871113_HOC_85 col 701] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034325/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1987/nov/13/the-commonwealth-and-south-africa#S6CV0122P0_19871113_HOC_85 |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>{{sfnp|Howe|1994|pp=477–478}} The Thatcher govrenment supportit the [[Khmer Rouge]] keepin thair seat in the UN efter thay war oostit frae pouer in Cambodie bi the [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War]]. Awtho Thatcher denied it at the time, it wis revealed in 1991 that frae 1983 the [[Special Air Service|SAS]] wis sent tae saicretly train the "non-Communist" members o the [[Coaleetion Govrenment o Democratic Kampuchea|CGDK]] tae fecht against the Vietnamese-backed [[Fowkrepublic o Kampuchea]] govrenment.<ref>{{cite Hansard|house=House of Commons|date=26 October 1990|column_start=655|column_end=667|title=Cambodia|url=http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm198990/cmhansrd/1990-10-26/Debate-3.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Observer|title=Butcher of Cambodia set to expose Thatcher's role|date=9 January 2000|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/jan/09/cambodia|accessdate=26 May 2011}}</ref><ref name=newst>{{cite news|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/politics/2014/04/how-thatcher-gave-pol-pot-hand|title=How Thatcher gave Pol Pot a hand|date=17 April 2000|first=John|last=Pilger|authorlink=John Pilger|work=[[New Statesman]]}}</ref> Thatcher an her pairty haed supportit Breetish membership o the EC in the [[Unitit Kinrick European Communities membership referendum, 1975|1975 naitional referendum]],<ref name="upi19750604">{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=M7QsAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lQoEAAAAIBAJ&pg=2825%2C608551|title=Conservatives favor remaining in market|work=Wilmington Morning Star|date=4 June 1975|agency=United Press International|accessdate=26 December 2011|page=5}}</ref> but she believed that the role o the organisation shoud be leemitit tae ensurin free tred an effective competeetion, an feared that the EC's approach wis at odds wi her views on smawer govrenment an deregulation.{{sfnp|Senden|2004|p=9}} Thatcher wis ane o the first Wastren leaders tae respond wairmly tae reformist Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. Follaein Reagan–Gorbachev summit meetins an reforms enactit bi Gorbachev in the USSR, she declared in November 1988 that "We're not in a Cold War now", but raither in a "new relationship much wider than the Cold War ever was".<ref name="reforms1988">{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE2DC1738F93BA25752C1A96E948260 |title=Gorbachev Policy Has Ended The Cold War, Thatcher Says|date=18 November 1988|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=The New York Times|accessdate=30 October 2008}}</ref> ===Challenges tae leadership an resignation=== Thatcher wis challenged for the leadership o the Conservative Pairty bi the little-kent backbench MP [[Sir Anthony Meyer, 3rd Baronet|Sir Anthony Meyer]] in the 1989 leadership election.<ref name="89election">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/5/newsid_2528000/2528339.stm|accessdate=1 November 2008|title=5 December 1989: Thatcher beats off leadership rival|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}</ref> O the 374&nbsp;Conservative MPs eligible tae vote, 314 votit for Thatcher an 33 for Meyer.<ref name="89election"/> Her supporters in the pairty viewed the result as a success, an rejectit suggestions that thare wis discontent within the pairty.<ref name="89election"/> Opeenion polls in September 1990 reportit that Labour haed established a 14% lead ower the Conservatives,<ref name="howe"/> an bi November the Conservatives haed been trailin Labour for 18&nbsp;months.<ref name="ridley">{{cite news|last=Ridley|first=Matt|title=Et Tu, Heseltine?; Unpopularity Was a Grievous Fault, and Thatcher Hath Answered for It|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=25 November 1990|page=2}}</ref> Thir ratins, thegither wi Thatcher's combative personality an willinness tae owerride colleagues' opeenions, contreibuted tae discontent within her pairty.<ref name="resign-nyt"/> On 1 November 1990, [[Geoffrey Howe]], the last remeenin member o Thatcher's oreeginal 1979 cabinet, resigned frae his poseetion as [[Depute Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick|Depute Prime Meenister]] ower her refuisal tae gree tae a timetable for Breetain tae jyn the [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]].<ref name="howe">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/1/newsid_2513000/2513953.stm|accessdate=1 November 2008|title=1 November 1990: Howe resigns over Europe policy|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Millership|first=Peter|title= Thatcher's Deputy Quits in Row over Europe |agency=Reuters News|date=1 November 1990}}</ref> His resignation pruived fatal tae Thatcher's premiership.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Walters|first1=Alan|title=Sir Geoffrey Howe's resignation was fatal blow in Mrs Thatcher's political assassination|newspaper=The Times|date=5 December 1990}}</ref> On 14 November, [[Michael Heseltine]] moontit a challenge for the leadership o the Conservative Pairty.{{sfnp|Marr|2007|p=473}} Opeenion polls haed indicatit that he wad gie the Conservatives a naitional lead ower Labour.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Lipsey |title=Poll swing followed downturn by Tories; Conservative Party leadership |newspaper=The Times |date=21 November 1990}}</ref> Awtho Thatcher wan the first ballot wi 204 tae 152 votes an 16 abstentions, Heseltine haed attractit sufficient support tae force a seicont ballot. Unner pairty rules, Thatcher nae anerly needit tae win a majority, but her margin ower Heseltine haed tae be equivalent tae 15% o the 372 Conservative MPs in order tae win the leadership election ootricht; wi 54.8% against 40.9% for Heseltine, she came up fower votes short.<ref name="number-10">{{cite web|publisher=Government of the United Kingdom|url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/past-prime-ministers/margaret-thatcher|title=Margaret Thatcher profile|accessdate=6 August 2012}}</ref> Thatcher ineetially statit that she intendit to "fight on and fight to win" the seicont ballot, but consultation wi her Cabinet persuadit her tae widraw.<ref name="resign-nyt">{{cite news |url= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE6DB1438F930A15752C1A966958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 |title=Change in Britain; Thatcher Says She'll Quit; 11½ Years as Prime Minister Ended by Party Challenge|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=23 November 1990|newspaper=The New York Times|last=Whitney|first=Craig R.}}</ref><ref name="resign-bbc">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/22/newsid_2549000/2549189.stm|title=22 November 1990: Thatcher quits as prime minister|accessdate=1 November 2008|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}</ref> Efter an audience wi the Queen, cryin ither warld leaders, an makkin ane feenal Commons speech,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/108256 |title=HC S: [Confidence in Her Majesty's Government] |date=22 November 1990 |publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation |accessdate=21 March 2017}}</ref> she left Downing Street in tears. She reportitly regairdit her oustin as a betrayal.{{sfnp|Marr|2007|p=474}} Her resignation surprised internaitional observers includin [[Henry Kissinger]] an [[Mikhail Gorbachev]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/dec/30/margaret-thatcher-resignation-shocked-us-ussr-files|title=Margaret Thatcher's resignation shocked politicians in US and USSR, files show|last=Travis|first=Alan|date=30 December 2016|work=The Guardian|accessdate=30 December 2016}}</ref> Thatcher wis replaced as Prime Meenister an pairty leader bi her Chancellor [[John Major]], wha prevailed ower Heseltine in the subsequent ballot. Major owersaw an upturn in Conservative support in the 17&nbsp;months leadin up tae the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 1992|1992 general election]] an led the Conservatives tae thair fowert successive veectory on 9 Apryle 1992.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2005/apr/04/electionspast.past3|title=Pollsters taxed|work=The Guardian|date=4 April 2005|accessdate=23 January 2011|last=Kettle|first=Martin}}</ref> Thatcher haed favoured Major ower Heseltine in the leadership contest, but her support for him waikened in later years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/463873.stm|title=Major attacks 'warrior' Thatcher|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=3 October 1999|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> ==Later life== Thatcher returned tae the [[backbenches]] as a constituency pairlamentarian efter leavin the premiership.{{sfnp|Reitan|2003|p=118}} Her domestic appruival ratin recovered efter her resignation; the balance o public opeenion wis that her govrenment haed been guid for the kintra.<ref name="Crewe">{{cite journal |last=Crewe |first=Ivor |authorlink=Ivor Crewe |title=Margaret Thatcher: As the British Saw Her |url=https://ropercenter.cornell.edu/public-perspective/ppscan/22/22015.pdf |journal=The Public Perspective |accessdate=1 March 2017 |date=January 1991 |pages=15, 16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Margaret Thatcher (1925&ndash;2013) |url=https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/margaret-thatcher-1925-2013 |publisher=[[Ipsos MORI]] |date=8 April 2013 |accessdate=25 May 2017 |quote=At the time of her resignation in November 1990, 52% of the public said that they thought her government had been good for the country and 40% that it had been bad. |archive-date=2017-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722003205/https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/margaret-thatcher-1925-2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Aged 66, she retired frae the Hoose at the 1992 general election, sayin that leavin the Commons wad allae her mair freedom tae speak her mynd.<ref name="lords">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/30/newsid_2523000/2523395.stm|title=30 June 1992: Thatcher takes her place in Lords|accessdate=1 November 2008|work=On this day 1950–2005|publisher=BBC|year=2008}}</ref> ===Post-Commons: 1992–2003=== Upon leavin the Hoose o Commons, Thatcher acame the first umwhile Prime Meenister tae set up a foondation;<ref>{{cite web|title=Thatcher Archive|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/archive/thatcher-archive.asp|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|accessdate=26 August 2013}}</ref> the Breetish weeng o the Margaret Thatcher Foundation wis dissolved in 2005 acause o financial difficulties.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/may/11/conservatives.politics|title=End of an era for Thatcher foundation|last=Barkham|first=Patrick|date=11 May 2005|work=The Guardian|accessdate=27 April 2013}}</ref> She wrote twa volumes o memoirs, ''[[The Downing Street Years]]'' (1993) an ''[[The Path to Power (Margaret Thatcher)|The Path to Power]]'' (1995). In 1991 she an her husband Denis muived tae a hoose in [[Chester Square]], a residential gairden square in central Lunnon's [[Belgravia]] destrict.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/apr/09/margaret-thatcher-estate-family-secret|title=Margaret Thatcher's estate still a family secret|date=9 April 2013|accessdate=14 April 2013|last=Taylor|first=Matthew|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Thatcher wis hired bi the tobaccae company [[Altria|Philip Morris]] as a "geopoleetical consultant" in Julie 1992, for $250,000 per year an an annual contreibution o $250,000 tae her foondation.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tobacco Company Hires Margaret Thatcher as Consultant |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1992-07-19/news/mn-4763_1_margaret-thatcher |accessdate=25 May 2017 |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=19 July 1992}}</ref> In August 1992 she cried for NATO tae stap the Serbie assault on [[Goražde]] an [[Sarajevo]] tae end [[ethnic cleansin]] during the [[Bosnie War]]. She made a series o speeches in the Lairds creeticisin the [[Maastricht Treaty]],<ref name="lords"/> describing it as "a treaty too far" an statit: "I could never have signed this treaty."<ref>{{cite web|title=House of Lords European Communities (Amendment) Bill Speech|date=7 June 1993|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=108314|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|accessdate=9 April 2007}}</ref> She citit [[A. V. Dicey]] when statin that as aw three main pairties war in favour o the treaty, the fowk shoud hae thair say in a referendum.<ref>{{cite web|title=House of Commons European Community debate|date=20 November 1991|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=108291|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|accessdate=9 April 2007}}</ref> Rfter [[Tony Blair]]'s [[Labour Pairty (UK) leadership election, 1994|election as Labour Pairty leader]] in 1994, Thatcher praised Blair as "probably the most formidable [[Leader o the Labour Pairty (UK)|Labour leader]] since [[Hugh Gaitskell]]", addin: "I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench, but not in Mr Blair. I think he genuinely has moved."<ref>{{cite news|last=Castle|first=Stephen|title=Thatcher praises 'formidable' Blair|newspaper=The Independent|date=28 May 1995}}</ref> Blair reciprocated in describing Thatcher as a "thoroughly determined person, and that is an admirable quality".<ref>{{cite news |last=Woodward |first=Robert |title=Thatcher seen closer to Blair than Major |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=gaZNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=s0MDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6603%2C5897694 |newspaper=[[The Nation (Thailand)|The Nation]] |date=15 March 1997 |accessdate=25 May 2017}}</ref> At the [[Unitit Kinrick general election, 2001|2001 general election]], Thatcher supportit the Conservative campaign, as she haed done in 1992 an 1997, an in the [[Conservative Pairty (UK) leadership election, 2001|Conservative leadership election]] follaein its defeat, she endorsed [[Iain Duncan Smith]] ower [[Kenneth Clarke]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Letter supporting Iain Duncan Smith for the Conservative leadership published in the ''Daily Telegraph''|date=21 August 2001|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=108390|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|accessdate=9 April 2007}}</ref> In 2002 she encouraged [[George W. Bush]] tae aggressively tackle the "unfinished business" o [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq unner Saddam Hussein]],<ref name="Thatcher NYT">{{cite news|last=Thatcher|first=Margaret|date=11 February 2002|title=Advice to a Superpower|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/11/opinion/11THAT.html|website=The New York Times|accessdate=11 October 2015 }}</ref> an praised Tony Blair for his "strong, bold leadership" in staundin wi Bush in the [[Iraq War]].<ref name="Thatcher Blair Iraq">{{cite web|last=Harnden|first=Toby|date=11 December 2002|title=Thatcher praises Blair for standing firm with US on Iraq|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/1415788/Thatcher-praises-Blair-for-standing-firm-with-US-on-Iraq.html|website=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=11 October 2015}}</ref> She broached the same subject in her ''[[Statecraft: Strategies for a Changing World]]'', which wis published in Apryle 2002 an dedicatit tae [[Ronald Reagan]], writin that thare wad be na peace in the Middle East till [[Saddam Hussein]] wis toppled. Her beuk an aa said that Israel must tred [[laund for peace]], an that the European Union (EU) wis "fundamentally unreformable", "a classic utopian project, a monument to the vanity of intellectuals, a programme whose inevitable destiny is failure".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Glover|first1=Peter C.|last2=Economides|first2=Michael J.|title=Energy and Climate Wars: How Naive Politicians, Green Ideologues, and Media Elites are Undermining the Truth about Energy and Climate|date=16 September 2010|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=1-4411-5307-1|page=20}}</ref> She argued that Breetain shoud renegotiate its terms o membership or ense [[Brexit|leave the EU]] an jyn the [[North American Free Trade Agreement|North American Free Trade Area]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2002/mar/18/uk.eu|title=Britain must quit EU, says Thatcher|last=Wintour|first=Patrick|date=18 March 2002|work=The Guardian|accessdate=8 May 2014}}</ref> Follaein several smaw strokes she wis advised bi her doctors nae tae engage in further public speakin.<ref>{{cite press release|title=Statement from the office of the Rt Hon Baroness Thatcher LG OM FRS|publisher=Margaret Thatcher Foundation|date=22 March 2002|url=http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=109305|accessdate=9 November 2008}}</ref> On 23 Mairch 2002, she annoonced that on the advice o her doctors she wad cancel aw planned speakin engagements an accept na mair.{{sfnp|Campbell|2003|pp=796–798}} On 26 Juin 2003, Thatcher's husband [[Denis Thatcher|Sir Denis]] dee'd o [[pancreatic cancer]], an wis crematit on 3 Julie.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3041546.stm|title=Lady Thatcher bids Denis farewell|accessdate=20 January 2011|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> ===Feenal years: 2003–2013=== On 11 Juin 2004, Thatcher, against doctor's orders, attendit the [[Daith an state funeral o Ronald Reagan|state funeral service for Ronald Reagan]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Thatcher: 'Reagan's life was providential'|publisher=CNN|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=11 June 2004|url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/06/11/thatcher.transcript|archive-date=2017-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109022946/http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/06/11/thatcher.transcript/|url-status=dead}}</ref> She delivered her eulogy via videotape; in view o her heal, the message haed been pre-recordit several months earlier.<ref>{{cite news|title=Thatcher's final visit to Reagan|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=10 June 2004|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3793565.stm|publisher=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Russell|first1=Alec|last2=Sparrow|first2=Andrew|title=Thatcher's taped eulogy at Reagan funeral|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1463874/Thatchers-taped-eulogy-at-Reagan-funeral.html|accessdate=18 July 2016|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=7 June 2004}}</ref> Thatcher flew tae [[Californie]] wi the Reagan entourage, an attendit the memorial service an interment ceremony for the preses at the [[Ronald Reagan Presidential Library]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3800315.stm|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=12 June 2004|title=Private burial for Ronald Reagan|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> In early 2005 Thatcher creeticised the wey the deceesion tae [[2003 invasion o Iraq|invade Iraq]] haed been made twa years previously. Awtho she still supportit the intervention tae topple Saddam Hussein, she said that as a scientist, she wad ayeweys leuk for "facts, evidence and proof", afore committin the airmed forces.<ref name="grice">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/thatcher-reveals-her-doubts-over-basis-for-iraq-war-319542.html|title=Thatcher reveals her doubts over basis for Iraq war|last=Grice|first=Andrew|date=13 October 2005|work=[[The Independent]]|accessdate=22 September 2016|archive-date=2017-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731040334/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/thatcher-reveals-her-doubts-over-basis-for-iraq-war-319542.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Thatcher celebratit her 80t birthday at the [[Mandarin Oriental Hyde Park, Lunnon|Mandarin Oriental Hotel]] in [[Hyde Park, Lunnon|Hyde Park]], Lunnon, on 13 October 2005; guests includit the Queen, the [[Prince Philip, Duke o Edinburgh|Duke o Edinburgh]], [[Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy|Princess Alexandra]] an Tony Blair.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4329132.stm|title=Thatcher marks 80th with a speech|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=13 October 2005|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> [[Geoffrey Howe]], bi then Laird Howe o Aberavon, wis an aa present, an said o his umwhile leader: "Her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two, so that when Labour did eventually return, the great bulk of Thatcherism was accepted as irreversible."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4337404.stm|accessdate=1 November 2008|date=13 October 2005|title=Birthday tributes to Thatcher|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> Accordin tae a later airticle in ''The Daily Telegraph'', Thatcher's dauchter Carol first revealed that her mither haed [[dementia]] in 2005, sayin that "Mum doesn't read much any more because of her memory loss&nbsp;... It's pointless. She can't remember the beginning of a sentence by the time she reaches the end".<ref name=Langley>{{cite news|last=Langley|first=William|title=Carol Thatcher, daughter of the revolution|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/profiles/2652365/Profile-Carol-Thatcher-daughter-of-the-revolution.html|accessdate=11 February 2013|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=30 August 2008}}</ref> She later recoontit hou she wis first struck bi her mither's dementia when in conversation Thatcher confuised the Falklands an Yugoslav conflicts; she recried the pyne o needin tae tell her mither repeatitly that her husband Denis wis deid.<ref name="dem-cbs">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/08/25/health/main4380977.shtml|title=Book Recounts Margaret Thatcher's Decline|accessdate=20 November 2008|date=25 August 2008|publisher=CBS|agency=Associated Press|last=Satter|first=Raphael G.}}{{Dead link|date=August 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In 2006, Thatcher attendit the offeecial Washington, D.C. memorial service tae commemorate the fift anniversary o the [[September 11 attacks|11 September attacks]] on the US. She wis a guest o Vice Preses [[Dick Cheney]], an met Secretar o State [[Condoleezza Rice]] during her veesit.<ref>{{cite web|title=9/11 Remembrance Honors Victims from More Than 90 Countries|accessdate=1 November 2008|publisher=United States Department of State|date=11 September 2006|url=http://montevideo.usembassy.gov/usaweb/paginas/2006/06-334EN.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060922193936/http://montevideo.usembassy.gov/usaweb/paginas/2006/06-334EN.shtml|archivedate=22 September 2006}}</ref> In Februar 2007 Thatcher acame the first [[Leevin Prime Meenisters o the Unitit Kinrick|leevin Breetish prime meenister]] tae be honoured wi a [[Statue o Margaret Thatcher, Palace o Wastmeenster|statue in the Hooses o Pairlament]]. The bronze statue staunds opposite that o her poleetical hero, [[Statue o Winston Churchill, Palace o Wastmeenster|Sir Winston Churchill's]],<ref name="bronze"/> an wis unveiled on 21 Februar 2007 wi Thatcher in attendance; she made brief remerks in the [[Members' Lobby]] o the Commons: "I might have preferred iron{{snd}}but bronze will do&nbsp;... It won't rust."<ref name="bronze">{{cite news|date=21 February 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6384029.stm|title=Iron Lady is honoured in bronze|accessdate=9 April 2007|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> ===Daith an funeral: 2013=== Baroness Thatcher dee'd on 8 Apryle 2013, at the age o 87, efter sufferin a stroke. She haed been stayin at a suite in [[The Ritz Hotel, London|the Ritz Hotel]] in Lunnon syne December 2012 efter haein difficulty wi stairs at her [[Chester Square]] hame in [[Belgravia]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Swinford|first=Steven|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/margaret-thatcher/9980269/Margaret-Thatcher-final-moments-in-hotel-without-her-family-by-her-bedside.html|title=Margaret Thatcher: final moments in hotel without her family by her bedside|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=8 April 2013}}</ref> Reactions tae the news o Thatcher's daith]] war mixed in the UK, rangin frae tributes laudin her as Breetain's greatest-ever peacetime Prime Meenister tae public celebrations o her daith an expressions o personalised vitriol.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Burns|first1=John F.|last2=Cowell|first2=Alan|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/11/world/europe/british-lawmakers-margaret-thatcher-legacy.html|url-access=limited|title=Parliament Debates Thatcher Legacy, as Vitriol Flows Online and in Streets|newspaper=The New York Times|date=10 April 2013|accessdate=25 April 2013}}</ref> Details o Thatcher's funeral haed been greed wi her in advance.<ref name="Independent, 12 April 2013">{{cite news|last=Wright|first=Oliver|title=Funeral will be a 'ceremonial' service in line with Baroness Thatcher's wishes|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/funeral-will-be-a-ceremonial-service-in-line-with-baroness-thatchers-wishes-8565093.html|accessdate=12 April 2013|newspaper=The Independent|date=8 April 2013}}</ref> She received a [[State funerals in the Unitit Kinrick|ceremonial funeral]], includin full militar honours, wi a kirk service at [[St Paul's Cathedral]] on 17 Apryle.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-22067155|title=Ex-Prime Minister Baroness Thatcher dies, aged 87|accessdate=8 April 2013|date=8 April 2013|publisher=BBC News}}</ref><ref name="BBC News, 9 April 2013">{{cite news|title=Margaret Thatcher funeral set for next week|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-22079749|accessdate=9 April 2013|publisher=BBC News|date=9 April 2013}}</ref> Queen Elizabeth II an the Duke o Edinburgh attendit her funeral,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-22177366|title=Margaret Thatcher: Queen leads mourners at funeral|publisher=BBC News|date=17 April 2013|accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> the seicont time in the Queen's reign that she haed attendit the funeral o ony o [[Leet o Prime Meenisters o Queen Elizabeth II|her umwhile Prime Meenisters]] (the first bein that o [[Winston Churchill]] in 1965).<ref>{{cite news|last=Davies|first=Caroline|url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/apr/10/queen-decision-lady-thatcher-funeral|title=Queen made personal decision to attend Lady Thatcher's funeral|newspaper=The Guardian|date=10 April 2013|accessdate=3 May 2013}}</ref> Efter the service at St Paul's Cathedral, Thatcher's bouk wis crematit at [[Mortlake Crematorium]], whaur her husband haed been crematit. On 28 September a service for Thatcher wis held in the Aw Saunts Chapel o the [[Royal Hospital Chelsea]]'s Margaret Thatcher Infirmary. In a private ceremony Thatcher's ess war interred in the grunds o the hospital, next tae thae o her husband.<ref name=Telegraph-20130913>{{cite news|title=Baroness Thatcher's ashes laid to rest|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/margaret-thatcher/10341402/Baroness-Thatchers-ashes-laid-to-rest.html|accessdate=28 September 2013 |newspaper=The Telegraph|date=28 September 2013}}</ref><ref name=BBC-intere>{{cite news|title=Margaret Thatcher's ashes laid to rest at Royal Hospital Chelsea|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-24316701|accessdate=28 September 2013|publisher=BBC News|date=28 September 2013}}</ref> ==Notes== <references group="nb"/> ==See forby== * [[Sermon on the Mound]] ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ===Bibliografie=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |title=Margaret Thatcher |url=https://archive.org/details/thatcher0000beck |first=Clare |last=Beckett |publisher=Haus Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-904950-71-4 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Margaret Thatcher: A Portrait of the Iron Lady |url=https://archive.org/details/margaretthatcher0000blun |last=Blundell |first=John |publisher=Algora |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-87586-630-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Margaret Thatcher; Volume One: The Grocer's Daughter |first=John |last=Campbell |publisher=Pimlico |year=2000 |isbn=0-7126-7418-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=The Thatcher Revolution: Margaret Thatcher, John Major, Tony Blair, and the Transformation of Modern Britain, 1979–2001|first=Earl Aaron|last=Reitan |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2003 |isbn=0-7425-2203-2 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher: A Political Marriage |url=https://archive.org/details/ronaldreaganmarg00waps_0 |first=Nicholas |last=Wapshott |publisher=Sentinel |year=2007 |isbn=1-59523-047-5 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=The Path to Power |url=https://archive.org/details/pathtopower0000that |last=Thatcher |first=Margaret |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-00-638753-4 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Beckett |first=Andy |title=When the Lights Went Out; Britain in the Seventies |url=https://archive.org/details/whenlightswentou0000andy |year=2010 |publisher=Faber & Faber |isbn=978-0-571-22137-0 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=The Queen and Di: The Untold Story |url=https://archive.org/details/queendiuntoldsto00sewa |first=Ingrid |last=Seward |publisher=Arcade Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=1-55970-561-2 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=The Downing Street Years |url=https://archive.org/details/downingstreetyea0000that_o3q4 |last=Thatcher |first=Margaret |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1993 |isbn=0-00-255354-6 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Britain since 1945: a political history|url=https://archive.org/details/britainsince19450000chil_q6m6|first=David |last=Childs |edition=6th |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-39326-3 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Politics UK |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsuk0000unse |last1=Jones |first1=Bill |last2=Kavanagh |first2=Dennis |last3=Moran |first3=Michael |publisher=Longman|edition=6 |chapter=Media organisations and the political process |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4058-2411-8 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Thornton|first=Richard C. |title=The Reagan Revolution II: Rebuilding the Western Alliance |year=2006 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1-4120-1356-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Floud |first1=Roderick |last2=Johnson |first2=Paul |title=The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain, Volume 3 |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52738-5 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Britain Under Thatcher |url=https://archive.org/details/britainunderthat0000seld |first1=Anthony |last1=Seldon |authorlink=Anthony Seldon |first2=Daniel |last2=Collings |publisher=Longman |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-582-31714-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Feigenbaum |first1=Harvey |last2=Henig |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Hamnett |first3=Chris |title=Shrinking the State: The Political Underpinnings of Privatization |url=https://archive.org/details/shrinkingstatepo0000feig |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-63918-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=[[A History of Modern Britain]] |first=Andrew |last=Marr |authorlink=Andrew Marr |publisher=Pan |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-330-43983-1 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA |first=Richard |last=English|isbn=978-0-19-517753-4 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Moloney|first=Ed|title=A Secret History of the IRA|url=https://archive.org/details/secrethistoryofi00molo|year=2002|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-32502-4 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Cochrane |first=Feargal |title=Unionist Politics and the Politics of Unionism Since the Anglo-Irish Agreement |url=https://archive.org/details/unionistpolitics0000coch |year=2001 |publisher=Cork University Press |isbn=1-85918-259-3 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Battles of the Falklands War |first=Gordon |last=Smith |publisher=I. Allan |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-7110-1792-4 |url=http://www.naval-history.net/NAVAL1982FALKLANDS.htm |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Jackling |first=Roger |contribution=The Impact of the Falklands Conflict on Defence Policy |authorlink=Roger Jackling |editor1-last=Badsey |editor1-first=Stephen |editor2-last=Grove |editor2-first=Mark |editor3-last=Havers |editor3-first=Rob |title=The Falklands Conflict Twenty Years On: Lessons for the Future (Sandhurst Conference Series) |year=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-35030-3 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Battle for the Falklands |url=https://archive.org/details/battleforfalklan0000hast |first1=Max |last1=Hastings |first2=Simon |last2=Jenkins |authorlink1=Max Hastings |authorlink2=Simon Jenkins |publisher=Norton |year=1983 |isbn=0-393-30198-2 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Conflict of Loyalty |url=https://archive.org/details/conflictofloyalt0000howe |authorlink=Geoffrey Howe |first=Geoffrey |last=Howe |publisher=Macmillan |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-333-59283-0 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Soft Law in European Community Law |url=https://archive.org/details/nlsiu.341.2422.sen.21081 |first=Linda |last=Senden |publisher=Hart Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-84113-432-5 |ref=harv}} {{refend}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Thatcher, Margaret}} [[Category:1925 births]] [[Category:2013 daiths]] [[Category:20t-century Inglis writers]] [[Category:20t-century weemen writers]] [[Category:21st-century weemen writers]] [[Category:Attemptit assassination survivors]] [[Category:Conservative Pairty (UK) MPs]] [[Category:Conservative Pairty (UK) life peers]] [[Category:Conservative Pairty Prime Meenisters o the Unitit Kinrick]] [[Category:Inglis non-feection writers]] [[Category:Inglis weemen writers]] [[Category:Female heids o govrenment]] [[Category:Female members o the Cabinet o the Unitit Kinrick]] [[Category:Female members o the Pairlament o the Unitit Kinrick for Inglis constituencies]] [[Category:Leaders o the Conservative Pairty (UK)]] [[Category:Leaders o the Opposeetion (Unitit Kinrick)]] [[Category:Members o the Order o Meerit]] [[Category:Members o the Privy Cooncil o the Unitit Kinrick]] [[Category:Preses o the European Cooncil]] [[Category:Prime Meenisters o the Unitit Kinrick]] [[Category:Dames Grand Cross o the Ryal Order o Francesco I]] osu7e30efbvrswxjas4x206ik5ljzd3 0 71056 918723 915658 2026-06-24T23:23:48Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918723 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots|date=October 2020}} {{Infobox saint |name=Saint Thomas Aquinas<br>OP |image=Carlo Crivelli 007.jpg |caption=An altarpiece in [[Ascoli Piceno]], Italy,<br>bi [[Carlo Crivelli]] (15t century) |feast_day=28 Januar (7 Mairch, till 1969) |venerated_in=[[Roman Catholic Kirk]]<br />[[Anglican Communion]]<br />[[Lutheranism]] |titles=Releegious, priest an<br>[[Doctor o the Kirk]] |birth_date = 28 Januar 1225<ref name=TGI>{{cite book |title=St. Thomas Aquinas Philosophical Texts |url=https://archive.org/details/stthomasaquinasp0000thom_n3c0 |first=Thomas |last=Gilby |year=1951 |place=Oxford Univ. Press}}</ref> |birth_place = [[Roccasecca]], [[Kinrick o Sicily]] |death_date = 7 Mairch 1274<ref name=TGI/> |death_place = [[Fossanova Abbey|Fossanova]], [[Papal States]] |beatified_date= |beatified_place= |beatified_by= |canonized_date= Julie 18, 1323 |canonized_place=[[Avignon]], [[Papal States]], |canonized_by= [[Pape John XXII]] |attributes=The ''[[Summa Theologica|Summa theologiae]]'', a model kirk, the sun on the chest o a Dominican friar |patronage=Academics; against storms; against lichtnin; apologists; Aquino, Italy; [[Belcastro, Italy]]; beuk sellers; Catholic academies, schuils, an varsities; chastity; Falerna, Italy; learnin; pencil makers; filosophers; publishers; scholars; students; Varsity o Sto. Tomas; [[Santo Tomas, Batangas|Sto. Tomas, Batangas]]; theologians.<ref>http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-thomas-aquinas/</ref> |major_shrine=[[:fr:Ensemble conventuel des Jacobins|Kirk of the Jacobins]], [[Toulouse]], Fraunce |suppressed_date= |issues= |prayer= |prayer_attrib= }} '''Thomas Aquinas''', [[Member o the Order o Preachers|OP]] ({{IPAc-en||ə|ˈ|k|w|aɪ|n|ə|s}}; 1225 – 7 March 1274), kent as '''Thomas o Aquin''' or '''Aquino''' forby, wis an Italian<ref name=JPC>{{cite book |title=Saint Thomas Aquinas |url=https://archive.org/details/saintthomasaquin00conwuoft |first=John Placid, O.P., Father |last=Conway |year=1911 |place=London}}</ref><ref name=RBV>{{cite book |title=The Life and Labours of St. Thomas of Aquin: Vol.I |url=https://archive.org/details/lifelaboursofstt0001revr |first=Roger Bede |last=Rev. Vaughan |year=1871 |place=London}}</ref> [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[friar]] an [[priesthuid (Catholic Church)|priest]] an an gye influential [[filosopher]] an [[theologian]] in the tradetioun o [[scholasticism]], athin whilk he is kent as the "''Doctor Angelicus''", "''Doctor Communis''", an "''Doctor Universalis''".<ref>See Pius XI, ''Studiorum Ducem'' 11 (29 June 1923), AAS, XV ("non modo Angelicum, sed etiam Communem seu Universalem Ecclesiae Doctorem"). The title ''Doctor Communis'' dates to the fourteenth century; the title ''Doctor Angelicus'' dates to the fifteenth century, see Walz, ''Xenia Thomistica'', III, p. 164 n. 4. [[Tolomeo da Lucca]] writes in ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (1317): “This man is supreme among modern teachers of philosophy and theology, and indeed in every subject. And such is the common view and opinion, so that nowadays in the University of Paris they call him the ''Doctor Communis'' because of the outstanding clarity of his teaching.” ''Historia Eccles.'' xxiii, c. 9.</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Thomas Aquinas}} [[Category:Thomas Aquinas| ]] [[Category:1225 births]] [[Category:1274 daiths]] [[Category:Fowk frae the Province o Frosinone]] [[Category:Members o the Dominican Order]] [[Category:13t-century Laitin writers]] [[Category:13t-century filosofers]] [[Category:Aristotelian filosofers]] [[Category:Christian apologists]] [[Category:Divine command theory]] [[Category:Italian Roman Catholic priests]] [[Category:13t-century Roman Catholic priests]] [[Category:Empiricists]] [[Category:Internaitional law scholars]] [[Category:Italian nobility]] [[Category:Italian filosofers]] [[Category:Laitin commentators on Aristotle]] [[Category:Roman Catholic filosofers]] [[Category:Italian Roman Catholic theologians]] [[Category:Italian Roman Catholic writers]] [[Category:Scholastic filosofers]] [[Category:Seestematic theologians]] [[Category:Varsity o Naples Federico II alumni]] [[Category:Varsity o Paris alumni]] [[Category:Metaphysicians]] [[Category:Christian ethicists]] [[Category:Dominican mystics]] [[Category:Virtue ethicists]] [[Category:Buirials in Toulouse]] [[Category:Anglican saunts]] [[Category:13t-century Christian saunts]] [[Category:13t-century theologians]] [[Category:Dominican saunts]] [[Category:Medieval Italian saunts]] [[Category:Doctors o the Kirk]] {{stub/Releegion}} o22dr741w8kvftp7lo65a01ivm51dv1 0 71901 918749 917728 2026-06-24T23:41:18Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918749 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}} [[File:Prism-side-fs PNr°0117.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A plastic prism]] A '''prism''' is a speicial bit [[gless]], [[crystal]], or [[plastic]] that bends licht. The licht bends cause it muves mair slawer in the gless, crystal or plastic as it dis in [[air]]. If different [[Colour|colors]] o licht muves at different speeds, ilka color bends a different amoont. This is dispersion and it splits the licht intil a baund o different colors cryed a [[spectrum]]. This spectrum haes the same colors as a rainbowe dis, cause rainbowes is makkit the same wey, wi bendin licht. Thay happen whan licht is bent by totie draps watter floatin in the air. If the licht disna come oot whan it's sheent intil the prism, it is caaed internal reflection. Some prisms is uised tae disperse licht. Binoculars uises prisms an aa, for tae reflect licht. This lats the tubes o the [[binoculars]] be cuttie. Some cameras uises a prism tae send licht til the viewfinder, sae's the photaegrapher can see whit will be photaegraphed. == Hou prisms wirks == [[Image:Light dispersion conceptual waves.gif|thumb|330px|A triangular prism, skailin licht; waves shawn for tae shaw the different wavelenths o licht. (Click tae view animation)]] Licht cheenges [[speed]] as it gangs frae ae medium til anither ane (for ensaumple, frae air intil the gless o the prism). This speed cheenge bends the licht and gang intil the new medium at anither angle (Huygens principle). Hou muckle the licht's path bends lippens til the angle that the incident beam o licht maks wi the surface, and on the ratio atween the [[refractive index|refractive indices]] o the twa media (Snell's law). The refractive index o a lot o materials (the likes o gless) varies wi the [[wavelenth]] or color o the licht uised, a phenomenon kent as ''dispersion''. This gars different colors o licht bend different and win ootower the prism at different angles, makkin a effect like a rainbowe. This can be uised tae sinder a beam o white licht intil its constituent spectrum o colors. A similar sinderin happens wi iridescent materials, siclike as a saip bubble. Prisms will aften skail licht ower a faur bigger frequency baundwidth as diffraction grates, makkin thaim uissfu for braid-spectrum spectroscopy. Forby, prisms disna hae the same iesues that comes frae spectral orders bein taen ower ither, that aa grates haes. Prisms is uised for the internal reflection at the surfaces insteid o for skailin whiles. If licht inby the prism hits ane o the surfaces at a steep eneuch angle, total internal reflection occurs and ''aa'' o the licht is reflectit. This maks a prism a uissfu substitute for a keekin-gless in some situations. ===Deviation angle and dispersion=== [[Image:prism ray trace.svg|thumb|right|400px|A ray trace throu a prism wi apex angle α. Regions 0, 1, and 2 haes [[Refractive index|indices o refraction]] <math>n_0</math>, <math>n_1</math>, and <math>n_2</math>, and primed angles <math>\theta'</math> shaws the ray's angle efter bendin.]] Ray angle deviation and dispersion throu a prism can be determined wi tracin a sample ray throu the element and uisin Snell's law at ilka interface. For the prism shawn at the richt, the indicatit angles is gien wi :<math>\begin{align} \theta'_0 &= \, \text{arcsin} \Big( \frac{n_0}{n_1} \, \sin \theta_0 \Big) \\ \theta_1 &= \alpha - \theta'_0 \\ \theta'_1 &= \, \text{arcsin} \Big( \frac{n_1}{n_2} \, \sin \theta_1 \Big) \\ \theta_2 &= \theta'_1 - \alpha \end{align}</math>. Aa angles is positive in the direction shawn in the pictur. For a prism in air <math>n_0=n_2 \simeq 1</math>. Definin <math>n=n_1</math>, the deviation angle <math>\delta</math> is gien wi :<math>\delta = \theta_0 + \theta_2 = \theta_0 + \text{arcsin} \Big( n \, \sin \Big[\alpha - \text{arcsin} \Big( \frac{1}{n} \, \sin \theta_0 \Big) \Big] \Big) - \alpha</math> If baith the angle o incidence <math>\theta_0</math> and prism apex angle <math>\alpha</math> is wee, <math>\sin \theta \approx \theta</math> and <math>\text{arcsin} x \approx x</math> if the angles is expressed in radians. This lats the nonlinear equation in the deviation angle <math>\delta</math> be approximatit by :<math>\delta \approx \theta_0 - \alpha + \Big( n \, \Big[ \Big(\alpha - \frac{1}{n} \, \theta_0 \Big) \Big] \Big) = \theta_0 - \alpha + n \alpha - \theta_0 = (n - 1) \alpha \ .</math> The deviation angle lippens til the wavelenth throu ''n'', sae for a thin prism the deviation angle varies wi wavelenth accordin tae :<math>\delta (\lambda) \approx [ n (\lambda) - 1 ] \alpha </math>. == History == [[File:Light dispersion of a mercury-vapor lamp with a flint glass prism IPNr°0125.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A triangular prism, skailin licht]] Like a wheen basic geometric terms, the wird ''prism'' ({{lang-grc|πρίσμα|prisma|something sawed}}) wis first uised in Euclid's [[Euclid's Elements|''Elements'']]. Euclid defined the term in Beuk XI as "a haurd figure hauden-inaboot by twa opposite, equal and parallel planes, while the lave is parallelograms", houaniver the nine propositions that cam efter that uised the term haed ensaumples o triangular-based prisms (i.e. wi sides that wisna parallelograms).<ref>[http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg1799.tlg001.perseus-eng1:11.def.13 Elements]: book 11, Def 13 and Prop 28, 29, 39; and book 12, Prop 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10</ref> This inconsistency resultit in raivelment amang later geometricians.<ref name="Malton1774">{{cite book|author=Thomas Malton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3tLfuCB97AC&pg=PA360|title=A Royal Road to Geometry: Or, an Easy and Familiar Introduction to the Mathematics. ... By Thomas Malton. ...|publisher=author, and sold|year=1774|pages=360–|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Elliot1845">{{cite book|author=James Elliot|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qilLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3|title=Key to the Complete Treatise on Practical Geometry and Mensuration: Containing Full Demonstrations of the Rules ...|publisher=Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans|year=1845|pages=3–|language=en}}</ref> [[René Descartes]] haed seen licht sindert intil the colors o the rainbowe wi gless or watter,<ref>{{cite book|author=James Gleick|title=Isaac Newton|date=8 June 2004|publisher=Vintage|isbn=1400032954|language=en}}</ref> tho the soorce o the color wisna kent. [[Isaac Newton]]'s 1666 experiment o bendin white licht throu a prism shawed that aa the colors aaready existit in the licht, wi different color "[[photon|corpuscles]]" skailin oot and muvin at different speeds throu the prism. It wis later that [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Young]] and [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel|Fresnel]] pat Newton's particle theory and Huygens' wave theory thegither for tae explain hou color comes frae the spectrum o licht. Newton wan at his conclusion wi passin the reid color frae ae prism throu a seicont ane and fand the color haedna cheenged. Frae this, he concludit that the colors maun aaready be present in the licht comin in, tharefore the prism didna mak colors, but juist sindert colors that's aaready thare. Forby, he uised a lens and a seicont prism tae recompose the spectrum back intae white licht. This experiment haes come tae be a classic example o the methodology introduced in the scientific revolution. The results o the experiment transformed the field o metaphysics a lot, and this led tae [[John Locke]]'s primary vs secondary quality distinction.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}<!-- not mentioned in metaphysics or Locke --> Newton spak aboot prism dispersion in a lot o detail in his beuk ''Opticks''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Isaac Newton|title=[[Opticks]]|publisher=Royal Society|year=1704|isbn=0-486-60205-2|location=London|language=en}}</ref> He introduced the uiss o mair as the ae prism tae guvern dispersion and aa.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Discovery of the Spectrum of Light|url=http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/lightexperiments.html|url-status=live|access-date=20 Februar 2021|language=en}}</ref> Newton's description o his experiments on prism dispersion wis qualitative. A quantitative description o multiple-prism dispersion wisna nott until multiple prism laser beam expanders wis introduced in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal|author=[[F. J. Duarte]] and J. A. Piper|year=1982|title=Dispersion theory of multiple-prism beam expanders for pulsed dye lasers|url=https://archive.org/details/optics-communications_1982-11-01_43_5/page/303|journal=Opt. Commun.|language=en|volume=43|issue=5|pages=303–307|bibcode=1982OptCo..43..303D|doi=10.1016/0030-4018(82)90216-4}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book | author=Hecht, Eugene | title=Optics | url=https://archive.org/details/optics0000hech_t2d8 | edition=4th | publisher=Pearson Education | year=2001 | isbn=0-8053-8566-5}} ==External links== *{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Prism |volume=22|page=361 |short=x}} * [http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/RefractionByPrism.htm Java applet of refraction through a prism] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Optical components]] [[Category:Prisms| ]] dh40f3lbqcuo4gc96ev3iy9ydly93i8 0 73498 918728 917733 2026-06-24T23:26:47Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918728 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Genetics''' (frae the [[Auncient Greek]] {{lang|grc|γενετικός}} ''{{lang|grc-Latn|genetikos}}'' meanin "genitive"/"generative", in turn frae {{lang|grc|γένεσις}} ''{{lang|grc-Latn|genesis}}'' meanin "oreegin"),<!-- --><ref name="Genetikos γενετ-ικός">{{cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2321880&redirect=true |title=Genetikos (γενετ-ικός) |work=Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University |accessdate=20 February 2012}}</ref><!-- --><ref name="Genesis γένεσις">{{cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2321873&redirect=true |title=Genesis (γένεσις) |work=Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University |accessdate=20 February 2012}}</ref><!-- --><ref name="Genetic">{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Genetic&searchmode=none |title=Genetic |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |accessdate=20 February 2012}}</ref> <!-- -->a field in [[biology]], is the science o [[gene]]s, [[heredity]], an [[Genetic variation|variation]] in livin [[organism]]s.<ref name=griffiths2000sect60>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.60 |chapter=Genetics and the Organism: Introduction}}</ref><ref name=Hartl_and_Jones>Hartl D, Jones E (2005)</ref> The faither o genetics is [[Gregor Mendel]], a late 19t-century scientist an [[Augustinian]] [[monk|freear]]. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the wey traits are haundit doun frae paurents tae affspring. He observed that organisms (pease plants) inherit traits bi wey o discrete "units o inheritance". This term, still uised the day, is a somewhit ambiguous definition o whit is referred tae as a [[gene]]. [[Phenotypic trait|Trait]] inheritance an [[Molecular genetics|molecular]] inheritance mechanisms o genes are still primar principles o genetics in the 21st century, but modren genetics haes expaundit ayont inheritance tae studyin the function an behaviour o genes. Gene structur andfunction, variation, an distribution are studied within the context o the [[Cell (biology)|cell]], the organism (e.g. [[Dominance (genetics)|dominance]]), an within the context o a population. Genetics haes gien rise tae a nummer o subfields, includin [[epigenetics]] an [[population genetics]]. Organisms studied within the broad field span the domeen o life, includin [[bacteria]], [[plant]]s, [[ainimal]]s, an [[human]]s. Genetic processes wark in combination wi an organism's environment an experiences tae influence development an [[behavioural genetics|behaviour]], eften referred tae as [[naitur versus nurtur]]. The [[intracellular]] or [[extracellular]] environment o a cell or organism mey switch gene transcription on or off. A clessic ensaumple is twa seeds o genetically identical maize, ane placed in a temperate climate an ane in an arid climate. While the average hicht o the twa maize stauks mey be genetically determined tae be equal, the ane in the [[arid climate]] anerly growes tae hauf the hicht o the ane in the temperate climate due tae lack o watter an nutrients in its environment. ==Etymology== The wird ''genetics'' stems frae the [[auncient Greek]] {{lang|grc|γενετικός}} ''{{lang|grc-Latn|genetikos}}'' meanin "genitive"/"generative", that in turn derives frae {{lang|grc|γένεσις}} ''{{lang|grc-Latn|genesis}}'' meanin "oreegin".<ref name="Genetikos γενετ-ικός"/><ref name="Genesis γένεσις"/><ref name="Genetic"/> ==History== [[File:DNA Overview2.png|thumb|right|140px|upright|[[DNA]], the molecular basis for [[Heredity|biological heirship]]. Ilk straund o DNA is a cheen o [[nucleotide]]s, matchin ilk ither in the centre tae form whit leuk lik rungs on a twisted ledder.]] The observation that leevin things faw heir tae [[Phenotypic trait|trait]]s frae thair parents haes been uised syne prehistoric times tae impruive crap plants an ainimals throu [[selective breedin]].<ref name="Publishing2009">{{cite book |author=DK Publishing |title=Science: The Definitive Visual Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFiJFuzRVFQC&pg=PA362 |year=2009 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-7566-6490-9 |page=362}}</ref> The modren science o genetics, seekin tae unnerstaund this process, begoud wi the wark o the [[Augustinian]] [[freear]] [[Gregor Mendel]] in the mid-19t century.<ref name=Weiling>{{cite journal |pmid=1887835| doi=10.1002/ajmg.1320400103 |year=1991 |last1=Weiling |first1=F |title=Historical study: Johann Gregor Mendel 1822–1884. |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–25; discussion 26 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics}}</ref> Prior tae Mendel, [[Imre Festetics]], a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] noble, wha lived in Kőszeg afore Mendel, wis the first wha uised the wird "genetics." He descrived several rules o genetic heirship in his wirk ''The genetic law o the Naitur'' (Die genetische Gesätze der Natur, 1819). His seicont law is the same as whit Mendel published. In his third law, he developed the basic principles o mutation (he can be conseedert a forerunner o Hugo de Vries).<ref>{{cite journal|year=2014|title=Imre Festetics and the Sheep Breeders' Society of Moravia: Mendel's Forgotten "Research Network" |url=http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001772|journal=PLoS Biology|volume=12|issue=1|page=e1001772 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001772 |author1=Poczai P. |author2=Bell N. |author3=Hyvönen J.|pmid=24465180|pmc=3897355}}</ref> Modren genetics stairtit wi Mendel's studies o the naitur o heirship in plants. In his paper "''Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden''" ("[[Experiments on Plant Hybridisation]]"), presentit in 1865 tae the ''Naturforschender Verein'' (Society for Resairch in Naitur) in [[Brünn]], Mendel traced the heirship patterns o certaint traits in pease plants an descrived them mathematically.<ref name="mendel">{{cite web |title= Mendel's Paper in English |url=http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html |first=Roger B. |last=Blumberg}}</ref> Awtho this pattern o heirship coud anerly be observed for a few traits, Mendel's wark suggestit that heirship wis pairticulate, nae acquired, an that the heirship patterns o mony traits coud be explained throu semple rules an ratios. The importance o Mendel's wirk did nae gain wide unnderstaundin till 1900, efter his daith, whan [[Hugo de Vries]] an ither scientists rediscovered his resairch. [[William Bateson]], a proponent o Mendel's wark, mentioned the wird ''genetics'' in 1905<ref>genetics, ''n.'', [[Oxford English Dictionary]], 3rd ed.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htm |title=Letter from William Bateson to Alan Sedgwick in 1905 |publisher=The John Innes Centre |accessdate=15 March 2008 |author=Bateson W |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013020831/http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htm |archivedate=13 October 2007 |df=dmy-all }} Note that the letter was to an Adam Sedgwick, a zoologist and "Reader in Animal Morphology" at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]</ref> (the adjective ''genetic'', derived frae the Greek wird ''genesis''—γένεσις, "oreegin", predates the noun an wis first uised in a biological sense in 1860<ref>genetic, ''adj.'', Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed.</ref>). ===Molecular genetics=== Awtho genes war kent tae exist on chromosomes, chromosomes are componed o baith protein an DNA, an scientists did nae ken that o the twa is responsible for heirship. In 1928, [[Frederick Griffith]] discovered the phenomenon o [[Transformation (genetics)|transformation]] (see [[Griffith's experiment]]): deid bacteria coud transfer [[genetic material]] tae "transform" ither still-leevin bacteria. Saxteen years later, in 1944, the [[Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment]] identifee'd DNA as the molecule responsible for transformation.<ref name=Avery_et_al>{{cite journal |doi=10.1084/jem.79.2.137 |last1=Avery |first1=OT |last2=MacLeod |first2=CM |last3=McCarty |first3=M |title=Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types: Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III |journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=137–58 |year=1944 |pmid=19871359 |pmc=2135445}} Reprint: {{cite journal |pmid=33226 |year=1979 |last1=Avery |first1=OT |last2=MacLeod |last3=McCarty |title=Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types. Inductions of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from pneumococcus type III |volume=149 |issue=2 |pages=297–326 |journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine |doi=10.1084/jem.149.2.297 |first2=CM |first3=M |pmc=2184805}}</ref> [[James Watson]] an [[Francis Crick]] determined the structur o DNA in 1953, uisin the [[X-ray crystallografie]] wark o [[Rosalind Franklin]] an [[Maurice Wilkins]] that indicatit DNA haes a [[Helix|helical]] structur (i.e., shapit lik a corkscrew).<ref>{{cite book |title=The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/eighthdayofcreat0000hora |last=Judson |first=Horace |authorlink=Horace Freeland Judson |year=1979 |publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press |isbn=0-87969-477-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/eighthdayofcreat0000hora/page/51 51]–169}}</ref><ref name=watsoncrick_1953a>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf |doi=10.1038/171737a0 |title=Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid |year=1953 |last1=Watson |first1=J. D. |last2=Crick |journal=Nature |volume=171 |pages=737–8 |pmid=13054692 |first2=FH |issue=4356 |bibcode=1953Natur.171..737W}}</ref> Thair dooble-helix model haed twa strands o DNA wi the nucleotides pyntin inward, each matching a complementary nucleotide on the ither strand tae form what leuk lik rungs on a twisted ladder.<ref name=watsoncrick_1953b>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick2.pdf |doi=10.1038/171964b0 |title=Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid |year=1953 |last1=Watson |first1=J. D. |last2=Crick |journal=Nature |volume=171 |pages=964–7 |pmid=13063483 |first2=FH |issue=4361 |bibcode=1953Natur.171..964W}}</ref> ==Featurs o heirship== ===Discrete heirship an Mendel's laws=== At its maist fundamental level, heirship in organisms occurs bi passin discrete heritable units, cried [[gene]]s, frae paurents tae affspring.<ref name=griffiths2000sect199>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.199 |chapter=Patterns of Inheritance: Introduction}}</ref> This property wis first observed bi [[Gregor Mendel]], wha studied the segregation o heritable traits in [[pease]] plants.<ref name="mendel" /><ref name=griffiths2000sect200>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.200 |chapter=Mendel's experiments}}</ref> In his experiments studyin the trait for flouer colour, Mendel observed that the flouers o ilk pease plant war aither purpie or white—but niver an intermediate atween the twa colours. Thir different, discrete versions o the same gene are cried [[allele]]s. In the case o the pease, that is a [[diploid]] species, ilk individual plant haes twa copies o ilk gene, ane copy inheritit frae ilk parent.<ref name=griffiths2000sect484/> Mony species, includin humans, hae this pattern o heirship. Diploid organisms wi twa copies o the same allele o a gien gene are cried [[homozygous]] at that [[Locus (genetics)|gene locus]], while organisms wi twa different alleles o a gien gene are cried [[heterozygous]]. The set o alleles for a gien organism is cried its [[genoteep]], while the observable traits o the organism are cried its [[phenoteep]]. When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, eften ane allele is cried [[Dominant allele|dominant]] as its qualities dominate the phenoteep o the organism, while the ither allele is cried [[Recessive allele|recessive]] as its qualities recede an are nae observed. Some alleles dae nae hae complete dominance an insteid hae [[Dominance relationship#Incomplete an semi-dominance|incomplete dominance]] bi expressin an intermediate phenoteep, or [[Dominance relationship#Co-dominance|codominance]] bi expressin baith alleles at ance.<ref name=griffiths2000sect630>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.630 |chapter=Interactions between the alleles of one gene}}</ref> ===Multiple gene interactions=== [[File:Galton-height-regress.png|thumb|right|Human height is a trait wi complex genetic causes. [[Francis Galton]]'s data frae 1889 shaws the relationship atween affspring hicht as a function o mean paurent hicht. ]] Organisms hae thoosands o genes, an in sexually reproducin organisms thir genes generally assort independently o ilk ither. This means that the inheritance o an allele for yellae or green pease colour is unrelatit tae the inheritance o alleles for white or purpie flouers. This phenomenon, kent as "[[Mendelian inheritance#Law o Independent Assortment (The "Seicont Law")|Mendel's seicont law]]" or the "law o independent assortment," means that the alleles ofdifferent genes get shuffled atween paurents tae form affspring wi mony different combinations. (Some genes dae nae assort independently, demonstratin [[genetic linkage]], a tapic discussed later in this airticle.) Eften different genes can interact in a wey that influences the same trait. In the [[Blue-eed Mary]] (''Omphalodes verna''), for ensaumple, thare exeests a gene wi alleles that determine the colour o flouers: blue or magenta. Anither gene, houever, controls whither the flouers hae colour at aw or are white. Whan a plant haes twa copies o this white allele, its flouers are white—regairdless o whither the first gene haes blue or magenta alleles. This interaction atween genes is cried [[epistasis]], wi the seicont gene epistatic tae the first.<ref name=griffiths2000sect644>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.644 |chapter=Gene interaction and modified dihybrid ratios}}</ref> Mony traits are nae discrete featurs (e.g. purpie or white flouers) but are insteid conteenous featurs (e.g. human hicht an [[Human skin colour|skin colour]]). Thir [[Quantitative trait locus|complex traits]] are products o mony genes.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=15931374 |doi=10.1172/JCI25421 |year=2005 |last1=Mayeux |first1=R |title=Mapping the new frontier: complex genetic disorders |volume=115 |issue=6 |pages=1404–7 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |pmc=1137013}}</ref> The influence o thir genes is mediatit, tae varyin degrees, bi the environment an organism haes experienced. The degree tae which an organism's genes contreibute tae a complex trait is cried [[heritability]].<ref name=griffiths2000sect4009>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.4009 |chapter=Quantifying heritability}}</ref> Meisurment o the heritability o a trait is relative—in a mair variable environment, the environment haes a bigger influence on the tot variation o the trait. For ensaumple, human hicht is a trait wi complex causes. It haes a heritability o 89% in the Unitit States. In Nigerie, houever, whaur fowk experience a mair variable access tae guid nutreetion an [[heal care]], hicht haes a heritability o anerly 62%.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Guo|first2=X|last3=Adeyemo|first3=AA|last4=Wilks|first4=R|last5=Forrester|first5=T|last6=Lowe Jr|first6=W|last7=Comuzzie|first7=AG|last8=Martin|first8=LJ|last9=Zhu|first9=X|year=2001|title=Heritability of obesity-related traits among Nigerians, Jamaicans and US black people|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-obesity_2001-07_25_7/page/1034|journal=International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders|volume=25|issue=7|pages=1034–41|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0801650|pmid=11443503|last1=Luke|first1=A|last10=Rotimi|last11=Cooper|first10=CN|first11=RS}}</ref> ==Molecular basis for inheritance== ===DNA an chromosomes=== {{main article|DNA|Chromosome}} [[File:DNA chemical structure.svg|thumb|right|The [[molecular structur]] o DNA. Bases pair throu the arrangement o [[hydrogen bondin]] atween the straunds.]] The [[Molecule|molecular]] basis for genes is [[deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA). DNA is componed o a cheen o [[nucleotide]]s, o that thare are fower teeps: [[adenine]] (A), [[cytosine]] (C), [[guanine]] (G), an [[thymine]] (T). Genetic information exeests in the sequence o thir nucleotides, an genes exeest as stretches o sequence alang the DNA cheen.<ref name=Pearson_2006>{{cite journal |pmid=16724031 |doi=10.1038/441398a |year=2006 |last1=Pearson |first1=H |title=Genetics: what is a gene? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-05-25_441_7092/page/398 |volume=441 |issue=7092 |pages=398–401 |journal=Nature |bibcode=2006Natur.441..398P}}</ref> [[Virus]]es are the anerly exception tae this rule—whiles viruses uise the verra seemilar molecule [[RNA]] insteid o DNA as thair genetic material.<ref>{{cite book |title=Microbiology |url=https://archive.org/details/microbiology0001pres |last=Prescott |first=L |year=1993 |publisher=Wm. C. Brown Publishers |isbn=0-697-01372-3}}</ref> Viruses canna reproduce withoot a [[Host (biology)|host]] an are unaffectit bi mony genetic processes, sae tend nae tae be conseedert leevin organisms. DNA normally exeests as a dooble-straundit molecule, cyled intae the shape o a [[dooble helix]]. Ilk nucleotide in DNA preferentially pairs wi its pairtner nucleotide on the opposite straund: A pairs wi T, an C pairs wi G. Sicweys, in its twa-straundit form, ilk straund effectively conteens aw necessar information, redundant wi its pairtner straund. This structur o DNA is the pheesical basis for heirship: [[DNA replication]] duplicates the genetic information bi splittin the straunds an uisin ilk straund as a template for synthesis o a new pairtner straund.<ref name=griffiths2000sect1523>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.1523 |chapter=Mechanism of DNA Replication}}</ref> Genes are arranged linearly alang lang cheens o DNA base-pair sequences. In [[bacteria]], ilk cell uisually conteens a single circular [[Nucleoid|genophore]], while [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] organisms (sic as plants an ainimals) hae thair DNA arranged in multiple linear chromosomes. Thir DNA strands are eften extremely lang; the lairgest human chromosome, for ensaumple, is aboot 247 million [[base pair]]s in lenth.<!-- --><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature04727 |pmid=16710414 |year=2006 |last1=Gregory |first1=SG |last2=Barlow |last3=McLay |last4=Kaul |last5=Swarbreck |last6=Dunham |last7=Scott |last8=Howe |last9=Woodfine |displayauthors=8 |title=The DNA sequence and biological annotation of human chromosome 1 |volume=441 |issue=7091 |pages=315–21 |journal=Nature |first2=KF |first3=KE |first4=R |first5=D |first6=A |first7=CE |first8=KL |first9=K|bibcode = 2006Natur.441..315G |last10=Spencer |first10=C. C. A. |last11=Jones |first11=M. C. |last12=Gillson |first12=C. |last13=Searle |first13=S. |last14=Zhou |first14=Y. |last15=Kokocinski |first15=F. |last16=McDonald |first16=L. |last17=Evans |first17=R. |last18=Phillips |first18=K. |last19=Atkinson |first19=A. |last20=Cooper |first20=R. |last21=Jones |first21=C. |last22=Hall |first22=R. E. |last23=Andrews |first23=T. D. |last24=Lloyd |first24=C. |last25=Ainscough |first25=R. |last26=Almeida |first26=J. P. |last27=Ambrose |first27=K. D. |last28=Anderson |first28=F. |last29=Andrew |first29=R. W. |last30=Ashwell |first30=R. I. S.}}</ref> <!-- -->The DNA o a chromosome is associatit wi structural proteins that organize, compact, an control access tae the DNA, formin a material cried [[chromatin]]; in eukaryotes, chromatin is uisually componed o [[nucleosome]]s, segments o DNA woond aroond cores o [[histone]] proteins.<ref>Alberts et al. (2002), [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.608 II.4. DNA and chromosomes: Chromosomal DNA and Its Packaging in the Chromatin Fiber]</ref> The full set o hereditary material in an organism (uisually the combined DNA sequences o aw chromosomes) is cried the [[genome]]. While [[haploid]] organisms hae anerly ane copy o ilk chromosome, maist ainimals an mony plants are [[diploid]], conteenin twa o ilk chromosome an sicweys twa copies o ivery gene.<ref name=griffiths2000sect484>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.484 |chapter=Mendelian genetics in eukaryotic life cycles}}</ref> Mony species hae sae-cried [[sex chromosome]]s that determine the gender o ilk organism.<ref name=griffiths2000sect222>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.222 |chapter=Sex chromosomes and sex-linked inheritance}}</ref> In humans an mony ither ainimals, the [[Y chromosome]] conteens the gene that triggers the development o the speceefically male chairactereestics. ===Reproduction=== When cells divide, thair full genome is copied an ilk [[Cell diveesion|dauchter cell]] inherits ane copy. This process, cried [[mitosis]], is the semplest form o reproduction an is the basis for [[asexual reproduction]]. Asexual reproduction can an aa occur in multicellular organisms, producin affspring that inherit thair genome frae a single paurent. Affspring that are genetically identical tae thair paurents are cried [[Clonin|clones]]. [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotic]] organisms eften uise [[sexual reproduction]] tae generate affspring that conteen a mixtur o genetic material inheritit frae twa different paurents. The process o sexual reproduction alternates atween forms that conteen single copies o the genome ([[haploid]]) an dooble copies ([[diploid]]).<ref name=griffiths2000sect484/> ==Gene expression== ===Genetic code=== [[File:Genetic code.svg|thumb|left|The [[genetic code]]: Uisin a [[Genetic code#Discovery|triplet code]], DNA, throu a [[messenger RNA]] intermediary, specifees a protein.]] Genes generally [[Gene expression|express]] thair functional effect throu the production o [[protein]]s, that are complex molecules responsible for maist functions in the cell. Proteins are made up o ane or mair polypeptide cheens, ilk o that is componed o a sequence o [[amino acid]]s, an the DNA sequence o a gene (throu an RNA intermediate) is uised tae produce a speceefic [[peptide sequence|amino acid sequence]]. This process begins wi the production o an [[RNA]] molecule wi a sequence matchin the gene's DNA sequence, a process cried [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]]. This [[messenger RNA]] molecule is then uised tae produce a correspondin amino acid sequence throu a process cried [[translation (biology)|translation]]. Ilk group o three nucleotides in the sequence, cried a [[codon]], corresponds aither tae ane o the twinty possible amino acids in a protein or an [[stap codon|instruction tae end the amino acid sequence]]; this correspondence is cried the [[genetic code]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Biochemistry |vauthors=Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L, Clarke ND |edition=5th |year=2002 |publisher=W. H. Freeman and Company |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=stryer.section.685 |chapter=I. 5. DNA, RNA, and the Flow of Genetic Information: Amino Acids Are Encoded by Groups of Three Bases Starting from a Fixed Point}}</ref> ===Naitur an nurtur=== {{main article|Naitur an nurtur}} [[File:Niobe050905-Siamese Cat.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Siamese (cat)|Siamese cat]]s hae a temperature-sensitive pigment-production mutation.]] Awtho genes conteen aw the information an organism uises tae function, the environment plays an important role in determinin the ultimate phenoteeps an organism displays. The phrase "[[naitur an nurtur]]" refers tae this complementary relationship. The phenoteep o an organism depends on the interaction o genes an the environment. An interestin ensaumple is the coat colouration o the [[Siamese (cat)|Siamese cat]]. In this case, the bouk temperatur o the cat plays the role o the environment. The cat's genes code for daurk hair, sicweys the hair-producin cells in the cat mak cellular proteins resultin in daurk hair. But thir daurk hair-producin proteins are sensitive tae temperatur (i.e. hae a mutation causin temperature-sensitivity) an [[Denaituration (biochemistry)|denaitur]] in heicher-temperatur environments, failin tae produce daurk-hair pigment in auries whaur the cat haes a heicher bouk temperatur. In a law-temperatur environment, houever, the protein's structureis stable an produces daurk-hair pigment normally. The protein remeens functional in auries o skin that are caulder{{emdash}}sic as its legs, lugs, tail an face{{emdash}}sae the cat haes daurk-hair at its extremities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Geary|first2=LA|last3=Grahn|first3=RA|last4=Lyons|first4=LA|year=2006|title=Albinism in the domestic cat (''Felis catus'') is associated with a tyrosinase (TYR) mutation|journal=Animal Genetics|volume=37|issue=2|pages=175–8|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01409.x|pmc=1464423|pmid=16573534|last1=Imes|first1=DL}}</ref> ==Genetic cheenge== ===Mutations=== {{main article|Mutation}} [[File:Gene-duplication.png|thumb|upright|Gene duplication allous diversification bi providin redundancy: ane gene can mutate an lose its oreeginal function withoot haurmin the organism.]] In the process o [[DNA replication]], errors occasionally occur in the polymerisation o seicont strand. Thir errors, cried [[mutation]]s, can affect the phenoteep o an organism, especially if thay occur within the protein codin sequence o a gene. Error rates are uisually verra law—1 error in ivery 10–100&nbsp;million bases—due tae the "pruifreadin" ability o [[DNA polymerase]]s.<!-- --><ref name="griffiths2000sect2706">{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2706 |chapter=Spontaneous mutations}}</ref><!-- --><ref name="Kunkel">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sj.emboj.7600158 |pmid=15057282 |year=2004 |last1=Freisinger |first1=E |last2=Grollman |last3=Miller |last4=Kisker |title=Lesion (in)tolerance reveals insights into DNA replication fidelity |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=1494–505 |journal=The EMBO Journal |first2=AP |first3=H |first4=C |pmc=391067}}</ref> <!-- -->Processes that increase the rate o cheenges in DNA are cried [[mutagenic]]: mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, eften bi interferin wi the structur o base-pairin, while [[UV radiation]] induces mutations bi causin damage tae the DNA structur.<!-- --><ref name="griffiths2000sect2727">{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J. F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2727 |chapter=Induced mutations}}</ref> <!-- -->Chemical damage tae DNA occurs naiturally as well an cells uise [[DNA repair]] mechanisms tae repair mismatches an breaks. The repair daes nae, houever, alweys restore the oreeginal sequence. Ower mony generations, the genomes o organisms can cheenge signeeficantly, resultin in [[evolution]]. In the process cried [[adaptation]], selection for beneficial mutations can cause a species tae evolve intae forms better able tae survive in thair environment.<!-- --><ref name="Darwin">{{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink=Charles Darwin |year=1859 |title=On the Origin of Species |place=London |publisher=John Murray |edition=1st |pages=1 |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=16 |isbn=0-8014-1319-2}}<br />Earlier related ideas were acknowledged in {{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink=Charles Darwin |year=1861 |title=On the Origin of Species |place=London |publisher=John Murray |edition=3rd |pages=xiii |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F381&viewtype=text&pageseq=20 |nopp=true |isbn=0-8014-1319-2}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Genetics| ]] pvlib0b5qzp7tvtisp293xahmcwopui 0 73503 918721 871976 2026-06-24T23:22:50Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918721 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:DNA Structure+Key+Labelled.pn NoBB.png|thumb|right|340px|The structur o the DNA [[dooble helix]]. The [[atom]]s in the structur are colour-codit bi [[Chemical element|element]] an the detailed structures o twa base pairs are shawn in the bottom richt.]][[File:DNA animation.gif|thumb|The structur o pairt o a DNA [[dooble helix]]]] '''Deoxyribonucleic acid''' ('''DNA''') is a [[molecule]] that cairies the [[genetics|genetic]] instructions uised in the growthe, development, functionin an [[reproduction]] o aw kent livin [[organism]]s an mony [[virus]]es. DNA an [[RNA]] are [[nucleic acid]]s; alongside [[protein]]s, [[lipids]] an complex carbohydrates ([[polysaccharide]]s), thay are ane o the fower major types o [[macromolecule]]s that are essential for aw kent forms o [[life]]. Maist DNA molecules conseest o twa [[biopolymer]] strands coiled aroond ilk ither tae form a [[Nucleic acid dooble helix|dooble helix]]. The twa DNA strands are termed [[polynucleotide]]s syne thay are componed o simpler [[monomer]] units cried [[nucleotide]]s.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |edition=6th |publisher=Garland |year=2014 |url=http://www.garlandscience.com/product/isbn/9780815344322 |page=Chapter 4: DNA, Chromosomes and Genomes |isbn=978-0-8153-4432-2 |access-date=2017-05-11 |archive-date=2014-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714210549/http://www.garlandscience.com/product/isbn/9780815344322 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Purcell |first1=Adam |name-list-format=vanc |title=DNA |url=http://basicbiology.net/micro/genetics/dna |website=Basic Biology}}</ref> Ilk nucleotide is componed o ane o fower [[nitrogenous base|nitrogen-conteenin]] [[nucleobase]]s — [[cytosine]] (C), [[guanine]] (G), [[adenine]] (A), or [[thymine]] (T) — a [[monosaccharide|succar]] cried [[deoxyribose]], an a [[phosphate group]]. The nucleotides are joined tae ane anither in a cheen bi [[covalent bond]]s atween the succar o ane nucleotide an the phosphate o the next, resultin in an alternatin [[backbane cheen|succar-phosphate backbane]]. The nitrogenous bases o the twa separate polynucleotide strands are boond thegither, accordin tae [[base pair]]in rules (A wi T, an C wi G), wi [[hydrogen bond]]s tae mak dooble-strandit DNA. The tot amount o relatit DNA [[base pair]]s on Yird is estimatit at 5.0 x 10³⁷ an wechts 50 billion [[tonne]]s.<ref name="NYT-20150718-rn">{{cite news |last=Nuwer |first=Rachel |name-list-format=vanc |date=18 July 2015 |title=Counting All the DNA on Earth |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/21/science/counting-all-the-dna-on-earth.html |work=The New York Times |location=New York |publisher=The New York Times Company |issn=0362-4331 |access-date=2015-07-18}}</ref><!-- PLOS paper cited by NYT used 'tonne' unit. --> In comparison the tot [[Biomass (ecology)|mass]] o the [[biosphere]] haes been estimatit tae be as much as 4 [[tonnes#Derived units|trillion tons]] o [[carbon]] (TtC).<ref name="AGCI-2015">{{cite web |url=http://www.agci.org/classroom/biosphere/index.php |title=The Biosphere: Diversity of Life |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=Aspen Global Change Institute |location=Basalt, CO |access-date=2015-07-19 |archive-date=2010-09-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100902111048/http://www.agci.org/classroom/biosphere/index.php |url-status=dead }}</ref><!-- Aspen Global Change Institute (US-based) defined TtC as 'trillion tons of C'. --> DNA stores biological [[information]]. The DNA backbone is resistant tae cleavage, an baith strands o the dooble-strandit structur store the same biological information. This information is replicated as an when the twa strands separate. A lairge pairt o DNA (mair nor 98% for humans) is [[non-codin DNA|non-codin]], meanin that thir sections dae nae serve as patterns for protein sequences. The twa strands o DNA run in opposite directions tae ilk ither an are thus [[antiparallel (biochemistry)|antiparallel]]. Attached tae each succar is ane o fower types o nucleobases (informally, ''bases''). It is the [[Nucleic acid sequence|sequence]] o thir fower nucleobases alang the backbone that encodes biological information. [[RNA]] strands are creatit uisin DNA strands as a template in a process cried [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]]. Unner the [[genetic code]], thir [[RNA]] strands are translated tae specify the sequence o [[amino acid]]s within proteins in a process cried [[translation (genetics)|translation]]. Within eukaryotic cells DNA is organised intae lang structures cried [[chromosome]]s. In [[cell diveesion]] thir chromosomes are duplicated in the process o [[DNA replication]], providin each cell its ain complete set o chromosomes. [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotic organisms]] ([[ainimal]]s, [[plant]]s, [[Fungus|fungi]], an [[protist]]s) store maist o thair DNA inside the [[cell nucleus]] an some o thair DNA in [[organelle]]s, sic as [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] or [[chloroplast]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Russell |first=Peter |name-list-format=vanc |title=iGenetics |url=https://archive.org/details/igenetics0000russ |publisher=Benjamin Cummings |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=0-8053-4553-1}}</ref> In contrast [[prokaryote]]s ([[bacteria]] an [[archaea]]) store thair DNA anly in the [[cytoplasm]]. Within the eukaryotic chromosomes, [[chromatin]] proteins sic as [[histone]]s compact an organise DNA. Thir compact structures guide the interactions atween DNA an ither proteins, helpin control which pairts o the DNA are transcribed. DNA wis first isolated bi [[Friedrich Miescher]] in 1869. Its molecular structur wis identified bi [[James Watson]] an [[Francis Crick]] in 1953, whase model-biggin efforts war guidit bi [[X-ray diffraction]] data acquired bi [[Raymond Gosling]], wha wis a post-graduate student o [[Rosalind Franklin]]. DNA is uised bi researchers as a molecular tuil tae explore physical laws an theories, sic as the [[ergodic theorem]] an the theory o [[Elasticity (physics)|elasticity]]. The unique material properties o DNA hae made it an attractive molecule for material scientists an engineers interested in micro- an nano-fabrication. Amang notable advances in this field are [[DNA origami]] an DNA-based hybrid materials.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mashaghi A, Katan A |title=A physicist's view of DNA |journal=De Physicus |volume=24e |issue=3 |pages=59–61 |year=2013 |arxiv=1311.2545v1 |bibcode=2013arXiv1311.2545M}}</ref> == References == {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Dna}} [[Category:DNA| ]] [[Category:Genetics]] [[Category:Helices]] nw5k2rcsw91gayhtnj9h9gbt79rut44 0 73525 918710 892282 2026-06-24T23:15:20Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918710 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Single Polymer Chains AFM.jpg|thumb|175px|Linear polymer cheens as recordit bi an [[atomic force microscope]] on a surface, unner liquid medium. Cheen [[contour lenth]] for this polymer is ~204&nbsp;nm; thickness is ~0.4&nbsp;nm.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Y.|last1=Roiter |first2=S.|last2=Minko|doi=10.1021/ja0558239|title= AFM Single Molecule Experiments at the Solid-Liquid Interface: In Situ Conformation of Adsorbed Flexible Polyelectrolyte Chains|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=127|issue=45|pages=15688–15689|year=2005|pmid=16277495}}</ref>]] A '''polymer''' (Greek ''[[wikt:poly-|poly-]]'', "mony" + ''[[wikt:-mer|-mer]]'', "pairts") is a lairge [[molecule]], or [[macromolecule]], componed o mony repeatit subunits. Acause o thair braid range o properties,<ref name="PC1">{{Cite book | last1 = Painter | first1 = Paul C. | last2 = Coleman | first2 = Michael M. | title = Fundamentals of polymer science : an introductory text | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_2901566765595 | year = 1997 | publisher = Technomic Pub. Co. | location = Lancaster, Pa. | isbn = 1-56676-559-5 | page = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_2901566765595/page/1 1] }}</ref> baith synthetic an naitural polymers play essential an ubiquitous roles in iveryday life.<ref name="MBB1">{{Cite book | last1 = McCrum | first1 = N. G. | last2 = Buckley | first2 = C. P. | last3 = Bucknall | first3 = C. B. | title = Principles of polymer engineering | url = https://archive.org/details/principlesofpoly0000mccr_2edi | year = 1997 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford ; New York | isbn = 0-19-856526-7 | page = [https://archive.org/details/principlesofpoly0000mccr_2edi/page/1 1] }}</ref> Polymers range frae fameeliar [[synthetic plastic]]s sic as [[polystyrene]] tae naitural [[biopolymer]]s sic as [[DNA]] an [[protein]]s that are fundamental tae biological structur an function. Polymers, baith naitural an synthetic, are creatit via [[polymerisation]] o mony smaw molecules, kent as [[monomer]]s. Thair consequently lairge [[molecular mass]] relative tae [[smaw molecule]] [[Compoond (chemistry)|compoonds]] produces unique pheesical properties, includin [[teuchness]], [[viscoelasticity]], an a tendency tae form [[gless]]es an [[Creestallization o polymers|semicreestalline]] structurs raither nor [[creestal]]s. The term "polymer" derives frae the auncient Greek wird πολύς (''polus'', meanin "mony, muckle") an μέρος (''meros'', meanin "pairts"), an refers tae a [[molecule]] that's structur is componed o multiple repeatin units, frae that oreeginates a chairactereestic o heich [[relative molecular mass]] an attendant properties.<ref>http://goldbook.iupac.org/M03667.html; accessed 7 October 2012. Per the IUPAC Gold Book an PAC soorces referenced tharein, "In many cases, especially for synthetic polymers, a molecule can be regarded as having a high relative molecular mass if the addition or removal of one or a few of the units has a negligible effect on the molecular properties." Houever, thay note that the "statement fails in the case of certain macromolecules for which the properties may be critically dependent on fine details of the molecular structure."</ref> The units componin polymers derive, actually or conceptually, frae molecules o law relative molecular mass.<ref>{{GoldBookRef | title = macromolecule (polymer molecule) | file = M03667}}</ref> The term wis made in 1833 bi [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]], tho [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius#New chemical terms|wi a definition]] distinct frae the modren [[IUPAC]] defineetion.<ref>If twa substances haed empirical formulae that war integer multiples o ilk ither – e.g., acetylene (C₂H₂) an benzene (C₆H₆) – Berzelius cried them "polymeric". See: Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1833) "''Isomerie'', Unterscheidung von damit analogen Verhältnissen" (''Isomeric'', distinction frae relations analogous tae it), ''Jahres-Bericht über die Fortschitte der physischen Wissenschaften …'', '''12''' : 63–67. [https://books.google.com/books?id=1vs4AAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA64 From page 64]: "Um diese Art von Gleichheit in der Zusammensetzung, bei Ungleichheit in den Eigenschaften, bezeichnen zu können, möchte ich für diese Körper die Benennung ''polymerische'' (von ''πολυς'' mehrere) vorschlagen." (In order tae be able tae denote this teep o seemilarity in composeetion [that is accompanied] bi differences in properties, A wad lik tae propone the designation "polymeric" (frae ''πολυς'', several) for thir substances.)<br>Oreeginally published in 1832 in Swadish as: Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1832) "Isomeri, dess distinktion från dermed analoga förhållanden," ''Årsberättelse om Framstegen i Fysik och Kemi'', pages 65–70 ; the wird "polymeriska" appears on [https://books.google.com/books?id=PZUHAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA66 page 66].</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Jensen, William B.|year=2008|title=Ask the Historian: The origin of the polymer concept|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|volume=85|pages=624–625|doi=10.1021/ed085p624|url=http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/141.%20Polymer.pdf|bibcode=2008JChEd..85..624J|access-date=2018-02-25|archive-date=2018-06-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618125718/http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/141.%20Polymer.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The modren concept o polymers as covalently bondit macromolecular structurs wis proponed in 1920 bi [[Hermann Staudinger]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Staudinger | first1 = H | year = 1920 | title = [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3481298;view=1up;seq=1283 "Über Polymerisation"] (On polymerization) | url = | journal = Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft | volume = 53 | issue = 6| pages = 1073–1085 | doi=10.1002/cber.19200530627}}</ref> that spent the next decade findin experimental evidence for this hypothesis.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Allcock|first1=Harry R.|last2=Lampe|first2=Frederick W.|last3=Mark|first3=James E.|title=Contemporary Polymer Chemistry|publisher=Pearson Education|edition=3|year=2003|page=21|isbn=0-13-065056-0}}</ref> Polymers are studied in the fields o [[biophysics]] an [[macromolecule|macromolecular science]], an [[polymer science]] (that includes [[polymer chemistry]] an [[polymer pheesics]]). Historically, products arisin frae the linkage o repeatin units bi [[covalent]] [[chemical bond]]s hae been the primar focus o [[polymer science]]; emergin important auries o the science nou focus on non-covalent links. [[Polyisoprene]] o [[latex]] [[rubber]] is an example o a naitural/biological polymer, an the [[polystyrene]] o [[styrofoam]] is an emsaumple o a synthetic polymer. In biological contexts, essentially aw biological [[macromolecule]]s—i.e., [[protein]]s (polyamides), [[nucleic acids]] (polynucleotides), an polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are componed in lairge pairt o polymeric components—e.g., isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, whaur smaw lipidic molecules an oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbane o the protein.<ref>{{cite journal | author1 = Ten Feizi | author2 = Wengang Chai | title = Oligosaccharide microarrays to decipher the glyco code | journal = Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology | volume = 5 | pages = 582–588 | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1038/nrm1428 | pmid = 15232576 | issue = 7}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Polymers| ]] 8wsyef09tsoycqgifzrcc69esgu56na 0 73529 918709 917740 2026-06-24T23:14:51Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 2 books for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918709 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fixscots}} In [[biology]], a '''lipid''' is a substance o biological oreegin that is soluble in nonpolar solvents.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=lipids|url=http://goldbook.iupac.org/html/L/L03571.html|title= Compendium of Chemical Terminology (the "Gold Book")|edition= 2nd |publisher=Blackwell Scientific Publications|editor1=McNaught, A. D.|editor2=Wilkinson, A.|place= Oxford |year=1997|isbn=0-9678550-9-8|doi=10.1351/goldbook}}</ref> It comprises a group o naiturally occurrin [[molecule]]s that include [[fat]]s, [[waux]]es, [[sterol]]s, fat-soluble [[vitamin]]s (sic as vitamins A, D, E, an K), [[monoglyceride]]s, [[diglyceride]]s, [[triglyceride]]s, an [[phospholipid]]s. The main biological functions o lipids include storin energy, [[lipid seegnalin|seegnalin]], an actin as structural components o [[cell membrane]]s.<ref name="Fahy 2009"/><ref name="Subramaniam 2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Subramaniam S, Fahy E, Gupta S, Sud M, Byrnes RW, Cotter D, Dinasarapu AR, Maurya MR | title = Bioinformatics and systems biology of the lipidome | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 111 | issue = 10 | pages = 6452–90 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21939287 | pmc = 3383319 | doi = 10.1021/cr200295k }}</ref> Lipids hae applications in the cosmetic an fuid [[industry sector|industries]] as weel as in [[nanotechnology]].<ref name="Mashaghi 2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mashaghi S, Jadidi T, Koenderink G, Mashaghi A | title = Lipid nanotechnology | journal = International Journal of Molecular Sciences | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 4242–82 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23429269 | pmc = 3588097 | doi = 10.3390/ijms14024242 }} {{open access}}</ref> Scientists whiles broadly define lipids as [[Hydrophobe|hydrophobic]] or [[Amphiphile|amphiphilic]] smaw molecules; the amphiphilic naitur o some lipids allous them tae form structurs sic as [[vesicle (biology)|vesicles]], multilamellar/[[unilamellar liposome]]s, or membranes in an aqueous environment. Biological lipids originate entirely or in pairt frae twa distinct teeps o biochemical subunits or "biggin-blocks": ketoacyl an [[isoprene]] groups.<ref name="Fahy 2009"/> Uisin this approach, lipids mey be dividit intae aicht categories: [[fatty acid]]s, [[glycerolipid]]s, [[glycerophospholipid]]s, [[sphingolipid]]s, [[saccharolipid]]s, an [[polyketide]]s (derived frae condensation o ketoacyl subunits); an sterol lipids an prenol lipids (derived frae condensation o isoprene subunits).<ref name="Fahy 2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fahy E, Subramaniam S, Murphy RC, Nishijima M, Raetz CR, Shimizu T, Spener F, van Meer G, Wakelam MJ, Dennis EA | title = Update of the LIPID MAPS comprehensive classification system for lipids | journal = Journal of Lipid Research | volume = 50 Suppl | issue = S1 | pages = S9-14 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19098281 | pmc = 2674711 | doi = 10.1194/jlr.R800095-JLR200 }}</ref> Awtho the term "lipid" is whiles uised as a synonym for [[fat]]s, fats are a subgroup o lipids cried [[triglyceride]]s. Lipids an aa encompass molecules sic as [[fatty acid]]s an thair derivatives (includin [[triglyceride|tri-]], [[diglyceride|di-]], [[monoglyceride]]s, an [[phospholipid]]s), as weel as ither [[sterol]]-conteenin [[metabolite]]s sic as [[cholesterol]].<ref name="Michelle 1993">{{cite book |vauthors=Michelle A, Hopkins J, McLaughlin CW, Johnson S, Warner MQ, LaHart D, Wright JD |title=Human Biology and Health |url=https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1993 |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA |isbn=978-0-13-981176-0}}</ref> Awtho humans an ither mammals uise various [[metabolism|biosynthetic pathwey]]s baith tae brak doun an tae synthesize lipids, some essential lipids canna be made this wey an maun be obtained frae the diet. ==History== In 1815, [[Henry Braconnot]] clessifee'd lipids (''graisses'') in twa categories, ''suifs'' (solit creashes or tauch) and ''huiles'' (fluid iles).<ref>Braconnot, H. Sur la nature des corps gras. ''Annales de chimie'', 31 Mars 1815, 2 Sér., t. XCIII, p. 225-277. [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6568590p/f229.item link].</ref> In 1823, [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]] developit a mair detailed clessification, includin iles, creashes, tauch, wauxes, rosets, balsams an volatile iles (or essential iles).<ref>Chevreul, M. E. ''Recherches sur les corps gras d'origine animale''. Levrault, Paris, 1823. [https://books.google.com/books?id=r46rnl27h70C link].</ref><ref name="leray_2012">Leray, C. (2012). ''Introduction to Lipidomics''. Boca Raton: CRC Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=u710vE5IgrgC link].</ref><ref>Leray, C. 2015. Introduction, History and Evolution. In: ''Lipids. Nutrition and health''. Boca Raton: CRC Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=lJXaBAAAQBAJ link].</ref> The wird "lipid", that stems etymologically frae the Greek ''lipos'' (fat), wis introduced in 1923 bi [[Gabriel Bertrand]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bertrand G | year = 1923 | title = Projet de reforme de la nomenclature de Chimie biologique | url = | journal = Bulletin de la Société de Chimie Biologique | volume = 5 | issue = | pages = 96–109 }}</ref> Bertrands includit in the concept nae anerly the tradeetional fats (glycerides), but an aw the "lipoids", wi a complex constitution.<ref name="leray_2012"/> ==Categories o lipids== ===Fatty acids=== [[File:Prostacyclin-2D-skeletal.png|thumb|[[Prostacyclin|I₂ - Prostacyclin]] (an ensaumple o a [[prostaglandin]], an eicosanoid fatty acid)]] [[Image:Leukotriene B4.svg|right|thumb|[[Leukotriene B4|LTB₄]] (an example o a [[leukotriene]], an eicosanoid fatty acid)]] [[Fatty acids]], or fatty acid residues whan thay are pairt o a lipid, are a diverse group o molecules synthesised bi cheen-elangation o an [[acetyl-CoA]] primer wi [[malonyl-CoA]] or [[methylmalonyl-CoA]] groups in a process cried [[fatty acid synthesis]].<ref name="Vance 2002"/><ref name="Brown 2007"/> Thay are made o a [[hydrocarbon chain]] that terminates wi a [[carboxylic acid]] group; this arrangement confers the molecule wi a [[chemical polarity|polar]], [[hydrophilic]] end, an a nonpolar, [[hydrophobic]] end that is [[solubility|insoluble]] in watter. The fatty acid structur is ane o the maist fundamental categories o biological lipids, an is commonly uised as a biggin-block o mair structurally complex lipids. The caurbon cheen, teepically atween fower an 24 caurbons lang,<ref name="Hunt 1995"/> mey be saturatit or [[unsaturatit compoond|unsaturatit]], an mey be attached tae [[functional group]]s conteenin [[oxygen]], [[halogen]]s, [[nitrogen]], an [[sulfur]]. ===Glycerolipids=== Glycerolipids are componed o mono-, di-, an tri-substitutit [[glycerol]]s,<ref name="Coleman 2004"/> the best-kent bein the fatty acid [[esters|triesters]] o glycerol, cried [[triglycerides]]. The wird "triacylglycerol" is whiles uised synonymously wi "triglyceride". In thir compoonds, the three hydroxyl groups o glycerol are ilk esterifee'd, teepically bi different fatty acids. Acause thay function as an energy store, thir lipids comprise the bouk o storage [[fat]] in ainimal tishies. The hydrolysis o the [[ester]] bonds o triglycerides an the release o glycerol an fatty acids frae [[adipose tishie]] are the ineetial steps in metabolisin fat.<ref>[[#Holde|van Holde and Mathews]], pp. 630–31.</ref> ===Glycerophospholipids=== [[File:Phosphatidyl-ethanolamine.svg|thumb|300px|[[Phosphatidylethanolamine]]]] Glycerophospholipids, uisually referred tae as [[phospholipid]]s (tho [[sphingomyelin]]s are an aw classified as phospholipids), are ubiquitous in naitur an are key components o the [[lipid bilayer]] o cells,<ref name="The Structure of a Membrane">{{cite web|title=The Structure of a Membrane|url=http://www.samuelfurse.com/2011/11/the-structure-of-a-membrane/|work=The Lipid Chronicles|accessdate=2011-12-31}}</ref> as weel as bein involved in [[metabolism]] an [[cell seegnalin]].<ref name="Berridge 1989"/> Neural tishie (includin the harn) conteens relatively heich amounts o glycerophospholipids, an alterations in thair composeetion haes been implicatit in various neurological disorders.<ref name="pmid10878232">{{cite journal | vauthors = Farooqui AA, Horrocks LA, Farooqui T | title = Glycerophospholipids in brain: their metabolism, incorporation into membranes, functions, and involvement in neurological disorders | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_chemistry-and-physics-of-lipids_2000-06_106_1/page/1 | journal = Chemistry and Physics of Lipids | volume = 106 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–29 | date = June 2000 | pmid = 10878232 | doi = 10.1016/S0009-3084(00)00128-6 }}</ref> Glycerophospholipids mey be subdividit intae distinct classes, based on the naiture f the polar headgroup at the ''sn''-3 poseetion o the glycerol backbone in [[eukaryote]]s an eubacteria, or the ''sn''-1 poseetion in the case o [[archaebacteria]].<ref name="Ivanova 2007"/> ===Sterol lipids=== Sterol lipids, sic as [[cholesterol]] an its derivatives, are an important component o membrane lipids,<ref name="Bach 2003"/> alang wi the glycerophospholipids an sphingomyelins. The [[steroid]]s, aw derived frae the same fused fower-raing core structur, hae different biological roles as [[hormone]]s an [[seegnalin molecules]]. The aichteen-caurbon (C18) steroids include the [[estrogen]] faimily whauras the C19 steroids comprise the [[androgen]]s sic as [[testosterone]] an [[androsterone]]. The C21 subcless includes the [[progestogens]] as well as the [[glucocorticoid]]s and [[mineralocorticoids]].<ref>[[#Stryer|Stryer ''et al.'']], p. 749.</ref> The [[secosteroid]]s, comprisin various forms o [[vitamin D]], are chairacterised bi cleavage o the B raing o the core structur.<ref name="Bouillon 2006"/> Ither ensaumples o [[sterol]]s are the [[bile acid]]s an thair conjugates,<ref name="Russell 2003"/> that in mammals are oxidised derivatives o cholesterol an are synthesised in the liver. The plant equivalents are the [[phytosterols]], sic as [[β-sitosterol]], [[stigmasterol]], an [[brassicasterol]]; the latter compoond is an aw uised as a [[biomerker]] for [[algae|algal]] growthe.<ref name="Villinski 2008"/> The predominant sterol in [[fungi|fungal]] cell membranes is [[ergosterol]].<ref name="Deacon 2005"/> ===Prenol lipids=== [[File:Geraniol structure.png|thumb|Prenol lipid (2E-geraniol)]] [[Prenol]] lipids are synthesised frae the five-caurbon-unit precursors [[isopentenyl diphosphate]] an [[dimethylallyl diphosphate]] that are produced mainly via the [[mevalonic acid]] (MVA) pathwey.<ref name="Kuzuyama 2003"/> The simple isoprenoids (linear alcohols, diphosphates, etc.) are formed bi the successive addeetion o C5 units, an are clessifee'd accordin tae nummer o thir [[terpene]] units. Structurs conteenin greater nor 40 caurbons are kent as polyterpenes. [[Carotenoid]]s are important semple isoprenoids that function as [[antioxidant]]s an as precursors o [[vitamin A]].<ref name="Rao 2007"/> Anither biologically important cless o molecules is ensaumplifee'd bi the [[quinone]]s and [[hydroquinone]]s, that conteen an isoprenoid tail attached tae a quinonoid core o nan-isoprenoid oreegin.<ref name="Brunmark 1989"/> [[Vitamin E]] and [[vitamin K]], as well as the [[ubiquinone]]s, are ensaumples o this class. Prokaryotes synthesize polyprenols (cried [[bactoprenol]]s) in that the terminal isoprenoid unit attached tae oxygen remains unsaturatit, whauras in ainimal polyprenols ([[dolichol]]s) the terminal isoprenoid is reduced.<ref name="Swiezewska 2005"/> ===Saccharolipids=== [[File:Kdo2-lipidA.png|thumb|right|300px|Structur o the saccharolipid Kdo₂-lipid A.<ref name="Raetz 2006"/> [[Glucosamine]] residues in blue, [[3-Deoxy-D-manno-oct-2-ulosonic acid|Kdo]] residues in reid, [[acyl]] chains in reid an [[phosphate]] groups in green.]] [[Saccharolipid]]s descrive compounds in that fatty acids are airtit directly tae a succar backbane, formin structurs that are compatible wi membrane bilayers. In the saccharolipids, a [[monosaccharide]] substitutes for the glycerol backbane present in glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids. The maist familiar saccharolipids are the acylated [[glucosamine]] precursors o the [[lipid A|Lipid&nbsp;A]] component o the [[lipopolysaccharide]]s in [[Gram-negative bacteria]]. Teepical lipid&nbsp;A molecules are [[disaccharides]] o glucosamine, that are derivatised wi as many as seiven fatty-acyl chains. The meenimal lipopolysaccharide required for growthe in [[Escherichia coli|''E. coli'']] is Kdo₂-Lipid A, a hexa-acylatit disaccharide o glucosamine that is glycosylated wi two 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid (Kdo) residues.<ref name="Raetz 2006"/> ===Polyketides=== Polyketides are synthesised bi polymerisation o [[acetyl]] an [[Propionyl-CoA|propionyl]] subunits bi clessic enzymes as weel as iterative an multimodular enzymes that share mechanistic featurs wi the [[fatty acid synthase]]s. Thay comprise a lairge nummer o [[seicontar metabolite]]s an [[naitural products]] frae ainimal, plant, bacterial, fungal an marine soorces, an hae great structural diversity.<ref name="Walsh 2004"/><ref name="Caffrey 2008"/> Mony [[polyketide]]s are cyclic molecules that's backbanes are eften faur modifee'd bi [[glycosylation]], [[methylation]], [[hydroxylation]], [[oxidation]], or ither processes. Mony commonly uised [[anti-microbial]], [[anti-parasitic]], an [[anti-cancer]] agents are polyketides or polyketide derivatives, sic as [[erythromycin]]s, [[tetracycline antibiotics|tetracyclines]], [[avermectin]]s, an antitumor [[epothilone]]s.<ref name="Minto 2008"/> ==Metabolism== The major dietar lipids for humans an ither ainimals are ainimal an plant triglycerides, sterols, an membrane phospholipids. The process o lipid metabolism synthesizes an degrades the lipid stores an produces the structural an functional lipids chairactereestic o individual tishies. ===Biosynthesis=== In ainimals, whan thare is an owersupply o dietar carbohydrate, the excess carbohydrate is convertit tae triglycerides. This involves the synthesis o fatty acids frae acetyl-CoA an the esterification o fatty acids in the production o triglycerides, a process cried [[lipogenesis]].<ref>[[#Stryer|Stryer ''et al.'']], p. 634.</ref> Fatty acids are made bi [[fatty acid synthase]]s that polymerise an then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl cheens in the fatty acids are extendit bi a cycle o reactions that add the acetyl group, reduce it tae an alcohol, [[dehydration reaction|dehydrate]] it tae an [[alkene]] group an then reduce it again tae an [[alkane]] group. The enzymes o fatty acid biosynthesis are dividit intae twa groups, in ainimals an fungi aw thir fatty acid synthase reactions are cairied oot bi a single multifunctional protein,<ref name="Chirala 2004"/> while in plant [[plastid]]s an bacteria separate enzymes perform ilk step in the pathwey.<ref name="White 2005"/><ref name="Ohlrogge 1997"/> The fatty acids mey be subsequently convertit tae triglycerides that are packaged in [[lipoproteins]] an secretit frae the liver. The synthesis o [[unsaturatit fatty acid]]s involves a [[desaturase|desaturation]] reaction, whaurbi a dooble bond is introduced intae the fatty acyl cheen. For example, in humans, the desaturation o [[stearic acid]] bi [[stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1]] produces [[oleic acid]]. The doobly unsaturatit fatty acid [[linoleic acid]] as weel as the treeply unsaturatit [[alpha-Linolenic acid|α-linolenic acid]] canna be synthesised in mammalian tishies, an are tharefore [[essential fatty acid]]s an maun be obteened frae the diet.<ref name="Stryer et al., p. 643">[[#Stryer|Stryer ''et al.'']], p. 643.</ref> Triglyceride synthesis taks place in the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] bi metabolic pathweys in that acyl groups in fatty acyl-CoAs are transferred tae the hydroxyl groups o glycerol-3-phosphate an diacylglycerol.<ref>[[#Stryer|Stryer ''et al.'']], pp. 733–739.</ref> [[Terpene]]s an [[terpenoid|isoprenoids]], includin the [[carotenoid]]s, are made bi the assemmly an modification o [[isoprene]] units donatit frae the reactive precursors [[isopentenyl pyrophosphate]] an [[dimethylallyl pyrophosphate]].<ref name="Kuzuyama 2003"/> Thir precursors can be made in different weys. In ainimals an [[archaea]], the [[mevalonate pathwey]] produces thir compoonds frae acetyl-CoA,<ref name="Grochowski 2006"/> while in plants an bacteria the [[non-mevalonate pathwey]] uises pyruvate an [[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate]] as substrates.<ref name="Kuzuyama 2003"/><ref name="Lichtenthaler 1999"/> Ane important reaction that uises these activatit isoprene donors is [[steroid biosynthesis]]. Here, the isoprene units are jynt thegither tae mak [[squalene]] an then fauldit up an formed intae a set o raings tae mak [[lanosterol]].<ref name="Schroepfer 1981"/> Lanosterol can then be convertit intae ither steroids sic as [[cholesterol]] an [[ergosterol]].<ref name="Schroepfer 1981"/><ref name="Lees 1995"/> ===Degradation=== [[Beta oxidation]] is the metabolic process bi that fatty acids are braken doun in the [[mitochondria]] or in [[peroxisomes]] tae generate [[acetyl-CoA]]. For the maist pairt, fatty acids are oxidised bi a mechanism that is seemilar tae, but nae identical wi, a reversal o the process o fatty acid synthesis. That is, twa-caurbon fragments are remuived sequentially frae the carboxyl end o the acid after steps o [[dehydrogenation]], [[hydration reaction|hydration]], an [[oxidation]] tae form a [[keto acid|beta-keto acid]], that is split bi [[thiolysis]]. The acetyl-CoA is then ultimately convertit intae [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], CO₂, an H₂O uising the [[citric acid cycle]] an the [[electron transport chain]]. Hence the citric acid cycle can start at acetyl-CoA whan fat is bein braken doun for energy if thare is little or na glucose available. The energy yield o the complete oxidation o the fatty acid palmitate is 106 ATP.<ref>[[#Stryer|Stryer ''et al.'']], pp. 625–626.</ref> Unsaturatit an odd-cheen fatty acids require addeetional enzymatic steps for degradation. ==References== {{Reflist|30em|refs= <ref name="Bach 2003">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bach D, Wachtel E | title = Phospholipid/cholesterol model membranes: formation of cholesterol crystallites | journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta | volume = 1610 | issue = 2 | pages = 187–97 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12648773 | doi = 10.1016/S0005-2736(03)00017-8 }}</ref> <ref name="Berridge 1989">{{cite journal | vauthors = Berridge MJ, Irvine RF | title = Inositol phosphates and cell signalling | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1989-09-21_341_6239/page/n65 | journal = Nature | volume = 341 | issue = 6239 | pages = 197–205 | date = September 1989 | pmid = 2550825 | doi = 10.1038/341197a0 }}</ref> <ref name="Bouillon 2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bouillon R, Verstuyf A, Mathieu C, Van Cromphaut S, Masuyama R, Dehaes P, Carmeliet G | title = Vitamin D resistance | journal = Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 627–45 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 17161336 | doi = 10.1016/j.beem.2006.09.008 }}</ref> <ref name="Brown 2007">{{cite book |editor=Brown HA |title=Lipodomics and Bioactive Lipids: Mass Spectrometry Based Lipid Analysis |series=Methods in Enzymology |volume=423 |publisher=Academic Press |location=Boston |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-12-373895-0}}</ref> <ref name="Brunmark 1989">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brunmark A, Cadenas E | title = Redox and addition chemistry of quinoid compounds and its biological implications | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_free-radical-biology-medicine_1989_7_4/page/435 | journal = Free Radical Biology & Medicine | volume = 7 | issue = 4 | pages = 435–77 | year = 1989 | pmid = 2691341 | doi = 10.1016/0891-5849(89)90126-3 }}</ref> <ref name="Caffrey 2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Caffrey P, Aparicio JF, Malpartida F, Zotchev SB | title = Biosynthetic engineering of polyene macrolides towards generation of improved antifungal and antiparasitic agents | journal = Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = 639–53 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18473889 | doi = 10.2174/156802608784221479 }}</ref> <ref name="Chirala 2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chirala SS, Wakil SJ | title = Structure and function of animal fatty acid synthase | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_lipids_2004-11_39_11/page/1045 | journal = Lipids | volume = 39 | issue = 11 | pages = 1045–53 | date = November 2004 | pmid = 15726818 | doi = 10.1007/s11745-004-1329-9 }}</ref> <ref name="Coleman 2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Coleman RA, Lee DP | title = Enzymes of triacylglycerol synthesis and their regulation | journal = Progress in Lipid Research | volume = 43 | issue = 2 | pages = 134–76 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 14654091 | doi = 10.1016/S0163-7827(03)00051-1 }}</ref> <ref name="Deacon 2005">{{cite book |author=Deacon J. |title=Fungal Biology |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2005 |page=342 |isbn=978-1-4051-3066-0}}</ref> <ref name="Fahy 2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fahy E, Subramaniam S, Murphy RC, Nishijima M, Raetz CR, Shimizu T, Spener F, van Meer G, Wakelam MJ, Dennis EA | title = Update of the LIPID MAPS comprehensive classification system for lipids | journal = Journal of Lipid Research | volume = 50 Suppl | issue = S1 | pages = S9-14 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19098281 | pmc = 2674711 | doi = 10.1194/jlr.R800095-JLR200 }}</ref> <ref name="Grochowski 2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grochowski LL, Xu H, White RH | title = Methanocaldococcus jannaschii uses a modified mevalonate pathway for biosynthesis of isopentenyl diphosphate | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 188 | issue = 9 | pages = 3192–8 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16621811 | pmc = 1447442 | doi = 10.1128/JB.188.9.3192-3198.2006 }}</ref> <ref name="Hunt 1995">{{cite book |vauthors=Hunt SM, Groff JL, Gropper SA |title=Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism |url=https://archive.org/details/advancednutritio00grof |publisher=West Pub. 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of bile acid synthesis | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-biochemistry_2003_72/page/137 | journal = Annual Review of Biochemistry | volume = 72 | pages = 137–74 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12543708 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.biochem.72.121801.161712 }}</ref> <ref name="Schroepfer 1981">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schroepfer GJ | title = Sterol biosynthesis | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-biochemistry_1981_50_annual/page/585 | journal = Annual Review of Biochemistry | volume = 50 | pages = 585–621 | year = 1981 | pmid = 7023367 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.bi.50.070181.003101 }}</ref> <ref name="Subramaniam 2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Subramaniam S, Fahy E, Gupta S, Sud M, Byrnes RW, Cotter D, Dinasarapu AR, Maurya MR | title = Bioinformatics and systems biology of the lipidome | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 111 | issue = 10 | pages = 6452–90 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21939287 | pmc = 3383319 | doi = 10.1021/cr200295k }}</ref> <ref 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antibiotics: modularity and versatility | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2004-03-19_303_5665/page/1804 | journal = Science | volume = 303 | issue = 5665 | pages = 1805–10 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15031493 | doi = 10.1126/science.1094318 }}</ref> <ref name="White 2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = White SW, Zheng J, Zhang YM | title = The structural biology of type II fatty acid biosynthesis | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-biochemistry_2005_74/page/791 | journal = Annual Review of Biochemistry | volume = 74 | pages = 791–831 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15952903 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.biochem.74.082803.133524 }}</ref> }} ===Bibliografie=== * {{cite book|ref=Bhagavan |author=Bhagavan NV|title=Medical Biochemistry |publisher=Harcourt/Academic Press |location=San Diego |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-12-095440-7 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=vT9YttFTPi0C&printsec=frontcover}} * {{cite book|ref=Devlin |author=Devlin TM|title=Textbook of Biochemistry: With Clinical Correlations |edition=4th |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-471-17053-2}} * {{cite book|ref=Stryer |vauthors=Stryer L, Berg JM, Tymoczko JL |title=Biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/biochemistry0006berg |publisher=W.H. Freeman |location=San Francisco |edition=6th |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7167-8724-2}} * {{cite book |ref=Holde |vauthors=van Holde KE, Mathews CK |title=Biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/biochemistry1996math |publisher=Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co |location=Menlo Park, California |edition=2nd |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8053-3931-4}} [[Category:Lipids|*]] [[Category:Unnerwatter divin pheesiology]] 197uxkt3cl6bmilarxintzze8ekko3e 0 79141 918722 426692 2026-06-24T23:23:25Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918722 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox World Heritage Site |WHS = The Auld Ceety o Jerusalem an its Waws<ref>{{cite web |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/148 |title=Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls |work=[[UNESCO]] |accessdate=13 January 2014}}</ref> |Image = [[File:Old City (Jerusalem).jpg|250px]]<br>[[File:Map of Jerusalem - the old city - EN.png|250px]] |State Party = No kintra named bi UNESCO<ref>. See [[Poseetions on Jerusalem]]</ref><br>Steid proponed bi [[Jordan]] |Type = Cultural |Criteria = ii, iii, vi |ID = 148 |Year = 1981 |Session = 5th |Region = Jerusalem Destrict |Danger = 1982&ndash;''present'' |Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/148 }} The '''Auld Ceety''' ({{lang-he|העיר העתיקה}}, ''Ha'Ir Ha'Atiqah'', {{lang-ar|البلدة القديمة}}, ''al-Balda al-Qadimah'', {{lang-hy|Երուսաղեմի հին քաղաք}}, ''Yerusaghemi hin k'aghak' '') is a {{convert|0.9|km2|sqmi|sp=us}} [[Waws o Jerusalem|wawed aurie]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Kollek |first=Teddy |authorlink=Teddy Kollek |chapter=Afterword |editor=John Phillips |title=A Will to Survive - Israel: the Faces of the Terror 1948-the Faces of Hope Today|url=https://archive.org/details/willtosurvive0000phil |publisher=Dial Press/James Wade|year=1977|quote=about 225 acres}}</ref> within the modren ceety o [[Jerusalem]]. ==References== {{reflist}} {{Coord|31|46|36|N|35|14|03|E|display=title|type:landmark}} [[Category:Warld Heritage Steids in Asie]] [[Category:Biggins an structurs in Jerusalem]] [[Category:Historic destricts]] [[Category:Arabic airchitectur]] [[Category:Neighbourhuids o Jerusalem]] [[Category:History o Jerusalem]] [[Category:Wawed touns|Jerusalem]] [[Category:Veesitor attractions in Jerusalem]] [[Category:Palestinian airchitectur]] 62kb2ewc3ppc65n2pa1nrwzvyzrj39o 0 80912 918734 915653 2026-06-24T23:30:54Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918734 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Timothy Dalton | birth_name = Timothy Peter Dalton | image = Timothy Dalton 1987.jpg | imagesize = | caption = Timothy Dalton, Amsterdam 1987 | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1944|3|21}}<br/>or {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1946|3|21}}<ref name="unknown date"/> | birth_place = [[Colwyn Bay]], [[Denbighshire]],<!-- Do not change to Conway: Colwyn Bay was in Denbighshire in 1944/6 --> [[Wales]], UK | home_town = [[Belper, Derbyshire]], [[Ingland]], UK | nationality = [[Unitit Kinrick|Breetish]] | other_names = | known_for = [[James Bond]],<br/>[[Alexei Volkoff]] | occupation = Actor | years_active = 1967–present | children = Alexander Dalton }} '''Timothy Peter Dalton''' (born 21 Mairch 1944 or 1946)<ref name="unknown date">Soorces disagree, wi some sayin his year o birth is 1944: *{{Cite book|last=LuKanic|first=Steven A.|title=Film Actors Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/filmactorsguide0000luka|publisher=Lone Eagle|year=1991|location=Los Angeles|page=[https://archive.org/details/filmactorsguide0000luka/page/123 123]|isbn=978-0-943728-38-4}} *{{Cite book|last=Halliwell|first=Leslie|authorlink=Leslie Halliwell|title=Halliwell's Filmgoer's Companion|url=https://archive.org/details/halliwellsfilmgo0000hall_n4y3|edition=9th|publisher=[[Grafton (publisher)|Grafton]]|year=1988|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/halliwellsfilmgo0000hall_n4y3/page/185 185]}} whilst ithers state 1946: *{{Cite book|last1=Gareffa|first1=Peter M.|last2=Evory|first2=Ann|title=Newsmakers|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporarynews0000anne|publisher=[[Gale (publisher)|Gale Research]]|year=1988|location=Detroit|pages=v, 93|isbn=978-0-8103-2203-5}} *{{Cite book|last=Rubin|first=Steven Jay|title=The Complete James Bond Movie Encyclopedia|url=https://archive.org/details/completejamesbon0000rubi_w2j9|publisher=Contemporary Books|year=2003|edition=3rd|location=|page=[https://archive.org/details/completejamesbon0000rubi_w2j9/page/97 97]|isbn=978-0-07-141246-9}} * {{Cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Alan |last2=Hearn |first2=Marcus |year=2001 |title=Kiss Kiss Bang! Bang!: the Unofficial James Bond Film Companion|url=https://archive.org/details/kisskissbangbang0000barn |publisher=[[Batsford Books]]|isbn=978-0-7134-8182-2}}</ref> is a [[Unitit Kinrick|Breetish]]<ref name="Brady (1994)">{{cite news|last=Brady|first=James|authorlink=James Brady (columnist)|title=In step with Timothy Dalton|newspaper=[[The Post and Courier]] ([[Charleston, South Carolina]]), [[Parade (magazine)|Parade Magazine]]|date=13 November 1994|page=24}} [http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=U1RSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=tzYNAAAAIBAJ&pg=4679,5129462&dq=timothy-dalton+italian&hl=en Available online.]{{Dead link|date=August 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> actor o film an telly. ==References== {{reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Dalton, Timothy}} [[Category:1946 births]] [[Category:20t-century Breetish male actors]] [[Category:21st-century Breetish male actors]] [[Category:Alumni o the Ryal Academy o Dramatic Airt]] [[Category:Breetish male film actors]] [[Category:Breetish male stage actors]] [[Category:Breetish male televeesion actors]] [[Category:Breetish fowk o American strynd]] [[Category:Breetish fowk o Italian strynd]] [[Category:Breetish fowk o Erse strynd]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:National Youth Theatre members]] [[Category:Fowk frae Belper]] [[Category:Fowk frae Colwyn Bay]] [[Category:James Bond]] [[Category:RAF Cadets]] [[Category:Royal Shakespeare Company members]] awoodloqky1n11qmd9wysmfcrq9ge31 0 85656 918717 917719 2026-06-24T23:20:32Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918717 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox | name = Proteobacteria | image = E. coli Bacteria (7316101966).jpg | image_caption = ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' | taxon = Proteobacteria | authority = Stackebrandt et al., 1988,<ref name=stack>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1099/00207713-38-3-321|title=Proteobacteria classis nov., a Name for the Phylogenetic Taxon That Includes the "Purple Bacteria and Their Relatives"|year=1988|last1=Stackebrandt|first1=E.|last2=Murray|first2=R. G. E.|last3=Truper|first3=H. G.|journal=International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology|volume=38|issue=3|pages=321–325 }}</ref> Garrity et al. 2005<ref>Garrity, G. M., Bell, J. A. & Lilburn, T. (2005). Phylum XIV. Proteobacteria phyl. nov. In: ''Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology'', 2nd edn, vol. 2 (The Proteobacteria), part B (The Gammaproteobacteria), p. 1. Edited by D. J. Brenner, N. R. Krieg, J. T. Staley & G. M. Garrity. New York: Springer.</ref> | subdivision_ranks = Cless | subdivision = ''[[Alphaproteobacteria]]''<ref name=GarrityBellLilburn>{{cite book | vauthors = Garrity GM, Bell JA, Lilburn T | chapter = Class I. ''Alphaproteobacteria'' class. nov. | veditors = Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Staley JT, Garrity GM | title = Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology Volume 2: The ''Proteobacteria'' Part C (The Alpha-, Beta-, Delta- and Epsilonproteobacteria | edition=2nd | publisher = Springer | year = 2005 | page=1 | doi=10.1002/9781118960608.cbm00041| isbn = 9781118960608 }}</ref><br /> ''[[Betaproteobacteria]]''<ref name=Bodenetal2017>{{cite journal |vauthors=Boden R, Hutt LP, Rae AW |year=2017 |title=Reclassification of ''Thiobacillus aquaesulis'' (Wood & Kelly, 1995) as ''Annwoodia aquaesulis'' gen. nov., comb. nov., transfer of ''Thiobacillus'' (Beijerinck, 1904) from the ''Hydrogenophilales'' to the ''Nitrosomonadales'', proposal of ''Hydrogenophilalia'' class. nov. within the "''Proteobacteria''", and four new families within the orders ''Nitrosomonadales'' and ''Rhodocyclales''. |url=https://archive.org/details/international-journal-systematic-evolutionary-microbiology_2017_67_5/page/1191 |journal= International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=1191–1205 |doi=10.1099/ijsem.0.001927|pmid=28581923 }}</ref><br/> ''[[Hydrogenophilalia]]''<ref name=Bodenetal2017 /><br/> ''[[Gammaproteobacteria]]''<ref name=WilliamsKelly>{{cite journal | author = Williams KP, Kelly DP | year = 2013 | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | title = Proposal for a new class within the phylum ''Proteobacteria'', ''Acidithiobacillia'' classis nov., with the type order ''Acidithiobacillales'', and emended description of the class ''Gammaproteobacteria''. | volume = 63 | pages = 2901–2906 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.049270-0| pmid = 23334881 }}</ref> <br /> ''[[Acidithiobacillia]]''<ref name=WilliamsKelly /> <br /> ''[[Deltaproteobacteria]]''<ref name=Kuever>{{cite book | vauthors = Kuever J, Rainey FA, Widdel F | chapter = Class IV. ''Deltaproteobacteria'' class. nov. | veditors = Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Staley JT, Garrity GM | title = Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology Volume 2: The ''Proteobacteria'' Part C (The Alpha-, Beta-, Delta- and Epsilonproteobacteria | edition=2nd | publisher = Springer | year = 2005 | page=922 | doi = 10.1002/9781118960608.cbm00043| isbn = 9781118960608 }}</ref><br /> ''[[Epsilonproteobacteria]]''<ref name=GBL>{{cite book | vauthors = Garrity GM, Bell JA, Lilburn T | chapter = Class V. ''Epsilonproteobacteria'' class. nov. | veditors = Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Staley JT, Garrity GM | title = Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology Volume 2: The ''Proteobacteria'' Part C (The Alpha-, Beta-, Delta- and Epsilonproteobacteria | edition=2nd | publisher = Springer | year = 2005 | page=1145 | doi=10.1002/9781118960608.cbm00044| isbn = 9781118960608 }}</ref><br /> ''[[Oligoflexia]]''<ref name=Nakai>{{cite journal | authors = Nakai R, Nishijima M, Tazato N, Handa Y, Karray F, Sayadi S, Isoda H, Naganuma T | year = 2014 | title = ''Oligoflexus tunisiensis'' gen. nov., sp. nov., a Gram-negative, aerobic, filamentous bacterium of a novel proteobacterial lineage, and description of ''Oligoflexaceae'' fam. nov., ''Oligoflexales'' ord. nov. and ''Oligoflexia'' classis nov. | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 64 | issue = Pt 10 | pages =3353–3359 | doi=10.1099/ijs.0.060798-0| pmid = 25013226 | pmc =4179278 }}</ref><br /> }} The '''Proteobacteria''' are a major group ([[phylum]]) o [[bacteria]]. Thay include a wide variety o [[pathogen]]s, such as ''[[Escherichia]]'', ''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[Vibrio]]'', ''[[Helicobacter]]'', an ''[[Yersinia]]'', an mony ither notable [[genera]].<ref name="Brock">{{cite book | author = Madigan, M. and J. Martinko. (eds.) | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | url = https://archive.org/details/brockbiologyofmi0011madi | edition = 11th | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-13-144329-1 }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q130999}} [[Category:Proteobacteria| ]] [[Category:Gram-negative bacteria]] [[Category:Bacteria phyla]] pmk934k3ty8ndc8141omnhciw13qgfh 0 86385 918742 886208 2026-06-24T23:36:06Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918742 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox planet | name = Deimos | symbol = [[file:Deimos symbol (bold).svg|24px]] | adjectives = Deimosian | image = [[Image:Deimos-MRO.jpg|250px|Deimos]] | caption = An enhanced-colour image o Deimos ([[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter|MRO]], 21 Februar 2009).<br>''Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Varsity o Arizona'' | discovery = yes | bgcolour = #ffc0c0 | discoverer = [[Asaph Hall]] | discovered = 12 August 1877 | epoch = 2012-Sep-21<br>([[Julian day|JD]] 2456191.5) | periapsis = {{val|23455.5|u=km}} | apoapsis = {{val|23470.9|u=km}} | semimajor = {{val|23463.2|u=km}}<ref name=Horizons>{{cite web|date=21 September 2013|title=HORIZONS Web-Interface|publisher=NASA|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?horizons|accessdate=4 December 2013}}</ref> | eccentricity = {{val|0.00033}}<ref name="Horizons"/> | period = {{val|1.263|ul=d}}<ref name="Horizons"/><br>(30.312 [[oor (time)|h]]) | avg_speed = {{val|1.3513|u=km/s}}<ref name=NASA>{{cite web|date=30 September 2003|title=Mars: Moons: Deimos|publisher=NASA Solar System Exploration|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mar_Deimos&Display=Facts|accessdate=2 December 2013|archive-date=2012-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012044447/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mar_Deimos&Display=Facts|url-status=dead}}</ref> | inclination = 0.93° (tae Maurs's equator)<br>1.791° (tae the local [[Laplace plane]])<ref name="Horizons"/><br>27.58° (to the [[ecliptic]]) | satellite_of = [[Maurs]] | physical_characteristics = yes | dimensions = 15 × 12.2 × 11 km<ref name="Sea and Sky">{{cite web|title=Deimos|url=http://www.seasky.org/solar-system/mars-deimos.html|accessdate=June 6, 2014}}</ref> | mean_radius = 6.2 ± 0.18 km<ref name=JPLSSD>{{cite web|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par|publisher=[[JPL]] (Solar System Dynamics)|title=Planetary Satellite Physical Parameters|date=13 July 2006|accessdate=29 January 2008}}</ref><br>(0.97316 [[Milli-|m]]Earths) | surface_area = {{val|495.1548|u=km2}}<br>(97.0755 [[Micro-|µ]]Earths) | volume = {{val|999.78|u=km3}}<br>(92.2979 [[Nano-|n]]Earths) | mass = {{val|1.4762|e=15|u=kg}}<ref name="NASA"/><br>(24.7179 [[Nano-|n]]Earths) | density = {{val|1.471|0.166|u=g/cm3}}<ref name="JPLSSD"/> | surface_grav = 0.003 m/s²<ref name="NASA"/><br>(306 [[Micro-|µ]][[G-force|g]]) | escape_velocity = 5.556 [[Metre per seicont|m/s]]<br>(20 km/h)<ref name="NASA"/> | rotation = [[synchronous rotation|Synchronous]]<ref name="Horizons"/> | albedo = 0.068 ± 0.007<ref name="JPLSSD"/> | magnitude = 12.45 ± 0.05 <ref name="JPLSSD"/> | single_temperature = ≈&thinsp;233 [[kelvin|K]] | Age = 2 billion years }} '''Deimos''' ([[Astronomical namin conventions#Natural satellites o planets|seestematic designation]]: '''Maurs II''')<ref name=Blunck>{{cite book |last= Blunck |first=Jürgen |title= Solar System Moons: Discovery and Mythology |url= https://archive.org/details/solarsystemmoons0000blun |year=2009 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-3-540-68852-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/solarsystemmoons0000blun/page/5 5]|chapter=The Satellites of Mars; Discovering and Naming the Satellites|quote= |ref=}}</ref> is the smawer an ootermair o the twa [[muins o Maurs|naitural satellites]] o the planet [[Mars]] wi a mean radius o 6.2&nbsp;km,<ref name="Horizons"/> the ither bein [[Phobos (muin)|Phobos]]. ==References== {{reflist}} {{Solar System}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Deimos (Muin)}} <!--Categories--> [[Category:Muins o Maurs]] [[Category:Astronomical objects discovered in 1877]] [[Category:Deimos (muin)| ]] tkcib4ex6ewtgkzetvn4jowsobq69od 0 125140 918707 872685 2026-06-24T23:13:29Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918707 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox mountain range |name =Sierra Nevada |photo =Sierra Nevada aerial.jpg |photo_size =224 |photo_caption = The Sierra's [[Mills Creek]] cirque (center) is on the wast side of the [[Sierra Crest]], sooth o [[Mono Loch]] (tap, blue). |etymology =1777: [[Spainyie leid|Spainyie]] for "[[wiktionary:nevada|snawy]] [[wiktionary:sierra|moontain range]]" |nickname =the Sierra, the High Sierra, the Sierras, Range of Light (1894, [[John Muir]])<ref name=Muir>{{cite book |last=Muir |first=John |authorlink=John Muir |year=1894 |title=Chapter 1: The Sierra Nevada |url=http://www.sierraclub.org/john_muir_exhibit/writings/the_mountains_of_california/chapter_1.html |work=[http://www.sierraclub.org/john_muir_exhibit/writings/the_mountains_of_california The Mountains of California] |page= |accessdate=2010-05-29 |archive-date=2010-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620125543/http://sierraclub.org/john_muir_exhibit/writings/the_mountains_of_california/chapter_1.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> |country =Unitit States |state =Californie |state1 =Nevada |range_coordinates = {{coord|37.73083|N|119.57278|W|type:mountain_region:US-CA_scale:300000_dim:320km_source:NGS|format=dms|display=inline}} |parent = |border = |length_mi =400 |length_orientation =north-sooth frae [[Fredonyer Pass]] tae [[Tehachapi Pass]] |length_note =<ref name="sneco">{{cite web|title=Sierra Nevada|work=Ecological Subregions of California|publisher=United States Forest Service|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/r5/projects/ecoregions/m261e.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205212313/http://www.fs.fed.us/r5/projects/ecoregions/m261e.htm|archivedate=2010-12-05|access-date=2015-08-08|url-status=live}}</ref> |width_mi =65 |width_note =<ref>{{cite web |title=Sierra Nevada |url=http://www.summitpost.org/sierra-nevada/176773 |publisher=SummitPost.org |accessdate=2010-05-29}}</ref> |location = |area_mi2 = 24370 |area_note =<ref name="gap">{{cite web|url=http://www.biogeog.ucsb.edu/projects/gap/report/sn_rep.html|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5yfLHKOZu?url=http://www.biogeog.ucsb.edu/projects/gap/report/sn_rep.html|archivedate=2011-05-14|title=The Sierra Nevada Region|work=USCB Biogeography lab|access-date=2015-08-08|url-status=live}}</ref> |highest =Moont Whitney |elevation_ft=14505 |elevation_note=<ref name=ngs>{{cite ngs|id=GT1811|designation=Mount Whitney}}</ref> |coordinates = {{coord|36.578580925|N|118.29199495|W|type:mountain_region:US-CA_scale:100000_dim:320km_source:NGS|format=dms|display=inline,title}} |geology=batholith| geology1=igneous |period =Mesozoic |orogeny = |map_image =Sierra_Nevada_map.png |map_size =224 |map_caption =Poseetion o Sierra Nevada inside Californie |footnote =[[Namesake]]: [[Nevada]] }} The '''Sierra Nevada''' ({{IPAc-en|s|i|ˈ|ɛ|r|ə|_|n|ɨ|ˈ|v|ɑː|d|ə|}} or {{IPAc-en|n|ɨ|ˈ|v|æ|d|ə|}}, {{IPA-es|ˈsjera neˈβaða|lang}}, ''snawy range''<ref>{{cite book|author=Carlson, Helen S.|title=Nevada Place Names: A Geographical Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/nevadaplacenames0000carl|publisher=University of Nevada Press|year=1976|page=[https://archive.org/details/nevadaplacenames0000carl/page/215 215]|isbn=978-0-87417-094-8}}</ref>) is a moontain range in the wastren Unitit States, atween the [[Central Valley (Californie)|Central Valley o Californie]] an the [[Basin an Range Province]]. ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Sierra Nevada (U.S.)| ]] [[Category:Geologic provinces o Californie]] [[Category:Moontain ranges o Californie]] [[Category:Moontain ranges o Nevada]] [[Category:Pheesiografic sections]] [[Category:Regions o Nevada]] [[Category:Volcanism o Californie]] i1x3hypyre8tkyoxc78usc7mk0ap2bg 0 125178 918725 917744 2026-06-24T23:25:06Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918725 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Former Country | native_name = الخلافة العباسية | native_name_lang = ar | conventional_long_name = Abbasid Caliphate | common_name = Abbasids | continent = Afro-Eurasie | region = Middle East | status = Empire | government_type = Caliphate | life_span = 750–1258<br />1261–1517<br /> {{small|(unner the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate o Cairo]])}} | year_start = 750 | year_end = 1517 | image_flag = Abbassid banner.svg | flag_type = The Black Banner o the Abbasids.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Akhtar |first1=Muhammad Wajid |title=Ten Things You Didn’t Know About The Kaaba |url=http://muslimmatters.org/2012/11/15/ten-things-you-didnt-know-about-the-kaaba |website=MuslimMatters.org |publisher=Muslim Matters |access-date=1 August 2015}}</ref> | p1 = Umayyad Caliphate | flag_p1 = Umayyad Flag.svg | flag_p4 = | s1 = Mongol Empire | flag_s1 = | s2 = Fatimid Islamic Caliphate | flag_s2 = Rectangular green flag.svg | s3 = Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) | flag_s3 = Mameluke Flag.svg | s4 = Saffarid dynasty | flag_s4 = | image_map = Abbasids850.png | image_map_caption = Abbasid Caliphate at its greatest extent, c. 850. | capital = [[Kufa]]<br />{{small|(750–762)}}<br />[[Baghdad]]<br />{{small|(762–796, 809–836, 892–1258)}}<br />[[Ar-Raqqah]]<br />{{small|(796–809)}}<br />[[Abbasid Samarra|Samarra]]<br />{{small|(836–892)}}<br />[[Cairo]]<br />{{small|(1261–1517)}} | common_languages = Offeecial leid:<br />[[Arabic leid|Arabic]]<br />Regional leids:<br />[[Turkic leids|Oghuz Turkic]]<br />[[Aramaic leid|Aramaic]], [[Armenie leid|Armenian]], [[Berber leids|Berber]], [[Coptic leid|Coptic]], [[Georgian leid|Georgian]], [[Greek leid|Greek]], [[Kurdish leid|Kurdish]], [[Middle Persie|Persie]], [[Prakrit leid|Prakrit]] | religion = [[Sunni Islam]] | currency = [[Gowd dinar|Dinar]] (gowd coin)<br />[[Dirham]] (siller coin)<br /> [[Fals]] (copper coin) | leader1 = [[As-Saffah]] {{small|(first)}} | year_leader1 = 750–754 | leader2 = [[Al-Musta'sim]] {{small|(last) (caliph in Baghdad)}} | year_leader2 = 1242–1258 | leader3 = [[al-Mutawakkil III]]{{small|(last) (caliph in cairo)}} | year_leader3 = 1508–1517 | title_leader = [[Caliph]] | today = {{Collapsible list|title=Kintras theday | {{flag |Afghanistan}}|{{flag|Algerie}}|{{flag |Andorrae}}|{{flag|Armenie}}|{{flag|Azerbaijan}}|{{flag |Cyprus}}|{{flag |Egyp}}|{{flag |Fraunce}}|{{flag |Georgie}}|{{flag|Indie}}|{{flag |Gibraltar}}|{{flag |Greece}}|{{flag|Iran}}|{{flag|Iraq}}|{{flag|Israel}}|{{flag|Italy}}|{{flag |Jordan}}|{{flag |Kazakhstan}}|{{flag |Kuwait}}|{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}|{{flag |Lebanon}}|{{flag |Libie}}|{{flag|Malta}}|{{flag|Oman}}|{{flag|Pakistan}}|{{flag|Palestinian Authority}}|{{flag |Portugal}}|{{flag |Qatar}}|{{flag|Roushie}}|{{flag |Saudi Arabie}}|{{flag |Spain}}|{{flag |Sirie}}|{{flag|Tajikistan}}|{{flag|Tunisie}}|{{flag|Turkey}}|{{flag |Turkmenistan}}|{{flag |Unitit Arab Emirates}}|{{flag|Uzbekistan}}|{{flag |Yemen}} }} | footnotes = }} The '''Abbasid Caliphate''' ({{lang-ar|الخلافة العباسية}} ''{{transl|ar|al-Khilāfah al-‘Abbāsīyah}}'') wis the third o the [[Islam]]ic [[caliphate]]s tae succeed the [[Prophets in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. It wis foondit bi a dynasty descendit frae Muhammad's uncle, [[Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib]] (566–653 CE), frae that the dynasty taks its name.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}} Thay ruled as [[caliphs]] for maist o the caliphate frae thair caipital in [[Roond ceety o Baghdad|Baghdad]] in modren-day [[Iraq]], efter haein owerthrawn the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] in the [[Abbasid Revolution]] o 750 CE (132&nbsp;[[anno Hegirae|AH]]). The Abbasid Caliphate first centred its govrenment in [[Kufa]], modren-day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph [[Al-Mansur]] foondit the ceety o Baghdad, near the auncient [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] caipital ceety o [[Ctesiphon]]. The Abbasid period wis merkit bi reliance on [[Greater Iran|Persie]] [[bureaucrat]]s (notably the [[Barmakids|Barmakid]] faimily) for govrenin the territories as weel as an increasin inclusion o [[Mawla|non-Arab Muslims]] in the ''[[ummah]]'' (naitional commonty). [[Persianate customs]] war braidly adoptit bi the ruling elite, an thay begoud patronage o airtists an scholarts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Canfield |first1=Robert L. |title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52291-5 |page=5}}</ref> Baghdad becam a centre o science, cultur, filosofie an invention in whit becam kent as the [[Islamic Gowden Age|Gowden Age o Islam]]. Despite this ineetial cooperation, the Abbasids o the late 8t century haed alienated baith non-Arab ''[[mawali]]'' (clients)<ref>{{cite web |title=ABŪ MOSLEM ḴORĀSĀNĪ – Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abu-moslem-abd-al-rahman-b |website=www.iranicaonline.org |access-date=2015-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122132055/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abu-moslem-abd-al-rahman-b# |archive-date=22 November 2015 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all}}</ref> an Iranian bureaucrats.<ref>{{cite book |title=The History of Government from the Earliest Times: Volume II: The Intermediate Ages p.720 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AhEab85xHAMC |publisher=OUP Oxford |date=1999-01-01 |isbn=978-0-19-820790-0 |first=S. E. |last=Finer}}</ref> Thay war forced tae cede authority ower [[Al-Andalus]] an the [[Maghreb]] tae the [[Emirate o Córdoba|Umayyads]] in 756, [[Morocco]] tae the [[Idrisid dynasty]] in 788, [[Ifriqiya]] tae the [[Aghlabids]] in 800 an [[Egyp in the Middle Ages|Egyp]] tae the [[Isma'ili]]-[[Shia]] caliphate o the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] in 969. The poleetical pouer o the caliphs lairgely endit wi the rise o the Iranian [[Buyids]] an the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuq Turks]], that ilk capturt Baghdad in 945 an 1055 respectively. Awtho Abbasid leadership ower the vast [[Islamic empire]] wis gradually reduced tae a ceremonial releegious function, the dynasty retained control ower its [[Mesopotamian]] domeen. The Abbasids' period o cultural frueetion endit in 1258 wi the [[Siege o Baghdad (1258)|sack o Baghdad]] bi the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] unner [[Hulagu Khan]]. The Abbasid line o rulers, an Muslim cultur in general, re-centred themsels in the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] caipital o [[Cairo]] in 1261. Tho lackin in poleetical pouer, the dynasty conteena'd tae claim releegious authority till efter the [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottoman]] [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17)|conquest o Egyp]] in 1517.{{sfn|Holt|1984}} == History == === Abbasid Revolution (750–751) === {{main|Abbasid Revolution}} The Abbasid caliphs war [[Arab fowk|Arabs]] descendit frae [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]], ane o the youngest uncles o Muhammad an o the same [[Banu Hashim]] clan. The Abbasids claimed tae be the true successors o Prophet Muhammad in replacin the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] descendants o [[Umayya ibn Abd Shams|Banu Umayya]] bi virtue o thair closer bluidline tae Muhammad. The Abbasids an aw distinguished themsels frae the Umayyads bi attackin thair moral chairacter an admeenistration in general. Accordin tae [[Ira Lapidus]], "The Abbasid revolt wis supportit lairgely bi Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers o [[Merv]] wi the addeetion o the Yemeni faction an thair [[Mawali]]".{{sfn|Lapidus|2002|p=54}} The Abbasids an aw appealed tae non-Arab Muslims, kent as ''mawali'', that remeened ootside the kinship-based society o the Arabs an war perceived as a lawer cless within the Umayyad empire. [[Mohammad ibn Ali Abbasi|Muhammad ibn 'Ali]], a great-grandson o Abbas, begoud tae campaign in [[Greater Persie|Persie]] for the return o pouer tae the faimily o Prophet Muhammad, the [[Hashimites]], in the ring o [[Umar II]]. In the ring o [[Marwan II]], this opposeetion culminatit in the rebellion o Ibrahim the Imam, the fowert in strynd frae Abbas. Supportit bi the province o [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] (Eastren Persie), even tho the govrenor opponed them, an the Shia Arabs,{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}}{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}} he achieved conseederable success, but wis capturt in the year 747 an dee'd, possibly assassinated, in preeson. On 9 Juin 747 (15 Ramadan AH 129), [[Abu Muslim]], risin frae Khorasan, successfully ineetiatit an appen revolt against Umayyad rule, that wis cairied oot unner the sign o the [[Black Staundart]]. Close tae 10,000 sodgers war unner Abu Muslim's command whan the hostilities offeecially begoud in [[Merv (East Sirie Ecclesiastical Province)|Merv]].{{sfn|Lewis|1995|p=102}} [[Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i|General Qahtaba]] follaed the fleein govrenor [[Nasr ibn Sayyar]] wast defeatin the Umayyads at the Battle o Gorgan, the Battle o Nahāvand an feenally in the Battle o Karbala, aw in the year 748.{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}} [[File:Balami - Tarikhnama - Abu'l-'Abbas al-Saffah is proclaimed the first 'Abbasid Caliph (cropped).jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Folio frae ''Tarikhnama'' o [[Muhammad Bal'ami|Bal'ami]] depictin [[As-Saffah|al-Saffah]] as he receives [[Bay'ah|pledges o allegiance]] in [[Kufa]]]] The quarry wis taken up bi Ibrahim's brither Abdallah, kent bi the name o [[As-Saffah|Abu al-'Abbas as-Saffah]], that defeatit the Umayyads in 750 in the [[Battle o the Zab|battle near the Great Zab]] an wis subsequently proclaimed [[caliph]].<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Abbasids|volume=1|page=10}}</ref> Efter this loss, Marwan fled tae Egyp, whaur he wis subsequently assassinatit. The remainder o his faimily, baurin ane male, war an aw eliminatit.{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}} Immediately efter thair veectory, As-Saffah sent his forces tae [[Central Asie]], whaur his forces fecht against [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] expansion in the [[Battle o Talas]]. The noble Iranian faimily [[Barmakids]], that warinstrumental in biggin [[Roond ceety o Baghdad|Baghdad]], introduced the warld's first recordit [[paper mill]] in the ceety, sicweys beginnin a new era o intellectual rebirth in the Abbasid domain. As-Saffah focused on pittin doun numerous rebellions in Sirie an Mesopotamie. The [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] conducted raids in these early distractions.{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}} === Pouer (752–775) === [[File:Baghdad 150 to 300 AH.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The ceety o [[Roond ceety o Baghdad|Baghdad]] atween 767 an 912 AD. The roond plan reflects pre-Islamic Persian urban design.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baghdad-iranian-connection-1-pr-Mongol# |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117020537/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baghdad-iranian-connection-1-pr-Mongol# |archive-date=17 November 2017 |dead-url=no |df=dmy-all}}</ref>]] [[File:Battle of Talas.png|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Battle o Talas]], 751]] The first chynge the Abbasids, under [[Al-Mansur]], made wis tae muive the empire's caipital frae [[Damascus]], in Sirie, tae Baghdad in Iraq. This wis tae baith appease as weel tae be closer tae the Persie ''mawali'' support base that existit in this region mair influenced bi Persie history an cultur, an pairt o the Persie mawali demand for less Arab dominance in the empire. Baghdad wis established on the [[Tigris River]] in 762. A new poseetion, that of the [[vizier]], wis an aw established tae delegate central authority, an even greater authority wis delegatit tae local emirs.<ref name="AHGC">{{harvnb|Anon|2008}}</ref> This eventually meant that mony Abbasid caliphs war relegatit tae a mair ceremonial role than unner the Umayyads, as the viziers begoud tae exert greater influence, an the role o the auld Arab aristocracy wis slawly replaced bi a Persie bureaucracy.<ref name="AHGC">{{harvnb|Anon|2008}}</ref> In Al-Mansur's time control o [[Al-Andalus]] wis lost, an the Shia revoltit an war defeatit a year later at the [[Alid revolt o 762–763|Battle o Bakhamra]].{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}} The Abbasids haed dependit hivily on the support o Persies{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}} in thair owerthraw o the Umayyads. Abu al-'Abbas' successor, [[Al-Mansur]] welcomed nan-Arab Muslims tae his coort. While this helped integrate Arab an Persie culturs, it alienatit mony o thair Arab supporters, pairteecularly the [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasanian]] Arabs that had supportit them in thair battles against the Umayyads. Thir fissurs in thair support led tae immediate problems. The Umayyads, while oot o pouer, war nae destroyed. The anerly survivin member o the Umayyad ryal faumily, that haed been aw but annihilatit, ultimately made his way tae Spain whaur he established himsel as an independent [[Emir]] ([[Abd ar-Rahman I]], 756). In 929, [[Abd ar-Rahman III]] assumed the teetle o Caliph, establishin [[Al Andalus]] frae [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] as a rival tae Baghdad as the legitimate caipital o the Islamic Empire. In 756, the Abbasid Caliph [[Al-Mansur]] sent ower 4,000 Arab mercenaries tae assist the Cheenese [[Tang dynasty]] in the [[An Shi Rebellion]] against [[An Lushan]]. The Abbasides or "Black Banners," as thay war commonly cried, war kent in Tang dynasty chronicles as the ''hēiyī Dàshí'', "The Black-robed Tazi", ({{lang|zh|黑衣大食}}) ("Tazi" bein a borraein frae Persian ''[[wikt:تازی|Tāzī]]'', the wird for "Arab").{{refn|group=nb|Wade states "Tazi in Persie soorces referred tae a fowk in that laund, but wis later extendit tae kiver Arab launds. The Persie term wis adoptit bi Tang China (Dàshí :大食) tae refer tae the Arabs till the 12t century."<ref>{{harvnb|Wade|2012|p=138}}</ref>}}<ref>{{harvnb|Jenkins|1999|p=61}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Carné|1872|p=295}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ghosh|1961|p=60}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hermann|1912|p=77}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Anon|1928|p=1617}}</ref> After the war, these embassies remained in China <ref>{{harvnb|Chapuis|1995|p=92}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kitagawa|1989|p=283}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Weng|1973|p=129}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Baker|1990|p=53}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fitzgerald|1961|p=332}}</ref> wi Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] establishin an alliance wi Cheenae.<ref name="Dennis Bloodworth, Ching Ping Bloodworth 2004 214">{{harvnb|Bloodworth|Bloodworth|2004|p=214}}</ref> Several embassies frae the Abbasid Caliphs tae the Cheenese coort hae been recordit in the T'ang Annals, the maist important o thir bein thae o [[As-Saffah|Abul Abbas al-Saffah]], the first Abbasid caliph, his successor [[Al-Mansur|Abu Jafar]], an [[Harun al-Rashid]]. === Abbasid Gowden Age (775–861) === [[File:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Harun al-Rashid]] receivin a delegation sent bi [[Charlemagne]] at his coort in Baghdad. Pentin bi German penter {{ill|Julius Köckert|fr}} (1827–1918), datit 1864. Ile on canvas.]] The Abbasid leadership haed tae wirk haurd in the last hauf o the 8t century (750–800), unner several competent caliphs an thair viziers tae owercome the poleetical challenges creatit bi the faur flung naitur o the empire, an the leemitit communication athort it an usher in the admeenistrative chynges needit tae keep order.<ref name="Brauer">{{harvnb|Brauer|1995}}</ref> It wus an aw in this early period o the dynasty, in pairteecular in the govrenance o [[al-Mansur]], [[Harun al-Rashid]], an [[al-Ma'mun]], that the reputation an pouer o the dynasty wis creatit.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}} Al-Mahdi [[Abbasid invasion o Asia Minor (782)|restairtit the fechtin]] wi the Byzantines an his sons conteena'd the conflict till [[Irene o Athens|Empress Irene]] pushed for peace.{{sfn|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=233}} Efter several years o peace, [[Nikephoros I]] brak the treaty, then fendit aff multiple incursions in the first decade o the 9t century. Thir attacks pushed intae the [[Taurus Muntains]] culminatin wi a veectory at the [[Battle o Krasos]] an the [[Abbasid invasion o Asia Minor (806)|massive invasion o 806]], led bi Rashid himsel.<ref name=DD1>{{harvnb|Dupuy|Dupuy|1986|p=265}}</ref> Rashid's navy an aw pruived successfu as he teuk [[Cyprus]]. Eventually, the momentum turned an muckle o the laund gained wis lost. Rashid decidit tae focus on the rebellion o [[Rafi ibn al-Layth]] in Khorasan an dee'd while there.<ref name="DD1" /> While the [[Byzantine Empire]] wis fechtin Abbasid rule in Sirie an [[Anatolie]], militar operations in this period war meenimal, as the caliphate focused on internal maiters, its govrenors exertin greater autonomy an uisin thair increasin pouer tae mak thair poseetions hereditary.<ref name="AHGC" /> At the same time, the Abbasids faced challenges closer tae hame. Harun al-Rashid turned on the [[Barmakids]], a Persie faimily that haed grawn signeeficantly in pouer within the admeenistration o the state an killt maist o the faimily.<ref>{{harvnb|Meisami|1999}}</ref> In the same period, several factions begoud aither tae leave the empire for ither launds or tae tak control o distant pairts o the empire awey frae the Abbasids. The ring o al-Rashid an his sons war conseedert tae be the apex o the Abbasids.<ref name=mag>{{harvnb|Magnusson|Goring|1990|p=2}}</ref> [[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al Amin - 195 AH (811 AD).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Gowd dinar]] mintit in the ring o [[al-Amin]] (809–813)]] Efter Rashid's death, the empire wis split bi a [[Fowert Fitna|ceevil war]] atween the caliph [[al-Amin]] an his brither [[al-Ma'mun]] that had the support o Khorasan. This war endit wi a [[Siege o Baghdad (812–813)|twa-year siege]] o Baghdad an the eventual daith o al-Amin in 813.<ref name=DD1 /> Al-Ma'mun ruled for 20 years o relative caum interspersed wi a rebellion supportit bi the Byzantines in [[Iranian Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] bi the [[Khurramites]]. Al-Ma'mun wis an aw responsible for the creaution o an autonomous Khorasan, an the conteena'd repulsin o Byzantine forays.<ref name=DD1 /> [[Al-Mu'tasim]] gained pouer in 833 an his rule merkit the end o the strang caliphs. He strenthened his personal airmy wi Turkis mercenaries an promptly restairtit the war wi the Byzantines. His militar excursions war generally successfu culminatin wi a resoondin veectory in the [[Sack o Amorium]]. His attempt at seizin [[Constantinople]] failed whan his fleet wis destroyed bi a storm.<ref>{{harvnb|Dupuy|dupuy|1986|pp=265–266}}</ref> The Byzantines restairtit the fechtin bi [[Sack o Damietta (853)|sackin Damietta]] in Egyp. [[Al-Mutawakkil]] respondit bi sendin his truips intae [[Anatolie]] again, sackin an maraudin till thay war [[Battle o Lalakaon|eventually annihilatit]] in 863.<ref name=DD3>{{harvnb|Dupuy|dupuy|1986|p=266}}</ref> == Fractur tae autonomous dynasties (861–945) == [[File:Abbasid Caliphate 891-892.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Map o the fragmentit Abbasid empire, wi auries still unner direct control o the Abbasid central govrenment (daurk green) an unner autonomous rulers (licht green) adherin tae nominal Abbasid suzerainty, {{circa|892}}]] Even bi 820, the [[Samanid]]s had begun the process o exercisin independent authority in [[Transoxiana]] an [[Greater Khorasan]], as haed the [[Twaler]]-Shia [[Hamdanid]]s in Northren Sirie, an the succeedin [[Tahirid]] an [[Saffarid]] dynasties o Iran. The Saffarids, frae Khorasan, nearly seized Baghdad in 876, an the [[Tulunid]]s teuk control o maist o Sirie. The trend o waikenin o the central pouer an strenthenin o the minor caliphates on the periphery conteena'd.<ref name=mag /> An exception wis the 10-year period o [[Al-Mu'tadid]]'s rule. He brocht pairts o Egyp, Sirie, an Khorasan back intae the Abbasid's control. Especially efter the "[[Anarchy at Samarra]]", the Abbasid central govrenment wis waikened an centrifugal tendencies becam mair prominent in the Caliphate's provinces. Bi the early 10t century, the Abbasids awmaist laist control o Iraq tae various [[amir]]s, an the caliph [[al-Radi]] wis forced tae acknawledge thair pouer bi creautin the position o "Prince o Princes" (''[[amir al-umara]]'').<ref name=mag /> [[Al-Mustakfi]] haed a short ring frae 944–946, an it wis in this period that the Persie faction kent as the [[Buyids]] frae [[Daylam]] swept intae pouer an assumed control ower the bureaucracy in Baghdad. Accordin tae the history o [[Miskawayh]], thay begoud distributin [[iqta]]s ([[fief]]s in the form o tax ferms) tae thair supporters. This period o localised secular control wis tae last nearly 100 years.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}} The loss o Abbasid pouer tae the Buyids wad shift as the Seljuks wad tak ower frae the Persies.<ref name=mag /> At the end o the aicht century the Abbasids foond thay coud na langer keep a huge polity lairger nor that o Roum thegither frae Baghdad. In 793 the [[Zaydi]]-Shia dynasty o [[Idrisids]] set up a state frae Fez in Morocco, while a faimily o govrenors unner the Abbasids becam increasinly independent till thay foondit the Aghlabid Emirate frae the 830s. Al-Mu'tasim stairtit the dounwart slide bi utilisin non-Muslim mercenaries in his personal airmy. An aw in this period officers stairtit assassinatin superiors wi that thay fawed oot wi, in pairteecular the caliphs.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}} Bi the 870s Egyp becam autonomous unner [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]]. In the East as weel, govrenors decreased thair ties tae the centre. The [[Saffarids]] o Herat an the [[Samanids]] o Bukhara haed braken awey frae the 870s, cultivatin a muckle mair [[Persianate cultur]] an statecraft. Bi this time anerly the central launds o Mesopotamie war unner direct Abbasid control, wi Palestine an the Hijaz eften managed bi the Tulunids. Byzantium, for its part, haed begun tae push Arab Muslims faur east in Anatolie. Bi the 920s, the situation haed chynged faur, as North Africae wis lost tae the Abbasids. A Shia sect anerly recognisin the first five Imams an tracin its ruits tae Muhammad's dochter Fatima teuk control o Idrisid an then Aghlabid domeens.<ref name=mag /> Cried the [[Fatimid dynasty]], thay had advanced tae Egyp in 969, establishin thair caipital near Fustat in Cairo, that thay biggit as a bastion o Shia learin an politics. Bi 1000 thay haed acome the chief poleetical an ideological challenge tae Sunni Islam in the form o the Abbasids. Bi this time the latter state had fragmentit intae several govrenorships that, while recognisin caliphal authority frae Baghdad, did maistly as thay wantit, fechtin wi ilk ither. The Caliph himsel wis unner 'pertection' o the Buyid Emirs that possessed aw o Iraq an wastren Iran, an war quietly Shia in thair sympathies. Ootside Iraq, aw the autonomous provinces slawly teuk on the chairactereestic o de facto states wi hereditary rulers, airmies, an revenues an operatit unner anerly nominal caliph suzerainty, that mey nae necessarily be reflectit bi ony contreibution tae the thesaury, sic as the [[Soomro]] [[Emir]]s that haed gained control o [[Sindh]] an ruled the entire province frae thair caipital o [[Mansura, Sindh|Mansura]].<ref name="Brauer" /> [[Mahmud o Ghazni]] teuk the teetle o sultan, as opponed tae the [[Emir|"amir"]] that haed been in mair common uissage, seegnifeein the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid Empire]]'s unthirldom frae caliphal authority, despite Mahmud's ostentatious displays o Sunni orthodoxy an reetual submission tae the caliph. In the 11t century, the loss o respect for the caliphs conteena'd, as some Islamic rulers na langer mentioned the caliph's name in the Fryday [[khutba]], or struck it aff thair coinage.<ref name="Brauer" /> The [[Isma'ili]] [[Fatimid]] dynasty o Cairo contestit the Abbasids for even the teetular authority o the Islamic [[ummah]]. Thay commandit some support in the Shia sections o Baghdad (sic as [[Karkh]]), awtho Baghdad wis the ceety maist closely connectit tae the caliphate, even in the Buyid an Seljuq eras. The Fatimids' green banners contrastit wi Abbasids' black, an the challenge o the Fatimids anerly endit wi thair dounfaw in the 12t century. === Buyid an Seljuq control (945–1118) === Despite the pouer o the [[Buyids|Buyid]] amirs, the Abbasids reteened a heichly reetualised coort in Baghdad, as descrived bi the Buyid bureaucrat [[Hilal al-Sabi']], an thay retained a certain influence ower Baghdad as weel as releegious life. As Buyid pouer waned efter the daith o [[Baha' al-Daula]], the caliphate wis able tae regain some meisur o strenth. The caliph [[al-Qadir]], for example, led the ideological struggle against the Shia wi writins sic as the ''[[Baghdad Manifesto]]''. The caliphs kept order in Baghdad itsel, attemptin tae prevent the ootbreak o [[fitna (wird)|fitnas]] in the caipital, eften contendin wi the ''[[ayyarun]]'' Wi the Buyid dynasty on the dwyne, a vacuum wis creatit that wis eventually filled bi the dynasty o [[Oghuz Turks]] kent as the [[Seljuqs]]. Bi 1055, the Seljuqs haed wrestit control frae the Buyids an Abbasids, an teuk ony remeenin temporal pouer.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2010|p=10}} Whan the amir an umwhile sclave [[Basasiri]] teuk up the Shia [[Fatimid]] banner in Baghdad in, the caliph [[al-Qa'im (caliph)|al-Qa'im]] wis unable tae defeat him withoot ootside help. [[Toghril Beg]], the Seljuq sultan, restored Baghdad tae Sunni rule an teuk Iraq for his dynasty. Ance again, the Abbasids war forced tae deal wi a military pouer that thay coud nae match, tho the Abbasid caliph remeened the teetular heid o the Islamic commonty. The succeedin sultans [[Alp Arslan]] an [[Malikshah]], as weel as thair vizier [[Nizam al-Mulk]], teuk up residence in Persie, but held pouer ower the Abbasids in Baghdad. Whan the dynasty begoud tae waiken in the 12t century, the Abbasids gained greater unthirldom ance again. === Revival o militar strenth (1118–1258) === [[File:Abbasids Baghdad Iraq 1244.JPG|thumb|upright|220px|Coin o the Abbasids, Baghdad, 1244]] While the Caliph [[al-Mustarshid]] wis the first caliph tae big an airmy capable o meetin a Seljuk airmy in battle, he wis nanetheless defeatit in 1135 an assassinatit. The Caliph [[Al-Muqtafi (Abbasid Caliph)|al-Muqtafi]] wus the first Abbasid Caliph tae regain the full militar unthirldom o the Caliphate, wi the help o his vizier [[Awn ad-Din ibn Hubayra|Ibn Hubayra]]. Efter nearly 250 years o subjection tae furrin dynasties, he successfully defendit Baghdad against the Seljuqs in the [[siege o Baghdad (1157)]], sicweys siccarin Iraq for the Abbasids. The ring o [[al-Nasir]] (d. 1225) brocht the caliphate back intae pouer ootthrou Iraq, based in lairge part on the [[Sufi]] [[futuwwa]] organisations that the caliph heidit.<ref name=mag /> [[Al-Mustansir (caliph)|Al-Mustansir]] biggit the [[Mustansiriya Schuil]], in an attempt tae eclipse the Seljuq-era [[Al-Nizamiyya o Baghdad|Nizamiyya]] biggit bi [[Nizam al-Mulk]]. === Mongol invasion (1206–1258) === [[File:DiezAlbumsFallOfBaghdad a.jpg|thumb|upright|220px|[[Siege o Baghdad (1258)|Siege o Baghdad]] bi the Mongols led bi [[Hulagu Khan]] in 1258]] In 1206, [[Genghis Khan]] established a pouerfu dynasty amang the [[Mongol]]s o [[central Asie]]. In the 13t century, this [[Mongol Empire]] conquered maist o the Eurasie laund mass, includin baith Cheenae in the east an muckle o the auld Islamic caliphate (as weel as [[Kievan Rus']]) in the wast. [[Hulagu Khan]]'s [[Battle o Baghdad (1258)|destruction o Baghdad]] in 1258 is tradeetionally seen as the approximate end o the Golden Age.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooper|Yue|2008|p=215}}</ref> Mongols feared that a supernaitural disaster wad strick if the bluid o [[Al-Musta'sim]], a direct descendant o Muhammad's uncle [[Al-‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib]],<ref name=encyclopedia>{{harvnb|Glassé|Smith|2002}}</ref> an the last ringin Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, wis spilled. The Shia o [[Persia]] statit that na sic calamity haed happened efter the daith o [[Husayn ibn Ali]] in the [[Battle o Kerbala]]; nivertheless, as a precaution an in accordance wi a Mongol taboo that forbade spillin ryal bluid, Hulagu haed Al-Musta'sim wrapped in a cairpet an trampled tae daith bi horse on 20 Februar 1258. The Caliph's immediate faimily wis an aw executit, wi the lone exceptions o his youngest son that wis sent tae Mongolie, an a dochter that becam a sclave in the [[harem]] o Hulagu.<ref>{{harvnb|Frazier|2005}}</ref> === Abbasid Caliphate o Cairo (1261–1517) === In the 9t century, the Abbasids creatit an airmy leal anerly tae thair caliphate, componed o non-Arab oreegin fowk, kent as [[Mamluks]].<ref name="István Vásáry 2005">{{harvnb|Vásáry|2005}}</ref><ref name="Isichei 1997 192">{{harvnb|Isichei|1997|p=192}}</ref><ref name="T. Pavlidis 2011">{{harvnb|Pavlidis|2010}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Mikaberidze|2004}}</ref><ref name="bbs">{{harvnb|Visser|2005|p=19}}</ref> This force, creatit in the ring o [[al-Ma'mun]] (813–33) an his brither an successor [[al-Mu'tasim]] (833–42), preventit the forder disintegration o the empire. The Mamluk airmy, tho eften viewed negatively, baith helped an hurt the caliphate. Early on, it providit the govrenment wi a stable force tae address domestic an furrin problems. Houiver, creaution o this furrin airmy an al-Mu'tasim's transfer o the caipital frae Baghdad tae [[Abbasid Samarra|Samarra]] creatit a diveesion atween the caliphate an the fowks thay claimed tae rule. In addeetion, the pouer o the Mamluks steadily grew till [[al-Radi]] (934–41) wis constrained tae haund ower maist o the ryal functions tae [[Muhammad ibn Ra'iq]].<ref name="EB1911" /> == Culture == === Islamic Gowden Age === {{main|Islamic Gowden Age}} [[File:ManuscriptAbbasid.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Manuscript frae the Abbasid era]] The Abbasid historical period lastin tae the [[Siege o Baghdad (1258)|Mongol conquest o Baghdad]] in 1258 CE is conseedert the Islamic Gowden Age.<ref name="Tahir Abbas">{{harvnb|Abbas|2011|p=9}}</ref> The Islamic Gowden Age wis inauguratit bi the middle o the 8t century bi the ascension o the Abbasid [[Caliphate]] an the transfer o the caipital frae [[Damascus]] tae Baghdad.<ref name="Vartan">{{harvnb|Gregorian|2003}}</ref> The Abbassids war influenced bi the [[Qur'an]]ic injunctions an [[hadith]] sic as "the ink o a scholart is mair haly nor the bluid o a mairtyr" stressin the vailyie o knawledge. In this period the Muslim warld becam an intellectual centre for science, filosofie, medicine an eddication as <ref name="Vartan" /> the Abbasids championed the cause o knawledge an established the [[Hoose o Wicedom]] in Baghdad; whaur baith Muslim an nan-Muslim scholarts socht tae translate an gaither aw the warld's knawledge intae [[Arabic leid|Arabic]].<ref name="Vartan" /> Mony clessic warks o antiquity that wad itherwise hae been lost war translatit intae Arabic an Persie an later in turn translatit intae Turkis, Ebreu an Laitin.<ref name="Vartan" /> In this period the Muslim warld wis a caudron o culturs that collectit, synthesized an signeeficantly advanced the knawledge gained frae the auncient [[Auncient Roum|Roman]], Cheenese, [[History o Indie|Indie]], [[Sasanian Empire|Persie]], [[Auncient Egyp|Egyptian]], North African, [[Auncient Greece|Greek]] an [[Byzantine]] ceevilisations.<ref name="Vartan" /> "In virtually ivery field o endeavor—in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine, optics an so forth—the Caliphate's scientists war in the forefront o scienteefic advance."<ref>{{harvnb|Huff|2003|p=48}}</ref> === Science === [[File:Mustansiriya University CPT.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Mustansiriya Varsity]] in [[Baghdad]]]]The rings o [[Harun al-Rashid]] (786–809) an his successors fostered an age o great intellectual achievement. In lairge part, this wis the result o the schismatic forces that haed unnermined the Umayyad regime, that relied on the assertion o the superiority o [[Arab cultur]] as pairt o its claim tae legitimacy, an the Abbasids' welcomin o support frae nan-Arab Muslims. It is weel established that the Abbasid caliphs modeled thair admeenistration on that o the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanids]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gibb|1982|p=66}}</ref> Harun al-Rashid's son, [[Al-Ma'mun]] (that's mither wis [[Persie fowk|Persie]]), is even quotit as sayin: {{quote |The Persies ruled for a thoosand years an did nae need us Arabs even for a day. We hae been rulin them for ane or twa centuries an canna dae withoot them for an oor.<ref>{{harvnb|Spuler|1960|p=29}}</ref>}} A nummer o medieval thinkers an scientists leevin unner Islamic rule played a role in transmittin [[Islamic science]] tae the Christian Wast. In addeetion, the period saw the rekivery o muckle o the [[Alexandria]]n mathematical, geometric an astronomical knawledge, sic as that o [[Euclid]] an Claudius [[Ptolemy]]. Thir rekivert mathematical methods war later enhanced an developit bi ither Islamic scholarts, notably bi [[Persie fowk|Persie]] scientists [[Al-Biruni]] an [[Abu Nasr Mansur]]. [[File:Al-Jaahith - African Arab Naturalist - Basra - al jahiz.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Jabir ibn Hayyan]], "the faither o [[Chemistry]]"<ref>{{harvnb|Derewenda|2007|p=247}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Vallely|2006}}</ref>|left]] [[Christians]] (pairteecularly [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] Christians) contreibutit tae the Arab Islamic Ceevilisation in the [[Ummayads]] an the Abbasids bi translatin warks o [[Greek filosofers]] tae [[Syriac leid|Syriac]] an efterwart tae [[Arabic leid|Arabic]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hill|1993|p=4}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Brague|2009|p=164}}</ref> Nestorians played a prominent role in the formation o Arab cultur,<ref>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010a|p=612}}</ref> wi the [[Jundishapur]] schuil bein prominent in the late [[Sassanid]], [[Umayyad]] an early Abbasid periods.<ref>{{harvnb|Söylemez|2005|p=3}}</ref> Notably, aicht generations o the Nestorian [[Bukhtishu]] faimily served as preevat doctors tae caliphs an sultans atween the aicht an elevent centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Bonner|Ener|Singer|2003|p=97}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ruano|Burgos|1992|p=527}}</ref> [[Algebra]] wis signeeficantly developit bi Persie scientist [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] in this time in his laundmerk text, ''[[The Compendious Beuk on Calculation bi Completion an Balancin|Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala]]'', frae that the term ''algebra'' is derived. He is sicweys conseedert tae be the faither o algebra bi some,<ref>{{harvnb|Eglash|1999|p=61}}</ref> awtho the Greek mathematician [[Diophantus]] haes an aw been gien this teetle. The terms [[algorism]] an [[algorithm]] are derived frae the name o al-Khwarizmi, that wis an aw responsible for introducin the [[Arabic numerals]] an [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] ayont the [[Indie subcontinent]]. [[File:Alhazen (122459248).jpg|thumb|220px|[[Alhazen|Ibn al-Haytham]], "the faither o [[Optics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Verma|1969}}{{full citation needed|date=May 2015}}</ref>]] [[Arab]] scientist [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen) developed an early [[scienteefic method]] in his ''[[Beuk o Optics]]'' (1021). The maist important development o the scienteefic method wis the uise o experiments tae distinguish atween competin scienteefic theories set within a generally [[empiricism|empirical]] orientation, that begoud amang Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham's [[empirical]] pruif o the intromission theory o licht (that is, that licht rays entered the een raither than bein [[emission theory (veesion)|emittit bi them]]) wis pairteecularly important. Alhazen wis signeeficant in the [[history o scienteefic method]], pairteecularly in his approach tae experimentation,<ref>{{harvnb|Toomer|1964}}</ref> and has been referred to as the "world’s first true scientist".<ref>{{harvnb|Al-Khalili|2009}}</ref> [[Medicine in medieval Islam]] wis an aurie o science that advanced pairteecularly in the Abbasids' ring. In the 9t century, Baghdad conteened ower 800 doctors, an great diskiveries in the unnerstaundin o anatomy an diseases war made. The clinical distinction atween [[maisles]] and [[smawpox]] wis descrived in this time. Famous Persie scientist [[Ibn Sina]] (kent tae the Wast as [[Avicenna]]) produced treatises an warks that summarised the vast amoont o knawledge that scientists haed accumulatit, an wis verra influential throu his encyclopaedias, ''[[The Canon o Medicine]]'' an ''[[The Beuk o Healin]]''. The wark o him an mony ithers directly influenced the resairch o European scientists in the [[Renaissance]]. [[Alchemy an chemistry in medieval Islam|Muslim alchemists]] influenced medieval European alchemists, pairteecularly the writins attributit tae [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]] (Geber). A nummer o [[chemical process]]es sic as [[distillation]] techniques ear developed in the Muslim warld an then spreid tae Europe. === Leeteratur === [[File:More tales from the Arabian nights-14566176968.jpg|right|thumb|Illustration frae ''Mair tales frae the Arabian nichts'' (1915)]] The best kent feection frae the Islamic warld is ''[[The Beuk o Ane Thoosand an Ane Nichts]]'', a collection o fantastical fowk tales, leegends an parables compiled primarily in the Abbassid era. The collection is recordit as haein oreeginatit frae an Arabic translation o a Sassanian era Persie prototeep, wi likely oreegins in Indie leeterar tradeetions. Stories frae [[Arabic leeteratur|Arabic]], [[Persie leeteratur|Persie]], [[Mesopotamie]], an [[Egyptian leeteratur|Egyptian]] fowklair an leeteratur war later incorporatit. The epic is believed tae hae taken shape in the 10t century an reached its feenal form bi the 14t century; the nummer an teep o tales hae varied frae ane manuscript tae anither.<ref name="arabianNights">{{Harvnb | Grant | Clute | 1999 | p = 51}}.</ref> Aw Arabian [[fantasie]] tales war eften cried "Arabian Nichts" whan translatit intae Inglis, regairdless o whether thay appeared in ''The Beuk o Ane Thoosand an Ane Nichts''.<ref name="arabianNights" /> This epic haes been influential in the Wast syne it wis translatit in the 18t century, first bi [[Antoine Galland]].<ref>{{harvnb|de Camp|1976|p=10}}</ref> Many imitations were written, especially in France.<ref name="arabianNights2">{{harvnb|Grant|Clute|1999|p=52}}</ref> Various chairacters frae this epic hae themsels acome cultural icons in Wastren cultur, sic as [[Aladdin]], [[Sinbad]] an [[Ali Baba]]. A famous example o Islamic poetry on [[romance (luve)|romance]] wis ''[[Layla an Majnun]]'', an oreeginally [[Arabic]] story that wis faur developed bi [[Iranian fowks|Iranian]], [[Azerbaijani fowk|Azerbaijani]] an ither poets in [[Persian leid|Persian]], [[Azerbaijani leid|Azerbaijani]], [[Turkis leid|Turkis]] leids.<ref>{{harvnb|Clinton|2000|pp=15–16}}</ref> It is a [[Tragedy|tragic]] story of undying love much like the later ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]''.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} Arabic poetry reached its greatest hicht in the Abbasid era, especially afore the loss o central authority an the rise o the Persianate dynasties. Writers lik [[Abu Tammam]] an [[Abu Nuwas]] war closely connectit tae the caliphal coort in Baghdad in the early 9t century, while ithers such as [[al-Mutanabbi]] received thair patronage frae regional coorts. === Filosofie === Ane o the common defineetions for "Islamic filosofie" is "the style o filosofie produced within the framewark o Islamic cultur."<ref name="RoutledgeEoP">{{harvnb|Leaman|1998}}</ref> Islamic filosofie, in this defineetion is naither necessarily concerned wi releegious issues, nor is exclusively produced bi Muslims.<ref name="RoutledgeEoP" /> Thair warks on [[Aristotle]] wis a key step in the transmission o learnin frae auncient Greeks tae the Islamic warld an the Wast. Thay eften correctit the filosofer, encouragin a lively debate in the speerit o [[ijtihad]]. Three speculative thinkers, [[al-Kindi]], [[al-Farabi]], an [[Avicenna]], combined [[Aristotelianism]] an [[Neoplatonism]] wi ither ideas introduced throu Islam, an [[Avicennism]] wis later established as a result. Ither influential Abbasid filosofers include [[al-Jahiz]], an [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen). === Airchitectur === [[File:Baghdad-Zumurrud-Khaton.jpg|thumb|[[Zumurrud Khatun Mosque|Zumurrud Khatun Tomb]] (1200 CE), in seemetry at [[Baghdad]]]] As the pouer shiftit frae the Umayyads tae the Abbasids, the airchitectur styles chynged an aw. The Christian styles evolved intae a style based mair on the [[Sasanian Empire]] utilisin mud bricks an baked bricks wi cairved stucco.<ref name=wil>{{harvnb|Wilber|1969|p=5}}</ref> Anither major development wis the creaution or vast enlairgement o ceeties as thay war turned intae the caipital o the empire. First, stairtin wi the creaution o Baghdad, stairtin in 762, that wis planned as a wawed ceety wi a mosque an pailace in the centre. The waws war tae hae fower gates tae exit the ceety. Al-Mansur, that wis responsible for the creaution o Baghdad, an aw planned the ceety o [[Raqqa]], alang the [[Euphrates]]. Feenally, in 836, al-Mu'tasim muived the caipital tae a new steid that he creatit alang the [[Tigris]], cried [[Abbasid Samarra|Samarra]]. This ceety saw 60 years o wark, wi race-coorses an gemme preserves tae add tae the atmosphere.<ref name=wil /> Due tae the dry remote naitur o the environment, some o the pailaces biggit in this era war isolatit havens. [[Al-Ukhaidir Fortress]] is a fine ensaumple o this teep o biggin that haes stables, leevin quarters, an a mosque, aw surroondin inner coortyairds.<ref name=wil /> Ither mosques o this era, sic as the [[Mosque o Ibn Tulun]], in [[Cairo]], an the [[Great Mosque o Kairouan]] in [[Tunisie]] while ultimately biggit in the Umayyad dynasty, it wis substantially renovatit in the 9t century. This renovation wis sae extensive as tae ostensibly be a rebig, wis in the faurest reaches o the Muslim warld, in an aurie that the [[Aghlabids]] controlled; houiver the styles utilized war mainly o the Abbasids.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilmer|1969|pp=5–6}}</ref> Mesopotamie anerly haes ane survivin [[mausoleum]] frae this era, in Samarra. This octagonal dome is the feenal restin place o [[al-Muntasir]].<ref name=wil2>{{harvnb|Wilber|1969|p=6}}</ref> Ither airchitectural innovations an styles war few, sic as the [[fower-centred airch|fower-centred arch]], an a dome erectit on [[squinch]]es. Unfortunately, muckle wis lost due tae the ephemeral naitur o the stucco an luster tiles.<ref name=wil2 /> === Technology === [[File:Wasseruhr Harun al Raschid.jpg|thumb|Illustration shawin a [[watter clock]] gien tae [[Charlemagne]] bi [[Harun al-Rashid]]]] In technology, the Abbasids adoptit [[papermakkin]] frae Cheenae.<ref name=Lucas>{{harvnb|Lucas|2005|p=10}}</ref> The uise o paper spreid frae Cheenae intae the caliphate in the 8t century CE, arrivin in [[al-Andalus]] (Islamic Spain) an then the rest o Europe in the 10t century. It wis easier tae manufactur nor [[pairchment]], less likely tae crack nor [[papyrus]], an coud resorb ink, makkin it ideal for makkin records an makkin copies o the Koran. "Islamic paper makkers devised assemmly-line methods o haund-copyin manuscripts tae turn oot edeetions faur lairger nor ony available in Europe for centuries."<ref>{{harvnb|Cotter|2001}}</ref> It wis frae the Abbasids that the rest o the warld learned tae mak paper frae linen.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2003|p=166}}</ref> The knawledge o [[gunpouder]] wis an aw transmitted frae Cheenae via the caliphate, whaur the formulas for pure [[potassium nitrate]] an an [[explosive]] gunpouder effect war first developed.<ref>{{harvnb|al-Hassan|2002}}</ref> Advances war made in [[irrigation]] an fermin, uisin new technology sic as the [[windmill]]. Craps such as [[awmond]]s an [[citrus]] fruit war brocht tae Europe throu [[al-Andalus]], an succar cultivation wis gradually adoptit bi the Europeans. Apairt frae the [[Nile]], [[Tigris]] an [[Euphrates]], navigable rivers war uncommon, sae transport bi sea wis verra important. Navigational sciences war heichly developed, makkin uise o a rudimentary [[sextant]] (kent as a kamal). Whan combined wi detailed maps o the period, sailors war able tae sail athort oceans raither nor skirt alang the coast. Abbasid sailors war an aw responsible for reintroducin lairge three mastit merchant veshels tae the [[Mediterranean]]. The name [[caravel]] mey derive frae an earlier Arab ship kent as the ''qārib''.<ref>{{harvnb|Schwarz|2013}}</ref> Arab merchants dominatit tred in the Indie Ocean till the arrival o the Portuguese in the 16t century. [[Ormus|Hormuz]] wis an important centre for this tred. Thare wis an aw a dense netwark o tred routes in the [[Mediterranean]], alang that Muslim kintras treddit wi ilk ither an wi European pouers sic as [[Venice]] or [[Genoa]]. The [[Silk Road]] crossin Central Asie passed throu Abbasid caliphate atween Cheenae an Europe. == Notes == {{reflist|group=nb}} == References == {{reflist|30em}} == Bibliografie == {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book |last=Abbas |first=Tahir |title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics: The British Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JdC90uc8PfQC&pg=PA9 |publisher=Routledge |location=London, UK |isbn=0-415-57225-8 |lccn=2009050163 |year=2011 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Al-Abbasi |first=A. M. M. |year=1986 |title=Nader al-Bayan fi Dhikr Ansab Baniabbassian |place=Doha |language=Persian |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |last=al-Hassan |first=Ahmad Y. |author-link=Ahmad Y Hassan |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%202.html#_edn2 |title=Gunpowder Composition for Rockets and Cannon in Arabic Military Treatises in Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries: A Gap in the History of Gunpowder and Cannon |website=History of Science and Technology in Islam |access-date=3 May 2015 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6YFEzyuzL?url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%202.html |year=2002 |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=dmy }} * {{cite web |last=al-Hassan |first=Ahmad Y. |author-link=Ahmad Y Hassan |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%2071.html |title=Transfer of Islamic Technology To The West: Part II: Transmission of Islamic Engineering |website=History of Science and Technology in Islam |access-date=3 May 2015 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6YFG2aZCF?url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%2071.html |year=2002a |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=dmy }} * {{cite web |last=al-Hassan |first=Ahmad Y. |author-link=Ahmad Y Hassan |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%207.html |title=Transfer of Islamic Technology To The West: Part I: Avenues of Technology Transfer |website=History of Science and Technology in Islam |access-date=3 May 2015 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6YFGHXcWB?url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%207.html |year=2002b |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=dmy }} * {{cite book |last=Abbott |first=Nabia |title=Two queens of Baghdad: mother and wife of Hārūn al Rashīd |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1946 |ref=harv}} * {{cite news |last=Al-Khalili |first=Jim |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |title=The "First True Scientist" |publisher=BBC.co.uk |date=4 January 2009 |access-date=3 May 2015 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6YFBZo7A9?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm |deadurl=no |ref=harv |df=dmy }} * {{cite web |publisher=Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/ |title=The Islamic World to 1600 |access-date=30 October 2008 |year=2008 |ref=harv |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005003551/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/ |archive-date=5 October 2008 }}{{Cite web |url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2019-01-03 |archive-date=2008-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005003551/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/ |url-status=bot: unknown }} * {{cite journal |last=Anon |title=Deutsche Literaturzeitung für Kritik der Internationalen Wissenschaft |volume=49 |issue=27–52 |year=1928 |publisher=Weidmannsche Buchhandlung |language=de |trans-title=German Weekly Literary Journal for Criticism of the International Science |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Baker |first=Hugh D. 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L. |year=1969 |title=Al-Hazen: Father of Modern Optics |ref=harv}}{{full citation needed|date=May 2015}} * {{cite book |last=Visser |first=Reidar |title=Basra, the Failed Gulf State: Separatism and Nationalism in Southern Iraq |url={{Google books|pCC4ffbOv_YC|page=19|Basra, the Failed Gulf State: Separatism and Nationalism in Southern Iraq | plainurl = yes}} |year=2005 |isbn=3-8258-8799-5 |publisher=Transaction Publisher |location=New Brunswick, NJ |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Wade |first=Geoffrey |editor1-last=Wade |editor1-first=Geoff |editor2-last=Tana |editor2-first=Li |chapter=Southeast Asian Islam and Southern China in the Fourteenth Century |title=Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |place=Singapore |year=2012 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Warren |first=John |year=2005 |title=War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: A Sadly Mismanaged Affair |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_third-world-quarterly_2005_26_4-5/page/815 |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=26 |issue=4-5 |pages=815–30 |doi=10.1080/01436590500128048 |ref=harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Wilber |first=Donald N. |editor-last1=Myers |editor-first1=Bernard S. |editor-last2=Myers |editor-first2=Shirley D. |encyclopedia=McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Art |year=1969 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company |location=New York, NY |volume=1: Aa-Ceylon |title=Abbasid Architecture |lccn=68026314 |ref=harv}} {{refend}} [[Category:Abbasid Caliphate| ]] [[Category:Arab dynasties]] [[Category:History o Iran]] [[Category:Medieval Iraq]] [[Category:States in medieval Anatolie]] [[Category:States in medieval Azerbaijan]] [[Category:750 establishments]] [[Category:1510s disestablishments in Asie]] [[Category:16t-century disestablishments in the Abbasid Caliphate]] [[Category:Umwhile caliphates]] ncjoamww2zle2ll1yaftqhmp36nqt1q 0 130739 918741 906694 2026-06-24T23:35:39Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918741 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots}} {{Infobox film | name = Lady and the Tramp | image = | caption = | director = {{Plainlist| * [[Clyde Geronimi]] * [[Wilfred Jackson]] * [[Hamilton Luske]] }} | producer = [[Walt Disney]] | story = {{Plainlist| * Erdman Penner * Joe Rinaldi * [[Ralph Wright]] * [[Don DaGradi]] }} | based on = {{based on|''Happy Dan, The Cynical Dog''|[[Ward Greene]]}} | starring = {{Plainlist| * [[Barbara Luddy]] * [[Larry Roberts (actor)|Larry Roberts]] * [[Bill Thompson (voice actor)|Bill Thompson]] * Bill Baucom * [[Verna Felton]] * [[Peggy Lee]] }} | music = [[Oliver Wallace]] | editing = Don Halliday | studio = [[Walt Disney Animation Studios|Walt Disney Productions]] | distributor = [[Buena Vista Distribution]] | released = {{Film date|1955|6|22}} | runtime = 76 minutes | country = Unitit States | language = Inglis | budget = $4 million<ref name="mojo">{{cite web|title=Lady and the Tramp|website=[[Box Office Mojo]]|url=https://www.boxofficemojo.com/release/rl593462785|access-date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> | gross = $187 million<ref name="DisneyWW">{{cite news|last=D'Alessandro|first=Anthony|work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|title=Disney Animated Features at the Worldwide Box Office|date=October 27, 2003}}</ref> }} '''''Lady and the Tramp''''' is a 1955 American animatit [[muisical film|muisical]] [[romance film]] produced bi [[Walt Disney]] an released tae theaters on Juin 22, 1955 bi [[Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures|Buena Vista Distribution]]. The 15t [[Leet o Walt Disney Animation Studios films|Disney animatit featur film]], it wis the first animatit featur filmed in the [[CinemaScope]] [[widescreen]] film process.<ref name="finch">{{cite book|last=Finch|first=Christopher|chapter=Chapter 8: Interruption and Innovations|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artofwaltdisneyf0000finc/page/234 234]–244|title=The Art of Walt Disney|url=https://archive.org/details/artofwaltdisneyf0000finc|year=2004|isbn=0-8109-2702-0}}</ref> Based on "Happy Dan, The Cynical Dog" bi [[Ward Greene]], ''Lady and the Tramp'' tells the story o a female [[American Cocker Spaniel]] named Lady who lifes wi a refined, upper-middle-cless faimily an a male stray [[mongrel|mutt]] cried the Tramp. When the twa dogs meet, thay embark on mony romantic adventures an faw in luve. Directit bi [[Clyde Geronimi]], [[Wilfred Jackson]], an [[Hamilton Luske]], the film featurs the vyces o [[Barbara Luddy]], [[Larry Roberts (actor)|Larry Roberts]], [[Bill Thompson (voice actor)|Bill Thompson]], Bill Baucom, [[Verna Felton]], an [[Peggy Lee]]. A [[direct-tae-video]] sequel, teetled ''[[Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure]]'', wis released in 2001, an a [[Lady and the Tramp (2019 film)|live-action/CGI hybrid remake]] premiered in 2019 as a launch teetle for the [[Disney+]] streamin service. ==Plot== On Christmas evenin, 1909, in a quaint Midwestern toun, Jim Dear gies his wife Darling an [[American Cocker Spaniel]] puppy whom she names Lady. Lady enjoys a joyful life wi the couple an befriends twa local neighborhood dugs, Jock, a [[Scottish terrier]], an Trusty, a [[bloodhound]]. Meanwhile, across toun, a stray mutt cried the Tramp lives on his ain, dinin on scraps frae Tony's [[Italian cuisine|Italian restaurant]] an protectin his fellow strays Peg (a [[Pekingese]]) an Bull (a [[bulldog]]) frae the local [[animal control officer|dogcatcher]]. Ane day, Lady is saddened efter her owners begin treatin her rather coldly. Jock an Trusty veesit her an determine that thair chynge in behaviour is due tae Darling expectin a baby. While Jock an Trusty try tae expleen what a baby is, Tramp interrupts the conversation an offers his ain thoughts on the matter, makin Jock and Trusty tak an immediate dislike tae the stray an order him oot o the yard. As Tramp leaves, he reminds Lady that "when a baby moves in, a dog moves out." Eventually, the baby arrives an the couple introduces Lady tae the infant, o whom Lady becomes very fond an protective. Suin efter, Jim Dear an Darling leave for a trip, wi thair Aunt Sarah leukin efter the baby an the hoose. Aunt Sarah's two trouble-makin [[Siamese cat]]s, Si an Am, deliberately mess up the hoose, knowin Lady will get in trouble for it, an then get her in even mair trouble bi trickin Aunt Sarah intae thinkin that Lady attacked them. Aunt Sarah then taks Lady tae a pet shop tae get a muzzle. Terrified, Lady flees, anly tae be pursued bi a trio o stray dugs. Tramp rescues her, fightin off the vicious strays, an finds a [[beaver]] at the local zoo who can remove the muzzle. Later, Tramp shows Lady how he lives "footloose and collar-free", eventually leadin intae a candlelit dinner at Tony's. Lady begins tae faw in luve wi Tramp, but she chooses tae return home in order tae watch ower the baby. Tramp offers tae escort Lady back home, but when Tramp decides tae chase hens aroond a farmyard for fun, Lady is captured bi the dog catcher an brocht tae the local dog pound. While at the pound, the ither dogs reveal tae Lady that Tramp has haed multiple girlfriends in the past, an thay feel it is unlikely that he will ever settle doun. Lady is eventually claimed bi Aunt Sarah, who chains her in the backyard as punishment for runnin away. Jock an Trusty veesit tae comfort Lady, but when Tramp arrives tae apologize, Lady angrily lashes out at him aboot his past girlfriends an failure tae rescue her frae the pound. Tramp sadly leaves, but immediately thereafter a rat sneaks intae the hoose. Lady sees the rat an barks frantically at it, but Aunt Sarah tells her tae be quiet. Tramp hears her barkin an rushes back, enterin the hoose an cornerin the rat in the nursery. Lady breaks free an rushes tae the nursery, whaur Tramp inadvertently knocks ower the baby's crib afore ultimately killin the rat. The commotion alerts Aunt Sarah, wha thinks thay harmed the baby. She pushes Tramp in a closet an locks Lady in the basement, then calls the pound tae tak Tramp away. Jim Dear an Darling return home as the dug catcher departs, an when thay release Lady, she leads them tae the deid rat. Overhearin everythin, Jock an Trusty chase efter the dug catcher's wagon. The dugs are able tae track doun the wagon an scare the horses, causin the wagon tae crash. Jim Dear arrives in a taxi wi Lady, wha reunites wi Tramp, but Trusty is injured bi the wagon. That Christmas, Tramp haes been adoptit intae the faimily, an he an Lady hae stairtit thair ain faimily, wi Lady havin gien birth tae a litter o fower puppies (three dochters who leuk identical tae Lady an [[Scamp (comics)|ane son who looks identical tae Tramp]]). Jock comes tae see the faimily alang wi Trusty, who is recovered an merely suffered a broken leg, an are formally welcomed as guests by the humans. Thanks tae the puppies, Trusty haes a fresh audience for his auld stories, but he haes forgotten them. ==Cast== * [[Barbara Luddy]] as Lady, an [[American Cocker Spaniel]]. * [[Larry Roberts (actor)|Larry Roberts]] as Tramp<!-- see talk page about character name -->, a [[mongrel|mutt]] o apparent [[Terrier]] ancestry, wi a knack for dodgin dog-catchers. He calls Lady "Pidge", short for Pigeon, which he calls her due tae her [[naivety]]. He never refers tae himsel bi name, although most o the film's canine cast refer tae him as the Tramp. It is nae until the sequel in which any humans call him Tramp, an it is never explained why thay "name" him wi the very name he wis kent bi on the streets. Tramp haed ither names in the film, an when asked bi Lady aboot having a faimily, Tramp states that he haes, "One for every day of the week. Point is, none of them have me." Each faimily mentioned cried him a different name (sic as Mike or Fritzi). The faimilies an aa haed different nationalities (sic as Erse or German). As he did nae belong tae a single faimily, Tramp implied that it wis easier than the baby problems Lady wis goin throu at the time. * [[Bill Thompson (voice actor)|Bill Thompson]] as Jock, a [[Scottish Terrier]] who is ane o Lady's neighbors. Thompson an aa voiced Joe, Tony's assistant chef; Bull, a stray male [[bulldog]] frae the dug pound who speaks wi a slicht Cockney accent; Dachsie, a stray male [[dachshund]] at the dug pound who speaks wi a German accent; a policeman; an Jim's friend. * Bill Baucom as Trusty, a [[bloodhound]] who used tae track criminals wi his Grandpappy, Old Reliable, until he lost his sense o smell. * [[Verna Felton]] as Aunt Sarah, Jim Dear's aunt (revealed tae be the sister o Jim Dear's mither in the Greene novelization o the film) who comes tae tak care o the baby when Jim Dear an Darling leave for a few days. She is a well-meanin busybody o a maiden aunt who adores her Siamese cats, but does not believe that dugs should be around babies. She blames baith Lady an Tramp for the baby's crib bein knocked over, not knowin that thay war actually protectin the baby frae a vicious rat. Houiver, she sends a box o dog biscuits for Christmas in the final scene o the film in a presumed attempt tae make amends for her mistreatment o the twa dugs. * [[George Givot]] as Tony, owner an chef o Tony's [[Italian cuisine|Italian restaurant]]. He an Joe baith hae great affection for Tramp. * Lee Millar as Jim Dear, the faitherly human figure an Darling's husband. Millar an aa voiced the Dogcatcher. * [[Peggy Lee]] as Darling, the mitherly human figure an Jim Dear's wife. Lee an aa voiced Si an Am, Aunt's Sarah's twin [[Siamese cat]]s wi a knack for mischief an never-ending trouble; an Peg, a stray female [[Pekingese]] whom Lady meets at the pound (alang wi the ither dog inmates she wis put in a cage wi). The names o Si an Am are a play on the country o [[Siam]]. It is implied that Peg haed a relationship wi Tramp in the past, throu the lyrics o the sang she sings (''He's a Tramp''). Peg wis formerly frae the "Dog and Pony Follies" ([[dog and pony show]]); either the show ended or she wis left behind. Peg haes a [[New York Dialect|Brooklyn Accent]]. * [[Stan Freberg]] as the beaver, a clever, hard-working beaver at the zoo who speaks wi a lisp. He gnaws off the muzzle that Aunt Sarah haed placed upon Lady efter Tramp realizes that the muzzle is juist what the beaver needs for pullin logs. This character wad later serve as the inspiration for [[Gopher (Winnie-the-Pooh)|Gopher]] frae ''[[Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree]]'' (1966), doun tae the speech pattern (a whistlin sound when he makes the "S" sound). Stan Freberg, who voiced the beaver in the film, haed an extensive background in commercial an comedy recordin voice overs an soundtracks. On the 2-Disc Platinum Edition DVD he demonstrates how it wis done an that a whistle wis eventually used acause it wis hard tae continue repeatin the effect. * [[Alan Reed]] as Boris, a stray male [[Borzoi]] frae the dug pound. He speaks wi a Russian accent. * [[Thurl Ravenscroft]] as Al the alligator, an alligator that Tramp asks tae remove the muzzle frae Lady. Houiver, he instead almost bites Lady's head off. * [[Dallas McKennon]] as Toughy, a stray male mutt frae the dug pound. He speaks wi a slicht Brooklyn accent, lik Peg. McKennon an aa voiced Pedro, a stray male [[Chihuahua (dog)|Chihuahua]] frae the dug pound who speaks wi a Mexican accent; a professor, an a laughin hyena. * [[The Mellomen]] ([[Thurl Ravenscroft]], [[Bill Lee (sangster)|Bill Lee]], Max Smith, Bob Hamlin and Bob Stevens) as Dog Chorus ==Production== ===Story development=== In 1937, Disney story man [[Joe Grant]] came up wi an idea inspired bi the antics o his [[English Springer Spaniel]] Lady, an how she got "shoved aside" bi Joe's new baby. He approached Walt Disney wi sketches o Lady. Disney enjoyed the sketches an commissioned Grant tae stairt story development on a new animatit featur teetled ''Lady''.<ref name="DVD">{{cite video|title=''Lady and the Tramp'' Platinum Edition DVD, Disc 2: "Behind the Scenes: Story Development"|people=Eric Goldberg}}</ref> Throu the late 1930s an early 1940s, Joe Grant an ither artists worked on the story, takkin a variety o approaches, but Disney wisna pleased wi ony o them, primarily acause he thocht Lady wis too sweet, an thare wisna enough action.<ref name="DVD"/> Walt Disney read the short story written bi [[Ward Greene]], "Happy Dan, the Cynical Dog", in ''[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]]'', published in 1945.<ref name="archive"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Greene|first1=Ward|title=Happy Dan, The Cynical Dog|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cosmopolitan_1945-02_118_2/page/n22|journal=Cosmopolitan|date=February 1945|volume=118|issue=2|page=19}}</ref> He thocht that Grant's story wad be improved if Lady fell in luve wi a cynical dog character lik the ane in Greene's story, an bought the rights tae it.<ref name="thomas">{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Bob|chapter=Chapter 7: The Postwar Films|pages=[https://archive.org/details/disneysartofanim0000thom_c5f8/page/103 103]–104|title=Disney's Art of Animation: From Mickey Mouse to Hercules|url=https://archive.org/details/disneysartofanim0000thom_c5f8|year=1997|isbn=0-7868-6241-6}}</ref> The cynical dog haed various names during development, includin Homer, Rags, an Bozo, afore "Tramp" wis chosen.<ref name="archive">{{cite web|work=Disney Archives|title=''Lady and the Tramp'' History|url=https://disney.go.com/vault/archives/movies/ladytramp/ladytramp.html|deadurl=yes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224175329/http://disney.go.com/vault/archives/movies/ladytramp/ladytramp.html|archive-date=February 24, 2007}}</ref> The finished film is slichtly different frae what wis oreeginally planned. Lady wis tae hae anly ane next-door neighbor, a [[Ralph Bellamy]]-teep canine named Hubert. Hubert wis later replaced wi Jock an Trusty. Aunt Sarah wis the traditional overbearing mither-in-law. In the final film, she is softened tae a busybody who, though antagonistic thewarts Lady an Tramp, is well-meanin (she sends a packet o dug biscuits tae the dugs at Christmas tae apologize for mistreatin them). Aunt Sarah's Nip an Tuck war later renamed Si an Am.<ref name="archive"/> Oreeginally, Lady's owners war cried Jim Brown an Elizabeth. Thir war changed tae hielicht Lady's pynt o view. Thay war briefly referred tae as "Mister" an "Missis" afore settling on the names "Jim Dear" an "Darling". Tae maintain a dog's [[perspective (visual)|perspective]], Darling an Jim's faces are rarely shawn, seemilar tae [[Mammy Two Shoes]] in the ''[[Tom and Jerry]]'' cartoons. The rat wis a somewhat comic character in early sketches, but became a great deal mair frightening, due tae the need tae raise dramatic tension. A scene creatit but then deleted wis ane in which efter Trusty says "Everybody knows, a dog's best friend is his human", Tramp describes a warld in which the roles of baith dogs an humans are switched; the dugs are the masters an vice versa.<ref name="DVD"/> Thare wis a luve triangle amang Lady, Tramp, an a [[Russian wolfhound]] named Boris (who appears in the dog pound in the final version).<ref>Deleted Scenes, Backstage Disney Diamond Edition, ''Lady and the Tramp'' 2012 Blu-ray</ref> The film's openin sequence, in which Darling unwraps a hat box on Christmas morning an finds Lady inside, is inspired bi an incident when Walt Disney presented his wife Lily wi a [[Chow chow|Chow]] puppy as a gift in a hat box tae mak up for having previously forgotten a dinner date wi her.<ref>{{cite video|title=''Walt: The Man Behind the Myth'': Pre-production of ''Lady and the Tramp''|format=DVD|year=2001}}</ref> In 1949, Grant left the studio, yet Disney story men war continually pulling Grant's oreeginal drawings an story off the shelf tae retool.<ref name="DVD"/> A solit story began takkin shape in 1953,<ref name="thomas"/> based on Grant's storyboards an Greene's short story.<ref name="DVD"/> Greene later wrote a [[novelization]] o the film that wis released two years afore the film itself, at [[Walt Disney]]'s insistence, sae that audiences wad be familiar wi the story.<ref name="backstage"/> Grant did nae receive film credit for his story work, an issue that animation director [[Eric Goldberg (film director)|Eric Goldberg]] hoped tae rectify in the ''Lady and the Tramp'' Platinum Edition's behind-the-scenes vignette that explained Grant's role.<ref name="DVD"/> Sangster [[Peggy Lee]] nae anly voiced four chairacters but co-wrote six sangs for the film.<ref name="nyt">{{cite news|last1=Weinraub|first1=Bernard|title=It's a Small World After All, Mr. Eisner|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/07/business/it-s-a-small-world-after-all-mr-eisner.html|work=The New York Times|date=August 7, 1995|access-date=September 13, 2017}}</ref> ===Animation=== As thay haed done wi deer on ''[[Bambi]]'', the animators studied mony dugs o different breeds tae captur the movement an personality o dogs. Awtho the spaghetti eatin sequence is probably nou the best kent scene frae the film, Walt Disney wis prepared tae cut it, thinkin that it wad nae be romantic an that dogs eatin spaghetti wad leuk silly. Animator [[Frank Thomas (animator)|Frank Thomas]] wis against Walt's decision and animatit the entire scene himsel wioot ony lay-outs. Walt wis impressed bi Thomas's work an how he romanticized the scene an kept the scene in.<ref name="DVD"/> On viewing the first tak o the scene, the animators felt that the action should be slowed doun, sae an apprentice trainee wis assigned tae creaut "half numbers" in atween mony o the oreeginal frames.<ref>{{cite news|first=Ken|last=Jones|date=September 1986|title=Willie Ito|work=[[Comics Interview]]|issue=38|page=49|publisher=[[Fictioneer Books]]}}</ref> Oreeginally, the background airtist wis supposed tae be [[Mary Blair]] an she did some inspirational sketches for the film. Houiver, she left the studio tae become a bairns' beuk illustrator in 1953. Claude Coats wis then appyntit as the key background airtist. Coats made models o the interiors o Jim Dear an Darling's hoose, an shot photos an film at a law perspective as reference tae maintain a dug's view.<ref name="backstage">{{cite video|title=''Lady and the Tramp'' Platinum Edition DVD. Disc 2: "Disney Backstage"}}</ref> Eyvind Earle (who later became the airt director o Disney's ''[[Sleeping Beauty (1959 film)|Sleeping Beauty]]'') did awmaist 50 miniature concept sketches for the Bella Notte sequence an wis a key contributor tae the film.<ref name="backstage"/> ====CinemaScope==== Oreeginally, ''Lady and the Tramp'' wis planned tae be filmed in a regular [[full frame]] [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]]. Houiver, due tae the growin interest o [[widescreen]] film amongst movie-goers, Disney decidit tae animate the film in [[CinemaScope]] makin ''Lady and the Tramp'' the first animatit featur filmed in the process.<ref name="archive"/> This new innovation presented additional problems for the animators: the expansion o space creatit mair realism but gae fewer closeups.<ref name="thomas"/> It an aa made it difficult for a single chairacter tae dominate the screen sae that groups haed tae be spread oot tae keep the screen frae appearin sparse.<ref name="archive"/> Langer takes becam necessar syne constant jump-cutting wad seem ower busy or annoying.<ref name="finch"/> Layout artists essentially haed tae reinvent thair technique. Animators haed tae remember that thay haed tae muive thair characters across a background instead o the background passing behind them.<ref name="thomas"/> Yet the animators overcame thir obstacles durin the action scenes, sic as Tramp killin the rat.<ref name="finch"/> Mair problems arose as the premiere date got closer syne nae aw theaters haed the capability tae shaw CinemaScope at the time. Upon learnin this, Walt issued twa versions o the film: ane in widescreen, an anither in the [[Academy ratio]]. This involved gatherin the layout artists tae restructure key scenes when chairacters war on the edges o the screen.<ref>{{cite video|title=''Lady and the Tramp'' Platinum Edition DVD, Disc 2: "Behind the Scenes"}}</ref> ==Release== ''Lady and the Tramp'' wis oreeginally released tae theaters on Juin 22, 1955. An episode o ''[[Walt Disney anthology television series|Disneyland]]'' cried "A Story of Dogs" aired afore the film's release.<ref>Newcomb (2001), p. 27.</ref> The film wis an aa reissued tae theaters in 1962, 1972, 1980, an 1986. ''Lady and the Tramp'' an aa played a leemitit engagement in select [[Cinemark Theatres]] frae Februar 16–18, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wire|first=Business|url=https://www.dailyfinance.com/2013/02/13/cinemark-announces-the-return-of-favorite-disney-c/|title=Cinemark Announces the Return of Favorite Disney Classic Animated Movies to the Big Screen|publisher=Dailyfinance.com|date=February 13, 2013|access-date=April 14, 2014|archive-date=2013-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105021126/https://www.dailyfinance.com/2013/02/13/cinemark-announces-the-return-of-favorite-disney-c/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Home media=== ''Lady and the Tramp'' wis first released on North American VHS an [[Laserdisc]] in 1987 as pairt o the [[Walt Disney Classics]] video series an in the United Kingdom in 1990. At the end o its initial home video release, it wis reported tae have sauld mair nor three million copies acomin the best-sellin videocassette at the time.<ref>{{cite news|last=Yarrow|first=Andrew|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/22/arts/video-cassettes-pushing-books-off-shelves.html|title=Video Cassettes Pushing Books Off Shelves|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 22, 1988|access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref> It went intae [[Moratorium (entertainment)|moratorium]] on March 31, 1988.<ref>{{cite news|last=Stevens|first=Mary|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1988-03-18/entertainment/8803010722_1_playboy-video-hbo-video-disney-home-video|title='Lady and the Tramp' Going Back To Vault|newspaper=Chicago Tribune|date=March 18, 1988|access-date=June 12, 2018|archive-date=2018-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819045237/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1988-03-18/entertainment/8803010722_1_playboy-video-hbo-video-disney-home-video|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was released on VHS in 1998 as pairt o the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection video series. A Disney Limited Issue series DVD o the film wis released on November 23, 1999 for a leemitit sixty-day time period.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Disney+to+Debut+Nine+Classic+Animated+Titles+on+DVD+for+a+Limited...-a055479044|title=Disney to Debut Nine Classic Animated Titles on DVD for a Limited Time to Celebrate the Millennium.|location=[[Burbank, California]]|agency=Business Wire|publisher=[[TheFreeDictionary.com#TheFreeLibrary.com|TheFreeLibrary]]|date=August 17, 1999|access-date=June 12, 2018|archive-date=2018-06-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613084632/https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Disney+to+Debut+Nine+Classic+Animated+Titles+on+DVD+for+a+Limited...-a055479044|url-status=dead}}</ref> Efter the first release on video tapes, Peggy Lee socht performance an song royalties on the video sales. Disney CEO [[Michael Eisner]] refused, thus she filed suit in 1988. Eventually in 1992, the California Court of Appeals order Disney tae pay Lee $3.2 million in compensation or about a 4% on the video sales.<ref name="nyt" /> ''Lady and the Tramp'' wis remastered an restored for DVD on Februar 28, 2006, as the seivent installment o Disney's Platinum Editions series.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.ultimatedisney.com/ladyandthetramp-platinumedition-pressrelease.html|title=From the Disney Vault! The 50th Anniversary 2-Disc DVD Walt Disney's Lady and the Tramp 50th Anniversary Edition|location=Burbank, California|agency=[[Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment|Buena Vista Home Entertainment]]|publisher=Ultimate Disney|date=October 20, 2005}}</ref> On its first day, ane million copies o the Platinum Edition war sauld.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ault|first1=Susanne|last2=Netherby|first2=Jennifer|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060314153823/http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6312352.htm|url=http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6312352.html|title=''Walk the Line'' Stomps Competition; ''Lady and the Tramp'', ''Pride & Prejudice'' also bow well|publisher=[[Reed Business Information]]|date=March 2, 2006|archive-date=March 12, 2006}}</ref> The Platinum Edition DVD went on moratorium on Januar 31, 2007, alang wi the 2006 DVD re-issue o the film's sequel ''[[Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/09/29/disney-closes-the-vault|title=Disney Closes the Vault|website=[[IGN]]|date=September 29, 2006}}</ref> ''Lady and the Tramp'' wis released on [[Blu-ray]] on Februar 7, 2012 as a pairt of Disney's Diamond Editions series.<ref name="Toon Zone">{{cite news|last=Liu|first=Ed|title=Disney to Release Two Amazing Classics From the Vault in 2012|url=http://www.toonzone.net/news/articles/39424/pr-disney-to-release-lady-amp-the-tramp-and-cinderella-on-blu-ray-diamond-editions-in-2012|newspaper=Toon Zone|date=November 11, 2011|access-date=November 11, 2011|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114154040/http://www.toonzone.net/news/articles/39424/pr-disney-to-release-lady-amp-the-tramp-and-cinderella-on-blu-ray-diamond-editions-in-2012|archive-date=November 14, 2011|df=}}</ref> A standalone 1-disc DVD edition wis released on Mairch 20, 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cduniverse.com/productinfo.asp?pid=8637821|title=Lady and the Tramp DVD Movie|access-date=December 11, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amazon.com/Lady-Tramp-Bill-Thompson/dp/B0061QD88S/ref=sr_1_4?s=movies-tv&ie=UTF8&qid=1330359764&sr=1-4|title=Amazon.com: Lady and the Tramp: Bill Thompson, Peggy Lee, Larry Roberts, Barbara Luddy, Bill Baucom: Movies & TV|access-date=Februar 27, 2012}}</ref> ''Lady and the Tramp'' wis re-released on Digital HD on Februar 20, 2018 an on Blu-ray Februar 27, 2018 as pairt o the Walt Disney Signature Collection Line.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rotoscopers.com/2018/01/06/lady-and-the-tramp-to-join-walt-disney-signature-collection-in-february/|title=‘Lady and the Tramp’ to Join Walt Disney Signature Collection in February|publisher=Rotoscopers|access-date=Januar 6, 2018}}</ref> ==Reception== ===Critical reception=== During its initial release, the film wis initially panned bi critics.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/ladyandthetramp/index.html|title=Walt and Education: Part I|publisher=The Walt Disney Family Museum|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822192056/http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/ladyandthetramp/index.html|archive-date=August 22, 2007|access-date=December 24, 2017}}</ref> [[Bosley Crowther]] o ''[[The New York Times]]'' claimed the film wis "not the best [Disney] has done in this line. The sentimentality is mighty, and the CinemaScope size does not make for any less aware of the thickness of the goo. It also magnifies the animation, so that the flaws and poor foreshortening are more plain. Unfortunately, and surprisingly, the artists' work is below par in this film."<ref>{{cite web|last=Crowther|first=Bosley|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1955/06/24/archives/screen-dogs-and-lovers-disneys-lady-and-the-tramp-at-roxy.html|title=Screen: Dogs and Lovers; Disney's 'Lady and the Tramp' at Roxy|newspaper=The New York Times|date=June 24, 1955|access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref> ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' wrote "Walt Disney has for so long parlayed gooey sentiment and stark horror into profitable cartoons that most moviegoers are apt to be more surprised than disappointed to discover that the combination somehow does not work this time."<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,807375,00.html|title=Cinema: The New Pictures|magazine=Time|date=July 11, 1955|access-date=June 12, 2018|archive-date=2008-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215060844/https://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,807375,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Houiver, ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' deemed the film "a delight for the juveniles and a joy for adults".<ref>{{cite web|author=''Variety'' Staff|url=https://variety.com/1954/film/reviews/lady-and-the-tramp-1200417885/|title=Lady and the Tramp|publisher=''Variety''|access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref> Houiver, the film haes syne gone on tae become regarded as a classic. [[Dave Kehr]], writin for ''[[The Chicago Tribune]]'' gave the film four stars.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kehr|first=Dave|url=https://articles.chicagotribune.com/1986-12-19/entertainment/8604050010_1_character-animation-peggy-lee-love-story|title='Lady and the Tramp' Love Story Still Works -- 31 Years Later|newspaper=Chicago Tribune|date=December 19, 1986|access-date=June 12, 2018|archive-date=2015-08-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801020629/https://articles.chicagotribune.com/1986-12-19/entertainment/8604050010_1_character-animation-peggy-lee-love-story|url-status=dead}}</ref> Animation historian Charles Solomon praised the film.<ref>{{cite web|last=Solomon|first=Charles|url=https://articles.latimes.com/1986-12-19/entertainment/ca-3690_1_american-tail|title=Movie Review : A Fresh Look At 'Lady And The Tramp'|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=December 19, 1986|access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref> The sequence o Lady an Tramp sharin a plate o spaghetti — climaxed bi an accidental kiss as thay swallow opposite ends o the same strand o spaghetti — is considered an iconic scene in American film history.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.filmsite.org/iconicfilmscenes.html|title=100 Most Iconic Film Images, Moments, or Scenes|last=Dirks|first=Tim|work=filmsite|publisher=AMC|access-date=December 25, 2017}}</ref> The [[review aggregator]] website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film received a 93% approval rating, wi an average ratin of 7.92/10, based on 41 reviews. The website's consensus states, "A nostalgic charmer, ''Lady and the Tramp''{{'}}s token sweetness is mighty but the songs and richly colored animation are technically superb and make for a memorable experience."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/lady_and_the_tramp/|title=Lady and the Tramp (1955)|work=[[Rotten Tomatoes]]|publisher=[[Fandango Media]]|access-date=March 1, 2018}}</ref> ''Lady and the Tramp'' wis named nummer 95 oot o the "100 Greatest Love Stories of All Time" bi the [[American Film Institute]] in thair ''[[AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions|100 Years...100 Passions]]'' special, as ane of anly two animatit films tae appear on the leet, alang wi Disney's ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'' which ranked 34th.<ref>{{cite web|work=AFI|title=''100 Years...100 Passions'' List of 100 Winning Movies|format=PDF|url=http://connect.afi.com/site/DocServer/passions100.pdf?docID=248l|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707093057/http://connect.afi.com/site/DocServer/passions100.pdf?docID=248l|archive-date=July 7, 2011|df=}}</ref> In 2010, [[Rhapsody (online music service)|Rhapsody]] cried its accompanying soundtrack ane o the aw-time great Disney & Pixar soundtracks.<ref>{{cite news|title=Essential Disney & Pixar Soundtracks|url=https://blog.rhapsody.com/2010/06/disney.html|date=June 15, 2010|access-date=July 27, 2010|author=Richard Corliss|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002121800/http://blog.rhapsody.com/2010/06/disney.html|archive-date=October 2, 2011|df=}}</ref> In Juin 2011, [[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] named it ane o "The 25 All-TIME Best Animated Films".<ref>{{cite news|title=The 25 All-TIME Best Animated Films&nbsp;– Lady and the Tramp|url=https://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2079149_2079152,00.html|work=Time|author=Richard Corliss|date=June 23, 2011|access-date=August 19, 2011|archive-date=2011-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706122359/https://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2079149_2079152,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Box office=== In its initial release, the film teuk in a higher figure than ony ither Disney animatit featur syne ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'',<ref>{{cite book|title=Television: The Critical View|url=https://archive.org/details/televisioncritic00unse|last=Newcomb|first=Horace|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-511927-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/televisioncritic00unse/page/27 27]}}</ref> earning an estimated $6.5 million in domestic box office rentals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/variety201-1956-01|title=1955's Top Film Grossers|page=1|publisher=''Variety''|date=January 25, 1956|access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref> ''Lady and the Tramp'' haes haed a domestic lifetime gross o $93.6 million,<ref name="mojo"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Russell|first=Candice|url=https://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1991-11-22/features/9102180126_1_mrs-potts-animation-department-beast|title=A Box-office Draw A French Fairy Tale That Has Been Languishing At Disney Studios For Years, Beauty And The Beast Now Seems Destined To Join The Ranks Of The Very Best Animated Classics.|page=2|newspaper=[[Orlando Sentinel]]|date=November 22, 1991|access-date=June 12, 2018|archive-date=2018-06-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613084648/https://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1991-11-22/features/9102180126_1_mrs-potts-animation-department-beast|url-status=dead}}</ref> an a lifetime international gross o $187 million.<ref name="DisneyWW"/> ===Accolades=== {| class="wikitable" |- " ! Year ! Ceremony ! Award ! Result |- | rowspan="2"| 1956 | [[9th British Academy Film Awards|BAFTA Awards]]<ref>Bafta Awards http://www.bafta.org/awards/film/nominations/?year=1955</ref> | Best Animatit Film | {{nom}} |- | [[David di Donatello|David di Donatello Awards]]<ref>{{it icon}} Academia del Cinema Italiano {{cite web|url=http://www.daviddidonatello.it/english/premia.php|title=Archived copy|access-date=November 15, 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091103225831/http://www.daviddidonatello.it/english/premia.php|archive-date=November 3, 2009}}</ref> | Best Foreign Producer<small><br />(Walt Disney)<br /></small> | {{Won}} |- | 2006 | [[Satellite Award]]s<ref>Press Academy {{cite web|url=http://www.pressacademy.com/satawards/awards2006.shtml|title=Archived copy|access-date=March 6, 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718091353/http://www.pressacademy.com/satawards/awards2006.shtml|archive-date=July 18, 2011}}</ref> | Best Youth DVD | {{nom}} |} ;[[American Film Institute]] Lists * [[AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies]]&nbsp;– Nominated<ref>{{cite web|publisher=American Film Institute|url=http://www.afi.com/Docs/100Years/movies400.pdf|title=AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies Nominees|format=PDF|access-date=April 13, 2014|archive-date=2013-10-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026011242/http://afi.com/Docs/100Years/movies400.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions]]&nbsp;– No. 95 * [[AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs]]: ** He's a Tramp&nbsp;– Nominated<ref>{{cite web|publisher=American Film Institute|url=http://www.afi.com/Docs/100Years/songs400.pdf|title=AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs Nominees|format=PDF|access-date=April 13, 2014|archive-date=2015-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417023552/http://afi.com/Docs/100Years/songs400.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals]]&nbsp;– Nominated<ref>{{cite web|publisher=American Film Institute|url=http://www.afi.com/Docs/100Years/musicals_ballot.pdf|title=AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals Nominees|format=PDF|access-date=April 13, 2014}}</ref> * [[AFI's 10 Top 10]]&nbsp;– Nominated Animated Film<ref>{{cite web|publisher=American Film Institute|url=http://www.afi.com/drop/ballot.pdf|title=AFI's 10 Top 10 Ballot|access-date=April 13, 2014|archive-date=2017-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326214614/http://www.afi.com/drop/ballot.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Music== {{Infobox album | name = Lady and the Tramp | type = soundtrack | artist = Various artists | cover = | alt = | released = September 9, 1997 | recorded = | venue = | studio = | genre = Classical | length = 48:00 | label = [[Walt Disney Records|Walt Disney]] | producer = Ted Kryczko <small>(executive)</small> | prev_title = | prev_year = | next_title = | next_year = }} {{Album ratings | rev1 = [[AllMusic]] | rev1Score = {{Rating|4.5|5}}<ref>{{Allmusic|class=album|id=mw0000028327}}</ref> }} The score for the film wis componed an conducted bi [[Oliver Wallace]]. It wis the last Disney animatit film for which Oliver Wallace did the score, as the scores for the next six Disney animatit films war componed bi [[George Bruns]]. Recordin airtist [[Peggy Lee]] wrote the sangs wi [[Sonny Burke]] an assisted wi the score as well.<ref name="archive"/> In the film, she sings "La La Lu", "The Siamese Cat Song", an "He's a Tramp".<ref>{{cite web|work=Peggy Lee's Official Website|title=Peggy Lee's Film Appearances|url=http://www.peggylee.com/solos/films.html|access-date=2017-05-30|archive-date=2017-05-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170528120310/http://www.peggylee.com/solos/films.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> She helped promote the film on the Disney TV series, expleenin her work wi the score an singin a few o the film's nummers.<ref name="archive"/> Thir appearances are available as pairt o the ''Lady and the Tramp'' Platinum Edition DVD set. On November 16, 1988, Peggy Lee sued the Walt Disney Company for breach o contract, claimin that she retained the rights tae transcriptions o the music, arguin that videotape editions war transcriptions.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/17/movies/peggy-lee-is-suing-disney.html|title=Peggy Lee article|work=The New York Times|first=Glenn|last=Collins|date=November 17, 1988}}</ref> Efter a protracted legal battle, she wis awairdit $2.3 million in 1991.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/2066858.stm|title=Stars share royalties victory|date=June 26, 2002|access-date=January 5, 2010|work=BBC News}}</ref> The remastered soundtrack o ''Lady and the Tramp'' wis released on CD bi [[Walt Disney Records]] on September 9, 1997, an wis released as a digital download on September 26, 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lady and the Tramp [Disney] - Original Soundtrack|website=AllMusic|url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/lady-and-the-tramp-disney-mw0000028327|access-date=February 4, 2014}}</ref> ===Track listing=== {{Track listing | title1 = Main Title ([[Bella Notte]]) / The Wag of a Dog's Tail | length1 = 2:03 | title2 = Peace on Earth ([[Silent Night (sang)|Silent Night]]) | length2 = 1:01 | title3 = It Has a Ribbon / Lady to Bed / A Few Mornings Later | length3 = 3:53 | title4 = Sunday / The Rat / Morning Paper | length4 = 1:44 | title5 = A New Blue Collar / Lady Talks To Jock & Trusty / It's Jim Dear | length5 = 3:17 | title6 = What a Day! / Breakfast at Tony's | length6 = 1:05 | title7 = Warning / Breakout / Snob Hill / A Wee Bairn | length7 = 2:44 | title8 = Countdown to B-Day | length8 = 2:05 | title9 = Baby's First Morning / What Is a Baby / La La Lu | length9 = 3:11 | title10 = Going Away / Aunt Sarah | length10 = 1:51 | title11 = The Siamese Cat Song / What's Going on Down There? | length11 = 2:35 | title12 = The Muzzle / Wrong Side of the Tracks | length12 = 1:54 | title13 = You Poor Kid / He's Not My Dog | length13 = 1:23 | title14 = Through the Zoo / A Log Puller | length14 = 1:59 | title15 = Footloose and Collar-Free / A Night at the Restaurant / Bella Notte | length15 = 4:22 | title16 = It's Morning / Ever Chase Chickens / Caught | length16 = 2:51 | title17 = Home Sweet Home | length17 = 1:30 | title18 = The Pound | length18 = 1:27 | title19 = What a Dog / He's a Tramp | length19 = 2:24 | title20 = In the Doghouse / The Rat Returns / Falsely Accused / We've Got to Stop That Wagon / Trusty's Sacrifice | length20 = 6:05 | title21 = Watch the Birdie / Visitors | length21 = 2:05 | title22 = Finale (Peace on Earth) | length22 = 0:31 | total_length = 48:00 }} ==Other media== ===Sequel=== On Februar 27, 2001, [[Disney Television Animation]] released a direct-tae-video sequel tae the film teetled ''[[Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure]]''. Produced 46 years efter its predecessor an set twa years an a few months efter the events o the first film, it centers on the adventures o Lady an Tramp's anly son, [[Scamp (comics)|Scamp]], who desires tae be a wild dog. He runs away frae his faimily an joins a gang o [[wrecking yard|junkyard]] dugs tae fulfill his longin for freedom an a life wioot rules. Reviews for the sequel war generally mixed tae negative, wi critics pannin its plot. ===Live-action adaptation=== On Februar 8, 2018, it wis announced that [[Walt Disney Pictures]] wis developin a live-action remake o the film. The film wis expected tae premiere on the [[Disney+|then-unnamed upcoming streaming service]] that wis set tae launch in the fall o 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://deadline.com/2018/02/disney-streaming-service-launch-slate-star-wars-marvel-1202281846/|title=Disney Unveils Inaugural Streaming Service Launch Slate To Town; No R-Rated Fare|website=Deadline|last=Fleming Jr.|first=Mike|date=February 8, 2018|access-date=February 8, 2018}}</ref> On March 19, 2018, it wis announced that film wis set tae be directed bi [[Charlie Bean (animator)|Charlie Bean]] from a screenplay bi Andrew Bujalski wi Brigham Taylor servin as a producer.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://screenrant.com/disney-live-action-lady-tramp-remake-director/|title=Disney’s Live-Action Lady and the Tramp Remake Gets a Director|website=Screen Rant|last=Hood|first=Cooper|date=March 19, 2018|access-date=March 19, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/lady-tramp-remake-be-directed-by-charlie-bean-1094301/|title='Lego Ninjago Movie' Director Tackling Live-Action 'Lady and the Tramp' (Exclusive)|author=Borys Kit|date=March 19, 2018|access-date=June 5, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=N'Duka|first1=Amanda|title=Charlie Bean To Helm Disney’s Live-Action ‘Lady And The Tramp’ Adaptation|url=https://deadline.com/2018/03/charlie-bean-disney-live-action-lady-and-the-tramp-movie-1202345900/|website=Deadline Hollywood|date=March 19, 2018|access-date=July 26, 2018|archive-date=2018-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727112300/https://deadline.com/2018/03/charlie-bean-disney-live-action-lady-and-the-tramp-movie-1202345900/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The film began shooting in [[Atlanta]] an [[Savannah, Georgia]] in September 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://omegaunderground.com/2018/04/14/live-action-lady-and-the-tramp-movie-shoots-this-fall-in-georgia/|title=Live-Action ‘Lady And The Tramp’ Movie Shoots This Fall In Georgia|author=Christopher Marc|date=April 15, 2018|access-date=June 5, 2018}}{{Dead link|date=January 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In July 2018, [[Ashley Jensen]] had been cast in the voice role o Jackie, a gender swapped version o Jock,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://deadline.com/2018/07/lady-and-the-tramp-movie-ashley-jensen-cast-disney-1202433410/|title=Disney’s ‘Lady And The Tramp’ Reboot Sets First Cast With ‘Extras’ & ‘Sherlock Gnomes’ Actress Ashley Jensen|website=Deadline|last=Wiseman|first=Andreas|date=July 25, 2018|access-date=July 25, 2018}}</ref> while [[Justin Theroux]] an [[Sam Elliot]] had been cast in the voice roles o Tramp an Trusty, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://collider.com/justin-theroux-lady-and-the-tramp-disney/|title=Exclusive: Justin Theroux to Star in ‘Lady and the Tramp’ for Disney’s Streaming Service|website=Collider|last=Sneider|first=Jeff|date=July 26, 2018|access-date=July 26, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Couch|first1=Aaron|title=Justin Theroux to Voice Star in Disney's 'Lady and the Tramp' Remake|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/lady-tramp-remake-star-justin-theroux-1130108|website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|date=July 26, 2018|access-date=July 26, 2018|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=EXCLUSIVE: Sam Elliott Joins Disney’s LADY AND THE TRAMP Remake {{!}} That Hashtag Show|url=http://www.thathashtagshow.com/2018/07/30/exclusive-sam-elliot-joins-disneys-lady-and-the-tramp-remake/|website=That Hashtag Show|date=July 30, 2018|access-date=October 3, 2018|archive-date=2018-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006010322/http://thathashtagshow.com/2018/07/30/exclusive-sam-elliot-joins-disneys-lady-and-the-tramp-remake/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Bi the end o the month, [[Kiersey Clemons]] entered talks tae portray Darling, Lady's owner.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2018/film/news/kiersey-clemons-disneys-lady-and-the-tramp-1202891422/|title=Kiersey Clemons in Talks to Join Disney’s Live-Action ‘Lady and the Tramp’ (EXCLUSIVE)|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|last=Kroll|first=Justin|date=July 31, 2018|access-date=July 31, 2018}}</ref> In August 2018, it wis reported that [[Tessa Thompson]] an [[Benedict Wong]] had been cast in the voice roles o Lady an Bull, respectively, an that [[Thomas Mann (actor)|Thomas Mann]] had been cast in the live-action role o Jim Dear.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collider.com/tessa-thompson-lady-and-the-tramp-benedict-wong/|title=Exclusive: Tessa Thompson to Star in ‘Lady and the Tramp’ for Disney’s Streaming Service|last=Sneider|first=Jeff|website=[[Collider (website)|Collider]]|date=August 14, 2018|access-date=August 14, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2018/film/news/thomas-mann-lady-and-the-tramp-jim-dear-1202909041/|title=Thomas Mann Joins Disney’s Live-Action ‘Lady and the Tramp’ (EXCLUSIVE)|website=Variety|last=Kroll|first=Justin|date=August 17, 2018|access-date=August 17, 2018}}</ref> In September 2018, it wis announced that [[Yvette Nicole Brown]] an [[Adrian Martinez (actor)|Adrian Martinez]] had been cast in the live-action roles o Aunt Sarah an the dog-catcher Elliot, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|title=Yvette Nicole Brown Joins Live-Action ‘Lady and the Tramp’|url=https://variety.com/2018/film/news/yvette-nicole-brown-lady-and-the-tramp-1202926182/|website=Variety|last1=McNary|first1=Dave|date=September 4, 2018|access-date=September 4, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Adrian Martinez Joins Disney’s ‘Lady and the Tramp’; ‘Mulan’ Adds Chen Tang|url=https://deadline.com/2018/09/adrian-martinez-disney-lady-and-the-tramp-mulan-chen-tang-1202469095/|website=Deadline Hollywood||last1=N'Duka|first1=Amanda|date=September 21, 2018|access-date=September 21, 2018}}</ref> In October 2018, it wis announced [[Arturo Castro (Guatemalan actor)|Arturo Castro]] had been cast in the live-action role o Marco an that [[Janelle Monáe]] had been cast in the voice role o Peg.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/arturo-castro-joins-disneys-lady-tramp-1149386|title=Arturo Castro Joins Disney's 'Lady and the Tramp' (Exclusive)|website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|first=Mia|last=Galuppo|date=October 4, 2018|access-date=October 4, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Janelle Monae Joins Disney’s ‘Lady And The Tramp’ Reboot With Tessa Thompson, Justin Theroux|url=https://deadline.com/2018/10/janelle-monae-tessa-thompson-disney-lady-and-tramp-justin-theroux-1202477309/|website=Deadline Hollywood|last1=Wiseman|first1=Andreas|date=October 5, 2018|access-date=October 5, 2018}}</ref> The film will be released wi the streaming service on November 12, 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://deadline.com/2019/04/lady-and-the-tramp-disney-launch-sean-baily-live-action-slate-1202594405/|title=Disney Film Production Chief Sean Bailey On Streaming Service’s Live-Action Slate; ‘Lady And The Tramp’ Available At Launch|website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]|first=Anthony|last=D'Alessandro|date=April 11, 2019|access-date=April 11, 2019}}</ref> "The Siamese Cat Song", due tae its modern-day perceived racist connotations, will nae be included in the live-action film. In its place will be a re-worked adaptation o the sang bi Janelle Monáe, [[Deep Cotton|Nate "Rocket" Wonder]], an [[Roman GianArthur]]; Monáe will perform the sang.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Donnelly|first1=Matt|last2=Willman|first2=Chris|title=‘Lady and the Tramp’ Will Reinvent Problematic Siamese Cat Song, Feature New Music From Janelle Monae (EXCLUSIVE)|url=https://variety.com/2019/film/news/lady-and-the-tramp-janelle-monae-revamp-siamese-cat-song-1203204041/|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|date=May 6, 2019|access-date=May 6, 2019}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Freemit airtins== {{wikiquote}} * {{Offeecial wabsteid|https://movies.disney.com/lady-and-the-tramp}} * {{IMDb title|0048280}} * {{tcmdb title|80607}} * {{Bcdb title|31}} * {{AllMovie title|28038}} * {{Rotten-tomatoes|lady_and_the_tramp}} * {{Mojo title|ladyandthetramp}} {{Walt Disney Animation Studios}} [[Category:1955 animatit films]] [[Category:1955 films]] [[Category:1950s American animatit films]] [[Category:1950s bairns' animatit films]] [[Category:1950s romantic muisical films]] [[Category:American films]] [[Category:American bairns' animatit films]] [[Category:American romantic muisical films]] [[Category:Animatit films aboot dugs]] [[Category:Animatit muisical films]] [[Category:Animatit romance films]] [[Category:CinemaScope films]] [[Category:Inglis-leid films]] [[Category:Films based on short feection]] [[Category:Films directit bi Clyde Geronimi]] [[Category:Films directit bi Hamilton Luske]] [[Category:Films directit bi Wilfred Jackson]] [[Category:Films featurin anthropomorphic chairacters]] [[Category:Films scored bi Oliver Wallace]] [[Category:Films set in 1909]] [[Category:Films set in the Unitit States]] [[Category:Rotoscoped films]] [[Category:Walt Disney Animation Studios films]] [[Category:Walt Disney Pictures films]] epbaw1tdr0wdejfqf6e6n276m9xx5hb 0 131756 918736 915657 2026-06-24T23:32:35Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918736 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer |name = Isaac Asimov |image = Isaac.Asimov01.jpg |caption = Isaac Asimov in 1965 |birth_name = Isaak Yudovich Ozimov |birth_date = Between October 4, 1919 an Januar 2, 1920<ref name="birthday"/> |birth_place = {{nowrap|[[Petrovichi, Smolensk Oblast|Petrovichi]], [[Roushie Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Roushie SFSR]]}} |spouse = Gertrude Blugerman (1942–1973; divorced)<br>[[Janet Asimov|Janet Opal Jeppson]] (1973–1992; his daith) |children = David Asimov<br>Robyn Joan Asimov |death_date = {{Death date and age|mf=yes|1992|4|6|1920|1|2}} |death_place = [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]], U.S. |nationality = Roushie (early years), American |ethnicity = |occupation = Writer, professor o [[biochemistry]] |period = 1939–1992 |genre = Science feection ([[haurd SF]], [[social SF]]), [[mystery feection|mystery]] |subject = [[Popular science]], science [[textbeuks]], essays, [[leeterary creeticism]] |education = [[Columbia Varsity]], PhD. [[Biochemistry]], 1948 |movement = [[Gowden Age o Science Feection]] |notableworks = {{plain list| *The ''[[Foundation Series]]'' *The ''[[Robot series (Asimov)|Robot series]]'' *''[[Nightfall (Asimov short story)|Nightfall]]'' *''[[The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science]]'' *''[[I, Robot]]'' *''[[The Bicentennial Man]]'' *''[[The Gods Themselves]]'' }} |debut_works = "[[Marooned Off Vesta]]", an S.F. short story |signature = Isaac Asimov signature.svg |website = }} '''Isaac Asimov''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|z|ɨ|k|_|ˈ|æ|z|ɨ|m|ɒ|v}};<ref>''Pronunciation note'': In the humorous poem "The Prime of Life" published in the anthology ''[[The Bicentennial Man and Other Stories]]'', Asimov rhymes his name thusly: "Why, [[mazel tov]], it's Asimov". In his comments tae the poem, Asimov wrote that oreeginally it was "Why, stars above, it's Asimov", an when someone suggestit tae uise "mazel tov" insteid, Asimov acceptit this as a signeeficant impruivement.</ref> born '''Isaak Yudovich Ozimov'''; ''circa'' Januar 2, 1920<ref name="birthday">{{cite book |last=Asimov |first=Isaac |title=In Memory Yet Green |year=1980 |url=https://archive.org/details/inmemoryyetgreen00asim |quote=The date of my birth, as I celebrate it, was January 2, 1920. It could not have been later than that. It might, however, have been earlier. Allowing for the uncertainties of the times, of the lack of [[civil registry|records]], of the [[Ebreu calendar|Jewish]] and [[Julian calendar]]s, it might have been as early as October 4, 1919. There is, however, no way of finding out. My parents were always uncertain and it really doesn't matter. I celebrate January 2, 1920, so let it be.}}</ref> – Aprile 6, 1992) wis an American author an professor o [[biochemistry]] at [[Boston Varsity]], best kent for his wirks o [[science feection]] an for his [[popular science]] beuks. Asimov wis a [[Leet o proleefic writers|proleefic writer]] that wrote or eeditit mair nor 500 beuks an an estimatit 90,000 letters an [[postcaird]]s.{{efn|{{cite book |last=Asimov |first=Stanley |title=Yours, Isaac Asimov |url=https://archive.org/details/yoursisaacasimov0000asim |date=1996 |quote=My estimate is that Isaac received about 100,000 letters in his professional career. And with the compulsiveness that has to be a character trait of a writer of almost 500 books, he answered 90 percent of them. He answered mair nor hauf wi postcairds an didna mak caurbons o them. But wi the 100,000 letters he received, thare are caurbons o about 45,000 that he wrote.}}}} His beuks hae been published in 9 o the 10 major categories o the [[Dewey Decimal Clessification]].<ref name="AsimovFAQ-DeweyDecimal">{{cite web |last=Seiler |first=Edward |last2=Jenkins |first2=John H. |url=http://www.asimovonline.com/asimov_FAQ.html#others11 |title=Isaac Asimov FAQ |publisher=Isaac Asimov Home Page |date=June 27, 2008 |accessdate=July 2, 2008}}</ref> Asimov wrote [[haurd science feection]]. Alang wi [[Robert A. Heinlein]] an [[Arthur C. Clarke]], Asimov wis conseedert ane o the "Big Three" science feection writers in his lifetime.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Freedman |first=Carl | author-link = Carl Freedman |title=Critical Theory and Science Fiction |publisher=Doubleday |date=2000 |page=71 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> Asimov's maist famous wark is the [[Foundation series|"Foundation" series]];<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biblio.com/authors/212/Isaac_Asimov_Biography.html |title=Isaac Asimov Biography and List of Works |accessdate=March 5, 2008 |work=Biblio.com}}</ref> his ither major series are the [[Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire Series|"Galactic Empire" series]] an the [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series|Robot series]]. The Galactic Empire novelles are set in earlier history o the same feectional universe as the Foundation series. Later, wi ''[[Foundation and Earth]]'' (1986), he airtit this distant futur tae the Robot stories, creautin a unifee'd "[[future history]]" for his stories muckle lik thae pioneered bi Robert A. Heinlein an previously produced bi [[Cordwainer Smith]] an [[Poul Anderson]].<ref>{{cite book |title=I. Asimov: A Memoir |url=https://archive.org/details/iasimovmemoir00asim_0 |last=Asimov |first=Isaac |date=1994 |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=0-385-41701-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/iasimovmemoir00asim_0/page/475 475]–76}}</ref> He wrote hunders o short stories, includin the [[social science feection]] novelette "[[Nightfall (Asimov novelette an novelle)|Nightfall]]"; in 1964, it wis votit the best short science feection story o aw time bi the [[Science Fiction Writers of America]]. Asimov wrote the [[Lucky Starr series|''Lucky Starr'' series]] o [[young adult feection|juvenile]] science-feection novelles uisin the pen name Paul French.<ref>{{cite book |last=Asimov |first=Isaac |title=Opus 100 |url=https://archive.org/details/opus1000000asim |year=1969 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |quote=So [Walter Bradbury] said, 'Use a pseudonym.' And I did. I choose Paul French and...}}</ref> Asimov an aw wrote [[mystery feection|mysteries]] an [[fantasy]], as weel as muckle nonfeection. Maist o his popular science beuks expleen concepts in a historical wey, gaein as faur back as possible tae a time whan the science in quaisten wis at its semplest stage. Ensaumples include ''[[The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science|Guide to Science]]'', the three-vollum set ''[[Understanding Physics]]'', an ''Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery'', as weel as warks on [[chemistry]], [[astronomy]], [[mathematics]], [[history]], an [[William Shakespeare]]'s writins. He wis preses o the [[American Humanist Association]].<ref>{{cite book |title=I. Asimov: A Memoir |url=https://archive.org/details/iasimovmemoir00asim_0 |last=Asimov |first=Isaac |date=1994 |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=0-385-41701-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/iasimovmemoir00asim_0/page/500 500]}}</ref> The [[asteroid]] [[5020 Asimov]],<ref name="asteroid">[http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?utf8=✓&object_id=5020 Minor Planet Center] (retrieved 22 October 2017)</ref> a [[Asimov crater|crater]] on the planet [[Maurs]],<ref name=crater>{{cite web |url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/14567 |title=USGS Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature, Mars: Asimov |accessdate=September 4, 2012}}</ref> a [[Brooklyn]] primar schuil,<ref>[https://www.schools.nyc.gov/schools/K099 "P.S. 099 Isaac Asimov"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806183127/https://www.schools.nyc.gov/schools/K099 |date=2018-08-06 }} at New York City Department of Education website. (Retrieved 6 August 2018.)</ref> an a [[Isaac Asimov Awairds|leeterar awaird]] are named in his honour. ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}} ==References== {{Reflist}} {{authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Asimov, Isaac}} [[Category:Isaac Asimov| ]] [[Category:1920 births]] [[Category:1992 daiths]] [[Category:Fowk frae Shumyachsky Destrict]] [[Category:Roushie Jews]] [[Category:Soviet emigrants tae the Unitit States]] [[Category:American fowk o Roushie-Jewish strynd]] [[Category:American science feection writers]] [[Category:American science writers]] [[Category:Alternative history writers]] [[Category:American atheists]] [[Category:American biochemists]] [[Category:American male essayists]] [[Category:American humorists]] [[Category:Jewish American writers]] [[Category:American memoirists]] [[Category:American meestery writers]] [[Category:American nan-feection environmental writers]] [[Category:American nan-feection writers]] [[Category:American writers o Roushie strynd]] [[Category:American sceptics]] [[Category:Boston Varsity faculty]] [[Category:Columbia Varsity Schuil o General Studies alumni]] [[Category:Columbia Schuil o Ingineerin an Applee'd Science alumni]] [[Category:Fellaes o the American Academy o Airts an Sciences]] [[Category:Futurians]] [[Category:Historians o astronomy]] [[Category:Historians o science]] [[Category:Creetics o releegions]] [[Category:Hugo Awaird-winnin writers]] [[Category:Humor researchers]] [[Category:Jewish atheists]] [[Category:New York Democrats]] [[Category:Nebula Awaird winners]] [[Category:Writers frae Brooklyn]] [[Category:Science feection fans]] [[Category:Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees]] [[Category:SFWA Grand Masters]] [[Category:Warld federalists]] [[Category:Fellaes o the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] [[Category:Jewish American novelists]] [[Category:Unitit States Airmy sodgers]] [[Category:American militar personnel o Warld War II]] [[Category:Yiddish-speakin fowk]] [[Category:Mensans]] [[Category:20t-century American novelists]] [[Category:American male novelists]] [[Category:Jewish skeptics]] [[Category:AIDS-relatit daiths in New York (state)]] [[Category:Fowk wi HIV/AIDS]] [[Category:American humanists]] [[Category:Jewish American short story writers]] [[Category:Male short story writers]] c5jau9ck1d0rtxpmpw5j03kch0psfvy 0 137120 918703 743677 2026-06-24T23:10:33Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918703 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox ethnic group |group = Bantu |image = {{image array|perrow = 4 | image1 = Nelson Mandela-2008 (edit).jpg | caption1 = [[Nelson Mandela]] | image2 = Wangari Maathai.jpg | caption2 = [[Wangari Maathai]] | image3 = PatricelumumbaIISG.jpg | caption3 = [[Patrice Lumumba]] | image4 = KingShaka.jpg | caption4 = [[Shaka]] }} |popplace = [[African Great Lochs]], [[Central Africae]], [[Soothren Africae]] |rels = {{ublist |Predominantly [[Christianity]] |Minority [[tradeetional African releegion]]s, [[irreleegion]], [[Islam]]}} |langs = [[Bantu leids]] {{smaller|(ower 535)}} |related = Ither [[Niger–Congo leids|Niger-Congo peoples]] }} '''Bantu fowks''' is uised as a general label for the 300–600 [[Indigenous fowks o Africae|indigenous]] [[ethnic groups in Africae]] who speak [[Bantu leids]].<ref name="Tgdwh">{{cite book|last=Butt|first=John J.|title=The Greenwood Dictionary of World History|url=https://archive.org/details/greenwooddiction00butt_0|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0-313-32765-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/greenwooddiction00butt_0/page/40 39]}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} [[Category:Bantu fowks| ]] 3ruh6976zp9qdy4bgn5ko42b442dhli 0 137375 918752 915518 2026-06-24T23:43:24Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918752 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Fix Scots}} {{Infobox UK place |official_name= Dumfries |country = Scotland |static_image_name=Dumfries looking east.jpg |static_image_caption= Dumfries leukin east |population= 33,280 |population_ref= <ref name=2012pop2a>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/files//statistics/population-estimates/special-area/mid-2012-settlements/2012-pop-est-sett-local-main-tab2a.pdf |title="Mid-2012 Populations Estimates for Settlements and Localities in Scotland, table 2a" National Records for Scotland. Access date = 27 October 2014 |access-date=2020-02-19 |archive-date=2019-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204064320/https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/files//statistics/population-estimates/special-area/mid-2012-settlements/2012-pop-est-sett-local-main-tab2a.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=2012pop3a>[http://gro-scotland.gov.uk/files//statistics/population-estimates/special-area/mid-2012-settlements/2012-pop-est-sett-local-main-tab3a.pdf "Mid-2012 Populations Estimates for Settlements and Localities in Scotland, table 3a" National Records for Scotland. Access date = 27 October 2014]{{Dead link|date=September 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |os_grid_reference= NX976762 |coordinates = {{coord|55.070|-3.603|display=inline,title}} |post_town= DUMFRIES |postcode_area= DG |postcode_district = DG1/2 |dial_code= 01387 |constituency_westminster=• [[Dumfries an Gallowa (UK Pairlament constituency)|Dumfries an Gallowa]]<br>([[Scots Conservatives|Con]] – [[Alister Jack]]) |gaelic_name= Dùn Phris<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.gaelicplacenames.org/databasedetails.php?id=413 | title=Gaelic Place-Names of Scotland database | publisher=[[Ainmean-Àite na h-Alba]] | accessdate=17 October 2013 | archive-date=2016-08-03 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803142610/http://www.gaelicplacenames.org/databasedetails.php?id=413 | url-status=dead }}</ref> |unitary_scotland= [[Dumfries an Gallowa]] |lieutenancy_scotland= [[Dumfriesshire|Dumfries]] |constituency_scottish_parliament=• [[Dumfriesshire (Scots Pairlament constituency)|Dumfriesshire]]<br>([[Scots Conservatives|Con]] – [[Oliver Mundell]])<br>• [[Gallowa an Wast Dumfries (Scots Pairlament constituency)|Gallowa an Wast Dumfries]]<br>([[Scots Conservatives|Con]] – [[Finlay Carson]]) }} '''Dumfries''' ({{IPA-en|dʌmˈfɹiːs|-|Dumfries.ogg}} {{respell|dum|FREESS|'}}; aiblins fae {{lang-gd|Dùn Phris}}) is a mercat toun an foregane [[ryal burgh]] within the [[Dumfries an Gallowa]] cooncil area o [[Scotland]]. It is locatit near the mooth o [[River Nith]] intil the [[Solway Firth]]. Dumfries is the tradeetional [[coonty toun]] o the [[Scots coonties|historic coonty]] o [[Dumfriesshire]].<ref>[http://maps.nls.uk/atlas/thomson/555.html John Thomson's Atlas of Scotland, 1832] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240506195010/https://maps.nls.uk/atlas/thomson/555.html |date=2024-05-06 }} from ''National Library of Scotland'' retrieved 3 June 2013</ref> Dumfries is eik-name't ''Queen o the Sooth''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=277 |title="Eva Mendes – the latest Queen of the South" 7th&nbsp;November&nbsp;2010 |publisher=Qosfc.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2015-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215171804/http://www.qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=277 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The eik-name wis gien name til the toun's professional fitbaw team, [[Queen of the South F.C.]]. Fowk fae Dumfries is kenned colloquial as ''Doonhamers''. ==Toponymy== The're at least three theorys on the etymology o the name. Yin is that the name ''Dumfries'' oreeginates fae the [[Scots Gaelic]] name ''Dùn Phris'' that means "Fort o the rone".<ref>{{cite web |title=Parliament Scotland - Placenames - Gaelic - C-E |url=http://www.parliament.scot/Gaelic/placenamesC-E.pdf |access-date=2020-02-19 |archive-date=2020-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013215200/http://www.parliament.scot/Gaelic/placenamesC-E.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Anither is that it comes fae a Brittonic cognate o the ledged Gaelic derivation ([[Welsh leid|Welsh]] ''Dyn Prys'').<ref name="bliton">{{cite web |last1=James |first1=Alan |title=A Guide to the Place-Name Evidence |url=http://spns.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Alan_James_Brittonic_Language_in_the_Old_North_BLITON_Volume_II_Dictionary.pdf |website=SPNS - The Brittonic Language in the Old North |accessdate=25 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813011121/http://spns.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Alan_James_Brittonic_Language_in_the_Old_North_BLITON_Volume_II_Dictionary.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Dumfries micht be the same place as ''Penprys'' that is mentiont in an awdl (a lang poem) bi [[Taliesin]],<ref name="bliton" /> an suggests that the first element micht hae been ''pen'', "summit-heid" (Welsh ''pen''). Accordin tae a third theory, the name is a corruption o twa [[Auld Inglis leid|Auld Inglis]] or [[Auld Norse]] wirds that mean "the freer's hill"; thaim that fauvour this idea ledge the formation o a religious hoose near the heid o whit is noo the Friar's Vennel.<ref name=autogeneratedhist /> If the name wis English or Norse, houiver, the expectit form wad hae the elements in reversed orientation. A Celtic derivation is tharefore preferred. Mairower, the Brittonic element ''drum'',<ref name="bliton" /> meanin "rig" an the Gaelic elements ''druim''<ref name="bliton" /> that means the same, an ''dronn'',<ref name="bliton" /> "a hump", hae aw been suggestit as an explanation o the first element.<ref name="bliton" /> Thaer is baith ane ''Dùn'' an ane ''druim'' in the toun. ==History== ===Early history=== There is nae definite record anent the time an mainer o Dumfries's foondin.<ref name=autogeneratedhist>{{cite web|url=http://www.electricscotland.com/history/dumfries/history1.htm |title=History of the Burgh of Dumfries – Chapter I |publisher=Electricscotland.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> Some scrievers haud that Dumfries floorisht as a place o distinction durin the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] Occupeetion o North [[Great Breetain]]. The [[Selgovae]] bade in [[Nidsdale]] at the time and micht hae biggit some military warks o a defensive naitur on or near the site o Dumfries; an it is mair nor likely that a castle o some kynd formt the nucleus o the toun. This is inferred fae the etymology o the name, that, accordin tae ae theory, is resolvable intae twa Gaelic terms, signifyin a castle or fort in the shaw or scrogs. Dumfries wis ance athin the borders o the [[Kinrick o Northumbrie]]. The destrict aroond Dumfries wis for several centurys rule't ower an deemt o muckle importance bi the invadin Romans. Mony traces o Roman presence in Dumfriesshire is tae be fund yet; cuinyies, wappens, orrals o urns, military yirdwarks, an roads bein amang the relicts left ahint bi thair lenthent bidin in this pairt o Scotland. The Caledonian breed in the sooth o Scotland wis investit wi the same richts bi an edict o [[Antoninus Pius]]. The Romanised natives received freedom (the burraes, cairns, an orrals o stane temples tae be seen in the destrict yet tell o a time whan Druidism wis the prevailin releegion) as weel as civilisation fae thair conquerors. Late in the fowert century CE, the Romans bad fareweel til the kintra.<ref name=autogeneratedhist /> Accordin til anither theory, the name is a corruption o twa wirds that mean "The Freer's Hill"; thaim that fauvour this idea ledge that [[Saunt Ringan]], bi plantin a releegious hoose near the heid o whit is noo Friars Vennel, at the end o the fowert century, becam the the virtual foonder o the burgh; houiver Rangan, sae faur as is kenned, dinna oreeginate ony monastic estaiblishments onywhaur an wis semply a meesionar. In the list o Breetish touns gien bi auncient historian [[Nennius]], the name ''Caer Peris'', that some modren antiquarians suppose tae hae been transmutit, bi change o deealect, intae Dumfries.<ref name=autogeneratedhist /> Twal o [[King Arthur|King Arthur's]] battles wis recordit bi Nennius in his ''Historia Brittonum''. The Battle o Tribuit (the 10t battle) his been suggestit as havin been mebbe near Dumfries or near the mooth o the [[River Avon]] near [[Bo'ness]]. Efter the Roman depairtur the airt aroond Dumfries haed sindry forms o veesit bi [[Pechts]], [[Anglo-Saxons]], [[Scots fowk|Scots]], an [[Norsemen]] culminatin a decisive victory for [[Giric|Giric (Gregory), King o Scots]] at whit is noo [[Lochmaben]] ower the native [[Britons]] in 890.<ref name=autogeneratedhist /> ===Mediaeval speal=== Whan, in 1069, [[Malcolm III o Scotland|Malcolm Canmore]] an [[William the Conqueror]] haudit a conference regairdin the claims o [[Edgar the Ætheling]] til the English Croun, thay met at Abernithi - a term that in the auld Breetish lied means a port at the mooth o the [[River Nith]]. It his been argied, the toun sicweys chairacterized maun hae been Dumfries; an tharefore it maun hae existit as a port in the [[Kinrick o Strathclyde]], gin no in the Roman days. Houiver, again this arguement is that the toun is situatit aicht tae nine mile fae the sea,<ref name=autogeneratedhist /> awtho the River Nith is tidal an navigable aw the wey intil the toun itsel. [[File:Lincluden Collegiate Church.jpg|thumb|Lincluden Collegiate Kirk, kenned an aw as [[Lincluden Aibey]], c.1789]] Awtho at the time 1 mile upstream an on the conter baunk o the Nith fae Dumfries, [[Lincluden Aibey]] wis foondit circa 1160. The aibey ruins is on the site o the [[bailey]] o the verra early [[Lincluden Castle]], as is thae yins o the later [[Lincluden Tower]]. This releegious hoose wis uised for various purposes, until its abandonment aroond 1700. Lincluden Aibey an its grunds is noo within the Dumfries urban conurbation boond. [[William the Lion]] grantit the chairter tae raise Dumfries til the rank o a [[ryal burgh]] in 1186. Dumfries wis verra much on the mairch durin its first 50 year as a burgh an it growed verra swith as a mercat toun an port.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of the burgh of Dumfries: with notices of Nithsdale, Annandale, and the western border|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028091357|first=William|last=M'Dowall|publisher=Adam and Charles Black|year=1867|page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924028091357/page/144 144]}}</ref> [[Alexander III o Scotland|Alexander III]] veesitit Dumfries in 1264 tae plan an expedeetion again the [[Isle o Man]], afore Scots bit for 180 year subjectit til the croun o [[Norawa]]. Identified wi the conquest o Man, Dumfries skare't in the weel-bein o Scotland for the next 22 year until Alexander's accidental deith brang an Augustan era in the toun's history til a snippen end.<ref name=autogeneratedhist /> A ryal castle, that no langer exists, wis built in the 13t century on the site o the praisent Castledykes Park. In the latter pairt o that century [[William Wallace]] chase't a fleein force soothwart throu the Nith dale. The English fugies met the yetts o [[Dumfries Castle]] that remained closed firm in thair presence. Wi a menyie o the toun's fowk jynin Wallace an his follaein pursuers whan thay arrived, the fleein English met thair end at Cockpool on the [[Solway Coast]]. Efter restin at [[Caerlaverock Castle]] a few mile awa fae the bluidlattin, Wallace again passt throu Dumfries on the day efter as he retourt north tae [[Sanchar]]. In the invasion o 1300, [[Edward I o Ingland|Edward I o England]] ludged a wheen o days in Juin wi the Minorite Freers o the Vennel, afore, at the heid o the than-mucklemaist invasion force tae attack Scotland, he asieged Caerlaverock Castle. Efter Caerlaverock yieldit hinderly, Edward passt throu Dumfries again as he crosst the Nith so as tae tak the invasion tae [[Gallowa]]. Wi the Scots nobility haein requeestit assistance fae the [[Haly See]] for thair cause, Edward on his retour tae Caerlaverock wis praisentit wi a missive directit tae him bi [[Pape Boniface VIII]]. Edward haudit coort in Dumfries that he greed grudgin til a parley. On 30 October, the parley soleecitit bi Boniface wis adheebitit bi Edward at Dumfries. Letters fae Edward, datit at Dumfris, wis sent tae his subordinates ootthrou Scotland, orderin thaim tae gie effect tae the treaty. The peace wis tae last until Whitsunday in the follaein year.<ref name=autogeneratedhist /> Afore becomin [[Scots monarchs|Keeng o Scots]], [[Robert the Bruce]] slaw his rival the [[John III Comyn, Laird o Badenoch|Red Comyn]] at [[Greyfriar's Kirk]] in the toun on 10 Februar 1306. His switherin aboot the fatality o his stobbin caused yin o his follaers, [[Roger de Kirkpatrick]], tae mooth the famous "A mak siccar" an feenish the Red Comyn aff. Bruce wis excommunicatit subsequent as an upshot, less for the murther nor its location. Regairdless, for the Bruce the dice wis casten at the maument in Greyfriars an sae begoud his campaign bi force for the independence o Scotland. Swuirds wis drawn bi supporters o baith sides, the buirial grund o the Monastery becomin the theatre o battle. Bruce an his pairty than attackit Dumfries Castle. The English gairison surrendert an for the third time in the day Bruce wis victorious. He wis crount King o Scotland scrimp seiven week efter. Bruce later triumpht at the [[Battle o Bannockburn]] an led Scotland tae independence. Aince Edward hid received wird o the revolution that hid startit in Dumfries, he again raised an airmy an invadit Scotland. Dumfries wis again subjectit til the control o Bruce's enemys. [[Christopher Seton|Sir Christopher Seton]] (Bruce's guid-brither) hid been capturt at [[Loch Doon]] an wis hurrit tae Dumfries tae be tried for traison in general an mair speceefic for bein praisent at the Red Comyn's killin. In 1306 an alang wi twa companions, Seton wis condammt an executit bi [[hangin]] an than [[heidin (decaptitation)]] at the site o whit is noo St Mary's Kirk. [[File:Burns Statue and Greyfriars, Dumfries.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Greyfriars Kirk an Burns Statue|alt=]] In 1659 ten weemen wis accuised o sindry acts o witchcraft bi Dumfries Kirk Session awtho the Kirk Session meenits itsel records anely nine witches. The Justiciary Coort fand thaim guilty o the several airticles o witchcraft an on 13 Apryle atween 2 pm an 4 pm thay wis takken til the Whitesands, strangelt at stakes, an thair bouks burnt til ess.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk/dumfstory09.html |title=Dumfries Museum |publisher=Dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2020-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218025748/http://www.dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk/dumfstory09.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===18t century=== Contra the funtain in Dumfries High Street, adjacent til the praisent [[Marks & Spencer]], wis the Commercial an later the County Hotel. Awtho the latter wis demolisht in 1984-5, the oreeginal facade o the biggin wis reteenit an incorporatit intae new retail premises.[https://britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/200362756-79-high-street-county-hotel-nith-ward] The biggin noo hooses a Waterstanes beukshap. Room No. 6 o the hottle wis kenned as [[Charles Edward Stuart|Bonnie Prince Charlie]]'s Room an wis cairpetit appropriate in the [[Ryal Stewart tartan]]. The timmer panellin o Prince Charlie's Room wis lairgely reinstatit an pentit complete wi the ile-pentit laundskips bi Robert Norie (1720-1766)[https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/artists/james-norie-senior] in the owermantels at baith ends o the room an can yet be seen up the stairs as a shawroom o the beukshap.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Norie Family|url=https://archive.org/details/noriefamily0000holl|last=Holloway|first=James|publisher=National Galleries of Scotland|year=1994|isbn=0903598442|location=Edinburgh|pages=[https://archive.org/details/noriefamily0000holl/page/27 27]}}</ref> The [[Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pertender]] hid his heidquarters here durin a 3-day stey in Dumfries taewart the end o 1745. £2,000 wis demandit bi the Prince, thegither wi 1,000 brogues for his kilted [[Jacobite risin o 1745|Jacobite]] rebel airmy, that wis campin in a field no 100 yaird awa. A clatter that the [[Duke o Cumberland]] wis approachin made Bonnie Prince Charlie decide tae leave wi his airmy, wi anely £1,000 an 255 pair o shuin haein been haundit ower.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.electricscotland.com/travel/burns1.htm |title=Walks in Burns Country – Town Centre |publisher=Electricscotland.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> [[Robert Burns]] flittit tae Dumfriesshire in 1788 an tae Dumfries itsel in 1791, bidin there until his deith on 21 Julie 1796. The day's [[Greyfriar's Kirk]] leuks ower the location o a Burns statue that wis designt bi [[Amelia Paton Hill]], sculptit in Carrara, Italy in 1892, an wis unveilt bi futur [[Prime meenister]], [[Archibald Primrose, 5t Yerl o Rosebery]] on 6 Apryle 1882.<ref name="burnsstatue">{{cite web|url=http://www.dumgal.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=12973 |title=Burns Statue, Dumfries with Tam O'Shanter and Souter Johnnie statues "on tour", c 1900 |publisher=National Burns Collection |accessdate=29 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115946/http://www.dumgal.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=12973 |archivedate=26 August 2014 }}</ref> The day it featurs on the 2007 series o £5 paper notes issue't bi the [[Bank of Scotland]], alangside wi the [[Brig o Doon]].<ref name="scotbanks">{{cite web|url=http://www.scotbanks.org.uk/banknotes_current_bank_of_scotland.php|title=Current Banknotes: Bank of Scotland|publisher=The Committee of Scottish Clearing Bankers|accessdate=17 October 2008}}</ref> Efter wirkin wi [[Patrick Miller o Dalswinton|Patrick Miller o Dalswintoun]], inventor [[William Symington]] ettle't tae cairy a trial oot sae as tae shaw that an ingine wad wirk on a boat withoot the boat catchin fire. The trial teuk place hinderly on Dalswintoun Loch near Dumfries on 14 October 1788. The experiment demonstratit that a steam ingine wad wirk on a boat. Symington gaed on tae become the builder o the first practical steamboat. ===20t century an ayont=== [[File:New bridge 4.jpg|thumb|Buccleuch Street Brig, Dumfries]] The first ineetial hint that [[RAF Dumfries]] wis tae be built wis made in late 1938. The site chosen hid accomodatit licht aircraft syne aboot 1914. Wark oncam quickly, an on 17 Juin 1940, the [[18 Maintenance Unit]] wis appent at Dumfries. The role o the steid durin the war encompasst trainin an aw. RAF Dumfries hid a maument o danger on 25 Mairch 1943, whan a German [[Dornier Do 217]] aircraft shot the airfield baikon up, bit rattelt shortlins efterwart. The pilot, Oberleutnant Martin Piscke wis later buiried in [[Troqueer]] Cemetery in Dumfries toun, wi fu military honours. On the nicht o 3-4 August 1943 a [[Vickers Wellington]] bomber wi ingine problems divertit tae Dumfries bit rattelt 1.5 mile short of the runwey.<ref name="Dumfriesaviationmuseum.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.dumfriesaviationmuseum.com/ |title=Dumfries and Galloway Aviation Museum |publisher=Dumfriesaviationmuseum.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2020-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101000522/http://www.dumfriesaviationmuseum.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> In [[Warld War II]] the feck o the [[Norse Airmy]] durin thair years o exile in Breetain conseestit o a brigade o in Dumfries.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dumfries remembers role as home to Norwegian army |author=Giancarlo Rinaldi |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-south-scotland-11685262 |newspaper on 16 =[[BBC Scotland]] |date=4 November 2010 |accessdate=28 April 2013}}</ref> When the army High Command teuk ower, the war 70 officers and aboot 760 preevats in the camp. The camp wis estaiblisht in Juin 1940 an name't ''Norwegian Reception Camp'', conseestin o some 500 men an weemen, mainly Norse that hid volunteert for war duty in Norawa durin the [[Nazi occupeetion]] in early 1940. Throu the simmer the nummer wis accresst tae aroond 1,500 unner the commaund o General [[Carl Gustav Fleischer]]. Within a wheen o miles o Dumfries is the veelages o [[Tynwald, Dumfries an Gallowa|Tynwald]], [[Torthorwald]], an [[Moosal]], that aw wis sattle't bi [[Vikings]]. Dumfries his experience't twa Boxin Day [[yirdquauks]]. This anes wis in 1979 (measurin 4.7 {{mag|l}} centred near [[Langtoon]])<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://sjg.lyellcollection.org/content/38/2/113|title=The felt effects of the Carlisle earthquake of 26 December 1979|first1=R. M. W.|last1=Musson|first2=P. H. O.|last2=Henni|date=1 December 2002|publisher=|journal=Scottish Journal of Geology|volume=38|issue=2|pages=113–125|via=sjg.lyellcollection.org|doi=10.1144/sjg38020113}}</ref> an in 2006 (centred in the Dumfries destrict measuring 3.6 {{mag|l}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/macroseismics/dumfries_2006_macro.htm |title=Dumfries Earthquake 26 December 2006 |work=British Geological Survey |url-status=dead |accessdate=30 January 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110309214103/http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/macroseismics/dumfries_2006_macro.htm |archivedate=9 March 2011 }}</ref> Thare wisna ony sairious consequences in baith yins. The war an aw a yirdquauk on 16 Februar 1984<ref>Redmayne D. W., 1984. £The Dumfries earthquake of 16 February 1984£. ''BGS; Global Seismology Report'' No. 241</ref> an anither yirdquauk on 7 Juin 2010.<ref>[http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/recent_events/20100607173319.3.html]{{dead link|date=August 2011}}</ref> ==Demographics== The National Records for Scotland mid 2012 upcastit population o Dumfries wis reportit as 33,280.<ref name=2012pop2a>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/files//statistics/population-estimates/special-area/mid-2012-settlements/2012-pop-est-sett-local-main-tab2a.pdf |title="Mid-2012 Populations Estimates for Settlements and Localities in Scotland, table 2a" National Records for Scotland. Access date = 27 October 2014 |access-date=2020-02-19 |archive-date=2019-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204064320/https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/files//statistics/population-estimates/special-area/mid-2012-settlements/2012-pop-est-sett-local-main-tab2a.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=2012pop3a>[http://gro-scotland.gov.uk/files//statistics/population-estimates/special-area/mid-2012-settlements/2012-pop-est-sett-local-main-tab3a.pdf "Mid-2012 Populations Estimates for Settlements and Localities in Scotland, table 3a" National Records for Scotland. Access date = 27 October 2014]</ref> ==Namely fowk== {{For|a list o aw folk fae Dumfries wi a Wikipedia airticle|Category:Fowk frae Dumfries}} [[File:Robert Burns House, Dumfries.jpg|left|thumb|Robert Burns Hoose in Dumfries]] [[File:Plaque of Notable Students at Dumfries Academy.jpg|thumb|upright|Plaque o namely fowk fae Dumfries Academy]] A nummer o weel-kenned fowk wis eddicatit at [[Dumfries Academy]], amang thaim [[Henry Duncan (meenister)|Henry Duncan]], meenister and foonder o the warld's first commercial saufins baunk; Sir [[James Anderson]], that caiptaint the [[SS Great Eastern]] on the [[trans-Atlantic cable]] layin vaiges in 1865 an 1866; [[J. M. Barrie]], scriever o [[Peter Pan]]; [[John Law Hume]], muisicker in the orchestra on the [[RMS Titanic]]; [[Jane Haining]], missionar for the Kirk o Scotland in Hungary; [[Alexander Knox Helm]], diplomat; [[John Laurie]], actor (Private Fraser in ''[[Dad's Army]]''); [[Christian Jane Fergusson]], airtist; Sir [[Robin Philipson]], airtist; [[John Hanson (sanger)|John Hanson]], sangster; [[Alex Graham (cairtoonist)|Alex Graham]], cairtoonist best kenned for the [[Fred Basset]] series; an [[Jock Wishart]], that in 1998 set a new warld record for circumnavigatin the globe in a pouert veshel. [[Roger White (executive)|Roger White]], CEO of saft-drinks group [[A.G. Barr]], is a local lad that gaed tae the Dumfries Academy. Follaein [[William A. F. Browne]]'s 1838 appyntment as superintendant o the Crichton Hospital, his son, [[James Crichton-Browne]], psychiatrist, neurologist, an medical psychologist, wis eddicatit at the Academy. [[William Charles Wells]], predecessor tae [[Charles Darwin]] on the theory o [[Naitural selection]] wis anither yin that wis eddicatit in Dumfries. Geologist [[Robert Harkness]] wis eddicatit in Dumfries an bade consequent in the toun. Sir [[Frank Williams (Formula One)|Frank Williams]] o F1 motor-racin fame wis eddicatit at [[St Joseph's College, Dumfries]] as wis [[Charles Forte, Baron Forte]], foonder o the leisur an hottles conglomerate Forte Group. St Joseph's wis foondit bi [[Brither Wilfrid]], the foonder o [[Celtic F.C.]]. International chairt-tappin record producer [[Calvin Harris]] is fae Dumfries. Dumfries wis the hametoun of Harris until he left in 2008. [[Ray Wilson (musicker)|Ray Wilson]], lead sangster o [[Stiltskin]] an later [[Genesis (baund)|Genesis]] wis born in Dumfries as wis the musickers [[Geoffrey Kelly]], [[Ian Carr]], an [[Emma's Imagination]] sangster [[Emma Gillespie]] is fae Dumfries. Opera sangster [[Nicky Spence]] wis born in Dumfries as wis [[Britain's Got Talent]] sangster [[Andrew Johnston (singer)|Andrew Johnston]]. [[Nigel Sinclair CBE]] is a [[Hollywood]] pictur producer. [[Michael Carter (actor)|Michael Carter]]'s actin career his seen him appear in a variety o productions rangin fae ''[[Return o the Jedi]]'' tae ''[[Rebus (TV series)|Rebus]]''. Dumfries his produce't a steidy rin o professional [[fitbaw]]ers an manager. The best-kenned fitbawers o thair era tae come fae Dumfries is aiblins [[Dave Halliday]],<ref name=qosleg>{{cite web|url=http://www.qosfc.com/Legends |title="Queens legends" on the official Queen of the South FC website |publisher=Qosfc.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> [[Ian Dickson (fitbawer)|Ian Dickson]],<ref name=qosleg/> [[Bobby Ancell]], [[Billy Houliston]],<ref name=qosleg/> [[Jimmy McIntosh]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=616|title=QosFC: Jimmy McIntosh|publisher=|access-date=2020-02-19|archive-date=2015-04-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407092446/http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=616|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Willie McNaught]], an [[Ted McMinn]].<ref name=qosleg/> Halliday, Dickson, Houliston, an McMinn played for the hame toun club [[Queen of the South F.C.|Queen o the Sooth FC]] durin thair careers. [[Dominic Matteo]]<ref name = "matteo">{{cite web|url=http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=1135|title=QosFC: Dominic Matteo autobiography review|publisher=|access-date=2020-02-19|archive-date=2015-04-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407145352/http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=1135|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=autogeneratedbarry>{{cite web|url=http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=615|title=QosFC: Barry Nicholson|publisher=|access-date=2020-02-19|archive-date=2015-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629140210/http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=615|url-status=dead}}</ref> wis born in Dumfries bit flittit tae England whan he wis a young boy.<ref name=autogeneratedbarry /> [[Barry Nicholson]] lost 4-3 tae Queens playin for [[Aberdeen F.C.]] in the 2008 [[Scots Cup]] semi-feenals in maugre o scorin<ref name=qoshist>{{cite web|url=http://qosfc.com/History |title=Queen of the South club history |publisher=Qosfc.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> again the team he supportit as a boy. Ancell, Houliston, McNaught, an Nicholson hae representit England at unner-21 level and wis jyned bi havin duin sae in saison 2010-11 bi [[Cammy Bell]] an [[Grant Hanley]]. Matteo gaint 6 fu kaips for Scotland<ref name=autogeneratedbarry /> efter haein representit England at unner-21 level. Halliday wis owerleukit bi Scotland in fauvour o [[Hughie Gallacher]].<ref name=qosleg/> Gallacher played for The Queens bit wisna fae Dumfries. It wis as a manager raither nor a player that [[Thomas Mitchell (football manager)|Thomas Mitchell]] made his name as a multiple [[FA Cup]] winner at [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://qosfc.com/Legends |title=Connections between Dumfries and Blackburn Rovers in the Queen of the South profile on Jackie Oakes |publisher=Qosfc.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> afore jynin Woolwich Arsenal as [[Arsenal F.C.]] wis than name't. Dumfries is an aw the hametoun o three-times [[24 Oors o Le Mans]] winner [[Allan McNish]]<ref name = "mcnish">{{cite web|url=http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=638|title=QosFC: Allan McNish (part 2)|publisher=|access-date=2020-02-19|archive-date=2014-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021105352/http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=638|url-status=dead}}</ref> as it wis tae [[David Leslie (racing driver)|David Leslie]].<ref name = "mcnish" /><ref name = "mcnish" /> Scotland [[rugby union]] internationalists [[Duncan Hodge]], [[Nick De Luca]], [[Craig Hamilton]], an [[Alex Dunbar]] wis born in Dumfries as wis perfaisonal gowfers [[Andrew Coltart]]<ref name=autogeneratedcoltart>{{cite web|url=http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=649|title=QosFC: Andrew Coltart|publisher=|access-date=2020-02-19|archive-date=2015-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629133946/http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=649|url-status=dead}}</ref> an [[Robert Dinwiddie (golfer)|Robert Dinwiddie]]. [[Curlin]] warld kemps [[David Murdoch]], [[Euan Byers]], an [[Craig Wilson (curler)|Craig Wilson]] wis aw born in Dumfries. Umwhile [[Dairts]] kemp [[Rab Smith]] is anither ''Doonhamer''. [[BBC]] braidcaster [[Kirsty Wark]] wis born in the toun as wis fallae braidcaster [[Stephen Jardine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=634|title=QosFC: Stephen Jardine|publisher=|access-date=2020-02-19|archive-date=2015-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629155509/http://qosfc.com/new_newsview.aspx?newsid=634|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Neil Oliver]] (archaeologist, historian, scriever, an braidcaster growed up in [[Ayr]] an Dumfries. Scriever an earth scientist [[Dougal Dixon]] is fae Dumfries. [[Hunter Davies]] (scriever, jurnalist, an braidcaster) bade in Dumfries for 4 year as a boy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://qosfc.com/Legends |title=Hunter Davies memories of Dumfries in the profile on Billy Houliston |publisher=Qosfc.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> [[James Hannay (scriever)|James Hannay]], asides bein a scriever an jurnalist spent the last 5 year o his life as the Breetish consul in [[Barcelona]]. [[John Mayne (makar)|John Mayne]] wis born in Dumfries in 1759 an contreebutit in the field o poetry. [[Warld War I]] makar [[William Hamilton (Breetish Airmy officer)|William Hamilton]] wis anither wan born in Dumfries. [[Archibald Gracie]], shippin magnate an business tycoon in the USA, wis fae Dumfries. [[John McFarlane (Breetish businessman)|John McFarlane]], CEO of Australie an New Zealand Banking Group Limited ([[ANZ]])) oreeginates fae the toun, as dis [[William (Bill) Nelson (ADFP)]] that wis an aw wi ANZ (umwhile [[AXA]], [[AMP Limited]], and [[Westpac]]) an an aw faither o [[Alice Nelson]], noo CEO of Centurion Wealth Advisors. The airchitect [[George Corson]] that wirked mainly in [[Leeds]], England, wis born in Dumfries and article't tae [[Walter Newall]] in the toun. Politeecian [[David Mundell]] wis born in Dumfries as wis [[William Dickson (Upper Canada)|William Dickson]], [[William Pattison Telford Sr.]], an [[Ambrose Blacklock]], aw that made thair merk poleetical in [[Canadae]]. Malcolm H. Wright, faither o [[Sophie B. Wright]] - New Orleans eddicator an pioneer for weemen's and childer's richts. Suffragette an feminist campaigner [[Dora Marsden]] spent the last 25 year o her life being care't for in Dumfries efter her psychological foonder. [[Ian Gibson (politician)|Dr. Ian Gibson]] is anither tae leave his merk on politeecs. [[James Edward Tait]] wis a Dumfries-born recipient o the [[Victoria Cross]]. [[William Robertson (VC)|William Robertson]] an [[Edward Spence (VC)|Edward Spence]] are ither Victoria Cross recipients. [[Robert Jenkinson, 2nt Yerl o Liverpuil]], UK Prime meenister fae 1812 tae 1827, wis quartert in Dumfries in 1796 durin his military service. [[David Haggart]] wis a Scots thief an rogue that in 1820 in his escape fae Dumfries Gaol (the site is noo occupeed bi Thomson's the Jewellers) kilt a preeson officer. He wis hangit in Edinburgh in 1821. His deectatit memoir publisht as a chapbeuk<ref>[https://digital.nls.uk/chapbooks-printed-in-scotland/archive/104184943 Life of David Haggart who was executed at Edinburgh, 18 July 1821 for the murder of the Dumfries jailor]{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, National Library of Scotland. Retrieved: 25 July 2019.</ref> becam the subject o the pictur ''Sinful Davey'' starnin [[John Hurt]]. A plaque on the waw on the site o the King's Airms Hottle, noo Boots the Chemist's, records the presence there in 1829 o William Burke o the notour [[Burke an Hare murthers]]. He wis traivelin tae Ireland efter the trial; his veesit caused a near royet.<ref>[https://digital.nls.uk/broadsides/view/?id=15239 Broadside entitled 'Riot at Dumfries! Hares Arrival']{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} National Library of Scotland. Retrieved: 25 July 2019.</ref> [[John Richardson (naituralist)|John Richardson]], [[naituralist]], explorer, an naval surgeon wis born in Dumfries as wis [[John Craig (mathematician)|John Craig]], [[mathematician]], an [[James Crichton]], [[polymath]]. [[Benjamin Bell]] efter bein born in Dumfries gaed on tae become considert the first Scots scienteefic surgeon. His ieroe wis [[Joseph Bell]] that [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] his creeditit [[Sherlock Holmes]] as bein lowse sted on fae Bell's obversant mainer. Doyle's faither, airtist [[Charles Altamont Doyle]] deed in the [[The Crichton Ryal Institution]] an is buirit in the High Cemetery in Dumfries.<ref>[https://www.arthur-conan-doyle.com/index.php?title=Charles_Altamont_Doyle Charles Altamont Doyle], The Arthur Conan Doyle Encyclopedia. Retrieved: 25 July 2019.</ref> [[Thomas Peter Anderson Stuart]] left Dumfries tae gang on an foond the [[University of Sydney Medical School]]. [[John Allan Broun]]'s contreebution tae science wis his diskiverys aroond magnetism an meteorology. [[James Braid (surgeon)|James Braid]], surgeon an pioneer o [[hypnosis|hypnotism]] an [[hypnotherapy]], practice't in Dumfries fae 1825 tae 1828 in pairtnery wi William Maxwell. [[Ian Callum]] is kenspeckle't in the warld o motor ingineerin. A [[Kirk o Scotland]] meenister the Rev. John Ewart o [[Troqueer]] in [[Kirkcoubrieshire]] produce't eleiven childers that some hae made a namely merk. [[Peter Ewart]] wis an ingineer that wis influential in developin the technologys o [[turbines]] an theories o thermodynamics. His brither [[Joseph Ewart]] becam the Breetish ambassador tae [[Proushie]]. [[John Ewart]], a doctor, becam Chief Inspector o [[East Indie Company]] infirmarys in [[Indie]]. [[William Ewart]], faither of [[William Ewart (Breetish politeecian)|William Ewart]], politeecian, wis a business pairtner o Sir John Gladstones, faither o fower-times Prime meenister [[William Ewart Gladstone]]. Gladstone junior wis name't efter Ewart, his godfather. ==Climate== As wi the lave o the [[Breetish Isles]], Dumfries experiences a [[Oceanic climate|maritime climate]], wi cuil simmers an myld winters. It is yin o the no sae snawy locations in Scotland acause o its sheltert law-liein poseetion in the soothwast o the kintra. Fae 2 Julie 1908 the toun haudit the record for the heichest temperatur readin in Scotland, 32.8&nbsp;°C (91.0&nbsp;°F) until bein surpasst in [[Greycrook]], Borders, on 9 August 2003.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[UKMO]] |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/ws/print.html |title=1908 temperature |accessdate=30 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103082750/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/ws/print.html |archivedate=3 November 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> {{Weather box |location = Dumfries 49m asl, 1961–1990, extremes 1951–1980 |metric first = Yes |single line = Yes |Jan record high C = 14.3 |Feb record high C = 13.3 |Mar record high C = 17.8 |Apr record high C = 19.3 |May record high C = 25.2 |Jun record high C = 28.3 |Jul record high C = 32.8 |Aug record high C = 28.6 |Sep record high C = 25.6 |Oct record high C = 22.8 |Nov record high C = 15.6 |Dec record high C = 13.9 |year record high C = 32.8 |Jan high C = 6.0 |Feb high C = 6.2 |Mar high C = 8.3 |Apr high C = 11.1 |May high C = 14.3 |Jun high C = 17.2 |Jul high C = 18.5 |Aug high C = 18.2 |Sep high C = 15.7 |Oct high C = 12.9 |Nov high C = 8.6 |Dec high C = 6.8 |year high C = 11.9 |Jan low C = 0.7 |Feb low C = 0.6 |Mar low C = 1.8 |Apr low C = 3.3 |May low C = 5.8 |Jun low C = 8.8 |Jul low C = 10.5 |Aug low C = 10.4 |Sep low C = 8.6 |Oct low C = 6.3 |Nov low C = 2.6 |Dec low C = 1.3 |year low C = 5.0 |Jan record low C = −13.9 |Feb record low C = −11.1 |Mar record low C = −12.2 |Apr record low C = −3.9 |May record low C = −2.2 |Jun record low C = 0.6 |Jul record low C = 2.8 |Aug record low C = 2.2 |Sep record low C = -1.1 |Oct record low C = -3.9 |Nov record low C = −9.0 |Dec record low C = −10.6 |year record low C = −13.9 |Jan precipitation mm = 110 |Feb precipitation mm = 76 |Mar precipitation mm = 81 |Apr precipitation mm = 53 |May precipitation mm = 72 |Jun precipitation mm = 63 |Jul precipitation mm = 71 |Aug precipitation mm = 93 |Sep precipitation mm = 104 |Oct precipitation mm = 117 |Nov precipitation mm = 100 |Dec precipitation mm = 107 |year precipitation mm = 1047 |Jan sun = 44.7 |Feb sun = 68.7 |Mar sun = 98.4 |Apr sun = 145.0 |May sun = 180.1 |Jun sun = 176.7 |Jul sun = 162.2 |Aug sun = 156.7 |Sep sun = 110.8 |Oct sun = 89.8 |Nov sun = 61.5 |Dec sun = 37.9 |year sun = 1333.5 |source 1 = [[Met Office]]<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/sites/10.html | archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20010210225728/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/sites/10.html | archivedate =10 February 2001 | title = Dumfries 1961-90 averages | accessdate = 5 November 2011 | publisher = [[Met Office]]}}</ref> |source 2 = [[ScotClim]]<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.weather.org.uk/climate/scotclim.html | title = Dumfries 1951-1980 extremes | accessdate = 5 November 2011 | publisher = [[ScotClim]]}}</ref> |date=November 2011 }} ==Geography== [[File:auld brig dumfries.jpg|thumb|Devorgilla Brig wi Auld Brig Hoose Museum at the end o the furthest span fae the camera]] [[File:Dumfries Suspension Bridge.jpg|thumb|Whitesands suspension footbridge ower the Nith]] [[File:Fountain and midsteeple.jpg|thumb|upright|The funtain an midsteeple on Dumfries High St]] [[File:1990dumfrieswhitesands.jpg|thumb|Whitesands, fae Buccleuch Street]] [[File:River Nith.jpg|thumb|River Nith]] Like the lave o [[Dumfries an Gallowa]], o Scotland's three major geographical areas Dumfries is locatit in the [[Soothren Uplands]]. The [[River Nith]] flowes throu Dumfries taewart the [[Solway Firth]] in a soothwart direction cleavin the toun intae East an Wast. At law tide, the sea recedes tae sic an extent on the shallae slopin sands o the Solway that the lenth o the Nith is stendit bi 8 mile to 70.7 mile at the maist. This maks the Nith Scotland's seivent langest river. The're several brigs crossin the river within the toun. Atween the [[Dervorguilla o Gallowa|Dervorguilla]] Brig (kenned as "The Auld Brig" an aw) an the suspension brig is a [[weir]] kenned colloquial as "The Caul". In wetter months o the year the Nith can fluid the surroondin streets. Dumfries his a thrang o suburbs includin [[Summerhill, Dumfries|Summerhill]], Summerville, [[Troqueer]], Georgetown, Cresswell, Larchfield, Calside, Lochside, Lincluden, [[Newbridge Drive, Dumfries|Newbridge Drive]], Sandside, Heathhall, [[Locharbriggs]], Noblehill, an Marchmount. [[Maxwelltoun]] tae the wast o the River Nith wis ae-time a burgh in its ain richt within the [[Kirkcoubrieshire|Stewarty o Kirkcoubrie]] until its incorporation intae Dumfries in 1938; Summerhill, [[Troqueer]], Lochside, Lincluden, and Sandside is amang ither suburbs locatit on the Maxwelltoun side o the river. [[Palmerston Park]], hame til the toun's senior fitbaw team [[Queen of the South F.C.|Queen o the Sooth F.C.]], is on Terregles Street, on the Maxwelltoun side o the river an aw. Queensberry Square an High Street is the central focal pynts o the toun an the area hosts mony o the historical, social, an commercial enterpreeses an events o Dumfries. Durin the 1990s, thir areas enjeyed various aesthetic acknawledgements fae organizations includin [[Britain in Bloom]]. ==Governance== Scots communitys grantit [[Ryal Burgh]] status bi the monarch gairdit jealous the honour an wi fushion. Ridin the Mairches maintains the tradeetion o an occasion that wis, in its day, o muckle importance. Dumfries his been a Ryal Burg syne 1186, its chairter bein grantit bi [[William the Lion|Keeng William the Lion]] in a muive that enshuirt the lealty o its ceetizens til the Monarch. Awtho faur fae the centre o pouer in Scotland, Dumfries hid obvious strategic significance sittin as it dis on the edge o [[Gallowa]] an bein the centre o control for the soothwast o Scotland. Wi the [[River Nith]] on twa sides an the Lochar Moss on anither, Dumfries wis a toun wi guid naitural defences. Consequently, it wis niver completely wawed. A carefu ee yet hit tae be keept on the clear define't boonds o the burgh, a task that hid tae be unnertakkin ilk year bi the [[Mayor|Provost]], [[bailies]], [[burgesses]], an ithers within the toun. Neebourin lairds micht try tae encroach on the toun boonds, or the Mairches as thay wis kenned, muivin thaim back 100 yaird or sae tae thair ain benefit. It hid tae be made clear tae onybody thinkin o or tryin tae encroach that they daurna dae sae. In retour for the Ryal status o the toun an the fauvour o the King, the provost an the cooncil, alang wi ither wirthy fowk hid tae be diligent in enshuirin the boonds wis strictly observed. Awtho steepit in history, Scotland's burghs remeent the fundament o the kintra's seestem o local government for centurys. Burgh status conferred on its ceetizens the richt tae elect thair ain toun cooncils, rin thair ain affairs, an raise thair ain local taxs or rates. In 1974 the burghs becam pairt o lairger destricts an regions. Thae boonds lost the significance thay wis grantit bi Ryal statute. Auncient titles like provost an bailie wis shauchelt aff or reteent anely for ceremonial purposes. Robes an cheens aften fand thair wey intae museums as a myndin o the past. Dumfries remeens a centre o government for a much muckler area nor juist the toun itsel. Bit its fowk, the Doonhamers yet reteen a pride in thair toun an distinctive identity. This is niver mair sae nor durin the week-lang Guid Nychburris Festival an its heichlicht the Ridin o the Mairches tat taks place on the third Seturday in Juin ilk year. ===Politics=== Dumfries is locatit in the [[Subdiveesions o Scotland|cooncil area]] o [[Dumfries an Gallowa]]. It is the seat o the local cooncil, whase heidquarters is locatit on the edge o the toun centre. Until 1995 Dumfries wis an aw hame til the cooncil for the local destrict o [[Nithsdale]]. Dumfries lens its name an aw til the [[Lieutenancy areas o Scotland|lieutenancy area]] o Dumfries, that is seemilar in boonds til the forgane [[Dumfriesshire]] coonty. Dumfries is situatit in the [[Pairlament o the Unitit Kinrick|UK Pairlament]] constituency of [[Dumfries an Gallowa (UK Pairlament constituency)|Dumfries an Gallowa]] that is representit bi [[Alister Jack]] o the [[Scots Conservative Pairty]] For [[Scots Pairlament]] elections, Dumfries is in the [[Sooth Scotland]] electoral area an cleaved atween twa constituencys. The wastlin wairds o Abbey and North Wast Dumfries is in the constituency o [[Gallowa an Wast Dumfries (Scots Pairlament constituency)|Gallowa and Wast Dumfries]], and the eastlin wairds o Nith an Lochar is in the constituency o [[Dumfriesshire (Scots Pairlament constituency)|Dumfriesshire]]. The respecive MSPs is [[Finlay Carson]] an [[Oliver Mundell]], baith o the [[Scots Conservative Pairty]]. On the Dumfries an Gallowa cooncal, Dumfries is kivert bi fower 4-seat wairds: Abbey, Lochar, Nith, and North Wast Dumfries. North Wast Dumfries is the anely waird that alanerly kivers areas within the toun itsel, wi the tithers incorporating ootwith areas. In the 2017 cooncil election, thir wairds electit 6 [[Labour Pairty (UK)|Labour]], 5 [[Scots Conservative Pairty|Conservative]], and 4 [[Scots Naitional Pairty|SNP]] cooncillors. ==Economy== Dumfries his a lang history as a [[coonty toun]], an as the [[mercat toun]] o a surroondin rural hinterland. Dumfries is a relatively weel-aff community bit the toun centre his been exposed til the centrifugal forces that hae seen retail, business, eddicational, residential, an ither uisses gravitate taewart the toun's urban freenge.<ref>[http://www.dumgal.gov.uk/Dumgal/Documents.aspx?id=12338 DGC -Document: Dumfries Town Centre Urban Design Strategy – Part 1] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215015236/http://www.dumgal.gov.uk/Dumgal/Documents.aspx?id=12338 |date=15 February 2008 }}</ref> This wis startit in the 1980s wi the biggin o the Dumfries bypass. The immediate effect o this wis as ettle't the diversion o transitin traffeck awa fae the toun centre. This brocht wi it an accompanyin reduction in economic inpit til the toun centre. The seicont effect o this his been mair pronoonce't. Sites near til the bypass hae attractit development tae utilize the bypass as a heich-speed urban hiewey withoot the bottlenecks o the toun centre and withoot the constreenin leemitit toun centre pairkin. Ina bid tae re-brisken up development in Dumfries toun centere, baith economically an in a social context, several strategys hae been propone't bi the controllin authoritys.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dumfriesregeneration.co.uk |title=MiniWeb: Regeneration & Europe – Dumfries Town Centre |publisher=Dumfriesregeneration.co.uk |date=15 August 2011 |accessdate=24 August 2011 }}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Cultur== Dumfries got its eik-name ''Queen o the Sooth'' fae David Dunbar, a local makar,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telinco.co.uk/RobertTemple/Hrkiv6.htm#t1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031105133946/http://www.telinco.co.uk/RobertTemple/Hrkiv6.htm#t1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 November 2003 |title=Robert Temple Bibliographical Archive |publisher=Telinco.co.uk |date=2 March 2008 |accessdate=24 August 2011 }}</ref> that in 1857 stuid in the general election. In yin o his addresses he cried Dumfries "Queen o the Sooth" and this becam synonymous wi the toun.<ref name=qoshist/><ref>{{cite web|last=Ritchie |first=Robert |url=http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/features/Best-town-nickname.5509952.jp |title="Best town nickname" The Scotsman 1st&nbsp;August&nbsp;2009 |publisher=Thescotsman.scotsman.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> The term ''doonhamer'' comes fae the wey that natives of Dumfries ower the years hae referred til the aera whan wirking away fae hame. The toun is aften reffered tae as "doon hame" (down home) in the [[Scots leid]]. The term ''doonhamer'' follaed, tae descrive thaim that origeenate fae Dumfries.<ref name=qoshist/> The Doonhamers is an aw the eik-name o [[Queen of the South F.C.]] that represent Dumfries an the surroondin area in the [[Scottish Football League]].<ref name=qoshist/> The creest conteens the wirds "A Lore Burne". In the history o Dumfries near to the toun wis the quaw that the Loreburn ran throu whase name becam the rallyin cry o the toun in times o attack - "A Lore Burne" meanin "til the lairie burn".<ref name=qoshist/><ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite web |url=http://www.dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk/frames.html |title=Dumfries and Galloway Museums and Galleries on-line |publisher=Dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711222022/http://www.dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk/frames.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2017 Dumfries wis rankit the happiest place in Scotland bi [[Rightmove]].<ref name=happy>[http://www.itv.com/news/border/2017-10-11/dumfries-ranked-the-happiest-place-to-live-in-scotland/ "Dumfries ranked the happiest place to live in Scotland" www.itv.com 11 October 2017]</ref> ===Museums=== [[File:Camera Obscura, Dumfries.JPG|thumb|upright|left|[[Dumfries Museum]] an camera obscura]] Locatit on tap o a wee hill, [[Dumfries Museum]] is centre't on the 18t-century windmill that staunds abuin the toun. Includit is fossil fit-dunts left bi prehistoric reptiles, the wildlife of the Solway mosses, tuils an wappens o the earliest fowk o the region, an stane cairvins o Scotland's first Christians. On the tap fluir o the museum is a [[camera obscura]].<ref name=autogenerated3 /> sted in the control tour near Tinwald Downs, the aviation museum his an extensive indoor ootset o memorabilia that strives tae preserve [[aviation]] heritage, a hantle o it that his come via various rekivery acteevitys. Durin the Seicont Warld War, aerial navigation was taucht at Dumfries and [[Wigtoun]] an aw, an nearby [[Annan]] wis a fechter trainin unit. [[RAF Dumfries]] doobelt as an important maintenance unit an storange unit. The museum is run bi the [[Dumfries and Galloway Aviation Museum]] group an is the anely preevat avaiation museum in Scotland.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web |url=http://www.dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk |title=Dumfries and Galloway Museums |publisher=Dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk |date=1 August 1999 |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2020-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222132412/http://www.dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The restore't control tour o the foregane Warld War II airfield is noo a leetit biggin. The museum is run bi volunteers an hooses a lairge and ever-expandin aircraft collection, aero ingines, and a display ootset o artefacts and personal histories relatin tae aviation, past an praisent. It is hame an aw til the Loch Doon [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]]. Baith ceevil aviation an military aviation is representit.<ref name="Dumfriesaviationmuseum.com"/> ===Theatre an Cinema=== [[File:Shakespeare St, Dumfries.jpg|thumb|The Theatre Royal in Dumfries. In the background can be seen the spire o the auld St Andrew's Cathedral: the lave of the biggin burnt doun in 1961<ref>[http://www.standrewsdumfries.org.uk/History_plus.htm St. Andrew's Catholic Church Dumfries website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327015953/http://www.standrewsdumfries.org.uk/History_plus.htm |date=27 March 2014 }}</ref> and wis replace't wi a new kirk on the same site.]] The [[Theatre Royal, Dumfries]] wis built in 1792 an is the auldest wirkin theatre in Scotland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guildofplayers.co.uk/ |title=Guild of Players – Home |publisher=Guildofplayers.co.uk |date=June 2014 |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2019-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219150241/http://www.guildofplayers.co.uk/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The theatre belangs til the Guild o Players that bocht in 1959, tharefore saufin it fae demoleetion, an is run ona volutary basis bi the members o the Guild o Players. It is fondit enteerly bi Guild membership stents and bi box-office quitances takkins. It disna praisently receive ony grant aid taewart runnin costs. In recent years the theatre his been reruift an the ootside refurbisht. It is the venue for the Guild o Players ain productions an for performances fae veesitin companies. Thir include: [[Scottish Opera]], [[TAG]], [[the Borderline]], and [[7:84]]. The [[Robert Burns Centre]] is an airt hoose cinema in Dumfries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rbcft.co.uk/ |title=Robert Burns Centre Film Theatre |publisher=Rbcft.co.uk |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> The Odeon Cinema, that shew mair mainstream picturs, closed its doors in mid-2018. ===Concert an Event Venues=== [[File:DG One, Dumfries, 2007-07-26.jpg|thumb|Construction o DG One centre in 2007]] The Loreburn Haw (whiles kenned colloquial as The Drill Haw)<ref name="culturalprofiles.org.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.culturalprofiles.org.uk/scotland/Units/298.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-04-27 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606152912/http://www.culturalprofiles.org.uk/scotland/Units/298.html |archivedate=6 June 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref> his hostit concerts bi performers sic as [[Black Sabbath]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.black-sabbath.com/tourdates/1970.html |title=1970 Tour |publisher=Black-sabbath.com |accessdate=24 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611151759/http://www.black-sabbath.com/tourdates/1970.html |archivedate=11 June 2011 }}</ref> [[Big Country]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/19991022224215/http://www.geocities.com/SunsetStrip/Alley/2384/td-1990.html WebCite query result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[The Proclaimers]], an [[Scottish Opera]].<ref name="culturalprofiles.org.uk"/> The haw his hostit sportin events sic as [[warstlin]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wrestling101.com/101/newsitem/1154/ |title=wZw Present The 'Destruction Tour' |publisher=Wrestling101.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2020-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219085931/http://www.wrestling101.com/101/newsitem/1154/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The new DG One sport, fitness, an enterteenment centre becam the principle indoor event venue in Dumfries in 2007,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dgone.co.uk |title=MiniWeb |publisher=DG One |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2019-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190101101632/http://dgone.co.uk/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> bit in October 2014, it closed acause o major defects diskivert in the biggin. Houiver, the refurbisht replenisht biggin reappent tae the public in the simmer o 2019.<ref>{{cite news|title=Dumfries leisure centre with 'unique' failings ready to reopen |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-south-scotland-48761099|accessdate=7January 2020|work=BBC News|date=26 June 2019}}</ref> The Theatre Royal his reappent an aw follaein renovation wark. ===Visual Airts=== Wi a collection o ower 400 Scots pentins, Gracefield Arts Centre hosts a changin programme o exheebeetions featurin regional, national, and internatonal airtists and craft-makkers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk/grace.html|title=Gracefield Arts centre|date=|publisher=Dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk|accessdate=24 August 2011|archive-date=2020-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222025418/http://www.dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk/grace.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dumfries Art Trail brings thegither airtists, makkers, gaileries, an craft shaps wi venues accessible aw year roond.<ref>http://www.dumfriesarttrail.wordpress.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920205544/https://dumfriesarttrail.wordpress.com/ |date=2020-09-20 }} DART 2017</ref> ===Festivals=== The're a nummer o festivals that tak place ootthrou the year, maistly sted on tradeetional values. '''''Guid Nychburris''''' ([[Middle Scots leid|Middle Scots]], meanin 'guid neebours') is the main festival o the year, a ceremony that is lairgely sted on the theme o a positive community speerit. The ceremony on Guid Nychburris Day follaes a route an sequence o events laid doun in the mists o time. Formal proceedins start at 7.30 am wi the gaitherin o up tae 250 horses waitin for the courier tae arrive and annunce that the Pursuivant is on his wey, an at 8.00 am leave the Midsteeple an ride oot tae meet the Pursuivant. Thay then proceed to Ride the Mairches an Stob an Nog (merk the boond wi stabs an knags) afore retourin til the Midsteeple at 12.15 pm tae meet the Provost an then the Chairter is proclaimt tae the tounfowk o Dumfries. This is than follaed bi the crounin o the Queen o the Sooth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guidnychburris.co.uk |title=www.guidnychburris.co.uk |publisher=www.guidnychburris.co.uk |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822205037/http://www.guidnychburris.co.uk/ |archive-date=22 August 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Syne 2013, Dumfries his seen the annual [[Nithraid]], a wee boat race up the Nith fae Carsethorn, celebratin the toun's historical relationship wi the river. The region is hame an aw tae a nummer o thrivin muisic festivals sic as the Eden Festival (at St Ann's near Moffat), Youthbeatz (Scotland's lairgest free youth muisic festival), the Moniave Folk Festival, Thornhill Music Festival, and Electric Fields at Drumlanrig Castle afore. [[File:Ewart Library entrance.jpg|thumb|Entrance tae the Ewart Library]] ===Leebrary=== The [[Ewart Library]] is a [[Carnegie library]], an wis appent in 1904. Carnegie donatit £10,000 taewart the buildin o the leebrary, an suggestit that it wis name't efter [[William Ewart]], forgane MP for the area, and wha wis key in the introduction o actis o Pairlament in baith England an Scotland relatit til the creaution o public leebrarys.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scotcities.com/carnegie/renaiss.htm|title=Edwardian Renaissance Architecture in Scotland|website=www.scotcities.com|access-date=2019-07-27|archive-date=2019-09-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910163352/http://www.scotcities.com/carnegie/renaiss.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Sport== [[File:Scoreboard cropped.JPG|thumb|left|2008 Scottish Cup semi final result on the scoreboard at Hampden Park]] [[Queen of the South F.C.]] represent Dumfries an the surroondin area in the seicont level o the kintra's [[Scottish Professional Football League|perfaisonal fitbaw seestem]], the [[Scottish Championship]]. [[Palmerston Park]] on Terregles Street is the hame grund o the team. This is on the Maxwelltoun side o the River Nith. Thay raxt the 2008 Scottish Cup Final, losin 3-2 tae [[Rangers F.C.]]. [[Dumries Saints Rugby Club|Dumfries Saints Rugby Club]] is yin o Scotland's auldest rugby clubs having been admeetit til the [[Scots Rugby Union]] in 1876-7 as "Dumfries Rangers". Dumfries hame an aw tae a nummer of gowf coorses: * The Crichton Golf Club * The Dumfries and County Golf Club * The Dumfries and Galloway Golf Club O thae that wis listit anely the Dumfries and Galloway Golf Club is on the Maxwelltoun side of the River Nith. This course is clift intae twa haufs o 9 holes ilk bi the town's [[Castle Douglas]] Road. The club hoose an holes 1 tae 7 an 17 and 18 is on the side nearest tae Summerhill. Holes 8 tae 16 is on the side nearest tae Janefield. The appenin state of the [[2001 Tour o Breetain]] startit in [[Peebles]] and finisht 105.8 mile later in Dumfries. The stage wis wun bi sprent speicialist an ringin [[Tour de France]] green gansey kemp, [[Mark Cavendish]], wi his teammate leid-oot man, [[Mark Renshaw]] finishin seicont. Cavendish hid been schedule't tae be racin in the 2011 [[Vuelta a España]]. Houiver Cavendish wis yin o a nummer o riders tae reteer havin suffert in the searin Spaingie heat. This alloued Cavendish tae be a late addeetion tae the Tour o Breetain line-up in his preparation for whit wis tae be a successfu bid twa week later in the 2001 [[UCI Road World Championship]] - Men's Road Race . Cavendish in a smilin efter-race interview in Dumfries descrived the weet an windy race condeetions throu the Southern Scots stage as 'horrible'.<ref>Tour of Britain, ITV4, 7 pm Sun 11 September 2011</ref> DG One complex includes a national event-sized competeetion soumin puil. The David Keswick Athletic Centre is the principal faceelity in Dumfries for athletics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.runtrackdir.com/details.asp?track=dumfries |title=David Keswick Athletic Centre |publisher=Runtrackdir.com |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> Dumfries is hame tae [[Nithsale Amateur Rowin Club]]. The rowers skare thair clubhoose wi [[Dumfries Sub-Aqua Club]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Douglas A. Rathburn |url=http://www.oarspotter.com/blades/UK/Club/British_Club.html |title=Blades of the World: British Rowing Clubs |publisher=Oarspotter.com |date=14 July 2011 |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dgstandard.co.uk/tags/rowing/ |title=rowing news and articles – Dumfries and Galloway Standard |publisher=Dgstandard.co.uk |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> The rowers share their clubhouse with [[Dumfries Sub-Aqua Club]].<ref>[http://website.lineone.net/~tkburnett/] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010520163810/http://website.lineone.net/~tkburnett/|date=20 May 2001}}</ref> The toun is hame an aw tae the [[Solway Sharks]] [[Ice hockey]] team. The team is praisently Northern Premier League winners. The team's hame rink is Dumfries Ice Bowl, that is kenned an aw as Scotland's anely center o ice hockey excellence, an trials for the Scottish Jr. national team is cairit oot at this venue. Dumfries Ice Bowl is hame an aw tae twa [[synchronized skeetin]] teams, [[Solway Stars]] and [[Solway Eclipse]]. In addeetion, Dumfries Ice Bowl is hame an aw tae several curliln teams, competeetions, an leagues. Junior curlin teams fae Dumfries, consistin o curlers unner the age o 21, compete raiglar in the Dutch Junion Open sted in Zoetermeer, the Netherlands. In 2007, 2008, an 2009 a Dumfries-sted team hae been the winners o the competeetion's Hogline Tropy. Dumfries hosts three outdoors [[bouls]] clubs:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bowlsclub.org/associations/lawn/GB/SBA17/247/ |title=SBA district 17 |publisher=BowlsClub.org |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2011-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812200844/http://bowlsclub.org/associations/lawn/GB/SBA17/247/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Dumfries Bowling Club]] * [[Marchmount Bowling Club]] * [[Maxwelltown Bowling Club]] Dumfries hosts cyclin organizations an cyclin vacances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dumfriescc.org/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-05-01 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527161000/http://dumfriescc.org/ |archivedate=27 May 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dandgcycling.care4free.net/ |title=Dumfries and Galloway Cycling Group CTC Section Southwest Scotland, homepage |publisher=Dandgcycling.care4free.net |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visitdumfriesandgalloway.co.uk/cycling/ |title=Cycling holidays in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland |publisher=Visitdumfriesandgalloway.co.uk |date=30 September 2003 |accessdate=24 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819140424/http://www.visitdumfriesandgalloway.co.uk/cycling |archivedate=19 August 2011 }}</ref> ==Eddication== Dumfries haes several primary schuils, aboot yin per key destrict, and fower main seicontary schuils. Aw o thir institutions is governt bi Dumfries an Gallowa Cooncil. the seicontary schuils is; * [[Dumfries Academy]] * [[Dumfries High School]] * [[Maxwelltoun High School]] * [[St Joseph's College]] Dumfries Academy wis a [[grammar school]] until adoptin a comprehensive format in 1983. In 2013 plans for a 'super schuil' wis annunce't. Thir plans wis later dimitit in fauvour o renovatin existin schuils.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-south-scotland-25023668|title=The Dumfries 'super school' project that never took off|first=Giancarlo|last=Rinaldi|date=21 November 2013|publisher=|via=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> In 199 Scotland's first multi-institutional university campus wis estaiblisht in Dumfries, in the 85-acre Crichton estte. In order o campus presence it is host tae the [[University of the West o Scotland]] (UWS) (kenned as University o Paisley and Bell College afore), [[Dumfries and Galloway College]], and the [[Glesga Varsity|University of Glasgow]]. In its infancy yet, the campus offers a range o degree coorses in initial teacher eddication, business, computin, environmental studies, tourism, heritage, social wark, heal, social studies, nuiricin, liberal airts, an humanities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2007/08/20105300|title=Support for Crichton and South of Scotland|first=Scottish Government, St. Andrew's House, Regent Road, Edinburgh EH1 3DG Tel:0131 556 8400|last=ceu@scotland.gsi.gov.uk|date=20 August 2007|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://crichtoncampus.co.uk/ |title=Crichton University Campus Dumfries – Scotland UK |publisher=Crichtoncampus.co.uk |date=11 July 2006 |accessdate=24 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814021722/http://crichtoncampus.co.uk/ |archivedate=14 August 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In maugre o a short-leeved threit o closin tae the University o Glasgow pairt o the campus in 2006, a campaign bi students, academics, an local supporters enshuirt that the University of Glasgow remeent appen in Dumfries. The University of Glasgow, syne maintainin its proveesion in Dumfries, his lencht a new unnergraduate programme in primary teachin.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080503004422/http://www.gla.ac.uk/departments/dumfriescampus/undergraduatestudy/primaryeducationwithteachingqualification/]</ref> ==Healcare== [[Dumfries and Galloway Royal Infirmary]] is the principal seicontary care referral centre for Dumfries an Galloway region. It noo includes a maternity wing that replace't the auld Cresswell Maternity Hospital. The [[Crichton Royal Hospital]] is pairt o the Royal Infirmary complex an provides a regional psychiatric, psychological, an speicialist addictions service within Dumfries an Galloway. In 1838 [[Willam A. F Browne]] acceptit the poseetion o Physeecian Superintendant at the newly creatit Crichton. It is at the Chricton that [[Ursula Fleming]] gaint a hantle o her eddication an experience. ==Transport== [[File:Maxwelltown Railway Path, Dumfries (looking towards Hardthorn Road bridge).jpg|thumb|left|Maxwelltown Railwey Paith, Dumfries (leukin taewart Hardthorn Road brig)]] [[File:Dumfries Railway Station 2008-01-18.jpg|thumb|[[Dumfries railwey station]]]] Dumfries is linkit tae the norwart-gaun [[M74 motorwey]] at [[Beattock]] via the [[A701 road]]. The eastwart-gaun [[A75 road]] links Dumfries tae the soothwart-gaun A74 (M), leadin tae the [[M6 Motorwey]] an [[Cairl]]. The westlin-gaun A75 links Dumfries til the ferry port o [[Stranrawer]]. The [[A76 road]] connects tae [[Kilmarnock]] in [[Ayrshire]]. [[Dumfries railwey station]] is locatit on the [[Glasgow South Western Line]]. It wis awairdit Best Station Awards bi [[British Rail]] in 1986 an 1987. The train service is noo operatit bi [[Abellio ScotRail]] that provides services tae [[Glesga Central station]] an Cairl, an no sae aften services direct tae [[Newcastle upon Tyne]]. The nearest station tae Dumfries on the [[West Coast Main Line]] is 14 mile east alang the [[A709 road]] at [[Lockerbie]], an the nearest West Coast Main Line station linkin direct tae Dumfries bi rail is at Cairl. [[Maxwelltoun station]] in the Summerhill destrict o the toun wis closed alang wi the direct line tae Stranrawr via Castle Douglas as pairt o the [[Beeching cuts]] in 1965. Pairt o the disused railwey track in Dumfries wis later convertit til a cycle paith. ==Pairks== The maist significant o the pairks in Dumfries is aw within walkin distance o the toun centre: * Dock Park - locatit on the East baunk o the Nith juist til the sooth o St Michael's brig * Castledykes Park - as the name suggests on the site o a foregane castle * Mill Green (kenned an aw as Deer Park, awtho the deer that wis there hae syne been relocatit) - on the Wast baunk o the Nith conter Whitesands ==Braidcastin== Dumfries is hame tae yin o the 11 BBC studios in Scotland. [[West Sound (Dumfries an Gallowa)|West Sound FM]], pairt o the [[Bauer Media Group]], braidcasts fae Dumfries, an is an aw the main radio station for the area. Community radio station ''Alive 107.3'' braidcasts on 107.3 FM in Dumfries an online.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://media.info/radio/stations/alive-radio-1073|title=Alive Radio 107.3|publisher=|access-date=2020-02-19|archive-date=2019-10-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017190341/https://media.info/radio/stations/alive-radio-1073|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2018, Dumfries got a new radio station, ''Dumfries Community Radio''. Kenned an aw as DCR Online, it isna a tradeetional FM radio station, bit an online radio station. ==Local jurnalism== The twa local newspapers that kiver speceefic Dumfries an the surroondin area is: * ''[[Dumfries and Galloway Standard]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://icdumfries.icnetwork.co.uk/dumfriesgalloway/ |title=icDumfries – Dumfries & Galloway Standard News |publisher=Icdumfries.icnetwork.co.uk |date=11 August 2009 |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> (estaiblisht 1843) publishin on Tysdays an Fridays * ''[[Dumfries Courier]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dumfriescourier.co.uk/ |title=Dumfries Courier – Regionwide news from your weekly newspaper |publisher=Dumfriescourier.co.uk |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926073214/http://www.dumfriescourier.co.uk/ |archive-date=26 September 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> publishing on Fridays publishin on Fridays ==Airchitectural geology== [[File:Buccleuch St, Dumfries, 2007-07-26.jpg|thumb|saundstane biggins in Buccleuch Street]] The're mony biggins in Dumfries made fae saundstane o the local Locharbriggs [[Quarrel (minin)|quarrel]]. The quarrel is situatit aff the A701 on the north o Dumfries at Locharbriggs near til hte aggregates quarrel. This dimension stane quarrel is a lairge quarrel. Quarrel wirkin at Locharbriggs dates fae the 18t century, an the quarrel his been wirked continuous syne 1890.<ref name="autogeneratedquarry">{{cite web|url=http://www.stancliffe.com/uk-stone-types-and-colours/locharbriggs-red-sandstone|title=Locharbriggs Red Sandstone Suppliers|first=RJ Design|last=Associates|publisher=|access-date=2020-02-19|archive-date=2018-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306113531/http://www.stancliffe.com/uk-stone-types-and-colours/locharbriggs-red-sandstone|url-status=dead}}</ref> The're guid reserves o stane that can be howkit at several locations. On average the stane is available at deepths o 3 fit on bed awtho some lairger block are obtainable. The average lenth o a block is 4 fit bit 7 fit blocks can be obtaint. Locharbriggs is fae the New Red saundstane o the Permian age It is a middlin-graint stane rangin in colour fae dreich red tae pink. It is the saundstane uised in the [[Queen Alexandra Bridge]] in [[Sunderland]], the [[Manchester International Convention Centre]], an the base o the [[Statue o Leeberty]].<ref name=autogeneratedquarry /><gallery caption="Examples o sandstane carvins fund in Dumfries"> File:Dumfries Academy, Minerva Building, Academy St, Dumfries DG1 1DD, Detail.jpg|Minerva biggin, Dumfries Academy File:Grayfriars 1.jpg|Detail at Greyfriar's Kirk File:Grayfriars 4.jpg|Detail at Greyfriars Kirk File:Midsteeple 7.jpg|Detail at Midsteeple File:Queensberry Hotel, Dumfries 2.jpg|Detail at Queensberry hottle File:Queensberry monument dumfries 2.jpg|Ram's heid at Queensberry monument File:Greyfriars Dumfries town centre.jpg|Greyfriars Dumfries toun centre File:Carving of satyr, Dumfries.jpg|Carvin o Pan File:Dumfries Academy 2.jpg|Detail at Dumfries Academy </gallery> ==Surroondin places o interest== As the lairgest sattlement in Soothren Scotland, Dumfries is notit as a centre for veesitin surroonding places o interest.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scottishholidays.net/visit/scotland-tour-dumfries-dumfries.html |title=Dumfries Travel Guide |publisher=Scottishholidays.net |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2017-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013224911/http://www.scottishholidays.net/visit/scotland-tour-dumfries-dumfries.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The follaein is aw within easy reak: * [[Ae, Dumfries an Gallowa|Ae]] an [[Ae Forest]] * [[Caerlaverock Castle]]<ref name="autogenerated2" /> * [[Criffel]] - a hill on the Solway coast popular wi hill walkers for its views o the Soothren Scotland coastline an ootower the [[Solway Firth]] til the [[Lake District]] o [[Cumbria]]. * [[Drumlanrig Castle]]<ref name="autogenerated2" /> * [[Ecclefechan]] - birthplace o [[Thomas Carlyle]]. "The Arched House" is a tourist attraction an his been mainteent bi the [[National Trust for Scotland]] syne 1936.<ref name="autogenerated2" /> Ecclefechan is locatit at the fit o the lairge Roman fort, [[Burnswark]], that dominates the laundskip wi its flat tap. * [[Gretna Green]] an the [[Auld Smiddie]], famous for skirt-mairiages<ref name="autogenerated2" /> * [[John Paul Jones Cottage Museum]] - the tradeetional Scots cot what [[John Paul Jones]] in 1747 wis born in<ref>{{cite web |author=David Lockwood |url=http://www.jpj.demon.co.uk/jpjlife.htm |title=John Paul Jones a brief biography |publisher=Jpj.demon.co.uk |date=16 December 2010 |accessdate=24 August 2011 |archive-date=2013-06-25 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6HcxxyXwL?url=http://www.jpj.demon.co.uk/jpjlife.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Kagyu Samye Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre]] wis the first [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] centre tae hae been estaiblisht in the West. It is a centre within the [[Karma Kagyu]] tradeetion o Tibetan Buddhism. It is in the veelage o [[Eskdalemuir]] in the Scots Soothren Uplands<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samyeling.org/ |title=Kagyu Samye Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre |publisher=Samyeling.org |date= |accessdate=24 August 2011}}</ref> * [[Lochmaben]] wi its lochs popular wi boaters an an aw its history wi Robert the Bruce. * [[Mabie Forest]] - popular destinations for outdoor recreation suc as muntain biking an walkin * [[Moffat]] an the views nearby o the [[Devil's Beef Tub]], the [[Grey Mare's Tail]] watterfaw, an the [[A708 road]] fae Moffat past the Grey Mare's Tail tae [[St Mary's Loch]] * [[Minnyhive]] conservation veelage * [[New Abbey]] Corn Mill Museum an [[Sweetheart Abbey]]<ref name="autogenerated2" /> * [[Solway Coast]] * [[Threave Castle]] in [[Castle Douglas]], hame til the [[Clan Douglas|Douglas Clan]] o [[James Douglas, Laird o Douglas]] that fechtit wi [[Robert the Bruce]]<ref name="autogenerated2" /> * [[Twynholm]] an the [[David Coulthard]] Museum<ref name="autogenerated2" /> * [[Wanlockheid]] - Breetain's heichest veelage registert at 1,531 fit abuin sea level an the [[Lead Mining Museum]]<ref name="autogenerated2" /> ==Ither places name't Dumfries== ===Canadae=== * [[Dumfries, New Brunswick]] * [[South Dumfries Township, Ontario]] * [[North Dumfries, Ontario]] ===USA=== * [[Dumfries, Virginia]] in the US wis estaiblisht formal on land at the heid o the herbour o Quantico Creek, providit bi John Graham. He name't the toun efter his birthplace, Dumfries in Scotland * [[Dumfries, Minnesota]] * [[Dumfries, Iowa]] ===Ither=== * [[Dumfries, Bahamas|Dumfries]], [[Cat Island]], [[Bahamas]]<ref name=maphill1>{{Cite web |url=http://www.maphill.com/bahamas/cat-island/dumfries/ |title="Dumfries Maps" Maphill.com |access-date=2020-02-19 |archive-date=2020-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730051413/http://www.maphill.com/bahamas/cat-island/dumfries/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Dumfries, Grenada|Dumfries]], [[Carriacou]], [[Grenada]]<ref name="maphill2">{{Cite web |url=http://www.maphill.com/grenada/carriacou/dumfries/ |title="Dumfries Maps" maphillcom |access-date=2020-02-19 |archive-date=2020-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730035957/http://www.maphill.com/grenada/carriacou/dumfries/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Twin touns== {{flagicon|US}} &ndash; [[Annapolis, Maryland]],<ref name=moyer>{{Cite web |url=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2007-07-06/news/0707060194_1_annapolis-city-council-moyer |title="Moyer to travel to Annapolis' sister cities in Europe" |access-date=2020-02-19 |archive-date=2017-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805222046/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2007-07-06/news/0707060194_1_annapolis-city-council-moyer |url-status=dead }}</ref> is hame til the [[United States Naval Academy]] whaur John Paul Jones lies in the crypt aneath the chaipel. {{flagicon|DE}} &ndash; [[Gifhorn]],<ref name=Gifhorn>[https://www.stadt-gifhorn.de/sv_gifhorn/Lebenswert/Partnerst%C3%A4dte/Dumfries/ "Stadt Giforn"]</ref> Germany {{flagicon|ITA}} &ndash; [[Cantù]], [[Italy]]. Dumfries an Galloway Cooncil hisna been involved in ony offeecial twinnin link atween the twa touns for some time. The bond his been mainteened throu the Freends o Cantu an the Nithsdale Twinnin Association.<ref name=cantu>[http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/local-news/italian-connection-to-dumfries-2609425 Italian connection to Dumfries]</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Dumfries}} * https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/artists/james-norie-senior James Norie Senior * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180514062633/http://www.dumgal.gov.uk/ Dumfries an Galloway Cooncil Wsbsteid] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091123153243/http://www.loreburne.co.uk/ www.loreburne.co.uk A Guide tae.....Dumfries] * [http://www.dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk/ Dumfries and Galloway Museums] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222132412/http://www.dumfriesmuseum.demon.co.uk/ |date=2020-02-22 }} * [http://ssa.nls.uk/search.cfm?search_sort_order=Film.dateRelease%2CFilm.name&search_sort_direction=ASC&search_term=dumfries&search_fields=2&search_join_type=AND&search_fuzzy=yes&videos_only=1&search_mode=Advanced&submit=Search+%3E%3E%3E National Leebrary o Scotland: Scots Screen Archaee]{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}—selection of archaee picturs aboot Dumfries * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095611/http://www.scotlandsplaces.gov.uk/digital_volumes/book.php?book_id=555&place_id=10&p_name=Dumfriesshire Dumfries Ceevil Pairish Historical Tax Rolls in Dumfriesshire] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bBQjqwiCgNk&t=46s Video footage an history o Dumfries railwey station] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUbEum2bCwM Video and history of the Burns Mausoleum, Dumfries.] * [https://www.visitscotland.com/destinations-maps/dumfries/see-do/ Things Tae See an Dae & Attractions in Dumfries] *[https://digital.nls.uk/chapbooks-printed-in-scotland/archive/104184943 https://digital.nls.uk/chapbooks-printed-in-scotland/archaee/104184943]{{Dead link|date=June 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *https://www.arthur-conan-doyle.com/index.php?title=Charles_Altamont_Doyle *https://britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/200362756-79-high-street-county-hotel-nith-ward * {{en}} [https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Dumfries Dumfries at Wikivoyage] [[Category:Touns in Dumfries an Gallowa]] [[Category:Dumfries an Gallowa]] [[Category:Places o Scotland]] l5bh87ycmen74npqguahtel7x7lhnjs 0 155608 918704 906488 2026-06-24T23:10:54Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918704 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Krista Tippett | image = Krista Tippett at the Brookings Institution.jpg | image_size = 250px | alt = | caption = Tippett in 2012 | birth_name = Krista Weedman | birth_date = {{birth-date and age|November 9, 1960}} | birth_place = | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} or {{Death-date and age|Month DD, YYYY|Month DD, YYYY}} (death date then birth date) --> | death_place = | alma mater = [[Brown Varsity]] <br />[[Yale Varsity]] | nationality = American | other_names = | occupation = Jurnalist | known_for = ''[[On Being]]'' | awards = {{hlist|[[National Humanities Medal]]|[[Peabody Award]]|[[Webby Award]]}} | website = {{URL|www.onbeing.org}} }} '''Krista Tippett''' ([[née]] Weedman, born November 9, 1960<ref name=brussat>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiritualityandpractice.com/books/books.php?id=16646 |title=Book Review |publisher=Spirituality and Practice |accessdate=February 4, 2015 |author=Brussat, Frederic and Maryann}}</ref><ref name=tippett>{{cite web |url=http://blog.onbeing.org/post/238278905/the-fall-of-the-wall-jfks-assassination-and-two |title=The Fall of the Wall, JFK’s Assassination, and Two Birthdays |publisher=On Being |accessdate=February 4, 2015 |archive-date=2015-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205012407/http://blog.onbeing.org/post/238278905/the-fall-of-the-wall-jfks-assassination-and-two |url-status=dead }}</ref>) is a American jurnalist, author, an entrepreneur. She creatit an hosts the public radio program an podcast ''[[On Being]]''. In 2014, Tippett wis awairdit the [[National Humanities Medal]] bi U.S. Preses [[Barack Obama]].<ref>{{cite news |author=White House Office of the Press Secretary |date=July 22, 2014 |title=President Obama to Award 2013 National Medal of Arts and National Humanities Medal |url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/22/advisory-president-obama-award-2013-national-medal-arts-and-national-hum |accessdate=December 2, 2014 |archive-date=2016-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921230937/https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/22/advisory-president-obama-award-2013-national-medal-arts-and-national-hum |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Personal life== Tippett grew up in [[Shawnee, Oklahoma]].<ref name=Porecca>{{cite news |author=Porecca, David |date=December 13, 1985 |title=New York Times Stringer Reflects on Life in the East |newspaper=The Berlin Observer |url=http://www.theberlinobserver.com/archive/1985V41/V41_N50_dec_13.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=February 3, 2015}}</ref> She studiet History at [[Brown Varsity]], an spent a semester as an exchynge student at Wilhelm Pieck University in [[Rostock]], in then-Communist [[East Germany]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Tippett |first=Krista |date=2007 |title=Speaking of Faith: Why Religion Matters--and How to Talk about It |url=https://archive.org/details/speakingoffaith2007tipp_k8t8|location= |publisher=Penguin |pages=[https://archive.org/details/speakingoffaith2007tipp_k8t8/page/26 26]–27 |isbn=0143113186 }}</ref> She haes twa childer an is divorcit.<ref name=WYSU>{{cite web |url=http://wysu.org/content/commentary/krista-tippet |title=Krista Tippett |publisher=WYSU |accessdate=February 3, 2015 |archive-date=2021-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307001729/https://wysu.org/content/commentary/krista-tippet |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Freemit airtins== {{commons category|Krista Tippett}} * [http://www.onbeing.org/ Offeecial wabsteid] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114193137/https://onbeing.org/ |date=2018-01-14 }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Tippett, Krista}} [[Category:1960 births]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:American radio personalities]] [[Category:Fowk frae Shawnee, Oklahoma]] [[Category:Weemen radio jurnalists]] [[Category:American radio producers]] [[Category:Brown Varsity alumni]] [[Category:American weemen jurnalists]] [[Category:American radio jurnalists]] [[Category:Yale Varsity alumni]] [[Category:American talk radio hosts]] [[Category:Fulbright Scholars]] [[Category:Webby Awaird winners]] [[Category:Peabody Awaird winners]] [[Category:National Humanities Medal recipients]] 6j3dt1smlzkjw8i3ue7vci59apr563q 0 156990 918733 888456 2026-06-24T23:30:42Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918733 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder |nobel=yes |name = Henry Kissinger |image = Henry Kissinger Shankbone Metropolitan Opera 2009.jpg |office = [[Leet o Secretaries o State o the Unitit States|56t]] [[Unitit States Secretar o State]] |president = [[Richard Nixon]]<br>[[Gerald Ford]] |deputy = [[Kenneth Rush]]<br>[[Robert S. Ingersoll|Robert Ingersoll]]<br>[[Charles W. Robinson|Charles Robinson]] |term_start = September 22, 1973 |term_end = Januar 20, 1977 |predecessor = [[William P. Rogers|William Rogers]] |successor = [[Cyrus Vance]] |office1 = [[Naitional Security Advisor (Unitit States)|Naitional Security Advisor]] |president1 = [[Richard Nixon]]<br>[[Gerald Ford]] |deputy1 = [[Richard V. Allen|Richard Allen]]<br>[[Alexander Haig]]<br>[[Brent Scowcroft]] |term_start1 = Januar 20, 1969 |term_end1 = November 3, 1975 |predecessor1 = [[Walt Whitman Rostow|Walt Rostow]] |successor1 = [[Brent Scowcroft]] |birth_name = Heinz Alfred Kissinger |birth_date = {{birth date|1923|5|27}} |birth_place = [[Fürth]], [[Weimar Republic]] |death_date = 29 November 2023 (aged 100) |death_place = [[Connecticut]], U.S. |party = [[Republican Pairty (Unitit States)|Republican]] |spouse = {{marriage|Ann Fleischer|1949|1964|end=divorce}}<br>{{marriage|[[Nancy Kissinger|Nancy Maginnes]]|1974|}} |children = Elizabeth<br>David |education = [[City College of New York|City University of New York, City College]]<br>[[Lafayette College]]<br>[[Harvard Varsity]] {{small|([[Bachelor o Airts|BA]], [[Master o Airts|MA]], [[Doctor o Filosofie|PhD]])}} |awards = [[Nobel Peace Prize]] |signature = Henry Kissinger Signature 2.svg |allegiance = {{flagu|United States}} |branch = {{flag|United States Army}} |rank = [[File:US Army WWII SGT.svg|18px]] [[Sergeant]] |battles = [[Warld War II]] |unit = 970th Counter Intelligence Corps |mawards = [[File:Bronze Star Medal ribbon.svg|23px|border]] [[Bronze Starn Medal|Bronze Starn]] }} '''Henry Alfred Kissinger''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|s|ɪ|n|dʒ|ər}};<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Kissinger |title=Kissinger – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster |accessdate=October 23, 2009}}</ref> born '''Heinz Alfred Kissinger''' {{IPA-de|haɪnts ˈalfʁɛt ˈkɪsɪŋɐ|}}; born Mey 27, 1923; deed November 29, 2023) wis a German-born American [[diplomat]] an [[poleetical scientist]]. He served as [[Naitional Security Advisor (Unitit States)|Naitional Security Advisor]] an later concurrently as [[Unitit States Secretar o State]] in the admeenistrations o preses [[Richard Nixon]] an [[Gerald Ford]]. For his actions negotiatin an unsuccessfu ceasefire in [[Vietnam]], Kissinger received the 1973 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] unner controversial circumstances,<ref name="Feldman16">{{cite book |first=Burton |last=Feldman |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/nobelprizehistor00feld/page/16 16] |title=The Nobel Prize: A History Of Genius, Controversy, and Prestige |url=https://archive.org/details/nobelprizehistor00feld |publisher=[[Arcade Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-55970-537-0}}</ref> wi twa members o the committee resignin in protest. Kissinger later soucht, unsuccessfully, tae return the prize. Efter his term, his advice haes been soucht bi warld leaders includin subsequent U.S. preses. At the time o his daith in November 2023, agit 100, he wis the auldest-livin umwhile US cabinet member. He is the seicont Unitit States Secretar o State tae turn 100 years auld (efter [[George P. Shultz]]). ==References== {{reflist}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kissinger, Henry}} [[Category:1923 births]] [[Category:2023 daiths]] [[Category:20t-century American writers]] [[Category:21st-century American writers]] [[Category:American anti-communists]] [[Category:American centenarians]] [[Category:American consultin businessfowk]] [[Category:American diplomats]] [[Category:American foreign policy writers]] [[Category:American male writers]] [[Category:American Jews in the militar]] [[Category:American memoirists]] [[Category:American militar personnel o Warld War II]] [[Category:American Nobel laureates]] [[Category:American fowk o the Vietnam War]] [[Category:American poleetical consultants]] [[Category:American poleetical scientists]] [[Category:American poleetical writers]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae Massachusetts]] [[Category:Businessfowk frae New York Ceety]] [[Category:Centenarian politeecians]] [[Category:Chancellors o the College of William & Mary]] [[Category:City College of New York alumni]] [[Category:Cauld War diplomats]] [[Category:Connecticut Republicans]] [[Category:Consequentialists]] [[Category:Ford admeenistration cabinet members]] [[Category:Geopoliteecians]] [[Category:Georgetown Varsity faculty]] [[Category:Guggenheim Fellaes]] [[Category:Harvard Varsity alumni]] [[Category:Harvard Varsity faculty]] [[Category:Honorary Knichts Commander o the Order o the Breetish Empire]] [[Category:Internaitional relations scholars]] [[Category:Jewish American politeecians]] [[Category:Jewish emigrants frae Nazi Germany tae the Unitit States]] [[Category:Massachusetts Republicans]] [[Category:Members o the Steering Committee o the Bilderberg Group]] [[Category:National Book Award winners]] [[Category:New York Republicans]] [[Category:Nixon admeenistration cabinet members]] [[Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates]] [[Category:Operation Condor]] [[Category:Fowk frae Belmont, Massachusetts]] [[Category:Fowk frae Fürth]] [[Category:Fowk frae Washington Heights, Manhattan]] [[Category:Fowk o the Laotian Ceevil War]] [[Category:Poleetical realists]] [[Category:Presidential Medal o Freedom recipients]] [[Category:RAND Corporation fowk]] [[Category:Recipients o the Bronze Starn Medal]] [[Category:Recipients o the Order o Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk]] [[Category:Recipients o the Presidential Medal o Distinction o Israel]] [[Category:Soviet Union–Unitit States relations]] [[Category:SpVgg Greuther Fürth]] [[Category:Unitit States Airmy sodgers]] [[Category:Unitit States Naitional Security Advisors]] [[Category:Unitit States Secretaries o State]] [[Category:Writers frae New York Ceety]] [[Category:Grand Crosses 1st cless o the Order o Meerit o the Federal Republic o Germany]] nzfjo6lm36dqn03qzo1za0pcrv2tvgf 0 159361 918735 907812 2026-06-24T23:32:00Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918735 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots|date=September 2020}} {{Speciesbox | name = Bobcat | image = Bobcat2.jpg | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref =<ref name=iucn /> | taxon = Lynx rufus | authority = ([[Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber|Schreber]], 1777) | synonyms = * ''Felis rufus'' <small>Schreber</small> | range_map = Bobcat distribution2016.jpg | range_map_caption = Distribution o Bobcat, 2016<ref name=iucn>{{Cite iucn |journal=[[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] |publisher=[[IUCN]] |author=Kelly, M. |author2=Morin, D. |author3=& Lopez-Gonzalez, C. A. |year=2016 |volume=2016 |title=''Lynx rufus'' |page=e.T12521A50655874 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T12521A50655874.en |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/12521/50655874}}</ref> }} [[File:Bobcat (Lynx rufus) in Buckeye Tree.webm|thumb|Video o a Bobcat (Lynx rufus)]] The '''bobcat''' (''Lynx rufus'') is a North American [[Felidae|cat]] that appeared durin the [[Irvingtonian]] stage o aroond 1.8 million years ago ([[:en:Appearance event ordination|AEO]]).<ref>[http://paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=checkTaxonInfo&taxon_no=46528&is_real_user=1 Paleobiology Database, collection 20397] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727105824/http://paleodb.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=checkTaxonInfo&taxon_no=46528&is_real_user=1|date=2013-07-27}} [[Doña Ana Coonty, New Mexico]]. Authorisit an entered bi [[John Alroy|Dr. John Alroy]], [[Macquarie University]], April 30, 1994.</ref> Containing 12 recognisit [[subspecies]], it ranges frae soothren [[Canadae]] tae central [[Mexico]], includin maist o the [[contiguous Unitit States]]. The bobcat is a adaptable [[predator]] that inhabits firthit auries, as well as semidesert, urban edge, forest edge, an swampland environs. It remains in some o its oreeginal range, but populations are vulnerable tae [[local extinction]] ("extirpation") bi [[coyote]]s an domestic ainimals. Wi a grey tae broun coat, whiskered face, an black-tuftit lugs, the bobcat resembles the ither species o the midsized ''[[Lynx]]'' genus. It is smawer on average than the [[Canadae lynx]], wi which it shares pairts o its range, but is aboot twice as lairge as the [[cat|domestic cat]]. It haes distinctive black bars on its forelegs an a black-tippit, stubby tail, frae which it derives its name. The maist feck o the bobcat's diet is [[kinnen]]s an [[maukin]]s, but it hunts [[insect]]s, chickens, [[guiss|geese]] an ither birds, smaw [[rodent]]s, an [[deer]] as weel. Prey selection depends on location an [[habitat]], saison, an abundance. Lik maist cats, the bobcat is territorial an maistly solitar, awtho wi some owerlap in hame ranges. It uises several methods tae [[territorial markin|merk its territorial boondars]], includin claw marks an deposits o urine or feces. The bobcat breeds frae winter intae ware an haes a gestation period o aboot twa month. Awtho bobcats hae been huntit extensively bi humans, baith for sport an fur, thair population haes pruiven resilient tho declinin in some auries. The elusive predator featurs in [[Meethologies o the indigenous fowks o Americae|Native American meethologie]] an the fowklear o European settlers. ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further readin== {{Portal|Mammals|Cats}} {{refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite book |last =Hansen |first = Kevin |year = 2006|title =Bobcat: master of survival|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=HW0llAsJgWUC&lpg=PP1|publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-518303-7}} * {{Cite book |last =Burton |first =Maurice |author2=Robert Burton |year =1970 |title =The international wildlife encyclopedia, Volume 1 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=cb7N0CV0JbAC&lpg=PA253|pages=253–257 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish Corp |isbn= 978-0-7614-7266-7 }} * {{Cite book |last = Sunquist |first =Melvin E |author2=Fiona Sunquist|year =2002 |title =Wild cats of the world |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=hFbJWMh9-OAC&lpg=PA187|pages=185–197 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-77999-8}} * {{Cite book|last =Van Wormer|first=Joe|year =1963|title =The World of the Bobcat|url =https://archive.org/details/worldofbobcatali0000joev|publisher =J.B.Lippincott|asin=B000O2KACC}} {{refend}} ==Freemit airtins== * {{wikispecies-inline|Lynx rufus}} * {{commons-inline|Lynx rufus}} *[http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=96 Species portrait Bobcat; IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714221825/http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=96 |date=2018-07-14 }} *[http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/bobcat.html Bobcats] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612144559/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/bobcat.html |date=2007-06-12 }} – Naitional Geographic *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SAuvftv7HJA Youtube Video of Swimming Bobcat] - Extendit Video captured o Bobcat Soummin Athort Lake Lanier Georgie {{Taxonbar|from=Q131907}} [[Category:Lynx]] [[Category:Mammals o Canadae]] [[Category:Mammals o Mexico]] [[Category:Mammals o the Unitit States]] [[Category:Predators]] [[Category:Ainimals descrived in 1777]] {{stub/Feline}} tle2whl3g3aksb1pbjy19pg3jkpugtm 0 159932 918744 562658 2026-06-24T23:36:55Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918744 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Leadbeater's possum<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Diprotodontia | id = 11000150 | page = 54}}</ref> | image = Leadbeater's_Possum_02_Pengo.jpg | image_caption = Taxidermy specimen | status = CR | trend = down | status_system = iucn3.1 | status_ref =<ref name=iucn>{{IUCN2013.2|assessor=Menkhorst, P.|year=2008|id=9564|title=Gymnobelideus leadbeateri|downloaded=3 April 2014}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is listed as endangered</ref> | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | infraclassis = [[Marsupialia]] | ordo = [[Diprotodontia]] | familia = [[Petauridae]] | genus = '''''Gymnobelideus''''' | species = '''''G. leadbeateri''''' | binomial = ''Gymnobelideus leadbeateri'' | binomial_authority = [[Frederick McCoy|McCoy]], 1867 | range_map = Leadbeater's Possum area.png | range_map_caption = Leadbeater's possum range }} '''Leadbeater's possum''' (''Gymnobelideus leadbeateri'') is a [[Phalangeriformes|possum]] lairgely restrictit tae smaw pockets o [[Eucalyptus delegatensis|alpine ash]], [[eucalyptus regnans|muntain ash]] an [[Eucalyptus pauciflora|snaw gum]] forests in the [[Central Highlands (Victoria)|Central Highlands]] o [[Victoria (Australie)|Victoria]], Australie, north-east o Melbourne.<ref>Leadbeater's Possum Recovey Plan, 1997</ref> It is [[Primitive (phylogenetics)|primitive]], [[Relict (biologie)|relict]], an nan-glidin, an, as the anerly species in the [[Petauridae|petaurid]] genus ''Gymnobelideus'', represents a ancestral fuirm. Umwhile, Leadbeater's possums wur moderately common athin the vera smaw auries they inhabitit; their requirement for year-roond fuid supplies an tree-holes tae tak refuge in durin the day restricts thaim tae mixed-age wet [[sclerophyll]] forest wi a dense mid-story o ''[[Acacia]]''. The species wis namit efter John Leadbeater, the then taxidermist at the [[Museum Victoria]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Hackett | first = Des | authorlink=Des Hackett | title = Leadbeater's Possum: Bred To Be Wild | editor = Peter Preuss | year = 2006 | publisher=Trafford Publishing | isbn = 1-4120-8382-6 | pages=203}}</ref> They also go by the common name of '''fairy possum'''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tyndale-Biscoe|first=Hugh|title=Life of marsupials|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofmarsupials0000tynd_v5m5|year=2004|publisher=CSIRO publishing|isbn=0-643-06257-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lifeofmarsupials0000tynd_v5m5/page/203 203]}}</ref> On 2 Mairch 1971,<ref>gazette.slv.vic.gov.au/images/1971/V/general/20.pdf</ref> the State of Victoria made the Leadbeater's possum its [[Leet o Australie mammal emblems|faunal emblem]].<ref name="Guardian 2013">Milman, Oliver: [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/may/26/logging-pushing-possum-towards-extinction "Government-backed logging 'pushing rare possum towards extinction"] in ''[[The Guardian]]'' 27 May 2013</ref> ==References== {{reflist|40em}} ==Freemit airtins== {{Commons category|Gymnobelideus leadbeateri}} [[Category:EDGE species]] [[Category:Endangered fauna o Australie]] [[Category:Mammals o Victoria (Australie)]] [[Category:Possums]] bfeu8eudzula7cq8ovjuwx1m4nuew2q 0 174233 918757 914807 2026-06-24T23:48:22Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918757 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer <!-- For more information see [[:Template:Infobox Writer/doc]]. --> | name = Aminatta Forna<br><small>[[Order o the Breetish Empire|OBE]]</small> | image = Aminatta Forna awards ceremony LiBeraturpreis 2008.jpg | image_size = | alt = Aminatta Forna at the awairds ceremony o the LiBeraturpreis 2008 for her beuk "Ancestor Stones". | caption = Forna in Frankfurt am Main, 2008 | pseudonym = | birth_name = | birth_date = {{birth year and age|1964}} | birth_place = [[Bellshill]], Lanrikshire, Scotland | occupation = Author, academic, commentator | language = | nationality = | citizenship = | education = | alma_mater = [[University College London]] | period = | genre = | subject = | movement = | notableworks = | spouse = Simon Westcott | partner = | children = | relatives = | influences = | influenced = | awards = Commonwealth Writers' Prize Best Book Award 2011, 2014 Windham–Campbell Literature Prize (Fiction) | signature = | signature_alt = | website = {{url|http://aminattaforna.com/}} | portaldisp = }} '''Aminatta Forna''', [[Order o the Breetish Empire|OBE]] (born 1964) is a Scots writer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edbookfest.co.uk/writers/aminatta-forna|title=Aminatta Forna|last=|first=|date=|website=Edinburgh International Book Festival|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121033340/https://www.edbookfest.co.uk/writers/aminatta-forna|archive-date=2019-11-21|access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref> == Warks == * 2003: {{en}} ''The Devil That Danced on the Water'' <ref>{{Cite book|title=The Devil That Danced on the Water: A Daughter's Quest|url=https://archive.org/details/devilthatdancedo00amin|publisher=Grove Press|date=18 December 2003|isbn=978-0-8021-4048-7}}</ref> * 2006: {{en}} ''Ancestor Stones'' <ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancestor Stones|publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press|date=14 August 2006|isbn=978-0-87113-944-3|url=https://archive.org/details/ancestorstones00forn}}</ref> * 2010: {{en}} ''The Memory of Love'' <ref>{{Cite book|title=The Memory of Love|url=https://archive.org/details/memoryoflove0000forn_x9a8|publisher=Bloomsbury|date=April 2010|isbn=978-1-4088-0813-9}}</ref> * 2013: {{en}} ''The Hired Man'' <ref> {{Cite book|title=The Hired Man|url=https://archive.org/details/hiredman0000forn_c7v3|publisher=Bloomsbury|date=March 2013|isbn=978-1-4088-1877-0}}</ref> * 2018: {{en}} ''Happiness'' <ref> {{Cite book|title=Happiness|url=https://archive.org/details/happiness0000forn_l3i6|publisher=Bloomsbury|date=2018|isbn=978-0-8021-2755-6}}</ref> == References == <references /> {{Authority control}} {{Stub/Scotland}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Forna, Aminatta}} [[Category:1964 births]] [[Category:Livin fowk]] [[Category:Fowk frae Bellshill]] [[Category:Alumni o University College London]] [[Category:Academics o Bath Spa University]] [[Category:Black Breetish writers]] [[Category:Fellaes o the Ryal Society o Leeteratur]] [[Category:Scots memoirists]] [[Category:Scots weemen novelists]] [[Category:Scots fowk o Sierra Leonean strynd]] [[Category:Scots weemen writers]] [[Category:Breetish weemen short story writers]] [[Category:21st-century Breetish novelists]] [[Category:21st-century weemen writers]] [[Category:Scots writers]] [[Category:Weemen memoirists]] [[Category:21st-century short story writers]] [[Category:Breetish emigrants tae Sierra Leone]] 0c7uaotcifzdajwy6pra10uo79l789y 0 178580 918715 863911 2026-06-24T23:18:51Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918715 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots|date=Januar 2021}} [[File:Dog and cat showing fight or flight responses.jpg|thumb|Fecht or flicht?]] The '''fecht-or-flicht response''' (cried '''hyperarousal''', or the '''acute stress response''' an aw) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response tae a perceived [[Psychological trauma|hairmfu event]], [[Trauma (medicine)|attack]], or threat tae survival.<ref name="Cannon - Fight or Flight Response">{{cite book|last=Cannon|first=Walter|title=Wisdom of the Body|url=https://archive.org/details/wisdomofbody0000walt_l9m6|year=1932|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|location=United States|isbn=0393002055}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Fecht-Or-Flicht Response}} [[Category:Aggression]] [[Category:Fear]] [[Category:Dichotomies]] [[Category:Psychological theories]] {{stub}} m60d98ccm3jkdvx3h8l9kl38su28kcq 0 188066 918731 834808 2026-06-24T23:27:39Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918731 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Wiki-anilingus.png|thumb|Depiction o a wumman performin anilingus on anither wumman]] '''Anilingus''' (frae the Latin ''anus'' + ''-lingus'', frae ''lingere'', "tae lick", variantly spellt "'''analingus'''",<ref>{{cite book|title=The Contemporary Dictionary of Sexual Euphemisms|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporarydict00tate|author =Jordan Tate|year=2007|publisher=DSt. Martin's Press|isbn=0-312-36298-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/contemporarydict00tate/page/8 8]–9, 106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Anal Pleasure & Health: A Guide for Men and Women|url=https://archive.org/details/analpleasureheal0000mori|author =Jack Morin|year=2000|publisher=Down There Press|isbn=0-940208-20-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/analpleasureheal0000mori/page/147 147]}}</ref>) is the [[oral sex|oral]] an [[anal sex]] act in that a person stimulates the [[human anus|anus]] o anither bi uisin the mooth, includin lips, tongue, or teeth. ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Sexual acts]] 6hrdm8n4ong9zf3olarulqaegf76jyi 0 191105 918759 674519 2026-06-24T23:49:13Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918759 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox football biography | name = Walter Galbraith | image = | fullname = Walter McMurray Galbraith<ref>{{Hugman|6947|accessdate=14 March 2017}}</ref> | height = | birth_date = {{birth date|1918|5|26|df=yes}}<ref name = "Newcastle Fans">{{NeilBrownPlayers|player2/waltergalbraith}}</ref> | birth_place = [[Glesga]], Scotland<ref name = "Newcastle Fans"/> | death_date = {{death year and age|1995|1918}}<ref name = "Newcastle Fans"/> | death_place = [[Wallasey]], Ingland | position = [[defender (fitbaw)|Defender]]<ref name = "Newcastle Fans"/> | youthyears1 = | youthclubs1 = [[Queen's Park F.C.|Queen's Park]]<ref name = "Newcastle Fans"/> | years1 = 1946–1948 | years2 = 1948–1951 | years3 = 1951–1953 | years4 = 1953–1954 | clubs1 = [[Clyde F.C.|Clyde]]<ref name = "Newcastle Fans">{{NeilBrownPlayers|player2/waltergalbraith}}</ref> | clubs2 = [[New Brighton A.F.C.|New Brighton]]<ref name = "Newcastle Fans"/> | clubs3 = [[Grimsby Town F.C.|Grimsby Town]]<ref name = "Newcastle Fans"/> | clubs4 = [[Accrington Stanley F.C. (1891)|Accrington Stanley]]<ref name = "Newcastle Fans"/> | caps1 = 32 | goals1 = 0 | caps2 = 109 | goals2 = 1 | caps3 = 77 | goals3 = 0 | caps4 = 21 | goals4 = 0 | totalcaps = 239 | totalgoals = 1 | totalyears = 1946–1954<ref name = "Newcastle Fans"/> | manageryears1 = 1953–1958 | manageryears2 = | manageryears3 = | manageryears4 = 1961 | manageryears5 = 1962–1964 | manageryears6 = 1969–1970 | manageryears7 = 1975 | managerclubs1 = [[Accrington Stanley F.C. (1891)|Accrington Stanley]] | managerclubs2 = [[Bradford Park Avenue A.F.C.|Bradford Park Avenue]] | managerclubs3 = [[New Brighton A.F.C.|New Brighton]] | managerclubs4 = [[Tranmere Rovers F.C.|Tranmere Rovers]] | managerclubs5 = [[Hibernian F.C.|Hibernian]] | managerclubs6 = [[Stockport County F.C.|Stockport County]] | managerclubs7 = [[Berwick Rangers F.C.|Berwick Rangers]] }} '''Walter McMurray Galbraith''' (26 Mey 1918 – 1995) wis a Scotts [[association fitbaw|fitbaw]] player an [[manager (association fitbaw)|manager]].<ref name = "Mackay193">Mackay, pp193.</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} ;Soorces *{{cite book| last=Mackay | first=John | title=The Hibees | url=https://archive.org/details/hibeesstoryofhib0000mack | publisher=John Donald Publishers Ltd | year=1986 | isbn=0-85976-144-4}} {{Tranmere Rovers F.C. managers}} {{Hibernian F.C. managers}} {{Stockport County F.C. managers}} {{Berwick Rangers F.C. managers}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Galbraith, Walter}} [[Category:1918 births]] [[Category:1995 daiths]] [[Category:Accrington Stanley F.C. (1891) managers]] [[Category:Accrington Stanley F.C. (1891) players]] [[Category:Berwick Rangers F.C. managers]] [[Category:Bradford Park Avenue A.F.C. managers]] [[Category:Clyde F.C. players]] [[Category:Grimsby Town F.C. players]] [[Category:Hibernian F.C. managers]] [[Category:New Brighton A.F.C. managers]] [[Category:New Brighton A.F.C. players]] [[Category:Sportsfowk frae Glesga]] [[Category:Queen's Park F.C. players]] [[Category:Scots fitbaw managers]] [[Category:Scottish Football League players]] [[Category:Scots fitbawers]] [[Category:Stockport County F.C. managers]] [[Category:English Football League players]] [[Category:Tranmere Rovers F.C. managers]] [[Category:Scottish Football League managers]] aa6jhbmt4m38bsvimdramw4nm1ef2jj 0 198143 918718 783507 2026-06-24T23:21:05Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918718 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox noble house | surname = Hoose o Lancaster | estate = Ingland | coat of arms = [[File:Arms of Edmund Crouchback, Earl of Leicester and Lancaster.svg|140px]]<br>As descendants o the sovereign in the male line the Yerls o Lancaster bore the airms o the kinrick differentiatit bi a ''label azure of three points each charged with three fleurs de lys Or''. The last male o this faimily wis promotit tae duke, that wis then re-creatit for the seicont hoose. | country = [[Kinrick o Ingland]] | parent house = [[Hoose o Plantagenet]] | titles = [[Yerl o Lancaster]]<br>[[Yerl of Leicester]]<br>[[Coont o Champagne|Coont o Champagne an Brie]]<br>Laird o Beaufort an Nogent<ref name=Weir2008p77>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=77}}</ref><br>[[Yerl o Moray]]<br>[[Yerl Ferrers]]<br>[[Yerl o Derby]]<br>[[Yerl o Salisbury]]<br>[[Yerl o Lincoln]]<br>[[Duke o Lancaster]] | founder = [[Edmund Crouchback|Edmund Crouchback, 1st Yerl o Lancaster an Leicester]] | final ruler = [[Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke o Lancaster]] | current head = Extinct in the male line | founding year = 1267 | dissolution = 1361 | nationality = Inglis, French }} {{Infobox royal house | surname = Hoose o Lancaster | estate = Ingland | coat of arms = [[File:Arms of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster.svg|140px]]<br>Airms o John o Gaunt, the airms o the kinrick differentiatit bi a ''label ermine''. His ryal descendants bore the airms undifferenced | country = [[File:Royal Arms of England (1399-1603).svg|20px]] [[Kinrick o Ingland]] <br> [[File:France moderne.svg|20px]] [[Kinrick o Fraunce]] <br> [[File:Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Crown_of_Castile_(1284-1390).svg|20px]] [[Kinrick o Castille]] <br> [[File:PortugueseFlag1385.svg|20px]] [[Kinrick o Portugal]] | parent house = [[House o Plantagenet]] | titles = [[Duke o Lancaster]]<br>[[Keeng o Ingland]]<br>''[[Inglis claims tae the French throne|Keeng o Fraunce]]'' | founder = [[John o Gaunt|John o Gaunt, 1st Duke o Lancaster]] | final ruler = [[Henry VI o Ingland]] | current head = Extinct in the male line | founding year = 1362 | dissolution = 1471 |cadet branches = *[[Hoose o Beaufort]] ''(legitimised)'' **[[Duke o Beaufort|Hoose o Somerset]] ''(legitimised)'' | nationality = Inglis, French, Castilian }} The '''Hoose o Lancaster''' wis the name o twa [[cadet brainch]]es o the ryal [[Hoose o Plantagenet]]. The first hoose wis creatit whan [[Henry III o Ingland]] creatit the [[Yerl o Lancaster|Yerldom o Lancaster]]{{mdash}}frae that the hoose wis named{{mdash}}for his seicont son [[Edmund Crouchback]] in 1267. The seicont hoose o Lancaster wis descendit frae [[John o Gaunt]], that mairied the heiress o the first hoose. ==References== {{reflist}} ;Soorces *{{cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |year=2008 |title=Britain's Royal Families |url=https://archive.org/details/britainsroyalfam0000alis |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-0-09-953973-5 |ref=harv}} [[Category:Hoose o Lancaster| ]] [[Category:Inglis ryal hooses|Lancaster]] [[Category:Wars o the Roses]] 61uxwp4nltakk9yhpv6m6w3edbzx59w 0 209789 918720 917467 2026-06-24T23:21:51Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918720 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Military Structure |name=Rossay Castle |location=[[Rossay]], [[Isle o Bute]], [[Scotland]] |coordinates = {{coord|55.836461|-5.055041|type:landmark|display=inline}} |image=[[File:Rothesay Castle - Gatehouse and Pigeon Tower 2016.jpg|300px]] |caption=Rossay Castle, wi the 16t yearhunner forewark in the centre, an the 13t yearhunner "Pigeon Touer" on the richt |map_type = UK Scotland |map_relief= 1 |map_caption = Shawn athin Scotland |map_size=150 |type=Curtain Waw an Moat |built=13t yearhunner |builder=[[Alan fitz Walter, 2nt Heich Stewart o Scotland|Alan, Heich Stewart o Scotland]] or [[Walter Stewart, 3rd Heich Stewart o Scotland|Walter Stewart]] |controlledby=[[Hoose o Stuart]] |materials=Stane |height= |used=Till 1660 |condition=Ruined |ownership=[[Historic Scotland]] |open_to_public= Aye |image2=[[File:RothesayCastleS.jpg|300px]] |caption2=The 13t century curtain waw seen frae the sooth-east, athort the moat. The bases o the sooth-east an sooth-wast touers can be seen. }} '''Rossay Castle''' is a ruined castle in [[Rossay]], the principal toun on the [[Isle o Bute]], in wastren [[Scotland]]. The castle haes been descrieved as "ane o the maist byordinar in Scotland", fur its lang history stairtin fae the 13t yearhunner, an its unco circular plan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lindsay|first=Maurice|title=The Castles of Scotland|url=https://archive.org/details/castlesofscotlan0000lind|publisher=Constable & Co.|year=1986|isbn=0094646007|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/castlesofscotlan0000lind/page/412 412]}}</ref> The castle haes a muckle curtain waw, strenthened bi fower roond touers, thegither wi a 16t-yearhunner forewark, the hale castle is suroondit bi a broad moat. The castle, biggit bi the Stewart faimily, survived fechts wi the [[Vikings|Norse]] an became an airt whaur ryals wid bide. Throu fawin intae ruin efter the 17t yearhunner, the castle wis repaired bi the Marquess o Bute afore passin intae the states hauns in the 20t yearhunner. A paddle steamer cried efter the castle wis biggit in 1816. == The aerlie castle == The castle wis biggit bi Alan fitz Walter, Steward o Scotland (d1204), or bi his son Walter (d1246). Durin Alan’s tenure, the faimily eikit the Isle o Bute tae thair lordship. A widden castle wis biggit first, but the stane circular curtain waw wis pit in place bi the 1230s, whan the castle wis pit unner siege an taen bi the Norwegian-backed fleet o Óspakr-Hákon, King o the Isles (d1230). ''Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar'' seyed that Óspakr's forces focht fur three day tae tak the castle, knockin doun pairt o the eastren waw bi hewin the stane wi thair axes. This stramash is the aerliest recordit accoont o an attack on a Scots castle. In 1263, Rossay wis taen bi the Norwegian forces unner Hákon Hákonarson, King o [[Norawa]] afore the [[Battle o Largs]]. E'en tho the Battle o Largs is cried indecisive, Hákon's campaign wis a failure, the Norse retreatit, an it stapped Norawa’s haud ower westren Scotland.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Barrow|first=Geoffrey Wallis Steuart|year=2004|title=Stewart family|encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=online|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/49411}}</ref> The aerlie castle anely haed the circular curtain waw, 2.7 m (9 ft) thick, 7.9 m (26 ft) heich an aroon 42 m (138 ft) in diameter, biggit on a laich mound, wi a battlement on tap accessed bi apen stairs.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rothesay from The Gazetteer for Scotland|url=https://www.scottish-places.info/towns/townfirst551.html|access-date=2025-12-31|website=The Gazetteer for Scotland|language=en-gb}}</ref>The moat wis jyned thegither wi the sea, wi the shoreline then bein nearer tae the north-east o the caste nor it is the day. The broad crenellations kin be makkit oot athin the waws, that war later raised. Holes in the tap o the waw wid hae supportit a timber bretasche, a projectin structur uised as an eikit battlement. This curtain waw wis biggit o coursed ashlar, an haed anely twa apenins in its lenth. The main yett wis an arched apenin wi a simple timber door. The secont apenin wis a smaw postern yett in the west waw, that haes syne been blockit.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bute, Rothesay, Rothesay Cast... {{!}} Place {{!}} trove.scot|url=https://www.trove.scot/place/40395|access-date=2025-12-31|website=www.trove.scot|archive-date=2026-01-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260106055620/https://www.trove.scot/place/40395|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the later pairt o the 13th yearhunner, the castle wis strenthened bi the eikin o fower roond touers, anely the north-west touer is aye thegither the day. Thae three-storey touers haed strang splayed bases, wi arrow slits ablo the crenellated parapet. A portcullis wis eikit tae the main yett. == Wars o unthirldom an the Stewarts == Durin the [[Wars o Scots Unthirldom]], Rossay was haudit bi the [[Ingland|Inglis]], but wis taen back bi [[Robert the Bruce]] in 1311. It wis taen bi the Inglis in 1334 ance mair, afore bein taen back bi the Scots. Follaein the accession o the Stewarts tae the throne o Scotland in 1371, the castle became a favourite place tae bide fur kings siclik [[Robert II o Scotland|Robert II]] an [[Robert III]]. Robert II gied the hereditary keepership o the castle tae his son John, ancestor o the Earls an Marquesses o Bute. Robert III makkit his auldest son David Duke of Rossay in 1401, stairtin a tradition o honourin the heir tae the throne o Scotland wi this title. In 1462 the castle survived a siege bi the forces o John o Islay, Earl o Ross an the last Lord o the Isles.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rothesay Castle|url=https://castlesuncovered.com/scotland/rothesaycastle|access-date=2025-12-31|website=castlesuncovered.com}}</ref> == The 16t an 17t yearhunners == In the aerlie 16t yearhunner Rossay Castle wis strenthened mair. A gatehoose stairtit tae be biggit, eikit fae the north of o curtain waw, an it begoud at the stairt o the yearhunner, tae gie a mair modren bidin fur [[James IV]]. The curtain waw itsel wis raised up tae ten metre in heicht, the warks wint ower intae the reign o [[James V o Scotland|James V]]. In 1527 the castle withstood anither siege bi the Master o Ruthven, that destroyed muckle pairts o the Rossay burgh. In 1544, the castle fell tae the Earl o Lennox, actin fur the Inglis durin the sae cried "[[Rough Wooing]]". The forewark is an L-plan structur, that juttit intae the moat an wis accessed bi a draw-brig. The laicher flair haed a vaultit entrance tunnel rinnin intae the aulder castle courtyaird. Abuin, the fower-storey touer haed ryal lodgins, an aye bears the [[Ryal coat o airms o Scotland|ryal coat o airms]] abuin the door. In the aerlie 16t yearhunner, a chaipel wis biggit inside the auld castle. Simple in form, the chaipel measured aroon 7 m (23 ft) bi 14 m (45 ft), an is nou the anely survivin structur athin the curtain waw. The north-west touer wis chynged intae a [[doocot]], an is kent as the "Pigeon Touer", owin tae the nest boxes biggit intae the ootside waw. Esmé Stewart, 1st Duke of Lennox, a favourite o James VI wis compelled bi the Ruthven Regime tae flit ootwi Scotland. He wint first tae [[Dumbarton Castle]], an syne steyed at Rossay Castle in October 1582.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bowes|first=Robert|title=The Correspondence of Robert Bowes, of Aske, Esquire, the Ambassador of Queen Elizabeth in the Court of Scotland|url=https://archive.org/details/correspondencer01stevgoog|publisher=J. B. Nichols and Son (for the Surtees Society, vol. 14)|year=1842|isbn=|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/correspondencer01stevgoog/page/205 205], 211, 217}}</ref> Rossay garrisoned fur the occupyin forces o [[Oliver Cromwell]], wha invadit Scotland wi his New Model Airmy in the aerlie 1650s. Whan thay shiftit in 1660, the troops pairtly dismantled the structur. Whit wis left wis burnt bi the supporters o Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl o Argyll durin his risin of 1685, in support o the Monmouth Rebellion agin [[James VII, King o Scots|James VII]]. == Mendin o the castle == [[File:Rothesay_Castle_entrance.JPG|thumb|300x300px|The vaultit entrance tunnel.]] Follaein a lang period o neglect, the 2nd Marquess o Bute employed 70 men tae excavate the ruins, clearin muckle amoonts o rubbish fae the castle in 1816–17. But it wisnae till 1871 that wark stairtit back up an the ruins war stabilised.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Scott|first=Nicki|title=Rothesay Castle|publisher=Historic Environment Scotland|year=2018|isbn=|location=Edinburgh}}</ref>The 3rd Marquess, a restorer o historic biggins, stairtit mony repairs an restorations, follaein surveys an advice fae his regular architect William Burges. His "restorations" wint on til 1900, an include the clearin an shapin o the moat, as weel as the eikin o reid sandstane tae the forewark, thay reinstatit the haw roof whiles makin muckle chynges tae the biggin. In 1961 Rossay Castle wis gied tae the state, an is nou a Scheduled Auncient Monument, in the hauns o Historic Environment Scotland.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rothesay Castle, castle 75m N of Bute Museum (SM12970)|url=https://portal.historicenvironment.scot/apex/f?p=1505%3A300%3A%3A%3A%3A%3AVIEWTYPE%2CVIEWREF%3Adesignation%2CSM12970|access-date=2025-12-31|website=portal.historicenvironment.scot|language=en}}</ref> ==Soorces== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Biggins an structurs completit in the 13t century]] [[Category:Ruint castles in Argyll an Bute]] [[Category:Historic Scotland properties in Argyll an Bute]] [[Category:Rossay, Bute]] [[Category:Scheduled Auncient Monuments in Argyll an Bute]] h2qqz0smh8fcbx1cit5u9yc3igpserh 0 214269 918706 892294 2026-06-24T23:12:15Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918706 wikitext text/x-wiki {{fixscots|date=Januar 2021}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}} {{short description|Professional snooker tournament, held April 1985}} {{Infobox Individual Snooker Toornament |tournament_name=1985 Embassy World Snooker Championship |logo= |caption= |alt= |dates=12–28 April 1985 |venue=[[Crucible Theatre]] |location=[[Sheffield]] |country=England |organisation=[[World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association|WPBSA]] |format=[[Snooker world rankings|Ranking]] event |Total prize fund=[[Pound sterling|£]]250,000 |winners_share=£60,000 |highest_break=[[Bill Werbeniuk]] (143) |winner=[[Dennis Taylor]] |runner_up=[[Steve Davis]] |score=18–17 |previous=[[1984 World Snooker Championship|1984]] |next=[[1986 World Snooker Championship|1986]] }} The '''1985 Warld Snooker Championship''' (kent as the '''1985 Embassy Warld Snooker Championship''' for the purpose of sponsorship forby) wis a [[Snooker world rankings|ranking]] professional [[snooker]] toornament that teuk place frae 12&nbsp;tae 28 Apryle 1985 at the [[Crucible Theatre]] in [[Sheffield]], England. The event wis organised bi the [[World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association]] (WPBSA), and wis the ninth consecutive [[World Snooker Championship]] tae be held at the Crucible the first event takkin place in [[1977 World Snooker Championship|1977]]. A five-roond qualifying event for the championship wis held at the [[Preston Guild Hall]] frae 27 tae 31 Mairch for 87 players; 16 of whom reached the main stage, whaur thay met the 16 invited seedit players. The toornament wis broadcast in the United Kingdom bi the [[BBC]], and wis sponsored bi the [[Embassy (cigarette)|Embassy]] cigarette company. The tot prize fund for the event wis [[pound sterling|£]]250,000, the heichest prize pool for ony snooker toornament tae that date; the winner received £60,000. The defendin champion wis Englishman [[Steve Davis]], who haed previously won the Warld Championship three times. Davis met Northren Irishman [[Dennis Taylor]] in [[1985 World Snooker Championship final|the final]] which wis a best-of-35-{{cuegloss|frames}} match; Davis teuk an early 8–0 lead, but Taylor battled back intae the match and drew level at 17–17 forcing a deciding frame. The final frame wis contested ower the final {{cuegloss|black ball}}, wi the player able tae {{cuegloss|pot}} the ball winnin the Warld title. Efter baith players missed, Taylor potted the black tae win his sole Warld Championship. The match, eften referred tae as the "black ball final", is commonly considered tae be the best-kent match in the history o the sport and a reason for the surge in popularity in snooker o the 1980s and 1990s. Canadian [[Bill Werbeniuk]] scored the championship's heichest {{cuegloss|break}}, a 143, in his first-roond match. Thare war 14 {{cuegloss|century breaks}} compiled during the championship, wi 10 mair in qualifying matches. This wis the first professional snooker championship tae introduce a ban on performance-enhancing substances, wi aw players in the main stage haein tae undertake drug tests. The final atween Davis and Taylor holds the record for the maist-viewed broadcast in the United Kingdom o a programme shawn efter midnight, wi a peak of 18.5 million viewers for the match's final frame, braking the existin records for the maist-viewed sporting event and [[BBC2]] programme. == Overview == The [[World Snooker Championship]] is a professional toornament an the offeecial [[world championship]] o the gemme of [[snooker]].<ref name="hC6vY" /> Developed in the late 19t century bi Breetish Airmy soldiers stationed in Indie,<ref name="Zm5PK" /> the sport wis popular in the [[United Kingdom]] afore spreading tae Europe an the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. The sport is nou played warldwide, especially in East and Southeast Asian nations sic as Cheenae, Hong Kong and Thailand.<ref name="nqmEm" /> The Warld Championship features 32 professional players who compete in ane-on-ane [[single-elimination]] matches, played ower several {{cuegloss|frames}}. It is organised bi the [[World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association]] (WPBSA). The players are selected bi a combination o the Warld snooker rankins and a pre-toornament qualification roond.<ref name="Seeding" /><ref name="format" /> The first Warld Championship, in [[1927 World Snooker Championship|1927]], wis won bi [[Joe Davis]] in a final at [[Camkin's Hall]] in [[Birmingham]], England.<ref name="KpRUB" /><ref name="X7144" /> Syne 1977, the toornament haes been held at the [[Crucible Theatre]] in [[Sheffield]].<ref name="EGqXF" /> The [[1984 World Snooker Championship|1984 championship]] wis won bi England's [[Steve Davis]], who defeatit fellae countryman [[Jimmy White]] 18–16 in the final; this wis Davis' third championship haein won in [[1981 World Snooker Championship|1981]] and [[1983 World Snooker Championship|1983]] forby.<ref name="OQ2tP" /><ref name="news_BBCS" /> The winner o the 1985 championship received a prize of [[pound sterling|£]]60,000 frae a tot of £250,000, the heichest prize pool for ony snooker event tae date.<ref name="mWQms"/> The toornament wis the first snooker event tae featur [[drug tests]] for the participants, as mandated bi the WPBSA on 9 Apryle 1985;<ref name="drugs tests" /> the tests war proposed bi WPBSA buird member [[Barry Hearn]].<ref name="7wdGx" /><ref name="drugstesting"/> The event wis broadcast bi the [[BBC]] in the United Kingdom, wi ower 90 oors of coverage.<ref name=BBC>{{cite news |author=Davenport, Peter |title=Letter from Sheffield |work=The Times |date=19 April 1985 |page=34 |via=The Times Digital Archive |url=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/Bdsgd1 |access-date=6 September 2019 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The estimatit cost for the fortnight's broadcast wis reportedly £3 million.<ref name=BBC/> The championship wis sponsored bi the [[Embassy (cigarette)|Embassy]] cigarette company.<ref name=BBC/> === Format === The championship wis held frae 12 tae 28 Apryle 1985 at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield, England, the ninth consecutive time that the toornament wis held at the venue.<ref name="format" /> It wis the last rankin event o the [[1984-85 snooker season]] on the [[World Snooker Tour]].<ref name="format" /> Thare war a tot of 103 entrants frae the tour, an the competeetion's main draw haed 32 participants.<ref name="format" /> A five-roond knockout qualifying competeetion wi 87 players, which wis held at [[Preston Guild Hall]] atween 27 and 31 Mairch, produced the 16 qualifying players who progressed intae the main draw tae play the tap 16 seeds. The draw for the toornament wis made at the [[Savoy Hotel]] in Lunnon.<ref name="8gPyB" /> The tap 16 players in the latest [[Snooker world rankings 1984/1985|world rankings]] automatically qualified for the main draw as [[seed (sports)|seedit]] players.{{efn|If the defending champion was ranked outside the top 16 in the world rankings as an automatic qualifier.<ref name="Seeding" />}} As defendin champion, Steve Davis wis seedit first for the event; the remainin 15 seeds war allocated based on Warld rankins for the previous season. Matches in the first roond o the main draw war played as best-of-19-frames. The nummer of frames needed tae win a match increased tae 13 in the seicont roond and quarter-finals, an 16 in the semi-finals; the final match wis played as best-of-35-frames.<ref name="Seeding" /><ref name="format" /> Sax [[List of world snooker champions|umwhile world champions]] participated in the main toornament at the Crucible: [[Ray Reardon]] ([[1970 World Snooker Championship|1970]], [[1973 World Snooker Championship|1973]], [[1974 World Snooker Championship|1974]], [[1975 World Snooker Championship|1975]], [[1976 World Snooker Championship|1976]], and [[1978 World Snooker Championship|1978]]), Steve Davis (1981, 1983, an 1984), [[John Spencer (snooker player)|John Spencer]] ([[1969 World Snooker Championship|1969]], [[1971 World Snooker Championship|1971]], and [[1977 World Snooker Championship|1977]]), [[Alex Higgins]] ([[1972 World Snooker Championship|1972]] and [[1982 World Snooker Championship|1982]]), [[Cliff Thorburn]] ([[1980 World Snooker Championship|1980]]) and [[Terry Griffiths]] ([[1979 World Snooker Championship|1979]]).<ref name="Seeding" /> Four players debuted at the Warld championship, aw throu the qualifying event: [[Dene O'Kane]], [[Eugene Hughes (snooker player)|Eugene Hughes]], [[Tony Jones (snooker player)|Tony Jones]], and [[Wayne Jones (snooker player)|Wayne Jones]].<ref name="Seeding" /><ref name="format" /> ===Prize fund=== The event haed a tot prize fund of £250,000, an increase of £50,000 in the tot prize pool frae the previous year, an the winner received £60,000, an increase of £16,000 frae the previous year.<ref name="mWQms" /> The prize for the winner wis the heichest of ony snooker event until the follaein year's championship.<ref name="87HALE">{{cite book |last=Hale |first=Janice |date=1988 |title=Rothmans Snooker Yearbook 1987–88 |url=https://archive.org/details/rothmanssnookery0000unse_s2m5|location= |publisher=Queen Anne Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rothmanssnookery0000unse_s2m5/page/260 260]–261 |isbn=0-356-14690-1 |author-link=}}</ref> The brakdown of prize money for the toornament wis:<ref name="mWQms"/><ref name="Global Snooker" /> {{Div col}} *Winner: £60,000 *Runner-up: £35,000 *Semi-finals: £20,000 *Quarter-finals: £10,000 *Last 16: £5,250 *Last 32: £2,500 *Qualifying groups runner-up: £1,500 *Qualifying groups third place: £750 *Highest brak: £6,000 *[[Maximum break]]: £60,000 {{Div col end}} == Tournament summary == Qualifying roonds for the event war played frae 27 tae 31 Mairch at the Preston Guildhall. Thare war five [[Single-elimination tournament|knockout roonds]], wi 87 players. The first qualifying roond consisted of seiven matches, bringin the nummer of remainin players tae 80. The seicont tae fift qualifying roonds haed 16 matches each, wi the winners o the earlier roond meetin the 16 higher-ranked players who haed been seedit intae the next roond. The 16 winners frae the fift roond met ane o the tap 16 seeds in the first roond o the competeetion proper.<ref name="EVERTONG">{{cite book |last=Everton |first=Clive |date=1985 |title=Guinness Snooker – The Records |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnesssnookerr0000ever |location= |publisher=Guinness Superlatives Ltd |pages=[https://archive.org/details/guinnesssnookerr0000ever/page/86 86]–87 |isbn=0851124488 |author-link=}}</ref> Aw qualifying matches war played as best-of-19-frames.<ref name="Parrot/Fowler">{{cite news |title=Sports in Brief |work=The Times |date=6 April 1985 |page=31 |via=The Times Digital Archive |url=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/BdsTv8 |accessdate=6 September 2019}}</ref> Efter haein a [[heart attack]] at the [[1984 Grand Prix (snooker)|1984 Grand Prix]], [[John Dunning (snooker player)|John Dunning]] played in his first return match in the qualifiers; he lost tae Wayne Jones, 6–10.<ref name="4FSui" /> [[Danny Fowler]] made the heichest qualifying brak, scoring a 137 in his 10–0 veectory ower [[Jim Donnelly (snooker player)|Jim Donnelly]] afore losin 2–10 tae [[John Parrott]] in the follaein roond.<ref name="Parrot/Fowler"/><ref name=Quali>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Parrott looking for career boost |work=Aberdeen Evening Express |page=16 |date=5 April 1985 |via=British Newspaper Archive}}</ref> [[Fred Davis (snooker player)|Fred Davis]], aged 71 and aicht-time champion atween 1948 and 1956, defeatit [[Bob Chaperon|Robert Chaperon]] 10–9 in the fowert roond but lost 6–10 tae [[Rex Williams]] in the fift (and final) qualifying roond.<ref name="EVERTONG"/> ===First round=== The first roond o the championship, frae 12 tae 17 Apryle, featurt 32 players competin in 16 best-of-19-frames matches in two sessions; each seedit player competit against a qualifier. The first match tae finish wis atween seicont seed [[Tony Knowles (snooker player)|Tony Knowles]] and Tony Jones. Knowles won fower straucht frames afore he wis pegged back tae 4–4.<ref name="Knowles/Jones"/> Jones, the qualifier, teuk fower o the next five frames tae lead 8–5 but eventually lost 8–10.<ref name="Knowles/Jones"/> As pairt of an initiative tae remove performance-enhancing substances, drug tests war performed for the first time during the event;<ref name="drugs tests" /> Knowles wis the first player testit.<ref name="Knowles/Jones">{{cite news |title=Top two forced to struggle |work=The Guardian |date=13 April 1985 |page=24}}</ref> Top seed, defendin champion Steve Davis won his match against [[Neal Foulds]] 10–8 tae reach the seicont roond.<ref name="Global Snooker" /><ref name="book_Inte" /><ref name="cult_TheB" /> Anly two unseedit players won thair first-roond matches, wi [[Patsy Fagan]] defeatin 12t seed [[Willie Thorne]] 10–6 and John Parrott defeatin 13t seed John Spencer 10–3.<ref name="e0dSN" /> Spencer wis diagnosed wi [[myasthenia gravis]] shortly efter the toornament; it affected his vision, an he won anly two matches aw season.<ref name="0sbui" /><ref name="book_Outo" /><ref name="restcure">{{cite news |title=Fagan's rest cure |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=17 April 1985 |page=26}}</ref> Efter bein defeatit twice during the season bi Eugene Hughes, sax-time champion and fift seed Ray Reardon won 10–9 against Hughes on a deciding frame.<ref name="inde_Grea" /><ref name="Fallenhero"/> A law-scoring match atween ninth seed Alex Higgins and [[Dean Reynolds]] did nae see a brak of ower 30 pynts in the first three frames.<ref name="Higgins/Reynolds"/> Reynolds won juist the fift frame o the openin session wi Higgins leadin 8–1, who eventually won 10–4.<ref name="Higgins/Reynolds">{{cite news |title=A soft blow for the Hurricane |author=Hale, Janice |work=The Observer |date=14 April 1985 |page=39}}</ref> [[John Virgo]] led tenth seed [[Tony Meo]] 5–4 efter the first session, but won juist ane frame in the seicont session tae lose 6–10. In a press conference efter the match, Virgo said: "I don't think Tony played well enough to beat me. It was the run of the balls that beat me. That's the way it has been for me for six years. I can't explain it. I practise hard. I play well, but sometimes that is not enough. You need a lot of luck in this game and I didn't get any at all."<ref>{{cite news |title=Snooker |work=The Times |date=15 April 1985 |page=26 |via=The Times Digital Archive |url=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/BdsZt6 |access-date=6 September 2019 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Awtho fowert seed [[Kirk Stevens]] defeatit [[Ray Edmonds]] 10–8, snooker pundit [[Clive Everton]] said that his standard of play wis nae that o a tap-fower player and Edmonds "made [Stevens] work".<ref>{{cite news |title=Edmonds makes Stevens work |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=18 April 1985 |page=26}}</ref> In a slow first session, Rex Williams and aicht seed Terry Griffiths played seiven (insteid o the planned nine) frames; Griffiths led 6–1 efter three oors 38 minutes,<ref name="Higgins/Reynolds"/> and eventually won the match 10–3.<ref name="1aruF" /> [[Bill Werbeniuk]] (seedit 14t) haed nae won a single match aw season, but defeatit [[Joe Johnson (snooker player)|Joe Johnson]] 10–8 and scored a 143 brak in the tenth frame – the third-heichest brak at the championship tae date.<ref name="restcure"/> A ''[[Daily Star (United Kingdom)|Daily Star]]'' series of articles aboot drug abuse frae within the championship wis based on statements reportedly bi [[Silvino Francisco]].<ref name=Francisco>{{cite news |title=Cue for a throng |author=Pithers, Malcolm |work=The Guardian |date=16 April 1985 |page=21}}</ref> Francisco trailed 1–8 efter his first session against 11t seed [[Dennis Taylor]],<ref name=Francisco/> and lost the match 2–10.<ref name=Fallenhero>{{cite news |title=Francisco now the fallen star |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=16 April 1985 |page=26}}</ref> Francisco and Warld Snooker chairman Rex Williams held a press conference. Williams said that thare wis no evidence of drug uise in the sport; Francisco apologised tae Kirk Stevens (the player named in the ''Daily Star'' articles) and said that the statements in the article war a "total lie".<ref name=Fallenhero/><ref name=Francisco/> Third seed Cliff Thorburn defeatit [[Mike Hallett]], 10–8; 15t seed [[Doug Mountjoy]] defeatit [[Murdo MacLeod (snooker player)|Murdo MacLeod]], 10–5; 16t seed [[David Taylor (snooker player)|David Taylor]] defeatit Dene O'Kane 10–4, an saxt seed [[Eddie Charlton]] defeatit [[John Campbell (snooker player)|John Campbell]] in an aw-Australian tie.<ref name="1aruF" /> ===Second round=== The seicont roond, frae 18 tae 22 Apryle, wis played as aicht best-of-25-frames matches. Steve Davis led David Taylor 3–0 and 6–3 afore winnin seiven o the aicht frames in the seicont session tae win 13–4, scoring century braks in the aicht (100) and eleventh (105) frames.<ref name="cult_TheB" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Davis smoothly into last eight |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=19 April 1985 |page=24}}</ref> Alex Higgins and Welshman Terry Griffiths war tied 5–5 efter ten frames. Griffiths pulled ahead during the seicont session, leadin 10–6, an won three o the first fower frames o the final session tae win 13–7.<ref name="Griffiths/Higgins">{{cite news |title=Griffiths blows out the Hurricane |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=20 April 1985 |page=15}}</ref> John Parrott led Kirk Stevens 6–2 efter the first session and eventually won, 13–6.<ref name="potluck">{{cite news |title=Griffiths is back taking pot luck with the past |author=Hale, Janice |work=The Observer |date=21 April 1985 |page=39}}</ref> Ray Reardon and Patsy Fagan war tied efter the first session, 4–4,<ref name="Griffiths/Higgins"/> afore Reardon pulled ahead 7–5. Reardon {{cuegloss|fluked}} the final {{cuegloss|black ball}} of frame 13 tae lead 8–5,<ref name="potluck"/> and pulled ahead 12–9 afore braking his {{cuegloss|cue tip}} in frame 22. Wi anly a few shots left tae play tae win the match, Reardon borrowed Fagan's cue for the veectory.<ref>{{cite news |title=Timely tip for Reardon |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=22 April 1985 |page=22}}</ref> In an aw-Canadian seicont-roond match, Cliff Thorburn defeatit Bill Werbeniuk 13–3 wi a {{cuegloss|session to spare}}.<ref name="format" /> Two umwhile event finalists, Dennis Taylor and Eddie Charlton, met in the seicont roond; Taylor defeatit Charlton, 13–6. Seivent seed Jimmy White overcame Tony Meo, despite bein tied 10–10, tae win 13–11.<ref name="K2Lv9" /> In the final match, Tony Knowles defeatit Doug Mountjoy 13–6.<ref name="Seeding" /><ref name="format" /> ===Quarter-finals=== The quarter-finals war played as best-of-25-frames matches in three sessions on 23 and 24 Apryle. Terry Griffiths led Steve Davis efter winnin the first fower frames o the match, but finished the first session at 4–4.<ref name="K2Lv9" /> Davis won the seicont session tae lead 10–6, but {{cuegloss|look back|looked back}} and lost frame 17. Griffiths committed a {{cuegloss|waistcoat foul}}, allouin Davis tae win the frame and (eventually) win 13–6 tae reach his fowert Warld Championship semi-final.<ref name="format" /><ref name="prizebarrier">{{cite news |title=Davis in mood to break prize barrier |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=24 April 1985 |page=26}}</ref> John Parrott won the first fower frames of his semi-final against Ray Reardon forby, an led 5–3 efter the first session.<ref name="K2Lv9" /> Parrott extendit his lead tae 9–5 in the seicont session, but missed two {{cuegloss|green balls}} in successive frames tae lead bi anly 9–7 efter the session. Reardon won aw five frames o the third session (seiven in a row) tae lead 12–9, an Parrott won the next three frames tae force a deciding frame.<ref name="book_Outo" /><ref name="bioe_Famo">{{Cite web |title=Famous Person |work=bioeddie.co.uk |access-date=7 September 2019 |url=http://www.bioeddie.co.uk/ebbw-vale/famousperson.php?recordID=30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014045215/http://www.bioeddie.co.uk/ebbw-vale/famousperson.php?recordID=30 |archive-date=14 October 2017 |url-status=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Reardon recaptures his touch |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=25 April 1985 |page=26}}</ref> Wi ane reid left on the table, Parrott led bi seiven pynts; Reardon {{cuegloss|snooker|snookered}} Parrott, an won a {{cuegloss|free ball}} tae win the match wi a brak of 31.<ref name=Quarter>{{cite news |title=Crucible Diary |publisher=Snooker Scene |author=Hale, Janice |pages=15–16 |date=20 June 1985}}</ref> Due tae slow play, anly sax o the aicht frames o the openin session atween Dennis Taylor and Cliff Thorburn war played. Taylor teuk a lead of 4–0, afore endin the session at 4–2. The session wis cried interestin bi Clive Everton of ''[[The Guardian]]'', houiver, due tae the "high quality of the tactical play."<ref name="K2Lv9" /> The seicont session wis lang-winded an aw, wi the match adjourned at 1:21{{nbsp}}a.m. (efter nine oors and 45 minutes of play); Taylor led 10–5, wi a frame still tae be played.<ref name="prizebarrier"/> Resuming the match, Taylor won three straucht frames tae win 13–5 and reach his fift semi-final.<ref name="format" /> Thorburn said efter the match that baith players war at fault for the slow play: "I wasn't the only one playing safe. If I had played well, this would have been the longest match ever."<ref name=Quarter/> Thare wis anly ane brak of ower 50 in the entire match, made bi Taylor in the final frame.<ref name=Quarter/> Seicont seed Tony Knowles played Jimmy White, an led 5–3 efter the first session. Knowles made a brak of 137 during the session, but missed the black; it wad hae been the toornament's heichest brak.<ref name="K2Lv9" /> He retained his lead throu the seicont session, despite twice bein a pot away frae bein tied; the session finished 9–7.<ref name="prizebarrier"/> Returning tae the match, Knowles won the next two frames but White won a re-spotted black in frame 19. Knowles handled the pressure better nor White, an won 13–10.<ref name="format" /><ref name=Quarter/> ===Semi-finals=== [[File:SteveDavisCropped.png|thumb|upright|alt=picture of Steve Davis reachin for chalk|Defendin champion [[Steve Davis]] reached the final bi defeatin [[Ray Reardon]] in the semi-finals, completing his 100th career century break.]] The semi-finals, baith played as best-of-31-frames matches, war played in fower sessions on 25 and 26 Apryle. Reigning champion Steve Davis defeatit Ray Reardon, playin juist three sessions for a 16–5 veectory. Awtho Reardon haed won previous matches wi strong {{cuegloss|safety}} play, Davis' {{cuegloss|long pot|long potting}} creatit opportunities throughout the match.<ref name=CrucibleDiary/> Janice Hale of ''Snooker Scene'' magazine wrote that the match haed "an air of inevitability", wi Davis in full control.<ref name=CrucibleDiary/> Reardon wis the auldest Warld Championship semi-finalist, but failed tae play at the level he haed played against Parrott.<ref name="Global Snooker" /><ref name=Taylor-ed>{{cite news |title=Victory Taylor-ed for Davis |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=27 April 1985 |page=14}}</ref><ref name="book_TheC">{{Cite book |title=The Crucible's Greatest Matches: Forty Years of Snooker's World Championship in Sheffield |year=2017 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=A3aXDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT36&lpg=PT36&dq=dennis+taylor+eddie+charlton+1985#v=onepage&q=dennis%20taylor%20eddie%20charlton%201985&f=false |language= |quote= |isbn=978-1-78531-284-7 |last1=Nunns |first1=Hector |publisher=Pitch Publishing }}{{Dead link|date=August 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In winnin, Davis reached his third straucht Warld-championship final.<ref name="Global Snooker" /> He compiled his 100th century brak at the Crucible, a 106 brak in frame 13.<ref name="78fIm" /> Tony Knowles played Dennis Taylor in the seicont semi-final. As the higher-seedit player, Knowles expected tae win; he failed tae exhibit the form he haed earlier in the toornament, houiver, an fell bi the same score as Reardon.<ref name=Taylor-ed/> Awtho Knowles won the first two frames, he won juist three mair frames during the match. Taylor led 10–5 efter the seicont session, an won sax frames in a row tae win the match in three sessions.<ref name=Taylor-ed/> Efter the match, Knowles wis unable tae understand how he haed lost tae a lawer-seedit player.<ref name="Throwncue">{{cite book |title=Crucible Diary |publisher=Snooker Scene |date=20 June 1985 |page=19}}</ref> Taylor said that he saw Knowles get "angry" during the match, houiver, an the player haed "thrown his cue" at a few shots.<ref name="Throwncue"/> Knowles lost the [[1986 World Snooker Championship|follaein year's event]] in the semi-finals tae eventual champion Joe Johnson an aw.<ref name="book_TheC"/> ===Final=== {{main|1985 World Snooker Championship final}} [[File:Dennis Taylor, 2004.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=A smiling Dennis Taylor|[[Dennis Taylor]] won the championship bi potting the final black ball tae claim his sole world title.]] The final wis played atween Steve Davis and Dennis Taylor on 27 and 28 Apryle 1985 as a best-of-35-frames match ower fower sessions.<ref name="O5FTf" /> This wis Davis' fowert Warld final, haein won the title in 1981, 1983 and 1984; and Taylor's seicont, haein lost 16–24 tae Terry Griffiths in the 1979 final.<ref name="Than and Now: Griffiths" /> Davis and Taylor haed met at the Warld Championship on two previous occasions, wi Taylor winnin thair first roond encounter in 1979 and Davis winnin the semi-final in 1984.<ref name="offt_TheD">{{Cite web |title=The Dennis Taylor Interview: That '85 black ball final, the impact of his mother's death, and snooker's heyday |last=Hannon |first=Shane |work=Off The Ball |access-date=8 September 2019 |url=https://www.offtheball.com/podcasts/highlights-from-off-the-ball/dennis-taylor-interview-85-black-ball-final-impact-mothers-death-snookers-heyday}}</ref> Awtho Taylor scored a brak of 50 in the first frame o the match, Davis won aw seiven frames o the openin session tae lead 7–0. Restarting the match, Davis teuk the aicht frame and wis leadin in frame nine but missed a {{cuegloss|overcut|thin cut}} on the {{cuegloss|green ball}} which wis later considered the turning pynt o the match.<ref name="book_Inte" /><ref name="The greatest Crucible final" /> This error allowed Taylor tae win his first frame, followed bi sax mair o the nine frames played in the seicont session, tae trail 7–9 overnight.<ref name="O5FTf" /><ref name="The greatest Crucible final" /> On the seicont day, Taylor tied the match at 11–11 and 15–15, but wis never ahead at ony pynt;<ref name="xJeUF" /> Davis won the next two frames tae lead 17–15, needing ane mair frame tae win the championship.<ref name="The greatest Crucible final" /> Taylor clinched frame 33 and then made a brak of ower 50 tae tie the match, forcing a deciding frame.<ref name="O5FTf" /><ref name="95vGQ"/> The deciding frame lasted ower an oor, finishing efter midnight [[Greenwich Mean Time]].<ref name="The greatest Crucible final" /> Davis led 62–44, wi juist the last fower balls tae play; Taylor required aw fower tae win the match. He potted difficult shots, leaving the black ball tae determine the winner.<ref name="Taylor snatches final" /> Wi the black {{cuegloss|safe}}, baith players attempted tae {{cuegloss|double}} the ball. The first real opportunity fell tae Taylor, wi a lang pot tae the {{cuegloss|baulk}} corner. He missed the shot, an the ball left Davis wi a {{cuegloss|thin cut}};<ref name="yout_1985" /> accordin tae commentator [[Jim Meadowcroft]], "That was the biggest shot of his life".<ref name="cult_TheB" /> Davis stepped up tae the table and again missed the shot, leaving Taylor a mid-range shot. Ted Lowe said, "This is really unbelievable"<ref name="yout_1985" /> afore Taylor potted the shot and won the match.<ref name="e0dSN" /><ref name="O5FTf" /> The final atween Davis and Taylor attracted 18.5&nbsp;million viewers on [[BBC Two|BBC2]], finishing at 12:23&nbsp;a.m. efter Taylor {{Cuegloss|Pot|potted}} the last black tae win the title.<ref name="e0dSN" /><ref name="O5FTf" /> The viewership wis the heichest for ony broadcast efter midnight in the United Kingdom, an the maist-viewed show on BBC2.<ref name="inde_Grea"/> Efter potting the final ball, Taylor raised his {{cuegloss|cue stick}}; awtho he haed nae been ahead at ony pynt during the gemme, he "waggled" his finger and kissed the winner's trophy.<ref name="inde_Grea"/> Taylor said in a 2009 interview that it wis aimed at "his good friend" [[Trevor East]], whom he haed told he wad win.<ref name="inde_Grea"/> At a press conference afterwards, he said that the match wis the "best he had ever been involved in [his] life".<ref name="yout_1985" /> Taylor dedicated the Warld championship tae his late mither who haed died the previous year.<ref name="Belfast"/> Unwilling tae play snooker, he haed withdrawn frae the [[1984 International Open]].<ref name="Belfast">{{cite news |title=I've not done bad from a wee lad from Coalisland |work=The Belfast Telegraph |date=7 February 2017 |author=Beacon, Stephen}}</ref><ref name="theg_Clot">{{Cite web |title=Cloth of gold – Dennis Taylor wins World Snooker Championship |last=Keating |first=Frank |work=The Guardian |date=30 April 1985 |access-date=8 September 2019 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/1985/apr/30/frankkeating |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531145638/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/1985/apr/30/frankkeating |archive-date=31 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> His faimily and friends persuaded him tae play again in the Grand Prix event, whaur he won his first professional title bi defeatin Cliff Thorburn in the final.<ref name="Belfast"/> == Main draw == The results for each roond o the main stage o the championship are shawn ablo. The nummers in parentheses beside some o the players are thair seeding ranks (each championship haes 16 seeds and 16 qualifiers).<ref name="Seeding" /><ref name="format" /><ref name="Global Snooker" /><ref name="1aruF" /> {{32TeamBracket-WSC2-v2 <!--Date-Place/Player 1/Score 1/Player 2/Score 2 --> <!--- Change from default frame length for semis --> |semifinal=Best of 31 frames <!-- LAST 32 --> <!--Match1 --> |12 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Steve Davis]]|ENG}} (1)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Neal Foulds]]|ENG}}|8 <!--Match2 --> |12 & 13 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[David Taylor (snooker player)|David Taylor]]|ENG}} (16)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Dene O'Kane]]|NZL}}|4 <!--Match3 --> |13 & 14 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Alex Higgins]]|NIR}} (9)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Dean Reynolds]]|ENG}}|4 <!--Match4 --> |13 & 14 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Terry Griffiths]]|WAL}} (8)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Rex Williams]]|ENG}}|3 <!--Match5 --> |14 & 15 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Ray Reardon]]|WAL}} (5)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Eugene Hughes (snooker player)|Eugene Hughes]]|IRL}}|9 <!--Match6 --> |15 & 16 April|{{flagathlete|[[Willie Thorne]]|ENG}} (12)|6|'''{{flagathlete|[[Patsy Fagan]]|IRL}}'''|'''10''' <!--Match7 --> |15 & 16 April|{{flagathlete|[[John Spencer (snooker player)|John Spencer]]|ENG}} (13)|3|'''{{flagathlete|[[John Parrott]]|ENG}}'''|'''10''' <!--Match8 --> |16 & 17 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Kirk Stevens]]|CAN}} (4)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Ray Edmonds]]|ENG}}|8 <!--Match9 --> |16 & 17 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Cliff Thorburn]]|CAN}} (3)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Mike Hallett]]|ENG}}|8 <!--Match10 --> |16 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Bill Werbeniuk]]|CAN}} (14)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Joe Johnson (snooker player)|Joe Johnson]]|ENG}}|8 <!--Match11 --> |15 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Dennis Taylor]]|NIR}} (11)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Silvino Francisco]]|RSA|1982}}|2 <!--Match12 --> |14 & 15 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Eddie Charlton]]|AUS}} (6)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[John Campbell (snooker player)|John Campbell]]|AUS}}|3 <!--Match13 --> |13 & 14 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Jimmy White]]|ENG}} (7)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Wayne Jones (snooker player)|Wayne Jones]]|WAL}}|4 <!--Match14 --> |13 & 14 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Tony Meo]]|ENG}} (10)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[John Virgo]]|ENG}}|6 <!--Match15 --> |12 & 13 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Doug Mountjoy]]|WAL}} (15)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Murdo MacLeod (snooker player)|Murdo MacLeod]]|SCO}}|5 <!--Match16 --> |12 April|'''{{flagathlete|[[Tony Knowles (snooker player)|Tony Knowles]]|ENG}} (2)'''|'''10'''|{{flagathlete|[[Tony Jones (snooker player)|Tony Jones]]|ENG}}|8 <!-- LAST 16 --> <!--Match1 --> |17 & 18 April|'''{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Steve Davis]] (1)'''|'''13'''|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[David Taylor (snooker player)|David Taylor]] (16)|4 <!--Match2 --> |18 & 19 April|{{flagicon|NIR}} [[Alex Higgins]] (9)|7|'''{{flagicon|WAL}} [[Terry Griffiths]] (8)'''|'''13''' <!--Match3 --> |19 & 20 April|'''{{flagicon|WAL}} [[Ray Reardon]] (5)'''|'''13'''|{{flagicon|IRL}} [[Patsy Fagan]]|9 <!--Match4 --> |20 & 21 April|'''{{flagicon|ENG}} [[John Parrott]]'''|'''13'''|{{flagicon|CAN}} [[Kirk Stevens]] (4)|6 <!--Match5 --> |20 & 21 April|'''{{flagicon|CAN}} [[Cliff Thorburn]] (3)'''|'''13'''|{{flagicon|CAN}} [[Bill Werbeniuk]] (14)|3 <!--Match6 --> |19 & 20 April|'''{{flagicon|NIR}} [[Dennis Taylor]] (11)'''|'''13'''|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Eddie Charlton]] (6)|6 <!--Match7 --> |18 & 19 April|'''{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Jimmy White]] (7)'''|'''13'''|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Tony Meo]] (10)|11 <!--Match8 --> |17, 18 & 19 April|{{flagicon|WAL}} [[Doug Mountjoy]] (15)|6|'''{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Tony Knowles (snooker player)|Tony Knowles]] (2)'''|'''13''' <!-- QUARTER-FINALS --> <!--Match1 --> |22 & 23 April|'''{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Steve Davis]] (1)'''|'''13'''|{{flagicon|WAL}} [[Terry Griffiths]] (8)|6 <!--Match2 --> |22 & 23 April|'''{{flagicon|WAL}} [[Ray Reardon]] (5)'''|'''13'''|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[John Parrott]]|12 <!--Match3 --> |22 & 23 April|{{flagicon|CAN}} [[Cliff Thorburn]] (3)|5|'''{{flagicon|NIR}} [[Dennis Taylor]] (11)'''|'''13''' <!--Match4 --> |22 & 23 April|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Jimmy White]] (7)|10|'''{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Tony Knowles (snooker player)|Tony Knowles]] (2)'''|'''13''' <!-- SEMI-FINALS --> <!--Match1 --> |24 & 25 April|'''{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Steve Davis]] (1)'''|'''16'''|{{flagicon|WAL}} [[Ray Reardon]] (5)|5 <!--Match2 --> |24, 25 & 26 April|'''{{flagicon|NIR}} [[Dennis Taylor]] (11)'''|'''16'''|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[Tony Knowles (snooker player)|Tony Knowles]] (2)|5 <!-- FINAL --> |(Best of 35 frames) Crucible Theatre, Sheffield, 27 & 28 April. Referee: [[John Williams (snooker referee)|John Williams]]<ref name="Rqakn" /> |[[Steve Davis]] (1)<br/>{{ENG}} |17–'''18''' |'''[[Dennis Taylor]] (11)''' <br/>{{NIR}} |'''8'''–0 |1–'''8''' ('''9'''–8) |'''5'''–3 ('''14'''–11) |3–'''7''' (17–'''18''') |87 |'''98''' |0 |0 |'''12''' |10 <!-- Frame header info --> |player1 = Davis |player2 = Taylor |f1t='''88'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f2t='''93'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f3t='''49'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f4t='''65'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f5t='''95'''{{gc|frame winner}} (55) |f6t='''85'''{{gc|frame winner}} (66) |f7t='''83'''{{gc|frame winner}} (58) |f8t='''121'''{{gc|frame winner}} (64, 57) |f9t=49 |f10t='''76'''{{gc|frame winner}} (57) |f11t=48 |f12t=27 |f13t=19 |f14t=1 |f15t=0 |f16t=48 |f17t=25 |f18t='''72'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f19t='''66'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f20t=45 |f21t=2 |f22t=1 |f23t='''64'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f24t='''58'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f25t='''86'''{{gc|frame winner}} (86) |f26t=43 |f27t='''78'''{{gc|frame winner}} (66) |f28t=29 |f29t=4 |f30t=29 |f31t='''66'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f32t='''81'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f33t=47 |f34t=24 |f35t=62 |f1b=50 (50) |f2b=0 |f3b=2 |f4b=38 |f5b=1 |f6b=6 |f7b=20 |f8b=0 |f9b='''59'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f10b=27 |f11b='''63'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f12b='''75'''{{gc|frame winner}} (61) |f13b='''99'''{{gc|frame winner}} (98) |f14b='''71'''{{gc|frame winner}} (70) |f15b='''100'''{{gc|frame winner}} (56) |f16b='''77'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f17b='''68'''{{gc|frame winner}} (53) |f18b=43 |f19b=58 |f20b='''80'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f21b='''73'''{{gc|frame winner}} (57) |f22b='''80'''{{gc|frame winner}} (55) |f23b=56 |f24b=46 |f25b=13 |f26b='''82'''{{gc|frame winner}} (61) |f27b=17 |f28b='''84'''{{gc|frame winner}} (70) |f29b='''72'''{{gc|frame winner}} (57) |f30b='''83'''{{gc|frame winner}} (79) |f31b=6 |f32b=0 |f33b='''75'''{{gc|frame winner}} |f34b='''71'''{{gc|frame winner}} (57) |f35b='''66'''{{gc|frame winner}} |'''{{flagicon|NIR}} Dennis Taylor''' wins the 1985 Embassy [[World Snooker Championship]] }} == Century breaks == Thare war 14 century braks in the championship. Bill Werbeniuk's 143 against Joe Johnson in the first roond wis the jynt third-heichest brak in the championship's history, tied wi his brak in [[1979 World Snooker Championship|1979]] and Willie Thorne's in [[1982 World Snooker Championship|1982]].<ref name="sIJuy" /><ref name="Dl9r7" /> Anly Cliff Thorburn's [[maximum break]] in 1983 and Doug Mountjoy's 145 in 1981 war higher. Tony Knowles missed the black on a brak of 137 that wad hae scored a 144 in his seicont-roond match wi Jimmy White.<ref name="K2Lv9" /> {{div col}} * 143 [[Bill Werbeniuk]] * 137, 117 [[Tony Knowles (snooker player)|Tony Knowles]] * 128, 117 [[Dennis Taylor]] * 123 [[Tony Meo]] * 114, 108 [[Jimmy White]] * 114 [[John Parrott]] * 106, 105, 100 [[Steve Davis]] * 103 [[Cliff Thorburn]] * 101 [[Neal Foulds]] {{div col end}} ==={{anchor|Qualifying}}Qualifying stages=== Thare war ten century braks in the qualifying stages; the heichest wis made bi Danny Fowler in his roond-of-64 10–0 [[Whitewash (sport)|whitewash]] of Jim Donnelly.<ref name="Parrot/Fowler"/><ref name=Quali/> {{div col}} * 137 [[Danny Fowler]] * 134 [[Steve Newbury]] * 132 [[Bernie Mikkelsen]] * 119 [[John Virgo]] * 110, 101 [[Bob Chaperon]] * 109 [[Neal Foulds]] * 107 [[Dave Chalmers]] * 104 [[Tony Jones (snooker player)|Tony Jones]] * 100 [[Steve Longworth]] {{div col end}} ==Legacy== Returning tae Northren Ireland, Taylor received a veectory parade afore 10,000 fowk in a [[Land Rover]] across his home toun of [[Coalisland]].<ref name=Parade>{{cite news |title=Snooker ace's triumph |work=The Times |date=7 May 1985 |page=1 |via=The Times Digital Archive |url=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/Bdt5D1 |access-date=6 September 2019 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> He wis loaned mayoral robes on the day of his veectory parade, an wis accompanied bi his wife and three childer.<ref name=Parade/> Taylor later signed a five-year contract wi promoter Barry Hearn as his manager.<ref>{{cite news |author=Friskin, Sydney |title=Snooker |work=The Times |date=7 May 1985 |page=26 |via=The Times Digital Archive |url=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/Bdt3v6 |access-date=6 September 2019 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Media covering the toornament cried Steve Davis a "bad loser" for his silence and ane-wird responses tae questions frae [[David Vine]] at a press conference efter the event.<ref name="book_Inte"/><ref name=CrucibleDiary/> Taylor's veectory remains the maist-viewed BBC2 program of aw time, an wis the maist-viewed sporting event in the United Kingdom tae date.<ref name=CrucibleDiary/> The press conference wis later the basis for a ''[[Spitting Image]]'' [[Sketch comedy|skit]] on Davis.<ref name="book_Inte"/> The toornament final wis recreated and redistributed bi the BBC in various forms. At the [[2010 World Snooker Championship]], tae celebrate 25 years efter the event, the final frame wis replayed atween Taylor and Davis wi commentary bi John Virgo.<ref name="toOxe" /> The frame wis played as an exhibition, wi baith players attemptin tae re-creaut the shots on the final black ball.<ref name="EcAfa" /> The final (an the championship) war examined in the BBC documentary, ''[[When Snooker Ruled the World]]''.<ref name="xJeUF" /> Anither ane-oor BBC documentary on the final, ''Davis v Taylor: The '85 Black Ball Final'' (featurin interviews wi Taylor's friends and faimily in Northren Ireland), wis presented bi [[Colin Murray]].<ref name="42wJ9" /> During the [[2015 World Snooker Championship]], Davis presented ''Celebrity Black Ball Final'' on the BBC in which celebrities played the final two shots o the match; guests included [[Rebecca Adlington]], [[Joey Essex]], [[Russell Watson]], [[Richard Osman]] and [[Josh Widdicombe]].<ref name="S8JOU" /> A 2017 BBC poll foond the final the Crucible's "most memorable" moment. The match received ower hauf the vote, wi [[Ronnie O'Sullivan]]'s 1997 maximum brak finishing seicont.<ref name="bbc._Worl"/> Davis again lost the next year's final, this time tae qualifier Joe Johnson. He won three mair titles, in 1987, 1988 and 1989.<ref name=bbc2953941>{{Cite news |title=1986: Johnson stuns snooker world |work=BBC Sport |date=18 April 2003 |access-date=8 September 2019 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/2953941.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040502075930/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/2953941.stm |archive-date=2 May 2004 |url-status=}}</ref> Taylor never reached the final again, losin in the first roond tae [[Mike Hallett]] o the follaein year's event, fawin tae the "[[Crucible curse]]".<ref name=telegraph2311594>{{cite news |last=Baxter |first=Trevor |title=Dott falls to the 'Crucible curse' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/snooker/2311594/Dott-falls-to-the-Crucible-curse.html |work=The Daily Telegraph |accessdate=10 June 2012 |date=21 April 2007}}</ref> ==Qualifying== Five roonds of qualifying war played for the event atween 27 tae 31 Mairch at the Preston Guildhall.<ref name="87HALE" /><ref name="EVERTONG" /> '''1st Qualifying Roond''' {|class="wikitable " |- !width=200|Player !width=60|Score !width=200|Player |- | '''{{flagathlete|Gino Rigitano|CAN}}'''|| style="text-align:center;"| '''10'''–9|| {{flagathlete|[[Dessie Sheehan]]|IRE}} |- | '''{{flagathlete|[[Dene O'Kane]]|NZL}}'''|| style="text-align:center;"| [[Walkover|w.o.]]–scr|| {{flagathlete|[[Jack McLaughlin]]|NIR}} |- | '''{{flagathlete|[[Steve Longworth]]|ENG}}'''|| style="text-align:center;"| '''10'''–1|| {{flagathlete|James Giannaros|CAN}} |- | '''{{flagathlete|[[Bob Chaperon]]|CAN}}'''|| style="text-align:center;"| '''10'''–7|| {{flagathlete|[[Roger Bales]]|ENG}} |- | '''{{flagathlete|Dennis Hughes|ENG}}'''|| style="text-align:center;"| '''10'''–5|| {{flagathlete|[[Doug French]]|ENG}} |- | '''{{flagathlete|[[Mike Hines]]|RSA|1928}}'''|| style="text-align:center;"| '''10'''–8|| {{flagathlete|[[Tony Chappel]]|WAL}} |- | '''{{flagathlete|[[Danny Fowler]]|ENG}}'''|| style="text-align:center;"| '''10'''–0|| {{flagathlete|[[John Hargreaves (snooker player)|John Hargreaves]]|ENG}} |- |} {{32TeamX4RoundBracket-NoSeeds| | RD1 = '''2nd Qualifying Round'''<br>Best of 19 frames | RD2 = '''3rd Qualifying Round'''<br>Best of 19 frames | RD3 = '''4th Qualifying Round'''<br>Best of 19 frames | RD4 = '''5th Qualifying Round'''<br>Best of 19 frames | team-width= | RD1-team01 = {{flagathlete|Bob Harris|ENG}} | RD1-score01 = 4 | RD1-team02 = '''{{flagathlete|Gino Rigitano|CAN}}''' | RD1-score02 = '''10''' | RD1-team03 = {{flagathlete|[[Vic Harris (snooker player)|Vic Harris]]|ENG}} | RD1-score03 = 5 | RD1-team04 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Dene O'Kane]]|NZL}}''' | RD1-score04 = '''10''' | RD1-team05 = {{flagathlete|[[Graham Cripsey]]|ENG}} | RD1-score05 = 8 | RD1-team06 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Steve Longworth]]|ENG}}''' | RD1-score06 = '''10''' | RD1-team07 = {{flagathlete|Leon Heywood|AUS}} | RD1-score07 = 1 | RD1-team08 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Bob Chaperon]]|CAN}}''' | RD1-score08 = '''10''' | RD1-team09 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Steve Newbury]]|WAL}}''' | RD1-score09 = '''10''' | RD1-team10 = {{flagathlete|Dennis Hughes|ENG}} | RD1-score10 = 9 | RD1-team11 = {{flagathlete|[[Paul Watchorn]]|IRE}} | RD1-score11 = 4 | RD1-team12 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Mike Hines]]|RSA|1928}}''' | RD1-score12 = '''10''' | RD1-team13 = {{flagathlete|Gerry Watson|CAN}} | RD1-score13 = scr. | RD1-team14 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Danny Fowler]]|ENG}}''' | RD1-score14 = [[Walkover|w.o.]] | RD1-team15 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Robby Foldvari]]|AUS}}''' | RD1-score15 = '''10''' | RD1-team16 = {{flagathlete|[[Bill Oliver (snooker player)|Bill Oliver]]|ENG}} | RD1-score16 = 3 | RD1-team17 = '''{{flagathlete|Dave Chalmers|ENG}}''' | RD1-score17 = '''10''' | RD1-team18 = {{flagathlete|[[David Greaves]]|ENG}} | RD1-score18 = 3 | RD1-team19 = '''{{flagathlete|Geoff Foulds|ENG}}''' | RD1-score19 = '''10''' | RD1-team20 = {{flagathlete|[[Maurice Parkin]]|ENG}} | RD1-score20 = 6 | RD1-team21 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Paul Medati]]|ENG}}''' | RD1-score21 = '''10''' | RD1-team22 = {{flagathlete|[[Bernard Bennett]]|ENG}} | RD1-score22 = 4 | RD1-team23 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Ian Anderson (snooker player)|Ian Anderson]]|AUS}}''' | RD1-score23 = '''10''' | RD1-team24 = {{flagathlete|Tony Kearney|IRE}} | RD1-score24 = 8 | RD1-team25 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Wayne Jones (snooker player)|Wayne Jones]]|WAL}}''' | RD1-score25 = '''10''' | RD1-team26 = {{flagathlete|[[John Rea (snooker player)|John Rea]]|SCO}} | RD1-score26 = 3 | RD1-team27 = '''{{flagathlete|Malcolm Bradley]|ENG}}''' | RD1-score27 = '''10''' | RD1-team28 = '''{{flagathlete|Derek Mienie|RSA|1928}}''' | RD1-score28 = 4 | RD1-team29 ='''{{flagathlete|[[Peter Francisco]]|RSA|1928}}''' | RD1-score29 = '''10''' | RD1-team30 = {{flagathlete|[[Bert Demarco]]|SCO}} | RD1-score30 = 4 | RD1-team31 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Tony Jones (snooker player)|Tony Jones]]|ENG}}''' | RD1-score31 = '''10''' | RD1-team32 = {{flagathlete|[[Mike Darrington]]|ENG}} | RD1-score32 = 2 | RD2-team01 = {{flagathlete|Billy Kelly|IRE}} | RD2-score01 = 6 | RD2-team02 = '''{{flagathlete|Gino Rigitano|CAN}}''' | RD2-score02 = '''10''' | RD2-team03 = {{flagathlete|[[Frank Jonik]]|CAN}} | RD2-score03 = 5 | RD2-team04 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Dene O'Kane]]|NZL}}''' | RD2-score04 = '''10''' | RD2-team05 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Jimmy van Rensberg]]|RSA|1928}}''' | RD2-score05 = '''10''' | RD2-team06 = {{flagathlete|[[Steve Longworth]]|ENG}} | RD2-score06 = 7 | RD2-team07 = {{flagathlete|[[Paddy Morgan]]|AUS}} | RD2-score07 = 3 | RD2-team08 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Bob Chaperon]]|CAN}}''' | RD2-score08 = '''10''' | RD2-team09 = {{flagathlete|Pascal Burke|IRE}} | RD2-score09 = 3 | RD2-team10 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Steve Newbury]]|WAL}}''' | RD2-score10 = '''10''' | RD2-team11 = '''{{flagathlete|Matt Gibson|SCO}}''' | RD2-score11 = '''10''' | RD2-team12 = {{flagathlete|[[Mike Hines]]|RSA|1928}} | RD2-score12 = 7 | RD2-team13 = '''{{flagathlete|Joe Caggianello|CAN}}''' | RD2-score13 = scr. | RD2-team14 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Danny Fowler]]|ENG}}''' | RD2-score14 = [[Walkover|w.o.]] | RD2-team15 = {{flagathlete|[[Bill Oliver (snooker player)|Bill Oliver]]|ENG}} | RD2-score15 = 3 | RD2-team16 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Robby Foldvari]]|AUS}}''' | RD2-score16 = '''10''' | RD2-team17 = {{flagathlete|Eddie McLauglin|SCO}} | RD2-score17 = 9 | RD2-team18 = '''{{flagathlete|Dave Chalmers|ENG}}''' | RD2-score18 = '''10''' | RD2-team19 = {{flagathlete|[[Clive Everton]]|WAL}} | RD2-score19 = 2 | RD2-team20 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Geoff Foulds]]|ENG}}''' | RD2-score20 = '''10''' | RD2-team21 = {{flagathlete|[[Ian Williamson (snooker player)|Ian Williamson]]|ENG}} | RD2-score21 = 8 | RD2-team22 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Paul Medati]]|ENG}}''' | RD2-score22 = '''10''' | RD2-team23 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Paddy Browne]]|IRE}}''' | RD2-score23 = '''10''' | RD2-team24 = {{flagathlete|[[Ian Anderson (snooker player)|Ian Anderson]]|AUS}} | RD2-score24 = 5 | RD2-team25 = {{flagathlete|[[John Dunning (snooker player)|John Dunning]]|ENG}} | RD2-score25 = 6 | RD2-team26 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Wayne Jones (snooker player)|Wayne Jones]]|WAL}}''' | RD2-score26 = '''10''' | RD2-team27 = {{flagathlete|Bernie Mikkelsen|CAN}} | RD2-score27 = 9 | RD2-team28 = '''{{flagathlete|Malcolm Bradley|ENG}}''' | RD2-score28 = '''10''' | RD2-team29 = {{flagathlete|[[Tommy Murphy (snooker player)|Tommy Murphy]]|CAN}} | RD2-score29 = 4 | RD2-team30 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Peter Francisco]]|RSA|1928}}''' | RD2-score30 = '''10''' | RD2-team31 = {{flagathlete|[[Steve Duggan]]|ENG}} | RD2-score31 = 8 | RD2-team32 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Tony Jones (snooker player)|Tony Jones]]|ENG}}''' | RD2-score32 = '''10''' | RD3-team01 = {{flagathlete|[[Mick Fisher]]|ENG}} | RD3-score01 = 2 | RD3-team02 = '''{{flagathlete|Gino Rigitano|CAN}}''' | RD3-score02 = '''10''' | RD3-team03 = {{flagathlete|[[Les Dodd]]|ENG}} | RD3-score03 = 7 | RD3-team04 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Dene O'Kane]]|NZL}}''' | RD3-score04 = '''10''' | RD3-team05 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Marcel Gauvreau]]|CAN}}''' | RD3-score05 = '''10''' | RD3-team06 = {{flagathlete|[[Jimmy van Rensberg]]|RSA|1928}} | RD3-score06 = 9 | RD3-team07 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Fred Davis (snooker player)|Fred Davis]]|ENG}}''' | RD3-score07 = '''10''' | RD3-team08 = {{flagathlete|[[Bob Chaperon]]|CAN}} | RD3-score08 = 9 | RD3-team09 = {{flagathlete|[[George Scott (snooker player)|George Scott]]|ENG}} | RD3-score09 = 2 | RD3-team10 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Steve Newbury]]|WAL}}''' | RD3-score10 = '''10''' | RD3-team11 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Patsy Fagan]]|IRE}}''' | RD3-score11 = '''10''' | RD3-team12 = {{flagathlete|Matt Gibson|SCO}} | RD3-score12 = 8 | RD3-team13 = {{flagathlete|[[Jim Donnelly (snooker player)|Jim Donnelly]]|SCO}} | RD3-score13 = 0 | RD3-team14 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Danny Fowler]]|ENG}}''' | RD3-score14 = '''10''' | RD3-team15 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Ray Edmonds]]|ENG}}''' | RD3-score15 = '''10''' | RD3-team16 = {{flagathlete|[[Robby Foldvari]]|AUS}} | RD3-score16 = 3 | RD3-team17 = {{flagathlete|[[Ian Black (snooker player)|Ian Black]]|SCO}} | RD3-score17 = 4 | RD3-team18 = '''{{flagathlete|Dave Chalmers|ENG}}''' | RD3-score18 = '''10''' | RD3-team19 = {{flagathlete|[[Colin Roscoe]]|WAL}} | RD3-score19 = 7 | RD3-team20 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Geoff Foulds]]|ENG}}''' | RD3-score20 = '''10''' | RD3-team21 = {{flagathlete|[[Warren King (snooker player)|Warren King]]|AUS}} | RD3-score21 = 9 | RD3-team22 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Paul Medati]]|ENG}}''' | RD3-score22 = '''10''' | RD3-team23 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Mario Morra (pool player)|Mario Morra]]|CAN}}''' | RD3-score23 = '''10''' | RD3-team24 = {{flagathlete|[[Paddy Browne]]|IRE}} | RD3-score24 = 6 | RD3-team25 = {{flagathlete|[[Mike Watterson]]|ENG}} | RD3-score25 = 5 | RD3-team26 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Wayne Jones (snooker player)|Wayne Jones]]|WAL}}''' | RD3-score26 = '''10''' | RD3-team27 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Jim Wych]]|CAN}}''' | RD3-score27 = '''10''' | RD3-team28 = {{flagathlete|Malcolm Bradley|ENG}} | RD3-score28 = 7 | RD3-team29 = {{flagathlete|[[Jim Meadowcroft]]|ENG}} | RD3-score29 = 5 | RD3-team30 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Peter Francisco]]|RSA|1928}}''' | RD3-score30 = '''10''' | RD3-team31 = {{flagathlete|[[Jack Fitzmaurice]]|ENG}} | RD3-score31 = 4 | RD3-team32 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Tony Jones (snooker player)|Tony Jones]]|ENG}}''' | RD3-score32 = '''10''' | RD4-team01 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Neal Foulds]]|ENG}}''' | RD4-score01 = '''10''' | RD4-team02 = {{flagathlete|Gino Rigitano|CAN}} | RD4-score02 = 8 | RD4-team03 = {{flagathlete|[[Dave Martin (snooker player)|Dave Martin]]|ENG}} | RD4-score03 = 8 | RD4-team04 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Dene O'Kane]]|NZL}}''' | RD4-score04 = '''10''' | RD4-team05 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Dean Reynolds]]|ENG}}''' | RD4-score05 = '''10''' | RD4-team06 = {{flagathlete|[[Marcel Gauvreau]]|CAN}} | RD4-score06 = 1 | RD4-team07 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Rex Williams]]|ENG}}''' | RD4-score07 = '''10''' | RD4-team08 = {{flagathlete|[[Fred Davis (snooker player)|Fred Davis]]|ENG}} | RD4-score08 = 6 | RD4-team09 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Eugene Hughes (snooker player)|Eugene Hughes]]|IRE}}''' | RD4-score09 = '''10''' | RD4-team10 = {{flagathlete|[[Steve Newbury]]|WAL}} | RD4-score10 = 6 | RD4-team11 = {{flagathlete|[[Cliff Wilson]]|WAL}} | RD4-score11 = 9 | RD4-team12 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Patsy Fagan]]|IRE}}''' | RD4-score12 = '''10''' | RD4-team13 = '''{{flagathlete|[[John Parrott]]|ENG}}''' | RD4-score13 = '''10''' | RD4-team14 = {{flagathlete|[[Danny Fowler]]|ENG}} | RD4-score14 = 2 | RD4-team15 = {{flagathlete|[[Mark Wildman]]|ENG}} | RD4-score15 = 7 | RD4-team16 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Ray Edmonds]]|ENG}}''' | RD4-score16 = '''10''' | RD4-team17 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Mike Hallett]]|ENG}}''' | RD4-score17 = '''10''' | RD4-team18 = {{flagathlete|Dave Chalmers|ENG}} | RD4-score18 = 1 | RD4-team19 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Joe Johnson (snooker player)|Joe Johnson]]|ENG}}''' | RD4-score19 = '''10''' | RD4-team20 = {{flagathlete|[[Geoff Foulds]]|ENG}} | RD4-score20 = 6 | RD4-team21 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Silvino Francisco]]|RSA|1928}}''' | RD4-score21 = '''10''' | RD4-team22 = {{flagathlete|[[Paul Medati]]|ENG}} | RD4-score22 = 7 | RD4-team23 = '''{{flagathlete|[[John Campbell (snooker player)|John Campbell]]|AUS}}''' | RD4-score23 = '''10''' | RD4-team24 = {{flagathlete|[[Mario Morra (pool player)|Mario Morra]]|CAN}} | RD4-score24 = 9 | RD4-team25 = {{flagathlete|[[Graham Miles]]|ENG}} | RD4-score25 = 8 | RD4-team26 = {{flagathlete|[[Wayne Jones (snooker player)|Wayne Jones]]|WAL}} | RD4-score26 = '''10''' | RD4-team27 = '''{{flagathlete|[[John Virgo]]|ENG}}''' | RD4-score27 = '''10''' | RD4-team28 = {{flagathlete|[[Jim Wych]]|CAN}} | RD4-score28 = 4 | RD4-team29 = {{flagathlete|[[Murdo MacLeod (snooker player)|Murdo MacLeod]]|SCO}} | RD4-score29 = '''10''' | RD4-team30 = {{flagathlete|[[Peter Francisco]]|RSA|1928}} | RD4-score30 = 7 | RD4-team31 = {{flagathlete|[[Eddie Sinclair]]|SCO}} | RD4-score31 = 2 | RD4-team32 = '''{{flagathlete|[[Tony Jones (snooker player)|Tony Jones]]|ENG}}''' | RD4-score32 = '''10''' }} == Notes == {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist|refs= <ref name=CrucibleDiary>{{cite news |title=Crucible Diary |publisher=Snooker Scene |date=20 June 1985 |author=Hale, Janice}}</ref> <ref name="bbc._Worl">{{Cite news |title=World Championship: 1985 black-ball final voted most memorable Crucible moment |newspaper=BBC Sport |date=May 2017 |access-date=8 September 2019 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/snooker/39772632 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629065355/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/snooker/39772632 |archive-date=29 June 2017 |url-status=}}</ref> <ref name=bbc2953941>{{Cite news |title=1986: Johnson stuns snooker world |work=BBC Sport |date=18 April 2003 |access-date=8 September 2019 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/2953941.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040502075930/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/2953941.stm |archive-date=2 May 2004 |url-status=}}</ref> <ref name=telegraph2311594>{{cite news |last=Baxter |first=Trevor |title=Dott falls to the 'Crucible curse' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/snooker/2311594/Dott-falls-to-the-Crucible-curse.html |work=The Daily Telegraph |accessdate=10 June 2012 |date=21 April 2007}}</ref> <ref name="drugstesting">{{cite news |last=Nicholson-Lord |first=David |date=10 April 1985 |title=Top snooker players face tests for drugs |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_los-angeles-times_1985-04-10_not-available/page/n21 |work=the Times |page=1 |via=The Times Digital Archive}}</ref> <ref name="hC6vY">{{cite news |title=Snooker championship |work=Yorkshire Post and Leeds Intelligencer |date=11 May 1927 |accessdate=12 March 2019 |url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000687/19270511/425/0020 |via=British Newspaper Archive |url-access=subscription}}</ref> <ref name="Zm5PK">{{cite web |url=http://www.snookerheritage.co.uk/normans-articles/days-of-old/origins-of-snooker/ |title=Origins of Snooker |first=Peter |last=Clare |year=2008 |work=Snooker Heritage |accessdate=8 February 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103150005/http://snookerheritage.co.uk/normans-articles/days-of-old/origins-of-snooker/ |archivedate=3 January 2017}}</ref> <ref name="nqmEm">{{cite web |title=The Rise Of China |work=World Snooker |date=26 February 2018 |access-date=13 March 2019 |url=http://www.worldsnooker.com/the-rise-of-china/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419145915/http://www.worldsnooker.com/the-rise-of-china/ |archive-date=19 April 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="KpRUB">{{cite web |last=Turner |first=Chris |title=World Professional Championship |url=http://www.cajt.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/world.html |work=cajt.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk |publisher=Chris Turner's Snooker Archive |accessdate=9 February 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724180133/http://www.cajt.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/world.html |archivedate=24 July 2011}}</ref> <ref name="X7144">{{cite web |title=1927 World Professional Championship |url=http://www.globalsnookercentre.co.uk/files/Results/27world.htm |work=globalsnookercentre.co.uk |publisher=Global Snooker Centre |accessdate=29 February 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041010103752/http://www.globalsnookercentre.co.uk/files/Results/27world.htm |archivedate=10 October 2004 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.globalsnookercentre.co.uk/files/Results/27world.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2020-01-05 |archive-date=2004-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041010103752/http://www.globalsnookercentre.co.uk/files/Results/27world.htm |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> <ref name="EGqXF">{{National Heritage List for England|num=1392311|desc=The Crucible Theatre|accessdate=3 December 2013}}</ref> <ref name="OQ2tP">{{cite web |title=World Championship – Roll of Honour |url=http://www.global-snooker.com/professional-tournaments-archive-world-championship-roll-of-honour.asp |publisher=Global Snooker |accessdate=18 March 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222034318/http://www.global-snooker.com/professional-tournaments-archive-world-championship-roll-of-honour.asp |archivedate=22 February 2012 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.global-snooker.com/professional-tournaments-archive-world-championship-roll-of-honour.asp |title=Archived copy |access-date=2020-01-05 |archive-date=2012-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222034318/http://www.global-snooker.com/professional-tournaments-archive-world-championship-roll-of-honour.asp |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> <ref name="news_BBCS">{{Cite news |title=1984: Davis outshines White |work=BBC Sport |date=18 April 2003 |access-date=26 April 2019 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/2953919.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030924004951/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/2953919.stm |archive-date=24 September 2003 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="mWQms">{{cite book |last=Downer |first=Chris |title=Crucible Almanac |year=2012 |pages=130}}</ref> <ref name="book_Inte">{{Cite book |title=Interesting: My Autobiography |author=Davis, Steve |date=9 April 2015 |access-date=4 September 2019 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VwTIBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dennis+taylor+autobiography#v=onepage&q&f=false |language= |quote= |isbn=9781473502482}}</ref> <ref name="cult_TheB">{{Cite web |title=The Black Ball Final – Thirty Years On |work=Culture Northern Ireland |date=30 April 2015 |access-date=4 September 2019 |url=https://www.culturenorthernireland.org/features/sport/black-ball-final-%E2%80%93-thirty-years |archive-date=2021-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212030033/https://www.culturenorthernireland.org/features/sport/black-ball-final-%E2%80%93-thirty-years |url-status=dead }}</ref> <ref name="book_Outo">{{Cite book |title=Out of the Blue, Into the Black |author=Spencer, John |access-date=4 September 2019 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=nkqyAAAACAAJ&dq=Out+of+the+Blue+into+the+Black+john+spencer |language= |quote= |isbn=9781903158630 |year=2005}}</ref> <ref name="inde_Grea">{{Cite web |title=Great Sporting Moments: Dennis Taylor defeats Steve Davis 18–17 at the Crucible |work=The Independent |date=12 July 2009 |access-date=4 September 2019 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/others/great-sporting-moments-dennis-taylor-defeats-steve-davis-18-17-at-the-crucible-1741225.html}}</ref> <ref name="Global Snooker">{{cite web |title=World Championship 1985 |url=http://www.global-snooker.com/professional-snooker-tournaments-archive-world-championship-1985.asp |publisher=Global Snooker |accessdate=11 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306014440/http://www.global-snooker.com/professional-snooker-tournaments-archive-world-championship-1985.asp |archivedate=6 March 2012 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.global-snooker.com/professional-snooker-tournaments-archive-world-championship-1985.asp |title=Archived copy |access-date=2020-01-05 |archive-date=2012-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306014440/http://www.global-snooker.com/professional-snooker-tournaments-archive-world-championship-1985.asp |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> <ref name="Seeding">{{cite web |title=Embassy World Championship |url=http://www.snookerscene.co.uk/page.php?id=36 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124071753/http://www.snookerscene.co.uk/page.php?id=36 |archivedate=24 January 2013 |publisher=Snooker Scene |accessdate=6 March 2012 }} {{Cite web |url=http://www.snookerscene.co.uk/page.php?id=36 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2020-01-05 |archive-date=2013-01-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124071753/http://www.snookerscene.co.uk/page.php?id=36 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> <ref name="format">{{cite web |title=1985 World Championships Results |url=http://www.snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=27 |publisher=Snooker Database |accessdate=11 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120526135834/http://www.snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=27 |archive-date=26 May 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="e0dSN">{{Cite web |title=1985 Snooker Rewind |work=BBC Sport |access-date=9 January 2020 |date=30 April 2015 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/live/snooker/32236103}}</ref> <ref name="0sbui">{{Cite web |title=John Spencer |work=The Independent |access-date=4 September 2019 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/john-spencer-6095532.html |quote=myasthenia gravis}}</ref> <ref name="78fIm">{{cite book |last=Downer |first=Chris |title=Crucible Almanac |year=2012 |pages=161}}</ref> <ref name="O5FTf">{{cite web |title=1985: The black ball final |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/2953933.stm |work=BBC Sport |accessdate=9 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030430091705/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/2953933.stm |archive-date=30 April 2003 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="1aruF">{{cite book |last=Downer |first=Chris |title=Crucible Almanac |year=2012 |pages=20–21}}</ref> <ref name="Rqakn">{{cite book |last=Downer |first=Chris |title=Crucible Almanac |year=2012 |pages=143}}</ref> <ref name="sIJuy">{{cite web |title=Crucible Centuries |url=http://www.snooker.org/Plr/wc_centuries.shtml |publisher=Snooker.org |accessdate=3 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523045039/http://www.snooker.org/plr/wc_centuries.shtml |archivedate=23 May 2011}}</ref> <ref name="Dl9r7">{{cite book |last=Downer |first=Chris |title=Crucible Almanac |year=2012 |pages=146}}</ref> <ref name="Than and Now: Griffiths">{{cite web |title=Then and Now: Terry Griffiths |url=http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/04022010/58/terry-griffiths.html |publisher=Eurosport UK |accessdate=10 June 2012 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/68J34bPaG?url=http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/04022010/58/terry-griffiths.html |archivedate=10 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> <ref name="The greatest Crucible final">{{cite web |title=April 29 down the years: The greatest Crucible final |url=http://www.espn.co.uk/onthisday/sport/story/135.html |publisher=ESPN |accessdate=23 May 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131201013949/http://www.espn.co.uk/onthisday/sport/story/135.html |archivedate=1 December 2013}}</ref> <ref name="95vGQ">{{cite book |title=Frame by Frame: My Autobiography |year=1985 |url=https://archive.org/details/framebyframemyow0000tayl |author=Taylor, Dennis |isbn=978-0356121796 |publisher=Queen Anne Press; 1st Edition edition (24 Oct 1985)}}</ref> <ref name="drugs tests">{{cite news |title=Drug tests imposed: Snooker |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=10 April 1985 |page=25}}</ref> <ref name="Taylor snatches final">{{cite web |last=Phillips-Knight |first=Rob |title=Taylor snatches the 'black-ball final' |url=http://www.espn.co.uk/espn/sport/story/19916.html |publisher=ESPN |accessdate=4 May 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203002149/http://www.espn.co.uk/espn/sport/story/19916.html |archivedate=3 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="yout_1985">{{Cite AV media |title=1985 World Snooker Championship – Steve Davis v Dennis Taylor Black Ball Final |via=YouTube |access-date=4 September 2019 |work=BBC Two |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BZSky37NGno |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823225647/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BZSky37NGno&gl=US&hl=en&has_verified=1&bpctr=9999999999 |archive-date=23 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="7wdGx">{{cite news |title=Drug snooker tests can't detect |author=Foster, Jonathan |author2=Hale, Janice |work=The Observer |date=14 April 1985 |page=3}}</ref> <ref name="8gPyB">{{cite news |last=Everton |first=Clive |date=17 January 1985 |title=Crucible of gold: Snooker |work=The Guardian |page=24}}</ref> <ref name="mWQms">{{cite book |last=Downer |first=Chris |title=Crucible Almanac |year=2012 |pages=130}}</ref> <ref name="4FSui">{{cite news |title=Sport in brief |work=The Guardian |date=1 April 1985 |page=27 |id={{ProQuest|186550100}} }}</ref> <ref name="K2Lv9">{{cite news |title=Parrott fashions overnight lead |author=Everton, Clive |work=The Guardian |date=23 April 1985 |page=26}}</ref> <ref name="toOxe">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldsnooker.com/news-139970.htm |title=Taylor And Davis Set For Crucible Rematch |publisher=World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association |accessdate=17 April 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100504204559/http://www.worldsnooker.com/news-139970.htm |archivedate=4 May 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref name="EcAfa">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/8587581.stm |title=Steve Davis & Dennis Taylor stage rematch of 1985 final |work=BBC Sport |accessdate=30 April 2010 |date=29 April 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328170651/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/8587581.stm |archivedate=28 March 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="xJeUF">{{Cite web |title=BBC When Snooker Ruled the World |publisher=BBC |access-date=5 September 2019 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0389wrj |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003163232/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0389wrj |archive-date=3 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="42wJ9">{{Cite web |title=BBC Davis v Taylor: The '85 Black Ball Final |publisher=BBC |access-date=5 September 2019 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00s9dg4 |quote=Davis v Taylor: The '85 Black Ball Final |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606060134/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00s9dg4 |archive-date=6 June 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="S8JOU">{{Cite web |title=BBC Celebrity Black Ball Final with Steve Davis |publisher=BBC |access-date=5 September 2019 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03bv3t8 |quote=Rebecca Adlington, Joey Essex, Russell Watson, Richard Osman and Josh Widdicombe |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906031947/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03bv3t8 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> }} {{Warld Snooker Championship}} [[Category:Warld Snooker Championship]] phi17p25srfugpjsmy8cqjc1z3xfim4 4 223455 918702 918533 2026-06-24T18:14:25Z ListeriaBot 30924 Wikidata list updated [V2] 918702 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidata list |sparql=SELECT DISTINCT ?item WHERE { ?position wdt:P279 wd:Q1711695 . ?item p:P39 ?ps . ?ps ps:P39 ?position . ?item wdt:P31 wd:Q5 . } |links=red_only |thumb=100 |columns=number,label:Name,,P18,P569,P570,P19 }} {| class='wikitable sortable' ! number ! Name ! ! eemage ! date o birth ! date o daith ! place o birth |- | style='text-align:right'| 1 | [[Margaret Curran]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Baroness Curran crop 2, 2025.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1958" | 1958-11-24 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 2 | [[Elaine Smith]] | | [[File:ElaineSmithMSPPortrait.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1963" | 1963-05-07 | | [[Coatbrig]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 3 | [[Nicol Stephen]] | | [[File:Nicol Stephen.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1960" | 1960-03-23 | | [[Aiberdeen]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 4 | [[James Douglas-Hamilton, Baron Selkirk of Douglas]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Lord Selkirk of Douglas crop 2.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-07-31 | data-sort-value="2023" | 2023-11-28 | [[Sooth Lanrikshire]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 5 | [[Phil Gallie]] | | | data-sort-value="1939" | 1939-06-03 | data-sort-value="2011" | 2011-01-24 | [[Portsmouth]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 6 | [[Jim Wallace, Baron Wallace of Tankerness]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Lord Wallace of Tankerness crop 2, 2019.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954-08-25 | data-sort-value="2026" | 2026-01-29 | [[Annan, Dumfries an Gallowa|Annan]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 7 | [[Andrew Welsh]] | | | data-sort-value="1944" | 1944-04-19 | data-sort-value="2021" | 2021-06-17 | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 8 | [[Donald Gorrie]] | | | data-sort-value="1933" | 1933-04-02 | data-sort-value="2012" | 2012-08-25 | [[Breetish Raj]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 9 | [[George Reid]] | | [[File:George Reid MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1939" | 1939-06-04 | data-sort-value="2025" | 2025-08-12 | [[Tullibody]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 10 | [[Andrew Arbuckle]] | | | data-sort-value="1944" | 1944-04-12 | data-sort-value="2025" | 2025-12-25 | [[Fife]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 11 | [[Wendy Alexander]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Baroness Alexander of Cleveden crop 2, 2025.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1963" | 1963-06-27 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 12 | [[Andy Kerr]] | | [[File:Andy Kerr.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1962" | 1962-03-17 | | [[East Kilbride]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 13 | [[Tommy Sheridan]] | | [[File:TommySheridan2007.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1964" | 1964-03-07 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 14 | [[Rhona Brankin]] | | [[File:Rhona Brankin.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1950" | 1950-01-19 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 15 | [[Sarah Boyack]] | | [[File:Sarah Boyack MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1961" | 1961-05-16 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 16 | [[Eleanor Scott]] | | [[File:Eleanor scott (13338173734).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1951" | 1951-07-23 | | [[Innerness]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 17 | [[Johann Lamont]] | | [[File:Johann Lamont 2019.png|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1957" | 1957-07-11 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 18 | [[Cathie Craigie]] | | [[File:Cathy Craigie.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954-04-14 | | [[Stirlin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 19 | [[Jackie Baillie]] | | [[File:Official Portrait of Jackie Baillie (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1964" | 1964-01-15 | | [[Hong Kong]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 20 | [[Annabel Goldie]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Baroness Goldie crop 2, 2024.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1950" | 1950-02-27 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 21 | [[Susan Deacon]] | | [[File:Susan Deacon.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1964" | 1964-02-02 | | [[Musselburrae]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 22 | [[Fergus Ewing]] | | [[File:Cabinet Secretary for the Rural Economy and Connectivity, Fergus Ewing.png|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1957" | 1957-09-23 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 23 | [[Alex Fergusson]] | | [[File:AlexFergussonMSP20110511.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1949" | 1949-04-08 | data-sort-value="2018" | 2018-07-31 | [[Leswalt]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 24 | [[Stewart Stevenson]] | | [[File:StewartStevensonMSP20110510.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1946" | 1946-10-15 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 25 | [[Rob Gibson]] | | [[File:RobGibsonMSP20110510.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1945" | 1945-10-10 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 26 | [[John Swinburne]] | | | data-sort-value="1930" | 1930-07-04 | data-sort-value="2017" | 2017-10-01 | [[Pennsylvanie|Pennsylvania]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 27 | [[Alasdair Morgan]] | | | data-sort-value="1945" | 1945-04-21 | | [[Aiberfeldy]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 28 | [[Cathy Jamieson]] | | [[File:Cathy Jamieson.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1956" | 1956-11-03 | | [[Kilmaurnock]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 29 | [[Janis Hughes]] | | | data-sort-value="1958" | 1958-05-01 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 30 | [[Bill Aitken]] | | | data-sort-value="1947" | 1947-04-15 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 31 | [[Bill Butler]] | | [[File:Bb3-billbutler.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1956" | 1956-03-30 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 32 | [[Scott Barrie]] | | | data-sort-value="1962" | 1962-03-10 | | [[St Aundraes]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 33 | [[Brian Monteith]] | | [[File:Brian Monteith MEP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1958" | 1958-01-08 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 34 | [[Bristow Muldoon]] | | [[File:Bristow Muldoon - 2014-10-30 - Andy Mabbett.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1964" | 1964-03-19 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 35 | [[George Lyon]] | | [[File:George Lyon MEP at Bournemouth 2009.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1956" | 1956-07-16 | | [[Rossay]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 36 | [[Bruce McFee]] | | | data-sort-value="1961" | 1961-05-18 | data-sort-value="2021" | 2021-09-09 | [[Johnstoun]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 37 | [[Cathy Peattie]] | | [[File:Cathey Peattie (Scottish politician).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1951" | 1951-11-24 | | [[Grangemooth]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 38 | [[Charlie Gordon]] | | | data-sort-value="1951" | 1951-10-28 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 39 | [[Christopher Harvie]] | | | data-sort-value="1944" | 1944-09-21 | | [[Motherwal]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 40 | [[David McLetchie]] | | [[File:DavidMcLetchieMSP20110509.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-08-06 | data-sort-value="2013" | 2013-08-12 | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 41 | [[David Stewart]] | | [[File:DaveStewartMSPPortrait.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1956" | 1956-05-05 | | [[Innerness]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 42 | [[Dave Thompson]] | | [[File:DaveThompsonMSP20120629.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1949" | 1949-09-20 | | [[Lossiemooth]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 43 | [[David Whitton]] | | | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-04-22 | | [[Farfar]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 44 | [[Derek Brownlee]] | | | data-sort-value="1974" | 1974-08-10 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 45 | [[Des McNulty]] | | [[File:Des McNulty.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-07-28 | | [[Stockport]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 46 | [[John Farquhar Munro]] | | [[File:Iain Fearchar Rothach aig SMO.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1934" | 1934-08-26 | data-sort-value="2014" | 2014-01-26 | [[Glen Shiel]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 47 | [[Jim Tolson]] | | [[File:Jim Tolson.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1965" | 1965-05-26 | | [[Kirkcaldy|Kircaudy]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 48 | [[Duncan McNeil]] | | [[File:DuncanMcNeilMSP20110511.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1950" | 1950-09-07 | | [[Greenock]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 49 | [[Mary Mulligan]] | | [[File:MaryMulligan.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1960" | 1960-02-12 | | [[Liverpuil]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 50 | [[Marilyn Livingstone]] | | | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-09-30 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 51 | [[Marlyn Glen]] | | [[File:Marlyn-Glen.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1951" | 1951-09-30 | | [[Dundee]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 52 | [[Elaine Murray]] | | [[File:ElaineMurrayMSP20110510.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954-12-22 | | [[Hitchin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 53 | [[Tavish Scott]] | | [[File:Tavish Scott MSP at Bournemouth.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1966" | 1966-05-06 | | [[Innerness]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 54 | [[Karen Whitefield]] | | [[File:KarenWhitefield.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1970" | 1970-01-08 | | [[Bellshill]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 55 | [[Nora Radcliffe]] | | | data-sort-value="1946" | 1946-03-04 | | [[Aiberdeen]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 56 | [[Patricia Ferguson]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Patricia Ferguson MP crop 2.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1958" | 1958-09-24 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 57 | [[Trish Godman]] | | | data-sort-value="1939" | 1939-10-31 | data-sort-value="2019" | 2019-07-21 | [[Gouan]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 58 | [[Paul Martin]] | | [[File:PaulMartinMSP20110511.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1967" | 1967-03-17 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 59 | [[Pauline McNeill]] | | [[File:Pauline McNeill.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1962" | 1962-09-12 | | [[Paisley]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 60 | [[Peter Peacock]] | | [[File:Peter Peacock.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-05-27 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 61 | [[Richard Baker]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Richard Baker MP crop 2.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1974" | 1974-05-29 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 62 | [[Robert Brown]] | | [[File:Robert Brown (Scottish Government).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1947" | 1947-12-25 | | [[Newcastle upon Tyne]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 63 | [[Ross Finnie]] | | [[File:Ross Finnie.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1947" | 1947-02-11 | | [[Greenock]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 64 | [[Sylvia Jackson]] | | | data-sort-value="1946" | 1946-12-03 | data-sort-value="2022" | 2022-07-27 | [[Lincolnshire]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 65 | [[Ted Brocklebank]] | | | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-09-24 | | [[St Aundraes]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 66 | [[Michael McMahon]] | | [[File:MichaelMcMahon5715448629 0404153e04 o.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1961" | 1961-09-18 | | [[Bellshill]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 67 | [[Alex Johnstone]] | | [[File:AlexJohnstoneMSP20110509.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1961" | 1961-07-31 | data-sort-value="2016" | 2016-12-07 | [[Steenhive|Stanehyve]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 68 | [[Allan Wilson]] | | [[File:Allan Wilson.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954-08-05 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 69 | [[Hugh Henry]] | | [[File:HughHenryMSP20110510.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-02-12 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 70 | [[Nanette Milne]] | | [[File:NanetteMilneMSP20110509.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-04-27 | | [[Aiberdeen]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 71 | [[Tom McCabe]] | | [[File:Tom McCabe.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954-04-28 | data-sort-value="2015" | 2015-04-19 | [[Hamiltoun]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 72 | [[Angus MacKay]] | | [[File:Angus MacKay.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1964" | 1964-01 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 73 | [[Ian Jenkins]] | | | data-sort-value="1941" | 1941-03-18 | data-sort-value="2025" | 2025-07-29 | [[Rossay]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 74 | [[Rhoda Grant]] | | [[File:RhodaGrantMSP20110511.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1963" | 1963-06-26 | | [[Stornowa]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 75 | [[Brian Fitzpatrick]] | | | data-sort-value="1961" | 1961 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 76 | [[John Young]] | | | data-sort-value="1930" | 1930-12-21 | data-sort-value="2011" | 2011-11-03 | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 77 | [[Campbell Martin]] | | | data-sort-value="1960" | 1960-03-10 | | [[Irvin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 78 | [[Chris Ballance]] | | [[File:Chris Ballance (13338189044).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-07-07 | | [[Worcester]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 79 | [[Christine May]] | | | data-sort-value="1948" | 1948-03-23 | | [[Dublin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 80 | [[Shiona Baird]] | | | data-sort-value="1946" | 1946-09-14 | | [[Hereford]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 81 | [[David Davidson]] | | | data-sort-value="1943" | 1943-01-25 | data-sort-value="2024" | 2024-06-14 | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 82 | [[Dave Petrie]] | | | data-sort-value="1946" | 1946-12-10 | data-sort-value="2011" | 2011-08-31 | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 83 | [[Dennis Canavan]] | | [[File:EET Scotland’s Economic Future Post-2014.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-08-08 | | [[Coudenbeith]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 84 | [[Maureen Macmillan]] | | | data-sort-value="1943" | 1943-02-09 | | [[Oban]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 85 | [[Euan Robson]] | | [[File:Euan Robson.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954-02-17 | | [[Northren Ingland]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 86 | [[Helen Eadie]] | | [[File:HelenEadieMSPPortrait.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1947" | 1947-03-07 | data-sort-value="2013" | 2013-11-09 | [[Stanehoosemuir|Stennie]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 87 | [[Mike Rumbles]] | | [[File:Mike Rumbles.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1956" | 1956-06-10 | | [[South Shields]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 88 | [[Gordon Jackson]] | | [[File:GJ losing.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1948" | 1948-08-05 | | [[Ardrussan]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 89 | [[Rosemary Byrne]] | | | data-sort-value="1948" | 1948-03-03 | | [[Irvin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 90 | [[Frank McAveety]] | | [[File:Frank McAveety MSP (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1962" | 1962-07-27 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 91 | [[Mark Ballard]] | | [[File:Mark B smart smile.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1971" | 1971-06-27 | | [[Leeds]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 92 | [[Iain Smith]] | | [[File:Iain smith.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1960" | 1960-05-01 | | [[Gateside]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 93 | [[Alasdair Morrison]] | | | data-sort-value="1968" | 1968-11-18 | | [[Stornowa]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 94 | [[Irene Oldfather]] | | [[File:Irene Oldfather 2016 (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 95 | [[Jamie McGrigor]] | | [[File:JamieMcGrigorMSP20110509.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1949" | 1949-10-19 | data-sort-value="2025" | 2025-07-20 | [[Lunnon]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 96 | [[Jean Turner]] | | | data-sort-value="1939" | 1939-12-23 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 97 | [[Jeremy Purvis]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Lord Purvis of Tweed crop 2.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1974" | 1974-01-15 | | [[Berrick|Berik]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 98 | [[John Home Robertson]] | | [[File:Johnhomerobertson.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1948" | 1948-12-05 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 99 | [[John Scott]] | | [[File:JohnScottMSP20110509.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1951" | 1951-06-07 | | [[Ayr]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 100 | [[Karen Gillon]] | | [[File:KarenGillon.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1967" | 1967-08-18 | | [[Jethart]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 101 | [[Kate Maclean]] | | | data-sort-value="1958" | 1958-02-16 | | [[Dundee]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 102 | [[Keith Raffan]] | | | data-sort-value="1949" | 1949-06-21 | | [[Aiberdeen]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 103 | [[Lewis Macdonald]] | | [[File:LewisMacdonaldMSP20110510.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1957" | 1957-01-01 | | [[Stornowa]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 104 | [[Malcolm Chisholm]] | | [[File:Malcolm Chisholm.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1949" | 1949-03-07 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 105 | [[Margaret Jamieson]] | | | data-sort-value="1953" | 1953 | | [[Kilmaurnock]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 106 | [[Margaret Mitchell]] | | [[File:MargaretMitchellMSP20120529.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-11-15 | | [[Coatbrig]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 107 | [[Margaret Smith]] | | [[File:Margaret-SmithMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1961" | 1961-02-18 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 108 | [[Mark Ruskell]] | | [[File:MarkRuskellMSP-May2016.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1972" | 1972-05-14 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 109 | [[Mary Scanlon]] | | [[File:MaryScanlonMSP20110509.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1947" | 1947-05-25 | | [[Dundee]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 110 | [[Mike Watson, Baron Watson of Invergowrie]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Lord Watson of Invergowrie crop 2, 2020.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1949" | 1949-05-01 | | [[Cammuslang]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 111 | [[Mike Pringle]] | | | data-sort-value="1945" | 1945-12-25 | | [[Northern Rhodesia]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 112 | [[Murdo Fraser]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Murdo Fraser MSP (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1965" | 1965-09-05 | | [[Innerness]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 113 | [[Murray Tosh]] | | | data-sort-value="1950" | 1950-09-01 | | [[Ayr]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 114 | [[Ben Wallace]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Rt Hon Ben Wallace MP crop 2.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1970" | 1970-05-15 | | [[Farnborough]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 115 | [[Henry McLeish]] | | [[File:Official Portrait of Henry McLeish, 2000.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1948" | 1948-06-15 | | [[Methul]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 116 | [[Colin Campbell]] | | | data-sort-value="1938" | 1938-08-31 | | [[Paisley]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 117 | [[Dorothy-Grace Elder]] | | | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-08-11 | | [[Dundee]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 118 | [[Duncan Hamilton]] | | | data-sort-value="1973" | 1973 | | [[Irvin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 119 | [[Elaine Thomson]] | | | data-sort-value="1957" | 1957 | | [[Innerness]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 120 | [[John McAllion]] | | | data-sort-value="1948" | 1948-02-13 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 121 | [[Lyndsay McIntosh]] | | | data-sort-value="1955" | 1955 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 122 | [[Fiona McLeod]] | | [[File:FionaMcLeodMSP20110507.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1957" | 1957-12-03 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 123 | [[Ian Welsh]] | | | data-sort-value="1953" | 1953-11-23 | | [[Preswick]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 124 | [[Lloyd Quinan]] | | | data-sort-value="1957" | 1957 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 125 | [[Irene McGugan]] | | | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952 | | [[Angus]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 126 | [[Kay Ullrich]] | | [[File:Kay Ullrich.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1943" | 1943-05-05 | data-sort-value="2021" | 2021-01-04 | [[Preswick]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 127 | [[Keith Harding]] | | | data-sort-value="1938" | 1938-11-21 | data-sort-value="2021" | 2021-11-15 | [[Chipping Norton]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 128 | [[Nick Johnston]] | | | data-sort-value="1948" | 1948-01-05 | | [[Filey]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 129 | [[Sam Galbraith]] | | [[File:Sam Galbraith MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1945" | 1945-10-18 | data-sort-value="2014" | 2014-08-18 | [[Clitheroe]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 130 | [[Andrew Wilson]] | | | data-sort-value="1970" | 1970 | | [[Lanrik]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 131 | [[Nigel Don]] | | [[File:NigelDonMSP20110507.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954-04-16 | | [[London Borough of Sutton]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 132 | [[Ian McKee]] | | | data-sort-value="1940" | 1940-04-02 | | [[South Shields]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 133 | [[Liz Smith]] | | [[File:ElizabethSmithMSP20110508.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1960" | 1960-02-27 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 134 | [[Claire Baker]] | | [[File:ClaireBakerMSPPortrait.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1971" | 1971-03-04 | | [[Dunfaurlin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 135 | [[Iain Gray]] | | [[File:IainGrayMSP20110510.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1957" | 1957-06-07 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 136 | [[Gavin Brown]] | | [[File:Gavin Brown.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1975" | 1975-06-04 | | [[Kirkcaldy|Kircaudy]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 137 | [[George Foulkes, Baron Foulkes of Cumnock]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Lord Foulkes of Cumnock crop 2, 2019.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-01-21 | | [[Oswestry]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 138 | [[James Kelly]] | | [[File:JamesKellyMSPPortrait.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1963" | 1963-10-23 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 139 | [[Hugh O'Donnell]] | | | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-05-01 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 140 | [[Jim Hume]] | | [[File:JimHumeMSP20110510.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1962" | 1962-11-04 | | [[Peebles]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 141 | [[John Lamont]] | | [[File:Official portrait of John Lamont MP crop 2, 2024.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1976" | 1976-04-15 | | [[Kilwinnin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 142 | [[John Park]] | | [[File:John-Park-MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1973" | 1973-09-14 | | [[Dunfaurlin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 143 | [[John Wilson]] | | [[File:JohnWilsonMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1956" | 1956-11-28 | | [[Fawkirk]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 144 | [[Michael Russell]] | | [[File:Mike Russell SNP Conference.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1953" | 1953-08-09 | | [[Bromley]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 145 | [[Richard Simpson]] | | [[File:RichardSimpsonMSP20110511.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-10-22 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 146 | [[Stefan Tymkewycz]] | | | data-sort-value="1959" | 1959-09-18 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 147 | [[Alison McInnes]] | | [[File:AlisonMcInnesMSP20110511.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1957" | 1957-07-17 | | [[Irvin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 148 | [[Margaret Burgess]] | | [[File:Margaret Burgess.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1949" | 1949-12-07 | | [[Ayrshire]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 149 | [[James Dornan]] | | [[File:JamesDornanMSP20110507.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1953" | 1953-03-17 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 150 | [[Joan McAlpine]] | | [[File:JoanMcAlpineMSP20120529.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1962" | 1962-01-28 | | [[Gourock]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 151 | [[Angus MacDonald]] | | [[File:AngusMacDonaldMSP20110510.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1963" | 1963-10-11 | | [[Stornowa]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 152 | [[Anne McTaggart]] | | [[File:AnneMcTaggartMSPPortrait.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1970" | 1970-01-30 | | [[Coatbrig]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 153 | [[Bill Kidd]] | | [[File:BillKiddMSP20070509.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1956" | 1956-07-24 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 154 | [[Bill Walker]] | | [[File:BillWalkerMSP20110720.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-03-31 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 155 | [[Bob Doris]] | | [[File:BobDorisMSP20110507.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1973" | 1973-05-11 | | [[Vale of Leven]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 156 | [[Neil Findlay]] | | [[File:NeilFindlayMSPPortrait.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1969" | 1969-03-06 | | [[Brocksburn]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 157 | [[Roderick Campbell]] | | [[File:RoderickCampbellMSP20110511.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1953" | 1953-06-15 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 158 | [[Claudia Beamish]] | | [[File:ClaudiaBeamishMSPPortrait.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-08-09 | | [[Lunnon]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 159 | [[Colin Beattie]] | | [[File:Colin Beattie.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1951" | 1951-10-17 | | [[Farfar]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 160 | [[Graeme Dey]] | | [[File:GraemeDeyMSP20110507.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1962" | 1962-10-29 | | [[Aiberdeen]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 161 | [[Gordon MacDonald]] | | [[File:GordonMacDonaldMSP20120529.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1960" | 1960-01-02 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 162 | [[Neil Bibby]] | | [[File:Neil Bibby.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1983" | 1983-09-06 | | [[Paisley]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 163 | [[Jenny Marra]] | | [[File:Jenny Marra MSP.png|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1977" | 1977-11-06 | | [[Dundee]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 164 | [[Mark Griffin]] | | [[File:Mark-Griffin-MSP-closeup.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1985" | 1985-10-19 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 165 | [[Mary Fee]] | | [[File:MaryFeeMSP20110510.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1954" | 1954-03-23 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 166 | [[Colin Keir]] | | [[File:ColinKeirMSP20110507.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1959" | 1959-12-09 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 167 | [[Jayne Baxter]] | | [[File:JayneBaxterMSP20121211.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1955" | 1955-11-05 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 168 | [[Alex Rowley]] | | [[File:AlexRowleyMSP.png|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1963" | 1963-11-30 | | [[Dunfaurlin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 169 | [[Bashir Ahmad]] | | | data-sort-value="1940" | 1940-02-12 | data-sort-value="2009" | 2009-02-06 | [[Amritsar]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 170 | [[Bill Wilson]] | | | data-sort-value="1963" | 1963-12-11 | | [[Paisley]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 171 | [[Chic Brodie]] | | [[File:Chic Brodie.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1944" | 1944-05-08 | data-sort-value="2022" | 2022-09-24 | [[Dundee]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 172 | [[Dennis Robertson]] | | [[File:DennisRobertson20120627.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1956" | 1956-08-14 | | [[Aiberdeen]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 173 | [[Drew Smith]] | | [[File:DrewSmithMSP20110614.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1950" | 20th century | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 174 | [[Graeme Pearson]] | | [[File:GraemePearsonMSP20110508.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1950" | 1950-04-01 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 175 | [[Hanzala Malik]] | | [[File:HanzalaMalikMSP20110601.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1956" | 1956-11-26 | data-sort-value="2023" | 2023-12-14 | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 176 | [[Margaret McCulloch]] | | [[File:Margaret McCulloch.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-05-09 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 177 | [[Jean Urquhart]] | | [[File:JeanUrquhartMSP20110510.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1949" | 1949-05-17 | | [[Wast Lowden]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 178 | [[Jim Eadie]] | | [[File:JimEadieMSP20110509.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1968" | 1968-02-10 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 179 | [[John Pentland]] | | [[File:JohnPentlandMSP20110508.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1946" | 1946-12-24 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 180 | [[Siobhan McMahon]] | | [[File:SiobhanMcMahonMSPPortrait.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1984" | 1984-07-04 | | [[Bellshill]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 181 | [[Marco Biagi]] | | [[File:Marco Biagi.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1982" | 1982-07-31 | | [[The Vale]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 182 | [[Margaret McDougall]] | | [[File:MargaretMcDougallMSPPortrait.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1949" | 1949-01-23 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 183 | [[Mike MacKenzie]] | | [[File:MikeMacKenzieMSP20110509.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1958" | 1958-11-18 | | [[Oban]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 184 | [[Paul Wheelhouse]] | | [[File:PaulWheelhouseMSP20110507.JPG|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1970" | 1970-06-22 | | [[Bilfawst|Belfast]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 185 | [[Alison Johnstone]] | | [[File:Alison Johnstone 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1965" | 1965-10-11 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 186 | [[Cara Hilton]] | | [[File:Cara Hilton.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1975" | 1975 | | [[Grangemooth]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 187 | [[Cameron Buchanan]] | | [[File:CameronBuchananMSP20140129.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1946" | 1946-09 | data-sort-value="2023" | 2023-06-24 | [[Woking]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 188 | [[Lesley Brennan]] | | [[File:Lesley Brennan.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1972" | 1972 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 189 | [[Brian Whittle]] | | [[File:BrianWhittleMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1964" | 1964-04-26 | | [[Ayr]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 190 | [[Rachael Hamilton]] | | [[File:Rachel Hamilton MSP.png|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1970" | 1970-09 | | [[Herefordshire]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 191 | [[Oliver Mundell]] | | [[File:Oliver Mundell 2016.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1989" | 1989-12-01 | | [[Irvin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 192 | [[Finlay Carson]] | | [[File:FinlayCarsonMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1967" | 1967-10-18 | | [[Twynham, Dumfries an Gallowa|Twynham]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 193 | [[Gordon Lindhurst]] | | [[File:Gordon Lindhurst MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1967" | 1967-07-02 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 194 | [[Ross Greer]] | | [[File:Ross Greer, October 2022.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1994" | 1994-06-01 | | [[Easter Kirkpatrick|Bearsden]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 195 | [[Alexander Burnett]] | | [[File:Alexander Burnett.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1973" | 1973-07-30 | | [[Banchry]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 196 | [[Ross Thomson]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Ross Thomson crop 2.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1987" | 1987-09-21 | | [[Aiberdeen]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 197 | [[Colin Smyth]] | | [[File:Colin Smyth MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1972" | 1972 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 198 | [[Kate Forbes]] | | [[File:Deputy First Minister - designate and Cabinet Secretary for Economy and Gaelic - designate, Kate Forbes (53707856301) (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1990" | 1990-04-06 | | [[Dingwal]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 199 | [[Edward Mountain]] | | [[File:Official Portrait of Edward Mountain MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1961" | 1961-03-19 | | [[Moray]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 200 | [[Jamie Greene]] | | [[File:JamieGreeneMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1980" | 1980-03-19 | | [[Greenock]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 201 | [[Maurice Golden]] | | [[File:MauriceGoldenMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1980" | 1980-01-12 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 202 | [[Maurice Corry]] | | [[File:MauriceCorryMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1950" | 1950-06 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 203 | [[Monica Lennon]] | | [[File:MonicaLennonMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1981" | 1981-01 | | [[Bellshill]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 204 | [[Alison Harris]] | | [[File:AlisonHarrisMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1965" | 1965-07-23 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 205 | [[Graham Simpson]] | | [[File:Harry Cavanagh meeting Graham Simpson MSP, 2025 (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1972" | 1972-05 | | [[Aiberdeen]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 206 | [[Alex Cole-Hamilton]] | | [[File:AlexCole-HamiltonMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1977" | 1977-07-22 | | [[Hertfordshire]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 207 | [[Ash Regan]] | | [[File:Ash Denham MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1974" | 1974-03-08 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 208 | [[Ben Macpherson]] | | [[File:BenMacphersonMSP-May2016.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1985" | 1980s | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 209 | [[Ivan McKee]] | | [[File:Ivan McKee MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1963" | 1963-09 | | [[Milligs Mill]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 210 | [[Annie Wells]] | | [[File:AnnieWellsMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1972" | 1972-02-24 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 211 | [[Daniel Johnson]] | | [[File:David Johnson MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1977" | 1977-09-03 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 212 | [[Peter Chapman]] | | [[File:Peter Chapman.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1950" | 1950-05-13 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 213 | [[Miles Briggs]] | | [[File:Miles Briggs.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1983" | 1983-03-30 | | [[Preston]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 214 | [[Donald Cameron]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Lord Cameron of Lochiel crop 2, 2024.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1976" | 1976-11-26 | | [[St Mary's Hospital]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 215 | [[Liam Kerr]] | | [[File:Liam Kerr MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1975" | 1975-01-23 | | [[Chester]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 216 | [[Jeremy Balfour]] | | [[File:Jeremy Balfour MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1967" | 1967-03-11 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 217 | [[Bill Bowman]] | | | data-sort-value="1950" | 1950-05-30 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 218 | [[Michelle Ballantyne]] | | [[File:MichelleBallantyneMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1962" | 1962-11-28 | | [[Ashton-under-Lyne]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 219 | [[Jamie Halcro Johnston]] | | [[File:JamieHalcroJohnstonMSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1975" | 1975-10-08 | | [[Oxford]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 220 | [[Tom Mason]] | | [[File:Tom Mason MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1942" | 1942-12-31 | | [[Bishop's Stortford]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 221 | [[Beatrice Wishart]] | | [[File:Beatrice Wishart MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1955" | 1955 | | [[Lerook]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 222 | [[Jackie Dunbar]] | | [[File:Jackie Dunbar MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | | | [[Peterheid]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 223 | [[Marie McNair]] | | [[File:Marie McNair 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1975" | 1975<br/>1976 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 224 | [[Paul McLennan]] | | [[File:Minister for Housing Paul McLennan (52781732883) (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1966" | 1966 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 225 | [[Collette Stevenson]] | | [[File:Collette Stevenson 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1969" | 1969-03-15 | | [[East Kilbride]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 226 | [[Evelyn Tweed]] | | [[File:Official Portrait of Evelyn Tweed MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1967" | 1967 | | [[Ayr]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 227 | [[Natalie Don]] | | [[File:Natalie Don MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1989" | 1989-02-12 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 228 | [[Katy Clark]] | | [[File:Katy Clark MP.jpeg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1967" | 1967-07-03 | | [[Kilwinnin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 229 | [[Calum Kerr]] | | | data-sort-value="1972" | 1972-04-05 | | [[Gallae]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 230 | [[Heather Anderson]] | | [[File:Heather Anderson official portrait as an MEP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1959" | 1959-01-31 | | [[Dundee]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 231 | [[Gillian Mackay]] | | [[File:Gillian Mackay 2026 (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1991" | 1991 | | [[Fawkirk]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 232 | [[Ariane Burgess]] | | [[File:Ariane Burgess MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1965" | 1965-11-20 | | [[Edinburgh]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 233 | [[Meghan Gallacher]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Meghan Gallacher MSP (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1992" | 1992-01-17 | | [[Bellshill]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 234 | [[Craig Hoy]] | | [[File:Craig Hoy 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1975" | 1975 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 235 | [[Douglas Lumsden]] | | [[File:Douglas Lumsden 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1971" | 1971-08 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 236 | [[Carol Mochan]] | | [[File:Carol Mochan MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 237 | [[Màiri McAllan]] | | [[File:Official portrait of net zero secretary Màiri McAllan (cropped 1).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1993" | 1993-02-14 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 238 | [[Jim Fairlie]] | | [[File:Minister for Agriculture and Connectivity - Jim Fairlie.jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 239 | [[Emma Roddick]] | | [[File:Emma Roddick 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1997" | 1997-07-30 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 240 | [[Michael Marra]] | | [[File:Michael Marra 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1952" | 1952-02-17 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 241 | [[Malcolm Offord]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Lord Offord of Garvel crop 2, 2025.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1964" | 1964-09-05 | | [[Greenock]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 242 | [[Foysol Choudhury]] | | [[File:Foysol Choudhury MBE.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1969" | 1969-01-05 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 243 | [[Michelle Thomson]] | | [[File:Michelle Thomson 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1965" | 1965-03-11 | | [[Easter Kirkpatrick|Bearsden]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 244 | [[Martin Whitfield]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Martin Whitfield crop 2.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1965" | 1965 | | [[Newcastle upon Tyne]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 245 | [[Jenni Minto]] | | [[File:Jenni Minto 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1968" | 1968-11 | | [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 246 | [[Audrey Nicoll]] | | [[File:Audrey Nicoll MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1961" | 1961 | | [[Aiberdeen]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 247 | [[Stephanie Callaghan]] | | [[File:Stephanie Callaghan MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1971" | 1971 | | [[Hamiltoun]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 248 | [[Elena Whitham]] | | [[File:Official 2023 government portrait of Elena Whitham.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1974" | 1974 | | [[Kilmaurnock]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 249 | [[Kaukab Stewart]] | | [[File:Kaukab Stewart 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1967" | 1967<br/>1968 | | [[Pakistan]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 250 | [[Sandesh Gulhane]] | | | data-sort-value="1982" | 1982-01-22 | | [[Lunnon]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 251 | [[Mercedes Villalba]] | | [[File:Mercedes Villalba 2026 (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1989" | 1989 | | [[Bristol]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 252 | [[Sue Webber]] | | [[File:Sue Webber 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 253 | [[Paul O'Kane]] | | [[File:Paul O'Kane 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1988" | 1988-03-21 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 254 | [[Karen Adam]] | | [[File:Karen Adam MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1975" | 1975-06-07 | | [[Aiberdeen]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 255 | [[Sharon Dowey]] | | [[File:Sharon Dowey MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1969" | 1969<br/>1970 | | [[Girvan]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 256 | [[Davy Russell]] | | [[File:Davy Russell at the Scottish Parliament (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1960" | 1960s<br/>1962 | | [[Quarter]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 257 | [[Alex Kerr]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 258 | [[Laura Mitchell]] | | | data-sort-value="1982" | 1982-05 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 259 | [[Kate Nevens]] | | [[File:Kate Nevens, Official MSP Portrait.png|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1982" | 1982 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 260 | [[Roz McCall]] | | [[File:Roz Mccall In Dunfermline.jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 261 | [[Pam Duncan-Glancy]] | | [[File:Pam Duncan-Glancy MSP.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1981" | 1981-11-02 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 262 | [[Pam Gosal]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Pam Gosal MSP (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1972" | 1972 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 263 | [[Tess White]] | | [[File:Tess White 2021.jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1965" | 1965-02-18 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 264 | [[Thomas Kerr]] | | [[File:Thomas Kerr Official MSP portrait 2026 (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1996" | 1996 | | [[Glesga]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 265 | [[Mark Simpson]] | | | data-sort-value="1988" | 1988-11-30 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 266 | [[Laura Moodie]] | | | data-sort-value="1978" | 1978 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 267 | [[Colm Merrick]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 268 | [[Julie MacDougall]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 269 | [[Katherine Sangster]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 270 | [[Tim Eagle]] | | [[File:Tim eagle 24.jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 271 | [[David Kirkwood]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 272 | [[Holly Bruce]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 273 | [[Irshad Ahmed]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Irshad Ahmed MSP (cropped).png|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 274 | [[Michelle Campbell]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Michelle Campbell (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 275 | [[Adam Harley]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 276 | [[Simita Kumar]] | | | data-sort-value="1987" | 1987 | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 277 | [[Iris Duane]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Iris Duane MSP (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 278 | [[Duncan Dunlop]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 279 | [[Cara McKee]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 280 | [[Helen McDade]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 281 | [[David Smith]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 282 | [[Q Manivannan]] | | [[File:Q Manivannan (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | data-sort-value="1996" | 1996<br/>1997 | | [[Tamil Nadu]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 283 | [[Katie Hagmann]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 284 | [[Jack Middleton]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 285 | [[Zen Ghani]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 286 | [[Sanne Dijkstra-Downie]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Sanne Dijkstra-Downie (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 287 | [[Duncan Massey]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 288 | [[Yi-pei Chou Turvey]] | | | data-sort-value="1981" | 1981 | | [[Taiwan (kintra)|Taiwan]] |- | style='text-align:right'| 289 | [[Kayleigh Kinross-O'Neill]] | | [[File:Kayleigh Kinross-O'Neill, Official MSP Portrait.png|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 290 | [[Angela Ross]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Angela Ross MSP (cropped).png|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 291 | [[Amanda Bland]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Amanda Bland (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 292 | [[Hannah Mary Goodlad]] | | [[File:Hannah Mary Goodlad Scottish Parliament Portrait 2026.jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 293 | [[Jamie Langan]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 294 | [[Kim Schmulian]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 295 | [[Lloyd Melville]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 296 | [[Senga Beresford]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Senga Beresford (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 297 | [[Mandy Lindsay]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 298 | [[Max Bannerman]] | | [[File:Official portrait of Max Bannerman MSP (cropped).png|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 299 | [[Kristopher Leask]] | | [[File:Kristopher Leask, Official MSP Portrait.png|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 300 | [[Vic Currie]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 301 | [[Morven-May MacCallum]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 302 | [[Dawn Black]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 303 | [[Kate Campbell]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 304 | [[David Barratt]] | | [[File:Official portrait of David Barratt MSP 2026 (cropped).jpg|center|100px]] | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 305 | [[Gary Bouse]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 306 | [[Andrew Baxter]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 307 | [[Donald MacKinnon]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 308 | [[Joe Fagan]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 309 | [[David Green]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 310 | [[Joe Long]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 311 | [[Pauline Stafford]] | | | | | |- | style='text-align:right'| 312 | [[Jenny Young]] | | | | | |} {{Wikidata list end}} 5de4xi2ejnf77bzqft0deswe8w0txvd 0 228784 918713 915639 2026-06-24T23:17:02Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918713 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Flora Macdonald | image = Floramacdonald2.jpg | alt = Portrait o Flora Macdonald bi the airtist Allan Ramsay | caption = Flora Macdonald bi [[Allan Ramsay (artist)|Allan Ramsay]] c. 1749–1750; the roses is a Jacobite symbol. [[Ashmolean Museum]], Oxford. | birth_date = {{birth year|1722}} | birth_place = [[Milton (Outer Hebrides)|Milton]], [[South Uist]], [[Scotland]] | death_date = {{Death date and age|1790|3|5|1722|df=y}} | death_place = [[Kingsburgh, Skye|Kingsburgh]], [[Isle of Skye]] |nationality = Scots | known_for = aidin [[Charles Edward Stuart]] efter his defeat at the [[Battle o Culloden]] | signature = Appletons' McDonald Flora signature.png }} '''Flora MacDonald''' ([[Scots Gaelic|Gaelic]]: ''Fionnghal nic Dhòmhnaill''); (1722 – 5 March 1790) wis a memmer o [[Clan Macdonald o Sleat|the Macdonalds o Sleat]], that gied help tae Charles Edward Stuart tae evade govrenment sodgers efter the [[Battle o Culloden]] in Apryle 1746. Her faimily supportit the govrenment durin the [[Jacobite risin o 1745|1745 Rising]] an Flora later claimt tae hiv assistit Charles oot o sympathy fur his seituation. She wis arreistit an haudit in the Touer o Lunnon but let oot unner a general amnesty in Juin 1747. She later mairrit Allan MacDonald an the couple flittit tae [[North Carolina]] in 1773. Thair support fur the British govrenment durin the [[American Revolutionary War|American War o Independence]] cost thaim thair American estates an thay returnt tae Scotland, whaur Flora deet in 1790. == Early life == [[File:Sunset,_South_Uist_-_geograph.org.uk_-_603223.jpg|left|thumb|Sunset on [[Sooth Uist|South Uist]], where Flora was born in 1722]] Flora MacDonald wis born in 1722 at Milton on the isle o [[Sooth Uist]] in the [[The Waster Isles|Ooter Hebrides]], third an last bairn o Ranald MacDonald (d. 1723) an his seicont wife Marion. Her faither wis a memmer o the minor gentry, bein tacksman an leasehauder o Milton an Balivanich; she haed twa brithers, Angus, that later inheritit the Milton tack an Ronald, that deet as a bairn.{{Sfn|Douglas|2004}} Her faither deet suin efter her birth an in 1728, her mither remairrit Hugh MacDonald o Armadale, Skye. Flora wis brocht up bi her faither's cousin, Sir Alexander MacDonald o [[Clan Macdonald o Sleat|Sleat]]. Whiles some MacDonalds remaint Catholic, in pairticular in the Isles, her faimily wis part o the [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] majority.{{Sfn|Douglas|2004}} == The escape o Prince Charles Edward Stuart == [[File:Isle_of_Skye_UK_relief_location_map_labels.jpg|right|thumb|Isles o [[Skye]] an Raasay, [[Portree]] mid-left]] Flora wis visitin Benbecula in the Ooter Hebrides whan Prince Charles an a small group o aides teuk refuge there efter the [[Battle o Culloden]] in Juin 1746. Ane o his companions, Captain Conn O'Neill fae [[Coontie Antrim|County Antrim]], wis a distant relation tae Flora an speirt fur her help. [[Clan Macdonald o Sleat|MacDonald o Sleat]] hadnae jynt the [[Jacobite risin o 1745|Rebellion]] an Benbecula wis rin bi a pro-govrenment militia heidit bi Flora's step-faither, Hugh MacDonald. This connection alloued her tae obtain the needit permits but she wis apparent hesitant, feart o the consequences fur her faimily gif thay war caucht. She micht hiv been takin less o a risk nor it appears; witnesses later claimt Hugh advist the Prince whaur tae tak scouk fae his sairch pairties.{{Sfn|Riding|2016}} Passes wis gien oot allouin vaiyage tae the mainland fur Flora, a boat's crew o sax men an twa personal servants, includin Charles disguised as an Irish maid cried Betty Burke. On 27 Juin, thay laundit near Sir Alexander's hoose at Monkstadt, near Kilbride, Skye. In his absence, his wife Lady Margaret arranged lodgin wi her stewart, MacDonald o Kingsburgh, that telt Charles tae remuive his disguise, as it jist makit him mair conspicuous. The neist day, Charles wis taen fae [[Portree]] tae the isle o Raasay; Flora steyed on Skye an thay niver met again.{{Sfn|Riding|2016}} Twa week later, the boatmen wis detaint an confesst; Flora an Kingsburgh wis arreistit an taen tae the Touer o Lunnon. Efter Lady Margaret intervent on her behauf wi the chief Scots legal officer, Duncan Forbes o Culloden, she wis alloued tae bide ootwi the Touer unner the ee o a "King's Messenger" an releast efter the Juin 1747 [[Jacobite risin o 1745|Act of Indemnity]].{{Sfn|Riding|2016}} Aristocratic sympathisers gaithert ower £1,500 fur her, ane o the conteributors bein [[Frederick, Prince o Wales]], heir t the throne; Flora allegedly telt him she aidit Charles oot o chairity an wid hiv duin the selsame fur him.{{Sfn|MacLoed|1985}} On 6 November 1750, at the age o 28, she mairrit Allen MacDonald, a captain in the [[Breetish Airmy|British Airmy]] an Kingsburgh's auldest son.{{Sfn|MacInnes|2009}} The couple furst bidit at Flodigarry, Skye an inheritit the faimily estate efter Kingsburgh deet in 1772. The scriever an Jacobite sympathiser Samuel Johnson met her in 1773 durin his visit tae the isle, an later descrievit her as "a wumman o saft featurs, gentle manners, kind soul an elegant presence". He wis the author ofthe inscrievin on her memorial at Kilmuir: "a name that will be mentioned in history, and if courage and fidelity be virtues, mentioned with honour".{{Sfn|Bate|1955}} == Emigration tae North Carolina == Allan MacDonald serrt in the 114th an 62nd Regiments of Foot durin the 1756–1763 [[Seiven Years' War]] but wis a puir businessman. Efter haein an argiment wi his clan chief ower rent, he an Flora emigratit tae Anson County, North Carolina in 1774 whaur they sattlit on an estate near Mountain Creek, cried 'Killegray'.{{Sfn|Quyn|1963}} Whan the [[American Revolutionary War|American War o Independence]] stairtit in 1775, Allan raisit the Anson Battalion o the Loyalist North Carolina Militia, a tot o aroond 1,000 men, includin his sons Alexander an James. En route tae the coast fur collection b British transports, thay war atteckit bi an American force at the Battle o Moore's Creek Brig on 28 Februar 1776 an Allan wis taen prisoner.<ref>{{Cite web|last=McConnell|first=Brian|title=A Highlander & Loyalist – Alan MacDonald|url=http://www.uelac.org/Loyalist-Info/extras/MacDonald-Allan/Allan-MacDonald-by-Brian-McConnell.pdf|access-date=2 August 2018|website=UE.org|publisher=Mr McConnell's article provides third party references for the points included here}}</ref> In Apryle 1777, the North Carolina Provincial Congress confiscatit Loyalist-awnt property an Flora wis evickit fae Killegray, wi the loss o aw her possessions. Efter 18 month in captivity, Allan wis releast in September 1777; he wis postit tae Fort Edward, Nova Scotia as heistmast o the 84th Regiment of Foot whaur Flora jynt him in August 1778.{{Sfn|Quyn|1963}} == Return tae Skye == [[File:Flora_Macdonald's_Grave_and_Monument_-_geograph.org.uk_-_636148.jpg|right|thumb|Flora's grave in Kilmuir Cemetery, Skye]] Efter a harsh winter in [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]], in September 1779 Flora teuk vaiyag fur Lunnon in the ''Dunmore,'' a British privateer; durin the traivals, she brakit her airm an ill-heal delayed her return tae Scotland til spring 1780.{{Sfn|Quyn|1963}} She spent the neist twathree year bidin wi sindry faimily memmers, includin [[Dunvegan]], hame o her son-in-law Major General Alexander Macleod, the mucklemaist laundawner in Skye efter the MacDonalds.{{Sfn|MacGregor|2009}} The compensation received fur the loss o thair North Carolina estates wisna eneuch tae let thaim sattle in Nova Scotia an Allan returnt tae Scotland in 1784. As Kingsburgh wis noo hame tae Flora's hauf-sister an her husband, Flora an Allan sattlit on the near tack o Penduin.{{Sfn|Quyn|1963}} She deet in 1790 at the age o 68 an wis buirit in Kilmuir Cemetery, her husband deein in September 1792. Thay haed seeven livin bairns, twa dauchters an five sons; twa o thaim wur lost at sea in 1781 an 1782. A third son John makit his siller in Indie, giein his parents eneuch tae spend thair final years in some comfort.{{Sfn|Douglas|2004}} == Legacy == [[File:Statue of Flora Macdonald, Inverness.jpg|left|thumb|200x200px|1896 statue, Inverness Castle]] Tradeitional portrayals o the escape focus on Charles, wi Flora playin a seicontar row. She anerly spake rare o the episode an her last contact wi Charles wis whan thay pairtit weys at Portree; it seems at least ane motive wis that his presence pit her faimily in danger.{{Sfn|Riding|2016}} The Victorians makit a Scots cultural identity shawn throu tairtans, the late 19th-yeirhunner inventions o [[Burns supper|Burns Suppers]] an [[Hieland gemmes|Heiland Gemms]], an the co-option o romantic icons siclik [[Mary, Queen o Scots|Mary, Queen of Scots]] an Bonnie Prince Charlie.{{Sfn|Morris|1992}} In 1878, Flora teuk her place in this pantheon wi the furthsettin o an alleged 'Autobiography'; ghaist-scrievit b her granddauchter Flora Frances Wylde; it wis sae fu o mony errors that it cidnae hae been wrate bi Flora hersel.{{Sfn|Douglas|2004}} Repeatit bi Charles Ewald in his 1886 buik ''The Life and Times of Prince Charles Edward'', it remains the basis fur mony weel kent leuks on her life an motivations.{{Sfn|Douglas|2004}} In 1884, Sir Harold Boulton wrate an adaptation o an existin melody that he cried 'The Skye Boat Song'. This wis suin follaed b the first performance o the Scots Heilan Dance "Flora MacDonald's Fancy", whiles a bronze statue wis pit up at Inverness Castle in 1896.<ref>{{Canmore|num=13434|desc=Inverness, Castle Wynd, Statue Of Flora Macdonald|access-date=26 January 2015}}</ref> The Flora MacDonald Academy, aat uised tae be Flora Macdonald College, in Red Springs, North Carolina is cried efter her an twa o her bairns ar buirit on the campus; til 2009, it wis the steid o the Flora Macdonald Heiland Gemms an aw. Flora wis pentit mony times bi Scots portrait artist Allan Ramsay (1713–1784), the majority o that wis wrackit. The ane uised in this airticle wis duin efter her release fae the Touer in 1749–1750; in 2015, a foregaun unrecordit pentin, alleged bi Ramsay as weel, wis fand in Florida.<ref>{{Cite news|date=31 March 2015|title='Flora MacDonald portrait' found in Florida|agency=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-32129099|access-date=22 July 2018}}</ref> Fictional portrayals include; * Inglis Fletcher, ''The Scotswoman'' (1954); a novel based on Flora MacDonald's life in North Carolina durin the American War o Independence; * ''Highlander: The Series''; in the 3rd-season episode, "Take Back the Night", Ceirdwyn, an Immortal, is bidin unner the name "Flora MacDonald" whan Charles an his pairty stap on thair wey tae the coast, seekin ae boat tae France; * ''A Breath of Snow and Ashes''; the 6t buik o Diana Gabaldon's ''The Outlander'' series, the episode featurs an accoont o Flora MacDonald's arrival in the American colonies. In the 1948 film ''Bonnie Prince Charlie'', Flora is played bi Margaret Leighton, wi David Niven as Charles. == References == {{Reflist}} == Soorces == * {{Cite book|last=Bate|first=W Jackson|title=The Achievement of Samuel Johnson|date=1955|publisher=OUP|isbn=978-0195004762}} * Douglas, Hugh; ''Flora MacDonald: The Most Loyal Rebel;'' (Sutton Publishing, 1999); * {{Cite ODNB|last1=Douglas|first1=Hugh|title=Flora MacDonald}} * {{Cite web|last=McConnell|first=Brian|title=A Highlander & Loyalist – Alan MacDonald|url=http://www.uelac.org/Loyalist-Info/extras/MacDonald-Allan/Allan-MacDonald-by-Brian-McConnell.pdf|website=UE.org}} * {{Cite book|last=MacInnes|first=John|title=The Brave Sons of Skye; Containing the Military Records (compiled From Authentic Sources) of the Leading Officers, Non-Commissioned Officers, and private soldiers whom "Eilean a' Cheo" has produced|date=December 2009}} * {{Cite book|last=MacLeod|first=Ruairidh|title=Flora MacDonald: The Jacobite Heroine in Scotland and North America|url=https://archive.org/details/floramacdonaldja0000macl|date=1985|publisher=Shepheard-Walwyn|isbn=978-0856831478}} * {{Cite book|last=MacGregor|first=Alexander|title=The life of Flora Macdonald, and her adventures with Prince Charles|date=December 2009|publisher=[[Nabu Press]]|edition=[[Print On Demand]]}} * {{Cite book|last=Meyer|first=Duane|url=https://archive.org/details/highlandscotsofn1963meye|title=The Highland Scots of North Carolina|date=1963|publisher=Raleigh, N.C.: Carolina Charter Tercentenary Commission}} * {{Cite journal|last=Morris|first=RJ|date=1992|title=Victorian Values in Scotland & England|journal=Proceedings of the British Academy|issue=78}} * {{Cite journal|last=Quyn|first=Dorothy Mackay|date=July 1941|title=Flora MacDonald in History|journal=The North Carolina Historical Review|volume=18|issue=3}} * {{Cite book|last=Riding|first=Jacqueline|title=Jacobites; A New History of the 45 Rebellion|url=https://archive.org/details/jacobitesnewhist0000ridi|date=2016|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=978-1408819128}} == Fremmit airtins == * {{Cite web|last=McConnell|first=Brian|title=A Highlander & Loyalist – Alan MacDonald|url=http://www.uelac.org/Loyalist-Info/extras/MacDonald-Allan/Allan-MacDonald-by-Brian-McConnell.pdf|access-date=2 August 2018|website=UE.org|publisher=Mr McConnell's article provides third party references for the points included here}} * {{Cite news|date=31 March 2015|title='Flora MacDonald portrait' found in Florida|agency=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-32129099|access-date=22 July 2018}} * {{Canmore|access-date=26 January 2015}} * {{Cite news|date=31 March 2015|title='Flora MacDonald portrait' found in Florida|agency=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-32129099|access-date=22 July 2018}} [[Category:18t-century Scots fowk]] [[Category:Scots Presbyterians]] [[Category:Prisoners in the Touer o Lunnon]] [[Category:Scots Jacobites]] [[Category:1790 daiths]] [[Category:1722 births]] cvqn1wh3cshdyukoy9hrwd8qc24az64 0 231731 918745 911152 2026-06-24T23:39:06Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Bluelink 1 book for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260624)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 918745 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:20200112_"Climate_crisis"_vs_"Climate_emergency"_-_Google_search_term_usage.png|right|thumb| Google trends data shaws at, fallaein the 2006 release o Al Gore's film, ''An Inconvenient Truth,'' sairches fur the tairm ''climate crisis'' fillt up, wi a resurgence beginnin in late 2018. Forby graphed: sairches fur the tairm ''climate sair fit''.]] '''''Climate crisis''''' is a tairm describin global warmin an climate chynge, an thair eftercasts. This tairm an the term '''''climate sair fit''''' hes been uised fur tae describe the threit o global warmin tae Jock Tamson's bairns an the planet Yird we need fur tae survive, an fur tae threap at strang climate chynge mitigaution an "transformautional" adaptaution. I the scientific journal ''BioScience'', a Januar 2020 airticle, soudert by ower 11,000 scientist athort the warld, statit at "the climate crisis hes arrived" an at a "wandeimous eik o scale in endaivours fur tae hain wir biosphere is needit fur tae evit wantelt dool due tae the climate crisis." == Mair readin == * {{Cite book|last=Bell|first=Alice R.|title=Our biggest experiment : an epic history of the climate crisis|url=https://archive.org/details/ourbiggestexperi0000bell|date=2021|isbn=978-1-64009-433-8|publication-place=Berkeley, California|oclc=1236092035}} * {{Cite journal|last=Feldman|first=Lauren|last2=Hart|first2=P. Sol|date=November 16, 2021|title=Upping the ante? The effects of "emergency" and "crisis" framing in climate change news|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10584-021-03219-5|journal=Climatic Change|volume=169|issue=10|page=10|bibcode=2021ClCh..169...10F|doi=10.1007/s10584-021-03219-5}} == External links == * [https://coveringclimatenow.org/about/ Covering Climate Now (CCNow)], a collaboration amang news organisautions "fur tae creaut mair informed an clamant climate stories" ([https://web.archive.org/web/20210412180057/https://coveringclimatenow.org/about/ archive]) [[Category:Climate chynge]] [[Category:Webarchive template wayback airtins]] [[Category:CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unkent]] [[Category:2010s]] [[Category:Neologisms]] [[Category:Communication]] 1tsbvg5r89fzng6887k3ipoatxh02d1 0 232222 918770 903109 2026-06-25T04:00:41Z InternetArchiveBot 79721 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 918770 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox vcard" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;" |<div class="fn" style="display:inline;">Breyten Breytenbach</div> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Breyten_Breytenbach,_1995_-_17.jpg|frameless|Breytenbach in 1995]]<div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:1.4em;">Breytenbach in 1995</div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;" |Born | class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;" |<span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1939-09-16</span>)</span>16 September 1939<br /><br />[[Bonnievale, Western Cape|Bonnievale]], [[Cape Province]], [[Union of South Africa|South Africa]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;" |Died | class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;" |24 November 2024<span style="display:none">(2024-11-24)</span> (aged&nbsp;85)<br /><br />[[Paris]], France |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;" |Occupation | class="infobox-data role" style="line-height:1.4em;" |Novelist, essayist, poet, painter |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;" |Language | class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;" |[[Afrikaans]], English |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;" |Citizenship | class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;" | * South Africa * France (since 1982) </div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;" |Alma&nbsp;mater | class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;" |University of Cape Town |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;" |Notable awards | class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;" | * Zbigniew Herbert International Literary Award * Anisfield-Wolf Book Award * Allen Paton Award for Literature * Mahmoud Darwish Award for Creativity </div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;" |Spouse | class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;" |Yolande |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;" |Relatives | class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;" |Jan Breytenbach (brother)<br /><br />Cloete Breytenbach (brother) |} '''Breyten Breytenbach''' ((6 September 1939 – 24 November 2024) wis a Sooth African-Frainsh screiver, poyet, an penter. He becam internaitional kenspeckle as a dissident poyet an vocal creetic o Sooth Africae unner apartheid, an as a political prisoner o the National Party-wiced South African Government. He is forby kent as a foonin memmer o the Sestigers, a dissident literar muivement, an wis ane o the heid poyets in Afrikaans literature. == Honours and awards == === French honours === * [[Légion d'honneur|Chevalier de la Legion d'Honneur]]<ref name="fr24a">{{Cite web|date=24 November 2024|title=Breyten Breytenbach, writer who challenged apartheid, dies at 85|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20241124-breyten-breytenbach-writer-who-challenged-apartheid-dies-at-85|access-date=25 November 2024|website=France 24}}</ref><ref name="agathe">{{Cite web|date=25 November 2024|title=Breyten Breytenbach, a writer who challenged apartheid, dies at the age of 85|url=https://agathequelquejay.fr/2024/vir/bxsonair/Am74323KIN250105GAN|access-date=25 November 2024|website=Agathequelquejay|archive-date=2024-11-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241127180809/https://agathequelquejay.fr/2024/vir/bxsonair/Am74323KIN250105GAN|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="rfi">{{Cite web|date=24 November 2024|title=Le peintre et poète sud-africain Breyten Breytenbach est mort|url=https://www.rfi.fr/fr/culture/20241124-le-peintre-et-po%C3%A8te-sud-africain-breyten-breytenbach-est-mort|access-date=25 November 2024|website=RFI|language=fr}}</ref> * Commandeur des Arts et Lettres (France's top cultural award)<ref name="fr24a" /><ref name="agathe" /><ref name="rfi" /> === Literary awards === * CNA Award (5 times),<ref name="nyu">{{Cite web|title=Breyten Breytenbach|url=https://as.nyu.edu/faculty/breyten-breytenbach.html|access-date=25 November 2024|website=NYU: Arts & Science}}</ref> for ''Die huis van die dowe'' (1968), ''Kouevuur'' (1969), ''Lotus'' (1970), ''YK'' (1983), and ''Memory of snow and dust'' (1989)<ref name="helgaard" /> * 1965: APB Prize<ref name="nyu" /><ref name="breuer2014">{{Cite web|last=Breuer|first=Rosemarie|date=2014|title=Breyten Breytenbach|url=http://www.stellenboschwriters.com/breyten.html|access-date=25 November 2024|website=Stellenbosch Writers}}</ref> for ''Die ysterkoei moet sweet'' and '' Katastrofes''<ref name="helgaard" /> * 1968: Reina Prinsen Geerligs Award<ref name="nyu" /> for Sooth Africae, for ''Die huis van die dowe''<ref name="helgaard" /> * 1972: {{Interleid airtin|Lucy B. and C.W. van der Hoogt Prize|nl|Lucy B. en C.W. van der Hoogtprijs}}, for Lotus<ref name="helgaard" /> * 1984, 1999, 2008, & 2010: Hertzog Prize<ref name="nyu" /><ref name="breuer2014" /><ref name="helgaard" /> He refuised tae accept the 1984 prize (for ''Yk'').<ref name="helgaard" /> * 1982: Van der Hoogt Prize<ref name="yahoo">{{Cite news|last=AFP|date=24 November 2024|title=S.Africa's Breyten Breytenbach, writer and anti-apartheid activist|publisher=Yahoo News|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/africas-breyten-breytenbach-writer-anti-181151924.html|access-date=24 November 2024|archive-date=2024-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241125055436/https://www.yahoo.com/news/africas-breyten-breytenbach-writer-anti-181151924.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="nyu" /><ref name="fr24b">{{Cite web|date=24 November 2024|title=S.Africa's Breyten Breytenbach, writer and anti-apartheid activist|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20241124-s-africa-s-breyten-breytenbach-writer-and-anti-apartheid-activist|access-date=25 November 2024|website=France 24}}</ref> for ''Skryt''<ref name="breuer2014" /> * 1985: Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for Fiction, for ''Mouroir: Mirrornotes of a Novel''<ref>{{Cite web|date=1985|title=1985: Fiction: Mouroir|url=https://www.anisfield-wolf.org/winners/mouroir-mirrornotes-of-a-novel/}}</ref> * 1986: ''Rapport'' Literature Prize, worth R 15,000 (a major prize)<ref name="SAHO">{{Cite web|title=Breyten Breytenbach|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/people/breyten-breytenbach|access-date=30 July 2014|publisher=South African History Online|quote=Produced 17 February 2011; Last Updated 20 September 2024}}</ref><ref name="nyu" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Breytenbach|first=B.|url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=e49XnQEACAAJ|title=Parole:|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2015|isbn=978-1-77022-917-4|page=|access-date=25 November 2024}}</ref> * 1994: Alan Paton Award, for ''Return to Paradise'' <ref>{{Cite news|date=4 June 2007|title=Previous winners of the Alan Paton Award and the Sunday Times Fiction Prize|work=The Times|url=http://www.thetimes.co.za/SpecialReports/BookAwards/Article.aspx?id=482608|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226215141/http://www.thetimes.co.za/SpecialReports/BookAwards/Article.aspx?id=482608|archive-date=2009-02-26}}</ref> * 2007: University of Johannesburg Prize for Creative Writing, for "Die windvanger"<ref name="helgaard" /> * 2007: W.A. Hofmeyr Prize, for "Die windvanger"<ref name="helgaard" /> * 2007: Hertzog Prize, for "Die windvanger"<ref name="helgaard" /> * 2010: Mahmoud Darwish Award for Creativity,<ref name="yahoo" /> for ''Outre Voix/Voice Over'', the French translation of ''Oorblyfsel/Voice Over: 'n roudig''<ref name="helgaard">{{Cite web|date=18 October 2020|title=Breyten Breytenbach|url=https://www.helgaardsteynpryse.co.za/eng/breyten-breytenbach/|access-date=25 November 2024|website=Helgaard Steyn-Pryse|archive-date=2024-12-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241209115943/https://www.helgaardsteynpryse.co.za/eng/breyten-breytenbach/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * 2010: {{Interleid airtin|Max Jacob Prize|fr|Prix Max-Jacob}}, for ''Outre Voix/Voice Over''<ref name="breuer2014" /> * 2017: Zbigniew Herbert International Literary Award<ref>{{Cite web|title=Laureate of the Zbigniew Herbert Literary Award 2017|url=http://www.fundacjaherberta.com/en/laureate-of-the-international-zbigniew-herbert-literary-award-2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201032736/http://www.fundacjaherberta.com/en/laureate-of-the-international-zbigniew-herbert-literary-award-2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=13 November 2018}}</ref><ref name="yahoo" /> * Jan Campert Prize,<ref name="nyu" /> special prize<ref name="breuer2014" /> * Jacobus van Looy Prize (for literature and art)<ref name="nyu" /> * Perskor Prize, for ''Voetskrif''<ref name="breuer2014" /><ref name="helgaard" /> * International Publishers Prize, special prize<ref name="breuer2014" /> == References == {{Reflist|30em}} [[Category:Writers frae Paris]] [[Category:1939 births]] [[Category:Sooth Africae]] [[Category:Poets]] [[Category:2024 daiths]] [[Category:Cape Toun]] [[Category:Penters]] dwdoulecu8a1oe3jy4d8wh9p17l5lt9 2 233624 918700 918522 2026-06-24T12:31:59Z PurpleDinosaur585 129975 918700 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | native_name = {{native name|pl|Śląsk}}<br />{{native name|szl|Ślōnsk}}<br />{{native name|cs|Slezsko}}<br />{{native name|de|Schlesien}}<br />{{native name|sli|Schläsing}} | settlement_type = [[Historical Region]] | image_shield = [[File:Generic Silesia CoA.svg|150px]] | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Ślůnsk 1335-1675.png|frameless]]|Show Silesia 1335-1675|[[File:Ślůnsk apx 1815 -1945.png|frameless]]|Show Silesia 1815-1939|default=1}} | mapsize = 250px | map_caption = Ducheries & Province of Silesia on kairt of Mid Europe | coordinates = {{coord|51.6|N|17.2|E|region:PL|display=inline,title}} | subdivision_type = Kintra | subdivision_name = {{plainlist| *[[Poland]] *[[Czech Republic]] *[[Germany]]}} | seat_type = Mucklest ceity | seat = [[Wrocław]] | area_total_km2 = 40400 | population_total = c. 8000000 | population_density_km2 = 200 | population_demonym = [[Silesians|Silesian]] | timezone1 = [[Central European Time|CET]] | utc_offset = +1 | timezone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] | utc_offset_DST = +2 }} '''Silesia'''{{Efn|{{IPAc-en|s|aɪ|ˈ|l|iː|ʒ|ə|,_|s|aɪ|ˈ|l|iː|ʃ|i|ə}} {{respell|sy|LEE|zhə|,_|sy|LEE|shee|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|UKalso|s|aɪ|ˈ|l|iː|z|i|ə}} {{respell|sy|LEE|zee|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|USalso|s|aɪ|ˈ|l|iː|ʒ|i|ə|,_|s|aɪ|ˈ|l|iː|ʃ|ə|,_|s|ɪ|ˈ|l|iː|-}} {{respell|sy|LEE|zhee|ə|,_|sy|LEE|shə|,_|sil|EE|-}}.<ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|Silesia|access-date=23 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/silesia|title=Silesia|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=23 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Silesia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723000000/http://www.lexico.com/definition/Silesia |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-07-23 |title=Silesia |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Silesia|access-date=23 July 2019}}</ref>}} (tak a scance till the names ablow) is a historical pairt of Mid Europe that nou liggs maistly intil [[Poland]], wi smaa pairts in the Czech Republic an [[Germany]]. Its area is about {{Convert|40000|km2|-2}}, an the populace is upcuissen at 8,000,000. Silesia is riven intae twa maist subregions, Nether Silesia wastle an Iver Silesia eastle. Situate alang the [[Oder]] River, wi the [[Sudetes|Sudeten Bens]] raxin athort the southren mairch, Silesia is a heichly industrialised region rife of mineral an naitural resources. The mucklest toun an Nether Silesia's capital is [[Wrocław]]; the historic capital of Iver Silesia is [[Opole]]. The mucklest metropolitan airt is the Katowice metropolitan airt, the hert of whilk is Katowice. Pairts of the Czech toun of Ostrava an the German toun of Görlitz are situate intil Silesia's historic mairches. Silesia’s culture reflecks its wimpled history an diverse influences, takin in Polish, Czech, an German swatches. The region is kent for its unique Silesian langidge (spoken yet bi a smaa feck of fowk bidin in Iver Silesia), brawlie decored hamelt graith, hairty regional cuisine, an a mixter-maxter of [[Gothic airchitectur|Gothic]], Baroque, an industrial-era architectur seen in its ceities an touns. The region conteens mony historical meiths an [[Warld Heritage Steid|UNESCO Warld Heritage Steids]]. Silesia's mairches an national affiliation haes chyngit throu time, baith whan it wis a heirship aucht of [[Feudalism|noble housses]] an efter the rise of our ain day [[Naition state|nation-states]], resultin in a rowth of castles an stranghauds, mairbetoken in the Jelenia Góra vailley. First heild bi Great Moravia in the back end of the 9t century an Bohemia in the early 10t century, Silesia wis taen intae the ear Polish state, an efter its feudal dividin in the 12t century it creatit the Duchery of Silesia. As a result of farrer division, it wis daled intae individual ducheries, ruled bi diverse lines of the Polish Piast dynasty. In the 14t century, it haed become ane of the territories belanging the Bohemian Croun Launds unner the [[Halie Romane Rik|Halie Roman Empire]], the whilk wis gien the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in 1526; housomever, a wheen of ducheries bedd unner the maistry of Polish dukes (Piast, [[Jagiellonian dynasty|Jagiellon]], Sobieski) as feu'd Bohemian [[Feudalism|feus]]. As a result of the Silesian Weirs, the region wis annexed wi [[Kinrick o Proushie|Prussia]] frae Austria in 1742 an syne became pairt of the [[German Empire]] in 1871. Efter [[Warld War I|Warld Weir I]], whan the Poles an Czechs haed wun back their independence, the eastmaist pairt of Iver Silesia became pairt of Poland bi the decision of the Entente Pouers efter upsets bi Poles an the Iver Silesian plebiscite, while the lave of the umwhile Austrian pairts of Silesia wir daled atween [[Czechoslovakie|Czechoslovakia]] an Poland. Durin [[Warld War II|Warld Weir II]], as a result of German occupation the haill region wis unner the maistry of [[Nazi Germany]]. In 1945, efter Warld Weir II, maist of the German-heild Silesia wis transferred tae Polish jurisdiction wi the Potsdam Greement atween the victorious Allies and became pairt of Poland. The smaa Lusatian skelp bewast the Oder–Neisse line, the whilk haed belanged Silesia sin 1815, became pairt of [[East Germany]]. Ower the heids of the forced popular shifts in 1945–48, the day's indwallers of Silesia speaks the national leids of their respective kintras. Umwhile German-speakin Nether Silesia haes developed a new mell'd Polish dialeck an new-farrant graith. There is ongaun debate anent whither the Silesian leid, commonly spoken in Iver Silesia, shid be consithert a dialeck of [[Pols leid|Polish]] or a sindry langidge. The Nether Silesian German dialeck is aweers of deein out ower the heids of its speakers' gettin herriet out. == Etymology == The names of Silesia in different leids maist likely skairs their etymology—the Polish: Śląsk {{IPA|pl|ɕlɔ̃sk||Pl-Śląsk.ogg}}; the German: Schlesien {{IPA|de|ˈʃleːzi̯ən||De-Schlesien.ogg}}; the Czech: Slezsko {{IPA|cs|ˈslɛsko|}}; the Nether Silesian: Schläsing; the Silesian: Ślōnsk {{IPA|szl|ɕlonsk|}}; the Nether Sorbian: Šlazyńska {{IPA|dsb|ˈʃlazɨnʲska|}}; the Iver Sorbian: Šleska {{IPA|hsb|ˈʃlɛska|}}; the Slovak: Sliezsko; [[Laitin|the Laitin]], the Spainish an the English: ''Silesia''; the French: Silésie; the Dutch: Silezië; the Italian: Slesia. The names aa effeir tae the name of a river (nou kent as Ślęza) an ben (Ben Ślęża) in mid-southren Silesia, the whilk sair'd as a releigious steid for pagans afore Christianization. ''Ślęża'' is listed as ane of the num'rous Pre-Indo-European topographic names in the region (tak a scance till [[:en:Old_European_hydronymy|auld European hydronymy]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zbigniew|first=Babik|date=2001|title=Najstarsza warstwa nazewnicza na ziemiach polskich w granicach średniowiecznej Słowiańszczyzny|journal=Uniwersitas, Kraków}}</ref> Frae the wittins of a puckle Polonists, the name ''Ślęża'' {{IPA|pl|ˈɕlɛ̃ʐa|}} or ''Ślęż'' {{IPA|pl|ɕlɛ̃ʂ|}} is sib tae the Auld Polish wirds ''ślęg'' {{IPA|pl|ɕlɛŋk|}} or ''śląg'' {{IPA|pl|ɕlɔŋk|}}, meanin dunkieness, moister, or humidity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fischer|first=Rudolf|date=2007|title=Onomastica slavogermanica|journal=Uniwersytet Wrocławski|volume=|pages=}}</ref> They differ wi the hypothesis that the name ''Śląsk'' haes its ruits in the name of the Silings tribe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jankuhn|first=Herbert|last2=Beck|first2=Heinrich|date=2006|others=et. al.|title=Wandalen|journal=Germanische Altertumskunde Online|language=the German|edition=2t|volume=33|quote="Da die Silingen offensichtlich ihren Namen im mittelalterlichen pagus silensis und dem mons slenz – möglicherweise mit dem Zobten gleichzusetzen [...] – hinterließen und damit einer ganzen Landschaft – Schlesien – den Namen gaben [...]"}}</ref> In Polish day-tae-day speech, "Śląsk" refers tae traditionally Polish Iver Silesia an the day's Silesian Voivodeship, but less tae Nether Silesia, whilk is unalike frae Iver Silesia in mony pairts sin the feck of its popular spoke German frae roun about the mid-19t century up ontill 1945–48.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Andreas Lawaty, Hubert Orłowski|title=Deutsche und Polen: Geschichte, Kultur, Politik|publisher=C.H.Beck|year=2003|page=183|language=the German}}</ref> == History == [[File:Polska_960_-_992.svg|left|thumb|200x200px|Kairt of Poland wi Silesia (''Śląsk'') in the year 992 durin the maistry of Mieszko I]] In the fowert century BC frae the south, throu the Kłodzko Vailley, the Celts made ingangins intil Silesia, an made hame around Ben Ślęża nearhaund our ain day [[Wrocław]], Oława an Strzelin. Germanic Lugii tribes wir first recordit athin Silesia in the 1t century BC. [[Wast Slavs]] an Lechites wan till the pairt roun about the 7t century,<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.)|title=Historia Śląska|year=2007|location=Wrocław|pages=37-38}}</ref> an bi the ear ninth century, their colonies haed become stabilised. Local Wast Slavs stertit upsettin boundary structures like the Silesian Przesieka an the Silesia Waws. The easten mairch of Silesian sattlement wis situate bewast the Bytom, an be-east [[Racibórz]] an Cieszyn. Be-east this line wonned a sib Lechitic tribe kent as the Vistulans. Their northern mairch wis in the vailley of the Barycz River, an abuin this bedd the Wastren Polans tribe that gied Poland its name.<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.)|title=Historia Śląska|year=2007|location=Wrocław|pages=21-22}}</ref> The first kent states in Silesia wis Greater Moravia an Bohemia. In the 10t century, the Polish ruler Mieszko I of the Piast dynasty haed taen Silesia intae the newly foundit Polish state. In 1000, the Diocie of Wrocław wis foundit as the auldest [[Catholic Kirk|Catholic]] diocie in the region, an ane of the auldest diocies in Poland, thirled tae the Roman Catholic Airchdiocie of Gniezno. Poland repelled German invasions of Silesia in 1017 at Niemcza an in 1109 at Głogów. Durin the Feudal Dividin of Poland, Silesia and the lave of the kintra wis pairtit intae mony smawer ducheries ruled bi sindry Silesian dukes. In 1178, pairts of the Duchery of Kraków roun about Bytom, Oświęcim, [[Chrzanów]], an Siewierz wir transferred tae the Silesian Piasts, even tho their popular wis feckly Vistulan an nae of Silesian stock.<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.)|title=Historia Śląska|year=2007|location=Wrocław|pages=21-22}}</ref> [[File:Silesia_1172-1177.jpg|thumb|226x226px|Silesia in the fore-end of Poland's feudal division, 1172–1177, Nether Silesia wi Lubusz Laund in orange, Iver Silesia in green an yella]] Walloons came tae Silesia as ane of the foremaist fremmit incomer wheens in [[Poland]], maist likely makin hame in Wrocław syne the 12th century, wi farrer Walloon incomers invited bi Duke Henry the Bairdit in the ear 13t century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zientara|first=Benedykt|title=Walonowie na Śląsku w XII i XIII wieku|publisher=Przegląd Historyczny|year=1975|volume=66/3|pages=353, 357|language=the Polish}}</ref> Sin the 13t century, German cultural an ethnic influence gaed up as a result of incomers frae German-speakin states of the [[Halie Romane Rik|Holy Roman Empire]]. The foremaist designin of municipal privileges in Poland haed taen place in the toun of [[Złotoryja]] bi Henry the Bairdit. Medieval municipal richts modelled efter Lwówek Śląski an Środa Śląska, baith foundit bi Henry the Bairdit, haed become the founds of the municipal form of government for a curnie ceities an touns in Poland, an twa of five local Polish forms of medieval toun richts. The Beuk of Henryków, the whilk conteens the earest kent sentence written in the Polish leid, as weel as a writ conteenin the auldest prented text in the Polish, wis creatit in Henryków an Wrocław in Silesia, respectively. In 1241, the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] cairried out their first invasion of Poland, creatin rife pilget an mass flicht. They reived the feck of the region an defaitit the jyned Polish, Moravian an German forces heidit bi Duke Henry II the Pious at the Stour of Legnica, whilk haed taen place at Legnickie Pole nearhaund [[Legnica]]. Straicht efter the daith of Orda Khan, the Mongols decidit nae to bensel farrer intae Europe, but gaed back east tae tak pairt in the election of a new Grand Khan (heid yin). Atween 1289 an 1292, Bohemian king Wenceslaus II became ''suzerain'' of a puckle of the Iver Silesian ducheries. Polish monarchs haedna gien ower their heirship richts tae Silesia ontill 1335.<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.)|title=Historia Śląska|year=2007|location=Wrocław|pages=81}}</ref> The province became pairt of the Bohemian Croun whilk wis pairt of the Hailie Roman Empire; houaniver, a wheen of ducheries bedd unner the maistry of the Polish dukes frae the housses of Piast, [[Jagiellonian dynasty|Jagiellon]] and Sobieski as feu'd Bohemian feus (a puckle ontill the 17t–18t centuries). Atween 1469 an 1490, the pairt was unner the maistry of Matthias Corvinus, wha mountit the Bohemian throne. In 1526 Silesia wis haundit ower wi the Bohemian Crown tae the Habsburg monarchy. In the 15t century, a curnie chynges wir made tae Silesia's mairches. Pairts of the territories that haed gotten transferred tae the Silesian Piasts in 1178 wir coff't wi the Polish kings in the saicont hauf of the 15t century (the Duchery of Oświęcim in 1457; the Duchery of Zator in 1494). The Bytom airt bedd in the aucht of the Silesian Piasts, tho it wis a pairt of the Diocie of Kraków.<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.)|title=Historia Śląska|year=2007|location=Wrocław|pages=21-22}}</ref> The Duchery of Krosno Odrzańskie ({{Lang|de|Crossen}}) wis heired bi the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1476 and wi the renunciation of King [[Ferdinand I, Haly Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] and the estates of Bohemia in 1538, it became pairt an pertinent of Brandenburg. Atween 1645 an 1666, the Duchery of Opole an Racibórz was hauden in wad wi the Polish Houss of Vasa in tocher of the Polish queen Cecylia Renata. [[File:Crown_of_Bohemia_1648.png|thumb|Launds of the Bohemian Croun atween 1635 an 1742, afore the maist of Silesia was gien ower tae [[Kinrick o Proushie|Prussia]]]] [[File:Silesia-map.svg|left|thumb|Kairt of Austrian an Prussian Silesia wi modren national mairches: {{Legend|#00ffff|[[Austrian Silesia]], 1740}}{{Legend|#ffffff|[[Prussian Silesia]], 1871}}{{Legend|#0000ff|[[Oder]]}}]] In 1742, maist of Silesia wis claucht wi King [[Frederick the Great|Frederick II of Prussia]] in the Weir of the Austrian Succession, at the hinner end becomin the Prussian Province of Silesia in 1815; ower the heids of this, Silesia became pairt of the [[German Empire]] whan it wis latten wit in 1871. The Silesian capital Breslau became than ane of the big ceities in Germany. Breslau wis a centre of Jewish life in Germany an a wechty steid of science (college) an industry (manufacturin of steam-ingines). German mass tourism stertit in the Silesian hielaunds (Hirschberg, Schneekoppe). [[File:Wrocław_Rynek_18_sm.jpg|left|thumb|279x279px|Teipical Silesian baroque architectur in [[Wrocław]]]] Efter Warld Weir I, a pairt of Silesia, kent as Iver Silesia, wis quarreled wi Germany an the newly independent Saicont Polish Republic. The League of Nations organised a plebiscite tae sattle the maitter in 1921. It haed resultit in 60% of votes gettin cuissen for Germany an 40% for Poland.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Die Provinz Oberschlesien Volksabstimmungen 1920 und 1922|url=https://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Preussen/Oberschlesien/Volksentscheide.html|url-status=live|language=the German}}</ref> Efter the third Silesian raibblin (1921), houaniver, the eastmaist pairt of Iver Silesia (as weel as Katowice), wi a feckly ethnic Polish populace, wis gien Poland, becomin the Silesian Voivodeship. The Prussian Province of Silesia intil Germany wis than dividit intae the provinces of Nether Silesia an Iver Silesia. Meantime, Austrian Silesia, the smaa pairt of Silesia keppit bi Austria efter the Silesian Weirs, wis maistly gien tae the new Czechoslovakia (at the hinner-end kent as Czech Silesia an Trans-Olza), awtho maist of Cieszyn an laund be-east of it gaed tae Poland. Polish Silesia wis amang the foremaist regions invadit durin Germany's 1939 sailyie on Poland, the whilk stertit [[Warld War II|Warld Weir II]]. Ane of the claimed ettles of Nazi German occupation, mairbetoken in Iver Silesia, wis the extermination of thaim wham the Nazis thocht tae be "subhuman", viz Jews an ethnic Poles. The Polish an Jewish fowk of the than Polish pairt of Silesia wis subjectit tae genocide involvin herryin outs, mass murther an transportation till Nazi concentration camps an forced lawbour camps, while Germans war sattled seekin for [[:en:Lebensraum|Lebensraum]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Piotr Eberhardt|title=Political Migrations in Poland 1939-1948|year=2006|location=Warsaw|pages=25}}</ref> Twa thousan Polish intellectuals, politicians, an businessmen wir murthered durin the Intelligenzaktion Schlesien<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wardzyńska|first=Maria|title=Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion|publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance|IPN]]|year=2009|location=Warszawa|language=the Polish}}</ref> in 1940 as pairt of a Germanization program aa ower the kintra. Silesia alsae houssed ane of the twa maist weirtime centres whaur medical pratticks wir conductit on kidnappit Polish bairns wi Nazis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Uzarczyk|first=Kamila|title=Podstawy ideologiczne higieny ras i ich realizacja na przykładzie Śląska w latach 1924-1944|date=2002|publisher=Wydawn. Adam Marszałek|isbn=978-83-7322-287-8|location=Toruń}}</ref> Czech Silesia wis occupied bi Germany as pairt of Sudetenland. In Silesia, [[Nazi Germany]] operate the Gross-Rosen concentration camp, a curnie prisoner-of-weir camps for Allied POWs (amang thaim wis the maist Stalag VIII-A, Stalag VIII-B, Stalag VIII-C camps), num'rous Nazi wards an thousans of forced lawbour camps — amang thaim wis a netwark of forced lawbour camps allanerly for Poles ({{Lang|de|[[Polenlager]]}}), sub-camps of wards, POW camps and the Gross-Rosen an [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] concentration camps. The [[Potsdam Conference|Potsdam Collogue]] of 1945 haed estaiblish't the Oder-Neisse line as the mairch atween Germany an Poland ontil a hindmaist peace collogue wi Germany cuid be hauden (the whilk niver teuk place).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Geoffrey K. Roberts, Patricia Hogwood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q40tDwAAQBAJ|title=The Politics Today Companion to West European Politics|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=9781847790323|page=50}}</ref> In the back end of WWII, Germans in Silesia teuk leg bail frae the battle grund, thinkin they wad be able tae come back whan the weir wis by-wi. Housomever, they cuidna come back, an thaim that haed steyed wir herried out an a new Polish popular, amang thaim wis fowk that wir herried out frae umwhile Easten Poland annexed wi the Soviet Union an frae Mid Poland, jyned the lave of the native Polish indwallers frae the region. Efter 1945 an in 1946, nearhaund aa of the 4.5 meillion Silesians wi German ruits flichtit, or wir steekit in camps an herried out, amang thaim a wheen thousan German Jews that haed pitten ower the Holocaust an haed come back tae Silesia. The newly foundit Polish Unitit Wirkers' Pairty creatit a Ministry of the Recovered Territories that owned the hauf of the plou-grund (that cuid be gotten) for state-run collectivized fairms. Mony of the new Polish Silesians wha murned the Germans for their invasion in 1939 an fellness in occupation nou murned the newly foundit Polish communist government for their populace shiftin an makin an messin wi fairmin an industrial affairs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lukowski, Zawadski|first=Jerzy, Hubert|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00luko/page/278|title=A Concise History of Poland|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-521-61857-1|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00luko/page/278 278–280]|url-access=registration}}</ref> The admeinistrative division of Silesia intil Poland haes chyngit a curnie times sin 1945. Syne 1999, it haes been daled atween Lubusz Voivodeship, Nether Silesian Voivodeship, Opole Voivodeship, an Silesian Voivodeship. Czech Silesia is nou pairt of the Czech Republic, formin pairt of the Moravian-Silesian Airt an the northern pairt of the Olomouc Airt. Germany keps the Silesia-Lusatia airt ({{Lang|de|Niederschlesien-Oberlausitz}} or {{Lang|de|Schlesische Oberlausitz}}) bewast the Neisse, the whilk is pairt of the federal state of [[Saxony]]. The region wis prejudged wi the 1997, 2010 an 2024 Mid European fluids. === Ethnic history === [[File:Silesia_Language_Map_1905.png|thumb|Mither Tungs of Silesia, frae the wittins of the 1905 Census]] Our ain day Silesia is inhaibitit bi [[Poles]], Silesians, [[Germans]], and Czechs. Germans first came till Silesia durin the Late Medieval Ostsiedlung.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Weinhold|first=Karl|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_CqpCAAAAIAAJ|title=Die Verbreitung und die Herkunft der Deutschen in Schlesien|publisher=J. Engelhorn|year=1887|location=Stuttgart|language=the German|trans-title=The Spread and the Origin of Germans in Silesia}}</ref> The lest Polish census in 2011 shawed that the Silesians are the mucklest ethnic or national minority in Poland, an Germans the saicont; baith groups bide maistly in Iver Silesia. The Czech pairt of Silesia is inhaibitit bi Czechs, Moravians, Silesians, and Poles. In the ear 19t century the popular of the Prussian pairt of Silesia wis atween 2/3 an 3/4 German-speakin, atween 1/5 an 1/3 Polish-speakin, wi Sorbs, Czechs, Moravians an Jews makin up the ither smawer minorities (tak a scance till Table 1. ablow). Afore the Saicont Warld Weir, Silesia wis inhaibitit maistly bi Germans, whereas Poles wir a muckle minority, formin a plurality in Iver Silesia.<ref name="Gumpert">{{Cite book|last=Jobst Gumpert|title=Polen, Deutschland|publisher=Callwey|year=1966|pages=138|language=the German}}</ref> Silesia wis alsae the hame of a smaw feck of Czech an Jewish fowk. The German populace wis maistly wonnin in the urban pairts an in the laundward airts fund in the north an wast, whereas the Polish popular wis maistly laundward an cuid be fund in the east an in the south.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hunt Tooley|first=T|date=1997|title=National Identity and Weimar Germany: Upper Silesia and the Eastern Border, 1918–1922|journal=University of Nebraska Press|language=the English|pages=17}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Ethno-leid structure of Prussian Silesia in years 1787–1823 !Ethnic group !frae. G. Hassel in 1819<ref name="Georg Hassel">{{Cite book|last=Georg Hassel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31DMAJgQV28C&pg=PA34|title=Statistischer Umriß der sämmtlichen europäischen und der vornehmsten außereuropäischen Staaten, in Hinsicht ihrer Entwickelung, Größe, Volksmenge, Finanz- und Militärverfassung, tabellarisch dargestellt; Erster Heft: Welcher die beiden großen Mächte Österreich und Preußen und den Deutschen Staatenbund darstellt|publisher=Verlag des Geographischen Instituts Weimar|year=1823|pages=33–34|language=the German|quote=}}</ref> !% !frae. S. Plater in 1823{{Sfn|Plater|1825}} !% !frae. T. Ładogórski in 1787<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ładogórski|first=Tadeusz|title=Ludność, in: Historia Śląska, vol. II: 1763–1850, part 1: 1763–1806|publisher=edited by W. Długoborski|year=1966|location=Wrocław|pages=150|language=the Polish}}</ref> !% |- |'''Germans''' |1,561,570 |'''75.6''' |1,550,000 |'''70.5''' |1,303,300 |'''74.6''' |- |'''Poles''' |444,000 |'''21.5''' |600,000 |'''27.3''' |401,900 |'''23.0''' |- |'''Sorbs''' |24,500 |'''1.2''' |30,000 |'''1.4''' |900 |'''0.1''' |- |'''Czechs''' |5,500 |'''0.3''' | | |32,600 |'''1.9''' |- |'''Moravians''' |12,000 |'''0.6''' | | | | |- |'''Jews''' |16,916 |'''0.8''' |20,000 |'''0.9''' |8,900 |'''0.5''' |- |'''Popular''' |'''c. 2.1&nbsp;meillion''' |'''100''' |'''c. 2.2&nbsp;meillion''' |'''100''' |'''c. 1.8&nbsp;meillion''' |'''100''' |} Ethnic structure of Prussian Iver Silesia ([[Opole]] regency) durin the 19t century an the ear 20t century can be fund in Table 2.: {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! colspan="18" |Table 2. Nummers of Polish, German an ither indwallers (Regierungsbezirk Oppeln)<ref name="Georg Hassel">{{Cite book|last=Georg Hassel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31DMAJgQV28C&pg=PA34|title=Statistischer Umriß der sämmtlichen europäischen und der vornehmsten außereuropäischen Staaten, in Hinsicht ihrer Entwickelung, Größe, Volksmenge, Finanz- und Militärverfassung, tabellarisch dargestellt; Erster Heft: Welcher die beiden großen Mächte Österreich und Preußen und den Deutschen Staatenbund darstellt|publisher=Verlag des Geographischen Instituts Weimar|year=1823|pages=33–34|language=de|quote=}}</ref><ref name="Paul Weber1">{{Cite book|last=Paul Weber|url=https://archive.org/details/diepoleninobersc00webeuoft|title=Die Polen in Oberschlesien: eine statistische Untersuchung|publisher=Verlagsbuchhandlung von Julius Springer|year=1913|location=Berlin|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalisch|first=Johannes|last2=Bochinski|first2=Hans|date=1958|title=Stosunki narodowościowe na Śląsku w świetle relacji pruskich urzędników z roku 1882|url=http://sobotka.uni.wroc.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Sobotka_13_1958_43-58.pdf|journal=Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka|location=Leipzig|volume=13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201215644/http://sobotka.uni.wroc.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Sobotka_13_1958_43-58.pdf|archive-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> |- !Year !1819 !1831 !1834 !1837 !1840 !1843 !1846 !1852 !1855 !1858 !1861 !1867 !1890 !1900 !1905 !1910 |- |'''''Polish''''' |377,100 '''(67.2%)''' |418,837 '''(62.0%)''' |468,691 '''(62.6%)''' |495,362 '''(62.1%)''' |525,395 '''(58.6%)''' |540,402 '''(58.1%)''' |568,582 '''(58.1%)''' |584,293 '''(58.6%)''' |590,248 '''(58.7%)''' |612,849 '''(57.3%)''' |665,865 '''(59.1%)''' |742,153 '''(59.8%)''' |918,728 '''(58.2%)''' |1,048,230 '''(56.1%)''' |1,158,805 '''(57.0%)''' |Census, monolingual Polish: '''1,169,340''' '''(53.0%)'''<ref name="Paul Weber2">{{Cite book|last=Paul Weber|url=https://archive.org/details/diepoleninobersc00webeuoft|title=Die Polen in Oberschlesien: eine statistische Untersuchung|publisher=Verlagsbuchhandlung von Julius Springer|year=1913|location=Berlin|page=27|language=de}}</ref> '''or up tae''' '''1,560,000''' thegither wi bilinguals |- |'''''German''''' |162,600 '''(29.0%)''' |257,852 '''(36.1%)''' |266,399 '''(35.6%)''' |290,168 '''(36.3%)''' |330,099 '''(36.8%)''' |348,094 '''(37.4%)''' |364,175 '''(37.2%)''' |363,990 '''(36.5%)''' |366,562 '''(36.5%)''' |406,950 '''(38.1%)''' |409,218 '''(36.3%)''' |457,545 '''(36.8%)''' |566,523 '''(35.9%)''' |684,397 '''(36.6%)''' |757,200 '''(37.2%)''' |'''884,045''' '''(40.0%)''' |- |'''''Ither''''' |21,503 '''(3.8%)''' |13,254 '''(1.9%)''' |13,120 '''(1.8%)''' |12,679 '''(1.6%)''' |41,570 '''(4.6%)''' |42,292 '''(4.5%)''' |45,736 '''(4.7%)''' |49,445 '''(4.9%)''' |48,270 '''(4.8%)''' |49,037 '''(4.6%)''' |51,187 '''(4.6%)''' |41,611 '''(3.4%)''' |92,480 '''(5.9%)''' |135,519 '''(7.3%)''' |117,651 '''(5.8%)''' |Populace: 2,207,981 |} The Austrian pairt of Silesia haed a mixter-maxter of German, Polish and Czech fowk, wi speakers of the Polish makin a plurality in Cieszyn Silesia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chromik|first=Grzegorz|title=Geschichte des deutsch-slawischen Sprachkontaktes im Teschener Schlesien|isbn=978-3-88246-398-9|pages=258–322|language=de}}</ref> ==== Releigion ==== [[File:Verbreitung_der_Konfessionen_im_deutschen_Reich.jpg|thumb|Confessions in the German Empire (Catholic/Protestant; {{Circa|1890}}). Nether Silesia wis maistly Protestant, while Glatz (Kłodzko) an Iver Silesia wis maistly Catholic.]] Historically, Silesia wis about aqual spleit atween [[Catholic Kirk|Catholics]] an [[Protestantism|Protestants]] (feckly Lutherans). In an 1890 census taen in the German pairt, Catholics made up a slicht plurality of 53%, while the ither 47% wis maist haund Lutheran.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Meyers Konversationslexikon|volume=5. Ausgabe}}</ref> Geographically speakin, Iver Silesia wis maistly Catholic binna for a puckle of pairts in the nort-wast, the whilk wir feckly Lutheran. Nether Silesia wis maistly Lutheran binna for the Glatzer Laund (nou kent as Kłodzko County). Generally speakin, the popular wis maistly Protestant in the wastern pairts, an it wad maistly get mair Catholic the farrer east a body gaed. In Iver Silesia, Protestants wir thranged in muckler ceities, an aften conseidered theirsells German. Efter Warld Weir II, the releigious demographics haed chyngit muckle sin Germans, wha made up the feck of the Protestant fowk, wir forcibly herried out. Poles, wha wir maistly Catholic, haed made hame again here in their steid. The day, Silesia bides feckly Catholic. Extant syne the 12t century,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Demshuk|first=A|title=The Lost German East: Forced Migration and the Politics of Memory, 1945–1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|pages=40}}</ref> Silesia's Jewish commonty wis thranged around Wrocław an Iver Silesia, an nummered at 48,003 (1.1% of the popular) in 1890, gaein doun tae 44,985 bodies (0.9%) bi 1910.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kamusella|first=T|title=Silesia and Central European nationalisms: the emergence of national and ethnic groups in Prussian Silesia and Austrian Silesia, 1848–1918|publisher=Purdue University Press|year=2007|pages=173}}</ref> In Polish East Iver Silesia, the nummer of Jews wis roun about 90,000–100,000.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Browning|first=Christopher R.|url=https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511665301|title=Nazi Policy, Jewish Workers, German Killers|date=2000-02-13|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-77299-0}}</ref> Historically, the commonty haed dree'd a nummer of localised herryin outs, for ensample their 1453 herryin out frae [[Wrocław]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=van Straten|first=J|title=The Origin of Ashkenazi Jewry: The Controversy Unravelled|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=58}}</ref> Atween 1712 an 1820 a tring of chiels heild the teitle Heid Rabbi of Silesia ("Landesrabbiner"): Naphtali ha-Kohen (1712–16); Samuel ben Naphtali (1716–22); Ḥayyim Jonah Te'omim (1722–1727); Baruch b. Reuben Gomperz (1733–54); Joseph Jonas Fränkel (1754–93); Jeremiah Löw Berliner (1793–99); Lewin Saul Fränkel (1800–7); Aaron Karfunkel (1807–16); an Abraham ben Gedaliah Tiktin (1816–20).<ref>{{Cite web|last=<!--Not stated-->|title=Silesia|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7747-hirschberg|access-date=6 December 2017|website=1906 Jewish Encyclopedia|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com}}</ref> ==== Eftercasts of Warld Weir II ==== Efter the Germans invadit Poland in 1939, efter the Nazi racial policy, the Jewish fowk of Silesia wis subjectit tae genocide wi executions cairried out wi Einsatzgruppe z. B.V. heidit bi Udo von Woyrsch an Einsatzgruppe I heidit bi Bruno Streckenbach,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Olkuśnik|first=Magdalena|title=Popularna encyklopedia powszechna|last2=Wójcik|first2=Elżbieta|year=2001|volume=10|pages=660}}</ref> wardin in ghettos, an ethnic cleansing of the General Government. In their ettles tae exterminate the Jews throu murther an ethnic cleansin, the Germans foundit the Auschwitz an Gross-Rosen camps in the province of Silesia. Herryin outs wir cairried out apenly an souched in the local press.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Steinbacher|first=S|title=The murder of the Jews of East Upper Silesia", in Cesarani, D. (2004) Holocaust: From the persecution of the Jews to mass murder,|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|pages=110-138}}</ref> Thaim sent tae ghettos wad frae 1942 be herried out till concentration an wark camps.<ref name=":0" /> Atween 5 Mey an 17 Juin, 20,000 Silesian Jews wir sent till Birkenau till gas chaumers an aa throu August 1942, atween 10,000 an 13,000 Silesian Jews wir murthert wi gassin at the Auschwitz.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoffmann|first=Stanley|last2=Browning|first2=Christopher R.|date=2005|title=The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/20034240|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=84|issue=1|pages=188|doi=10.2307/20034240|issn=0015-7120}}</ref> Maist Jews in Silesia wir exterminated wi the Nazis. Efter the weir Silesia became a heidmaist steid till repatriation of the Jewish fowk in Poland that haed pitten ower Nazi German extermination<ref>{{Cite book|last=Slucki|first=David|url=https://doi.org/10.36019/9780813552255|title=The International Jewish Labor Bund after 1945|date=2019-09-03|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-5225-5|pages=63}}</ref> an in the hairst of 1945, 15,000 Jews wir in Nether Silesia, maistly Polish Jews that cam back frae territories that nou belanged the Soviet Union,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Belah Guṭerman|first=|date=2011-03-01|title=A Narrow Bridge to Life: Jewish Forced Labor and Survival in the Gross-Rosen Camp System|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/hgs/dcr012|journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies|volume=25|issue=1|pages=229|doi=10.1093/hgs/dcr012|issn=8756-6583}}</ref> risin in 1946 tae seiventy thousan<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kochavi|first=AJ|date=2001|title=Post-Holocaust politics: Britain, the United States & Jewish refugees, 1945–1948|journal=University of North Carolina Press|pages=176}}</ref> as Jewish survivors frae ither pairts of Poland wir relocate.<ref name=":2" /> The feck of Germans flichtit or wir herried out frae the day's Polish an Czech pairts of Silesia durin an efter Warld Weir II. Atween Juin 1945 an Januar 1947, 1.77&nbsp;meillion Germans wir herried out frae Nether Silesia, an 310,000 frae Iver Silesia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Klusmeyer|first=Douglas B.|url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9781845459697|title=Immigration Policy in the Federal Republic of Germany|last2=Papademetriou|first2=Demetrios G.|date=2022-09-29|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-84545-969-7}}</ref> The day, maist German Silesians an their descendants bides in the Federal Republic of Germany, mony of thaim in the [[Ruhr]] pairt wirkin as miners, like their forebeirs in Silesia. Ane of its maist namely but controversial presses wis the [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] politician Herbert Hupka. The herryin out of Germans haed resultit in rife unnerpopulation. The populace of the toun of Głogów fell frae 33,500 tae 5,000, an atween 1939 an 1966 the populace of Wrocław fell bi 25%. Ettles tae re-people Silesia didna come muckle speed in the 1940s and 1950s,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fessenden|first=Helen|last2=Mazower|first2=Mark|date=1999|title=Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/20049489|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=78|issue=5|pages=223|doi=10.2307/20049489|issn=0015-7120}}</ref> an Silesia's popular didna rax tae pre-weir levels ontill the hint-end of the 1970s. The Polish sattlers that re-peopled Silesia wir pairtly frae the umwhile Polish Easten Mairchlaunds, the whilk wis annexed wi the [[Soviet Union]] in 1939. Wrocław wis pairtly re-peopled wi bield-seekers frae the umwhile Polish ceity of [[Lviv|Lwów]]. == Geography == [[File:Landkarte_von_Schlesien.jpg|thumb|First kairt of Silesia bi Martin Helwig, 1561; north at the bottom]] [[File:Silesia_Physical_Map.png|thumb|Physical kairt of Silesia in 1905]] The maist of Silesia is affeirin flet, awtho its southren mairch is maistly montanous. It is feckly locate in a swathe rinnin alang baith braes of the iver an mid [[Oder|Oder (Odra)]] River, but it raxes eastle tae the iver Vistula River. The pairt alsae taks in mony leaders of the Oder, amang thaim is the Bóbr (an its leader the Kwisa), the Barycz an the Nysa Kłodzka. The [[Sudetes|Sudeten Bens]] rins alang the maist of the southren rind of the region, tho at its south-eastern extreme it raxes tae the Silesian Beskids an Moravian-Silesian Beskids, the whilk belang the [[Carpathie Moontains|Carpathian Bens]]. Historically, Silesia wis boundit wastle bi the Kwisa an Bóbr Rivers, while the laund bewast the Kwisa wis in Iver Lusatia (earlier ''Milsko''). Housomever, because pairt of Iver Lusatia wis taen in the Province of Silesia in 1815, in Germany Görlitz, Niederschlesischer Oberlausitzkreis an neebourin airts are conseidered pairts of historical Silesia. Thon destricks, alang wi Poland's Nether Silesian Voivodeship an pairts of Lubusz Voivodeship, mak up the geographic region of Nether Silesia. Silesia haes unnergaen a siclike notional raxin at its eastern extreme. Historically, it raxed anelie as faur as the Brynica River, whilk sinders it frae Zagłębie Dąbrowskie in Nether Poland. Houaniver, tae mony Poles the day, Silesia (''Śląsk)'' is unnerstuid tae kiver aa the area roun about Katowice, includin Zagłębie. This interpretation is gien offeicial ratihabitation in the yuise of the name Silesian Voivodeship ({{lang|pl|województwo śląskie}}) for the province kiverin this area. In fack, the wird {{lang|pl|Śląsk}} in the Polish (whan yuised athout qualification) nou commonly refers alanerlie tae this area (alsae cried {{lang|pl|Górny Śląsk}} or Iver Silesia). As weel as the Katowice airt, historical Iver Silesia alsae taks in the [[Opole]] region (Poland's Opole Voivodeship) an Czech Silesia. Czech Silesia is made up of a pairt of the Moravian-Silesian Region an the Jeseník Destrick in the Olomouc Region. === Naitural resources === Silesia is an airt rife of resources an fowk. Syne the mid-18t century, coal haes gotten mined here. The industry haed grown while Silesia wis pairt of Germany, an peaked in the 1970s unner the Fowk's Republic of Poland. Durin this time, Silesia became ane of the warld's mucklest producers of coal, wi a record tonnage in 1979.<ref name="en.poland.gov.pl">{{Cite web|title=Natural Resources &#124; poland.gov.pl|url=http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110813164344/http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-date=2011-08-13|access-date=19 November 2013|publisher=En.poland.gov.pl}}</ref> The coal minin dwined durin the nixt twa decades, but haes gaen up again follaein the end of Communist maistry. [[File:KWK_Bolesław_Śmiały_01.jpg|thumb|Bolesław Śmiały Coal Mine, Łaziska Górne]] The 41 coal mines in Silesia are maistly pairt of the Iver Silesian Coal Basin, whilk liggs in the Silesian Braes. The coalfield haes an area of about {{Convert|4,500|km2|mi2}}.<ref name="en.poland.gov.pl">{{Cite web|title=Natural Resources &#124; poland.gov.pl|url=http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110813164344/http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-date=2011-08-13|access-date=19 November 2013|publisher=En.poland.gov.pl}}</ref> Deposits in Nether Silesia hae kyth'd tae be a trauchle tae mak yuise of an the area's onprofitable mines wir steekit in 2000.<ref name="en.poland.gov.pl" /> In 2008, an upcuissen 35&nbsp;billion tonnes of lignite fordels wir fund near Legnica, makin thaim some of the mucklest in the warld.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mamy największe złoża węgla brunatnego na świecie|url=http://www.gazetawyborcza.pl/1,82244,4820533.html|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20120503194935/http://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/1,114873,4820533.html|archive-date=2012-05-03|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Gazetawyborcza.pl|language=the Polish|url-status=live}}</ref> Frae the fowerth century BC, airn ore haes been mined in the braes of Silesia.<ref name="en.poland.gov.pl">{{Cite web|title=Natural Resources &#124; poland.gov.pl|url=http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110813164344/http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-date=2011-08-13|access-date=19 November 2013|publisher=En.poland.gov.pl}}</ref> The samen while haed leid, capper, siller, an gowd minin. Zinc, cadmium, arsenic,<ref>{{Citation|last=Mikulski|first=S.Z.|title=Late-Hercynian gold-bearing arsenic-polymetallic mineralization within Saxothuringian zone in the Polish Sudetes, Northeast Bohemian Massif|date=2022-04-28|url=https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003077503-200|work=Mineral Deposits at the Beginning of the 21st Century|pages=787–790|place=London|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-003-07750-3|access-date=2026-06-20}}</ref> an [[uranium]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wise International &#124; World Information Service on Energy|url=http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/439-440/poland.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010053346/http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http%3A%2F%2Fwww10.antenna.nl%2Fwise%2F439-440%2Fpoland.html|archive-date=10 October 2007|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=0.antenna.nl}}</ref> hev been mined in the region forbye. Nether Silesia features lairge capper minin an processing atween the ceities of [[Legnica]], Głogów, Lubin, and Polkowice. In the Middle Ages, gowd (Polish: złoto) an siller (Polish: srebro) wir mined in the region, whilk is refleckit in the names of the umwhile minin touns of [[Złotoryja]], Złoty Stok an Srebrna Góra. The region is kent for stane quarrying tae produce limestane, marl, mairble, an basalt.<ref name="en.poland.gov.pl">{{Cite web|title=Natural Resources &#124; poland.gov.pl|url=http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110813164344/http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-date=2011-08-13|access-date=19 November 2013|publisher=En.poland.gov.pl}}</ref> {| class="wikitable col2right" |+'''Annwal throu-pit of minerals in Silesia''' !Mineral name !Throu-pit (tonnes) !Ref. |- |Bituminous coal |95,000,000 | |- |Capper |571,000 |<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 July 2011|title=Copper: World Smelter Production, By Country|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/copper/copper_t21.html|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Indexmundi.com}}</ref> |- |Zinc |160,000 |<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 July 2004|title=Zinc: World Smelter Production, By Country|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/zinc/zinc_table18.html|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Indexmundi.com}}</ref> |- |Siller |1,200 |<ref>{{Cite web|date=13 August 2004|title=Silver: World Mine Production, By Country|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/silver/silver_table08.html|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Indexmundi.com}}</ref> |- |Cadmium |500 |<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 May 2012|title=Cadmium: World Refinery Production, By Country|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/cadmium/cadmium_t5.html|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Indexmundi.com}}</ref> |- |Leid |70,000 |<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 June 2005|title=Lead: World Refinery Production, By Country|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/lead/lead_t16.html|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Indexmundi.com}}</ref> |} The region alsae haes a weel-daein lawbourage sector, whilk produces cereals (white, rye, barley, aits, stuff), tatties, rapeseed, succar beets and siclike. Milk throu-pit is weel developed. The Opole Silesia haes for decades taen the tap spat in Poland for their indices of effective yuise of pleu laund.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Samorząd Województwa Opolskiego|url=http://umwo.opole.pl/serwis/index.php?id=2009|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Umwo.opole.pl}}</ref> Montanous pairts of southren Silesia features mony particular an hertsome tourism destinations (e.g., Karpacz, Szczyrk, Wisła). Silesia is maistly weel forestit. This is because greenness is maistly heichly socht efter bi the locals, mairbetoken in the heichly industrialized pairts of Silesia. == Demographics == Silesia haes been historically diverse in aa pairts. Nouadays, the mucklest pairt of Silesia is locate in Poland; it is aften cried ane of the maist diverse pairts in thon kintra. The Unitit States Immigration Commission, in its ''Dictionary of Races or Fowk'' (published in 1911, whan gey muckle nummers of fowk frae Silesia wir flittin till the Unitit States), consithert Silesian as a geographical (nae ethnic) term, beirin the inhaibitants of Silesia. The existence of baith Polish Silesian an German Silesian dialecks thereawa wis mintioned forbye.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dillingham|first=William Paul|url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofrace00unitrich#page/128/mode/1up/search/Silesian|title=Dictionary of Races or Peoples|last2=Folkmar|first2=Daniel|last3=Folkmar|first3=Elnora|publisher=Washington, Government Printing Office|year=1911|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=128}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Dillingham|first=William Paul|url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofrace00unitrich#page/105/mode/1up|title=Dictionary of Races or Peoples|last2=Folkmar|first2=Daniel|last3=Folkmar|first3=Elnora|publisher=Washington, Government Printing Office|others=United States. Immigration Commission (1907–1910)|year=1911|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=105, 128}}</ref> === Ceities an touns === The follaein table taks in the ceities and touns in Silesia with a popular greater nor 20,000 (2026).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2026-04-29|title=Population. Size and structure and vital statistics in Poland by territorial division in 2025. As of 31 December (table IV)|url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/population/population/population-size-and-structure-and-vital-statistics-in-poland-by-territorial-division-in-2025-as-of-31-december,3,39.html|access-date=2026-06-04|publisher=[[Statistics Poland]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2026-05-18|title=Population in municipalities as at 1. 1.|url=https://data.csu.gov.cz/datastat/data/VYBER/OBY02AT02|website=DataStat|publisher=[[Czech Statistical Office]]}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" ! style="width:1%;" | ! style="width:1%;" | !Name ! style="width:6%;" |Popular ! style="width:11%;" |Area ! style="width:4%;" |Kintra !Admeinistrative ! style="width:15%;" |Historic subregion |- style="text-align:center;" |1 |[[File:Herb_wroclaw.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Wrocław]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |672,601 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|293|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |2 |[[File:Ostrava_CoA_CZ.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Ostrava'''* | style="text-align:center;" |280,853 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|214|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia/[[Moravie|Moravia]] |- style="text-align:center;" |3 |[[File:Katowice_Herb.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Katowice''' | style="text-align:center;" |277,415 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|165|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |4 |[[File:Gliwice_herb.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Gliwice''' | style="text-align:center;" |166,942 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|134|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |5 |[[File:POL_Bielsko-Biała_COA.svg|center|48x48px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Bielsko-Biała'''* | style="text-align:center;" |163,164 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|125|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia/Lesser Poland |- style="text-align:center;" |6 |[[File:POL_Zabrze_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Zabrze''' | style="text-align:center;" |150,780 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|80|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |7 |[[File:Bytom_herb.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Bytom''' | style="text-align:center;" |144,598 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|69|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |8 |[[File:POL_Zielona_Góra_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Zielona Góra''' | style="text-align:center;" |138,476 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|58|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_lubuskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Lubusz Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |9 |[[File:POL_Rybnik_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Rybnik]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |128,788 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|148|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |10 |[[File:POL_Ruda_Śląska_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Ruda Śląska''' | style="text-align:center;" |127,601 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|78|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |11 |[[File:POL_Opole_COA.svg|center|34x34px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Opole]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |126,623 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|97|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_opolskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Opole Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |12 |[[File:POL_Tychy_COA.svg|center|27x27px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Tychy''' | style="text-align:center;" |120,081 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|82|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |13 |[[File:Chorzów_herb.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Chorzów''' | style="text-align:center;" |98,418 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|33|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |14 |[[File:POL_Wałbrzych_COA.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Wałbrzych]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |97,546 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|85|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |15 |[[File:Legnica_herb.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Legnica]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |89,919 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|56|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |16 |[[File:POL_Jastrzębie-Zdrój_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Jastrzębie-Zdrój''' | style="text-align:center;" |80,527 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|85|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |17 |[[File:POL_Jelenia_Góra_COA_1.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Jelenia Góra''' | style="text-align:center;" |73,470 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|109|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |18 |[[File:POL_Mysłowice_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Mysłowice''' | style="text-align:center;" |70,160 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|66|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |19 |[[File:Havirov_CoA.png|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Havířov''' | style="text-align:center;" |67,998 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|32|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |20 |[[File:POL_Lubin_COA.svg|center|27x27px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Lubin''' | style="text-align:center;" |65,961 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|41|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |21 |[[File:POL_Siemianowice_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Siemianowice Śląskie''' | style="text-align:center;" |62,311 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|25|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |22 |[[File:POL_Żory_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Żory''' | style="text-align:center;" |61,857 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|65|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |23 |[[File:Herb_TarnowskieGory.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Tarnowskie Góry''' | style="text-align:center;" |61,001 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|84|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |24 |[[File:POL_Głogów_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Głogów''' | style="text-align:center;" |60,605 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|35|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |25 |[[File:Wappen_Goerlitz_vector.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Görlitz'''** | style="text-align:center;" |55,186 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|68|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|GER}} | style="text-align:center;" |{{Flagicon|Saxony}} [[Saxony]] |Nether Silesia{{Efn|Historically pairt of [[Lusatia]], Görlitz an Zgorzelec wir conseidered pairt of Nether Silesia in the years 1319–1329 an 1815–1945.|reference="lus"}} |- style="text-align:center;" |26 |[[File:Opava_CoA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Opava''' | style="text-align:center;" |54,881 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|91|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |27 |[[File:Frýdek_Místek_CoA_CZ.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Frýdek-Místek'''* | style="text-align:center;" |53,164 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|52|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia/Moravia |- style="text-align:center;" |28 |[[File:POL_Kędzierzyn-Koźle_COA.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Kędzierzyn-Koźle''' | style="text-align:center;" |53,140 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|124|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_opolskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Opole Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |29 |[[File:POL_Świdnica_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Świdnica''' | style="text-align:center;" |51,357 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|22|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |30 |[[File:POL_Piekary_Śląskie_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Piekary Śląskie''' | style="text-align:center;" |51,030 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|40|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |31 |[[File:POL_Racibórz_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Racibórz]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |48,750 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|75|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |32 |[[File:Karwina_herb.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Karviná]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |48,684 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|58|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |33 |[[File:POL_Świętochłowice_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Świętochłowice''' | style="text-align:center;" |44,621 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|13|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |34 |[[File:POL_Wodzisław_Śląski_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Wodzisław Śląski''' | style="text-align:center;" |44,017 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|50|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |35 |[[File:POL_Mikołów_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Mikołów''' | style="text-align:center;" |41,478 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|79|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |36 |[[File:POL_Nysa_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Nysa''' | style="text-align:center;" |39,887 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|27|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_opolskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Opole Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |37 |[[File:POL_Bolesławiec_COA_1.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Bolesławiec''' | style="text-align:center;" |36,642 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|24|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |38 |[[File:POL_Nowa_Sól_COA.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Nowa Sól''' | style="text-align:center;" |35,230 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|22|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_lubuskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Lubusz Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |39 |[[File:Herb_Knurów-2018.png|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Knurów''' | style="text-align:center;" |34,919 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|34|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |40 |[[File:POL_Oleśnica_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Oleśnica''' | style="text-align:center;" |34,676 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|21|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |41 |[[File:POL_Czechowice-Dziedzice_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Czechowice-Dziedzice''' | style="text-align:center;" |34,564 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|33|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |42 |[[File:Coat_of_arms_of_Třinec.svg|center|34x34px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Třinec''' | style="text-align:center;" |33,523 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|85|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |43 |[[File:POL_Oława_COA.svg|center|33x33px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Oława''' | style="text-align:center;" |32,928 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|27|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |44 |[[File:POL_Brzeg_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Brzeg''' | style="text-align:center;" |32,724 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|15|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_opolskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Opole Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |45 |[[File:POL_Cieszyn_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Cieszyn''' | style="text-align:center;" |32,217 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|29|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |46 |[[File:Wappen_Hoyerswerda.PNG|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Hoyerswerda'''** | style="text-align:center;" |30,759 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|96|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|GER}} | style="text-align:center;" |{{Flagicon|Saxony}} Saxony |Nether Silesia{{Efn|Historically pairt of Lusatia, Hoyerswerda wis conseidered pairt of Nether Silesia in the years 1825–1945.}} |- style="text-align:center;" |47 |[[File:POL_Dzierżoniów_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Dzierżoniów''' | style="text-align:center;" |30,014 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|20|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |48 |[[File:POL_Zgorzelec_COA.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Zgorzelec'''** | style="text-align:center;" |28,095 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|16|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia{{efn|name="lus"}} |- style="text-align:center;" |49 |[[File:POL_Bielawa_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Bielawa''' | style="text-align:center;" |27,480 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|36|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |50 |[[File:Orlová_znak.png|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Orlová''' | style="text-align:center;" |27,383 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|25|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |51 |[[File:POL_Lubliniec_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Lubliniec''' | style="text-align:center;" |22,931 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|89|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |52 |[[File:Cesky_Tesin_CoA.png|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Český Těšín''' | style="text-align:center;" |22,870 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|34|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |53 |[[File:POL_Żagań_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Żagań''' | style="text-align:center;" |22,800 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|40|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_lubuskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Lubusz Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |54 |[[File:Krnov_znak.png|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Krnov''' | style="text-align:center;" |22,303 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|44|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |55 |[[File:POL_Orzesze_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Orzesze''' | style="text-align:center;" |22,242 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|84|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |56 |[[File:POL_Świebodzice_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Świebodzice''' | style="text-align:center;" |21,469 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|30|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |57 |[[File:POL_Kluczbork_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Kluczbork''' | style="text-align:center;" |21,232 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|12|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_opolskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Opole Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |58 |[[File:POL_Polkowice_COA_2022.svg|center|27x27px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Polkowice''' | style="text-align:center;" |20,832 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|24|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |59 |[[File:POL_Łaziska_Górne_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Łaziska Górne''' | style="text-align:center;" |20,826 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|21|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |60 |[[File:POL_Świebodzin_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Świebodzin''' | style="text-align:center;" |20,480 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|11|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_lubuskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Lubusz Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |61 |[[File:Bohumin_CoA_CZ.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Bohumín''' | style="text-align:center;" |20,234 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|31|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Anelie pairt in Silesia<gallery> File:Old_Town_Hall_in_Wrocław,_September_2022_07.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Town_Hall_in_Wroc%C5%82aw,_September_2022_07.jpg|[[:en:Wrocław|Wrocław]] File:Masarykovo_namesti.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Masarykovo_namesti.jpg|[[:en:Ostrava|Ostrava]] File:Katowice_Rynek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katowice_Rynek.jpg|[[:en:Katowice|Katowice]] File:6588vik_Gliwice._Foto_Barbara_Maliszewska.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:6588vik_Gliwice._Foto_Barbara_Maliszewska.jpg|[[:en:Gliwice|Gliwice]] File:Ratusz_Bielsko-Biała.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ratusz_Bielsko-Bia%C5%82a.JPG|[[:en:Bielsko-Biała|Bielsko-Biała]] File:Zabrze_post_office.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zabrze_post_office.jpg|[[:en:Zabrze|Zabrze]] File:Rynek_w_Bytomiu_2020.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rynek_w_Bytomiu_2020.jpg|[[:en:Bytom|Bytom]] File:Ratusz_i_Stary_Rynek_w_Zielonej_Górze.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ratusz_i_Stary_Rynek_w_Zielonej_G%C3%B3rze.jpg|[[:en:Zielona_Góra|Zielona Góra]] File:Rynek_w_Rybniku_1.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rynek_w_Rybniku_1.JPG|[[:en:Rybnik|Rybnik]] File:Plac_Jana_Pawła_II_w_Nowym_Bytomiu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plac_Jana_Paw%C5%82a_II_w_Nowym_Bytomiu.jpg|[[:en:Ruda_Śląska|Ruda Śląska]] File:Opole_0001.7_-_widok_na_Stare_Miasto.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Opole_0001.7_-_widok_na_Stare_Miasto.jpg|[[:en:Opole|Opole]] File:Tychy_Stare._Rynek1.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tychy_Stare._Rynek1.JPG|[[:en:Tychy|Tychy]] File:Chorzów_-_Teatr_Rozrywki_01.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chorz%C3%B3w_-_Teatr_Rozrywki_01.JPG|[[:en:Chorzów|Chorzów]] File:Wałbrzych_-_Rynek_03.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wa%C5%82brzych_-_Rynek_03.jpg|[[:en:Wałbrzych|Wałbrzych]] File:Legnica_-_Rynek_-_Dawny_Ratusz_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Legnica_-_Rynek_-_Dawny_Ratusz_01.jpg|[[:en:Legnica|Legnica]] File:Pałac_w_Boryni_7.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pa%C5%82ac_w_Boryni_7.JPG|[[:en:Jastrzębie-Zdrój|Jastrzębie-Zdrój]] File:Horni-namesti1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horni-namesti1.jpg|[[:en:Opava|Opava]] File:SM_Brzeg_Ratusz_2023_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SM_Brzeg_Ratusz_2023_(1).jpg|[[:en:Brzeg|Brzeg]] </gallery> == Flags an blasouns == The signs of Nether Silesia an Iver Silesia hae their founds in the signs of the Piasts of Nether Silesia an Iver Silesia. The blasoun of Iver Silesia depicts the gowden earn on the blue shiel. The blasoun of Nether Silesia depicts a black earn on a gowden (yella) shiel.<gallery> File:DEU_Oberschlesien_1926-1945_COA.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DEU_Oberschlesien_1926-1945_COA.svg|Blasoun of the Prussian [[:en:Province_of_Upper_Silesia|province of Iver Silesia]] (1919–1938 and 1941–1945) File:POL_województwo_śląskie_COA.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_COA.svg|[[:en:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Silesian_Voivodeship|Blasoun of the Silesian Voivodeship]] File:POL_województwo_opolskie_COA.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_opolskie_COA.svg|[[:en:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Opole_Voivodeship|The blasoun of the Opolskie Voivodeship]] File:Henryk_I_Probus_herb.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henryk_I_Probus_herb.png|Blasoun of Duke [[:en:Henry_Probus|Henry Probus]] File:Wappen_Herzogtum_Schlesien.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wappen_Herzogtum_Schlesien.png|Blasoun of [[:en:Austrian_Silesia|Austrian Silesia]] (1742–1918) File:Wappen_Provinz_Niederschlesien.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wappen_Provinz_Niederschlesien.png|Prussian [[:en:Province_of_Lower_Silesia|province of Nether Silesia]] (1919–1938 and 1941–1945) File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_COA.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_dolno%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_COA.svg|Blasoun of the [[:en:Lower_Silesia_Voivodeship|Nether Silesia Voivodeship]] File:Znak_Slezska.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Znak_Slezska.svg|Blasoun of [[:en:Czech_Silesia|Czech Silesia]] </gallery>Flags wi their colors refer tae the blasoun of Silesia.<gallery> File:Flagge_Preußen_-_Provinz_Oberschlesien.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flagge_Preu%C3%9Fen_-_Provinz_Oberschlesien.svg|[[:en:Flag_of_Upper_Silesia|Flag of Prussian Iver Silesia province]] (1919–1938 and 1941–1945) File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_flag.svg|Flag of Silesia Voivodeship File:Flag_of_Czech_Silesia.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Czech_Silesia.svg|Flag of the Austrian Silesia (1742–1918), an Czech Silesia File:Flagge_Preußen_-_Provinz_Schlesien.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flagge_Preu%C3%9Fen_-_Provinz_Schlesien.svg|[[:en:Flag_of_Silesia_and_Lower_Silesia|Flag of Prussian Nether Silesia province]] (1919–1938 and 1941–1945) File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_dolno%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_flag.svg|Flag of Nether Silesia Voivodeship </gallery> == Warld Heritage Steids == <gallery mode="packed-hover" widths="200px" heights="160px"> File:Swidnica-_Kosciol_Pokoju_02.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Swidnica-_Kosciol_Pokoju_02.jpg|Kirks of Peace, Świdnica an Jawor File:Wrocław_-_Jahrhunderthalle5.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wroc%C5%82aw_-_Jahrhunderthalle5.jpg|Centennial Haa, [[Wrocław]] File:SZTOLNIA_GŁĘBOKA_FRYDERYK_-_część_trasy_turystycznej_pn._Sztolnia_Czarnego_Pastrąga.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SZTOLNIA_G%C5%81%C4%98BOKA_FRYDERYK_-_cz%C4%99%C5%9B%C4%87_trasy_turystycznej_pn._Sztolnia_Czarnego_Pastr%C4%85ga.jpg|Historic Siller Mine, Tarnowskie Góry File:Das_Neue_Schloss_im_Park.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Das_Neue_Schloss_im_Park.jpg|Muskau Pairk, Łęknica an Bad Muskau<ref>Łęknica and Bad Muskau were considered part of Silesia in years 1815–1945.</ref> </gallery> * == Notes == == Sources == * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Silesia|volume=25|pages=90–92}} *  {{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Czapliński|editor1-first=Marek|editor2-last=Wiszewski|editor2-first=Przemysław|encyclopedia=Region Divided - Times of Nation-States (1918-1945)|url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/64229/Cuius_regio_vol_4.pdf|access-date=18 March 2018|language=en|year=2014|publisher=ebooki.com.pl|title=Cuius regio? Ideological and Territorial Cohesion of the Historical Region of Silesia|volume=4|location=Wrocław, Poland|isbn=978-83-927132-8-9}} * {{Cite book|last=Długajczyk|first=Edward|title=Tajny front na granicy cieszyńskiej. Wywiad i dywersja w latach 1919–1939|publisher=Śląsk|year=1993|isbn=83-85831-03-7|location=[[Katowice]]|author-link=Edward Długajczyk}} *  {{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Harc|editor1-first=Lucyna|editor2-last=Wąs|editor2-first=Gabriela|encyclopedia=The Strengthening of Silesian Regionalism (1526-1740)|url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/73766/Cuius_regio_vol_2.pdf|access-date=18 March 2018|language=en|year=2014|publisher=ebooki.com.pl|title=Cuius regio? Ideological and Territorial Cohesion of the Historical Region of Silesia|volume=2|location=Wrocław, Poland|isbn=978-83-927132-6-5}} *  {{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Harc|editor1-first=Lucyna|editor2-last=Kulak|editor2-first=Teresa|encyclopedia=Silesia under the Authority of the Hohenzollerns (1741-1918)|url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/79021/Cuius_regio_vol_3.pdf|access-date=18 March 2018|language=en|year=2015|publisher=ebooki.com.pl|title=Cuius regio? Ideological and Territorial Cohesion of the Historical Region of Silesia|volume=3|location=Wrocław, Poland|isbn=978-83-942651-3-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Plater|first=Stanisław|url=https://obc.opole.pl/Content/8541/download/|title=Jeografia wschodniéy części Europy czyli Opis krajów przez wielorakie narody słowiańskie zamieszkanych : obejmujący Prussy, Xsięztwo Poznańskie, Szląsk Pruski, Gallicyą, Rzeczpospolitę Krakowską, Krolestwo Polskie i Litwę|publisher=Wilhelm Bogumił Korn|year=1825|location=Wrocław|language=pl|trans-title=Geography of the Eastern Part of Europe, or Description of the Countries inhabited by Various Slavic Nations: Including Prussia, the Duchy of Posen, Prussian Silesia, Galicia, the Republic of Cracow, the Kingdom of Poland, and Lithuania|author-link=Stanisław Plater}} *  {{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Przemysław|editor-first=Wiszewski|encyclopedia=The Long Formation of the Region (c. 1000–1526)|url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/49790/Cuius_regio_vol_1.pdf|access-date=18 March 2018|language=en|year=2013|publisher=ebooki.com.pl|title=Cuius regio? Ideological and Territorial Cohesion of the Historical Region of Silesia|volume=1|location=Wrocław, Poland|isbn=978-83-927132-1-0}} *  {{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Wiszewski|editor-first=Przemysław|encyclopedia=Permanent Change - The New Region(s) of Silesia (1945-2015)|url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/76597/Cuius_regio_vol_5.pdf|access-date=18 March 2018|language=en|year=2015|publisher=ebooki.com.pl|title=Cuius regio? Ideological and Territorial Cohesion of the Historical Region of Silesia|volume=5|location=Wrocław, Poland|isbn=978-83-942651-2-0}} * {{Cite book|last=Zahradnik|first=Stanisław|title=Korzenie Zaolzia|last2=Marek Ryczkowski|publisher=PAI-press|year=1992|location=Warszawa - Praga - Trzyniec|oclc=177389723}} == Wabsteid links == * {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070727142251/http://brws.silesia-region.pl/indexang.php|date=27 July 2007|title=Silesia in Europe page}} * [http://www.hoeckmann.de/germany/silesia.htm Map of Silesia in 1763] * [http://www.vogel-soya.de/bilder/Schlesphoto.html Old postcards from Silesian towns] * [http://www.schlesierland.de/index.html Photos from Silesian towns, villages and communities before 1946] * [http://culture.pl/en/article/what-is-silesia What is Silesia?] * [https://mapy.com/en/zakladni?q=Slezsko%20-%20s%20moravsk%C3%BDmi%20enkl%C3%A1vami&source=area&id=191266&ds=1&x=17.1035242&y=50.7247522&z=7 Borders of Silesia with Moravian enclaves] on Mapy.com == References == t2fc5a5e8mvz6uevad3hvwhih1svrjv 918701 918700 2026-06-24T14:00:08Z PurpleDinosaur585 129975 918701 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | native_name = {{native name|pl|Śląsk}}<br />{{native name|szl|Ślōnsk}}<br />{{native name|cs|Slezsko}}<br />{{native name|de|Schlesien}}<br />{{native name|sli|Schläsing}} | settlement_type = [[Historical Region]] | image_shield = [[File:Generic Silesia CoA.svg|150px]] | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Ślůnsk 1335-1675.png|frameless]]|Show Silesia 1335-1675|[[File:Ślůnsk apx 1815 -1945.png|frameless]]|Show Silesia 1815-1939|default=1}} | mapsize = 250px | map_caption = Ducheries & Province of Silesia on kairt of Mid Europe | coordinates = {{coord|51.6|N|17.2|E|region:PL|display=inline,title}} | subdivision_type = Kintra | subdivision_name = {{plainlist| *[[Poland]] *[[Czech Republic]] *[[Germany]]}} | seat_type = Mucklest ceity | seat = [[Wrocław]] | area_total_km2 = 40400 | population_total = c. 8000000 | population_density_km2 = 200 | population_demonym = [[Silesians|Silesian]] | timezone1 = [[Central European Time|CET]] | utc_offset = +1 | timezone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] | utc_offset_DST = +2 }} '''Silesia'''{{Efn|{{IPAc-en|s|aɪ|ˈ|l|iː|ʒ|ə|,_|s|aɪ|ˈ|l|iː|ʃ|i|ə}} {{respell|sy|LEE|zhə|,_|sy|LEE|shee|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|UKalso|s|aɪ|ˈ|l|iː|z|i|ə}} {{respell|sy|LEE|zee|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|USalso|s|aɪ|ˈ|l|iː|ʒ|i|ə|,_|s|aɪ|ˈ|l|iː|ʃ|ə|,_|s|ɪ|ˈ|l|iː|-}} {{respell|sy|LEE|zhee|ə|,_|sy|LEE|shə|,_|sil|EE|-}}.<ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|Silesia|access-date=23 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/silesia|title=Silesia|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=23 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Silesia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723000000/http://www.lexico.com/definition/Silesia |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-07-23 |title=Silesia |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Silesia|access-date=23 July 2019}}</ref>}} (tak a scance till the names ablow) is a historical pairt of Mid Europe that nou liggs maistly intil [[Poland]], wi smaa pairts in the Czech Republic an [[Germany]]. Its area is about {{Convert|40000|km2|-2}}, an the populace is upcuissen at 8,000,000. Silesia is riven intae twa maist subregions, Nether Silesia wastle an Iver Silesia eastle. Situate alang the [[Oder]] River, wi the [[Sudetes|Sudeten Bens]] raxin athort the southren mairch, Silesia is a heichly industrialised region rife of mineral an naitural resources. The mucklest toun an Nether Silesia's capital is [[Wrocław]]; the historic capital of Iver Silesia is [[Opole]]. The mucklest metropolitan airt is the Katowice metropolitan airt, the hert of whilk is Katowice. Pairts of the Czech toun of Ostrava an the German toun of Görlitz are situate intil Silesia's historic mairches. Silesia’s culture reflecks its wimpled history an diverse influences, takin in Polish, Czech, an German swatches. The region is kent for its unique Silesian langidge (spoken yet bi a smaa feck of fowk bidin in Iver Silesia), brawlie decored hamelt graith, hairty regional cuisine, an a mixter-maxter of [[Gothic airchitectur|Gothic]], Baroque, an industrial-era architectur seen in its ceities an touns. The region conteens mony historical meiths an [[Warld Heritage Steid|UNESCO Warld Heritage Steids]]. Silesia's mairches an national affiliation haes chyngit throu time, baith whan it wis a heirship aucht of [[Feudalism|noble housses]] an efter the rise of our ain day [[Naition state|nation-states]], resultin in a rowth of castles an stranghauds, mairbetoken in the Jelenia Góra vailley. First heild bi Great Moravia in the back end of the 9t century an Bohemia in the early 10t century, Silesia wis taen intae the ear Polish state, an efter its feudal dividin in the 12t century it creatit the Duchery of Silesia. As a result of farrer division, it wis daled intae individual ducheries, ruled bi diverse lines of the Polish Piast dynasty. In the 14t century, it haed become ane of the territories belanging the Bohemian Croun Launds unner the [[Halie Romane Rik|Halie Roman Empire]], the whilk wis gien the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in 1526; housomever, a wheen of ducheries bedd unner the maistry of Polish dukes (Piast, [[Jagiellonian dynasty|Jagiellon]], Sobieski) for feu'd Bohemian [[Feudalism|feus]]. As a result of the Silesian Weirs, the region wis annexed wi [[Kinrick o Proushie|Prussia]] frae Austria in 1742 an syne became pairt of the [[German Empire]] in 1871. Efter [[Warld War I|Warld Weir I]], whan the Poles an Czechs haed wun back their independence, the eastmaist pairt of Iver Silesia became pairt of Poland bi the decision of the Entente Pouers efter upsets bi Poles an the Iver Silesian plebiscite, while the lave of the umwhile Austrian pairts of Silesia wir daled atween [[Czechoslovakie|Czechoslovakia]] an Poland. Durin [[Warld War II|Warld Weir II]], as a result of German occupation the haill region wis unner the maistry of [[Nazi Germany]]. In 1945, efter Warld Weir II, maist of the German-heild Silesia wis transferred tae Polish jurisdiction wi the Potsdam Greement atween the victorious Allies and became pairt of Poland. The smaa Lusatian skelp bewast the Oder–Neisse line, the whilk haed belanged Silesia sin 1815, became pairt of [[East Germany]]. Ower the heids of the forced popular shifts in 1945–48, the day's indwallers of Silesia speaks the national leids of their respective kintras. Umwhile German-speakin Nether Silesia haes developed a new mell'd Polish dialeck an new-farrant graith. There is ongaun debate anent whither the Silesian leid, commonly spoken in Iver Silesia, shid be consithert a dialeck of [[Pols leid|Polish]] or a sindry langidge. The Nether Silesian German dialeck is aweers of deein out ower the heids of its speakers' gettin herriet out. == Etymology == The names of Silesia in different leids maist likely skairs their etymology—the Polish: Śląsk {{IPA|pl|ɕlɔ̃sk||Pl-Śląsk.ogg}}; the German: Schlesien {{IPA|de|ˈʃleːzi̯ən||De-Schlesien.ogg}}; the Czech: Slezsko {{IPA|cs|ˈslɛsko|}}; the Nether Silesian: Schläsing; the Silesian: Ślōnsk {{IPA|szl|ɕlonsk|}}; the Nether Sorbian: Šlazyńska {{IPA|dsb|ˈʃlazɨnʲska|}}; the Iver Sorbian: Šleska {{IPA|hsb|ˈʃlɛska|}}; the Slovak: Sliezsko; [[Laitin|the Laitin]], the Spainish an the English: ''Silesia''; the French: Silésie; the Dutch: Silezië; the Italian: Slesia. The names aa effeir tae the name of a river (nou kent as Ślęza) an ben (Ben Ślęża) in mid-southren Silesia, the whilk sair'd for a releigious steid till pagans afore Christianization. ''Ślęża'' is listed as ane of the num'rous Pre-Indo-European topographic names in the region (tak a scance till [[:en:Old_European_hydronymy|auld European hydronymy]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zbigniew|first=Babik|date=2001|title=Najstarsza warstwa nazewnicza na ziemiach polskich w granicach średniowiecznej Słowiańszczyzny|journal=Uniwersitas, Kraków}}</ref> Frae the wittins of a puckle Polonists, the name ''Ślęża'' {{IPA|pl|ˈɕlɛ̃ʐa|}} or ''Ślęż'' {{IPA|pl|ɕlɛ̃ʂ|}} is sib tae the Auld Polish wirds ''ślęg'' {{IPA|pl|ɕlɛŋk|}} or ''śląg'' {{IPA|pl|ɕlɔŋk|}}, meanin dunkieness, moister, or humidity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fischer|first=Rudolf|date=2007|title=Onomastica slavogermanica|journal=Uniwersytet Wrocławski|volume=|pages=}}</ref> They differ wi the hypothesis that the name ''Śląsk'' haes its ruits in the name of the Silings tribe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jankuhn|first=Herbert|last2=Beck|first2=Heinrich|date=2006|others=et. al.|title=Wandalen|journal=Germanische Altertumskunde Online|language=the German|edition=2t|volume=33|quote="Da die Silingen offensichtlich ihren Namen im mittelalterlichen pagus silensis und dem mons slenz – möglicherweise mit dem Zobten gleichzusetzen [...] – hinterließen und damit einer ganzen Landschaft – Schlesien – den Namen gaben [...]"}}</ref> In Polish day-tae-day speech, "Śląsk" refers tae traditionally Polish Iver Silesia an the day's Silesian Voivodeship, but less tae Nether Silesia, whilk is unalike frae Iver Silesia in mony pairts sin the feck of its popular spoke German frae roun about the mid-19t century up ontill 1945–48.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Andreas Lawaty, Hubert Orłowski|title=Deutsche und Polen: Geschichte, Kultur, Politik|publisher=C.H.Beck|year=2003|page=183|language=the German}}</ref> == History == [[File:Polska_960_-_992.svg|left|thumb|200x200px|Kairt of Poland wi Silesia (''Śląsk'') in the year 992 durin the maistry of Mieszko I]] In the fowert century BC frae the south, throu the Kłodzko Vailley, the Celts made ingangins intil Silesia, an made hame around Ben Ślęża nearhaund our ain day [[Wrocław]], Oława an Strzelin. Germanic Lugii tribes wir first recordit athin Silesia in the 1t century BC. [[Wast Slavs]] an Lechites wan till the pairt roun about the 7t century,<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.)|title=Historia Śląska|year=2007|location=Wrocław|pages=37-38}}</ref> an bi the ear ninth century, their colonies haed become stabilised. Local Wast Slavs stertit upsettin boundary structures like the Silesian Przesieka an the Silesia Waws. The easten mairch of Silesian sattlement wis situate bewast the Bytom, an be-east [[Racibórz]] an Cieszyn. Be-east this line wonned a sib Lechitic tribe kent as the Vistulans. Their northern mairch wis in the vailley of the Barycz River, an abuin this bedd the Wastren Polans tribe that gied Poland its name.<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.)|title=Historia Śląska|year=2007|location=Wrocław|pages=21-22}}</ref> The first kent states in Silesia wis Greater Moravia an Bohemia. In the 10t century, the Polish ruler Mieszko I of the Piast dynasty haed taen Silesia intae the newly foundit Polish state. In 1000, the Diocie of Wrocław wis foundit as the auldest [[Catholic Kirk|Catholic]] diocie in the region, an ane of the auldest diocies in Poland, thirled tae the Roman Catholic Airchdiocie of Gniezno. Poland repelled German invasions of Silesia in 1017 at Niemcza an in 1109 at Głogów. Durin the Feudal Dividin of Poland, Silesia and the lave of the kintra wis pairtit intae mony smawer ducheries ruled bi sindry Silesian dukes. In 1178, pairts of the Duchery of Kraków roun about Bytom, Oświęcim, [[Chrzanów]], an Siewierz wir transferred tae the Silesian Piasts, even tho their popular wis feckly Vistulan an nae of Silesian stock.<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.)|title=Historia Śląska|year=2007|location=Wrocław|pages=21-22}}</ref> [[File:Silesia_1172-1177.jpg|thumb|226x226px|Silesia in the fore-end of Poland's feudal division, 1172–1177, Nether Silesia wi Lubusz Laund in orange, Iver Silesia in green an yella]] Walloons came tae Silesia as ane of the foremaist fremmit incomer wheens in [[Poland]], maist likely makin hame in Wrocław syne the 12th century, wi farrer Walloon incomers invited bi Duke Henry the Bairdit in the ear 13t century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zientara|first=Benedykt|title=Walonowie na Śląsku w XII i XIII wieku|publisher=Przegląd Historyczny|year=1975|volume=66/3|pages=353, 357|language=the Polish}}</ref> Sin the 13t century, German cultural an ethnic influence gaed up as a result of incomers frae German-speakin states of the [[Halie Romane Rik|Holy Roman Empire]]. The foremaist designin of municipal privileges in Poland haed taen place in the toun of [[Złotoryja]] bi Henry the Bairdit. Medieval municipal richts modelled efter Lwówek Śląski an Środa Śląska, baith foundit bi Henry the Bairdit, haed become the founds of the municipal form of government till a curnie ceities an touns in Poland, an twa of five local Polish forms of medieval toun richts. The Beuk of Henryków, the whilk conteens the earest kent sentence written in the Polish leid, as weel as a writ conteenin the auldest prented text in the Polish, wis creatit in Henryków an Wrocław in Silesia, respectively. In 1241, the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] cairried out their first invasion of Poland, creatin rife pilget an mass flicht. They reived the feck of the region an defaitit the jyned Polish, Moravian an German forces heidit bi Duke Henry II the Pious at the Stour of Legnica, whilk haed taen place at Legnickie Pole nearhaund [[Legnica]]. Straicht efter the daith of Orda Khan, the Mongols decidit nae to bensel farrer intae Europe, but gaed back east tae tak pairt in the election of a new Grand Khan (heid yin). Atween 1289 an 1292, Bohemian king Wenceslaus II became ''suzerain'' of a puckle of the Iver Silesian ducheries. Polish monarchs haedna gien ower their heirship richts tae Silesia till 1335.<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.)|title=Historia Śląska|year=2007|location=Wrocław|pages=81}}</ref> The province became pairt of the Bohemian Croun whilk wis pairt of the Hailie Roman Empire; houaniver, a wheen of ducheries bedd unner the maistry of the Polish dukes frae the housses of Piast, [[Jagiellonian dynasty|Jagiellon]] and Sobieski for feu'd Bohemian feus (a puckle till the 17t–18t centuries). Atween 1469 an 1490, the pairt was unner the maistry of Matthias Corvinus, wha haed whummel't the Bohemian throne. In 1526 Silesia wis haundit ower wi the Bohemian Crown tae the Habsburg monarchy. In the 15t century, a curnie chynges wir made tae Silesia's mairches. Pairts of the territories that haed gotten transferred tae the Silesian Piasts in 1178 wir coff't wi the Polish kings in the saicont hauf of the 15t century (the Duchery of Oświęcim in 1457; the Duchery of Zator in 1494). The Bytom airt bedd in the aucht of the Silesian Piasts, tho it wis a pairt of the Diocie of Kraków.<ref>{{Cite book|last=R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.)|title=Historia Śląska|year=2007|location=Wrocław|pages=21-22}}</ref> The Duchery of Krosno Odrzańskie ({{Lang|de|Crossen}}) wis heired bi the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1476 and wi the renunciation of King [[Ferdinand I, Haly Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] and the estates of Bohemia in 1538, it became pairt an pertinent of Brandenburg. Atween 1645 an 1666, the Duchery of Opole an Racibórz was hauden in wad wi the Polish Houss of Vasa in tocher of the Polish queen Cecylia Renata. [[File:Crown_of_Bohemia_1648.png|thumb|Launds of the Bohemian Croun atween 1635 an 1742, afore the maist of Silesia was gien ower tae [[Kinrick o Proushie|Prussia]]]] [[File:Silesia-map.svg|left|thumb|Kairt of Austrian an Prussian Silesia wi modren national mairches: {{Legend|#00ffff|[[Austrian Silesia]], 1740}}{{Legend|#ffffff|[[Prussian Silesia]], 1871}}{{Legend|#0000ff|[[Oder]]}}]] In 1742, maist of Silesia wis claucht wi King [[Frederick the Great|Frederick II of Prussia]] in the Weir of the Austrian Succession, at the hinner end becomin the Prussian Province of Silesia in 1815; ower the heids of this, Silesia became pairt of the [[German Empire]] whan it wis latten wit in 1871. The Silesian capital Breslau became than ane of the big ceities in Germany. Breslau wis a centre of Jewish life in Germany an a wechty steid of science (college) an industry (manufacturin of steam-ingines). German mass tourism stertit in the Silesian hielaunds (Hirschberg, Schneekoppe). [[File:Wrocław_Rynek_18_sm.jpg|left|thumb|279x279px|Teipical Silesian baroque architectur in [[Wrocław]]]] Efter Warld Weir I, a pairt of Silesia, kent as Iver Silesia, wis quarreled wi Germany an the newly independent Saicont Polish Republic. The League of Nations organised a plebiscite tae sattle the maitter in 1921. It haed resultit in 60% of votes gettin cuissen for Germany an 40% for Poland.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Die Provinz Oberschlesien Volksabstimmungen 1920 und 1922|url=https://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Preussen/Oberschlesien/Volksentscheide.html|url-status=live|language=the German}}</ref> Efter the third Silesian raibblin (1921), houaniver, the eastmaist pairt of Iver Silesia (as weel as Katowice), wi a feckly ethnic Polish populace, wis gien Poland, becomin the Silesian Voivodeship. The Prussian Province of Silesia intil Germany wis than dividit intae the provinces of Nether Silesia an Iver Silesia. Meantime, Austrian Silesia, the smaa pairt of Silesia keppit bi Austria efter the Silesian Weirs, wis maistly gien tae the new Czechoslovakia (at the hinner-end kent as Czech Silesia an Trans-Olza), awtho maist of Cieszyn an laund be-east of it gaed tae Poland. Polish Silesia wis amang the foremaist regions invadit durin Germany's 1939 sailyie on Poland, the whilk stertit [[Warld War II|Warld Weir II]]. Ane of the claimed ettles of Nazi German occupation, mairbetoken in Iver Silesia, wis the extermination of thaim wham the Nazis thocht tae be "subhuman", viz Jews an ethnic Poles. The Polish an Jewish fowk of the than Polish pairt of Silesia wis subjectit tae genocide involvin herryin outs, mass murther an transportation till Nazi concentration camps an forced lawbour camps, while Germans war sattled seekin for [[:en:Lebensraum|Lebensraum]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Piotr Eberhardt|title=Political Migrations in Poland 1939-1948|year=2006|location=Warsaw|pages=25}}</ref> Twa thousan Polish intellectuals, politicians, an businessmen wir murthered durin the Intelligenzaktion Schlesien<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wardzyńska|first=Maria|title=Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion|publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance|IPN]]|year=2009|location=Warszawa|language=the Polish}}</ref> in 1940 as pairt of a Germanization program aa ower the kintra. Silesia alsae houssed ane of the twa maist weirtime centres whaur medical pratticks wir conductit on kidnappit Polish bairns wi Nazis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Uzarczyk|first=Kamila|title=Podstawy ideologiczne higieny ras i ich realizacja na przykładzie Śląska w latach 1924-1944|date=2002|publisher=Wydawn. Adam Marszałek|isbn=978-83-7322-287-8|location=Toruń}}</ref> Czech Silesia wis occupied bi Germany as pairt of Sudetenland. In Silesia, [[Nazi Germany]] operate the Gross-Rosen concentration camp, a curnie prisoner-of-weir camps till Allied POWs (amang thaim: the maist Stalag VIII-A, Stalag VIII-B, Stalag VIII-C camps), num'rous Nazi wards an thousans of forced lawbour camps — amang thaim wis a netwark of forced lawbour camps allanerly till Poles ({{Lang|de|[[Polenlager]]}}), sub-camps of wards, POW camps an the Gross-Rosen an [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] concentration camps. The [[Potsdam Conference|Potsdam Collogue]] of 1945 haed estaiblish't the Oder-Neisse line as the mairch atween Germany an Poland ontil a hindmaist peace collogue wi Germany cuid be hauden (the whilk niver teuk place).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Geoffrey K. Roberts, Patricia Hogwood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q40tDwAAQBAJ|title=The Politics Today Companion to West European Politics|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=9781847790323|page=50}}</ref> In the back end of WWII, Germans in Silesia teuk leg bail frae the battle grund, thinkin they wad be able tae come back whan the weir wis by-wi. Housomever, they cuidna come back, an thaim that haed steyed wir herried out an a new Polish popular, amang thaim wis fowk that wir herried out frae umwhile Easten Poland annexed wi the Soviet Union an frae Mid Poland, jyned the lave of the native Polish indwallers frae the region. Efter 1945 an in 1946, nearhaund aa of the 4.5 meillion Silesians wi German ruits flichtit, or wir steekit in camps an herried out, amang thaim a wheen thousan German Jews that haed pitten ower the Holocaust an haed come back tae Silesia. The newly foundit Polish Unitit Wirkers' Pairty creatit a Ministry of the Recovered Territories that owned tae the hauf of the plou-grund (that wis by the haund) till state-run collectivized fairms. Mony of the new Polish Silesians wha murned the Germans for their invasion in 1939 an fellness in occupation nou murned the newly foundit Polish communist government for their populace shiftin an makin an messin wi fairmin an industrial affairs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lukowski, Zawadski|first=Jerzy, Hubert|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00luko/page/278|title=A Concise History of Poland|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-521-61857-1|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00luko/page/278 278–280]|url-access=registration}}</ref> The admeinistrative division of Silesia intil Poland haes chyngit a curnie times sin 1945. Syne 1999, it haes been daled atween Lubusz Voivodeship, Nether Silesian Voivodeship, Opole Voivodeship, an Silesian Voivodeship. Czech Silesia is nou pairt of the Czech Republic, formin pairt of the Moravian-Silesian Airt an the northern pairt of the Olomouc Airt. Germany keps the Silesia-Lusatia airt ({{Lang|de|Niederschlesien-Oberlausitz}} or {{Lang|de|Schlesische Oberlausitz}}) bewast the Neisse, the whilk is pairt of the federal state of [[Saxony]]. The region wis prejudged wi the 1997, 2010 an 2024 Mid European fluids. === Ethnic history === [[File:Silesia_Language_Map_1905.png|thumb|Mither Tungs of Silesia, frae the wittins of the 1905 Census]] Our ain day Silesia is inhaibitit bi [[Poles]], Silesians, [[Germans]], and Czechs. Germans first came till Silesia durin the Late Medieval Ostsiedlung.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Weinhold|first=Karl|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_CqpCAAAAIAAJ|title=Die Verbreitung und die Herkunft der Deutschen in Schlesien|publisher=J. Engelhorn|year=1887|location=Stuttgart|language=the German|trans-title=The Spread and the Origin of Germans in Silesia}}</ref> The lest Polish census in 2011 shawed that the Silesians are the mucklest ethnic or national minority in Poland, an Germans the saicont; baith groups bide maistly in Iver Silesia. The Czech pairt of Silesia is inhaibitit bi Czechs, Moravians, Silesians, and Poles. In the ear 19t century the popular of the Prussian pairt of Silesia wis atween 2/3 an 3/4 German-speakin, atween 1/5 an 1/3 Polish-speakin, wi Sorbs, Czechs, Moravians an Jews makin up the ither smawer minorities (tak a scance till Table 1. ablow). Afore the Saicont Warld Weir, Silesia wis inhaibitit maistly bi Germans, whereas Poles wir a muckle minority, formin a plurality in Iver Silesia.<ref name="Gumpert">{{Cite book|last=Jobst Gumpert|title=Polen, Deutschland|publisher=Callwey|year=1966|pages=138|language=the German}}</ref> Silesia wis alsae the hame of a smaw feck of Czech an Jewish fowk. The German populace wis maistly wonnin in the urban pairts an in the laundward airts fund in the north an wast, whereas the Polish popular wis maistly laundward an cuid be fund in the east an in the south.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hunt Tooley|first=T|date=1997|title=National Identity and Weimar Germany: Upper Silesia and the Eastern Border, 1918–1922|journal=University of Nebraska Press|language=the English|pages=17}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Ethno-leid structure of Prussian Silesia in years 1787–1823 !Ethnic group !frae. G. Hassel in 1819<ref name="Georg Hassel">{{Cite book|last=Georg Hassel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31DMAJgQV28C&pg=PA34|title=Statistischer Umriß der sämmtlichen europäischen und der vornehmsten außereuropäischen Staaten, in Hinsicht ihrer Entwickelung, Größe, Volksmenge, Finanz- und Militärverfassung, tabellarisch dargestellt; Erster Heft: Welcher die beiden großen Mächte Österreich und Preußen und den Deutschen Staatenbund darstellt|publisher=Verlag des Geographischen Instituts Weimar|year=1823|pages=33–34|language=the German|quote=}}</ref> !% !frae. S. Plater in 1823{{Sfn|Plater|1825}} !% !frae. T. Ładogórski in 1787<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ładogórski|first=Tadeusz|title=Ludność, in: Historia Śląska, vol. II: 1763–1850, part 1: 1763–1806|publisher=edited by W. Długoborski|year=1966|location=Wrocław|pages=150|language=the Polish}}</ref> !% |- |'''Germans''' |1,561,570 |'''75.6''' |1,550,000 |'''70.5''' |1,303,300 |'''74.6''' |- |'''Poles''' |444,000 |'''21.5''' |600,000 |'''27.3''' |401,900 |'''23.0''' |- |'''Sorbs''' |24,500 |'''1.2''' |30,000 |'''1.4''' |900 |'''0.1''' |- |'''Czechs''' |5,500 |'''0.3''' | | |32,600 |'''1.9''' |- |'''Moravians''' |12,000 |'''0.6''' | | | | |- |'''Jews''' |16,916 |'''0.8''' |20,000 |'''0.9''' |8,900 |'''0.5''' |- |'''Popular''' |'''c. 2.1&nbsp;meillion''' |'''100''' |'''c. 2.2&nbsp;meillion''' |'''100''' |'''c. 1.8&nbsp;meillion''' |'''100''' |} Ethnic structure of Prussian Iver Silesia ([[Opole]] regency) durin the 19t century an the ear 20t century can be fund in Table 2.: {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! colspan="18" |Table 2. Nummers of Polish, German an ither indwallers (Regierungsbezirk Oppeln)<ref name="Georg Hassel">{{Cite book|last=Georg Hassel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31DMAJgQV28C&pg=PA34|title=Statistischer Umriß der sämmtlichen europäischen und der vornehmsten außereuropäischen Staaten, in Hinsicht ihrer Entwickelung, Größe, Volksmenge, Finanz- und Militärverfassung, tabellarisch dargestellt; Erster Heft: Welcher die beiden großen Mächte Österreich und Preußen und den Deutschen Staatenbund darstellt|publisher=Verlag des Geographischen Instituts Weimar|year=1823|pages=33–34|language=de|quote=}}</ref><ref name="Paul Weber1">{{Cite book|last=Paul Weber|url=https://archive.org/details/diepoleninobersc00webeuoft|title=Die Polen in Oberschlesien: eine statistische Untersuchung|publisher=Verlagsbuchhandlung von Julius Springer|year=1913|location=Berlin|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kalisch|first=Johannes|last2=Bochinski|first2=Hans|date=1958|title=Stosunki narodowościowe na Śląsku w świetle relacji pruskich urzędników z roku 1882|url=http://sobotka.uni.wroc.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Sobotka_13_1958_43-58.pdf|journal=Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka|location=Leipzig|volume=13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201215644/http://sobotka.uni.wroc.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Sobotka_13_1958_43-58.pdf|archive-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> |- !Year !1819 !1831 !1834 !1837 !1840 !1843 !1846 !1852 !1855 !1858 !1861 !1867 !1890 !1900 !1905 !1910 |- |'''''Polish''''' |377,100 '''(67.2%)''' |418,837 '''(62.0%)''' |468,691 '''(62.6%)''' |495,362 '''(62.1%)''' |525,395 '''(58.6%)''' |540,402 '''(58.1%)''' |568,582 '''(58.1%)''' |584,293 '''(58.6%)''' |590,248 '''(58.7%)''' |612,849 '''(57.3%)''' |665,865 '''(59.1%)''' |742,153 '''(59.8%)''' |918,728 '''(58.2%)''' |1,048,230 '''(56.1%)''' |1,158,805 '''(57.0%)''' |Census, monolingual Polish: '''1,169,340''' '''(53.0%)'''<ref name="Paul Weber2">{{Cite book|last=Paul Weber|url=https://archive.org/details/diepoleninobersc00webeuoft|title=Die Polen in Oberschlesien: eine statistische Untersuchung|publisher=Verlagsbuchhandlung von Julius Springer|year=1913|location=Berlin|page=27|language=de}}</ref> '''or up tae''' '''1,560,000''' thegither wi bilinguals |- |'''''German''''' |162,600 '''(29.0%)''' |257,852 '''(36.1%)''' |266,399 '''(35.6%)''' |290,168 '''(36.3%)''' |330,099 '''(36.8%)''' |348,094 '''(37.4%)''' |364,175 '''(37.2%)''' |363,990 '''(36.5%)''' |366,562 '''(36.5%)''' |406,950 '''(38.1%)''' |409,218 '''(36.3%)''' |457,545 '''(36.8%)''' |566,523 '''(35.9%)''' |684,397 '''(36.6%)''' |757,200 '''(37.2%)''' |'''884,045''' '''(40.0%)''' |- |'''''Ither''''' |21,503 '''(3.8%)''' |13,254 '''(1.9%)''' |13,120 '''(1.8%)''' |12,679 '''(1.6%)''' |41,570 '''(4.6%)''' |42,292 '''(4.5%)''' |45,736 '''(4.7%)''' |49,445 '''(4.9%)''' |48,270 '''(4.8%)''' |49,037 '''(4.6%)''' |51,187 '''(4.6%)''' |41,611 '''(3.4%)''' |92,480 '''(5.9%)''' |135,519 '''(7.3%)''' |117,651 '''(5.8%)''' |Populace: 2,207,981 |} The Austrian pairt of Silesia haed a mixter-maxter of German, Polish and Czech fowk, wi speakers of the Polish makin a plurality in Cieszyn Silesia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chromik|first=Grzegorz|title=Geschichte des deutsch-slawischen Sprachkontaktes im Teschener Schlesien|isbn=978-3-88246-398-9|pages=258–322|language=de}}</ref> ==== Releigion ==== [[File:Verbreitung_der_Konfessionen_im_deutschen_Reich.jpg|thumb|Confessions in the German Empire (Catholic/Protestant; {{Circa|1890}}). Nether Silesia wis maistly Protestant, while Glatz (Kłodzko) an Iver Silesia wis maistly Catholic.]] Historically, Silesia wis about aqual spleit atween [[Catholic Kirk|Catholics]] an [[Protestantism|Protestants]] (feckly Lutherans). In an 1890 census taen in the German pairt, Catholics made up a slicht plurality of 53%, while the ither 47% wis maist haund Lutheran.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Meyers Konversationslexikon|volume=5. Ausgabe}}</ref> Geographically speakin, Iver Silesia wis maistly Catholic binna for a puckle of pairts in the nort-wast, the whilk wir feckly Lutheran. Nether Silesia wis maistly Lutheran binna for the Glatzer Laund (nou kent as Kłodzko County). Generally speakin, the popular wis maistly Protestant in the wastern pairts, an it wad maistly get mair Catholic the farrer east a body gaed. In Iver Silesia, Protestants wir thranged in muckler ceities, an aften conseidered theirsells German. Efter Warld Weir II, the releigious demographics haed chyngit muckle sin Germans, wha made up the feck of the Protestant fowk, wir forcibly herried out. Poles, wha wir maistly Catholic, haed made hame again here in their steid. The day, Silesia bides feckly Catholic. Extant syne the 12t century,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Demshuk|first=A|title=The Lost German East: Forced Migration and the Politics of Memory, 1945–1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|pages=40}}</ref> Silesia's Jewish commonty wis thranged around Wrocław an Iver Silesia, an nummered at 48,003 (1.1% of the popular) in 1890, gaein doun tae 44,985 bodies (0.9%) bi 1910.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kamusella|first=T|title=Silesia and Central European nationalisms: the emergence of national and ethnic groups in Prussian Silesia and Austrian Silesia, 1848–1918|publisher=Purdue University Press|year=2007|pages=173}}</ref> In Polish East Iver Silesia, the nummer of Jews wis roun about 90,000–100,000.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Browning|first=Christopher R.|url=https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511665301|title=Nazi Policy, Jewish Workers, German Killers|date=2000-02-13|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-77299-0}}</ref> Historically, the commonty haed dree'd a nummer of localised herryin outs, for ensample their 1453 herryin out frae [[Wrocław]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=van Straten|first=J|title=The Origin of Ashkenazi Jewry: The Controversy Unravelled|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2011|pages=58}}</ref> Atween 1712 an 1820 a tring of chiels heild the teitle Heid Rabbi of Silesia ("Landesrabbiner"): Naphtali ha-Kohen (1712–16); Samuel ben Naphtali (1716–22); Ḥayyim Jonah Te'omim (1722–1727); Baruch b. Reuben Gomperz (1733–54); Joseph Jonas Fränkel (1754–93); Jeremiah Löw Berliner (1793–99); Lewin Saul Fränkel (1800–7); Aaron Karfunkel (1807–16); an Abraham ben Gedaliah Tiktin (1816–20).<ref>{{Cite web|last=<!--Not stated-->|title=Silesia|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7747-hirschberg|access-date=6 December 2017|website=1906 Jewish Encyclopedia|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com}}</ref> ==== Eftercasts of Warld Weir II ==== Efter the Germans invadit Poland in 1939, efter the Nazi racial policy, the Jewish fowk of Silesia wis subjectit tae genocide wi executions cairried out wi Einsatzgruppe z. B.V. heidit bi Udo von Woyrsch an Einsatzgruppe I heidit bi Bruno Streckenbach,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Olkuśnik|first=Magdalena|title=Popularna encyklopedia powszechna|last2=Wójcik|first2=Elżbieta|year=2001|volume=10|pages=660}}</ref> wardin in ghettos, an ethnic cleansing of the General Government. In their ettles tae exterminate the Jews throu murther an ethnic cleansin, the Germans foundit the Auschwitz an Gross-Rosen camps in the province of Silesia. Herryin outs wir cairried out apenly an souched in the local press.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Steinbacher|first=S|title=The murder of the Jews of East Upper Silesia", in Cesarani, D. (2004) Holocaust: From the persecution of the Jews to mass murder,|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|pages=110-138}}</ref> Thaim sent tae ghettos wad frae 1942 be herried out till concentration an wark camps.<ref name=":0" /> Atween 5 Mey an 17 Juin, 20,000 Silesian Jews wir sent till Birkenau till gas chaumers an aa throu August 1942, atween 10,000 an 13,000 Silesian Jews wir murthert wi gassin at the Auschwitz.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoffmann|first=Stanley|last2=Browning|first2=Christopher R.|date=2005|title=The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/20034240|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=84|issue=1|pages=188|doi=10.2307/20034240|issn=0015-7120}}</ref> Maist Jews in Silesia wir exterminated wi the Nazis. Efter the weir Silesia became a heidmaist steid till repatriation of the Jewish fowk in Poland that haed pitten ower Nazi German extermination<ref>{{Cite book|last=Slucki|first=David|url=https://doi.org/10.36019/9780813552255|title=The International Jewish Labor Bund after 1945|date=2019-09-03|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-5225-5|pages=63}}</ref> an in the hairst of 1945, 15,000 Jews wir in Nether Silesia, maistly Polish Jews that cam back frae territories that nou belanged the Soviet Union,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Belah Guṭerman|first=|date=2011-03-01|title=A Narrow Bridge to Life: Jewish Forced Labor and Survival in the Gross-Rosen Camp System|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/hgs/dcr012|journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies|volume=25|issue=1|pages=229|doi=10.1093/hgs/dcr012|issn=8756-6583}}</ref> risin in 1946 tae seiventy thousan<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kochavi|first=AJ|date=2001|title=Post-Holocaust politics: Britain, the United States & Jewish refugees, 1945–1948|journal=University of North Carolina Press|pages=176}}</ref> as Jewish survivors frae ither pairts of Poland wir relocate.<ref name=":2" /> The feck of Germans flichtit or wir herried out frae the day's Polish an Czech pairts of Silesia durin an efter Warld Weir II. Atween Juin 1945 an Januar 1947, 1.77&nbsp;meillion Germans wir herried out frae Nether Silesia, an 310,000 frae Iver Silesia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Klusmeyer|first=Douglas B.|url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9781845459697|title=Immigration Policy in the Federal Republic of Germany|last2=Papademetriou|first2=Demetrios G.|date=2022-09-29|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-84545-969-7}}</ref> The day, maist German Silesians an their descendants bides in the Federal Republic of Germany, mony of thaim in the [[Ruhr]] pairt wirkin as miners, like their forebeirs in Silesia. Ane of its maist namely but controversial presses wis the [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] politician Herbert Hupka. The herryin out of Germans haed resultit in rife unnerpopulation. The populace of the toun of Głogów fell frae 33,500 tae 5,000, an atween 1939 an 1966 the populace of Wrocław fell bi 25%. Ettles tae re-people Silesia didna come muckle speed in the 1940s and 1950s,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fessenden|first=Helen|last2=Mazower|first2=Mark|date=1999|title=Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/20049489|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=78|issue=5|pages=223|doi=10.2307/20049489|issn=0015-7120}}</ref> an Silesia's popular didna rax tae pre-weir levels ontill the hint-end of the 1970s. The Polish sattlers that re-peopled Silesia wir pairtly frae the umwhile Polish Easten Mairchlaunds, the whilk wis annexed wi the [[Soviet Union]] in 1939. Wrocław wis pairtly re-peopled wi bield-seekers frae the umwhile Polish ceity of [[Lviv|Lwów]]. == Geography == [[File:Landkarte_von_Schlesien.jpg|thumb|First kairt of Silesia bi Martin Helwig, 1561; north at the bottom]] [[File:Silesia_Physical_Map.png|thumb|Physical kairt of Silesia in 1905]] The maist of Silesia is affeirin flet, awtho its southren mairch is maistly montanous. It is feckly locate in a swathe rinnin alang baith braes of the iver an mid [[Oder|Oder (Odra)]] River, but it raxes eastle tae the iver Vistula River. The pairt alsae taks in mony leaders of the Oder, amang thaim is the Bóbr (an its leader the Kwisa), the Barycz an the Nysa Kłodzka. The [[Sudetes|Sudeten Bens]] rins alang the maist of the southren rind of the region, tho at its south-eastern extreme it raxes tae the Silesian Beskids an Moravian-Silesian Beskids, the whilk belang the [[Carpathie Moontains|Carpathian Bens]]. Historically, Silesia wis boundit wastle bi the Kwisa an Bóbr Rivers, while the laund bewast the Kwisa wis in Iver Lusatia (earlier ''Milsko''). Housomever, because pairt of Iver Lusatia wis taen in the Province of Silesia in 1815, in Germany Görlitz, Niederschlesischer Oberlausitzkreis an neebourin airts are conseidered pairts of historical Silesia. Thon destricks, alang wi Poland's Nether Silesian Voivodeship an pairts of Lubusz Voivodeship, mak up the geographic region of Nether Silesia. Silesia haes unnergaen a siclike notional raxin at its eastern extreme. Historically, it raxed anelie as faur as the Brynica River, whilk sinders it frae Zagłębie Dąbrowskie in Nether Poland. Houaniver, tae mony Poles the day, Silesia (''Śląsk)'' is unnerstuid tae kiver aa the area roun about Katowice, includin Zagłębie. This interpretation is gien offeicial ratihabitation in the yuise of the name Silesian Voivodeship ({{lang|pl|województwo śląskie}}) for the province kiverin this area. In fack, the wird {{lang|pl|Śląsk}} in the Polish (whan yuised athout qualification) nou commonly refers alanerlie tae this area (alsae cried {{lang|pl|Górny Śląsk}} or Iver Silesia). As weel as the Katowice airt, historical Iver Silesia alsae taks in the [[Opole]] region (Poland's Opole Voivodeship) an Czech Silesia. Czech Silesia is made up of a pairt of the Moravian-Silesian Region an the Jeseník Destrick in the Olomouc Region. === Naitural resources === Silesia is an airt rife of resources an fowk. Syne the mid-18t century, coal haes gotten mined here. The industry haed grown while Silesia wis pairt of Germany, an peaked in the 1970s unner the Fowk's Republic of Poland. Durin this time, Silesia became ane of the warld's mucklest producers of coal, wi a record tonnage in 1979.<ref name="en.poland.gov.pl">{{Cite web|title=Natural Resources &#124; poland.gov.pl|url=http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110813164344/http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-date=2011-08-13|access-date=19 November 2013|publisher=En.poland.gov.pl}}</ref> The coal minin dwined durin the nixt twa decades, but haes gaen up again follaein the end of Communist maistry. [[File:KWK_Bolesław_Śmiały_01.jpg|thumb|Bolesław Śmiały Coal Mine, Łaziska Górne]] The 41 coal mines in Silesia are maistly pairt of the Iver Silesian Coal Basin, whilk liggs in the Silesian Braes. The coalfield haes an area of about {{Convert|4,500|km2|mi2}}.<ref name="en.poland.gov.pl">{{Cite web|title=Natural Resources &#124; poland.gov.pl|url=http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110813164344/http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-date=2011-08-13|access-date=19 November 2013|publisher=En.poland.gov.pl}}</ref> Deposits in Nether Silesia hae kyth'd tae be a trauchle tae mak yuise of an the area's onprofitable mines wir steekit in 2000.<ref name="en.poland.gov.pl" /> In 2008, an upcuissen 35&nbsp;billion tonnes of lignite fordels wir fund near Legnica, makin thaim some of the mucklest in the warld.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mamy największe złoża węgla brunatnego na świecie|url=http://www.gazetawyborcza.pl/1,82244,4820533.html|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20120503194935/http://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/1,114873,4820533.html|archive-date=2012-05-03|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Gazetawyborcza.pl|language=the Polish|url-status=live}}</ref> Frae the fowerth century BC, airn ore haes been mined in the braes of Silesia.<ref name="en.poland.gov.pl">{{Cite web|title=Natural Resources &#124; poland.gov.pl|url=http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110813164344/http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-date=2011-08-13|access-date=19 November 2013|publisher=En.poland.gov.pl}}</ref> The samen while haed leid, capper, siller, an gowd minin. Zinc, cadmium, arsenic,<ref>{{Citation|last=Mikulski|first=S.Z.|title=Late-Hercynian gold-bearing arsenic-polymetallic mineralization within Saxothuringian zone in the Polish Sudetes, Northeast Bohemian Massif|date=2022-04-28|url=https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003077503-200|work=Mineral Deposits at the Beginning of the 21st Century|pages=787–790|place=London|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-003-07750-3|access-date=2026-06-20}}</ref> an [[uranium]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wise International &#124; World Information Service on Energy|url=http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/439-440/poland.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010053346/http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/index.html?http%3A%2F%2Fwww10.antenna.nl%2Fwise%2F439-440%2Fpoland.html|archive-date=10 October 2007|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=0.antenna.nl}}</ref> hev been mined in the region forbye. Nether Silesia features lairge capper minin an processing atween the ceities of [[Legnica]], Głogów, Lubin, and Polkowice. In the Middle Ages, gowd (Polish: złoto) an siller (Polish: srebro) wir mined in the region, whilk is refleckit in the names of the umwhile minin touns of [[Złotoryja]], Złoty Stok an Srebrna Góra. The region is kent for stane quarrying tae produce limestane, marl, mairble, an basalt.<ref name="en.poland.gov.pl">{{Cite web|title=Natural Resources &#124; poland.gov.pl|url=http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20110813164344/http://en.poland.gov.pl/Natural,Resources,310.html|archive-date=2011-08-13|access-date=19 November 2013|publisher=En.poland.gov.pl}}</ref> {| class="wikitable col2right" |+'''Annwal throu-pit of minerals in Silesia''' !Mineral name !Throu-pit (tonnes) !Ref. |- |Bituminous coal |95,000,000 | |- |Capper |571,000 |<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 July 2011|title=Copper: World Smelter Production, By Country|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/copper/copper_t21.html|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Indexmundi.com}}</ref> |- |Zinc |160,000 |<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 July 2004|title=Zinc: World Smelter Production, By Country|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/zinc/zinc_table18.html|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Indexmundi.com}}</ref> |- |Siller |1,200 |<ref>{{Cite web|date=13 August 2004|title=Silver: World Mine Production, By Country|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/silver/silver_table08.html|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Indexmundi.com}}</ref> |- |Cadmium |500 |<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 May 2012|title=Cadmium: World Refinery Production, By Country|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/cadmium/cadmium_t5.html|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Indexmundi.com}}</ref> |- |Leid |70,000 |<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 June 2005|title=Lead: World Refinery Production, By Country|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/lead/lead_t16.html|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Indexmundi.com}}</ref> |} The region alsae haes a weel-daein lawbourage sector, whilk produces cereals (white, rye, barley, aits, stuff), tatties, rapeseed, succar beets and siclike. Milk throu-pit is weel developed. The Opole Silesia haes for decades taen the tap spat in Poland for their indices of effective yuise of pleu laund.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Samorząd Województwa Opolskiego|url=http://umwo.opole.pl/serwis/index.php?id=2009|access-date=20 November 2013|publisher=Umwo.opole.pl}}</ref> Montanous pairts of southren Silesia features mony particular an hertsome tourism destinations (e.g., Karpacz, Szczyrk, Wisła). Silesia is maistly weel forestit. This is because greenness is maistly heichly socht efter bi the locals, mairbetoken in the heichly industrialized pairts of Silesia. == Demographics == Silesia haes been historically diverse in aa pairts. Nouadays, the mucklest pairt of Silesia is locate in Poland; it is aften cried ane of the maist diverse pairts in thon kintra. The Unitit States Immigration Commission, in its ''Dictionary of Races or Fowk'' (published in 1911, whan gey muckle nummers of fowk frae Silesia wir flittin till the Unitit States), heild ''Silesian'' for a geographical (nae ethnic) term, beirin the inhaibitants of Silesia. The existence of baith Polish Silesian an German Silesian dialecks thereawa wis mintioned forbye.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dillingham|first=William Paul|url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofrace00unitrich#page/128/mode/1up/search/Silesian|title=Dictionary of Races or Peoples|last2=Folkmar|first2=Daniel|last3=Folkmar|first3=Elnora|publisher=Washington, Government Printing Office|year=1911|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=128}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Dillingham|first=William Paul|url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofrace00unitrich#page/105/mode/1up|title=Dictionary of Races or Peoples|last2=Folkmar|first2=Daniel|last3=Folkmar|first3=Elnora|publisher=Washington, Government Printing Office|others=United States. Immigration Commission (1907–1910)|year=1911|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=105, 128}}</ref> === Ceities an touns === The follaein table taks in the ceities and touns in Silesia with a popular greater nor 20,000 (2026).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2026-04-29|title=Population. Size and structure and vital statistics in Poland by territorial division in 2025. As of 31 December (table IV)|url=https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/population/population/population-size-and-structure-and-vital-statistics-in-poland-by-territorial-division-in-2025-as-of-31-december,3,39.html|access-date=2026-06-04|publisher=[[Statistics Poland]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2026-05-18|title=Population in municipalities as at 1. 1.|url=https://data.csu.gov.cz/datastat/data/VYBER/OBY02AT02|website=DataStat|publisher=[[Czech Statistical Office]]}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" ! style="width:1%;" | ! style="width:1%;" | !Name ! style="width:6%;" |Popular ! style="width:11%;" |Area ! style="width:4%;" |Kintra !Admeinistrative ! style="width:15%;" |Historic subregion |- style="text-align:center;" |1 |[[File:Herb_wroclaw.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Wrocław]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |672,601 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|293|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |2 |[[File:Ostrava_CoA_CZ.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Ostrava'''* | style="text-align:center;" |280,853 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|214|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia/[[Moravie|Moravia]] |- style="text-align:center;" |3 |[[File:Katowice_Herb.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Katowice''' | style="text-align:center;" |277,415 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|165|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |4 |[[File:Gliwice_herb.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Gliwice''' | style="text-align:center;" |166,942 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|134|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |5 |[[File:POL_Bielsko-Biała_COA.svg|center|48x48px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Bielsko-Biała'''* | style="text-align:center;" |163,164 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|125|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia/Lesser Poland |- style="text-align:center;" |6 |[[File:POL_Zabrze_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Zabrze''' | style="text-align:center;" |150,780 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|80|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |7 |[[File:Bytom_herb.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Bytom''' | style="text-align:center;" |144,598 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|69|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |8 |[[File:POL_Zielona_Góra_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Zielona Góra''' | style="text-align:center;" |138,476 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|58|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_lubuskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Lubusz Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |9 |[[File:POL_Rybnik_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Rybnik]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |128,788 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|148|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |10 |[[File:POL_Ruda_Śląska_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Ruda Śląska''' | style="text-align:center;" |127,601 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|78|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |11 |[[File:POL_Opole_COA.svg|center|34x34px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Opole]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |126,623 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|97|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_opolskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Opole Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |12 |[[File:POL_Tychy_COA.svg|center|27x27px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Tychy''' | style="text-align:center;" |120,081 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|82|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |13 |[[File:Chorzów_herb.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Chorzów''' | style="text-align:center;" |98,418 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|33|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |14 |[[File:POL_Wałbrzych_COA.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Wałbrzych]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |97,546 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|85|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |15 |[[File:Legnica_herb.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Legnica]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |89,919 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|56|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |16 |[[File:POL_Jastrzębie-Zdrój_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Jastrzębie-Zdrój''' | style="text-align:center;" |80,527 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|85|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |17 |[[File:POL_Jelenia_Góra_COA_1.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Jelenia Góra''' | style="text-align:center;" |73,470 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|109|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |18 |[[File:POL_Mysłowice_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Mysłowice''' | style="text-align:center;" |70,160 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|66|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |19 |[[File:Havirov_CoA.png|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Havířov''' | style="text-align:center;" |67,998 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|32|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |20 |[[File:POL_Lubin_COA.svg|center|27x27px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Lubin''' | style="text-align:center;" |65,961 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|41|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |21 |[[File:POL_Siemianowice_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Siemianowice Śląskie''' | style="text-align:center;" |62,311 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|25|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |22 |[[File:POL_Żory_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Żory''' | style="text-align:center;" |61,857 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|65|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |23 |[[File:Herb_TarnowskieGory.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Tarnowskie Góry''' | style="text-align:center;" |61,001 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|84|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |24 |[[File:POL_Głogów_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Głogów''' | style="text-align:center;" |60,605 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|35|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |25 |[[File:Wappen_Goerlitz_vector.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Görlitz'''** | style="text-align:center;" |55,186 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|68|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|GER}} | style="text-align:center;" |{{Flagicon|Saxony}} [[Saxony]] |Nether Silesia{{Efn|Historically pairt of [[Lusatia]], Görlitz an Zgorzelec wir conseidered pairt of Nether Silesia in the years 1319–1329 an 1815–1945.|reference="lus"}} |- style="text-align:center;" |26 |[[File:Opava_CoA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Opava''' | style="text-align:center;" |54,881 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|91|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |27 |[[File:Frýdek_Místek_CoA_CZ.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Frýdek-Místek'''* | style="text-align:center;" |53,164 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|52|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia/Moravia |- style="text-align:center;" |28 |[[File:POL_Kędzierzyn-Koźle_COA.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Kędzierzyn-Koźle''' | style="text-align:center;" |53,140 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|124|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_opolskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Opole Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |29 |[[File:POL_Świdnica_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Świdnica''' | style="text-align:center;" |51,357 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|22|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |30 |[[File:POL_Piekary_Śląskie_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Piekary Śląskie''' | style="text-align:center;" |51,030 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|40|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |31 |[[File:POL_Racibórz_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Racibórz]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |48,750 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|75|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |32 |[[File:Karwina_herb.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''[[Karviná]]''' | style="text-align:center;" |48,684 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|58|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |33 |[[File:POL_Świętochłowice_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Świętochłowice''' | style="text-align:center;" |44,621 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|13|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |34 |[[File:POL_Wodzisław_Śląski_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Wodzisław Śląski''' | style="text-align:center;" |44,017 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|50|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |35 |[[File:POL_Mikołów_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Mikołów''' | style="text-align:center;" |41,478 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|79|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |36 |[[File:POL_Nysa_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Nysa''' | style="text-align:center;" |39,887 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|27|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_opolskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Opole Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |37 |[[File:POL_Bolesławiec_COA_1.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Bolesławiec''' | style="text-align:center;" |36,642 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|24|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |38 |[[File:POL_Nowa_Sól_COA.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Nowa Sól''' | style="text-align:center;" |35,230 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|22|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_lubuskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Lubusz Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |39 |[[File:Herb_Knurów-2018.png|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Knurów''' | style="text-align:center;" |34,919 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|34|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |40 |[[File:POL_Oleśnica_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Oleśnica''' | style="text-align:center;" |34,676 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|21|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |41 |[[File:POL_Czechowice-Dziedzice_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Czechowice-Dziedzice''' | style="text-align:center;" |34,564 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|33|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |42 |[[File:Coat_of_arms_of_Třinec.svg|center|34x34px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Třinec''' | style="text-align:center;" |33,523 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|85|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |43 |[[File:POL_Oława_COA.svg|center|33x33px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Oława''' | style="text-align:center;" |32,928 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|27|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |44 |[[File:POL_Brzeg_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Brzeg''' | style="text-align:center;" |32,724 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|15|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_opolskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Opole Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |45 |[[File:POL_Cieszyn_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Cieszyn''' | style="text-align:center;" |32,217 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|29|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |46 |[[File:Wappen_Hoyerswerda.PNG|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Hoyerswerda'''** | style="text-align:center;" |30,759 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|96|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|GER}} | style="text-align:center;" |{{Flagicon|Saxony}} Saxony |Nether Silesia{{Efn|Historically pairt of Lusatia, Hoyerswerda wis conseidered pairt of Nether Silesia in the years 1825–1945.}} |- style="text-align:center;" |47 |[[File:POL_Dzierżoniów_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Dzierżoniów''' | style="text-align:center;" |30,014 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|20|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |48 |[[File:POL_Zgorzelec_COA.svg|center|31x31px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Zgorzelec'''** | style="text-align:center;" |28,095 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|16|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia{{efn|name="lus"}} |- style="text-align:center;" |49 |[[File:POL_Bielawa_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Bielawa''' | style="text-align:center;" |27,480 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|36|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |50 |[[File:Orlová_znak.png|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Orlová''' | style="text-align:center;" |27,383 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|25|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |51 |[[File:POL_Lubliniec_COA.svg|center|28x28px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Lubliniec''' | style="text-align:center;" |22,931 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|89|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |52 |[[File:Cesky_Tesin_CoA.png|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Český Těšín''' | style="text-align:center;" |22,870 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|34|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |53 |[[File:POL_Żagań_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Żagań''' | style="text-align:center;" |22,800 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|40|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_lubuskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Lubusz Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |54 |[[File:Krnov_znak.png|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Krnov''' | style="text-align:center;" |22,303 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|44|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |55 |[[File:POL_Orzesze_COA.svg|center|32x32px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Orzesze''' | style="text-align:center;" |22,242 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|84|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |56 |[[File:POL_Świebodzice_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Świebodzice''' | style="text-align:center;" |21,469 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|30|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |57 |[[File:POL_Kluczbork_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Kluczbork''' | style="text-align:center;" |21,232 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|12|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_opolskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Opole Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |58 |[[File:POL_Polkowice_COA_2022.svg|center|27x27px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Polkowice''' | style="text-align:center;" |20,832 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|24|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Nether Silesian Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |59 |[[File:POL_Łaziska_Górne_COA.svg|center|29x29px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Łaziska Górne''' | style="text-align:center;" |20,826 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|21|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Silesian Voivodeship |Iver Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |60 |[[File:POL_Świebodzin_COA.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Świebodzin''' | style="text-align:center;" |20,480 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|11|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|POL}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:POL_województwo_lubuskie_flag.svg|border|22x22px]] Lubusz Voivodeship |Nether Silesia |- style="text-align:center;" |61 |[[File:Bohumin_CoA_CZ.svg|center|30x30px]] | style="text-align:left;" |'''Bohumín''' | style="text-align:center;" |20,234 | style="text-align:center;" |{{Convert|31|km²|0}} |{{Flagicon|CZE}} | style="text-align:center;" |[[File:Flag_of_Moravian-Silesian_Region.svg|border|22x22px]] Moravian-Silesian Region |Czech Silesia |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Anelie pairt in Silesia<gallery> File:Old_Town_Hall_in_Wrocław,_September_2022_07.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Town_Hall_in_Wroc%C5%82aw,_September_2022_07.jpg|[[:en:Wrocław|Wrocław]] File:Masarykovo_namesti.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Masarykovo_namesti.jpg|[[:en:Ostrava|Ostrava]] File:Katowice_Rynek.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katowice_Rynek.jpg|[[:en:Katowice|Katowice]] File:6588vik_Gliwice._Foto_Barbara_Maliszewska.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:6588vik_Gliwice._Foto_Barbara_Maliszewska.jpg|[[:en:Gliwice|Gliwice]] File:Ratusz_Bielsko-Biała.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ratusz_Bielsko-Bia%C5%82a.JPG|[[:en:Bielsko-Biała|Bielsko-Biała]] File:Zabrze_post_office.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zabrze_post_office.jpg|[[:en:Zabrze|Zabrze]] File:Rynek_w_Bytomiu_2020.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rynek_w_Bytomiu_2020.jpg|[[:en:Bytom|Bytom]] File:Ratusz_i_Stary_Rynek_w_Zielonej_Górze.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ratusz_i_Stary_Rynek_w_Zielonej_G%C3%B3rze.jpg|[[:en:Zielona_Góra|Zielona Góra]] File:Rynek_w_Rybniku_1.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rynek_w_Rybniku_1.JPG|[[:en:Rybnik|Rybnik]] File:Plac_Jana_Pawła_II_w_Nowym_Bytomiu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plac_Jana_Paw%C5%82a_II_w_Nowym_Bytomiu.jpg|[[:en:Ruda_Śląska|Ruda Śląska]] File:Opole_0001.7_-_widok_na_Stare_Miasto.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Opole_0001.7_-_widok_na_Stare_Miasto.jpg|[[:en:Opole|Opole]] File:Tychy_Stare._Rynek1.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tychy_Stare._Rynek1.JPG|[[:en:Tychy|Tychy]] File:Chorzów_-_Teatr_Rozrywki_01.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chorz%C3%B3w_-_Teatr_Rozrywki_01.JPG|[[:en:Chorzów|Chorzów]] File:Wałbrzych_-_Rynek_03.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wa%C5%82brzych_-_Rynek_03.jpg|[[:en:Wałbrzych|Wałbrzych]] File:Legnica_-_Rynek_-_Dawny_Ratusz_01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Legnica_-_Rynek_-_Dawny_Ratusz_01.jpg|[[:en:Legnica|Legnica]] File:Pałac_w_Boryni_7.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pa%C5%82ac_w_Boryni_7.JPG|[[:en:Jastrzębie-Zdrój|Jastrzębie-Zdrój]] File:Horni-namesti1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horni-namesti1.jpg|[[:en:Opava|Opava]] File:SM_Brzeg_Ratusz_2023_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SM_Brzeg_Ratusz_2023_(1).jpg|[[:en:Brzeg|Brzeg]] </gallery> == Flags an blasouns == The signs of Nether Silesia an Iver Silesia hae their founds in the signs of the Piasts of Nether Silesia an Iver Silesia. The blasoun of Iver Silesia depicts the gowden earn on the blue shiel. The blasoun of Nether Silesia depicts a black earn on a gowden (yella) shiel.<gallery> File:DEU_Oberschlesien_1926-1945_COA.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DEU_Oberschlesien_1926-1945_COA.svg|Blasoun of the Prussian [[:en:Province_of_Upper_Silesia|province of Iver Silesia]] (1919–1938 and 1941–1945) File:POL_województwo_śląskie_COA.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_COA.svg|[[:en:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Silesian_Voivodeship|Blasoun of the Silesian Voivodeship]] File:POL_województwo_opolskie_COA.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_opolskie_COA.svg|[[:en:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Opole_Voivodeship|The blasoun of the Opolskie Voivodeship]] File:Henryk_I_Probus_herb.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henryk_I_Probus_herb.png|Blasoun of Duke [[:en:Henry_Probus|Henry Probus]] File:Wappen_Herzogtum_Schlesien.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wappen_Herzogtum_Schlesien.png|Blasoun of [[:en:Austrian_Silesia|Austrian Silesia]] (1742–1918) File:Wappen_Provinz_Niederschlesien.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wappen_Provinz_Niederschlesien.png|Prussian [[:en:Province_of_Lower_Silesia|province of Nether Silesia]] (1919–1938 and 1941–1945) File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_COA.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_dolno%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_COA.svg|Blasoun of the [[:en:Lower_Silesia_Voivodeship|Nether Silesia Voivodeship]] File:Znak_Slezska.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Znak_Slezska.svg|Blasoun of [[:en:Czech_Silesia|Czech Silesia]] </gallery>Flags wi their colors refer tae the blasoun of Silesia.<gallery> File:Flagge_Preußen_-_Provinz_Oberschlesien.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flagge_Preu%C3%9Fen_-_Provinz_Oberschlesien.svg|[[:en:Flag_of_Upper_Silesia|Flag of Prussian Iver Silesia province]] (1919–1938 and 1941–1945) File:POL_województwo_śląskie_flag.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_flag.svg|Flag of Silesia Voivodeship File:Flag_of_Czech_Silesia.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Czech_Silesia.svg|Flag of the Austrian Silesia (1742–1918), an Czech Silesia File:Flagge_Preußen_-_Provinz_Schlesien.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flagge_Preu%C3%9Fen_-_Provinz_Schlesien.svg|[[:en:Flag_of_Silesia_and_Lower_Silesia|Flag of Prussian Nether Silesia province]] (1919–1938 and 1941–1945) File:POL_województwo_dolnośląskie_flag.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_dolno%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_flag.svg|Flag of Nether Silesia Voivodeship </gallery> == Warld Heritage Steids == <gallery mode="packed-hover" widths="200px" heights="160px"> File:Swidnica-_Kosciol_Pokoju_02.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Swidnica-_Kosciol_Pokoju_02.jpg|Kirks of Peace, Świdnica an Jawor File:Wrocław_-_Jahrhunderthalle5.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wroc%C5%82aw_-_Jahrhunderthalle5.jpg|Centennial Haa, [[Wrocław]] File:SZTOLNIA_GŁĘBOKA_FRYDERYK_-_część_trasy_turystycznej_pn._Sztolnia_Czarnego_Pastrąga.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SZTOLNIA_G%C5%81%C4%98BOKA_FRYDERYK_-_cz%C4%99%C5%9B%C4%87_trasy_turystycznej_pn._Sztolnia_Czarnego_Pastr%C4%85ga.jpg|Historic Siller Mine, Tarnowskie Góry File:Das_Neue_Schloss_im_Park.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Das_Neue_Schloss_im_Park.jpg|Muskau Pairk, Łęknica an Bad Muskau<ref>Łęknica and Bad Muskau were considered part of Silesia in years 1815–1945.</ref> </gallery> * == Notes == == Sources == * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Silesia|volume=25|pages=90–92}} *  {{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Czapliński|editor1-first=Marek|editor2-last=Wiszewski|editor2-first=Przemysław|encyclopedia=Region Divided - Times of Nation-States (1918-1945)|url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/64229/Cuius_regio_vol_4.pdf|access-date=18 March 2018|language=en|year=2014|publisher=ebooki.com.pl|title=Cuius regio? Ideological and Territorial Cohesion of the Historical Region of Silesia|volume=4|location=Wrocław, Poland|isbn=978-83-927132-8-9}} * {{Cite book|last=Długajczyk|first=Edward|title=Tajny front na granicy cieszyńskiej. Wywiad i dywersja w latach 1919–1939|publisher=Śląsk|year=1993|isbn=83-85831-03-7|location=[[Katowice]]|author-link=Edward Długajczyk}} *  {{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Harc|editor1-first=Lucyna|editor2-last=Wąs|editor2-first=Gabriela|encyclopedia=The Strengthening of Silesian Regionalism (1526-1740)|url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/73766/Cuius_regio_vol_2.pdf|access-date=18 March 2018|language=en|year=2014|publisher=ebooki.com.pl|title=Cuius regio? Ideological and Territorial Cohesion of the Historical Region of Silesia|volume=2|location=Wrocław, Poland|isbn=978-83-927132-6-5}} *  {{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Harc|editor1-first=Lucyna|editor2-last=Kulak|editor2-first=Teresa|encyclopedia=Silesia under the Authority of the Hohenzollerns (1741-1918)|url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/79021/Cuius_regio_vol_3.pdf|access-date=18 March 2018|language=en|year=2015|publisher=ebooki.com.pl|title=Cuius regio? Ideological and Territorial Cohesion of the Historical Region of Silesia|volume=3|location=Wrocław, Poland|isbn=978-83-942651-3-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Plater|first=Stanisław|url=https://obc.opole.pl/Content/8541/download/|title=Jeografia wschodniéy części Europy czyli Opis krajów przez wielorakie narody słowiańskie zamieszkanych : obejmujący Prussy, Xsięztwo Poznańskie, Szląsk Pruski, Gallicyą, Rzeczpospolitę Krakowską, Krolestwo Polskie i Litwę|publisher=Wilhelm Bogumił Korn|year=1825|location=Wrocław|language=pl|trans-title=Geography of the Eastern Part of Europe, or Description of the Countries inhabited by Various Slavic Nations: Including Prussia, the Duchy of Posen, Prussian Silesia, Galicia, the Republic of Cracow, the Kingdom of Poland, and Lithuania|author-link=Stanisław Plater}} *  {{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Przemysław|editor-first=Wiszewski|encyclopedia=The Long Formation of the Region (c. 1000–1526)|url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/49790/Cuius_regio_vol_1.pdf|access-date=18 March 2018|language=en|year=2013|publisher=ebooki.com.pl|title=Cuius regio? Ideological and Territorial Cohesion of the Historical Region of Silesia|volume=1|location=Wrocław, Poland|isbn=978-83-927132-1-0}} *  {{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Wiszewski|editor-first=Przemysław|encyclopedia=Permanent Change - The New Region(s) of Silesia (1945-2015)|url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/76597/Cuius_regio_vol_5.pdf|access-date=18 March 2018|language=en|year=2015|publisher=ebooki.com.pl|title=Cuius regio? Ideological and Territorial Cohesion of the Historical Region of Silesia|volume=5|location=Wrocław, Poland|isbn=978-83-942651-2-0}} * {{Cite book|last=Zahradnik|first=Stanisław|title=Korzenie Zaolzia|last2=Marek Ryczkowski|publisher=PAI-press|year=1992|location=Warszawa - Praga - Trzyniec|oclc=177389723}} == Wabsteid links == * {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070727142251/http://brws.silesia-region.pl/indexang.php|date=27 July 2007|title=Silesia in Europe page}} * [http://www.hoeckmann.de/germany/silesia.htm Map of Silesia in 1763] * [http://www.vogel-soya.de/bilder/Schlesphoto.html Old postcards from Silesian towns] * [http://www.schlesierland.de/index.html Photos from Silesian towns, villages and communities before 1946] * [http://culture.pl/en/article/what-is-silesia What is Silesia?] * [https://mapy.com/en/zakladni?q=Slezsko%20-%20s%20moravsk%C3%BDmi%20enkl%C3%A1vami&source=area&id=191266&ds=1&x=17.1035242&y=50.7247522&z=7 Borders of Silesia with Moravian enclaves] on Mapy.com == References == dksjvrniyf858gybmmlm7xukb7t592i 1 233658 918765 2026-06-25T00:51:01Z Zbasta 133391 /* Whole page needs editing */ new section 918765 wikitext text/x-wiki == Whole page needs editing == This page seems to have been written or translated phonetically or something like that. Something words can be understood but the majority is unreadable. [[Uiser:Zbasta|Zbasta]] ([[Uiser collogue:Zbasta|tauk]]) 00:51, 25 Juin 2026 (UTC) 8627jlbvqookcqgojnowkx13fd8ocfh 918771 918765 2026-06-25T07:00:33Z CiphriusKane 74958 /* Whole page needs editing */ Replie 918771 wikitext text/x-wiki == Whole page needs editing == This page seems to have been written or translated phonetically or something like that. Something words can be understood but the majority is unreadable. [[Uiser:Zbasta|Zbasta]] ([[Uiser collogue:Zbasta|tauk]]) 00:51, 25 Juin 2026 (UTC) :{{ping|Zbasta}} This is the Scots Wikipedia, not the English one [[Uiser:CiphriusKane|CiphriusKane]] ([[Uiser collogue:CiphriusKane|tauk]]) 07:00, 25 Juin 2026 (UTC) itn2gw34pujjvxh1f5c6a5mka5gago8